BOILER TUBE FACTS

Useful information and

technical data
on boilers

1
 Mission TABLE OF CONTENTS
To be the undisputed first choice for boiler pressure Section I
parts in America. The Boiler Tube Company of INTRODUCTION
America. To establish a worldwide reputation as a
A. Boiler Tube Company of America ............................................. 3
world-class manufacturer in the unique specialty of
boiler tube supply. The foundation for our vision is a
Section II
strong commitment to Quality, Customer Service,
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF BOILER TUBE FAILURES
Employees, Suppliers and the principles of
Continuous Improvement.
A. Damage Modes ........................................................................ 5
B. Precursors to Damage—Identification and Control .................. 6
This Boiler Tube Factsbook was prepared for you— C. Condition Assessment .............................................................. 7
the Boiler Engineer/Operator and Plant Engineer— D. Root Cause Failure Analysis .................................................... 7
as a current reference book to consult regarding E. Corrective Actions—Engineering and Implementation ............. 7
the care and preservation of your boiler. For F. Regular Inspection Prevents Tube Failure ................................ 8
additional copies or more information on our boiler G. How to Buy Replacement Boiler Tubes ..................................... 8
tube and pressure parts replacement services,
please call Boiler Tube Company of America. Section III
FABRICATION

Boiler Tube Company of America A. Tube Fabrication ....................................................................... 9

P.O. Box 517 B. Complete Tube Inventory and Engineering Library ................. 10
506 Charlotte Highway C. Code Assembly ...................................................................... 10
Lyman, South Carolina 29365
Section IV
(864) 439-0220, 1-800-845-3052 ECONOMIZERS
Fax: (864) 439-8292
A. Economizers ........................................................................... 11
650 Green Lane
P.O. Box 2065 Section V
Union, NJ 07083 BOILER TUBE SPECIFICATION AND STOCK ITEM GUIDE
1-800-345-0632
A. Boiler Tube Specifications ....................................................... 12

Section VI
REFERENCE

A. Useful Boiler Calculations and Data ....................................... 14

2
 SECTION I We can deliver your tubes, bends, elements and
assemblies to meet your outage requirements. But
just because we’re fast, don’t assume we short-cut
INTRODUCTION precision. At BTA, you’ll always get a quality job.
You’ll never find an “assembly line mentality” at BTA.
Because with each cold and hot bend, bifurcate,
swage, panel and butt weld, our craftsmen demon-
Boiler Tube Company of America strate their pride and expertise. Regardless of your
Boiler Tube Company of America (BTA) is a designer, requirements or application, we can quickly fabricate,
manufacturer of replacement boiler tubes and fit-up, finish and assemble any replacement tubular
assemblies. component.
From our file copy of your boiler’s specifications, we
prepare life-size, full-scale templates to ensure
proper tube configuration and fit-up.
Since the mechanical and metallurgical properties of
boiler tubing can change dramatically during fabrica-
tion, BTA uses technical procedures that restore
original material properties. So you’re assured long
tube life and serviceability even at high temperatures
and elevated pressures.

When you call BTA with a boiler problem, expect

some unique services. First of all, your situation is
given “same day” attention by experienced Sales
Engineers. People who can answer your questions,
discuss your options and quickly get your boiler back
in operation.
At BTA, you’ll find the world’s largest tubing inven-
tory with over two million feet of stock tubing in 1,350
different sizes and material specifications. So you
never lose time waiting for tubes to be shipped from
the mill to your OEM. And you never have to worry
about minimum order restrictions. Because whether
you need three feet or 1,500 feet, BTA is ready to
start your job, today.
We also have the largest boiler reference files in the
industry—over 20,000 boiler tube drawings, prints
and life-size templates. Call us the next time you
need tubing or bending specifications on existing or
even discontinued boilers.
Our computerized inventory system tells us precisely
what is in stock and the expected arrival date of
items on order.

3
 Every element of BTA work must pass these quality
assurance tests, as well as the final inspection by our
Q.C. inspectors, our customers and our Independent
Authorized Inspection Agency.
Bottom line, Boiler Tube Company of America is the
only company that offers the quality capabilities of
an OEM with the service and quick response of an
alternate supplier. And that’s not just an empty
promise. We prove it every day by hustling to meet
your deadlines. By producing only top quality boiler
tube components at competitive prices. And by
offering the best OEM alternative in the boiler
maintenance business.

Before your tube or assembly gets out in the field, we

make sure it passes BTA's quality assurance tests.
Our standard for excellence, known as “Quality While
in Process,” requires every job to pass multiple quality
control points that are built into the shop fabrication
plan. No one in the industry—including your OEM—
pays more attention to quality than BTA.
First, we visually inspect each weld and ultrasonically
test bends for thickness. Then we can apply magnetic
particle tests, radiography and hydrostatic tests to
each panel, element and assembly.

4
 Underdeposit corrosion occurs when contaminants,
SECTION II such as chlorides, or water treatment chemicals,
CAUSES AND PREVENTION such as sodium hydroxide or monosodium phos-
phate, are introduced and/or allowed to concentrate
OF BOILER TUBE FAILURES to harmful levels. These species can concentrate to
harmful levels by becoming trapped within thick,
By S. Paterson and T. Kuntz, porous deposits or by precipitating in regions where
Aptech Engineering Services, Inc. local steam blanketing occurs.
To ensure that a boiler tube achieves its desired Pitting corrosion is most often a result of exposure of
lifetime, a comprehensive damage management the tubing to oxygen-saturated water during out-of-
program is required. Key elements of such a pro- service periods. Chlorides and other anions can
gram include: (1) knowledge of damage modes, (2) increase the tendency for pitting.
identification and control of precursors to damage,
(3) periodic condition assessments, (4) root cause Chemical cleaning is performed periodically to
evaluations of failures or unanticipated damage and remove deposits that build up on the fluidside
(5) engineering and implementation of corrective surface of tubing, the purpose being to minimize the
actions to prevent repeat failures or to prevent lead- opportunity for tube overheating or the concentration
the-fleet failures. An overview of each of these follows. of corrosive chemical species. Chemical cleaning is
commonly performed using inhibited acids or
Damage Modes chelants. Inadequate control of the cleaning process
can result in rapid attack of the tubing.
Boiler tubes degrade for one of four reasons: (1) they
have been chemically attacked or have developed 2. FIRESIDE WASTAGE
thick deposits/oxide scales on their fluidside, (2) they
The fireside of boiler tubing is exposed to hot
have experienced fireside wastage, (3) they have
furnace or flue gases which may be extremely
experienced short- or long-term overheating or (4)
corrosive or erosive. When exposed to this environ-
they have been stressed above their ultimate
ment, even the best available tube alloys may
strength or repeatedly stressed above their fatigue
experience fireside wastage. Common fireside
limits. Numerous subsets and combinations of these
wastage mechanisms include oxidation, ash
damage modes are known. Fortunately, diagnostic
corrosion, ash erosion and steam erosion from
tools and knowledge exist which are capable of
sootblowers.
identifying the precursors to the damage and
correcting or controlling them. Oxidation and oxide spalling will occur on steam-
cooled tubing even when the fuel is not erosive or
1. WATERSIDE CORROSION OR DEPOSIT corrosive (for example, natural gas). If the metal
BUILDUP temperature of the tubing is within design limits,
Underdeposit, pitting and chemical cleaning corro- fireside oxidation will be minor and will not result in a
sion are the three most common causes of severe significant loss of life. If there is a maldistribution in
waterside corrosion in fossil-fueled utility boiler flow or heat absorption rates across or through a
tubing. Under normal circumstances, water is the tube bank, some of the tubes may operate with
principal reactant for the corrosion of boiler steel. If metal temperatures well above design expectations.
the feed and boiler water chemistries are maintained Under these circumstances, oxidation rates can be
within accepted industry standards and circulation is significant and can result in significant wastage
properly balanced with the heat absorption rates, rates. Reheater tubes, which are relatively thin-
fluidside corrosion and deposition should not limit walled, are especially sensitive to oxidation-induced
the life of boiler tubing. This can be assured by fireside wastage. Oxidation rates can be controlled
continuous, on-line monitoring and control of key by locating and reducing the temperature of the
water chemistry parameters, such as cation tubing operating at excessive temperatures. The
conductivity, dissolved oxygen, sodium, pH and specific approaches used are discussed under the
phosphate (for drum boilers using sodium phos- Corrective Actions section.
phates for boiler water control). Periodic wall Ash corrosion occurs when the temperature of the
thickness, tube sampling and deposit loading tube crown exceeds a critical temperature, often
surveys are used to confirm that nothing has been associated with the melting temperature of the ash.
overlooked by the on-line monitoring program. Successful operation in the early life of the tubing
does not assure that ash corrosion will not occur in
5
the future. During service exposure, insulating Figure 1
steamside oxide and/or fluidside deposits will build
up on the tube and increase its temperature,
possibly resulting in ash corrosion. All fossil fuels,
except for natural gas, can produce corrosive ash
compounds capable of fluxing away or accelerating
the growth of fireside oxide scales. In addition to
proper alloy selection, fireside ash corrosion can be
controlled by changing the composition of the fuels
and combustion gases (for example, changing the
amount of excess air, using fuel additives, fuel
blending) or decreasing the peak tube temperatures.

3. OVERHEATING
Long-term overheating is a tube damage mechanism
responsible for large availability losses. Over time,
the tubes will slowly deform due to creep, even Corrosion fatigue cracks in a waterwall tube from a
though the stress levels are well below the material supercritical boiler.
yield strength. Creep failures will eventually occur,
even in the absence of corrosion, oxidation or other Precursors to Damage —
active damage mechanisms.
Identification and Control
4. FATIGUE Precursors to damage are specific characteristics of
Fatigue refers to the initiation and propagation of tubing which can be identified or quantified and then
cracks under the influence of repeated, fluctuating used to identify and predict potential boiler tube
stresses that can be of a magnitude that is signifi- failures. These characteristics provide evidence that
cantly lower than the material’s strength. In boiler certain conditions and active damage mechanisms
tubes, fatigue is often associated with localized exist which may be degrading the tubing. The
conditions of high stresses, such as at attachment damage precursors are usually identified and
welds and header connections. Fatigue damage is quantified during the course of boiler outage
often exacerbated by a corrosive internal or external inspections or normal operations and maintenance.
environment, as well as by frequent startups, For example, a precursor of underdeposit corrosion
shutdowns and load changes which can produce is excessive waterside deposits. Periodic measure-
large thermal gradients. ment of the waterside deposit loading (mass of the
Waterside corrosion fatigue failures initiate at the deposit per tube surface area) on waterwall tube
tube ID, often at locations of pitting, and are gener- samples removed during maintenance outages is a
ally associated with restraint at tube attachments, common practice. As another example, thick
supports and membrane welds. The combination of steamside oxide scales, which are commonly
high stresses and a corrosive environment leads to measured by nondestructive ultrasonic techniques,
degradation of the tube’s protective oxide scale can be a precursor of long-term creep overheat
which, with repeated stress applications, initiates failures. Significant changes in the way a unit is
and propagates cracking. An example of corrosion operated, particularly changes which increase the
fatigue cracking in a supercritical boiler waterwall likelihood of increased thermal cycles, can be a
tube is shown in Figure 1. Other fatigue failures can precursor to fatigue-related types of damage. Once a
be attributed to flow-induced vibration, thermal precursor is identified, steps can be taken to reduce
shocking from malfunctioning sootblowers and or eliminate the conditions which are giving rise to
poorly designed tube bends and welds. the precursor, as described beginning on page 7.

6
Condition Assessment improvements, design changes, operational
modifications, material upgrades or recommenda-
The long-term health of boiler tubing is best assured tions for additional inspection. For example, exces-
by periodic inspections and condition assessments. sive waterside deposit buildup indicates a need for
These are typically done as part of scheduled chemical cleaning, as well as a review of water
maintenance outages. chemistry practices to determine the source(s) of
deposits and contaminants. Figure 2 shows the
Common condition assessment inspection items for
current Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
tubing include visual examination for excessive
guidelines for recommended chemical cleaning
external oxidation, sootblower and ash erosion,
limits. Fatigue cracking may indicate a need for
misaligned tubes, slagging and external corrosion,
attachment or support redesign to relieve restraint
and magnetic particle inspection of tube-to-header
and possible operational modifications to reduce
welds and other attachment welds for cracking.
large or rapid thermal gradients.
Ultrasonic wall thickness measurements in areas
where excessive thinning is expected are also
commonly performed (for example, near sootblowers
and burners, as well as slope and arch tubes). Figure 2
50
One of the primary assessment tools for steam-

WEIGHT (GM/SQ. FT.)

SPECIFIC DEPOSIT
cooled tubing is the nondestructive measurement of 40
the internal oxide scale, which can be used to infer a Cleaning Required
tube’s remaining life. In the absence of external 30
erosion, oxidation or corrosion, the life of steam-
cooled tubing is primarily limited by its high-tempera- 20
ture creep strength, which is a function of the metal Consider Cleaning
temperature. Tube metal temperature is directly 10
related to the thickness of the insulating oxide scale No Cleaning Required
which forms on the internal tube surface over time. 0
Techniques, such as Aptech’s TubeAlert™ system, 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
combine measurement of the scale and wall thick- PRESSURE (PSIG)
ness with the tube’s operating history and material
properties to calculate an expected remaining Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) recommended
service life. guidelines for waterwall chemical cleaning as a
function of boiler pressure.
Root Cause Failure Analysis
When tube failures occur, a complete root cause For steam-cooled tubing, the results of a nonde-
analysis should be performed in order to determine structive oxide thickness survey can be used to help
the active damage mechanism and the steps that engineer a more reliable tube bank with improved
need to be taken to prevent additional failures. remaining life. Depending on the design, boilers
Specific aspects of a root cause failure investigation typically exhibit a distinct temperature profile across
include a review of failure location and operating the width of the furnace, and tubes operating in the
history, visual examination, measurement of tube hottest regions will have a reduced remaining creep
dimensions, characterization of deposits and life compared to the tubes in the cooler regions. As
corrosion products, hardness testing, sectioning and the hottest tubes fail due to overheating, expensive
metallography, alloy verification, photodocumentation partial or complete replacement becomes necessary.
and reporting. If the steam flow can be redistributed from cooler
tubes with long lives to the hottest tubes, their
Corrective Actions — Engineering temperatures can be reduced and their life increased.
and Implementation BTA, with its partner, Aptech, can assist you in
accomplishing this through Aptech’s patented
Once a damage precursor has been identified or a technology. The result is a more even temperature
root cause failure investigation has been performed, profile across the tube bank and a three- to five-time
preventative or corrective actions need to be devised increase in tube bank life, as shown in Figure 3.
and implemented. These may involve maintenance

7
Figure 3 vital boiler equipment. Many reputable firms special-
ize in industrial water consulting. So, don’t take
chances. Consult an expert.
BEFORE TUBEMOD
THESE TUBES MAY HAVE
VERY SHORT
REMAINING LIVES
How to Buy Replacement
Boiler Tubes
BULK STEAM With so many factors involved in the replacement of
TEMPERATURE VERY WIDE
TEMPERATURE
boiler tubes—specification, grade, length, special
TUBE VARIATION fabrication—it may not be easy to get exactly what
TEMP.
you want, when you want it. By following these
THESE TUBES HAVE VERY
simple steps, however, you can significantly in-
LONG REMAINING LIVES crease your chances for quick, quality, economical
ELEMENTS ACROSS TUBE BANK
replacement.
• Find out exactly what is needed. If maintenance
Before TubeMod: Tube metal temperatures can greatly needs 100 feet of an item, find out if that’s the
exceed the bulk steam temperature. least amount they can get by with. Are they
cutting it up into little pieces or welding in long
lengths? Do they need it tomorrow or can they
AFTER TUBEMOD wait a few days?
REMAINING LIVES OF
SHORT-LIVED TUBES
ARE IMPROVED • Be flexible. Advise your supplier if you can use
an alternate or upgraded ASME specification,
thickness or grade. Later, you can upgrade
REDUCED without altering the performance or welding
TEMPERATURE
VARIATION
procedures at little extra cost.
TUBE
TEMP. • Focus on the expensive parts of the boiler
tube replacement process. Not having your
boiler available is expensive. Contractors stand-
ELEMENTS ACROSS TUBE BANK
ing around waiting for materials are expensive.
However, tubing is usually a minor cost in the
replacement process, and the transportation
After TubeMod: The redistributed steam flow optimizes
costs even less. So, don’t try to save money on
the life of the whole section by systematically reducing
unreliable suppliers when you need immediate
the temperature of the tubes with the shortest lives.
service. Choose a supplier with tubes on hand
rather than pay for exclusive trucking or air
freight.
Regular Inspection Prevents • Get mill test certificates on all pressure tubes.
Specify that they accompany the shipment. Your
Tube Failure insurance inspector may not allow your contractor
With regular, detailed inspection of boiler equipment, or maintenance personnel to install tubes until he
many tube failures can be prevented. Written records sees the test certificates.
should note changes in corrosion or deposits. Pay
attention to unexpected layers of deposit which flake
off tube and drum internal surfaces and accumulate
in tube bends or headers. Usually, this indicates
reduced boiler water circulation and potential
overheating.
But be advised, water treatment is a highly technical
science requiring careful water analysis and consid-
eration of boiler design and operating conditions.
“Cure all” chemicals can do more harm than good to

8
 SECTION III
FABRICATION
Tube Fabrication
Boiler Tube Company of America can take the right
tube and turn it into the fabricated pressure part you
need: generating tubes, superheaters, reheaters,
waterwall panels or economizers. If you need to
eliminate a tight radius bend, make a change in wall
thickness or try a higher chrome alloy in hot sec-
tions, we can fabricate to your specifications—
quickly.
We are equipped and staffed to offer bending, cut-
ting, swaging, finning, spinning, welding and many
other fabrication services to get you the replacement
parts you need.

• Notify supplier of the design temperature and

pressure of your boiler. If you’re buying fabri-
cated tubes—bent, swaged, welded—advise your
supplier as to the design temperature and
pressure of your boiler or vessel and ensure that
all parts meet the applicable section of the ASME
Boiler Code.
Boiler Tube Company of America offers replacement
service on superheater, economizer and reheater
sections at a reasonable price with shorter delivery
time than the original boiler manufacturer. Our flex-
ible approach lets you duplicate originals and make
design or material changes in existing elements. Our
Service Engineers will work with you on these
special problems. Let us show you what we can do.

9
 Our resources are at your disposal and may help get
Complete Tube Inventory and your boiler back on line even if you cannot furnish a
Engineering Library drawing.
Boiler Tube Company of America eliminates the Babcock & Wilcox (B & W) Keeler
need for costly, spare tube stocking. We carry Badenhausen Kidwell
complete tubing in regular and heavy gauges. In an Bigelow Ladd
emer- gency, we can start bending immediately and Casey Hedges Maxim
ship replacements the same or the following day. Cleaver-Brooks Riley
Collins Ross
Combustion Engineering (CE) Rust
Connelly Springfield
Edgemoor Stirling
Erie City Titusville
Foster Wheeler Union Iron Works
General Electric Waste Heat Vogt
Heine Wickes

ASME Code Assembly

During ASME Code fabrication, the tubing often
loses the metallurgical and mechanical properties
essential for long life at elevated temperatures and
pressures.
Bending can work-harden the tubes and set up
stresses. Tight radius bending may reduce wall
thickness at the back of the bend below design
requirements. Attachments to tube surfaces may set
up stress forces and reduce the material’s resistance
to corrosive attack.
Unless these lost properties are restored to the
tubing, the units will give fewer service years and
may cause premature tube failures.
We’re aware of these factors at Boiler Tube Company
of America. That’s why all bent tubes are fitted to full
size, shrink-free templates and carefully inspected
before shipment. Bends are held smooth and free of
dinges, folds or crimps. Roundness in the bend is
held to tolerances prescribed by the trade. Wall
thinning, in the back of the bend, is minimized by
sophisticated tooling. Then, our inspectors make
ultrasonic readings of tight radius bends to assure
top quality.

When you call BTA, you also tap into a library of over We’ve built our reputation on careful review during
20,000 drawings collected from almost a century in code assembly. So you can count on us for depend-
the replacement tube business. Drawings of boiler able, top quality, assembled tubing elements.
arrangements and tube details are cataloged and
cross-filed in our Engineering department. For many
boilers now out of manufacture, this information can
only be found at BTA. Inquiries should specify letter
of number class or number class of boiler and tube
row number.
10
 United States, Europe, Japan, Korea and the
SECTION IV Indiansub-continent.
Call us for a consultation on your application, today.

ECONOMIZERS Economizer Comparisons

Spiral Welded Bare
Economizers Fin “Steel-H” Tube
Boiler Tube Company of America, through its
association with Greens (one of the family of Balcke Price Low Medium High
Durr Thermal Engineering companies) is a leader in Space Small Medium Large
the field of heat recovery. Edward Green started the
Waste Heat Recovery Industry in 1845 with his Gas Pressure
invention and patent of the fuel economizer. Drop High Medium High
Weight Low Medium Medium
Number
of Welds Low Low High
Availability Poor Good Good
Life Low Good Good

ECONOMIZER FUEL SAVINGS

10

al
Co
9
APPROXIMATE FUEL SAVINGS %

l as
O i al G
8 r
tu
Na
The success of the Greens Economizer is primarily
due to extended surface tubing—both steel and cast 7
iron sleeved. As operating conditions vary from plant
to plant, choice of surface is important. 6

We select the optimum surface for your application 5

after consulting with you and determining the
following factors: type of fuel and/or source of heat, 4
operating hours, load variation, available draft, dust
burden, gas velocity and temperature. 3

Greens Economizers sustain high efficiency. Straight 2

gas passages minimize fouling of heat transfer
surfaces. Our welded, “Steel-H,” parallel fin has been 1
proven in several thousand applications with gas, oil 25 50 75 100 125 150 °C
and coal firing, even with high particulate content.
And the low resistance to gas flow with in-line fins 50 100 150 200 250 300°F
reduces draft loss and cost of fan power.
FLUE GAS TEMPERATURE DROP
Used worldwide in electric utility generating stations
(including almost 300 coal-fired plants), waste heat Approximate Comparison of Fuel Savings
units and several thousand industrial boilers, Greens and Flue Gas Temperature Drop
Economizers hold the world’s best performance (Alternatively an increase in evaporation
record for extended surface applications. Greens may be obtained.)
units are used extensively in the
11
 Electricweld tubes are favored because of lower
SECTION V costs, more uniform wall and uniform heat transfer.
Welded tubes, because they are more uniform, are
BOILER TUBE easier to roll and install.
The following specifications are in general use for
SPECIFICATION AND STOCK boiler tubes and condenser tubes.
ITEM GUIDE GRADE SPECS
Low Carbon Seamless A-192, A-179
Boiler Tube Specifications Low Carbon Electricweld A-178, A-214, A-226
Boiler tubes are made in both seamless and electric Med. Carbon Seamless A-210
resistance weld. Tubing made by either process is
Med. Carbon Electricweld A-178 Grade C
rigidly controlled and tested both during and after
rolling to meet the exacting specification require- Low Alloy (Corten or A-423 (Seamless
ments of a pressure tube. The boiler code approves Republic 50) or Welded)
either method of manufacture and expresses no Carbon Moly Seamless A-209
preference.
Carbon Moly Electricweld A-250
When temperature ranges are near the critical points Alloy Seamless A-213 (T Series)
for low carbon, the higher yield strength of medium
carbon or carbon moly is sometimes used to give Stainless Seamless A-213 (TP Series)
added protection. Elevated temperatures in high- Stainless Electricweld A-249 (TP Series)
output, large power boilers frequently require the use
of alloy or stainless tubes.
Boiler tubes, to comply to specifications and meet
allowable working pressure ratings, are always
expressed and sold as minimum wall.
Whether to use seamless or electricweld boiler tubes
is largely a matter of personal preference. Electric-
weld boiler tubes are fully comparable to seamless
by standards of ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel
Code requirements and general acceptance.
Advocates of seamless tubing prefer no weld seam
in the tube wall. There is thought to be further
protection in the heavier nominal walls of seamless
due to the method of manufacture. Further, the
“piercing” process in making seamless tubes imparts
a tough mill scale to the tube surface which appears
to make it more resistant to corrosion.
In recent years, significant advancements have been
made in the manufacture of hot finish boiler tubing.
The appearance of the surface finish is distinct
(aesthetically less appealing) from cold-drawn
produced tubing. However, there are now several
mills that produce boiler tubes by the hot finish
process of very high quality to tight tolerances.
These tolerances typically meet cold-drawn toler-
ances. In certain sizes, they may be produced to
slightly exceed or to be slightly less than cold-drawn
tolerances.

12
 BOILER TUBE STOCK ITEM GUIDE
A-214—Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) SA-213—Seamless Chrome Alloy and Stainless
Carbon Steel Heat Exchanger and Steel Boiler, Superheater and Heat
Condenser Tube Exchanger Tubes
A-178—ERW Carbon Steel Boiler Tubing T2—1/2 CR, 1/2 Moly
Grade A—Low Carbon T5—5 Cr, 1/2 Moly
Grade C—Medium Carbon T9—9 Cr, 1 Moly
A-179—Seamless Cold Drawn Low Carbon Steel T11—11/4 Cr, 1/2 Moly
H.E. and Condenser Tube T12—1 Cr, 1/ 2 Moly
A-192—Seamless Carbon Steel Boiler Tube T22—21/4 Cr, 1 Moly
for High-Pressure Service Tp304H—18 Cr, 8 Ni
A-210—Seamless Medium Carbon Steel Boiler Tp321H––18 Cr, 8 Ni
and Superheater Tube T1 Stabilized
Grade A1 Tp347H—18 Cr, 8 Ni
Grade C Co. Stabilized
A-209—Seamless Carbon Moly Alloy Steel SA-423 Corten—ERW and Seamless
Boiler and Superheater Tube Pressure Tubes
T1
T1A
T1B

TUBING WALL
THICKNESS ✓) CHECK MARK INDICATES TUBE SPECIFICATIONS REGULARLY CARRIED
(✓
O.D.
INCHES RANGE
INCHES SA-178 SA-179 SA-192 SA-209 SA-210 SA-213 SA-214 SA-423
1
/2 .049 ✓ ✓
5
/8 .049 to .083 ✓ ✓
3
/4 .049 to .105 ✓
1 .083 to .134 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
11/4 .095 to .260 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
11/2 .095 to .438 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
15/8 .120 to .300 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
13/4 .095 to .480 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
17/8 .135 to .438 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
2 .095 to .500 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
21/8 .165 to .500 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
21/4 .105 to .500 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
21/2 .105 to .500 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
23/4 .120 to .360 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
3 .105 to .400 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
31/4 .120 to .300 ✓ ✓ ✓
31/2 .120 to .300 ✓ ✓ ✓
4 .134 to .220 ✓ ✓ ✓
13
 GENERAL FORMULA FOR CALCULATING FLUE GAS LOSS
SECTION VI CO2 = Percentage of carbon dioxide by volume
REFERENCE CO = Percentage of carbon monoxide by volume
C = Percentage of carbon by volume
H = Weight of hydrogen in 1 lb. fuel as received
Useful Boiler Calculations and Data M = Weight of moisture in 1 lb. fuel as received
t4 = Temperature of exit flue gases, °F
AMOUNT OF AIR REQUIRED FOR t5 = Temperature of ambient air, °F
COMBUSTION W = Weight in lb. of dry products of combustion
per lb. of fuel
W = Weight of air in lbs. per lb. of fuel
Loss 1 = Percent Btu’s loss in chimney gases per lb.
C = Percentage of carbon in fuel by weight
of fuel burned
H = Percentage of hydrogen in fuel by weight
(t4 - t5)
O2 = Percentage of oxygen in fuel by weight = K x _____
S = Percentage of sulphur in fuel by weight CO2
K = Constant for Bituminous Coal = .35
Air contains 23 percent of oxygen by weight, and 1 lb. Anthracite = .37
of carbon requires 2.67 lb. of oxygen for its complete Coke = .39
combustion to carbon dioxide (CO2). Similarly, 1 lb. of Oil = .31
hydrogen requires for its combustion 8 lb. of oxygen,
or about 35 lb. of air, and 1 lb. of sulphur requires 1 Loss 2 = Btu’s loss in water vapor produced by
lb. of oxygen, or 4.35 lb. of air. combustion of hydrogen per lb. of fuel
= 9H [212 - t5 + 970 + 0.48 (t4 - 212)]
Therefore, for fuel containing C percent of carbon, = 9H (0.48 t4 - t5 + 1080.2)
Loss 3 = Btu’s loss in water vapor produced by
W = C x 2.67 x 100 = C x 2.67 = C x 0.116
100 23 23 evaporation of moisture per lb. of fuel
For fuel containing H percent of hydrogen, = M [212 - t5 + 970 + 0.48 (t4 - 212)]
= M (0.48 t4 - t5 + 1080.2)
W = H x 8 x 100 = H x 8 = H x 0.348 Loss 4 = Btu’s loss by incomplete combustion of
100 23 23
carbon monoxide (CO) in flue gases per lb. of fuel
For fuel containing C percent of carbon and H (CO)
percent of hydrogen, = C (10150)
CO2 + CO
W = 0.116 C + 0.348 H Loss 5 = Btu’s loss as combustible matter in ashes
If oxygen is present, Percent ash in fuel
x Btu’s in ashes x 100
W = 0.116 C + 0.348 (H - O
—2 )
8
Percent loss = –––––––––––––––––––
Percent ash in fuel
If the sulphur, which is usually present in very small x cal. value of fuel as fired
quantities, is taken into account,
The heat carried away by ashes is generally a very
O
W = 0.116 C + 0.348 (H - —2 ) + 0.435 S low percentage of the total heat of the fuel. Therefore,
8 if the ash is not available for analysis, an allowance
of 1 to 2 percent is usually made.
Loss 6 = Btu’s loss by radiation
There is no precise method of measuring radiation
losses. Therefore, an allowance of 1 to 5 percent of
the heat value of the fuel is normally used. This
assumes the plant to be insulated and to be main-
tained in a clean condition.
Loss 7 = Unaccounted-for loss
Losses due to air ingress, boiler blowdown,
instrument and observation errors, etc.
14
 Heat Balance Percentage of heat absorbed by boiler
Btu’s E x (H - h1) x 100
Percent Equivalent = _____________
____________________________________________ C
Heat Absorbed by Boiler 61.30 7356 Percentage of heat absorbed by boiler, economizer
Heat Absorbed by Economizer 9.50 1140 and superheater
Heat Absorbed by Superheater 5.55 660 E x (Hs - h) x 100
Total Loss in Flue Gases 10.15 1218 = _____________
Total Loss by Hydrogen 3.74 449 C
Total Loss by Moisture 1.14 137 Percentage of heat absorbed by superheater
Total Loss by
100 x E (Hs - H)
Incomplete Combustion ... ... = _____________
Total Loss by Ashes (assume) 1.50 180 C
Total Loss by Radiation (assume) 5.00 600
Total Unaccounted Loss 2.12 254
____________________________________________ USEFUL FORMULAE
100.00 12,000
Approximate furnace temperature, °F
C
GENERAL FORMULAE FOR CALCULATING = _____________________
THE EFFICIENCIES OF BOILERS, 19 x 11.6
0.24 ( _________ + 1)
ECONOMIZERS AND SUPERHEATERS Percent CO2
C = Calorific value of fuel in Btu’s per lb. as received Approximate gas weight (or air weight) per lb.
d = Density of air in lb. per cubic foot of fuel burned
E = Actual evaporation, lb. of water per lb. of fuel E (t1 - t )
T1 = Temperature, °F, gases economizer inlet = _________
T2 = Temperature, °F, gases economizer outlet 0.24 (T1 - T2)
g = Temperature of discharged flue gases in °F
H = Btu’s to convert 1 lb. water at 32°F to dry
saturated steam at observed pressure TYPICAL EXAMPLE FOR HEAT BALANCE
Hs = Btu’s to convert 1 lb. water at 32°F to Coal: — Calorific value as received,
superheated steam at observed pressure 12,000 Btu’s per lb.
= H + (S x S1) Total moisture, 11.5 percent;
h = Btu’s in 1 lb. water at economizer inlet hydrogen, 4.2 percent
temperature T = (1.017T – 35) Boiler pressure, 195 lb. per sq. in. (gauge)
h1 = Btu’s in 1 lb. water at economizer outlet Temperature of superheated steam, 570°F
temperature t = (1.017t – 35) Temperature of economizer inlet water, 100°F
S = Number of degrees of superheat in °F = t 2 – t3 Temperature of feedwater leaving economizer, 250°F
S1 = Specific heat of superheated steam = 0.48 Temperature of stack gases, 350°F
t = Economizer inlet water temperature, °F Average CO2 = 10 percent
t1 = Economizer outlet water temperature, °F Total water evaporated (actual), 247,500 lb.
t2 = Outlet temperature of superheated steam, °F Total coal consumed, 33,000 lb.
t3 = Temperature of saturated steam at observed Boiler pressure = 195 psi gauge + 15 = 210 psi
pressure absolute
Percentage of heat absorbed by economizer 1) H = Total Btu’s in saturated steam at 210 psia
100 x E (h1 - h) from water at 32°F = 1200 Btu’s
= _____________
C 2) Hs = Total Btu’s in superheated steam at 210 psia
and 570°F
Percentage saving due to economizer = 1200 + [(570 - 385) x 0.48]
(t1 - t ) x 100 = 1200 + 88.8
= _____________ without superheater
H-h = 1288.8 Btu’s
3) Btu’s in 1 lb. water at economizer
(t1 - t ) x 100 inlet temperature (h)
= _____________ with superheater
Hs - h = (1.017 x 100) - 35
= 66.7 Btu’s
4) Btu’s in 1 lb. water at economizer outlet

15
 temperature (h1) POWER AND HEAT
= (1.017 x 250) - 35
1 cal = 4.186 Joules
= 219.25 Btu’s
1 cal/g = 1 kcal/kg = 1.8 Btu/lb.
5) Actual evaporation (E) = 247,500 ÷ 33,000 = 7.5
6) Percentage of heat absorbed by boiler 1 foot-pound (ft. lb.) ...... = 0.1383 meter kilogram
7.5 x (1200 - 219) x 100 (mkg)
= ___________________ 1 Btu .............................. = 107.6 mkg
12,000
= 0.2520 kilocalorie (kcal)
= 61.31 percent
1 Btu/lb. ......................... = 0.556 kcal/kg
7) Percentage of heat absorbed by boiler and 1 Btu/cu. ft. .................... = 8.90 kcal/cu. m.
economizer 1 Btu/sq. ft. .................... = 2.712 kcal/sq. m.
7.5 x (1200 - 66.7) x 100 1 Btu/ft2 °F ..................... = 4.88 kcal/m2 °C
= ____________________
12,000 1 Btu/hr. ft2 (°F/ft.) ......... = 1.488 kcal/hr. m2 (°C/m)
= 70.83 percent 1 Btu/hr. ft2 (°F/in.) ........ = 0.1240 kcal/hr m2 (°C/m)
1 Btu/sec. in2 (°F/in.) ..... = 0.1786 kcal/sec. cm2
8) Percentage of heat absorbed by economizer (°C/cm)
= 70.83 - 61.31 1 meter kilogram ........... = 7.23 ft.-lb.
= 9.5 percent 1 kilogram calorie (kcal) = 3088 ft.-lb.
9) Percentage of heat absorbed by superheater = 427 mkg
7.5 x (1288.8 - 1200) x 100 = 3.968 Btu
= _____________________
12,000 1 kcal/kg ........................ = 1.8 Btu/lb.
= 5.55 percent 1 kcal/cu. m. .................. = 0.1124 Btu/cu. ft.
1 kcal/sq. m. .................. = 0.3687 Btu/sq. ft.
10) Percentage of heat absorbed by boiler,
1 kcal/m2 °C .................. = 0.2048 Btu/ft2 °F
7.5 x (1288.8 - 66.7) x 100
= _____________________ 1 kcal/hr. m2 (°C/m) ....... = 0.672 Btu/hr. ft 2 (°F/ft.)
12,000 = 8.06 Btu/hr. ft 2 (°F/in.)
= 76.4 percent 1 cal/sec. cm (°C/cm) .. = 0.0560 Btu/sec. in2
2

11) Percent Btu’s loss in stack gases = (°F/in.)

1 boiler horsepower ...... = 10 sq. ft. of boiler
K x (t4 - t5)
= ________ heating surface
CO2 1 megawatt (MW) ......... = 1000 kilowatt
0.35 x (350 – 60) = 10.15 percent
________ 1 kilowatt (kW) .............. = 738 ft. lb./sec.
= = 102 mkg/sec.
10
= 1.341 hp
12) Btu’s loss per lb. of coal by water vapor produced
= 1.360 metric hp
by combustion of hydrogen
1 horsepower (hp) ........ = 33,000 ft. lb./min.
(4.2)
= 9 x ___ [(0.48 x 350) - 60 + 1080.2] = 550 ft. lb./sec.
100 = 76.0 mkg/sec.
= 0.378 x 1188 = 0.746 kW
= 449 Btu’s = 1.014 metric hp
449 1 metric horsepower ..... = 32,550 ft. lb./min.
Percent Loss = ___ x 100 = 3.74
12,000 = 542 ft. lb./sec.
= 75 mkg/sec.
13) Btu’s loss per lb. of coal by evaporation
= 0.735 kW
of moisture
= 0.986 hp
11.5
= ___ [(0.48 x 350) - 60 + 1080.2] 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) .... = 3413 Btu’s
100 = 860 kcal
= 0.115 x 1188 1 horsepower hour ........ = 2544 Btu’s
= 137 Btu’s 1 metric horsepower
137 hour ............................ = 632 kcal
Percent Loss = ___ x 100 = 1.14
12,000 1 lb./hp hour .................. = 0.447 kg/metric hp
hour
1 kg/metric hp hour ....... = 2.235 lb./hp hour
1 electron-volt (eV) ....... = 1.6 x 1012 ergs

16
1 joule ........................... =107 ergs Btu’s carried away
=
0.000948 Btu as latent heat by
=
0.7375 ft. lb. combustion of 1 lb.
=
1 watt sec. hydrogen ................... = 970 x 9
1 Btu .............................. =
Heat necessary to raise = 8730 Btu’s
1 lb. water through 1°F Net gain from
= 778 ft. lb. combustion of 1 lb.
= 0.252 kcal hydrogen ................... = 62,000 minus 8730
= 53,270 Btu’s
GENERAL EQUIVALENTS Weight of air required
for burning 1 lb.
1 gal. of water ............... = 2.31 cu. in. (approx.)
hydrogen ................... = 34.8 lb. of air
1 gal. of water at 62°F .. = 8.34 lb.
Volume of air required
1 cu. ft. of water ............ = 7.48 gal.
for burning 1 lb.
= 62.3 lb.
hydrogen ................... = 452 cu. ft. of air
1 in. of water ................. = 0.036 lb. per sq. in.
Weight of air required
= 5.2 lb. per sq. ft.
for burning 1 lb.
Column of water
carbon ....................... = 11.6 lb. of air
1 ft. high ..................... = 0.434 lb. per sq. in.
Volume of air required
2.31 ft. high ............... = 1 lb. per sq. in.
for burning 1 lb.
Lb. per sq. in. x 0.068 ... = Atmospheres
carbon ....................... = 152.4 cu. ft. of air
Lb. per sq. in. x 2.31 ..... = Ft. of water
Btu’s released when
Lb. per sq. in. x 2.04 ..... = In. of mercury
1 lb. carbon is
Lb. per sq. in. x 27.7 ..... = In. of water
burned to CO2 ........... = 14,550 Btu’s
Atmosphere x 14.7 ....... = Lb. per sq. in.
Btu’s released when
In. of mercury x 0.49 ..... = Lb. per sq. in.
1 lb. carbon is
In. of water x 0.036 ....... = Lb. per sq. in.
burned to CO ............ = 4400 Btu’s
1 Atmosphere ............... = 14.7 lb. per sq. in.
Btu’s lost by incomplete
= 2116.8 lb. per sq. ft.
combustion of 1 lb.
= 33.9 ft. of water
of carbon ................... = 10,150 Btu’s
Absolute temperature
Latent heat of steam ..... = 970 Btu’s per lb.
in °F ........................... = 461 + ordinary
temperature °F
ODD RULES
Absolute temperature
in °C .......................... = 273 + ordinary 1 lb. molecule of any gas occupies 359 cu. ft. at N.T. P. and 378
temperature°C cu. ft. at 60°F/30 in. Hg. dry.
1 cu. ft. of air at 32°F .... = 0.0807 lb. 1 gm. molecule of any gas occupies 22.4 litres and
1 cu. ft. of air at 62° ...... = 0.076 lb., or 13.14 cu. 1 oz. molecule of any gas occupies 22.4 cu. ft.
ft. per lb. Any gas with one carbon atom per molecule contains 0.54 oz.
Air (by weight) ............... = 23 percent oxygen and C. per cu. ft. of gas at N.T.P.—and pro rata.
77 percent nitrogen The partial pressure of water vapor (e.g. in any gas) at 60°F is
Air (by volume) .............. = 21 percent oxygen and .58 in. Hg.
79 percent nitrogen 1 kg. per cu. meter ~ = 1 oz. per cu. ft.
1 lb. of carbon ............... = Requires 11.6 lb. of air For most fuels, the theoretical air requirement is 7.6 - 7.9 lb. air
for combustion for each 10,000 Btu available. For gaseous fuels it is C.V./115 cu.
Lb. of carbon dioxide ft. air/cu. ft. gas approximately.
(CO 2) ......................... = Carbon in 1 lb. of coal Lb. air/lb. coal (actual) ~– 3 x (net C.V.)/200 x (%CO2).
x 3.66 For coal, 1220 lb. of flue gas per million Btu are produced at,
Lb. water ....................... = Hydrogen in 1 lb. of approximately, 12.2% CO 2 (50% excess air); and at a C.V. of
coal x 9 12,200 Btu/lb.
1 lb. hydrogen ............... = 62,000 Btu’s calorific For oil, 1100 lb. of flue gas per million Btu are produced at,
value approximately, 11% CO2 (40% excess air).
1 lb. sulphur .................. = 4000 Btu’s calorific For shell boilers 1 c.f.m. and for watertube boilers 1/2 c.f.m. are
value common actual flue gas flow rates, per 1 lb./hr. steam rating.
1lb. sulphur ................... = Requires 1 lb. of oxygen
or 4.35 lb. of air
17
 CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER SOLID FUELS
HEATING Proximate Analysis Ultimate Analysis
FUEL VALUE % % % % % % % % % % %
BTU MOIST ASH VOL. FC H2 C N2 O2 S MOIST ASH
Wood waste 8900* 25-60 1.0* 82.0* 17.0* 6.2* 50.3* 0.04* 43.1* — — 0.4

Peat 3586 56.7 6.0 26.1 11.2 8.3 21.0 1.1 62.9 — — —
Coke 12,600* 8.5 12.5 1.0* 86.5 — — — — 0.9 — —
Coke breeze 9500 6.5 25.0 3.4 65.1 — — — — — — —

Oil shale 6300* 15.0 43.0 42.0 — — — — — — — —

Pulv’d pitch 16,000 0.2 0.1 53.8 46.1 4.1 93.7* 1.0* 0.7* 0.5* 0.1 0.1

Tanbark 8000* 30-60 — — — 6.0 50.0 40.0 — — — 4.0

Bagasse 8300* — — — — 5.8 46.3 0.3 45.8 — — 1.8

Rice hulls 6100 7.4 19.8 59.0 13.8 — — — — — — —

Sewage
Sludge 7500 20 26.9 47.6 5.5 5.0 37.0 1.5 8.9 0.7 20.0 26.9
Straw 56-6700 — — — — 5.0 36.0 0.5 38.0 — 15.7 4.8

*Indicates analysis on dry basis all others “as fired” or “as received.” FC abbreviation for fixed carbon.

THEORETICAL COMBUSTION DATA

Substance Theoretical Products Substance Theoretical Products
Required of Combustion Required of Combustion
Substance Formula (lb.) (lb.) Substance Formula (ft.3) (ft.3)

O2 Air CO2 CO N2 H2O SO2 O2 Air CO2 CO N2 H2O SO2

Carbon burned to Carbon monoxide CO 0.5 2.38 1.0 — 1.88 — —

carbon monoxide C 1.33 5.75 — 2.33 4.42 — —
Hydrogen H2 0.5 2.38 — — 1.88 1.0 —
Carbon burned to
2.67 11.49 3.67 — 8.82 — — Hydrogen sulphide H2S 1.5 7.14 — — 5.64 1.0 1.0
carbon dioxide C
Methane CH4 2.0 9.52 1.0 — 7.52 2.0 —
Carbon monoxide
burned to Acetylene C2H2 2.5 11.91 2.0 — 9.41 1.0 —
carbon dioxide CO 0.57 2.46 1.57 — 1.89 — —
Ethylene C2H4 3.0 14.29 2.0 — 11.29 2.0 —
Sulphur S 1.00 4.31 — — 3.31 — 2.00
Ethane C2H6 3.5 16.67 2.0 — 13.17 3.0 —
Hydrogen H2 8.00 34.48 — — 26.48 9.00 —
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 1.41 6.09 — — 4.68 0.53 1.88
Methane CH4 4.00 17.24 2.75 — 13.24 2.25 —
Acetylene C2H2 3.08 13.26 3.38 — 10.18 0.69 —
Ethylene C2H4 3.43 14.78 3.14 — 11.35 1.29 —
Ethane C2H6 3.73 16.09 2.93 — 12.36 1.80 —

18
 WASTE GASES AND AIR WASTE GAS VOLUME
REQUIREMENTS FOR SOLID FUELS FOR COKE AND WOOD
(ACC. TO W. BOIE)
AVERAGE CO2 MAX 18.9%, AVERAGE ASH CONTENT 7.5% EXAMPLE: FUEL N.C.V. = 10,800 BTU/LB.
THIS DIAGRAM IS NOT VALID FOR COKE, WOOD OR PEAT CO2 MAX. = 19.55%
CO2 = 11%
va = 8.896 N.C.V. + 8800 CU. FT./LB. THEOR. RESULT: n = 1.79
°
990 AIR QUANTITY
194.5 = CU. FT. WASTE
vg = 8.N.C.V. + 26144 CU. FT./LB. THEOR.
250 °
990 GAS QUANTITY GASES/LB. FUEL
2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2
va = n . va (ACT. AIR QUANTITY) 300
°
vg = vg + (n -1) va (ACT. GAS QUANTITY)
° °
nn =³ ________
CO2 MAX
280 2
CO 2

260
1.8

NE

EX
WASTE GAS VOLUME CU. FT./LB. FUEL N.T.P.

TC
200

CE
240

AL

SS
.VA
LU
1.6

AIR
E
220

13,

n
1.8 1.9 = 2

000
n

BT
vg (va° ) CU. FT./LB.

1.4

U/L
200
AIR

B.
SS

11
CE

,00
1.7

180

0
EX

150
1.2
1.5 1.6

160

90
00
4
1.

140
70
3
1.

00
1. 1.2

120
vg °
1

50
100 00
100
1

7
80 300 8
0
va
°

9
CO2—CONTENT

10
60
11
EXAMPLE:
CO 2 MAX FOR: 12
N. CAL VAL = 10,000 BTU/LB.
13
50 EXCESS AIR n = 1.4 BROWN COAL = 17.9
14
va = 98 CU. FT./LB. BROWN COAL = 19.05 15
°
vg = 147 CU. FT/LB. BROWN COAL = 19.55 16
°
COKE AND WOOD = 20.7
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000
(AIR DRIED)
N.C.V. BTU/LB.

19
 WASTE GASES AND AIR WASTE GASES AND AIR
REQUIREMENTS FOR GASEOUS REQUIREMENTS FOR LIQUID FUELS
FUELS (ACC. TO K. RUMMEL) (ACC. TO W. BOIE)
vg = THEORETICAL GAS QUANTITY va = THEORETICAL AIR QUANTITY
° °
10 vg = ACTUAL GAS QUANTITY va = ACTUAL AIR QUANTITY
1) BLAST-FURNACE GAS
n = EXCESS AIR
vg = .929 + .636 N.C.V. CU. FT.
° 100 CU. FT.
va = .771 N.C.V. – .0614 CU. FT. vg = 11.1 N.C.V. – 48,900 CU. FT./LB.
°
2

100 CU.FT. 450 ° 808

n=

9
2) PRODUCER GAS
va = 8.896 N.C.V. – 17,850 CU. FT./LB.
vg = .7575 + .825 N.C.V. CU. FT. °
AIR

808
°
1.9

100 CU. FT. 2

va = n. va =
ESS

va = .886 N.C.V. – .173 CU. FT. ° n

° 100 CU.FT. vg = vg + (n –1) . va R
AI
1 .8
EXC

° °
3) COKE OVEN GAS 8 1 CO2 (σ – 1) . 0.21 S 9
400 nn == ___________ C ES 1.
vg = .486 + .966 N.C.V. CU. FT. CO 2 . ß
1.7

° 100 CU. FT. EX

1.87 N.C.V. – 3760
σ= 8
va = .968 N.C.V. – .239 CU. FT. 30930 – .556N.C.V. 1.
°
1.6

100 CU.FT.
4) NATURAL GAS (EUROPE) 7
1.5

7
N.C.V. = 960 BTU/CU. FT. 1.
vg = 10 CU. FT./CU.FT.
° 350
va = 9.07 CU. FT./CU. FT.
1.4

° 6
AIR REQUIRED va = n.va 1.
vg (va° ) CU. FT./LB.

°
W.GAS QUANT..vg = vg +(n -1) va
° °
1.3

6
1.5
vg (va° ) CU. FT./LB.
1.2

1.4
PRODUCER GAS
BLAST FURNACE GAS

300
1.1

5
1

1 .3
n=
°
vg

1.2
2

4 250
n=

1 .1
°
va

COKE OVEN GAS

1
1.5

3 vg °

vg = THEORETICAL GAS QUANTITY 200

° va °
va = THEORETICAL AIR QUANTITY
°
vg 1

n = EXCESS AIR
°

vg = ACTUAL GAS QUANTITY 2

va = ACTUAL AIR QUANTITY EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: COKE OVEN GAS
vg
°

°
va

150 N.C.V. = 19,000 BTU/LB.

N.C.V. = 500 BTU/CU.FT.
n = 1.6
n = 1.2
1 vg = 313 CU. FT./LB.
va = 4.58 CU. FT./CU. FT.
° va = 186 CU. FT./LB.
°
va

vg = 6.20 CU. FT./CU. FT. °

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 17,000 18,000 19,000 20,000 21,000

N.C.V. BTU/CU. FT. N.C.V. BTU/LB.

20
 EXCESS AIR, CO2 – AND O2 – CONTENT MEAN SPECIFIC HEAT OF
OF THE WASTE GASES FOR WASTE GASES AND AIR
SOLID AND LIQUID FUELS (ACC. TO JUSTI)
FOR THE DETERMINATION OF UNBURNED FUEL
n = CO 2 MAX
_______ MEAN SPECIFIC HEAT BTU’s/CU. FT./°F
CO 2 REFER TO EXAMPLE ON SCHEDULE B 8
GAS FUEL OIL COAL .019 .02 .021 .022
.0182

24 n= 1
1
1.2
1.2

) °F

120 °
1 1 1.4

0
200°

°
°
1.4

0°
2

160 °
800
400
600

100
tg (tg

180 0°
0

200 0°
140
22

0°
1.6
1.2 1.8 1.6

0°
1

220
1.2 1.8
1 1.4
1.1 1.6 2
20 1.2 1.4
CARBON 1.8
1.4 1.6
n = 1.25 WOOD 1.6 1.8
18 PEAT 1.8

BLAST FURNACE
BROWN COAL

COKE OVEN
PRODUCER
16 1.5
1.6

14 1.7 5 4 3 2 1 20 16 12 8 6 4 AIR
18 14 10
X10 2 X10 3
1.8 N.C.V. BTU/CU. FT. BTU/LB.
1.9
12
n=

2
.019
EX

FOR AIR tg MUST BE

CE

2.2
REPLACED BY ta
SS

2.4
% CO2

10 (SEE EXAMPLE)

tg 1
AI

BTU/CU. FT./°F

BITUMINOUS 2.6

°F
R

n = EXCESS AIR
COAL 2.8
BENZOLE EXAMPLE: COAL .02
8 N.C.V. = 1200 BTU’s
COAL TAR FUEL
140

tg 1 = 900° F
0°

PETROLEUM SPIRIT n = 1.4

n = 1.4 tg 2 = 1450° F
AND PETROL
6
cpm/ tg2 = .02072 BTU/CU.FT./° F
160

cpm /°
0°

.021
cpm/ tg1 = .01997 BTU/CU.FT./° F
cpm /°
180

4 cpm/ tg1 = .02198 BTU/CU.FT./° F

100 °
0° 200

200
400
600

cpm tg2
°
°
°
0°

EXAMPLE: AIR
2 .022
ta1 = 200° F
220

ta2 = 900° F
0°

cpm/ ta2 = .01875 BTU/CU.FT./° F

800 0°
100

0 % O2 cpm /°
°

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
cpm/ ta1 = .01822 BTU/CU.FT./° F
cpm /°
EXAMPLE: FUEL BITUMINOUS COAL .023
cpm/ ta1 = .01881 BTU/CU.FT./° F
cpm ta2
CO2— CONTENT OF THE WASTE GASES 10%
(MEASURED)
120

RESULT: n = 1.9
0°

O2 = 10% OXYGEN IN THE WASTE GASES .024

21
 PROPERTIES OF STEAM
PRESSURE

(DEGREES FAHR)
LB. PER SQ. IN.
TEMPERATURE VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET PER LB. (v) AND
SATURATION
OR
VACUUM TOTAL HEAT IN BTU PER LB. (h) OF
IN. OF MERCURY
ABSOLUTE

SATURATED
STEAM AT A TOTAL TEMPERATURE (FAHRENHEIT) OF

STEAM
GAUGE WATER
150° 200° 250° 300° 350° 400° 450° 500°

1 lb. 27.96" 101.7 v = 0.0161 333.0 362.0 391.9 421.7 451.4 481.3 511.1 540.9 570.6
h = 69.5 1102.4 1125.6 1149.6 1173.5 1197.4 1221.4 1245.2 1269.1 1293.0
2 lb. 25.91" 126.1 v = 0.0162 173.5 180.7 195.6 210.6 225.5 240.5 255.4 270.4 285.2
h = 93.9 1113.6 1125.2 1149.2 1173.3 1197.2 1221.2 1245.1 1268.9 1292.8
3 lb. 23.87" 141.5 v = 0.0163 118.6 120.3 130.3 140.4 150.3 160.3 170.3 180.2 190.2
h = 109.3 1120.6 1124.7 1148.9 1173.0 1197.0 1221.0 1244.9 1268.9 1292.8
4 lb. 21.83" 153.0 v = 0.0164 90.52 90.01 97.60 105.2 112.7 120.2 127.7 135.1 142.6
h = 120.8 1125.7 1124.2 1148.5 1172.7 1196.8 1220.8 1244.8 1263.8 1292.7
5 lb. 19.79" 162.3 v = 0.0164 73.42 — 78.00 84.06 90.07 96.07 102.0 108.1 114.0
h = 130.1 1129.8 — 1148.2 1172.4 1196.6 1220.6 1244.7 1268.6 1292.6
6 lb. 17.75" 170.1 v = 0.0164 61.89 — 64.93 69.99 75.01 80.02 85.01 90.00 94.99
h = 137.8 1133.2 — 1147.8 1172.1 1196.3 1220.5 1244.5 1268.5 1292.5
7 lb. 15.70" 176.9 v = 0.0165 53.57 — 55.58 59.94 64.26 68.57 72.86 77.13 81.40
h = 144.6 1136.1 — 1147.4 1171.9 1196.1 1220.3 1244.4 1268.4 1292.4
8 lb. 13.66" 182.9 v = 0.0165 47.26 — 48.58 52.40 56.19 59.97 63.72 67.47 71.21
h = 150.7 1138.6 — 1147.1 1171.6 1195.9 1220.1 1244.2 1268.3 1292.3
9 lb. 11.62" 188.3 v = 0.0166 42.32 — 43.12 46.53 49.91 53.26 56.61 59.94 63.27
h = 156.2 1140.9 — 1146.7 1171.3 1195.7 1219.9 1244.1 1268.2 1292.2
10 lb. 9.58" 193.2 v = 0.0166 38.37 — 38.77 41.84 44.89 47.92 50.93 53.93 56.93
h = 161.1 1143.0 — 1146.4 1171.0 1195.5 1219.7 1243.9 1268.0 1292.1
11 lb. 7.54" 197.8 v = 0.0166 35.09 — 35.22 38.01 40.79 43.55 46.30 49.04 51.77
h = 165.7 1144.9 — 1146.0 1170.7 1195.2 1219.6 1243.8 1267.9 1292.0
12 lb. 5.49" 202.0 v = 0.0166 32.35 — 32.25 34.82 37.37 39.91 42.42 44.93 47.43
h = 169.9 1146.6 — 1145.7 1170.5 1195.0 1219.4 1243.6 1267.8 1291.9
13 lb. 3.45" 205.9 v = 0.0167 30.01 — 29.72 32.11 34.47 36.81 39.14 41.46 43.77
h = 173.9 1148.2 — 1145.3 1170.2 1194.8 1219.2 1243.5 1267.7 1291.8
14 lb. 1.41" 209.6 v = 0.0167 28.00 — 27.57 29.79 31.99 34.17 36.33 38.48 40.63
h = 177.6 1149.8 — 1145.0 1169.9 1194.6 1219.0 1243.4 1267.6 1291.7
15 lb. 0.31 lb. 213.0 v = 0.0167 26.25 — — 27.78 29.83 31.87 33.89 35.91 37.92
h = 181.0 1151.2 — — 1169.6 1194.3 1218.9 1243.2 1267.4 1291.6
16 lb. 1.31 lb. 216.3 v = 0.0167 24.71 — — 26.03 27.95 29.87 31.77 33.66 35.54
h = 184.3 1152.5 — — 1169.4 1194.1 1218.7 1243.1 1267.3 1291.5
17 lb. 2.31 lb. 219.5 v = 0.0168 23.35 — — 24.47 26.29 28.09 29.88 31.67 33.44
h = 187.5 1153.7 — — 1169.1 1193.9 1218.5 1242.9 1267.2 1291.4
18 lb. 3.31 lb. 222.4 v = 0.0168 22.14 — — 23.10 24.82 26.52 28.22 29.91 31.59
h = 190.5 1154.9 — — 1168.8 1193.7 1218.3 1242.8 1267.0 1291.3
19 lb. 4.31 lb. 225.2 v = 0.0168 21.04 — — 21.86 23.50 25.11 26.72 28.32 29.90
h = 193.3 1156.0 — — 1168.5 1193.4 1218.1 1242.6 1266.9 1291.1
20 lb. 5.31 lb. 228.0 v = 0.0168 20.06 — — 20.75 22.31 23.85 25.38 26.89 28.40
h = 196.1 1157.1 — — 1168.2 1193.2 1217.9 1242.4 1266.8 1291.0
22 lb. 7.31 lb. 233.1 v = 0.0169 18.35 — — 18.83 20.26 21.66 23.06 24.44 25.81
h = 201.3 1159.1 — — 1167.6 1192.7 1217.5 1242.1 1266.5 1290.8
24 lb. 9.31 lb. 237.8 v = 0.0169 16.91 — — 17.23 18.54 19.83 21.12 22.39 23.65
h = 206.1 1160.9 — — 1167.0 1192.3 1217.2 1241.8 1266.3 1290.6
26 lb. 11.31 lb. 242.2 v = 0.0169 15.69 — — 15.58 17.09 18.29 19.48 20.65 21.82
h = 210.6 1162.5 — — 1166.5 1191.8 1216.8 1241.5 1266.0 1290.4
28 lb. 13.31 lb. 246.4 v = 0.0170 14.01 — — 14.72 15.86 16.97 18.07 19.17 20.25
h = 214.8 1164.0 — — 1165.9 1191.4 1216.4 1241.2 1265.8 1290.2

22
 PROPERTIES OF STEAM

(DEGREES FAHR)
PRESSURE TEMPERATURE VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET PER LB. (v) AND
SATURATION
LB. PER SQ. IN. TOTAL HEAT IN BTU PER LB. (h) OF
ABSOLUTE

SATURATED
STEAM AT A TOTAL TEMPERATURE (FAHRENHEIT) OF

STEAM
GAUGE WATER
350° 400° 450° 500° 550° 600° 650° 700°

30 15.31 250.3 v = 0.0170 13.72 15.82 16.86 17.88 18.89 19.90 20.91 21.92 22.92
h = 218.8 1165.5 1216.1 1240.9 1265.5 1290.0 1314.4 1338.6 1362.8 1386.9
32 17.31 254.0 v = 0.0170 12.92 14.81 15.79 16.75 17.70 18.65 19.59 20.54 21.48
h = 222.5 1166.9 1215.7 1240.6 1265.3 1289.8 1314.2 1338.4 1362.6 1386.8
34 19.31 257.6 v = 0.0171 12.20 13.93 14.85 15.75 16.65 17.54 18.44 19.33 20.21
h = 226.1 1168.2 1215.3 1240.3 1265.0 1289.6 1314.0 1338.3 1362.5 1386.7
36 21.31 260.9 v = 0.0171 11.37 13.15 14.02 14.87 13.72 16.57 17.41 18.25 19.09
h = 229.5 1169.4 1215.0 1240.0 1264.8 1289.4 1313.8 1338.1 1362.4 1386.6
38 23.31 264.1 v = 0.0171 11.00 12.44 13.27 14.08 14.89 15.69 16.49 17.29 18.08
h = 232.8 1170.5 1214.6 1239.7 1264.6 1289.2 1313.6 1338.0 1362.3 1386.5
40 25.31 267.2 v = 0.0171 10.48 11.81 12.59 13.36 14.13 14.90 15.66 16.42 17.17
h = 236.0 1171.6 1214.2 1239.4 1266.3 1289.0 1313.5 1337.8 1362.1 1386.3
42 27.31 270.2 v = 0.0172 10.01 11.23 11.98 12.72 13.46 14.18 14.91 15.63 16.35
h = 239.0 1172.6 1213.9 1239.1 1264.1 1288.5 1313.3 1337.7 1362.0 1386.2
44 29.31 273.0 v = 0.0172 9.582 10.71 11.43 12.14 12.84 13.53 14.22 14.92 15.60
h = 241.9 1173.6 1213.5 1238.8 1263.8 1288.6 1313.1 1337.6 1361.9 1386.1
46 31.31 275.7 v = 0.0172 9.191 10.24 10.92 11.60 12.27 12.94 13.60 14.26 14.92
h = 244.7 1174.5 1213.1 1238.5 1263.6 1288.4 1312.9 1337.4 1361.8 1386.0
48 33.31 278.4 v = 0.0172 8.832 9.803 10.46 11.11 11.76 12.40 13.03 13.67 14.30
h = 247.4 1175.4 1212.8 1238.2 1263.3 1288.1 1312.8 1337.3 1361.6 1385.9
50 35.31 287.9 v = 0.0173 8.500 94.00 10.03 10.66 11.28 11.90 12.51 13.12 13.72
h = 250.0 1176.3 1212.4 1237.9 1263.1 1287.9 1312.6 1337.1 1361.5 1385.8
60 45.31 292.6 v = 0.0174 7.162 77.95 8.333 8.660 9.380 9.896 10.41 10.92 11.42
h = 262.0 1180.1 1210.6 1236.4 1261.8 1286.9 1311.7 1336.4 1360.9 1385.2
70 55.31` 302.8 v = 0.0175 6.196 66.49 7.115 7.572 8.022 8.467 8.908 9.346 9.783
h = 272.4 1183.3 1208.7 1234.9 1260.6 1285.9 1310.8 1335.6 1360.2 1384.7
80 65.31 311.9 v = 0.0176 5.466 5.788 6.202 6.606 7.004 7.394 7.784 8.168 8.550
h = 281.9 1186.1 1206.9 1233.4 1289.4 1284.8 1310.0 1334.9 1359.6 1384.1
90 75.31 320.2 v = 0.0176 4.891 5.119 5.492 5.854 6.210 6.561 6.907 7.281 7.592
h = 290.5 1188.5 1205.0 1231.9 1258.1 1283.8 1309.1 1334.1 1358.9 1383.6
100 85.31 327.9 v = 0.0177 4.429 4.584 4.923 5.253 5.576 5.894 6.207 6.518 6.826
h = 298.5 1190.7 1203.1 1230.4 1256.8 1282.7 1308.2 1333.4 1358.3 1383.0
110 95.31 334.8 v = 0.0178 4.043 4.145 4.458 4.761 5.057 5.348 5.634 5.917 6.198
h = 305.7 1192.6 1201.2 1228.9 1255.6 1281.7 1307.3 1332.6 1357.6 1382.5
120 105.3 341.3 v = 0.0179 3.727 3.780 4.071 4.351 4.625 4.893 5.157 5.418 5.677
h = 312.5 1194.3 1199.3 1227.3 1254.3 1280.6 1306.5 1331.9 1357.0 1381.9
130 115.3 347.3 v = 0.0180 3.435 3.470 3.743 4.004 4.259 4.508 4.753 4.994 5.234
h = 318.8 1195.8 1197.4 1225.8 1253.1 1279.6 1305.6 1331.1 1356.4 1381.4
140 125.3 353.0 v = 0.0180 3.221 3.204 3.461 3.707 3.945 4.178 4.406 4.632 4.856
h = 324.9 1197.2 2295.4 1224.2 1251.8 1278.5 1304.7 1330.4 1355.7 1380.8
150 135.3 358.4 v = 0.0181 3.016 2.975 3.217 3.449 3.673 3.892 4.106 4.318 4.527
h = 330.6 1198.5 1193.4 1222.7 1250.5 1277.5 1303.8 1329.6 1355.1 1380.2
160 145.3 363.6 v = 0.0182 2.836 — 3.004 3.223 3.435 3.641 3.844 4.043 4.240
h = 336.0 1199.7 — 1221.1 1249.2 1276.5 1302.9 1328.9 1354.4 1379.7
170 155.3 368.4 v = 0.0182 2.678 — 2.816 3.024 3.225 3.421 3.612 3.800 3.986
h = 341.2 1200.7 — 1219.5 1248.0 1275.4 1302.0 1328.1 1353.8 1379.1
180 165.3 373.1 v = 0.0183 2.536 — 2.648 2.847 3.039 3.224 3.406 3.584 3.760
h = 346.1 1201.7 — 1217.9 1246.7 1274.3 1301.1 1327.4 1353.1 1378.6
190 175.3 377.5 v = 0.0184 2.409 — 2.498 2.689 2.871 3.049 3.222 3.391 3.559
h = 350.9 1202.7 — 1216.3 1245.4 1273.3 1300.3 1326.6 1352.5 1378.0

23
 PROPERTIES OF STEAM

(DEGREES FAHR)
VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET PER LB. (v) AND
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE SATURATION
LB. PER SQ. IN. TOTAL HEAT IN BTU PER LB. (h) OF

SATURATED
STEAM AT A TOTAL TEMPERATURE (FAHRENHEIT) OF
ABSOLUTE

STEAM
GAUGE WATER
400° 450° 500° 550° 600° 650° 700° 750°

200 185.3 381.8 v = 0.0184 2.293 2.363 2.546 2.721 2.891 3.056 3.218 3.377 3.535
h = 355.5 1203.5 1214.7 1244.1 1272.2 1299.4 1325.9 1351.9 1377.5 1402.8
210 195.3 385.9 v = 0.0185 2.189 2.241 2.417 2.585 2.747 2.906 3.061 3.213 3.364
h = 360.0 1204.4 1213.0 1242.8 1271.1 1298.5 1325.1 1351.2 1376.9 1402.3
220 205.3 389.9 v = 0.0185 2.093 2.129 2.300 2.461 2.617 2.769 2.918 3.064 3.208
h = 364.2 1205.1 1211.4 1241.5 1270.0 1297.6 1324.3 1350.6 1376.4 1401.8
230 215.3 393.7 v = 0.0186 2.006 2.027 2.192 2.349 2.499 2.645 2.787 2.928 3.066
h = 368.4 1205.8 1209.7 1240.1 1269.0 1296.7 1323.6 1349.9 1375.8 1401.3
240 225.3 397.4 v = 0.0187 1.926 1.934 2.094 2.245 2.390 2.530 2.668 2.803 2.935
h = 372.4 1206.4 1208.0 1238.8 1267.9 1295.8 1322.8 1349.3 1375.2 1400.8
250 235.3 401.0 v = 0.0187 1.852 1.848 2.003 2.150 2.290 2.425 2.558 2.688 2.816
h = 376.3 1207.0 1206.3 1237.5 1266.8 1294.9 1322.1 1348.6 1374.7 1400.4
260 245.3 404.5 v = 0.0188 1.783 1.769 1.920 2.062 2.197 2.328 2.456 2.581 2.705
h = 380.1 1207.5 1204.6 1236.1 1265.7 1294.0 1321.3 1348.0 1374.1 1399.9
270 255.3 407.9 v = 0.0188 1.719 1.695 1.842 1.980 2.111 2.238 2.362 2.483 2.602
h = 383.7 1208.0 1202.8 1234.8 1264.6 1293.1 1320.5 1347.3 1373.6 1399.4
280 265.3 411.1 v = 0.0189 1.660 — 1.771 1.904 2.032 2.155 2.275 2.392 2.507
h = 387.3 1208.5 — 1233.4 1263.5 1292.1 1319.8 1346.7 1373.0 1398.9
290 275.3 414.3 v = 0.0189 1.604 — 1.703 1.834 1.958 2.077 2.193 2.307 2.419
h = 390.8 1209.0 — 1232.0 1262.4 1291.2 1319.0 1346.0 1372.4 1398.4
300 285.3 417.4 v = 0.0190 1.552 — 1.641 1.768 1.889 2.005 2.117 2.228 2.336
h = 394.2 1209.4 — 1230.6 1261.3 1290.3 1318.2 1345.4 1371.9 1397.9
310 295.3 420.4 v = 0.0190 1.504 — 1.582 1.706 1.824 1.937 2.047 2.154 2.259
h = 397.5 1209.8 — 1229.2 1260.1 1289.4 1317.5 1344.7 1371.3 1397.5
320 305.3 423.4 v = 0.0191 1.458 — 1.527 1.649 1.763 1.873 1.980 2.084 2.186
h = 400.8 1210.2 — 1227.8 1259.0 1288.5 1316.7 1344.1 1370.8 1397.0
330 315.3 426.3 v = 0.0191 1.415 — 1.475 1.594 1.706 1.814 1.917 2.019 2.118
h = 404.0 1210.5 — 1226.4 1257.9 1287.5 1315.9 1343.4 1370.2 1396.5
340 325.3 429.1 v = 0.0192 1.374 — 1.427 1.543 1.653 1.757 1.858 1.957 2.054
h = 407.1 1210.8 — 1224.9 1256.8 1286.6 1315.2 1342.8 1369.6 1396.0
350 335.3 431.8 v = 0.0192 1.336 — 1.380 1.495 1.602 1.704 1.803 1.899 1.993
h = 410.1 1211.1 — 1223.5 1255.6 1285.7 1314.4 1342.1 1369.1 1395.5
360 345.5 434.5 v = 0.0193 1.300 — 1.337 1.450 1.554 1.654 1.750 1.844 1.936
h = 413.1 1211.4 — 1222.0 1254.5 1284.7 1313.6 1341.4 1368.5 1395.0
370 355.3 437.1 v= 0.0193 1.266 — 1.296 1.406 1.509 1.607 1.701 1.793 1.882
h = 416.1 1211.6 — 1220.5 1253.3 1283.8 1312.8 1340.8 1368.0 1394.5
380 365.3 439.7 v = 0.0193 1.233 — 1.257 1.365 1.466 1.562 1.654 1.743 1.831
h = 419.0 1211.8 — 1219.0 1252.1 1282.9 1312.0 1340.1 1367.4 1394.0
390 375.3 442.2 v = 0.0194 1.202 — 1.220 1.327 1.426 1.519 1.609 1.697 1.782
h = 421.8 1212.0 — 1217.5 1251.0 1281.9 1311.2 1339.5 1366.8 1393.5
400 385.3 444.7 v = 0.0194 1.172 — 1.184 1.289 1.387 1.479 1.567 1.653 1.736
h = 424.6 1212.1 — 1216.0 1249.8 1281.0 1310.5 1338.8 1366.2 1393.1

24
 PROPERTIES OF STEAM

(DEGREES FAHR)
PRESSURE VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET PER LB. (v) AND
TEMPERATURE
SATURATION
LB. PER SQ. IN. TOTAL HEAT IN BTU PER LB. (h) OF

STEAM AT A TOTAL TEMPERATURE (FAHRENHEIT) OF

SATURATED
ABSOLUTE

STEAM
GAUGE WATER
550° 600° 650° 700° 750° 800° 850° 900°

420 405.3 449.5 v = 0.0195 1.118 1.315 1.404 1.488 1.570 1.651 1.729 1.806 1.882
h = 430.0 1212.4 1279.0 1308.9 1337.4 1365.1 1392.1 1418.5 1444.5 1470.2
440 425.3 454.1 v = 0.0196 1.068 1.250 1.335 1.417 1.496 1.573 1.648 1.722 1.795
h = 435.2 1212.7 1277.1 1307.3 1336.1 1363.9 1391.1 1417.7 1443.8 1469.6
460 445.3 458.6 v = 0.0197 1.022 1.190 1.273 1.352 1.427 1.501 1.574 1.645 1.715
h = 440.3 1212.9 1275.1 1305.7 1334.7 1362.8 1390.1 1416.8 1443.0 1468.9
480 465.3 462.9 v = 0.0198 0.979 1.135 1.215 1.292 1.365 1.436 1.506 1.574 1.642
h = 445.3 1213.1 1273.2 1304.1 1333.4 1361.7 1389.1 1416.0 1442.3 1468.2
500 485.3 467.1 v = 0.0199 0.940 1.085 1.163 1.236 1.307 1.376 1.443 1.509 1.574
h = 450.1 1213.2 1271.2 1302.4 1332.0 1360.5 1388.1 1415.1 1441.5 1467.6
520 505.3 471.2 v = 0.0200 0.904 1.038 1.114 1.186 1.254 1.321 1.386 1.449 1.512
h = 454.8 1213.2 1269.1 1300.8 1330.7 1359.4 1387.2 1414.2 1440.8 1466.9
540 525.3 475.1 v = 0.0200 0.871 0.995 1.069 1.138 1.205 1.270 1.332 1.394 1.454
h = 459.4 1213.2 1267.1 1299.1 1329.3 1358.2 1386.1 1413.4 1440.0 1466.2
560 545.3 479.0 v = 0.0201 0.839 0.955 1.027 1.095 1.159 1.222 1.283 1.342 1.401
h = 463.9 1213.1 1265.0 1297.5 1327.9 1357.0 1385.2 1412.5 1439.3 1465.6
580 565.3 482.7 v = 0.0202 0.810 0.917 0.998 1.054 1.117 1.177 1.237 1.294 1.351
h = 468.3 1213.0 1262.9 1295.8 1326.6 1355.9 1384.2 1411.7 1438.5 1464.9
600 585.3 486.3 v = 0.0203 0.783 0.882 0.951 1.016 1.077 1.136 1.194 1.250 1.305
h = 472.5 1212.9 1260.8 1294.1 1325.2 1354.7 1383.2 1410.8 1437.8 1464.3
650 635.3 495.0 v = 0.0205 0.721 0.804 0.870 0.931 0.988 1.044 1.097 1.149 1.201
h = 482.8 1212.5 1255.4 1289.8 1321.7 1351.7 1380.6 1408.6 1435.9 1462.6
700 685.3 503.2 v = 0.0207 0.668 0.736 0.799 0.858 0.912 0.965 1.015 1.064 1.112
h = 492.6 1211.8 1249.7 1285.4 1318.1 1348.8 1378.1 1406.4 1434.0 1460.9
750 735.3 511.0 v = 0.0209 0.622 0.677 0.739 0.794 0.846 0.896 0.944 0.900 1.035
h = 502.0 1210.9 1243.9 1280.9 1314.4 1345.8 1375.6 1404.2 1432.1 1459.2
800 785.3 518.3 v = 0.0211 0.581 0.625 0.685 0.739 0.789 0.836 0.881 0.925 0.968
h = 511.0 1209.8 1237.7 1276.2 1310.7 1342.7 1373.0 1402.0 1430.2 1457.6
850 835.3 525.3 v = 0.0213 0.545 0.579 0.637 0.690 0.737 0.783 0.826 0.867 0.908
h = 519.7 1208.6 1231.3 1271.5 1307.0 1339.6 1370.4 1399.8 1428.2 1455.9
900 885.3 532.1 v = 0.0215 0.513 0.537 0.595 0.646 0.692 0.735 0.777 0.816 0.855
h = 528.1 1207.3 1224.5 1266.5 1303.1 1336.5 1367.7 1397.6 1426.3 1454.2
950 935/3 538.5 v = 0.0217 0.484 0.499 0.557 0.607 0.651 0.693 0.733 0.771 0.808
h = 536.2 1205.9 1217.4 1261.4 1299.2 1333.3 1365.1 1395.3 1424.4 1452.5
1000 985.3 544.7 v = 0.0219 0.458 0.465 0.523 0.571 0.615 0.655 0.693 0.730 0.765
h = 544.1 1204.3 1209.9 1256.1 1295.1 1330.0 1362.4 1393.0 1422.4 1450.8
1100 1085.3 556.5 v = 0.0223 0.412 0.404 0.462 0.509 0.551 0.589 0.625 0.659 0.691
h = 559.4 1200.8 1193.3 1244.9 1286.7 1323.4 1357.0 1388.5 1418.4 1447.4
1200 1185.3 567.4 v = 0.0227 0.373 — 0.411 0.458 0.498 0.534 0.568 0.600 0.630
h = 574.0 1196.8 — 1232.7 1277.9 1316.5 1351.3 1383.7 1414.5 1443.9
1300 1285.3 577.6 v = 0.0232 0.340 — 0.366 0.413 0.452 0.487 0.519 0.549 0.578
h = 587.9 1192.3 — 1219.2 1268.4 1309.3 1345.6 1379.0 1410.4 1440.4
1400 1385.3 587.2 v = 0.0236 0.311 — 0.326 0.375 0.413 0.447 0.478 0.506 0.534
h = 601.3 1187.4 — 1204.2 1258.3 1301.8 1339.7 1374.1 1406.3 1436.9

25
 MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURES FOR WATERTUBE BOILERS
Maximum allowable working pressures for seamless steel and electric resistance welded steel tubes or nipples for watertube
boilers, where expanded into drums or headers, for different diameters and gages of tubes conforming to the requirements of
specifications SA-178 Grade A, SA-192 and SA-226.

Wall Nearest Tube Outside Diameter, in.

Thickness, Bwg.
in. No. 1
/2 3
/4 1 1
1 /16 1
1 /4 1
1 /2 3
1 /4 2 21/4 21/2 23/4 3 31/4 31/2 33/4 4 41/2 5
0.055 17 – 590 350 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
0.065 16 1090 670 470 410 350 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
0.075 15 + 1600 1000 720 620 550 430 … … … … … … … … … … … …
0.085 14 + … 1340 960 840 740 590 490 410 … … … … … … … … … …
0.095 13 … … … 1990 1760 760 630 530 460 400 350 … … … … … … …
0.105 12 – … … … … 1980 1600 1340 1150 570 500 440 390 … … … … … …
0.120 11 … … … … … 1870 1570 1340 1170 1040 930 840 460 420 390 … … …
0.135 10 + … … … … … … 1790 1540 1340 1190 1060 960 880 800 740 680 … …
0.150 9+ … … … … … … 2020 1740 1520 1340 1200 1090 990 910 840 780 670 590
0.165 8 … … … … … … … 1940 1690 1500 1340 1210 1100 1020 940 870 760 670
0.180 7 … … … … … … … … 1870 1660 1480 1340 1220 1120 1040 960 840 740
0.200 6– … … … … … … … … … 1870 1670 1520 1380 1270 1170 1090 950 840
0.220 5 … … … … … … … … … … 1870 1690 1540 1420 1310 1210 1060 940
0.240 4+ … … … … … … … … … … … 1870 1700 1570 1450 1340 1170 1040
0.260 3+ … … … … … … … … … … … … 1870 1720 1590 1470 1290 1140
0.280 2– … … … … … … … … … … … … 2040 1870 1730 1600 1400 1240
0.300 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 2020 1870 1740 1520 1340
0.320 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 2010 1870 1630 1450
0.340 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 2000 1750 1550
0.360 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1870 1660
0.380 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1990 1760
0.400 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1870
0.420 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1980

DECIMAL AND MILLIMETER EQUIVALENTS OF B.W.G.

AND FRACTIONS FOR ROUND SEAMLESS STEEL TUBING
B.W.G. B.W.G. B.W.G. B.W.G.
OR OR OR OR
FRACTION DECIMAL MM FRACTION DECIMAL MM FRACTION DECIMAL MM FRACTION DECIMAL MM

36 .004 .101 20 .035 .889 9 .148 3.75 11/32 .344 8.73

35 .005 .127 19 .042 1.06 5/32 .156 3.96 3/8 .375 9.52
34 .007 .177 3/64 .047 1.19 8 .165 4.19 00 .380 9.65
33 .008 .203 18 .049 1.24 11/64 .172 4.36 000 .425 10.80
32 .009 .228 17 .058 1.47 7 .180 4.57 7/16 .438 11.12
31 .010 .254 1/16 .063 1.6 3/16 .188 4.77 0000 .454 11.53
30 .012 .304 16 .065 1.65 13/64 .203 5.15 1/2 .500 12.70
29 .013 .330 15 .072 1.82 6 .203 5.15 17/32 .531 13.48
28 .014 .355 5/64 .078 1.98 7/32 .219 5.56 9/16 .563 14.30
1/64 .016 .406 14 .083 2.10 5 .220 5.58 19/32 .594 15.10
27 .016 .406 3/32 .094 2.38 4 .238 6.04 5/8 .625 15.87
26 .018 .457 13 .095 2.41 1/4 .250 6.35 11/16 .688 17.47
25 .020 .508 7/64 .109 2.76 3 .259 6.57 3/4 .750 19.00
24 .022 .558 12 .109 2.76 9/32 .281 7.13 13/16 .813 20.65
23 .025 .635 11 .120 3.04 2 .284 7.21 7/8 .875 22.22
22 .028 .711 1/8 .125 3.17 1 .300 7.62 15/16 .938 23.82
1/32 .031 .787 10 .134 3.4 5/16 .313 7.95 1 1.000 25.40
21 .032 .812 9/64 .141 3.58 0 .340 8.63

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MEAN SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES CALCULATION OF HEATING VALUES
AT CONSTANT PRESSURE FOR LIQUID AND GAS FUELS
I. LIQUID FUELS—(UNCRACKED DISTILLATE OR RESIDUE)
FROM 32°F TO 1°F IN B. TH. U./LB/°F
A. HF = Gross heating value = 17,600 + 69 (A.P.I. Deg.), (Btu/lb.)
Temp. Temp. N2 and (CRACKED DISTILLATE)
(t°C) (t°F) Air CO O2 CO2 Steam H2
B. HF = Gross heating value = 17,780 + 54 (A.P.I. Deg.), (Btu/lb.)
NOTE: Avg., difference between gross and net heating values of
100 212 0.2406 0.2490 0.2179 0.2034 0.5048 3.409
fuel oils is 6%.
200 392 0.2410 0.2494 0.2182 0.2080 0.4964 3.426 II. GASEOUS FUELS
300 572 0.2414 0.2498 0.2186 0.2126 0.4909 3.443 A. Paraffin hydrocarbons (CN H2N + 2)
BTU
_________
400 752 0.2419 0.2504 0.2191 0.2171 0.4881 3.461 = 745N + 258 = Gross heating value
Cu. Ft. Gas
500 932 0.2425 0.2510 0.2196 0.2219 0.4871 3.478 B. Unsaturated hydrocarbons (CA HB )
600 1112 0.2432 0.2517 0.2202 0.2256 0.4873 3.496 BTU
_________ = 459A + 132B +135 = Gross heating value
Cu. Ft. Gas
700 1292 0.2439 0.2524 0.2209 0.2297 0.4888 3.513
III. TABLE OF HEATING VALUES FOR TYPICAL FUELS
800 1472 0.2447 0.2533 0.2217 0.2336 0.4913 3.530
GROSS HEATING VALUE NET HEATING VALUE
900 1652 0.2457 0.2543 0.2225 0.2374 0.4949 3.548
FUEL BTU/CU. FT. FOR GASES BTU/CU. FT. FOR GASES
1000 1832 0.2466 0.2552 0.2233 0.2410 0.5000 3.565 BTU/LB. FOR LIQUIDS BTU/LB. FOR LIQUIDS
1100 2012 0.2477 0.2563 0.2243 0.2445 0.5050 3.582 Natural Gas 1097 993
1200 2192 0.2488 0.2575 0.2253 0.2478 0.5112 3.600 Coke Oven Gas 561 500
Raw Prod. Gas 147 137.3
1300 2372 0.2499 0.2587 0.2264 0.2510 0.5185 3.617
Clean Prod. Gas 138 129
1400 2552 0.2512 0.2600 0.2275 0.2540 0.5268 3.635 Towns Gas 545 499
1500 2732 0.2525 0.2613 0.2287 0.2569 0.5357 3.652 Commercial Butane 3190 2935
Blue Water Gas 301 276
1600 2912 0.2539 0.2628 0.2299 0.2596 0.5458 3.669 Blast Furnace Gas 92.3 90.6
1700 3092 0.2554 0.2643 0.2313 0.2621 0.5566 3.687 Commercial Propane 2550 —
Ethane 1760 —
1800 3272 0.2569 0.2659 0.2327 0.2645 0.5666 3.704
No. 1 Fuel Oil 19,800 18,650
1900 3452 0.2585 0.2675 0.2341 0.2668 0.5790 3.721 No. 2 Fuel Oil 19,600 18,400
2000 3632 0.2602 0.2693 0.2356 0.2689 0.5911 3.739 No. 3 Fuel Oil 19,350 18,350
No. 6 Fuel Oil 18,300 17,340

1-800-845-3052
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 SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL TUBING AND PIPE
TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PARTIAL elongation pressure
SPEC DESCRIPTION ANALYSIS tensile yield (0.0 in. 2°) tested* OD WALL OTHER

ASTM Schedule 10 thru 160

1
Welded and Seamless Carbon .30 max. 45,000 - 60,000 psi 30,000 - 35,000 psi 30% Yes /8" - 26" IPS Standard Wall Tolerance
A-53 Carbon Steel Pipe Phosphorous .05 max. X Heavy, XX Heavy – 121 /2% max.
Grade B:
Seamless Carbon .30 max. Schedule 40 thru 160
1
A-106 Carbon Steel Pipe Manganese 1.06 max. 60,000 min. psi Grade B 30% Yes /8" - 26" IPS Standard Wall Tolerance
Silicon .10 min. 35,000 min. psi X Heavy, XX Heavy – 131/2% max.
Welded and Seamless
1
A-120 Galvanized Steel Pipe Nonspecified Nonspecified Nonspecified Yes /2" - 16" IPS All
Grade A:
1
A-178 Electric Resistance Welded Carbon .06 - .18 60,000 min. psi 37,000 min. psi 30% Optional /2" - 5" OD Min. Wall ASTM A-450 Applies
Carbon Steel Boiler Tubes Manganese .27 - .63 .035" - .320"
Seamless
1
A-179 Cold Drawn Carbon Steel Carbon .06 -.18 60,000 min. psi 37,000 min. psi 30% Optional /8" - 3" OD None Specified ASTM A-450 Applies
Condenser and Heat Exchanger Tubes Manganese .27 - .63
Seamless Carbon .06 - .18 Maximum Hardness
A-192 Carbon Steel Boiler Tubes Manganese .27 - .63 Under 200° Wall, Not to Exceed Rockwell B-77 35% Optional 1/2" - 7" OD Min. Wall ASTM A-450 Applies
for High Pressure Service Silicon 25 max. 200° Wall and Over, Not to Exceed Brinell 137 .085" - 1.000"
26,000 min. psi 30% Optional .155 - 5" OD Min. Wall ASTM A-450 Applies
Seamless Stainless and Alloy Ferritic All 400 Series 47,000 min. psi .015" - .500"
A-213 Boiler, Superheater and 30,000 min. psi 35% Optional .555 - 5" OD Min. Wall ASTM A-450 Applies
Heat Exchanger Tubes Austenitic All 300 Series 75,000 min. psi
Welded Not to Exceed Not to Exceed
1
A-214 Carbon Steel Heat Exchanger and Carbon .18 max. Rockwell B-90 max. Rockwell B-90 max. Optional /8" - 3" OD Min. Wall Only ASTM A-450 Applies
Condenser Tubes Manganese .27 - .63 Brinell 200 max. Brinell 200 max.
Welded
Austenitic Stainless Steel Boiler Min. Wall
A-249 Superheater, Heat Exchanger and All 300 Series 70,000 min. psi 25,000 min. psi 35% Optional .155 - 5" OD .015" - .320"
Condenser Tubes
Welded and Seamless
A-269 Austenitic Stainless Steel All 300 Series 75,000 min. psi 30,000 min. psi 35% Optional Under 8" OD Average Wall ASTM A-450 Applies
Tubing for General Service
MIL-T specifications are approved by the Naval SEA System Command and are available for use by all Departments and Agencies of the Department of Defense
MIL-T Chemical and Mech-
Seamless Carbon .06 - .18 anical Properties
16286 E Carbon Steel Boiler Tubes Manganese .27 - .63 47,000 min. psi 26,000 min. psi 35% Yes — Min. Wall Only are Similar to
Class A Silicon .25 max. ASTM A-192
Seamless Carbon 0.8 max.
Class C Stainless Steel Boiler Tubes Manganese 2.0 max. 75,000 min. psi 30,000 min. psi 35% Yes — Min. Wall Only ASTM A-213
18% CR 8% NI Silicon .75 max. GR T321 - T347
Seamless Carbon .15 max.
Class E Alloy Steel Boiler Tubes Manganese .30 - .60 50,000 min. psi 30,000 min. psi 30% Yes — Min. Wall Only ASTM A-213
21 /4% CR 1% Moly Silicon .50 max. GR T22
Seamless Carbon .27 max.
Class G Medium Carbon Boiler Tubes Manganese .93 max. 50,000 min. psi 37,000 min. psi 30% Yes — Min. Wall Only ASTM A-210
Silicon .10 min. Grade A-1
MIL-T
Welded Carbon .06 - .08
17188 Carbon Steel Boiler Tubes Manganese .27 - .63 60,000 min. psi 37,000 min. psi 30% Yes — Min. Wall Only ASTM A-226
Class A Silicon .050 max.

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 BOILER TUBE COMPANY OF AMERICA
KEEPS YOUR BOILER OPERATING

Whether you need to get a boiler back on line fast or plan a retrofit for improved efficiency,
depend on Boiler Tube Company of America—the boiler fabrication specialists who have
returned thousands of boilers to service all across the globe.

• The largest stock of boiler tubes in the world.

• Hot and cold bending facilities with a full range of tooling.
• Complete fabrication facilities to expedite your order.
• Code weld assembly plant with multiple stamp approval and complete facilities to hydro test,
heat treat and ultrasonic test, and radiograph after assembly.
• A file of over 40,000 drawings of tube details and tube arrangements for nearly every type of
boiler ever built. Your boiler probably matches one already in our files.
• Over 60 years in the business. Years devoted exclusively to supply replacement boiler tubes
and tube arrangements to keep existing units operating with a minimum of interruption.
• We offer on-site design and engineering capability for redesign. We are also the only company
in America able to supply extended surface Economizers.

Boiler Tube Company of America

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506 Charlotte Highway
Lyman, South Carolina 29365
(864) 439-0220, 1-800-845-3052
Fax: (864) 439-8292

650 Green Lane

P.O. Box 2065
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©1999 Boiler Tube Company of America

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