Core practical 4.

1
Ecological Sampling

Purpose : To carry out a study on the ecology of a habitat.

Completing a transect study

One of the easiest patterns to spot is zonation in the vegetation and animal distribution – as you
go from one place to another the vegetation and animal distribution changes. A zonation can
often be explained by a gradual change (a gradient) in one or more physical or abiotic factors. A
transect is often used to study zonation in vegetation or non-mobile animal distribution. A
transect is a line along which systematic records can be made.
 Systematic sampling can be used for this

Systematic sampling

If conditions change across a habitat (environmental gradient), for example across a rocky shore
or in a sloping meadow that becomes more boggy towards one side, then systematic sampling
along a transect allows the changes to be studied. A transect is effectively a line laid out across
the habitat, usually using a tape measure, along which samples are taken. The sample points may
be at regular intervals, say every 2 m across a field, or they may be positioned in relation to
some morphological feature, such as on the ridges and in the hollows in a sand dune system.

Comparing two sites

Frequently ecologists may notice a distinct pattern that does not show a gradual change and may
be related to one or more factors at the two sites. For example, the vegetation in one area of a
field may be very different from the rest of the field, or the species found upstream and
downstream of an outflow pipe discharging into a river may seem to differ. A transect may not
be the best method for this type of investigation; instead sampling of each area may be more
appropriate.
 Random sampling can be used for this
Random sampling
 Random sampling allows an unbiased sample to be taken.

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 Tape measures put on the ground at right-angles to each other can be used to mark out a
sampling area .
 To collect data, locate a position within the sampling area using a pair of random numbers.
 The random numbers can be pulled from a set of numbers in a hat, come from random
number tables, or be generated by a calculator or computer.
 The two numbers are used as coordinates to locate a sampling position within the area.
 The first random number gives the position on the first tape and the second random number
gives the position on the second tape.
 Position the quadrat where the random co-ordinates meet.
 Count the number of organisms in each species.

Sampling unit

Quadrats

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Quadrats are used for sampling plant communities and slow moving or stationary animals, for
example many of those found on rocky shores. There are two types of quadrat: a frame quadrat
and a point quadrat.

A frame quadrat is usually square; the most commonly used is 50 cm by 50 cm (0.25 m 2) and
may be subdivided into 25 smaller squares, each 10 cm by 10 cm. The abundance of organisms
within the quadrat is estimated.

Quadrats may be placed across the site to be sampled using random or systematic sampling
methods. It is important to sample enough quadrats to be representative of the site. To find out
the optimum number of quadrats required, record the number of species in each quadrat and plot
the cumulative results against number of quadrats until sampling additional quadrats does not
substantially increase the number of species recorded.

A point quadrat frame enables pins to be lowered onto the vegetation below.
Each species touched is recorded as a hit. The percentage cover for a particular species is
calculated using the equation:

Random sampling

Sample Sp A Sp B Sp C Sp D Sp E Species Number n(n-1)

#

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 (n)
A
1

B
2

C
3

D
4

E
5

Total (N)
6

8
N (N – 1)
D = = ……………….... =
∑ n (n – 1)
9

10

Systematic sampling (Transect)

Site No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Number of plants/m2

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 Measures of abundance

Density
Count the number of individuals in several quadrats and take the mean to give number per unit
area, for example per metre squared (m -2). In many plant species (e.g. grasses) it is very difficult
to distinguish individual plants, so measuring density is not possible.

Frequency
Frequency is the number or percentage of sampling units in which a particular species occurs.
This avoids having to count the number of individuals. If clover was recorded in 10 of the 25
squares that make up a 0.25 m2 quadrat frame, the percentage frequency would be 40%.

Percentage cover
This is the percentage of the ground covered by a species within the sampling unit. Count the
number of squares within the quadrat that the plant completely covers, then count those that are
only partly covered and estimate the total number of full squares that would be completely
covered by that species.

Estimating animal populations

Quadrats cannot be used for mobile animals as these don’t stay in the quadrats. A variety of
different nets and traps need to be used. Animals that occur on the soil surface may be sampled
using a pitfall trap. Those in vegetation can be sampled using a pooter directly or indirectly (after
being knocked from the vegetation onto a white sheet). Insects and other small invertebrates
found in leaf litter can be collected using a Tullgren funnel.
Mark–release methods can also be used.

Measuring abiotic factors when sampling the environment

Angle of slope - Use a clinometer.

Aspect - Use a compass.
Temperature
Use a thermometer or temperature probe, but be aware that the time of day can influence the
values obtained, as will cloud cover. The thermometer or probe should be placed in the same
position each time a measurement is made to allow valid comparison of measurements.
Light

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Use a light meter. Light readings can vary widely with time of day and cloud cover. It is better
to take all measurements over a short period or take regular readings over extended periods using
a datalogger.
Oxygen concentration
In aquatic systems, oxygen probes can be used to measure oxygen concentration.
Humidity
Relative humidity can be measured using a whirling hygrometer. It needs to be spun for 60
seconds just above the vegetation before readings are taken from the wet and dry thermometer
and used to determine the humidity from a calibration scale.
Conductivity
The ability of a water sample to carry an electric current gives a measure of the dissolved
mineral salts. The conductivity of pure water is zero; increasing ion concentration raises the
conductivity.
Soil water
A sample of soil is dried at 110 ºC until there is no further loss in mass. The % soil moisture can
be calculated using the equation:

Soil organic matter

A dry soil sample of known mass is heated in a crucible for 15 minutes to burn off all the organic
matter. The mass is re-measured after the soil sample has cooled. The % soil organic matter is
calculated using the equation:

pH
Universal Indicator or a pH meter can be used to test pH after mixing a soil sample with
water. If using Universal indicator in the field, it is best to use a proper soil testing kit that
contains some long glass tubes, with lines engraved on the sides, to show levels for adding soil
and chemicals.

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 Past paper questions

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1 Glaciers are long, large masses of ice that formed thousands of years ago. As a result of
warmer climates, more ice is melting. This is reducing the length of the glaciers.
As a result, bare rock that was once covered by the glacier becomes exposed.
The diagram below shows the length of a glacier 100 years ago and the glacier at present. It also
shows what is now found in a transect taken from where the front edge of the glacier is at
present.

(b) Epilobium latifolium is a plant that occupies a niche in an area once covered by this glacier.
It is a short flowering plant that grows in clumps.
The photograph below shows three clumps of Epilobium latifolium.

(ii) Describe how to carry out a study of the distribution of Epilobium latifolium from the front
edge of this glacier.
(4)
1. idea of using a transect (from front edge of glacier);
2. credit method of sampling (along transect) ; e.g. clumps touching transect,
quadrat (on transect), number of plants along perpendicular
3. credit appropriate method of selecting sample sites (along transect) ; e.g. set
distance, regular, systematic, flip-flop quadrats NOT random
4. description of estimate of abundance e.g. number of plants, percentage cover
5. idea of using more than one transect ; IGNORE references to repeating
investigation
6. credit appropriate method of recording quantitative data ; e.g. tally chart, table,
graph
(iii) Suggest one abiotic factor that might affect the abundance of Epilobium latifolium and
describe how this factor could be measured.
(3)

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 1. credit appropriate named abiotic factor; e.g. light, soil pH, water content,
mineral content, temperature, salinity, wind IGNORE CO2 , O2, rainfall,
humidity
2. credit appropriate method of measurement of factor ; CE applied e.g. light
{probe / sensor / meter / data logger}, {water gauge / drying out soil samples}
3. credit appropriate description of where reading should be taken ; CE applied e.g.
reading taken at height of plant, soil sample around roots, quadrat
4. idea of taking several readings and getting an average / eq ;

2 Surtsey is a newly-formed volcanic island. The volcanic eruption finished in 1967.

The photograph below shows the plants on part of the island about 10 years after the island was
formed.

(a) Describe how data can be collected in carrying out a study to compare the distribution of
Honckenya pebloides on two different parts of the island.
(4)
1. idea of measuring off two areas of the same size ;
2. use of a {quadrat / eq} ;
3. use of random {coordinates / sampling / eq} ;
4. method of generating random coordinates ;
5. description of estimate of abundance e.g. number of plants, percentage cover
6. indication that several sample sites used ;
7. appropriate method of recording quantitative data ; e.g. tally chart, table,
graph

(b) Suggest how the data collected could be used to show that the abundance of Honckenya
pebloides is greater in the first site than the second one.
(3)
1. plot a (bar) graph of two areas against abundance / eq ;
2. reference to larger bar/ greater abundance in first site;

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 3. reference to use of statistics test ;
4. appropriate named test eg t-test, U-test ;
5. calculated value greater than critical value at 5% significance level;

(c) Water availability affects the distribution of Honckenya pebloides.

Describe how water availability could be investigated in these two parts of the island.
(2)
1. idea of {using a moisture probe / drying out soil samples / eq} ;
2. idea of testing soil around plants ;
OR
3. idea of using rain gauge / eq ;
4. idea of collecting water over a period of time ;

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