CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURAL STEELS

CORROSION, FIRE PROTECTION AND FATIGUE

CONSIDERATIONS

By

Institute for Steel Development & Growth

52/1A, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata
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 Layout of the Lecture
• Metallurgy of steel 
• Production Process
• Mechanical properties
• Special steels
• Corrosion aspects
• Fire Engineering of steel structures
• Fatigue considerations

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(a) Body centred (b) Face centred
cube (bcc) cube (fcc)

Crystal structure of Iron

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Temp 0 C

1600 1539 0 C

1400 0 C
1400
bcc
 Non-Magnetic
1200
Heating Cooling
1000 fcc 910 0 C

800 768 0C
600
bcc
400
 Magnetic

200

0
Time

Allotropy of Iron
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 Peritectic
1534 0C point1493
0C Liquid
1400 0.1%  ferrite
+ Eutectic
point Fe3C+
1200 Liquid
phase 0
Liquid

Austenite
1147 C  + Fe3C
1000 0
910 C  +  Austenite +
800 723 0C Cementite

600 Eutectoid
point
0.02%  ferrite  + Fe3C
400
Ferrite +
200 Cementite

0.0 0.8% 4.3% Cementite

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.67

% Carbon
Iron – Iron-Carbon phase diagram
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 Steel is alloy of Iron and Carbon !
(Point to ponder)

More Carbon more

strength? - Yes
But what happens to
Carbon
--
ductility?
-Ferrite
Adding Carbon - Is it the
only way to get strength?
Is there a limit for carbon
content in structural steel?
Carbon content in
Interstitial solid solution Structural steel- 0.12-.25%
of Carbon in Iron
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 Temp 0 C

1200
11470C
i Austenite
1000

Austenite + Cementite
j
800 7230C
k
Ferrite + Austenite
600 Eutectoid
Point
Ferrite
400
Cementite + Pearlite
Ferrite + Pearlite

200 Hypo-Eutectoid steel Hyper-Eutectoid steel

Weight % of Carbon
l
a b c d

0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
The Eutectoid section of the Iron – Iron
Carbon phase diagram
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 C

Austenite Ferrite
Austenite Ferrite Pearlite Ferrite
nuclei
(a) (b) (c)

Different stages of formation of Pearlite

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 (a)100% Ferrite in extra
low carbon steel
(b)Ferrite+Pearlite
(c) 100% Pearlite in
Eutectoid steel
(d)Pearlite+Cementite in
hyper-Eutectoid steel
SOURCE: Thelning K.E., “Steel and its heat
treatment”, Butterworths, (1984).

Microstructures of steels
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Temp 0
C
800
Eutectoid temperature

600 Full
annealing
Normalise
400 Oil
Water quench
quench
200
Mantensite+
Mantensite Pearlite Course Pearlite
Fine Pearlite
0.
0 1 10 100
100 10 10
0 4 5
Time in Seconds
Variation of microstructure as a
function of cooling
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 GRAIN SIZE STRENGTHENING

k
f y  f0 
d

•Using temperature control we can achieve small

grain size
•Using Mechanical pressure during rolling we can
get smaller grain size
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 STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS
(METALLURGICAL FACTORS CONTROLLING PROPERTIES OF STEEL)

METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Ductility
Formability :- i) Stretchability; ii) Drawability
Notch Toughness, etc

Chemistry Alloying Elements Microstructure

Substitution/Interstitial / ppt
Thermomechanical Processing subjected to steel
Solid State Reactions within it during Processing
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 CONTROL OF MICROSTRUCTURE
1. Composition
– Composition Controls phases present in steel
– It also controls evolution of phases during phase
transformation
2. Heat Treatment
- Controls size and distribution of phases
- Affects grain size, composition of phases,
dislocation structure & defect structure
3. Hot and Cold Deformation
- Affects the above features

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METALLURGICAL FACTORS CONTROLLING STRENGTH

1. GRAIN SIZE
2. SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION
STRENGTHENING
3. INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
4. SUBSTITUTIONAL-INTERSTITIAL SOLUTE
INTERACTION STRENGTHENING
5. PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
6. DISLOCATION STRENGTHENING
7. SECOND PHASE STRENGTHENING

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GRAIN SIZE
Described by Hall-Petch relationship
y = 0 + kyd -½ …………………… (1)
Where,
y = lower yield strength
0 = the intercept of “frictional stress”
ky = a constant (Hall – Petch slope)
d = grain diameter
For grain refinement - Al & Nitrogen
Nb, Ti, V - better, as grain refinement
+
Precipitation hardening
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 SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION
STRENGTHENING
i) Interstitial
ii) Substitutional
iii) Substitutional Interstitial – Tic, Tin
a) Difference in size between Solute and Solventatoms
b) Difference in electronic structure in terms of
difference in shear Modules
  C½
 = flow stress
 = concentration of solutes
Strengthening not substantial at Room temp.
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Are there any parameters which increases strength of
steel? Yes, Additive metals

-Manganese
-
Ferrite

Substitution solid solution of Manganese in Iron

How much can we add? It Should not exceed Ceq(0.45)

Ceq =%C + % Mn/6 + (% Cr + % Mo + % V)/5+(% Ni + % Cu)/15

What happens then (Ceq >0.45)? Welding becomes a problem !!

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 PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
Precipitation from a Supersalurated solid solution mainly
with strong carbide, nitride or carbonitride forming
elements - V, Nb, Ti, Mo, W
Ts = 5.9f ln (4000 X)
Ts = Tensile strength
f = Precipitate fraction
X = mean planer intercept dia of ppt atom mm
Strength increases with reduction in precipitate size
systems - Nb (C, N) Nb4C3, V (C,N), V4C3, Ti (C,N)

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 STRENGTHENING WITH NIOBIUM
VERY EFFECTIVE
Double effect
a) Grain Refinement
b) Precipitation Strengthening
Another Advantage - Nb has lower affinity for oxygen.
Next important Strengthening with Vanddium & Nitrogen
Very high increase in Y.S. - with VN
Next - strengthening with Titanium

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DISLOCATION STRENGTHENING
Stress required to maintain deformation at any strain
f = o + Ke
Where,
f = Total flow stress
0 = Flow stress attributed to other strengthening
mechanisms
e = Dislocation density

Most of the hot rolled steels - Strength increase due to

dislocation density is negligible.

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 SECOND PHASE STRENGTHENING

Pearlite & Martensite produces strengthening

in steels
Law of mixture describes the yield strength
Ys = Xf1/3 (Ys)f + (1-Xf 1/3)(Ys)p
Where xf = Volume fraction of ferrite
(Ys)f = Yield strength of ferrite
(Ys)p = Yield strength of pearlite

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 EFFECT OF COMPOSITION & STRUCTURE ON Y.S.

For a ferrite – pearlite steels

Effect of composition – Empirical Formula
Ys = 15.4 (3.5+2.1 Mn + 5.4 Si + 23 Nf + 1.13d-½), or
Ys = 53.9 + 32.3% Mn + 83.2% Si + 354% Nf + 17.4d-½
Based on Phases
Ys = X1/3(35+58Mn + 17.4 df -½)+(1 - X1/3)(178+3.8s-½)+63Si +
3535 V + 3535 N
 Carbon has little effect on Ys
 Free Nitrogen substantially increases Ys
 Grain Refinement increases Ys
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 EFFECT OF COMPOSITION & STRUCTURE
ON
TENSILE STRENGTH
Tensile Strength (UTS) for a ferritic pearlitic steel is given as
UTS = 15.4 [19.1+1.8Mn + 5.4 Si + 0.25 (% Pearlite) + 0.5d-½], or
UTS = 294 + 27.7%Mn + 83.2% Si + 3.85 (% Pearlite) + 7.7d-½
Based on phases:
UTS= X1/3 (246+18.2df-½)+(1-X1/3)(720+3.55-½)+97Si+1047V+2294N
In the case of low carbon steel with bainitic microstructure
UTS = 15.4 [16+125C+15(Mn+Cr)+12Mo+6W+8Ni+4Cu+25 (V+Ti)

Both Pearlite content and Grain size contribute to Tensile

strength
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METALLURGICAL FACTORS CONTROLLING TOUGHNESS

Good Notch Toughness Behaviour of Steel is promoted by:

a) Lower Carbon Content
b) Higher Manganese Content
c) Low phosphorus and Sulphur content
d) High ratio of Mn/C
e) Aluminium Deoxidation
f) Finer Grain Size
g) Normalising
h) Quenching & tempering
Toughness is evaluated by Impact Transition Temperature
ITT = -(19+11.5 d-½ + 44 Si + 2.2 (% pearlite) + 919 Nf
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 CONTROLLED ROLLING
(THERMOMECHANICAL PROCESSING)

I Old Method for Grain Refinement

- Aluminum deoxidation / addition
+
- Normalizing
New Method
II Micro Alloying - Nb, Ti, V, Mo treated
III Rolling below normal rolling temperature
(controlled rolling)
+
In line accelerated cooling
The combination is called Thermo Mechanical Controlled
Processing. Thus came the HSLA Steels
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 • Iron ore, Limestone and
coal is fed into the BF
• Liquid pig iron collects at
the bottom of BF(C-
4.0%;Mn-.5%;P-0.12%;S-
0.05%)
• Hot metal is charged into
Steel making vessel.
Oxygen is blown in a
controlled manner to
reduce carbon and
impurities like silicon,
manganese, phosphorous
and sulphur . Final steel is
produced. (C-0.1-.25%;Mn-
.4-1.2%;P-0.05%;S-0.05%).
• Oxygen less than 30 ppm -
fully killed steel; 150 ppm
Source:Adams P.F., Krentz H.A. and Kulak G.L., semi-killed steel.
“Limit state design in structural design – SI
Units”, Canadian Institute of Steel Construction
(1979). ©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures
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 Ingot slab bloom Billet
Basic shapes and their relative proportions
Molten steel

Primary rolls for plates Primary rolls for structural shapes

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Characteristic response of a material to applied forces:
1. Strength
– Ability of a material to withstand applied forces
2. Ductility
- Ability to undergo permanent change of shape
without rupture
3. Toughness
- Ability to absorb energy
Why Tests: Prediction of Service performance
Must be suitable as actual Service test impractical

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 MECHANICAL TESTING
Important factors:
 Type of forces involved – tension, compression,
bending, twisting, shear
 Loading is static or dynamic
 Rate of application of loading
 Temperature of testing (load application)
Reliability of testing depends on:
 Testing Machine
 Extensometers
 Specimens
 Man who tests
Hydrantic system better
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 Tensile strength of steel
Lc
t
r Area=S0-
Standard tensile
d
F test specimen
L
F

Deformed
regions
Luder’s bands in
F tensile test specimen
F
Moving edges of
Luder’s band

Area=S-
Tensile test
specimen before
F F rupture
L
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 f Variation Esh
Elastic due to
range Luder’s
fy bands
Plastic Strain Stress strain curve
range hardenin for sharp yielding
g range structural steels

y sh  10y

y
Uniform Non-uniform
f plastic plastic
fy 0.2% proof
stress
Stress strain curve for Elastic
continuously yielding
structural steels 0.2%
strain


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y
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Effect of strain rate on the yield strength of
steel

fy
f y @( 2 x10 4 )

1.2 . 0.33
fy
 0.973  0.45 
f y @( 2 x10 4 )
1.1
Strain rate in
seconds-1
1.0

10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1

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 TENSILE TESTS

Gauge length is important

GL C/S area
ASTM std - GL = 4.47 area or 4 x D
Europe & IS GL = 5.65 Area or 5 x D

 Heating or cold working to be avoided

 If flame cut, sufficient machining needed
 Straight & flat samples a must
 Proper gripping

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 Hardness

Hardness is regarded as the resistance of a material to

indentations and scratching. This is generally
determined by forcing an indentor on to the surface.
(a) Brinell hardness Square based
diamond pyramids
of 135O included
angle

(b) Vickers Hardness Diamond core with

120 O included
angle

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 Experimental
set up for
h1 notch
toughness test

h2 Energy absorbed
c
Transition
Temperature Region of
Shear
(Ductile)
Region of
failure
Cleavage(brit
tle) failure Ductile to
brittle
transition curve
Temperature
Strain rate
Test specimen for notch
Effect of temperature on notch
toughness test toughness of steel
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 Some Mechanical properties of structural Steel

Type of Design- UTS Yield strength Elongat Charpy V -

steel ation (MP (Mpa) ion notch
a) Thickness (mm) Gauge values
<20 20- >40 Joules
40 (min)
Standard Fe 410 250 24 230 23 27
structura 410A 0
l steel Fe 410 250 24 230 23 27
410B 0
Fe 410 250 24 230 23 27
410C 0
High St58HT 580 360 0.0 1.00 20 -
tensile 5
structura ST55- 550 360 .05 1.00 20 -
l steel HTW

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 Special steels
• Stainless steels
Stainless Steel grades and their usage

Grade of Usage
stainless steel
316 (18% Cr) Profiled roofing, cladding, gutters,
facades and hand railings—in
highly polluted environments
304 (18% Cr- Decorative elements in areas near
(% Ni) coast line. Also for kitchen and
sanitary wares—coastal and less
polluted areas
430 (17% Cr) Roofing, gutters, decorative wall
tiles, hallow structural sections—
non-polluted environments
409 (11% Cr) Painted roofing-- non-polluted
environments
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 Metal Connection

A C

Electrolyte

Mechanism of corrosion as a
miniature battery
Anode
Drop of water

A C

Cathode
Metal bar
Mechanism of Corrosion in steel
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 Types of corrosion
Drop of Water

A
C C

A
Mechanism of crevice corrosion The mechanism of fretting corrosion
F
Galvanic corrosion
C
Hydrogen
embritlement A

Bacterial corrosion
F
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Mechanism of stress
41
corrosion
 Corrosion in Steel
- Risks & Remedies -

1. Intergranular Corrosion – reduction in

carbon content (<0.03%), or addition of Ti
& Nb can help.
2. Pitting corrosion – increase in Cr content
and addition of Mo and N can help.
Sulphur is harmful.
3. Stress Corrosion cracking – increase in
Nickel content, Si can help.
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 Methods of prevention corrosion - Simple
procedures




 

Simple orientation of members
Detailing to enhance air
movement between
joints

Simple rule:
 •Eliminate the electrolyte
•Avoid simultaneous
presence of water and oxygen
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 CORROSION PROTECTION OF STEEL

5 weapons
 Application of coatings
 Conditioning of the environment
 Cathodic protection
 Improvement of design
 Modification of steel itself

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 Fire resistant steels
Chemical composition of fire resistant steel

C Mn Si S P Mo+Cr
FRS  0.20  1.50  0.50  0.04  0.04  1.00
% % % 0% 0% %
Mild  0.23  1.50  0.40  0.05  0.05 -
Steel % % % 0% 0%

•Very cost effective compared to structural steel

•FRS are available in India
•Very popular and cost effective - Japanese
experience
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 Positive points of steel as a
construction material under fire
• Damage to strength of steel due to fire is
reversible in most of the cases
• Using the principle “ if the member is straight
after the fire - the steel is O.K” many of the
members could be salvaged.
• Up to about 2150C steel retains its strength
• In the case of concrete, at 2350C turns pink;
5900C turns red and irreversible damage after
6000C
• Steel exposed to 6000C could be strengthened
and reused.
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 Typical fire loads and behaviour of steel
under fire

Examples of fire load in various structures

Type of steel structure Kg wood / m2
School 15
Hospital 20
Hotel 25
Office 35
Departmental store 35
Textile mill show room >200

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1.5
Coeff. of thermal
expansion (x 105)
1.0

0.5 Young’s modulus

Yield stress ratio ratio

200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature 0C

Mechanical properties of steel at elevated

temperatures

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 Typical fire loads and behaviour of steel
under fire

0C
Furnace
1000 temperature

Unprotected steel
500
Fire protected steel
temperature
0
30 60 90
Time (Minutes)
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 Fire Engineering of steel structures- very well
developed in the literature

D t Hp
Hp =2D+B
=2D+3B-2t
B

High Hp / A Low Hp / A
Hp =2D+2B Hp
Value Value
=2D+4B-2t

The section factor Some typical values of HP of

concept fire protected steel sections
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 FIRE PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL STEELS
PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION
Insulates steel structure from effect of high
temperature that may be generated in fire. There are
several way to provide fire protection

1. Board protection – clean box appearance however

fitting around complex details difficult and slow.
2. Sprays – Exfoliated vermiculite cementitious
coatings – wet process & messy, requiring longer
application time.

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FIRE PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL STEELS

PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

3. Twin film intumescent coatings (intumesce
means “to swell” or to “expand with heat) – inert
at low temperature, provide insulation by
swelling to provide charred layer of low
conductivity (expands about 50 times)

4. Water cooling – Water filled hollow sections,

circular, square or rectangular steel section are
used. They are of two types:

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FIRE PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL STEELS

PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

i) Permanently water filled structures

ii) Structure only filled when fire breaks out

5. Sprinkles – to suppress automatically small

fires. It works on the exploding bulb principle

6. Concrete encasement – now used on a smaller

scale.

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FIRE PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL STEELS

PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

7. Fire resistant steel – The enhanced high

temperature yield strength of FR steel is
obtained by adding chromium, molybdenum and
other alloying elements and keeping elements
like carbon, manganese and other elements
lower for keeping weldability comparable. Bolts
and welding materials used should also possess
similar fire resistance.

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 FATIGUE DAMAGE
- Due to cyclic loading or Vibration failure occurs at a
lower stress
- Critical positions – discontinuities such as holes,
joints & corners – local stress high.
- Two stage failure – Crack initiation and propagation
- Endurance or fatigue limit stress below which
fatigue life almost infinite, increases with tensile
strength
- Fatigue performance for steel  50% of tensile
strength

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  
Stress
d
> concentrations in
the presence of
Stress notches and
m n concentration m n holes
Hole Notch

 

+
 Crack growth
Fatigue - and fatigue
crack Applied cyclic stress failure under
cyclic load

4
Crack length
Crack length 3
 1 2

Number of cycles
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 290
260 S-N
Stress Curve
230
range
200
in MPa (S) Endurance Limit
170
140
103 104 105 106 107
Cycles of stress for failure (N)

S-N diagram for fatigue life assessment

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 FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE PERFORMANCE

• Inclusions present in steel affect adversely

• Inclusions act as stress raisers forming
incipient crack which propagate under stress
reversals
• Alumina & silicate have adverse effect
• Large primary carbides are also detrimental.

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Modified Goodman diagram for fatigue resistant
design of steel structures

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 THANK YOU VERY
MUCH !

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