1. I.

MEANING OF GEOGRAPHY
 Greek word, geographia, "earth description“
 A science that deals with the description, distribution, and interaction of the diverse
physical, biological, and cultural features of the earth’s surface.
 A delineation, or systematic arrangement of constituent elements.

2. . II. THE CONCEPT OF GEOGRAPHY Geography identifies the concepts of place,

space environment, interconnection, sustainability, scale and change as integral to the
development of geographical understanding.

3.  PLACE Geography, understanding of the concepts of place is developed on the

following ways: 1. Places are parts if the Earth’ surface that are identified and given
meaning by people. They perceived, experienced, understood and valued differently. 2.
Places are important to our security, identity, and sense of belonging, they provide us
with the services and facilities needed to support and enhance our lives.

4. The environmental characteristics of a place are influenced by human actions and the
actions of environmental processes over short to long time period. 4. The human
characteristics of a place are influenced by its environmental characteristics and
resources, relative location, connections with other places, the culture of its population
the economy of a country, and the decisions and actions of people and organizations
over time at

5. The places in which we live are created, changed and managed by people. 6. Each place
is unique in its characteristics. As a consequence, the outcomes of similar environmental
and socioeconomic processes vary in different places, and similar problems may require
different strategies in different places. 7. The sustainability of places may be threatened
by a range of factors.

6. SPACE The concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution,
and ways people organize and manage the spaces that we live in. In Australian
Curriculum: Geography, an understanding of the concept of space is developed in the
following ways: a. The environmental and human characteristics of places are influences
by their location and distance from other places on people are being reduced, though
unequally, by improvements in transport and communication technologies.

7. The individual characteristics of places form spatial distributions and the analysis of these
distributions contributes to geographical understanding. c. Spaces are perceived,
structured, organized and managed by people and can be designed and redesigned, to
achieve particular purposes.

8.  ENVIRONMENT The concept of environment is about the significance of the

environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the
environment. In Australian Curriculum: Geography, an understanding of the concept of
environment is developed in the following ways: 1. the environment is the product of
geological, atmospheric, hydrological, geomorphic, edaphic (soil), biotic and human
processes.

9.  2. The environment supports and enriches human and other life by providing raw
materials and food, absorbing and recycling wastes, maintaining a safe habitat and being
a source of enjoyment and inspiration. 3. Culture, population density, type of economy,
level of technology, values and environmental worldviews influence the different ways in
which people perceive, adapt to use similar environment.
10. Management of human-induced environmental change requires an understanding of the
causes and consequences of change, and involves the application of geographical
concepts and techniques to identify appropriate strategies. 5. Each type of environment
has its specific hazards. The impact of these hazards on people is determined by both
natural and human factors, and can be managed but not eliminated by prevention,
mitigation and preparedness.

11.  INTERCONNECTION The concept of interconnection emphasizes that no object of

geographical study can be viewed in isolation. In Australian Curriculum: Geography, an
understanding of the concept of interconnection is developed in the following ways: 1.
Places, people and organizations in places are interconnected with other places in a
variety of ways. These interconnections have significant influences on the characteristics
of places and on changes in these characteristics.

12. . Environmental and human processes, for example, the water cycle, urbanization or
human-induced environmental change, are sets of cause-and-effect interconnections that
can operate between and within places. They can sometimes be organized as systems
involving networks of interconnections through flows of matter, energy, information and
actions. 3. Holistic thinking is about seeing the interconnections between phenomena
and processes within and between places

13.  SUSTAINABILITY The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment
to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future. In
Australian Curriculum: Geography, an understanding of the concept of sustainability may
be developed in the following ways: a. Sustainability is both a goal and a way of thinking
about how to progress towards that goal. b. Progress towards environmental
sustainability depends on the maintenance or restoration of the environmental functions
that sustain all life.

14. An understanding of the causes of non sustainability requires a study of the

environmental processes producing the degradation of an environmental function; the
human actions that have initiated these processes; and the attitudinal, demographic,
social, economic and political causes of these human actions. d. There are a variety of
contested views on how progress towards sustainability should be achieved and these
are often informed by worldviews such as stewardship

15.  SCALE The concept of scale is about the way that geographical phenomena and
problems can be examined at different spatial levels. 1. Generalizations made and
relationships found at one level of scale may be different at a higher or lower level. For
example, in studies of vegetation, climate is the main factor at the global scale but soil
and drainage may be the main factors at the local scale. 2. Cause-and-effect
relationships cross scales from the local to the global and from the global to the local. For
example, local events can have global outcomes, such as the effects of local vegetation
removal on global climate.

16.  CHANGE The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by

investigating how they have developed over time. In Australian Curriculum: Geography,
an understanding of the concept of change may be developed in the following ways: 1.
Environmental change can occur over both short and long-term time frames, and both
time scales have interrelationships with human activities. 2. Environmental, economic,
social and technological change is spatially uneven, and affects places differently. 3. An
understanding of the current processes of change can be used to predict change in the
future and to identify what would be needed to achieve preferred and more sustainable
futures.
17. HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHIC STUDY Evolution Geography was first systematically
studied by the ancient Greeks, who also developed a philosophy of geography; Thales of
Miletus, Herodotus, Eratothenes, Aristotle, Strabo, and Ptolemy made major
contributions to geography. The Roman contribution to geography was in the exploration
and mapping of previously unknown lands. Greek geographic learning was maintained
and enhanced by the Arabs during the middle Ages. Arab geographers, among whom
Idrisi, Ibn Battutah, and Ibn Khaldun are prominent, traveled extensively for the purpose
of increasing their knowledge of the world. The journeys of Marco Polo in the latter part of
the Middle Ages began the revival of geographic interest outside the Muslim world

18. With the Renaissance in Europe came the desire to explore unknown parts of the world
that led to the voyages of exploration and to the great discoveries. However, it was
mercantile interest rather than a genuine search for knowledge that spurred these
endeavors. The 16th and 17th century. Reintroduced sound theoretical geography in the
form of textbooks (the Geographia generalis of Bernhardus Varenus) and maps
(Gerardus Mecator's world map). In the 18th cent. geography began to achieve
recognition as a discipline and was taught for the first time at the university level.

19.  Modern Geography The modern period of geography began toward the end of the 18th
cent. with the works of Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Ritter. Thenceforth two principal
methods of approach to geography can be distinguished: the systematic, following
Humboldt, and the regional, following Ritter. Of the national schools of geography that
developed, the German and the French schools were the most influential.

20.  The German school, which dealt mainly with physical geography, developed a
scientific and analytical style of writing. The French school became known for its
descriptive regional monographs presented in a lucid and flowing manner; human and
historical geography were its forte. Although emphasis has shifted several times between
the approaches and viewpoints, their interdependence is recognized by all geographers.

21. Nature of Geography Geography is concerned with place. Understanding the nature and
causes of areal differentiation on the global surface has been the geographer’s task since
people first noticed differences between places. First, geography is strongly influenced by
the norms of the social sciences. The complexity and changing nature of human society
seldom permit the type of precision expected in the physical sciences. Instead, the social
sciences offer a variety of perspectives and methods of study by which to examine the
consequences of human behavior on the global surface.

22. Second, physical geographers, no less than human geographers, contribute to an

understanding of place; for the concept of site -- the physical characteristics of a place --
is integral to understanding areal differentiation on the global surface. The view of
geography presented here is that of a core sharply focused on the concept of place; one
in which both physical and human elements play an important part in yielding knowledge
of the earth in a manner that is integrative of people and the land.

23.  ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY 1. The World in Spatial Terms a. How to use maps and
other geographic representations, tools, and technologies to acquire, process, and report
information from a spatial perspective b. How to use mental maps to organize information
about people, places, and environments in a spatial context c. How to analyze the spatial
organization of people, places, and environments on earth's surface 2. Places and
Regions a. The physical and human characteristics of places b. That people create
regions to interpret earth's complexity c. How culture and experience influence people's
perceptions of places and regions
24. . Physical Systems a. The physical processes that shape the patterns of earth's surface
b. The characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems on earth's surface 4. Human
Systems a. The characteristics, distribution, and migration of human populations on
earth's surface b. The characteristics, distribution, and complexity of earth's cultural
mosaics c. The patterns and networks of economic interdependence on earth's surface
d. The processes, patterns, and functions of human settlement e. How the forces of
cooperation and conflict among people

25. . Environment and Society a. How human actions modify the physical environment b.
How physical systems affect human systems c. The changes that occur in the meaning,
use, distribution, and importance of resources 6. The Uses of Geography a. How to apply
geography to interpret the past b. How to apply geography to interpret the present and
plan for the future.

26. IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY  Geography provokes and answers questions about

the natural and human worlds, using different scales of enquiry to view them from
different perspectives.  It develops knowledge of places and environments throughout
the world, an understanding of maps, and a range of investigative and problem solving
skills both inside and outside the classroom. As such, it prepares pupils for adult life and
employment.

27. Geography is a focus within the curriculum for understanding and resolving issues about
environment and sustainable development.  It also an important link between the
natural and social sciences. As pupils study geography, they encounter different societies
and cultures.  This helps them realize how nations rely on each other.  It can inspire
them to think about their own place in the world, values and their rights and
responsibilities to other people and the.

28.  THE RELATIONSHIP OF GEOGRAPHY TO OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINES

This revived interest in places is a feature of the third contemporary strand, with
geographers participating in the growing field of cultural studies that encompasses
scholars from the humanities and social sciences in new ways of studying human action
in context. Such work ranges over many aspects of behavior, including the micro- scale
of the individual body, seeking to understand the meanings that underpin actions – many
of which are never recorded during the processes of everyday life –and how communities
and groups identify with places and spaces.

29. The relationships between people and nature are also being reconsidered, breaking
down the perceived artificial boundaries between these long-considered opposites. New
approaches for interrogating actions are being explored: geography quite literally studies
where events ‘take place’ and the impact of those events is reflected in the places’
character. Indeed, such is the geographical contribution to cultural studies that some
identify a ‘spatial turn’ within the humanities.

30.  PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The natural environment is the primary concern of physical
geographers, although many physical geographers also look at how humans have
altered natural systems. Physical geographers study Earth’s seasons, climate,
atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Some disciplines within physical
geography include geomorphology, glaciology, penology, hydrology y, climatology,
biogeography, and oceanography.

31.  Geomorphology is the study of landforms and the processes that shape them.
Geomorphologists investigate the nature and impact of wind, ice, rivers, erosion,
earthquakes, volcanoes, living things, and other forces that shape and change the
surface of the Earth. Glaciologists focus on the Earth’s ice fields and their impact on the
planet’s climate. Glaciologists document the properties and distribution of glaciers and
 icebergs. Data collected by glaciologists has demonstrated the retreat of Arctic and
Antarctic ice in the past

32. Pedologists study soil and how it is created, changed, and classified. Soil studies are
used by a variety of professions, from farmers analyzing field fertility to engineers
investigating the suitability of different areas for building heavy structures. Hydrology is
the study of Earth’s water: its properties, distribution, and effects. Hydrologists are
especially concerned with the movement of water as it cycles from the ocean to the
atmosphere, then back to Earth’s surface. Hydrologists study the water cycle through
rainfall into streams, lakes, the soil, and underground aquifers. Hydrologists provide
insights that are critical to building or removing dams, designing irrigation systems,
monitoring water quality, tracking drought conditions, and predicting flood risk

33.  Climatologists study Earth’s climate system and its impact on Earth’s surface. For
example, climatologists make predictions about El Nino, a cyclical weather phenomenon
of warm surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. They analyze the dramatic worldwide
climate changes caused by El Nino, such as flooding in Peru, drought in Australia, and, in
the United States, the oddities of heavy Texas rains or an unseasonably warm Minnesota
winter. Biogeography's study the impact of the environment on the distribution of plants
and animals. For example, a biogeography might document all the places in the world
inhabited by a certain spider species, and what those places have in common.

34.  Oceanography, a related discipline of physical geography, focuses on the creatures and
environments of the world’s oceans. Observation of ocean tides and currents constituted
some of the first oceanographic investigations. For example, 18th-century mariners
figured out the geography of the Gulf Stream, a massive current flowing like a river
through the Atlantic Ocean. The discovery and tracking of the Gulf Stream helped
communications and travel between Europe and the Americas. Today, oceanographers
conduct research on the impacts of water pollution, track tsunamis, design offshore oil
rigs, investigate underwater eruptions of lava, and study all types of marine organisms
from toxic algae to friendly dolphins.

35. HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Human geography is concerned with the distribution and
networks of people and cultures on Earth’s surface. A human geographer might
investigate the local, regional, and global impact of rising economic powers China and
India, which represent 37 percent of the world’s people. They also might look at how
consumers in China and India adjust to new technology and markets, and how markets
respond to such a huge consumer base. Human geographers also study how people use
and alter their environments. When, for example, people allow their animals to overgraze
a region, the soil erodes and grassland is transformed into desert. The impact of
overgrazing on the landscape as well as agricultural production is an area of study for
human

36. . Finally, human geographers study how political, social, and economic systems are
organized across geographical space. These include governments, religious
organizations, and trade partnerships. The boundaries of these groups constantly
change. The main divisions within human geography reflect a concern with different
types of human activities or ways of living. Some examples of human geography include
urban geography, economic geography, cultural geography, political geography, social
geography, and population geography. Human geographers who study geographic
patterns and processes in past times are part of the sub discipline of historical
geography. Those who study how people understand maps and geographic space
belong to a sub discipline known as
37. Many human geographers interested in the relationship between humans and the
environment work in the sub disciplines of cultural geography and political geography.
Cultural geographers study how the natural environment influences the development of
human culture, such as how the climate affects the agricultural practices of a region.
Political geographers study the impact of political circumstances on interactions between
people and their environment, as well as environmental conflicts, such as disputes over
water rights. Some human geographers focus on the connection between human health
and geography. For example, health geographers create maps that track the location and
spread of specific diseases. They analyze the geographic disparities of health-care
access. They are very interested in the impact of the environment on human health,
especially the effects of environmental hazards such as radiation, lead poisoning, or
water pollution.

38. THE GLOBE A globe is a three-dimensional, spherical, scale model of Earth (terrestrial
globe or geographical globe) or other celestial body such as a planet or moon. While
models can be made of objects with arbitrary or irregular shapes, the term globe is used
only for models of objects that are approximately

39. Latitude Lines Imaginary lines running horizontally around the globe. Also called
parallels, latitude lines are equidistant from each other. Each degree of latitude is about
69 miles (110 km) apart. Zero degrees (0°) latitude is the equator, the widest
circumference of the globe. Latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north and 0° to 90° south
—90° north is the North Pole and 90° south is the South Pole.  Longitude Lines
Imaginary lines, also called meridians, running vertically around the globe. Unlike latitude
lines, longitude lines are not parallel. Meridians meet at the poles and are widest apart at
the equator. Zero degrees longitude (0°) is called the prime meridian. The degrees of
longitude run 180° east and 180° west from the prime meridian.

40. Equator Zero degrees latitude. The Sun is directly overhead the equator at noon on the
two equinoxes (March and Sept. 20 or 21). The equator divides the globe into the
Northern and Southern hemispheres. The equator appears halfway between the North
and South poles, at the widest circumference of the globe. It is 24,901.55 miles
(40,075.16 km) long  Hemisphere a half of the earth, usually as divided into northern
and southern halves by the equator, or into western and eastern halves by an imaginary
line passing through the poles.  Grid latitude and longitude lines form an imaginary grid
over the Earth’s surface.

41. Prime Meridian Zero degrees longitude (0°). The prime meridian runs through the Royal
Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England (the location was established in 1884 by
international agreement). The prime meridian divides the globe into the Western and
Eastern hemispheres. The Earth's time zones are measured from the prime meridian.
The time at 0° is called Universal Time (UT) or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). With the
Greenwich meridian as the starting point, each 15° east and west marks a new time
zone. The 24 time zones extend east and west around the globe for 180° to the
International Date Line.

42. International Date Line Located at 180° longitude (180° E and 180° W are the same
meridian). Regions to the east of the International Date Line are counted as being one
calendar day earlier than the regions to the west. Although the International Date Line
generally follows the 180° meridian (most of which lies in the Pacific Ocean), it does
diverge in places. Since 180° runs through several countries, it would divide those
countries not simply into two different time zones, but into two different calendar days.
43. Tropic of Cancer A line of latitude located at 23°30' north of the equator. The Sun
is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer on the summer solstice in the Northern
Hemisphere (June 20 or 21). It marks the northernmost point of the tropics, which falls
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.  Tropic of Capricorn A line of
latitude located at 23°30' south. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn on
the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere (Dec. 20 or 21). It marks the
southernmost point of the tropics.  Arctic Circle A line of latitude located at 66°30' north,
delineating the Northern Frigid Zone of the Earth.

44. Antarctic Circle A line of latitude located at 66°30' south, delineating the Southern Frigid
Zone of the Earth.  Globe The most accurate map of the Earth, duplicating its spherical
shape and relative size.

45. . MAPS  Map Representation of a physical plane with selective information. Maps
represent a definite area and contain detailed geographical information.

46. TYPES OF MAPS  Political Map: A political map does not show any topographic
features. It instead focuses solely on the state and national boundaries of a place. They
also include the locations of cities - both large and small, depending on the detail of the
map.

47. Physical Map: A physical map is one that shows the physical landscape features of a
place. They generally show things like mountains, rivers and lakes and water is always
shown with blue. Mountains and elevation changes are usually shown with different
colors and shades to show relief. Normally on physical maps green shows lower
elevations while browns show high elevations.

48. Topographic Map: A topographic map is similar to a physical map in that it shows
different physical landscape features. They are different however because they use
contour lines instead of colors to show changes in the landscape.

49. Climate Map: A climate map shows information about the climate of an area. They can
show things like the specific climatic zones of an area based on the temperature, the
amount of snow an area receives or average number of cloudy days.

50. Economic or Resource Map: An economic or resource map shows the specific type of
economic activity or natural resources present in an area through the use of different
symbols or colors depending on what is being shown on the map.

51. Road Map: A road map is one of the most widely used map types. These maps show
major and minor highways and roads (depending on detail) as well as things like airports,
city locations and points of interest like parks, campgrounds and monuments.

52. Thematic Map: A thematic map is a map that focuses on a particular theme or special
topic and they are different from the six aforementioned general reference maps because
they do not just show natural features like rivers, cities, political subdivisions, elevation
and highways.

53.  USES OF MAPS

54. CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS  REFERENCE OR NAVIGATIONAL MAPS are created to
help you navigate over the earth surface. These kinds of maps show you where particular
places are located and can be used to navigate you way to them. A street map or the
common highway road map falls into this category. Physical geographers use
topographic maps to show the locations of landscape features on the earth.

55.  CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS  TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS illustrate the horizontal and

vertical positions (relief) of land surface features. Topographic maps use contour lines to
 show elevation (height above sea level).  THEMATIC MAPS are used to communicate
geographic concepts like the distribution of densities, spatial relationships, magnitudes,
movements etc. World climate or soils maps are notable examples of thematic maps.
56.  MAP ESSENTIALS TITLE Shows what the subject of the map is. COMPASS ROSE It
has arrows which point in all 4 principal directions. SCALE Used to represent distances
between two points on a map.

57.  BAR SCALE A scale on a map which gives distances in miles or kilometers using bars.
LEGEND Used to explain what the symbol on a map represents. KEY Another name for
a legend on a map. LOCATOR MAP Shows where in the world the area on the map is
located.

58.  PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS The four directions found with a compass - North, South,
East, and West. CARDINAL DIRECTIONS Another name for the principal directions.
POLITICAL MAPS Maps which show the major political features of a region. POLITICAL
FEATURES They include country borders, capital cities and other features. CAPITAL
CITIES They are shown as a star on a map. PHYSICAL MAPS Maps which show the
major physical feature of a region.

59. PHYSICAL FEATURES They include mountains ranges, rivers, oceans, islands, deserts
and plains. SPECIAL PURPOSE MAPS Maps which focus on one special topic like
climate, resources or population. LINE SCALE A scale an a map which gives distances in
miles or kilometers using lines.

60.  MAP PROJECTION  Cylindrical: In standard presentation, these map regularly-spaced

meridians to equally spaced vertical lines, and parallels to horizontal lines. 
Pseudocylindrical: In standard presentation, these map the central meridian and parallels
as straight lines. Other meridians are curves (or possibly straight from pole to equator),
regularly spaced along parallels.

61. Pseudoazimuthal: In standard presentation, pseudoazimuthal projections map the

equator and central meridian to perpendicular, intersecting straight lines. They map
parallels to complex curves bowing away from the equator, and meridians to complex
curves bowing in toward the central meridian. Listed here after pseudocylindrical as
generally similar to them in shape and purpose.  Conic: In standard presentation, conic
(or conical) projections map meridians as straight lines, and parallels as arcs of circles

.
62. Pseudoconical: In standard presentation, pseudoconical projections represent the central
meridian as a straight line, other meridians as complex curves, and parallels as circular
arcs.  Azimuthal: In standard presentation, azimuthal projections map meridians as
straight lines and parallels as complete, concentric circles. They are radially symmetrical.
In any presentation (or aspect), they preserve directions from the center point. This
means great circles through the central point are represented by straight lines on the
map.

63. Other: Typically calculated from formula, and not based on a particular projection 
Polyhedral maps: Polyhedral maps can be folded up into a polyhedral approximation to
the sphere, using particular projection to map each face with low distortion.