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Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources: Prospects and Problems

Article  in  Elements · August 2014

DOI: 10.2113/gselements.10.4.257

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 Unconventional Hydrocarbon
Resources: Prospects and
Problems Contact between
the Middle Devonian
Onondaga Limestone
Michael A. Arthur1 and David R. Cole2 and the overlying
Marcellus Shale in a
quarry near Seneca, NY
1811-5209/14/0010-257$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.10.4.257

T
he global energy landscape has changed significantly in the last few may be pervasive throughout a
years as a result of technological advances in the recovery of unconven- large area, and these have been
termed “continuous-type deposits”
tional hydrocarbon resources such as tight oil and shale gas. Studies or “tight formations.” Although
have been initiated to assess the impacts of extraction and production of unconventional reservoirs may be
unconventional hydrocarbons on surface water, groundwater, and local air as porous as some conventional
reservoir rocks, their extremely
quality. There is additional concern over how their extraction and utilization small pore sizes and lack of
on a global scale may contribute to atmospheric chemistry and global climate permeability make them resistant
change. This article provides an overview of opportunities and challenges to hydrocarbon flow. As a result,
hydrocarbons typically remain in
offered by the abundance of unconventional hydrocarbons, the driving forces the source rock unless natural or
that encourage our rush to employ them, and the need for Earth scientists induced fractures occur (Ratner
to engage in studies of their properties and impacts on the environment. A and Tiemann 2013).

fundamental understanding of geological, mineralogical, and geochemical Oil shale occurs where a thermally
immature source rock has gener-
processes is integral to how we responsibly extract and utilize these resources.
ated but not expelled hydrocar-
KEYWORDS : gas shale, hydraulic fracturing, NORM, flowback, emissions bons. Oil or “tar” sands occur
where near-surface conventional
crude oil has become degraded by
INTRODUCTION evaporation, biodegradation, and
water washing to produce a viscous heavy-oil residue. In
For nearly 100 years, we have relied on oil and gas
contrast to conventional gas reservoirs, unconventional
resources extracted from large sedimentary reservoirs
natural gas can also be found in more-difficult-to-extract
(conventional oil). As these reserves dwindle in parallel
rock formations (such as coal beds or shale), in low-quality
with increasing energy requirements, unconventional
(tight) reservoirs, or as gas hydrates.
natural gas and oil resources have grown in importance.
Developing these resources requires a paradigm shift in Because of improved technology, the global energy
exploration and production compared to conventional landscape has changed significantly in the last decade.
hydrocarbons (Johnson and Dore 2010). The physical According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration
and chemical properties of unconventional reservoirs (US EIA 2013a), natural gas could become the world’s
differ significantly from those of conventional reservoirs. second most important energy source after oil, with global
Unconventional reservoirs require stimulation methods to demand predicted to rise over 50% between 2010 and
improve economic recovery rates; these reservoirs typically 2035. For example, the fast and large-scale development
include tight-gas sandstones, gas hydrates, oil shale forma- of unconventional natural gas in North America (FIG. 1B)
tions, heavy-oil sandstones, and shale gas. has created a new geopolitical and economic paradigm
on the world stage (Bocora 2012). The discovery of large
The hydrocarbon resource triangle (F IG. 1 A) provides
deposits of shale gas in the United States has led to the
perspective into the differences between conventional and
birth of new local markets and provided a benchmark for
unconventional hydrocarbons. Conventional hydrocarbon
other countries to emulate. Unconventional gas (and oil)
accumulations tend to exhibit some flow immediately
in other parts of the world will give rise to opportunities
upon drilling. Unconventional formations are typically
for many countries to lower their dependence on imported
fi ne-grained, organic carbon–rich strata that are both the
gas and oil and strengthen their energy security.
source of and the reservoir for oil and natural gas. They
This issue of Elements focuses on key examples of uncon-
ventional resources, their global impact, and the potential
environmental implications of their exploitation. Blumsack
1 Department of Geosciences (2014) explores market forces driving the “dash for gas”
The Pennsylvania State University that are likely to lead to further development of domestic
538 Deike Building gas markets in North America and liquefied natural gas
University Park, PA 16802, USA (LNG) exports. Bryndzia and Braunsdorf (2014) offer an
E-mail: [email protected]
overview of the mineralogical and geochemical properties
2 School of Earth Sciences of unconventional shale reservoirs and describe the impor-
The Ohio State University tance of those properties to the chemistry of recovered
275 Mendenhall Laboratory
125 South Oval Mall water. They conclude that water availability, treatment, and
Columbus, OH 43210-1398, USA disposal represent a risk—one of several “above-ground”
E-mail: [email protected]

E LEMENTS , V OL . 10, PP. 257–264 257 A UGUS T 2014

 issues unrelated to drilling that could impact the economic Unconventional Hydrocarbons Today
viability of some unconventional source rock resource plays with a Shale Gas/Oil Focus
(a “play” is a relatively large hydrocarbon accumulation
that occurs over a broad geological area). Rostron and Contrary to conventional natural gas, where 75% of known
Arkadakskiy (2014) demonstrate the utility of geochem- reserves are concentrated in a number of key regions, such
ical techniques in forensic studies of the origin of “excess” as the Middle East, Russia, China, and the Commonwealth
water recovered with shale oil and show how geochemistry of Independent States (CIS), unconventional gas occurs
can help to improve well design for unconventional plays. worldwide (US EIA 2013b). In the United States and Canada,
Tar or oil sands represent significant potential unconven- declines in the production of conventional hydrocarbon
tional oil resources. Larter and Head (2014) show that reserves are being countered by increasing exploitation
“oil sands” are a global resource of trillions of barrels of of unconventional hydrocarbon deposits within shale
heavily biodegraded oil that are increasingly being tapped resource plays (FIG. 1B).
to meet global oil demand. Water-use and water-quality Exploitation of unconventional forms of gas and oil and the
impacts loom large for oil sand development, but there rapid shift from the dominance of traditional producers to
are possibilities for using biological processes for cleaner plentiful domestic resources in many countries represent
energy recovery. Etiope and Schoell (2014) argue that the dawn of a new era in global energy. On the positive
abiotic gaseous hydrocarbons can be generated by chemical side, there is the potential for job creation, business revital-
reactions, without organic matter involvement, and occur ization, the creation of markets for new by-products,
in association with volcanic activity and serpentinization greater energy independence, and newfound wealth for
of ultramafic rocks. Although not commonly considered land owners, municipalities, and governments that hold
a resource, these gases may contribute to accumulations subsurface mineral rights. On the negative side, stresses on
in some reservoirs. communities, housing availability and cost, and potential
health effects are legitimate issues that can impede progress
and thwart development.
Environmental impacts may be the most challenging
issues when considering prospects for unconventional gas
A development. Potential impacts include problems with
water availability and usage, induced seismicity from
fracking and disposal, potential groundwater contamina-
tion, surface spills, air-quality problems, road infrastruc-
ture and maintenance issues, the treatment and disposal
of flowback waters, and fluxes of greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere. Best-practice protocols do exist, and better
governmental regulation, informed by further studies, will
provide a framework to which all operators can conform
(Richardson et al. 2013).

CHARACTERISTICS OF SHALE RESERVOIRS

Geologic Setting and Origin of Continuous
Hydrocarbon Accumulations
Most currently producing gas shale reservoirs are mature
to overmature organic-rich source rocks (e.g. Bryndzia
and Braunsdorf 2014). Sediments occur as organic carbon
(OC)–rich muds deposited in deeper
marine environments, in lakes, or in
B associated swamps and mires along
lakes or seas. Shales (i.e. laminated
mudstones) are not stratigraphi-
cally or spatially homogeneous, nor
do they form solely in low-energy,
deep-marine environments as tradi-
tionally thought. Deep-marine deposi-
tional settings leading to significant
accumulations of OC-rich sediments

FIGURE 1 (A) Hydrocarbon resource

diagram summarizing
conventional and unconventional reservoirs.
Conventional reservoirs tend to be smaller
with much higher rock permeabilities,
1–1000 mD (mD = millidarcy, a unit of
permeability), whereas unconventional
reservoirs can be large (the relative size
increases downwards in the triangle) with
lower permeabilities, 0.1–0.00001 mD.
Unconventional reservoirs are far more
difficult to develop and require advanced
technology, which increases cost.
(B) Unconventional shale plays in North
America. From U.S. Energy Information
Administration (www.eia.gov/pub/oil_gas/
natural_gas/analysis_publications/maps/
maps.htm)

E LEMENTS 258 A UGUS T 2014

 Mineralogy and Pore Features
As with other sedimentary rocks, the mineral compositions
of mudrocks containing OM range from mostly silicates to
mostly carbonates, with varying amounts of clay minerals
(FIG. 3A). The main inorganic, primary phases transported
and deposited in muddy sediments include clay minerals
(e.g. smectite, illite, chlorite), quartz (detrital), feldspar,
calcite, and apatite (and amorphous phosphate), although
not all of these minerals are found in any one shale.
The original mineralogy of sediments can be altered through
diagenesis, resulting in clay transformations (smectite to
illite), pyritization, cementation, and/or dissolution. The
X-ray mineral map in FIGURE 3A – C illustrates the diverse
mineralogy of these rocks and the fi ne-grained nature of
the phases. Gas shale plays that contain more than 50%
quartz or carbonate tend to be more brittle and respond
FIGURE 2 Graphical rendition of the types of organic matter
(OM) encountered in mudstones and the processes
well to hydraulic fracturing (see Bryndzia and Braunsdorf
and temperature regimes over which OM is converted to oil and 2014). Smectite-rich shales are water sensitive and must be
gas. Solid boxes = solid matter, dotted boxes = fluids in pores in treated with different hydraulic fracturing fluids.
the rock, dashed boxes = expelled fluids (oil, gas). The presence
of pores hosting hydrocarbons is represented by the blue boxes. Significant secondary porosity can also be hosted by
The size of each box indicates it relative volumetric contribution. kerogen, pyrobitumen, and char. Scanning electron micro-
Temperatures for peak oil and gas generation are approximately scope (SEM) images of ion-beam-milled samples reveal the
80–100 °C and 120 °C, respectively. Temperatures for post-methane
production generally exceed 140 °C. FROM BOHACS ET AL. (2013),
development of a separate nanoporosity system contained
REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION FROM THE S OCIETY OF PETROLEUM E NGINEERS within organic material, in some cases composing greater
than 50% of the total porosity (FIG. 3D, E ). These pores
tend to sorb and retain hydrocarbon gas species, at least
during most of the thermal maturation process, and likely
include constructional shelf margins, platforms/ramps, host most of the free gas formed at high thermal maturity.
and continental slopes/basins (Bohacs 1998). Essentially
all OC-rich mudstones conform to well-understood strati- Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials
graphic controls and architectures.
and Trace Metals
The critical factors in the accumulation of OC-rich The oil and gas industry is continually challenged to
sediments are primary photosynthetic production, micro- maintain high standards of safety and control over occupa-
bial decomposition, and bulk sedimentation rate (dilution) tional exposures to radiation and chemical hazards, as
(Sageman et al. 2003). These three processes (Passey et well as to protect the public and environment through
al. 2010) depend on the rate at which OC is fi xed and proper management of wastes (Smith 2011). This is compli-
transported from surface waters, the rate at which it is cated by the mobilization of naturally occurring radioac-
converted to CO2 in the water column and sediments, tive materials (NORMs) in reservoirs, drill cuttings, and
and the rate at which OC is buried relative to the flux of flowback waters produced during hydraulic fracturing.
detrital dilutants. The rate of accumulation of OC is the Black shale formations, such as the Marcellus Shale, often
result of the competing rates of these three processes, but contain trace levels of 238U, 235U, 40K, and 232Th in higher
it is essential that OC be produced and that it accumulates concentrations than those found in less OC-rich grey
faster than it is consumed or oxidized. shales, sandstone, and limestone. U and Th are not gener-
ally mobilized from reservoir rocks that contain oil, gas,
Hydrocarbon Generation and formation water.
The term organic matter (OM) is used in the generic sense
In addition to the enrichment of U and Th observed in
for material enriched in OC; it can have many forms, only
organic-rich shales, other key minor and trace elements,
some of which generate hydrocarbons and host porosity
such as Mo, V, Cr, Ti, and Mn, can also exhibit elevated
(FIG. 2). At surface conditions, OM comprises phytoclasts/
concentrations. A number of these, such as Cr and V,
macerals, kerogen (insoluble), bitumen (soluble), pyrobi-
may constitute health threats if inadvertently released
tumen (solid hydrocarbon residue from diagenetically
into potable groundwater supplies. Redox behavior is
processed bitumen), and char (ultimate residue of hydro-
an important parameter that influences the preserva-
carbon generation). Organic geochemists have used the
tion of organic matter, which in turn controls the differ-
hydrogen/carbon versus oxygen/carbon ratios to classify
ences in trace-metal accumulation rates between oxic
the various types of kerogen that can generate oil and gas
(>2.0 ml O2 L −1), suboxic (2.0–0 ml O2 L −1), and anoxic
in conventional deposits.
facies (Sageman et al. 2003).
Maturation and generation of hydrocarbons from source
rocks occur during burial to depths sufficient to exceed Subsurface Brines and the Issue
the thermal cracking thresholds for different compounds of Flowback Water
(Bryndzia and Braunsdorf 2014; Larter and Head 2014).
Deep saline brines are well documented within the strati-
Examples of mature, OC-rich mudstones that have not
graphic sections of many large sedimentary basins that
generated and expelled all of their oil include the Bakken,
contain gas shales, such as the Appalachian, Michigan, and
Monterey, and Eagle Ford formations, which currently
Western Canadian basins of North America (Kharaka and
produce oil in the United States (FIG. 1B). Other OC-rich
Hanor 2005; Rostron and Arkadakskiy 2014). In general,
mudstones are more thermally mature or have a different
brine salinity tends to increase with depth. Salt concentra-
kerogen type and contain gas instead of oil, such as the
tions in excess of 300 g L −1 have been observed at depths
Barnett, Fayetteville, and Marcellus shales. The Utica/Pt.
below about 3 km in formations dominated by sandstone
Pleasant Shale in the Appalachian Basin is an example of
and limestone.
a formation that transitions from gas to wet gas to oil as
one moves to shallower depths.

E LEMENTS 259 A UGUS T 2014

 Proposed mechanisms for the enrichment of brines to salt of flowback waters from gas shale production are critical
concentrations many times that of seawater include (1) environmental issues that must be addressed (Gaudlip et
the evaporation of seawater and (2) the diffusive trans- al. 2008).
port and dispersive mixing of halite-saturated waters
with either indigenous formation waters or near-surface IMPACTS ON SURFACE WATER
meteoric waters with low total dissolved solids (TDS). In the AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
Appalachian Basin, the former of these two mechanisms is
thought to control the chemistry of oil and gas field brines Impacts on Water Availability
(Haluszczak et al. 2012). Shale energy development is a water-intensive activity. The
The introduction of freshwater into these formations reported volumes of water required for a slick-water frack
during hydraulic fracturing (abbreviated to fracking) leads of a single shale gas well are usually in the millions of
to imbibition (the displacement of one fluid by another gallons. In the United States, industry practices for water
immiscible fluid), followed by the diffusion of salts utilization, transportation, and treatment (or disposal) are
probably in response to osmotic processes or mixing with rapidly evolving, although practices vary widely by region.
what indigenous formation water is present. For example, Consumptive water use is of concern in producing areas
large quantities of highly saline brine flow from gas wells that are drought-prone or may become drought-prone in
in the Marcellus Formation after fracking; the volume the future.
of this brine is usually less than 20% of the volume of The amount of water used during hydraulic fracturing
water pumped down the well during hydraulic fracturing depends on the length of the “lateral” or horizontal well
(Rossenfoss 2011). The concentrations of most inorganic section and the number of stages fracked. As an example,
components in flowback water (Cl, Br, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Sr, Ba, the total estimated water use for Marcellus Shale operations
Ra, Fe, Mn, total dissolved solids, and others) increase with is a very small proportion of the total consumption for the
time after hydraulic stimulation (Haluszczak et al. 2012). state of Pennsylvania (FIG. 4) and is not a serious concern
In the case of the Marcellus Formation, the flowback waters there except during drought periods. However, water-
from hydraulic fracturing resemble brines produced from limited regions such as California (Monterey Formation
conventional gas wells that tap into other Paleozoic forma- shale oil play) may need to consider alternative fracking
tions in the region. Clearly the treatment and disposal fluids (see below). Life cycle considerations for natural gas
indicate that water demand is lower than
for most other fuels (e.g. coal, biofuels)
A
(Carter 2010; Mielke et al. 2010).

Water Contamination Issues

Water quality, including methane contam-
ination of drinking water, is poten-
C tially affected by (1) accidental spills of
chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing;
B (2) spillage or leakage of brines from
“flowback” water; (3) improper disposal of
wastewater; (4) leaking valves and casing
on wells, and uncontrolled “blowouts”;
(5) leakage and migration of gas up the
annulus of wells resulting from lack of
cement or poor cementing; and (6) migra-
tion from poorly protected (uncased or
unplugged) orphaned/abandoned legacy
oil or gas wells. In a recent analysis of
unconventional oil and gas wells drilled
in Pennsylvania, Vidic et al. (2013) found
that the rate of citation for regulatory
offenses was less than 3% and that these
varied widely in significance. Most of the
more serious problems were related to poor
casing or cement integrity, and all were
remedied according to the records.

D E

FIGURE 3 Mineralogical and textural images

of a Utica gas shale with a high
total organic carbon (TOC) content, Wood Co.,
West Virginia, 9503 ft depth. (A) X-ray mineral
map with a pixel size of about 2 µm2.
(B) Backscattered electron image (BSE) of a
small portion of (A). (C) Higher-resolution BSE
image showing textural relationships among
carbonate, sulfide, and pores. (D) 3-D recon-
structed dual-beam focused ion beam images of
kerogen (red) and (E) pore (blue) distributions;
both 3-D reconstructed volumes have dimen-
sions of 20 × 17 × 6.5 microns. I MAGES COURTESY
OF J. S HEETS AND A. SWIFT, O HIO STATE U NIVERSITY

E LEMENTS 260 A UGUS T 2014

Surface spills of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing do
occur, primarily as the result of accidents during transport.
These are potentially the highest-risk occurrences because
of the volume transported (many trucks per well pad).
Most well pads are now impervious to liquids and designed
to contain spills, with, perhaps, the exception of major
blowouts (loss of well control, with high volumes of fluid
flow). Likewise, flowback water is now commonly contained
in closed-loop systems rather than open pits. Most of the
flowback water is reused in subsequent fracking operations
(Rossenfoss 2011); if highly saline, these fluids are mixed
with freshwater, primarily from surface sources. More than
90% of flowback is currently reused in fracking operations
in the Pennsylvania Marcellus Shale play (Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Protection data 2013), but
reuse efficiency varies widely, with some regions prefer-
ring deep injection of wastewater (Wilber 2013). Chemical
tracers (e.g. chloride) downstream from treatment plants
in Pennsylvania indicate that complete “cleaning” of this
wastewater is difficult (Olmstead et al. 2013). No direct Consumptive water use for Pennsylvania, USA, by type
FIGURE 4
impact of unconventional gas wells on surface waters was (Kenny et al. 2009). The shale gas extraction volume
found, however. is estimated on the basis of 800 Marcellus Shale well completions
per year. SOURCE : MARCELLUS CENTER FOR O UTREACH AND R ESEARCH
Abandoned (“orphaned”) oil and gas wells are a signifi-
cant concern in some areas of active shale energy explo-
ration. Their location and status is commonly unknown
Innovations and Improvements in Extraction
and they may not have been properly plugged above and Alternatives to conventional water-utilization systems are
within producing zones and across freshwater aquifers. being implemented during the drilling and production
Proper plugging by cement ensures that fluid or gas cannot phase of shale gas extraction. New, “green” (nontoxic)
migrate or create reservoir problems through downward additives and transparent reporting of chemical additives
drainage. Pennsylvania, for example, may have as many in hydraulic fracturing fluids are already in use (Fisher
as 180,000 such wells, only some 12,140 of which have 2012). A number of states, including Pennsylvania, are
known locations. Other states have fewer orphaned wells, required to report the types and volumes of additives on
but New York has an estimated 40,000 abandoned wells FracFocus, a chemical disclosure registry managed by the
that remain unplugged or whose locations are unknown. Ground Water Protection Council and Interstate Oil and Gas
Significant efforts are needed to locate and properly plug Compact Commission. However, US states with chemical
such wells, but funding to do so is an issue. All oil- and disclosure requirements provide exemptions for proprietary
gas-producing states now regulate well plugging, most have chemicals that are considered “trade secrets” specific to a
standards for cement quality, and most require advance certain company. This trend towards nontoxic additives
notice so that regulatory personnel can witness operations. (referred to as “green” fracking fluids) has the potential to
provide greater protection for workers and lowered impact
In addition to orphaned wells, there are other possible of spills on surface waters, soils, and shallow groundwater.
sources of natural gas in shallow aquifers. Groundwater Additives used in hydraulic fracturing through 2011 and
contamination has frequently been attributed to “drilling” their purpose are found in Appendix A of the report by
or “fracking” and has largely consisted of methane in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA 2012);
drinking water. Although such contamination is unaccept- see also Vidic et al. (2013).
able and can be an explosion hazard, it can be easily
remedied compared to contaminants such as arsenic, A potential water-saving process with other significant
barium, and NORM. Methane in groundwater is, in some advantages is the application of water-free hydraulic
regions, a well-known issue. fracturing fluids. Fracking fluids are used to develop
high-surface-area, interconnected fracture networks to
There are many possible natural sources of methane increase recovery of natural gas (and oil) from tight forma-
in groundwater, and “fracking” is the least likely cause tions. Supercritical CO2 , nitrogen (N2 ), methane (CH4 ),
(Molofsky et al. 2011; Vidic et al. 2013). For example, ethane, propane, and butane are all low-viscosity, high-
consider the individual water wells in the Marcellus Shale. compressibility energetic fluids that can be used with
Osborn et al. (2011) suggested that methane concentration certain benefits and limitations. Nonaqueous fluids limit
in individual water wells was related to proximity to shale formation damage to certain shale matrices—those rich in
gas wells, with the implication that this may indicate a certain clay minerals (smectite) that swell upon contact
relationship to fracking. However, other researchers (e.g. with water—and, of course, use much lower amounts of
Molofsky et al. 2011) argue that the methane already exists potable water, as well as not requiring handling, disposal,
in the relatively shallow subsurface and has naturally and/or treatment of flowback brines.
migrated into shallow freshwater aquifers or, at worst, has
resulted from leakage of poorly constructed gas wells (e.g. In gas fracks, the hydrocarbon gases that return after stimu-
poor cementing or casing failures). A major issue is the lack lation can be recaptured at the wellhead and reused. Both
of predrilling baseline studies. More recently, Boyer et al. CO2 and hydrocarbon fracks will prevent water blocks that
(2012) documented preexisting methane contamination reduce gas flows; such blocks could occur with water-based
in 40% of private water wells sampled and no significant fracking of nonwater wet formations. CO2 can enhance
difference in methane concentrations between pre- and production of methane from wells because of the higher
postdrilling samples. sorption isotherm for CO2 ; this allows CO2 to replace and
release methane sorbed to solid organic phases, as well as
potentially sequestering CO2 in the shale reservoir (Nuttal
2010). Unfortunately, CO2 is costly to capture and trans-
port and difficult to separate and recapture for reuse during
the flowback phase after reservoir stimulation.

E LEMENTS 261 A UGUS T 2014

Recycling and reuse of flowback liquids have decreased natural gas is considered advantageous over coal in electric-
freshwater consumption and greatly reduced the need power production from a GHG-emissions standpoint
for treatment and disposal. Additionally, there is now, in (equivalent radiative forcing).
Pennsylvania, an initiative to use abandoned mine drainage
Life cycle considerations favor natural gas over coal in
(AMD) as a source of frack water. This could be a win-win
terms of total GHG emissions (Fulton et al. 2011). The
effort, improving stream quality in regions impaired by the
major disagreement among various studies is in the
prior cycle of coal mining while providing a large volume
estimates of leakage from wells during completions and
of water for fracking. Research is needed to test whether the
from transportation infrastructure (pipelines, compressor
chemistry of AMD, particularly the high sulfate concentra-
stations, storage, and distribution networks within cities
tions, will affect fracking efficiency.
with natural gas services). Howarth et al. (2011) suggested
that the total life cycle GHG emissions, taking methane
The Need for Effective Regulation into account, exceed those of coal extraction and combus-
and Enforcement tion. This analysis is flawed because much of the methane
In the United States, a comparison of oil and gas regulations is “flared”—that is, combusted and converted to carbon
as of 2012 (Richardson et al. 2013) indicates significant dioxide (for example, Allen et al. 2013 estimate that flaring
differences from state to state with respect to reporting of is 98% efficient in converting methane to carbon dioxide).
water withdrawals and use, among other issues. Oil and
gas regulation has been enhanced as the result of the shale In an analysis of about 4000 unconventional natural gas
energy boom, but the most significant concerns are (1) wells completed in 2010, O’Sullivan and Paltser (2012)
proper casing and cementing of wells, with checks such concluded that hydraulic fracturing–related fugitive
as cement bond logs to prevent aquifer contamination; (2) methane emissions were, on average, 0.4–0.6% of the
disclosure of hydraulic fracturing chemicals; (3) proper estimated ultimate gas recovery from those wells. Allen
management of wastewater; (4) adequate regulations for et al. (2013) came to the same conclusion from extensive
disposal of wastes containing NORMs; and (5) effective monitoring of fugitive methane emissions (0.53% of gross
hiring and training of regulatory personnel. production). These studies were performed on United States
wells, for which regulation is more stringent and industry
innovation more rapid compared to many other countries.
ATMOSPHERIC IMPACTS OF
HYDROCARBON EXTRACTION As of January 1, 2015, a U.S. Environmental Protection
AND UTILIZATION Agency ruling will require that all wells completely capture
natural gas and condensate in order to reduce smog-
Although the benefits of the abundant unconventional
producing volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions.
hydrocarbon energy source are obvious if continuing
These “green completions” will substantially reduce
dependence on oil and gas resources is desirable, there
fugitive methane emissions during well completions in
are additional considerations—particularly greenhouse gas
conjunction with closed-loop systems that allow capture
(GHG) emissions. Here we briefly examine the benefits and
of all effluents.
issues accompanying utilization of vast resources of shale
gas and oil. Larter and Head (2014) offer perspectives on
the potential impacts of oil sand resources.
Present and Future Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Radiative Forcing
Natural Gas versus Coal Atmospheric concentrations (so-called mixing ratios) of all
Natural gas utilization has the potential to reduce emissions GHGs have increased over the past two decades, with the
of GHGs and other pollutants to the atmosphere per unit exception of methane. Of interest is the 1994–2007 period
of energy produced compared to the use of coal in gener- during which atmospheric methane concentrations were
ating electric power. Coal-fi red power plants had emitted relatively constant (FIG. 5A), indicating an overall decrease
to the atmosphere 50% of the mercury, 60% of the SO2, in methane emissions. Simpson et al. (2012) suggested that
and 62% of the arsenic from all sources in the United this period of constancy could have resulted from decreased
States as of 2011 (US EPA 2013). Natural gas combus- fugitive emissions from natural gas production, which could
tion does not emit these compounds. Natural gas is more account for 30–70% of the calculated decrease in methane
efficient in combustion than coal by an average factor of flux, on the basis of a coincident decrease in ethane fluxes
1.32 per kilowatt-hour of energy production. Over the past (Kirschke et al. 2013). Since 2007, atmospheric methane
decade, the proportion of power plants utilizing natural concentrations have increased (FIG. 5A). This increase could
gas has increased substantially (US EIA 2012). Stack gases be the result of larger wetland and permafrost emissions
from power plants using natural gas with combined-cycle due to high-latitude warming (Kirschke et al. 2013). It has
technology emit CO2 at about 44% of the rate of coal-fi red also been suggested (Ohara et al. 2007) that the onset of
plants (De Gouw et al. 2014). In 2012, power plants in the the shale gas and oil “boom” and/or greater rates of coal
United States emitted 23% less CO2 than they would have extraction to fuel the economies of India and China are
if coal produced electricity at the same percentage as it the cause of higher methane concentrations.
had in 1997. Combined-cycle natural gas–fi red plants also Perhaps the best way to view these increases in GHG concen-
emitted >40% fewer NOx and SO2 pollutants compared to trations is in terms of their relative radiative forcing—the
coal-fired plants (De Gouw et al. 2014). Natural gas combus- effect of an individual GHG on global heat retention. From
tion by vehicles also emits 20–45% fewer smog-producing 2007 to 2012, the calculated radiative forcing of CO2, whose
pollutants and 5–9% lower GHG on a per gallon–equivalent concentration increased from 380 to 394 ppmv, rose by
basis compared to gasoline or diesel. 0.136 W/m2, or nearly 8%. Methane, which increased from
1.796 to 1.836 ppmv (FIG. 5A), rose by 0.009 W/m 2 , or
Fugitive Methane Emissions from Extraction about 1.8%.
An important consideration in comparing energy resources
Future emissions are estimated to increase significantly
is a life cycle assessment of emissions, from extraction to
because of the huge, untapped, and attractive uncon-
utilization. Generally, if the rate of leakage of methane
ventional oil and gas resources. Estimates of unconven-
through production and transportation is less than about
tional hydrocarbon resources suggest that, globally, there
2.7% of natural gas production (e.g. Howarth et al. 2011),
are (risked recoverable reserves) 7299 Tcf (trillion cubic
feet) of shale gas and 345 bbl (billion barrels) of shale oil,

E LEMENTS 262 A UGUS T 2014

 not including the huge potential reserves of the Middle PROSPECTUS
East and Caspian Sea regions. In addition, there are an
Water resources, in terms of amounts of freshwater and
estimated 16,000 Tcf of conventional natural gas resources
water quality, may also be impacted should extraction of
(US EIA 2011). At the global yearly rate of consumption in
shale gas and oil and increased dependence on oil sands
2010 (113 Tcf; US EIA 2013b), natural gas resources would
hydrocarbons occur. However, economic incentives to
last in excess of 200 years, whereas for estimated utilization
conserve water and future research will provide cost-
rates in 2040 (186 Tcf; US EIA 2013b), perhaps 125 years!
effective methods to deal with shale-energy wastewater
FIGURE 5B illustrates carbon dioxide emission rates (US EIA through treatment and disposal (Bryndzia and Braunsdorf
2013a) on the basis of global resource availability, popula- 2014). Moreover, new, biologically based, efficient means
tion growth, and rising economic prosperity, particularly of extracting oil from oil sands will significantly reduce
in developing countries. Energy demand, as compared to resulting water use and contamination (Larter and Head
2010, is predicted to rise by a factor of 1.3 by 2040, and 2014).
the US EIA predicts that 80% of this increase will be from
Concerns regarding possible global warming as the result of
fossil fuels. Much of the consumption increase over the
rising atmospheric GHG concentrations have led to much
next three decades will be in developing countries (US
debate regarding the advisability of continuing dependence
EIA 2013b). Thus from 2010 to 2040, global natural gas
on hydrocarbon fuels. Natural gas is often referred to as a
production (and consumption) is predicted to increase
“bridge fuel,” implying that it will be used only as long as
by about 76 Tcf/y, and carbon dioxide emissions from
necessary until technological improvements bring forth
energy production will increase by a factor of 1.46 (31.2 to
economical non-GHG-producing alternatives, such as wind
45.5 Gt CO2 /y) during the same period.
and solar power. However, as long as natural gas is relatively
inexpensive and abundant, it will be difficult to resist (e.g.
Blumsack 2014).

A Although the United States has led in developing uncon-

ventional hydrocarbon resources, there are substantial
global reserves. Larter and Head (2014) cite global bitumen
and heavy-oil resources of around 5.6 trillion barrels. This
huge resource will be attractive as oil reserves dwindle
and prices rise in the future. Leakage from abiogenic gas
sources must also be considered, but it is not clear that
this background source will make an important contri-
bution on a short timescale (Etiope and Schoell 2014).
Thus, it is likely that GHG emissions from hydrocarbon
combustion will increase over the next several decades,
leading to further global warming (US EIA 2013a). Because
coal is not replaced by natural gas in the US EIA (2013a)
future scenario, we estimate that the total CO2 emissions
from fossil fuels used in energy production will contribute
to higher atmospheric CO2 levels, which could produce
a warmer world and further ocean acidification (Doney
2010).
Carbon capture and storage measures will be necessary
to reduce the global environmental impacts of fossil fuel
burning. Elliot and Celia (2012) have drawn attention to
the possibility that potential subsurface sequestration sites
B in the United States largely (80%) underlie necessary “seals”
for carbon dioxide sequestration—shale and tight gas strata
that are now being hydraulically fractured. On the other
hand, there is also significant potential for carbon dioxide
storage in depleted shale gas horizons if atmospheric carbon
capture can be accomplished economically.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Prof. Patricia Dove and Pierrette Tremblay for
their considerable efforts to keep this issue on track, and
Patricia for her insightful reviews of this and all other
manuscripts. We acknowledge two anonymous reviewers
for their comments on our manuscript, as well as the
authors of other papers in this issue for their careful
reviews of other manuscripts submitted to this issue.
DRC’s program is supported by the U.S. Department of
Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences through the Center
(A) NOAA Mauna Loa methane flask concentration for Nanoscale Control of Geologic CO2 and grant DE-SC-
FIGURE 5
measurements expressed in ppbv (parts per billion by 00006878, the A. P. Sloan Foundation–funded Deep Carbon
volume) for the period 1984–2013. These measurements do not Observatory, and the National Science Foundation Division
reflect a global average atmospheric methane concentration. Trends
and amplitudes of change are representative of global variations of Environmental Biology, grant DEB 1342701.
and trends. (B) Worldwide carbon dioxide emissions (109 metric
tons/y) related to the production of energy, by fuel type (US EIA
2013a). Total emissions were 31.2 × 109 metric tons/y in 2010 and
are predicted to reach 45.5 × 109 metric tons/y in 2040.

E LEMENTS 263 A UGUS T 2014

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