A Manager's Guide To Optimising Furnace Performance
A Manager's Guide To Optimising Furnace Performance
A manager’s guide to
optimising furnace performance
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 253
BEST PRACTICE
PROGRAMME
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO OPTIMISING
FURNACE PERFORMANCE
This Guide is No. 253 in the Good Practice Guide series and is intended to help managers in the
operation of high temperature furnaces and kilns. Furnace operation is a costly and complex
business, and getting it right is important if product quality, throughput and profitability are to
be maintained.
Extensive experience working with furnace users has shown that operating cost savings of 10-
30% can often be achieved with little or no capital outlay. To achieve this managers must
recognise that getting the most from a furnace is not just a technical issue Ð there are many
management issues too.
The problem for busy managers is knowing where to start Ð this Guide explains where and how
to start saving money.
ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire
OX11 0QJ
and
Briar Associates
Church Hill
Brierley Hill
West Midlands
DY5 3PY
These and other relevant publications are listed on the fax-back form at the back of this Guide.
Overseas customers please remit £3 per copy (minimum of £6) with order to cover cost of
packaging and posting. Please make cheques, drafts or money orders payable to ETSU.
This Guide is part of a series produced by the Government under the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme. The aim
of the programme is to advance and spread good practice in energy efficiency by providing independent, authoritative advice
and information on good energy efficiency practices. Best Practice is a collaborative programme targeted towards energy
users and decision makers in industry, the commercial and public sectors, and building sectors including housing. It
comprises four inter-related elements identified by colour-coded strips for easy reference:
Ñ Energy Consumption Guides: (blue) energy consumption data to enable users to establish their relative energy
efficiency performance;
Ñ Good Practice Guides: (red) and Case Studies: (mustard) independent information on proven energy-saving
measures and techniques and what they are achieving;
Ñ New Practice projects: (light green) independent monitoring of new energy efficiency measures which do not yet
enjoy a wide market;
Ñ Future Practice R&D support: (purple) help to develop tomorrowÕs energy efficiency good practice measures.
If you would like any further information on this document, or on the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme, please
contact the Environment and Energy Helpline on 0800 585794. Alternatively, you may contact your local service deliverer
Ð see contact details below.
ENGLAND
London North West South West
Govt Office for London Environment Team Environment and Energy Management Team
6th Floor Govt Office for the North West Govt Office for the South West
Riverwalk House Cunard Building The Pithay
157-161 Millbank Pier Head Bristol
London Water Street Avon
SW1P 4RR Liverpool BS1 2PB
Tel 020 7217 3435 L3 1QB Tel 0117 900 1700
Tel 0151 224 6401
East Midlands West Midlands
The Sustainable Development Team South East Regional Sustainability Team
Govt Office for the East Midlands Sustainable Development Team 77 Paradise Circus
The Belgrave Centre Govt Office for the South East Queensway
Stanley Place Bridge House Birmingham
Talbot Street 1 Walnut Tree Close B1 2DT
Nottingham Guildford Tel 0121 212 5300
NG1 5GG Surrey
Tel 0115 971 2476 GU1 4GA Yorkshire and the Humber
Tel 01483 882532 Sustainable Development Unit
North East Govt Office for Yorks and the Humber
Sustainability and Environment Team East PO Box 213
Govt Office for the North East Sustainable Development Awareness Team City House
Wellbar House Govt Office for the East of England New Station Street
Gallowgate Heron House Leeds
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 49-53 Goldington Road LS1 4US
NE1 4TD Bedford Tel 0113 283 6376
Tel 0191 202 3614 MK40 3LL
Tel 01234 796194
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE 7
4. FACT FILES 10
Appendices
Appendix 1 Glossary 46
Appendix 2 Literature Request Form 49
1. INTRODUCTION
This Guide is intended for busy managers who would like straightforward suggestions for
improving the profitability of their furnace operation. It is a practical Guide that suggests how,
when and why to make improvements that will result in a more cost-effective operation.
This Guide highlights the key points in an easy to read manner, and shows where to go for further
information. At the heart of the Guide are Fact Files; concise sheets that provide information on
specific topics, from improving yield, to shopping around for cheaper electricity.
Additional information on most topics can be obtained from the wide range of free publications
produced by the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme. References are given at the bottom
of each Fact File so you can see the publications that will help you the most with any given area
of operation.
The Core Guides should be considered as Ôessential readingÕ as these cover many topics. Some
of the other publications are aimed at specific industry sectors, e.g. ferrous metals, ceramics.
However, the information contained within them is often of value to a much wider audience. A
fax-back order form is provided at the back of this Guide.
Many improvements can be made to your furnace operation at little or no cost and these will
improve efficiency and save your company money. Applying effective management techniques
to get the best possible performance from your existing plant and equipment should be the first
step in any planned programme of improvements. The Fact Files addressing management issues
appear first in this Guide. Without proper management systems in place, it will be impossible to
make informed decisions about future investment in technology to improve furnace efficiency.
Technology issues are dealt with in the second set of Fact Files.
To help guide you through the issues involved, are two sets of Key Questions (Sections 1.3 and
1.4). To discover the changes that will have the biggest impact on your operations, work your
way through the questions. If there are any that you cannot confidently answer ÔyesÕ to, refer to
the corresponding Fact File to see what opportunities you may be missing.
Section 2 is a Troubleshooting Guide which shows how the Fact Files can provide help in
overcoming common operational problems. The checklist in Section 3 will help you to make the
right decisions the next time you come to specify a new furnace.
Take a few seconds to read the following Case Histories that demonstrate how simple changes
have saved other companies money Ð can you afford not to do the same for your company?
Alfer Ltd, a division of the Baxi Partnership, operates a modern iron foundry to mass
produce the cast iron heat exchangers used in its range of domestic boilers. A range of
castings is also produced for outside customers, mainly in the automotive industry.
Continuous mould production, the use of molten holding and automatic pouring facilities
enables operating procedures to provide an outstanding example of good practice in the
medium-frequency melting of cast iron. These procedures result in low specific energy
consumption (SEC) and energy efficient operation of the melting furnaces.
If the SEC at Alfer could be achieved by all foundries using coreless induction furnaces,
an annual energy saving of about 34 million kWh or 120,000 GJ would result in the UK,
producing a cost saving of about £1.2 million/year to the industry.
For further information see GPCS 213, Demonstrating good practice in medium frequency
coreless induction furnaces.
Quinton Hazell Automotive Ltd is a member of the UK based Echlin Group and a major
supplier of water pumps, steering and suspension parts to the automotive industry.
In 1994, the company converted its electrical induction and melting unit, ladle transfer
system and holding furnaces to modern, gas-fired small melting/bale out furnaces. These
provide a number of energy benefits including:
The total investment cost was £112,000, but savings of £69,700/year have resulted, giving
a simple payback period of 1.6 years.
For further information see GPCS 344, Energy savings from small, efficient melting and
holding furnaces.
CERAMICS SECTOR
The Yorkshire Brick Company made several types of perforated clay bricks for use in the
construction industry. In 1988, one of its gas fired tunnel kilns was modified to improve
the temperature distribution in the brick setting.
A hot air recirculation system was added in the early heating stages, extra burners were
installed and better control of cooling was implemented. These changes resulted in a faster
firing schedule, with product quality maintained.
Substantial energy and cost savings were achieved as a result. The greatest cost advantage
came from the increased productivity of the kiln; output rose by 34%, while the specific
energy consumption dropped by 25%. The investment cost was £265,000 and savings of
£243,300/year were achieved. The simple payback period on investment was therefore
1.1 years.
For further information see NPFP 17, Improved heat distribution in a tunnel kiln.
GLASS SECTOR
Beatson Clark plc installed additional insulation to the regenerative heat recovery
system on one of the companyÕs furnaces at its factory in Rotherham. The insulation,
employing a spray technique, proved simple to install and caused no disruption to the
running of the plant.
The resulting energy savings of over £24,000/year arose from both improved thermal
insulation and sealing of the structure against the entry of cold air. The installed cost was
just £10,500 giving a payback period of 23 weeks.
For further information see GPCS 133, External spray insulation on furnace regenerators.
If your answer is ÔnoÕ or ÔdonÕt knowÕ to any of these questions, refer to the relevant Fact File.
Fact File
If your answer is ÔnoÕ or ÔdonÕt knowÕ to any of these questions, refer to the relevant Fact File.
Fact File
2. TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
The causes and effects of furnace problems are closely bound together, making it sometimes
difficult to identify the best action to take. For example, off-spec product could be caused by a
number of factors including incorrect raw materials specification, poor heat transfer, inadequate
furnace control, etc. Similarly, a single fault, such as inefficient combustion, can result in a
multitude of symptoms such as increased fuel usage, reduced yield or off-spec product.
Troubleshooting needs to be approached in a systematic manner. To help you achieve this, use
the following diagrams to direct you to the appropriate Fact Files. Work through the referenced
Fact Files in order, remembering to address all Management issues first, before moving onto the
Technical ones.
M2 Benchmarking
Problem:
M3 Getting the Best Energy Prices Problem:
running costs
low output rate seem high
M4 Raw Materials and Feedstocks
Problem:
M5 Improving Furnace Yield
low yield
M6 Charging and Unloading
M8 Delay Strategies
M11 Maintenance
T2 Combustion Efficiency
Problem:
T3 Heat Transfer Problem:
running costs
low output rate seem high
T4 Furnace Atmosphere
Problem:
T5 Furnace Control
low yield Mathematical Models and
T6 Expert Systems
When specifying a new furnace it is important to consider all options and make informed
decisions. Use this quick checklist to help you with your considerations, referring to the relevant
Fact File for information.
Fact File
4. FACT FILES
Page No.
M1: Auditing Furnace Performance 11
M2: Benchmarking 13
M3: Getting the Best Energy Prices 14
M4: Raw Materials and Feedstocks 16
M5: Improving Furnace Yield 17
M6: Charging and Unloading 19
M7: Scheduling Furnace Operations 20
M8: Delay Strategies 21
M9: Training and Supervision 22
M10: Labour Costs 23
M11: Maintenance 24
M12: Monitoring and Targeting 25
M13: Environmental Issues 27
M14: Financial Assessments 29
T1: Choosing the Right Fuel 30
T2: Combustion Efficiency 32
T3: Heat Transfer 33
T4: Furnace Atmosphere 34
T5: Furnace Control 35
T6: Mathematical Models and Expert Systems 36
T7: Refractories and Insulation 37
T8: Waste Heat Recovery 39
T9: Flue Gas Recuperation 40
T10: Self-recuperative Burners 41
T11: Flue Gas Regeneration 42
T12: Stock Recuperation 43
T13: Motors and Drives 44
T14: Ancillary Services 45
The time required to complete the audits may range from a few hours to several days depending
on the size and complexity of your furnace. In any case, however, compiling the audits should
be viewed as an essential management exercise that will ultimately repay any costs involved
many times over.
KEY POINTS
Simple Audits
❚ Simple audits will generate the three basic ❚ Energy use can initially be estimated from
performance indicators (furnace yield, nominal plant ratings (e.g. m3/hour of gas,
specific energy consumption and specific kW of electricity etc.), multiplied by the
production cost), that will allow you to number of hours run.
compare the performance of your furnace
with those of others via the use of ❚ If the estimated annual energy cost exceeds
published benchmarks (see Fact File M2). £10,000, then sub-metering should be
considered to provide more accurate
❚ The following data will be required to information. Gas, oil and electricity sub-
calculate the performance indicators: meters can normally be installed for a few
hundred pounds each.
a) Weight of feedstock used and usable
product produced – this may require
❚ The audits must relate to an appropriate
production records to be refined, for
timeframe that should be long enough to
example, to show the throughput of
encompass all stages of a furnace’s
individual furnaces.
operation. For example, audits of batch
b) Amount of energy used – main heating furnaces must include consideration of
fuel plus electricity used for fans, loading/unloading, warm-up/cool down
conveyors etc. and any idle time between batches. The
same concept applies to continuous
c) Operating costs, to include:
furnaces where you will need to encompass
– energy costs; product changes, maintenance, weekend
– labour costs; set-back etc.
– raw materials costs;
– maintenance costs.
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Auditing Furnace Performance KEY POINTS
Detailed Audits
❚ Most furnaces will justify more detailed ❚ When calculating the energy content of the
analysis of material use, energy use and/or product remember to consider its:
production costs. The approach used for – temperature: which will probably be
each detailed audit is as follows: higher than that of the feedstock;
a) An imaginary ‘envelope’ is drawn around – phase: molten products will have
the furnace. absorbed the latent heat of fusion;
b) All input and output streams that pass – composition: if chemical changes have
through the ‘envelope’ are identified. occurred, the product’s energy content
c) The magnitude of each stream is will have either increased (endothermic
quantified using common units (e.g. change), or decreased (exothermic
tonnes of material, kWh of energy or change).
financial value).
d) A balance sheet is constructed comparing ❚ In the cost audit, labour costs should be
inputs and outputs. subdivided to show:
e) The balance sheet is critically reviewed to – supervisor vs operator costs;
identify areas of unnecessary use or – overtime vs normal working;
wastage, e.g. materials wastage due to off- – time lost due to sickness;
spec product, energy wastage due to
– time lost due to absenteeism;
inadequate insulation, excessive
maintenance expenditure etc. – labour cost of each process step,
e.g. loading, unloading, QA.
❚ The time and effort required to complete
detailed audits will depend on the size and ❚ Maintenance costs should be subdivided to
complexity of the furnace. As a general rule, show:
detailed audits are recommended for all – planned vs breakdown maintenance;
furnaces where annual materials, energy, – direct employed vs contract works;
labour or maintenance costs individually – maintenance costs of specific equipment,
exceed £10,000. e.g. burners, refractories, heat recovery
plant etc.
❚ Take your time when compiling the audits
and use the opportunity to question why ❚ If the technical expertise required to
things are being done in the way that they undertake a detailed audit is not available
are. Opportunities for cost savings will from within your own organisation,
almost certainly present themselves. consider using external specialists, for
example:
❚ When compiling the materials balance,
remember to allow for any chemical – furnace manufacturers;
changes that occur to the product, the – trade associations;
driving off of any volatile components, and – consulting engineers.
materials lost due to off-spec production,
combination with slag etc.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).
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Benchmarking Fact File: M2
A simple audit of furnace performance (see Fact File M1) will provide the following:
Quantifying furnace
5
performance in this way allows China Earthenware
comparison with external + Other
Number of factories
4 Porcelain
benchmark figures. This Earthenware Porcelain
3
comparison will show whether
your furnace is performing 2
better or worse than might
reasonably be expected and by 1
❚ Benchmark figures are available from a ❚ The highest energy users are typically
number of sources including: found to have SECs that are 2 – 3 times
higher than the lowest (see bar chart
– furnace manufacturers;
above).
– trade associations;
– the Energy Efficiency Best Practice ❚ This spread in SECs is largely caused by
Programme (EEBPP). differences in furnace operating procedures,
so improvements can often be made at
❚ Manufacturers’ figures should be treated little or no-cost.
with some caution as they often relate to
ideal, steady state operation that is rarely
❚ The EEBPP publications also include
achieved in the real world. For example,
information on specific energy cost (cost of
their data is unlikely to allow for the impact
energy used per unit of production).
of idle time, product changes etc. that can
significantly reduce a furnace’s overall
energy efficiency. ❚ Electric furnaces tend to have a lower
specific energy consumption than
❚ The benchmark data provided via the equivalent gas or oil fired furnaces.
EEBPP is contained within the Good However, as electricity is substantially more
Practice Guides and Energy Consumption expensive than gas or oil (see Fact File M3),
Guides listed as ‘Core Guides’ on the fax- the specific energy cost may actually be
back order form at the back of this Guide. higher for electrically heated furnaces.
All are available to UK industry free of
charge.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).
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Getting the Best Energy Prices Fact File: M3
Effective energy purchasing is the quickest and easiest way of reducing your energy and
production costs. Price reductions of up to 20% are potentially available at no cost.
De-regulation of the energy supply market is now complete and so all furnace operators
should be routinely seeking competitive quotations to ensure they get the best price. With
electricity, there is the opportunity to reduce costs still further by careful selection of the
optimum tariff structure.
KEY POINTS
Electricity
❚ Seek competitive prices from a number of ❚ Check your agreed supply capacity (or
suppliers – do not just accept your local availability) against your actual demand –
electricity company’s offer. don’t pay for unnecessary spare capacity.
❚ To enter the competitive electricity market ❚ Check that your Power Factor is acceptable.
you need special electronic metering Power Factor can be improved by the
installed (COP), complete with modems to installation of correction capacitors which
allow remote reading. Contact your local should be considered if:
electricity company’s meter operating
– your Power Factor is less than 0.9;
section. The cost associated with installing
and maintaining the metering equipment – your electricity bill shows any ‘Power
should be more than offset by the savings Factor Penalty’ charges;
made by competitive purchasing.
– your electricity bill shows any ‘Reactive
Power’ charges.
❚ To get the best prices, provide potential
suppliers with accurate consumption data
for your site. As a minimum, provide a
year’s monthly figures, including day/night Natural Gas
split, maximum demand levels and your
MPAN number. If you have COP metering ❚ Seek competitive prices from a number of
already, ask your existing supplier for half- suppliers.
hourly consumption data on disk – there
may be a nominal charge. ❚ Provide potential suppliers with accurate
consumption data for your site and your
❚ The true price of electricity is highly meter point reference number (shown on
seasonal, rising sharply during November – your bills).
February. Some suppliers will offer longer
than 12 month contracts if the extra months ❚ Consider two or three-year contracts, but
included are cheap summer ones. For insist on an annual competitive break
example, you should be able to negotiate a clause. This will allow you to test the
one-off 18-month offer if your contract is market each year. If you are able to obtain a
due for renewal on 1st April. The six better price than that offered by your
additional months of April – October are all current supplier, it should drop its price to
‘cheap’ and hence the supplier is able to match, or release you from the remaining
offer you a particularly attractive average period of the contract.
price over the full 18 month contract period.
❚ Check for contract termination notice
❚ Choose the right tariff structure. If you use clauses (otherwise contracts may
more than 15% of your electricity at night automatically renew at the supplier’s
(most factories do), choose a day/night chosen price).
tariff. If you can manage your electrical
load, consider a type of tariff which ❚ All contracts will specify:
charges peak rates during winter weekday
evenings (16.00 – 19.00 Monday – Friday, – maximum offtake rates;
November – February), in exchange for – a minimum ‘take or pay’ volume (usually
lower rates at other times. These tariffs are 70 – 80% of nominated annual usage).
attractive if you can significantly reduce
your factory’s electrical load during the
peak charging periods.
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Getting the Best Energy Prices KEY POINTS
❚ Check the contract reflects your ❚ If your furnace has dual-fuel burners,
requirements and negotiate as necessary. consider a cheaper, interruptible gas supply
This can be particularly important if your contract, e.g. using oil or liquefied
production rates, and hence gas usage, are petroleum gas (LPG) as standby fuel, but do
variable or unpredictable. However, you not underestimate the potential disruption
must be prepared to pay more for your gas caused to furnace operation on fuel
in exchange for increased flexibility on changeover.
volume usage.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).
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Raw Materials and Feedstocks Fact File: M4
Effective furnace operation is impossible without proper raw materials or feedstock quality
control. The critical parameters will vary from process to process and may include size, chemical
composition, moisture content and temperature.
Management systems should be put in place to ensure that raw materials quality is maintained
at all times. The use of recycled materials as feedstock presents particular problems and requires
even more stringent management control.
KEY POINTS
❚ Raw materials and feedstock costs can be ❚ Some feedstock defects may not become
minimised by effective purchasing. Any cost apparent until the material is processed in
savings can easily be wiped out, however, if the furnace. Under these circumstances, it
the cheaper materials are of poorer/ is important to recognise that feedstock
inconsistent quality or have uncertain quality is the cause of what may at first
availability. have appeared to have been a furnace
related problem.
❚ Undersized feedstock may cause bridging or
other charging problems and may reduce ❚ Ensure that you provide your raw materials
furnace capacity if the overall charge suppliers with a comprehensive
density is reduced. specification which must include the
acceptable limits (if any), for the quantities
❚ Oversized feedstock may cause blockages or of each and every potential contaminant.
heat transfer (chill) problems. These can
reduce furnace capacity and product quality. ❚ A system of advice notes should be adopted
and regular in-house laboratory checks
❚ Contaminants are potentially dangerous should be made to ensure that raw
and can cause fire or explosion hazards. At materials properties remain as specified.
the very least, they may cause problems
such as slagging or may limit the rate at ❚ Ensure raw materials of differing quality or
which heat may be applied to the process. specification are appropriately labelled and
This in turn can lead to: segregated in storage.
– reduced production rates; ❚ Take care, when storing and handling raw
– increased energy consumption; materials, to minimise any physical or
– higher maintenance costs; chemical degradation that could affect
– lower product quality; furnace performance.
– increased scrap rates;
❚ The same quality control principles must be
– unwanted environmental emissions. applied even when the feedstock comes
❚ Extra care must be taken to maintain feedstock from another process within your factory
quality when processing re-cycled materials. or organisation.
❚ Materials recycled from sources outside your ❚ Consider alternative formats for raw
direct control, e.g. public recycling of glass materials deliveries – these may ease
bottles, present particular problems. handling and furnace loading.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 344 Energy savings from small, efficient melting and holding furnaces
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Improving Furnace Yield Fact File: M5
Melting losses
Spilt metal Grinding losses
New
metallic
raw
materials
Metallic
returns
Total
metal
melted
Metal
poured
into
moulds
Pigged
Metal in
gross
castings
Runners
Metal in
good
castings
Scrap castings
} Good castings
despatched
to customer
metal
Furnace yield can be defined as quantity of useable product per unit feedstock. There is often a
trade-off between throughput and product quality that means furnace yield can be reduced at
high throughputs.
Improving the way furnaces are managed can improve the balance for maximum yield.
Optimising furnace operations will increase throughput and minimise waste by improving
product quality, thus improving yield.
Furnaces should not be considered in isolation from any upstream or downstream processes.
These processes can act as bottlenecks, thereby limiting the throughput of the furnace. The
scheduling of successive operations may offer scope for improvement. Similarly, material lost in
downstream processing effectively reduces the useful yield of the furnace.
KEY POINTS
❚ Furnace throughput can often be limited ❚ For continuous furnaces, consider special
by a single stage or factor, e.g. operating regimes at start-up, e.g. elevated
charging/unloading or rate of heat transfer. temperatures or oxygen enrichment, to
Aim to identify the limiting bottleneck for obtain on-spec product as quickly as
each furnace, remembering to consider possible, thereby minimising waste.
upstream and downstream processes when
appropriate.
❚ Minimise product degradation in the
furnace, e.g. by ensuring the correct
❚ Feedstock must be on-spec to prevent temperature profile and furnace
unnecessary/wasted firing within the atmosphere. Prevent mechanical damage by
furnace (Fact File M4). providing adequate means of support.
❚ Have clearly defined product specifications ❚ Ensure that any by-products are quickly
and stick to them. Avoid over-processing, and effectively removed from the stock to
e.g. do not heat products to higher prevent contamination. This may involve
temperatures or for longer than strictly more frequent slag removal or increased
necessary. extraction rates for exhaust gases.
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Improving Furnace Yield KEY POINTS
❚ Accurately weigh the feedstock and product ❚ Ensure valuable product is not wasted
in order to determine yield and continually during subsequent processing (or transfer to
monitor it so that any trends can be it). Utilisation efficiency of materials
identified. produced by furnaces can be improved by
attention to:
❚ Identify the key variables that affect – design, e.g. to reduce the quantity of
throughput and product quality and also molten metal used in runners during
monitor these. A number of monitoring subsequent casting operations;
and assessment methods are now available,
– operation, e.g. to ensure product is not
e.g. statistical process control, which
damaged in subsequent transfer and
provide a systematic approach to this
storage;
potentially complex management issue.
– rectification, e.g. repair of minor
blemishes in sanitaryware to avoid
❚ Use rapid and effective Quality Assurance
scrapping the piece.
techniques, e.g. hot inspection, to ensure
that any furnace problems are quickly
identified, thereby minimising the ❚ Operate effective maintenance regimes to
production of off-spec material. In ensure continuing high yields.
intermittent furnaces, faster QA analysis
techniques can reduce the time that batches
are held pending acceptance and hence can
reduce overall cycle times.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Ferrous metals GPG 17 Achieving high yields in ferrous foundries
GPCS 37 Computer simulation of solidification in ferrous foundries
GPCS 161 Cupola melting of cast iron
GPCS 353 The use of filters in ferrous foundries
Non-ferrous metals GPG 142 Improving metal utilisation in aluminium foundries
GPCS 36 Computer simulation of solidification in non-ferrous sand foundries
GPCS 282 Use of molten metal filters in non-ferrous foundries
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Charging and Unloading Fact File: M6
The way a furnace is charged can have a
significant effect on its safe operation, yield and
energy consumption.
When the furnace forms part of a larger manufacturing process, consideration also needs to be
given to the way in which the charging and unloading procedures interface with the
neighbouring operations.
KEY POINTS
❚ Access doors can represent a route for ❚ If furniture is required to support the stock,
significant heat loss when used to charge or make sure that its design allows effective
unload materials from a hot furnace. Any heat transfer (particularly to the base of the
such doors must be well fitting and stock), and prevents degradation by
adequately insulated. Heat losses during mechanical damage.
charging/unloading can be minimised by
making sure that doors are no larger than ❚ Use low thermal mass furniture to reduce
necessary and that they remain open for energy requirements for warm-up (modern
the minimum possible time. high temperature alloys can often be used
in place of conventional refractories).
❚ Charging and unloading times can be
minimised by careful attention to operating ❚ Water cooled support structures are
procedures. Mechanical or automatic systems sometimes necessary, but lead to large
should be considered, although, quite apart energy losses. Their design should be
from the cost implications, their use may be critically reviewed as energy efficient
limited by space constraints or the need to modifications can sometimes be made.
handle a wide variety of materials.
❚ Be aware that poor plant layout can lead to
❚ No effort should be spared to identify the delays in charging or unloading a furnace.
optimum charging procedures and It can also lead to loss of useful stock heat
management systems should then be put in between processes.
place to ensure that these procedures are
adhered to. ❚ Hot charging of furnaces, i.e. using hot
material from an upstream process, can
❚ Both intermittent and continuous furnaces reduce furnace energy requirements
benefit from consistent charging procedures considerably. Heat can be retained in stock
as these help to maintain uniform firing between processes by using insulated
conditions and hence product quality. transfer routes. In some cases,
supplementary heating can be desirable
❚ Accurately weigh stock into and out of the during transfer to prevent surface cooling
furnace to allow true yield to be monitored. of the stock.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Ferrous metals GPCS 263 Hot charging practice for continuous steel reheating furnaces
FPP 47 Quantifying important factors in iron melting in medium frequency
coreless induction furnaces
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 344 Energy savings from small, efficient melting and holding furnaces
Ceramics GPG 244 The use of low thermal mass materials and systems in the ceramic
industries
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Scheduling Furnace Operations Fact File: M7
Making the right decisions about
which furnace to use, and when, can
bring a number of benefits including:
❚ maximising product
throughput;
❚ minimising energy use;
❚ minimising furnace use;
❚ achieving delivery dates;
❚ minimising work in progress
inventory;
❚ minimising time from
customer order to delivery.
KEY POINTS
❚ Different designs of furnace have different ❚ When making scheduling decisions take
performance characteristics. Therefore, the full account of all operating costs involved.
most efficient furnace for one task may not This is particularly important when making
be the most efficient on another, e.g. ‘special’ products that require a change to
continuous furnaces are most suitable for normal furnace conditions. The true cost of
large volume products, and intermittent warm up, cool-down and part-load
furnaces are most suitable for small volume, operation can be very high.
speciality products.
❚ Schedule planned maintenance carefully,
❚ Furnaces are most efficient when fully laden. particularly if a cool-down is required.
Avoid part-load operation by, e.g. stock-
piling and running fewer furnace shifts.
❚ Scheduling decisions can be based on
manual analysis or, for more complex
❚ Try to avoid mixed stock loads as furnace situations, computer based ‘expert systems’
conditions will need to be set for the most (Fact File T6) can be invaluable.
demanding product, potentially causing
‘over processing’ of the remainder. Consider
segregating different stock types and
processing them separately.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPCS 135 Furnace scheduling advisory system
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Delay Strategies Fact File: M8
All furnaces will be, from time to time, subject to operational delays. It is important to have
clear strategies for dealing with these.
Failure to put adequate procedures in place will lead to lost production, energy wastage and
possibly damage to the furnace.
1000
950
900
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
S S
Delay strategy for a walking beam type furnace reheating 140 mm square billets
KEY POINTS
❚ The actions required will vary depending ❚ The causes of operational delays should be
upon the anticipated duration of the delay. rigorously logged and periodically analysed
For example, a short delay may require little to identify any underlying weaknesses.
or no change to furnace operations, Steps should be taken to prevent repeat
whereas a longer delay may require major occurrences.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Training and Supervision Fact File: M9
Furnace operations can be
complex, and staff should be
trained and supervised
accordingly. As a minimum,
standard operating procedures
must be compiled for all aspects of
furnace operation and staff trained
to follow them. Ongoing
supervision will be required to
ensure that the procedures are
rigorously adhered to.
KEY POINTS
❚ As a first stage, develop and document ❚ Computerised control systems are generally
standard operating procedures covering all more effective at maintaining optimum
stages of furnace operation including: furnace conditions than even the most
experienced staff.
– start-up;
– loading and unloading;
❚ Computers can be used to fully automate
– firing; control, or can provide detailed guidance to
operators on the required operating
– shutdown;
parameters (this information will be
– delays in production; automatically updated in line with any
changes in furnace conditions etc.).
– emergencies.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors NPCS 89 Energy efficiency training through continuing professional
development
Ceramics GPCS 345 Energy management techniques in the pottery industry
22
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Labour Costs Fact File: M10
Labour costs, like all others associated with furnace operation, can and should be
managed effectively.
KEY POINTS
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Glass GPCS 251 An energy management and investment campaign at a glass plant
23
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Maintenance Fact File: M11
Without effective maintenance, all other
efforts to improve furnace performance
will soon be wasted.
KEY POINTS
❚ If a breakdown does occur, it is important to ❚ Clean heat transfer surfaces, e.g. on waste
investigate the cause fully in order that steps heat recovery systems, regularly.
can be taken to prevent a reoccurrence.
❚ Check the condition of burners and quarls.
❚ Maintenance and calibration of control
systems are important. Reliable and ❚ Monitor refractory/insulation performance by
accurate control of furnace conditions is an visual inspection and by surface temperature
essential requirement of efficient operation. measurement, e.g. using infrared photometry.
The economics of the refractory works should
❚ Ensure drive belts on fans, etc. are regularly be assessed in the context of the cost of
changed and correctly tensioned to prevent increased energy use as the insulation
premature failure performance deteriorates, and refractory
repairs/replacement scheduled accordingly.
❚ When installing new or replacement 3-phase
motors check that the direction of rotation is ❚ Clean plant regularly to prevent refractory
correct (fans will quite happily run erosion.
backwards – but at reduced performance).
❚ The quality of the raw materials processed
❚ Change filter elements regularly to prevent: can have a significant effect on the rate of
erosion/corrosion that occurs inside the
– reduced air flows;
furnace. Be particularly aware of the
– changes to combustion and kiln destructive effect that trace contaminants
conditions; can have.
– dirt carry over;
– increased pollution.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Monitoring and Targeting Fact File: M12
It is often said that ‘if you don’t measure it, you can’t manage it’ and this is particularly true of
the parameters that affect efficient furnace operation. Without adequate information it is
difficult to make accurate decisions.
Comprehensive monitoring procedures are essential and should encompass specific items such as
temperatures and pressures as well as broader ones like throughput, energy use and
maintenance costs.
Most importantly, procedures must be put in place to analyse the data recorded and to instigate
appropriate actions in response to the results. Without these additional steps, monitoring alone
will produce little benefit. Once reliable monitoring has been established, targets should be set
with the aim of maintaining, or preferably improving, furnace performance.
KEY POINTS
❚ The frequency of monitoring should be – throughput;
selected depending upon the parameter
– yield;
concerned. Generally, it is better to sample
more frequently than required, than to – energy usage;
have insufficient data.
– specific energy consumption;
– maintenance requirements;
❚ Regularly measure and record key parameters:
– labour requirements;
– furnace internal temperature;
– resistance and reactance (induction
– furnace pressure;
furnaces).
– cooling water temperatures;
– furnace shell temperature; ❚ Data must relate to a specific furnace
and/or specific product. This may require
– furnace atmosphere;
keeping more detailed production records.
– burner combustion efficiency;
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Monitoring and Targeting KEY POINTS
❚ Where practicable, install additional sub- ❚ Put in place standard operating procedures
metering to allow the energy consumption to ensure appropriate action is taken in
of individual furnaces to be monitored and response to the monitoring results.
invest in portable test equipment, e.g.
combustion analysers and optical
❚ Plot specific energy consumption against
pyrometers, as necessary.
production. Investigate causes of unusually
high or low figures. Learn from these
❚ Plot data to allow trends to be identified investigations and set targets for
and to highlight any anomalous behaviour. improvements.
Determine ‘norms’ for all parameters
❚ Targets for future performance can be best
❚ Data analysis techniques should be set following a detailed audit of furnace
appropriate to the complexity of the performance (Fact File M1). The audit will
operation. Manual manipulation may be identify where and how improvements can
adequate for small, intermittent furnaces, be made.
but for most applications the use of a
computer will be beneficial. This can range
❚ Ensure targets are supported by appropriate
from the use of a spreadsheet package on a
implementation timescales.
PC to analyse data that have been collected
by hand, through to a fully automatic data
logging and analysis system. ❚ Implement any changes one at a time, to
allow their effectiveness to be monitored.
❚ Reports should be generated that are
concise and easy to read. The reports should ❚ Provide regular feedback on achievements
highlight anomalous results and guide the to staff at all levels. This will reinforce the
recipient towards appropriate action. The value of rigorous monitoring to them, and
use of ‘exception reporting’, i.e. only improve staff motivation through a greater
issuing reports when there is something sense of involvement.
wrong, can be an effective way of reducing
paperwork and of ensuring that when a
report is issued it receives the attention that
it demands.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPCS 183 Performance monitoring of a re-heat furnace
GPCS 321 Energy monitoring on large steel reheating furnaces
Ferrous metals GPCS 213 Demonstrating good practice in medium frequency coreless
induction furnaces
Glass GPCS 251 An energy management and investment campaign at a glass plant
Ceramics GPCS 345 Energy management techniques in the pottery industry
26
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Environmental Issues Fact File: M13
Environmental issues and legislation are already having a significant impact on furnace
operators and this is likely to increase. More information about environmental regulations can
be obtained through the Environment and Energy Helpline on 0800 585794.
Environmental issues are best addressed when integrated within a systematic management
approach which considers all aspects of furnace operation. This will ensure an effective and
efficient process. By taking a broader view of environmental issues and not just using ‘end of
pipe’ solutions, you will often increase the efficiency and lower the cost of your operations.
KEY POINTS
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Environmental Issues KEY POINTS
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Financial Assessments Fact File: M14
Appropriate financial assessment is essential
when considering expenditure on new furnaces
or retrofitting modifications. Many modifications
may be technically viable, e.g. the incorporation
of waste heat recovery equipment, but may be
uneconomic if the operating parameters for the
furnace are inappropriate.
KEY POINTS
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 69 Investment appraisal for industrial energy efficiency
29
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Choosing the Right Fuel Fact File: T1
The correct choice of fuel is one of the most fundamental issues influencing product quality and
furnace operating costs. A number of issues need to be considered when selecting a fuel type
including:
❚ price;
❚ combustion/heat transfer characteristics;
❚ cleanliness of combustion and emissions;
❚ special fuel storage or handling requirements;
❚ reliability of supply.
While it is sometimes possible to convert existing furnaces to use different fuels, this is rarely
straightforward. It is particularly important, therefore, to select the correct fuel when specifying
a new furnace.
KEY POINTS
❚ Using electricity to heat furnaces will often – as a piped service it avoids the
provide the lowest local energy consumption administrative burden of fuel stock
but the highest energy cost. control, ordering and supervision of fuel
deliveries etc.;
Approximate cost of fuels relative to – no on-site fuel storage is required,
natural gas thereby reducing maintenance costs
and avoiding the safety and
Natural gas 1
environmental risks associated with
Fuel oil 1 bulk storage facilities.
LPG 2.5
❚ LPG and oil, while not offering the
Electricity 5 advantages listed above of natural gas, can
yield higher thermal efficiencies and
increased furnace throughput.
❚ Fuel prices can be minimised by
competitive tendering (Fact File M3).
❚ LPG requires the provision of pressurised
bulk storage facilities, vaporisation
❚ Electric heating tends to be more equipment and a gas/air mixing station to
appropriate for smaller furnaces. ensure correct air/fuel ratio at all firing rates.
❚ Fuel choice may be dictated by product ❚ In addition to storage tanks, fuel oil
requirements, e.g. high purity or the need requires effective atomisation and
to maintain a controlled atmosphere within vaporisation to ensure correct combustion.
the furnace. This places special demands on oil burners,
which in turn, require more regular
❚ Local emissions standards must also be maintenance than gas-fired burners.
considered when selecting a furnace fuel
(Fact File M13) ❚ Oil flames are hotter, more luminous and
larger than gas flames, and require larger
❚ Natural gas is often the favoured fuel for firing chambers.
furnace operation because:
– it is relatively clean burning, without ❚ Changing fuels on an existing furnace is a
soot or sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions complex matter. The following must be
and produces less carbon dioxide (CO2) considered:
than LPG, oil or coal (although nitrous – safety implications;
oxide – NOx – emissions are higher);
– flame shape;
– this cleanliness makes it easier to
– flame intensity;
comply with emissions standards and
allows the direct firing of many – flame luminosity;
products (Fact File T3); – products of combustion;
– required furnace atmosphere.
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Choosing the Right Fuel KEY POINTS
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Ferrous metals NPP 54 Dual fuel regenerative burners
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 112 Gas fired shaft furnaces
31
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Combustion Efficiency Fact File: T2
Efficient combustion will ensure
that the maximum amount of
heat is released from the fuel
being burnt and help transfer this
effectively to the stock. This, in
turn, will lead to reduced
emissions, improved product
quality and help safeguard the
structural integrity of the furnace.
KEY POINTS
❚ Efficient and complete combustion requires ❚ Where burners are required to have turn-
the correct air/fuel ratio and adequate down capability, i.e. to reduce their thermal
mixing. output, the control system has particular
requirements to maintain efficient
❚ While optimum conditions will be set-up at combustion across the range of firing rates.
commissioning, many factors can cause
unwelcome deviations, including: ❚ Incorrect combustion will lead to fuel
wastage, reduced throughput, poor product
– burner wear;
quality, excessive emissions and/or
– hysteresis (or slack) in control systems; structural damage to the furnace.
– variations in fuel properties, e.g. calorific
value; ❚ It is generally harder to maintain optimum
– variations in combustion air properties, combustion conditions when burning oil,
e.g. temperature, particularly where pre- compared with natural gas, because:
heat is used as a means of waste heat – oil requires effective atomisation and
recovery; vaporisation for correct combustion;
– variations in furnace pressure. – oil burners are often machined to close
tolerances to achieve this;
❚ Maintaining optimum combustion
– oil can be corrosive and abrasive, leading
conditions requires:
to more rapid burner wear;
– modern automatic controls, e.g. air/fuel – carbon and soot build-up will occur,
ratio, furnace pressure, (depending on affecting burner and furnace performance.
size and type of burner);
– routine efficiency monitoring, e.g. flue ❚ Effective combustion control is particularly
gas temperature, carbon dioxide important when seeking to maintain a
concentration; particular furnace atmosphere or when
– regular burner and controls maintenance. using oxygen enrichment.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form) plus:
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 344 Energy savings from small, efficient melting and holding furnaces
32
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Heat Transfer Fact File: T3
Unless heat is transferred effectively from Furnace
KEY POINTS
❚ In most furnaces heat is transferred by two Instead, energy is transmitted from the
complementary mechanisms, convection flame or heating element in the form of
and radiation. electromagnetic radiation and this is
absorbed directly by the surface of the stock.
❚ In convection, heat is transferred from the As this radiation travels in direct straight
flame or heating element to the stock by lines, stock surfaces which are not ‘visible’ to
the movement of hot air (or the products of the flame will not be heated. In practice, this
combustion). This movement may occur effect can be overcome by heating the
naturally due to the buoyancy of the hot refractory lining of the furnace to a high
gases, or may be mechanically induced temperature such that it starts to radiate.
using fans.
❚ For lowest energy usage, aim to maximise
❚ The final stage of the convective heat the rate of heat transfer, thereby
transfer process, namely the transfer of heat minimising firing times (subject to stock
from the hot gases to the stock, can be constraints). Factors to consider include:
accelerated by ensuring that the gas flow is
– flame shape, luminosity and temperature
turbulent. Turbulence can also help to
(consider oxygen enrichment);
ensure that heat transfer is uniform to all
surfaces of the stock and throughout the – turbulence;
furnace. Too much turbulence can be – furnace shape;
harmful, however, as it may lead to product – furniture/stock spacing.
degradation or cross contamination. It can
also result in excessive electrical usage by ❚ Direct firing, i.e. where the products of
the circulation fans. combustion are in direct contact with the
stock, will be more efficient than indirect
❚ It is important to understand the balance of firing. Products of combustion may have an
heat transfer mechanisms within each adverse effect on stock quality, however,
furnace. This will influence other aspects of and for this reason, cleaner fuels such as
operation such as charge loading and the natural gas are often favoured.
need for turbulence. Radiation normally
dominates (particularly above 600°C). ❚ When direct firing, avoid the flame coming
into direct contact with the stock. Carefully
❚ With radiation, there is no need for hot gases control flame shape/direction or use muffles.
to act as a mechanism for heat transfer.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form) plus:
Ceramics NPP32 Fast firing of decorated ceramic ware
33
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Furnace Atmosphere Fact File: T4
The atmosphere within a furnace serves a variety of purposes including:
❚ providing a mechanism for convective heat transfer to the stock;
❚ removal of the products of combustion;
❚ removal of the products of chemical or physical change within the stock;
❚ prevention of unwanted changes or degradation to the stock, e.g. the use of a
reducing atmosphere to prevent product oxidisation;
❚ control of unwanted air ingress or excessive loss of hot furnace gases.
Accordingly, the internal furnace atmosphere must be closely controlled, particularly with regard to:
❚ temperature;
❚ pressure;
❚ velocity profiles;
❚ chemical composition.
KEY POINTS
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Furnace Control Fact File: T5
Close control of furnace conditions is
Pressure
essential for good product quality, governor Restrictor
M
energy efficiency and minimum valve LOV
Gas
emissions. The key parameters that
need to be controlled will vary from Filter
furnace to furnace. Start by identifying
these critical parameters and then ERC Thermistor block
ensure that suitable control systems are M Filter
put in place to regulate each of them. Restrictor
valve LOV
Control systems need to be accurate, Air
responsive and reliable.
Electronic ratio control
KEY POINTS
❚ Rigorous maintenance regimes (Fact File ❚ The use of computerised control systems
M11) are required to ensure correct control can lead to significant performance
calibration and performance. All elements improvements particularly when dealing
of the control system must be maintained with complex multi-variables (Fact File T6).
namely:
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form) plus:
Ferrous metals GPCS 213 Demonstrating good practice in medium frequency coreless
induction furnaces
35
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Mathematical Models and Expert Systems Fact File: T6
It is no longer necessary, or desirable, to
operate furnaces on the basis of ‘trial and
error’. While the parameters affecting
furnace operation are many and complex,
modern mathematical modelling
techniques allow them to be correlated
and understood.
KEY POINTS
❚ Traditionally, the required furnace ❚ Even complex parameters such as heat flux
conditions have been arrived at by profiles and convective air flow can now be
experimentation, e.g. by firing a number effectively modelled.
of test pieces.
❚ Many mathematical models use purpose-
❚ The above approach makes it difficult to developed criteria (such as ‘heat-work’) as a
achieve optimum settings and judge what means of predicting furnace performance.
adjustments should be made if any
parameters are changed, e.g. fuel type,
❚ Computer-based ‘expert systems’ use these
stock size.
mathematical models to determine the best
furnace settings for any job.
❚ Powerful mathematical techniques now
exist, e.g. Computational Fluid Dynamics
❚ If conditions change, or non-ideal settings
(CFD), which allow the inter-relationships
are used, the ‘expert system’ can issue new
between all furnace variables to be
instructions and/or activate alarms or
modelled and hence understood.
interlocks to prevent off-spec production.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form) plus:
All sectors NPP 85 An on-line, real time, expert system optimiser to reduce energy costs
GPCS 160 Expert system improves performance of PLC control plant
36
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Refractories and Insulation Fact File: T7
The correct choice of refractory is essential to protect the furnace and minimise energy use.
In recent years there have been significant advances in refractory technology, particularly in the
field of low thermal mass linings (which are of especial benefit in intermittent furnaces).
Ceramics kiln lined with woven continuous filament ceramic fibre blanket for hot face covering
KEY POINTS
❚ Refractories provide essential high ❚ For this reason, refractories are often
temperature insulation to protect the layered with a high temperature, erosion
furnace structure. resistant refractory being used to face a less
robust, but better insulating, inner layer.
❚ A range of refractory materials are available
offering different combinations of ❚ Different areas and zones within a furnace
properties including: will require different refractory
formulations.
– maximum operating temperature;
– thermal conductivity;
❚ Low thermal mass (LTM) materials, e.g.
– erosion resistance; ceramic fibre, are now available that allow
more rapid warm-up/cool-down in
– corrosion resistance;
intermittent furnaces. This can yield
– coefficient of expansion. significant production and energy benefits.
❚ There is often a trade-off between refractory ❚ LTM materials have poorer mechanical
properties, e.g. those with good insulating properties than conventional refractories
properties have relatively poor erosion and hence the latter are often the preferred
resistance. choice in aggressive environments.
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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Refractories and Insulation KEY POINTS
❚ It is possible to carry out in-situ refractory ❚ However, external insulation can be applied
repairs in most furnaces but this is a effectively to lower temperature plant, e.g.
specialist activity and must be undertaken recuperators and regenerators.
strictly in accordance with the refractory
manufacturer’s recommendations.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 218 Corundum-resistant furnace lining
Glass GPCS 133 External spray insulation on furnace regenerators
Ceramics GPG 244 The use of low thermal mass materials and systems in the
ceramic industries
38
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Waste Heat Recovery Fact File: T8
A large proportion of the energy used by
furnaces is lost either in the flue gases or
Other
with the hot product. If this heat can be processes
recovered and re-used, then less energy will
be required. Waste heat
recovery
device
Waste heat recovery is a widely applicable Furnace
Air
technique but is not always cost-effective. pre-heat
As with any retrofit modification, the Waste gas
economics of waste heat recovery improve stream
with larger scale and extended hours of use.
KEY POINTS
❚ It is far better to reduce the quantity of ❚ Consider heat recovery to the furnace as
waste heat produced than to recover it. first choice, e.g. pre-heating combustion air
Therefore, ensure that all other aspects of or feed stock. Be aware, however, that pre-
the furnace operation are optimised before heating combustion air will lead to a higher
considering waste heat recovery. flame temperature and hence may increase
NOx emissions.
❚ Waste heat recovery can be applied to most
types of furnace and may lead to higher ❚ Recovered heat can also be transferred for
throughputs as well as energy savings. A use in other processes, e.g. drying, or to
variety of techniques are available, these provide space heating.
include:
❚ Alternatively, waste heat boilers can be used
– flue gas recuperation (Fact File T9);
to raise steam for power generation or
– flue gas regeneration (Fact File T11); process use.
– stock recuperation (Fact File T12).
❚ Recover waste heat at as a high a
temperature as possible to provide best heat
❚ The recovery of waste heat from flue gases
exchanger performance.
will reduce gas temperature, which can be
useful if subsequent emission abatement
❚ When assessing a waste heat recovery
processes are required.
scheme always consider:
– impact on furnace conditions, e.g. back
❚ All waste heat recovery schemes require a
pressure or flame characteristics;
heat source and a heat sink (recipient). The
most effective schemes require these to be – potential fouling of heat exchange surfaces;
matched in terms of: – maintenance requirements, e.g. a bypass
facility may be required.
– quantities of heat available/required;
– temperatures available/required; ❚ Up to 50% energy savings are possible.
– timing of heat availability/requirement;
– close physical proximity. ❚ Typical payback on investment is 2 – 5 years.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams
39
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Flue Gas Recuperation Fact File: T9
Recuperation involves the use of an
Flue
in-line heat exchanger to recover
waste heat from flue gases to pre-
heat combustion air.
Air in
Pre-heated
air out
KEY POINTS
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams
Non-ferrous metals NPP 48 Recuperative aluminium recycling plant
40
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Self-recuperative Burners Fact File: T10
Natural gas
Hot combustion
products
A self-recuperative burner
Combustion
provides energy savings products
by pre-heating
combustion air with the
Hot combustion
exhaust waste gases via a products
heat exchanger Combustion air
incorporated in the
Self-recuperative burner
burner body.
KEY POINTS
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams
41
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Flue Gas Regeneration Fact File: T11
Regeneration uses a Burner in
short-term cyclic heat exhaust mode
storage device as the
means of achieving
waste heat recovery.
Burner in
firing mode
Regenerator
Gas inlet
Reversing
Regenerator valve
Combustion air
KEY POINTS
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams
42
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Stock Recuperation Fact File: T12
The heat contained within hot
product (stock) as it is discharged
from a furnace is often wasted. If
this heat can be recovered,
efficiency will be improved. Waste gas
temperature control
Similarly, incoming feedstock can Charging door
be pre-heated using waste heat
contained in flue gases etc. as a Waste gas Charging
hood car
useful means of heat recovery.
Baffle
Charging
(flue covering)
unit
Shaft/melting
Pre-heating
zone
zone
Burners
Melting
chamber
Furnace body
KEY POINTS
❚ Heat is most often recovered from hot ❚ The output of many furnaces will go to
product by cooling it with air. further processes that require hot feed
stock. Under these circumstances, it is
usually better to ensure that the heat is
❚ The resulting warm air can then be used as
retained within the stock, rather than
combustion air or for other processes, e.g.
trying to remove it for recovery.
drying.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 112 Gas-fired shaft furnaces
43
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Motors and Drives Fact File: T13
Over their operating life, electric motors can
consume electricity worth 100 times the
purchase price of the motor itself. It follows
that efforts aimed at improving the
efficiency of electric motors (and the
systems they power) will be well rewarded.
KEY POINTS
❚ Turn off motors when not required, e.g. on ❚ If dampers are currently used for adjusting air
empty conveyors. Consider simple electrical flow, consider using a variable speed drive
interlocks to achieve this automatically. (VSD) instead. The power cube rule means
that just reducing the speed by 20% can
Selecting the Right Motor reduce the power consumption by up to 50%.
❚ Specify ‘higher efficiency motors’ for all ❚ The economics of installing a VSD are
new purchases (available from major influenced by:
manufacturers at little or no extra cost). – the size of the load relative to motor
rating (the smaller the load the better);
❚ Consider replacing rather than repairing
failed electric motors. – the size of motor (the bigger the better);
– the operating hours (the longer the better);
– the variability of the load (the more
variable the better).
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 2 Energy savings with electric motor and drives
GPCS 222 Purchasing policy for higher efficiency motors
GIL 56 Energy savings from motor management policies
Ferrous metals GPCS 125 Variable speed drives on a batch furnace combustion air fan
GPCS 356 Conflict control of a combustion air fan on a large continuous furnace
GPCS 162 High efficiency motors on fans and pumps
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Ancillary Services Fact File: T14
Following initial efforts to improve the energy efficiency of the furnace itself, as the major energy
user, it is worth investigating the savings available from reviewing the operation of ancillary
services, such as compressed air and cooling water services. Very often these are taken for
granted and receive little attention until they go wrong.
Savings are available from a combination of good housekeeping measures, e.g. the rapid repair
of compressed air leaks, and capital expenditure on system modifications such as improved
controls and variable speed drives.
KEY POINTS
❚ Compressed air typically costs ten times as ❚ Fit point-of-use controls to minimise water
much as electricity. consumption.
❚ Carry out regular leak tests, adopt a system ❚ Use re-circulatory systems, e.g. with cooling
of leak tagging and repair leaks promptly. towers, rather than running mains water to
drain.
❚ Do not generate air at a higher pressure
than you need. Question the need to ❚ Position cooling towers to ensure a free
generate at a pressure above 7 bar (gauge). circulation of air.
❚ Ensure compressor rooms are well-ventilated, ❚ Pumps and fans should use energy efficient
as compressor efficiency deteriorates as air motors (Fact File T13).
inlet temperature increases.
❚ Control pumps and fans in line with
❚ Sequence control compressor capacity in cooling demand. For example, use
line with air demand, and ensure the load thermostatic sequence control or variable
compressor has automatic capacity speed drives (Fact File T13).
regulation to allow the quantity of air
delivered to match demand precisely.
❚ If multiple cooling pumps are installed in
parallel, make sure the non-return valves
❚ Maintain compressors regularly (particularly are fitted to prevent water short-circuiting
air inlet filters). back through off-line pumps and check
annually that they are still sealing properly.
❚ Consider waste heat recovery, to generate
hot water and/or warm air, e.g. for factory ❚ Adopt rigorous water treatment regimes to
heating. maintain system performance and
eliminate potential health/hygiene issues,
e.g. Legionella pneumophylla.
For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 225 Industrial cooling water systems
GPG 126 Compressing air costs
Ferrous metals GPG 170 Reducing water pumping costs in the steel industry
Glass GPCS 251 An energy management and investment campaign at a
glass plant
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46
APPENDIX 1
GLOSSARY
Break clause A clause in longer term gas or electricity supply contracts which allows
the customer to seek alternative quotations at each renewal
anniversary. The supplier undertakes to match the best price received
or release the customer from the contract.
Calorific value (CV) The heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit quantity of
fuel. The gross calorific value is the total heat available after the water
formed as a combustion product has condensed. The net calorific value
signifies that the water formed is still a vapour.
Combustion air The air supplied through a burner other than that supplied for the
atomisation of fuel oils.
Combustion efficiency The proportion of the energy in the fuel (based on its calorific value)
used to satisfy all the heating requirements and energy losses
associated with the furnace excluding the heat content of the exhaust
gases. It is usually expressed as a percentage.
Continuous Typically these are ÔtunnelÕ furnaces or kilns with the stock passing
furnaces/kilns through them on a continuous basis.
Convection Transfer of heat by the bulk movement of a hot fluid, e.g. air, from one
place to another.
Correction capacitors Electrical capacitors which are installed, adjacent to either large plant
or distribution boards, to improve the power factor.
Direct firing Firing without protecting the ware from the products of combustion.
Dual-fuel burners Burners equipped to fire more than one fuel e.g. gas or oil.
Excess air Air supplied in addition to that required for the stoichiometric
combustion of a fuel.
Fouling A term used for the deposition of oxides or other process derived
emissions on the heat exchange surfaces in waste heat recovery
systems.
Furnace scheduling Refers to the management of processes to ensure the minimum waste
of energy/loss of product.
Hot inspection A term used in the glass industry but is applied in the metal industries.
The technique of inspection soon after the products are made rather
than waiting for them to cool, thereby avoiding the possibility of more
scrap being made in the meantime.
Indirect firing Applied to the ferrous, non-ferrous and ceramics industries where the
product is protected from direct flame impingement from the burners
by refractory or metallic baffles, for example muffle furnaces.
Induction furnaces These are used only for metals. Typically, a high frequency electrical
current is passed through a copper coil surrounding the product. This
induces currents within the product whose electrical resistance causes
the product to heat up.
Light up The period when the furnace temperature is being raised in preparation
for production, e.g. following a period when the burners have been
turned off.
Low thermal mass Refractory materials having low bulk density and low specific heat.
(LTM)
Muffle A refractory lining to a kiln or furnace that prevents the stock from
coming into contact with combustion gases.
Oxygen enrichment The practice of adding oxygen to combustion air to increase its oxygen
content. Typically between the normal atmospheric ratio (21%) and
26%.
Plate heat exchanger A heat exchanger in which thin corrugated plates are fixed together to
form a compact unit with hot and cold fluid flowing along adjacent
passages.
Products of combustion The materials remaining after combustion of a fuel. Generally include
CO2, H2O, and N2 but may also include CO, H2, O2, aldehydes and
other complex hydrocarbons, sulphur compounds, N2 compounds and
particulates.
Refractories A general term applied to the ceramic structures lining the hot face of
a furnace chamber.
Regenerative furnace A furnace in which the hot gases pass through chambers containing
fire-brick structures, to which the sensible heat is given up. The
direction of gas flow is reversed periodically and cold incoming gas is
pre-heated in the chambers.
Self-recuperative burner A burner in which waste gases are used to pre-heat the combustion air
to that burner.
Specific energy The amount of energy used to process a unit (usually one tonne) of
consumption stock.
Specific heat The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
a substance by one degree.
Stock recuperation A technique whereby the exhaust gases leave the furnace at the charge
end, thus enabling their waste energy to pre-heat the stock.
Thermal conductivity The physical property of a material that describes the rate of flow of
heat through a unit surface area of a material. The SI unit is Watts per
metre per degree Kelvin (W m-1 K-1).
Thermocouples Device for measuring temperature on the basis of the electrical current
generated by the junction between two dissimilar conductors on
heating.
APPENDIX 2
Company Name
Address
Postcode
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