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A Manager's Guide To Optimising Furnace Performance

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
134 views56 pages

A Manager's Guide To Optimising Furnace Performance

Uploaded by

Rodrigo Díaz
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 253

A manager’s guide to
optimising furnace performance
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 253

BEST PRACTICE
PROGRAMME
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO OPTIMISING
FURNACE PERFORMANCE
This Guide is No. 253 in the Good Practice Guide series and is intended to help managers in the
operation of high temperature furnaces and kilns. Furnace operation is a costly and complex
business, and getting it right is important if product quality, throughput and profitability are to
be maintained.

Extensive experience working with furnace users has shown that operating cost savings of 10-
30% can often be achieved with little or no capital outlay. To achieve this managers must
recognise that getting the most from a furnace is not just a technical issue Ð there are many
management issues too.

The problem for busy managers is knowing where to start Ð this Guide explains where and how
to start saving money.

Prepared for the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme by:

ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire
OX11 0QJ

and

Briar Associates
Church Hill
Brierley Hill
West Midlands
DY5 3PY

GPG253 This version published 01/01


© Crown copyright
First published January 2001

LIST OF RELEVANT GOOD PRACTICE GUIDES

These and other relevant publications are listed on the fax-back form at the back of this Guide.

Copies of these Guides may be obtained from:

Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau


ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire
OX11 0QJ
Fax No: 01235 433066
Helpline Tel No: 0800 585794
Helpline E-mail: [email protected]

Overseas customers please remit £3 per copy (minimum of £6) with order to cover cost of
packaging and posting. Please make cheques, drafts or money orders payable to ETSU.

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FOREWORD

This Guide is part of a series produced by the Government under the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme. The aim
of the programme is to advance and spread good practice in energy efficiency by providing independent, authoritative advice
and information on good energy efficiency practices. Best Practice is a collaborative programme targeted towards energy
users and decision makers in industry, the commercial and public sectors, and building sectors including housing. It
comprises four inter-related elements identified by colour-coded strips for easy reference:

Ñ Energy Consumption Guides: (blue) energy consumption data to enable users to establish their relative energy
efficiency performance;

Ñ Good Practice Guides: (red) and Case Studies: (mustard) independent information on proven energy-saving
measures and techniques and what they are achieving;

Ñ New Practice projects: (light green) independent monitoring of new energy efficiency measures which do not yet
enjoy a wide market;

Ñ Future Practice R&D support: (purple) help to develop tomorrowÕs energy efficiency good practice measures.

If you would like any further information on this document, or on the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme, please
contact the Environment and Energy Helpline on 0800 585794. Alternatively, you may contact your local service deliverer
Ð see contact details below.

ENGLAND
London North West South West
Govt Office for London Environment Team Environment and Energy Management Team
6th Floor Govt Office for the North West Govt Office for the South West
Riverwalk House Cunard Building The Pithay
157-161 Millbank Pier Head Bristol
London Water Street Avon
SW1P 4RR Liverpool BS1 2PB
Tel 020 7217 3435 L3 1QB Tel 0117 900 1700
Tel 0151 224 6401
East Midlands West Midlands
The Sustainable Development Team South East Regional Sustainability Team
Govt Office for the East Midlands Sustainable Development Team 77 Paradise Circus
The Belgrave Centre Govt Office for the South East Queensway
Stanley Place Bridge House Birmingham
Talbot Street 1 Walnut Tree Close B1 2DT
Nottingham Guildford Tel 0121 212 5300
NG1 5GG Surrey
Tel 0115 971 2476 GU1 4GA Yorkshire and the Humber
Tel 01483 882532 Sustainable Development Unit
North East Govt Office for Yorks and the Humber
Sustainability and Environment Team East PO Box 213
Govt Office for the North East Sustainable Development Awareness Team City House
Wellbar House Govt Office for the East of England New Station Street
Gallowgate Heron House Leeds
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 49-53 Goldington Road LS1 4US
NE1 4TD Bedford Tel 0113 283 6376
Tel 0191 202 3614 MK40 3LL
Tel 01234 796194

NORTHERN IRELAND SCOTLAND WALES


IRTU Scientific Services Energy Efficiency Office Business and Environment Branch
17 Antrim Road Enterprise and Lifelong Learning Dept National Assembly for Wales
Lisburn 2nd Floor Cathays Park
Co Antrim Meridian Court Cardiff
BT28 3AL 5 Cadogan Street CF10 3NQ
Tel 028 9262 3000 Glasgow Tel 029 2082 5172
G2 6AT
Tel 0141 242 5835

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CONTENTS

Section Page No.

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Getting Started 1


1.2 Case Histories 2
1.3 Key Management Questions 5
1.4 Key Technical Questions 6

2. TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE 7

3. SPECIFYING A NEW FURNACE 9

4. FACT FILES 10

M1: Auditing Furnace Performance 11


M2: Benchmarking 13
M3: Getting the Best Energy Prices 14
M4: Raw Materials and Feedstocks 16
M5: Improving Furnace Yield 17
M6: Charging and Unloading 19
M7: Scheduling Furnace Operations 20
M8: Delay Strategies 21
M9: Training and Supervision 22
M10: Labour Costs 23
M11: Maintenance 24
M12: Monitoring and Targeting 25
M13: Environmental Issues 27
M14: Financial Assessments 29
T1: Choosing the Right Fuel 30
T2: Combustion Efficiency 32
T3: Heat Transfer 33
T4: Furnace Atmosphere 34
T5: Furnace Control 35
T6: Mathematical Models and Expert Systems 36
T7: Refractories and Insulation 37
T8: Waste Heat Recovery 39
T9: Flue Gas Recuperation 40
T10: Self-recuperative Burners 41
T11: Flue Gas Regeneration 42
T12: Stock Recuperation 43
T13: Motors and Drives 44
T14: Ancillary Services 45

Appendices

Appendix 1 Glossary 46
Appendix 2 Literature Request Form 49

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1. INTRODUCTION

This Guide is intended for busy managers who would like straightforward suggestions for
improving the profitability of their furnace operation. It is a practical Guide that suggests how,
when and why to make improvements that will result in a more cost-effective operation.

This Guide highlights the key points in an easy to read manner, and shows where to go for further
information. At the heart of the Guide are Fact Files; concise sheets that provide information on
specific topics, from improving yield, to shopping around for cheaper electricity.

Additional information on most topics can be obtained from the wide range of free publications
produced by the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme. References are given at the bottom
of each Fact File so you can see the publications that will help you the most with any given area
of operation.

The Core Guides should be considered as Ôessential readingÕ as these cover many topics. Some
of the other publications are aimed at specific industry sectors, e.g. ferrous metals, ceramics.
However, the information contained within them is often of value to a much wider audience. A
fax-back order form is provided at the back of this Guide.

1.1 Getting Started

Many improvements can be made to your furnace operation at little or no cost and these will
improve efficiency and save your company money. Applying effective management techniques
to get the best possible performance from your existing plant and equipment should be the first
step in any planned programme of improvements. The Fact Files addressing management issues
appear first in this Guide. Without proper management systems in place, it will be impossible to
make informed decisions about future investment in technology to improve furnace efficiency.
Technology issues are dealt with in the second set of Fact Files.

To help guide you through the issues involved, are two sets of Key Questions (Sections 1.3 and
1.4). To discover the changes that will have the biggest impact on your operations, work your
way through the questions. If there are any that you cannot confidently answer ÔyesÕ to, refer to
the corresponding Fact File to see what opportunities you may be missing.

Section 2 is a Troubleshooting Guide which shows how the Fact Files can provide help in
overcoming common operational problems. The checklist in Section 3 will help you to make the
right decisions the next time you come to specify a new furnace.

Take a few seconds to read the following Case Histories that demonstrate how simple changes
have saved other companies money Ð can you afford not to do the same for your company?

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1.2 Case Histories

FERROUS METALS SECTOR

Demonstrating good practice in medium frequency coreless induction furnaces

Alfer Ltd, a division of the Baxi Partnership, operates a modern iron foundry to mass
produce the cast iron heat exchangers used in its range of domestic boilers. A range of
castings is also produced for outside customers, mainly in the automotive industry.

Continuous mould production, the use of molten holding and automatic pouring facilities
enables operating procedures to provide an outstanding example of good practice in the
medium-frequency melting of cast iron. These procedures result in low specific energy
consumption (SEC) and energy efficient operation of the melting furnaces.

If the SEC at Alfer could be achieved by all foundries using coreless induction furnaces,
an annual energy saving of about 34 million kWh or 120,000 GJ would result in the UK,
producing a cost saving of about £1.2 million/year to the industry.

For further information see GPCS 213, Demonstrating good practice in medium frequency
coreless induction furnaces.

The melting furnace with its lid closed

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NON-FERROUS METALS SECTOR

Energy savings from small, efficient melting and holding furnaces

Quinton Hazell Automotive Ltd is a member of the UK based Echlin Group and a major
supplier of water pumps, steering and suspension parts to the automotive industry.

In 1994, the company converted its electrical induction and melting unit, ladle transfer
system and holding furnaces to modern, gas-fired small melting/bale out furnaces. These
provide a number of energy benefits including:

¥ use of a cheaper fuel;


¥ heat recovery from combustion exhaust gases to preheat the incoming charge;
¥ improved insulation.

The total investment cost was £112,000, but savings of £69,700/year have resulted, giving
a simple payback period of 1.6 years.

For further information see GPCS 344, Energy savings from small, efficient melting and
holding furnaces.

CERAMICS SECTOR

Improved heat distribution in a tunnel kiln

The Yorkshire Brick Company made several types of perforated clay bricks for use in the
construction industry. In 1988, one of its gas fired tunnel kilns was modified to improve
the temperature distribution in the brick setting.

A hot air recirculation system was added in the early heating stages, extra burners were
installed and better control of cooling was implemented. These changes resulted in a faster
firing schedule, with product quality maintained.

Substantial energy and cost savings were achieved as a result. The greatest cost advantage
came from the increased productivity of the kiln; output rose by 34%, while the specific
energy consumption dropped by 25%. The investment cost was £265,000 and savings of
£243,300/year were achieved. The simple payback period on investment was therefore
1.1 years.

For further information see NPFP 17, Improved heat distribution in a tunnel kiln.

Inside a tunnel kiln

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GLASS SECTOR

External spray insulation on furnace regenerators

Beatson Clark plc installed additional insulation to the regenerative heat recovery
system on one of the companyÕs furnaces at its factory in Rotherham. The insulation,
employing a spray technique, proved simple to install and caused no disruption to the
running of the plant.

The resulting energy savings of over £24,000/year arose from both improved thermal
insulation and sealing of the structure against the entry of cold air. The installed cost was
just £10,500 giving a payback period of 23 weeks.

For further information see GPCS 133, External spray insulation on furnace regenerators.

ÔKÕ furnace regenerator with Inspray

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1.3 Key Management Questions

If your answer is ÔnoÕ or ÔdonÕt knowÕ to any of these questions, refer to the relevant Fact File.

Fact File

Do I really know how much my furnace costs to operate? M1


Do I know how my costs compare with those of my competitors? M2
Am I buying my fuel as cheaply as possible? M3
Am I using the most cost effective raw materials? M4
Is my furnace as productive as it could be? M5
Are my furnace loading procedures absolutely right? M6
Do I schedule my furnace operations in the optimum way? M7
Are standard procedures in place to deal with production delays? M8
Do my furnace operators always act as they should? M9
Have I explored all ways of reducing my labour costs? M10
Do I use the most effective plant maintenance regime? M11
Do I know how my furnace performed last week, or last month? M12
Have I considered the environmental constraints affecting my furnace? M13
Am I confident about justifying capital expenditure on plant
improvements? M14

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1.4 Key Technical Questions

If your answer is ÔnoÕ or ÔdonÕt knowÕ to any of these questions, refer to the relevant Fact File.

Fact File

Am I using the right fuel? T1


Do I get the maximum amount of useful heat from my fuel? T2
Is heat effectively transferred to stock? T3
Do I achieve the optimum atmosphere within my furnace? T4
Are all aspects of my furnaceÕs operation perfectly controlled? T5
Have I considered using an Ôexpert systemÕ? T6
Do I definitely use the right refractories? T7
Am I recovering and re-using all available waste heat? T8-T12
Do I use the most efficient motors and drives? T13
Have I improved the performance of my compressed air and
cooling water systems? T14

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2. TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE

The causes and effects of furnace problems are closely bound together, making it sometimes
difficult to identify the best action to take. For example, off-spec product could be caused by a
number of factors including incorrect raw materials specification, poor heat transfer, inadequate
furnace control, etc. Similarly, a single fault, such as inefficient combustion, can result in a
multitude of symptoms such as increased fuel usage, reduced yield or off-spec product.

Troubleshooting needs to be approached in a systematic manner. To help you achieve this, use
the following diagrams to direct you to the appropriate Fact Files. Work through the referenced
Fact Files in order, remembering to address all Management issues first, before moving onto the
Technical ones.

Problem: Management Fact Files


incorrect
product M1 Auditing Furnace Performance
composition

M2 Benchmarking

Problem:
M3 Getting the Best Energy Prices Problem:
running costs
low output rate seem high
M4 Raw Materials and Feedstocks

Problem:
M5 Improving Furnace Yield
low yield
M6 Charging and Unloading

M7 Scheduling Furnace Operations

M8 Delay Strategies

M9 Training and Supervision

M10 Labour Costs

M11 Maintenance

M12 Monitoring and Targeting


Problem:
low output
temperature M14 Environmental Issues

M15 Financial Assessments

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Problem: Technical Fact Files


incorrect
product T1 Choosing the Right Fuel
composition

T2 Combustion Efficiency

Problem:
T3 Heat Transfer Problem:
running costs
low output rate seem high
T4 Furnace Atmosphere

Problem:
T5 Furnace Control
low yield Mathematical Models and
T6 Expert Systems

T7 Refractories and Insulation

T8 Waste Heat Recovery

T9 Flue Gas Recuperation

T10 Self-recuperative Burners

T11 Flue Gas Regeneration

T12 Stock Recuperation


Problem:
low output
temperature T13 Motors and Drives

T14 Ancillary Services

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3. SPECIFYING A NEW FURNACE CHECKLIST

When specifying a new furnace it is important to consider all options and make informed
decisions. Use this quick checklist to help you with your considerations, referring to the relevant
Fact File for information.

Fact File

What flexibility do I need with regard to feedstock specification? M4


Could I accept a lower specification, cheaper feedstock with a
different furnace design? M4
How will the furnace be best positioned and operated in relation
to any upstream or downstream processes? M5
What is the best way to load and unload the furnace? M6
What specific training and supervision needs will there be? M9
Are manning levels minimised? M10
Are maintenance requirements defined and acceptable? M11
Does the furnace comply with environmental standards? M14
Have I considered life cycle costs in making my financial assessment? M15
Am I using the right fuel? T1
Is the heat transfer mechanism appropriate for the product? T2
Is there a requirement for a controlled atmosphere within the furnace? T4
Are the controls adequate? T5
Would the furnace justify the use of an ÔExpert SystemÕ? T6
Could the refractory specification be improved? T7
Are there opportunities for waste heat recovery? T8
Are higher efficiency motors specified? T13
Are variable speed drives applicable? T13
Are compressed air and cooling water demands minimised and
well controlled? T14

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4. FACT FILES
Page No.
M1: Auditing Furnace Performance 11
M2: Benchmarking 13
M3: Getting the Best Energy Prices 14
M4: Raw Materials and Feedstocks 16
M5: Improving Furnace Yield 17
M6: Charging and Unloading 19
M7: Scheduling Furnace Operations 20
M8: Delay Strategies 21
M9: Training and Supervision 22
M10: Labour Costs 23
M11: Maintenance 24
M12: Monitoring and Targeting 25
M13: Environmental Issues 27
M14: Financial Assessments 29
T1: Choosing the Right Fuel 30
T2: Combustion Efficiency 32
T3: Heat Transfer 33
T4: Furnace Atmosphere 34
T5: Furnace Control 35
T6: Mathematical Models and Expert Systems 36
T7: Refractories and Insulation 37
T8: Waste Heat Recovery 39
T9: Flue Gas Recuperation 40
T10: Self-recuperative Burners 41
T11: Flue Gas Regeneration 42
T12: Stock Recuperation 43
T13: Motors and Drives 44
T14: Ancillary Services 45

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Auditing Furnace Performance Fact File: M1
Many factors affect furnace performance. The best way of achieving significant
improvement is to use a systematic management approach that is
grounded in a thorough understanding of the issues involved. This
understanding can be developed by auditing the current Cooling air to waste
performance of your furnace in terms of material use, (or dryers)
energy use and operating costs. The simplest audit
should be undertaken for all furnaces and Flue gases Kiln
provides the following basic management furniture
Kiln car
information: Structural
losses

❚ furnace yield (quantity of useable Latent Sensible Heat


product per unit of feedstock); to ware

❚ specific energy consumption


(energy used per unit of product);
Base
❚ specific production cost conduction

(cost per unit of product). Leaks Under-car


losses
In addition, most furnaces, particularly
those where annual materials, energy,
labour or maintenance costs
individually exceed £10,000, will benefit Diagram showing uses and losses of heat in a furnace
from a more detailed audit that will
identify the location, magnitude and value of areas of waste.

The time required to complete the audits may range from a few hours to several days depending
on the size and complexity of your furnace. In any case, however, compiling the audits should
be viewed as an essential management exercise that will ultimately repay any costs involved
many times over.
KEY POINTS
Simple Audits

❚ Simple audits will generate the three basic ❚ Energy use can initially be estimated from
performance indicators (furnace yield, nominal plant ratings (e.g. m3/hour of gas,
specific energy consumption and specific kW of electricity etc.), multiplied by the
production cost), that will allow you to number of hours run.
compare the performance of your furnace
with those of others via the use of ❚ If the estimated annual energy cost exceeds
published benchmarks (see Fact File M2). £10,000, then sub-metering should be
considered to provide more accurate
❚ The following data will be required to information. Gas, oil and electricity sub-
calculate the performance indicators: meters can normally be installed for a few
hundred pounds each.
a) Weight of feedstock used and usable
product produced – this may require
❚ The audits must relate to an appropriate
production records to be refined, for
timeframe that should be long enough to
example, to show the throughput of
encompass all stages of a furnace’s
individual furnaces.
operation. For example, audits of batch
b) Amount of energy used – main heating furnaces must include consideration of
fuel plus electricity used for fans, loading/unloading, warm-up/cool down
conveyors etc. and any idle time between batches. The
same concept applies to continuous
c) Operating costs, to include:
furnaces where you will need to encompass
– energy costs; product changes, maintenance, weekend
– labour costs; set-back etc.
– raw materials costs;
– maintenance costs.

11
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Auditing Furnace Performance KEY POINTS

Detailed Audits

❚ Most furnaces will justify more detailed ❚ When calculating the energy content of the
analysis of material use, energy use and/or product remember to consider its:
production costs. The approach used for – temperature: which will probably be
each detailed audit is as follows: higher than that of the feedstock;
a) An imaginary ‘envelope’ is drawn around – phase: molten products will have
the furnace. absorbed the latent heat of fusion;
b) All input and output streams that pass – composition: if chemical changes have
through the ‘envelope’ are identified. occurred, the product’s energy content
c) The magnitude of each stream is will have either increased (endothermic
quantified using common units (e.g. change), or decreased (exothermic
tonnes of material, kWh of energy or change).
financial value).
d) A balance sheet is constructed comparing ❚ In the cost audit, labour costs should be
inputs and outputs. subdivided to show:
e) The balance sheet is critically reviewed to – supervisor vs operator costs;
identify areas of unnecessary use or – overtime vs normal working;
wastage, e.g. materials wastage due to off- – time lost due to sickness;
spec product, energy wastage due to
– time lost due to absenteeism;
inadequate insulation, excessive
maintenance expenditure etc. – labour cost of each process step,
e.g. loading, unloading, QA.
❚ The time and effort required to complete
detailed audits will depend on the size and ❚ Maintenance costs should be subdivided to
complexity of the furnace. As a general rule, show:
detailed audits are recommended for all – planned vs breakdown maintenance;
furnaces where annual materials, energy, – direct employed vs contract works;
labour or maintenance costs individually – maintenance costs of specific equipment,
exceed £10,000. e.g. burners, refractories, heat recovery
plant etc.
❚ Take your time when compiling the audits
and use the opportunity to question why ❚ If the technical expertise required to
things are being done in the way that they undertake a detailed audit is not available
are. Opportunities for cost savings will from within your own organisation,
almost certainly present themselves. consider using external specialists, for
example:
❚ When compiling the materials balance,
remember to allow for any chemical – furnace manufacturers;
changes that occur to the product, the – trade associations;
driving off of any volatile components, and – consulting engineers.
materials lost due to off-spec production,
combination with slag etc.

❚ The energy balance should include inputs


such as feedstock, fuel, combustion and
dilution air and electrical energy; and
outputs such as product, kiln furniture, flue
gases, exhaust gases and radiation/
convection from the hot furnace shell.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).

12
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Benchmarking Fact File: M2
A simple audit of furnace performance (see Fact File M1) will provide the following:

❚ furnace yield (quantity of useable production per unit of feedstock);


❚ specific energy consumption (energy used per unit of product);
❚ specific production cost (cost per unit of product).

Quantifying furnace
5
performance in this way allows China Earthenware
comparison with external + Other

Number of factories
4 Porcelain
benchmark figures. This Earthenware Porcelain
3
comparison will show whether
your furnace is performing 2
better or worse than might
reasonably be expected and by 1

how much. To be meaningful, 0


benchmark figures need to be 0-10 20-30 40-50 60-70 80-90 100-110 120-130 140-150 160-170 180-190
10-20 30-40 50-60 70-80 90-100 110-120 130-140 150-160 170-180
product-specific. Fortunately,
much research has been Specific energy consumption (GJ/t)
(1 GJ = 9.48 therms = 278 kWh)
undertaken in recent years and
a wide range of benchmark Overall SEC for tableware production
data is now freely available
covering most industry sectors.
KEY POINTS

❚ Benchmark figures are available from a ❚ The highest energy users are typically
number of sources including: found to have SECs that are 2 – 3 times
higher than the lowest (see bar chart
– furnace manufacturers;
above).
– trade associations;
– the Energy Efficiency Best Practice ❚ This spread in SECs is largely caused by
Programme (EEBPP). differences in furnace operating procedures,
so improvements can often be made at
❚ Manufacturers’ figures should be treated little or no-cost.
with some caution as they often relate to
ideal, steady state operation that is rarely
❚ The EEBPP publications also include
achieved in the real world. For example,
information on specific energy cost (cost of
their data is unlikely to allow for the impact
energy used per unit of production).
of idle time, product changes etc. that can
significantly reduce a furnace’s overall
energy efficiency. ❚ Electric furnaces tend to have a lower
specific energy consumption than
❚ The benchmark data provided via the equivalent gas or oil fired furnaces.
EEBPP is contained within the Good However, as electricity is substantially more
Practice Guides and Energy Consumption expensive than gas or oil (see Fact File M3),
Guides listed as ‘Core Guides’ on the fax- the specific energy cost may actually be
back order form at the back of this Guide. higher for electrically heated furnaces.
All are available to UK industry free of
charge.

❚ Most of the EEBPP benchmark data relates


to specific energy consumption (SEC) and
reflects the range of energy performance
being achieved in practice by various
industry sectors.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).

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Getting the Best Energy Prices Fact File: M3
Effective energy purchasing is the quickest and easiest way of reducing your energy and
production costs. Price reductions of up to 20% are potentially available at no cost.

De-regulation of the energy supply market is now complete and so all furnace operators
should be routinely seeking competitive quotations to ensure they get the best price. With
electricity, there is the opportunity to reduce costs still further by careful selection of the
optimum tariff structure.
KEY POINTS
Electricity

❚ Seek competitive prices from a number of ❚ Check your agreed supply capacity (or
suppliers – do not just accept your local availability) against your actual demand –
electricity company’s offer. don’t pay for unnecessary spare capacity.

❚ To enter the competitive electricity market ❚ Check that your Power Factor is acceptable.
you need special electronic metering Power Factor can be improved by the
installed (COP), complete with modems to installation of correction capacitors which
allow remote reading. Contact your local should be considered if:
electricity company’s meter operating
– your Power Factor is less than 0.9;
section. The cost associated with installing
and maintaining the metering equipment – your electricity bill shows any ‘Power
should be more than offset by the savings Factor Penalty’ charges;
made by competitive purchasing.
– your electricity bill shows any ‘Reactive
Power’ charges.
❚ To get the best prices, provide potential
suppliers with accurate consumption data
for your site. As a minimum, provide a
year’s monthly figures, including day/night Natural Gas
split, maximum demand levels and your
MPAN number. If you have COP metering ❚ Seek competitive prices from a number of
already, ask your existing supplier for half- suppliers.
hourly consumption data on disk – there
may be a nominal charge. ❚ Provide potential suppliers with accurate
consumption data for your site and your
❚ The true price of electricity is highly meter point reference number (shown on
seasonal, rising sharply during November – your bills).
February. Some suppliers will offer longer
than 12 month contracts if the extra months ❚ Consider two or three-year contracts, but
included are cheap summer ones. For insist on an annual competitive break
example, you should be able to negotiate a clause. This will allow you to test the
one-off 18-month offer if your contract is market each year. If you are able to obtain a
due for renewal on 1st April. The six better price than that offered by your
additional months of April – October are all current supplier, it should drop its price to
‘cheap’ and hence the supplier is able to match, or release you from the remaining
offer you a particularly attractive average period of the contract.
price over the full 18 month contract period.
❚ Check for contract termination notice
❚ Choose the right tariff structure. If you use clauses (otherwise contracts may
more than 15% of your electricity at night automatically renew at the supplier’s
(most factories do), choose a day/night chosen price).
tariff. If you can manage your electrical
load, consider a type of tariff which ❚ All contracts will specify:
charges peak rates during winter weekday
evenings (16.00 – 19.00 Monday – Friday, – maximum offtake rates;
November – February), in exchange for – a minimum ‘take or pay’ volume (usually
lower rates at other times. These tariffs are 70 – 80% of nominated annual usage).
attractive if you can significantly reduce
your factory’s electrical load during the
peak charging periods.

14
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Getting the Best Energy Prices KEY POINTS

❚ Check the contract reflects your ❚ If your furnace has dual-fuel burners,
requirements and negotiate as necessary. consider a cheaper, interruptible gas supply
This can be particularly important if your contract, e.g. using oil or liquefied
production rates, and hence gas usage, are petroleum gas (LPG) as standby fuel, but do
variable or unpredictable. However, you not underestimate the potential disruption
must be prepared to pay more for your gas caused to furnace operation on fuel
in exchange for increased flexibility on changeover.
volume usage.

❚ If you are planning to install a new or Fuel Oil and LPG


upgraded gas supply, be aware that
competition has now been extended to the ❚ Consider forming a purchasing consortium
provision of the site-works (gas main, with other local businesses.
governors, meters etc.). There are a number
of authorised competitive organisations to ❚ Avoid deliveries of part tanker loads – they
provide these facilities. are more expensive.

❚ Keep your storage tanks full during summer,


when fuel prices are lowest.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Raw Materials and Feedstocks Fact File: M4
Effective furnace operation is impossible without proper raw materials or feedstock quality
control. The critical parameters will vary from process to process and may include size, chemical
composition, moisture content and temperature.

Management systems should be put in place to ensure that raw materials quality is maintained
at all times. The use of recycled materials as feedstock presents particular problems and requires
even more stringent management control.
KEY POINTS

❚ Raw materials and feedstock costs can be ❚ Some feedstock defects may not become
minimised by effective purchasing. Any cost apparent until the material is processed in
savings can easily be wiped out, however, if the furnace. Under these circumstances, it
the cheaper materials are of poorer/ is important to recognise that feedstock
inconsistent quality or have uncertain quality is the cause of what may at first
availability. have appeared to have been a furnace
related problem.
❚ Undersized feedstock may cause bridging or
other charging problems and may reduce ❚ Ensure that you provide your raw materials
furnace capacity if the overall charge suppliers with a comprehensive
density is reduced. specification which must include the
acceptable limits (if any), for the quantities
❚ Oversized feedstock may cause blockages or of each and every potential contaminant.
heat transfer (chill) problems. These can
reduce furnace capacity and product quality. ❚ A system of advice notes should be adopted
and regular in-house laboratory checks
❚ Contaminants are potentially dangerous should be made to ensure that raw
and can cause fire or explosion hazards. At materials properties remain as specified.
the very least, they may cause problems
such as slagging or may limit the rate at ❚ Ensure raw materials of differing quality or
which heat may be applied to the process. specification are appropriately labelled and
This in turn can lead to: segregated in storage.
– reduced production rates; ❚ Take care, when storing and handling raw
– increased energy consumption; materials, to minimise any physical or
– higher maintenance costs; chemical degradation that could affect
– lower product quality; furnace performance.
– increased scrap rates;
❚ The same quality control principles must be
– unwanted environmental emissions. applied even when the feedstock comes
❚ Extra care must be taken to maintain feedstock from another process within your factory
quality when processing re-cycled materials. or organisation.

❚ Materials recycled from sources outside your ❚ Consider alternative formats for raw
direct control, e.g. public recycling of glass materials deliveries – these may ease
bottles, present particular problems. handling and furnace loading.

❚ Contaminated or otherwise substandard ❚ The pre-heating of feedstock can provide


feedstock can sometimes be energy efficiency and productivity benefits
accommodated by: particularly if provided by:
– limited blending with higher quality – hot feeding from a previous process
material (which can be acceptable if (Fact File M6);
percentages are held below a critical limit); – waste heat recovery (Fact File T8).
– pre-treatment to remove contaminants
etc. (although this can be expensive);
– appropriate furnace design, e.g. two-stage
heating to allow, for example, moisture
to be safely removed at lower
temperatures prior to full firing.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 344 Energy savings from small, efficient melting and holding furnaces

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Improving Furnace Yield Fact File: M5

Metal lost Metal lost Metal lost

Melting losses
Spilt metal Grinding losses

New
metallic
raw
materials

Metallic
returns
Total
metal
melted
Metal
poured
into
moulds

Pigged
Metal in
gross
castings

Runners
Metal in
good
castings

Scrap castings
} Good castings
despatched
to customer

metal

Metal returned to melting furnaces

Routes taken by metal from melting to casting dispatch

Furnace yield can be defined as quantity of useable product per unit feedstock. There is often a
trade-off between throughput and product quality that means furnace yield can be reduced at
high throughputs.

Improving the way furnaces are managed can improve the balance for maximum yield.
Optimising furnace operations will increase throughput and minimise waste by improving
product quality, thus improving yield.

Furnaces should not be considered in isolation from any upstream or downstream processes.
These processes can act as bottlenecks, thereby limiting the throughput of the furnace. The
scheduling of successive operations may offer scope for improvement. Similarly, material lost in
downstream processing effectively reduces the useful yield of the furnace.

KEY POINTS

❚ Furnace throughput can often be limited ❚ For continuous furnaces, consider special
by a single stage or factor, e.g. operating regimes at start-up, e.g. elevated
charging/unloading or rate of heat transfer. temperatures or oxygen enrichment, to
Aim to identify the limiting bottleneck for obtain on-spec product as quickly as
each furnace, remembering to consider possible, thereby minimising waste.
upstream and downstream processes when
appropriate.
❚ Minimise product degradation in the
furnace, e.g. by ensuring the correct
❚ Feedstock must be on-spec to prevent temperature profile and furnace
unnecessary/wasted firing within the atmosphere. Prevent mechanical damage by
furnace (Fact File M4). providing adequate means of support.

❚ Have clearly defined product specifications ❚ Ensure that any by-products are quickly
and stick to them. Avoid over-processing, and effectively removed from the stock to
e.g. do not heat products to higher prevent contamination. This may involve
temperatures or for longer than strictly more frequent slag removal or increased
necessary. extraction rates for exhaust gases.

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Improving Furnace Yield KEY POINTS

❚ Accurately weigh the feedstock and product ❚ Ensure valuable product is not wasted
in order to determine yield and continually during subsequent processing (or transfer to
monitor it so that any trends can be it). Utilisation efficiency of materials
identified. produced by furnaces can be improved by
attention to:
❚ Identify the key variables that affect – design, e.g. to reduce the quantity of
throughput and product quality and also molten metal used in runners during
monitor these. A number of monitoring subsequent casting operations;
and assessment methods are now available,
– operation, e.g. to ensure product is not
e.g. statistical process control, which
damaged in subsequent transfer and
provide a systematic approach to this
storage;
potentially complex management issue.
– rectification, e.g. repair of minor
blemishes in sanitaryware to avoid
❚ Use rapid and effective Quality Assurance
scrapping the piece.
techniques, e.g. hot inspection, to ensure
that any furnace problems are quickly
identified, thereby minimising the ❚ Operate effective maintenance regimes to
production of off-spec material. In ensure continuing high yields.
intermittent furnaces, faster QA analysis
techniques can reduce the time that batches
are held pending acceptance and hence can
reduce overall cycle times.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Ferrous metals GPG 17 Achieving high yields in ferrous foundries
GPCS 37 Computer simulation of solidification in ferrous foundries
GPCS 161 Cupola melting of cast iron
GPCS 353 The use of filters in ferrous foundries
Non-ferrous metals GPG 142 Improving metal utilisation in aluminium foundries
GPCS 36 Computer simulation of solidification in non-ferrous sand foundries
GPCS 282 Use of molten metal filters in non-ferrous foundries

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Charging and Unloading Fact File: M6
The way a furnace is charged can have a
significant effect on its safe operation, yield and
energy consumption.

There are two principal issues:


❚ the speed with which the furnace is
charged and unloaded;
❚ the physical configuration of the
charge and the way in which it is
supported.

When the furnace forms part of a larger manufacturing process, consideration also needs to be
given to the way in which the charging and unloading procedures interface with the
neighbouring operations.

KEY POINTS

❚ Access doors can represent a route for ❚ If furniture is required to support the stock,
significant heat loss when used to charge or make sure that its design allows effective
unload materials from a hot furnace. Any heat transfer (particularly to the base of the
such doors must be well fitting and stock), and prevents degradation by
adequately insulated. Heat losses during mechanical damage.
charging/unloading can be minimised by
making sure that doors are no larger than ❚ Use low thermal mass furniture to reduce
necessary and that they remain open for energy requirements for warm-up (modern
the minimum possible time. high temperature alloys can often be used
in place of conventional refractories).
❚ Charging and unloading times can be
minimised by careful attention to operating ❚ Water cooled support structures are
procedures. Mechanical or automatic systems sometimes necessary, but lead to large
should be considered, although, quite apart energy losses. Their design should be
from the cost implications, their use may be critically reviewed as energy efficient
limited by space constraints or the need to modifications can sometimes be made.
handle a wide variety of materials.
❚ Be aware that poor plant layout can lead to
❚ No effort should be spared to identify the delays in charging or unloading a furnace.
optimum charging procedures and It can also lead to loss of useful stock heat
management systems should then be put in between processes.
place to ensure that these procedures are
adhered to. ❚ Hot charging of furnaces, i.e. using hot
material from an upstream process, can
❚ Both intermittent and continuous furnaces reduce furnace energy requirements
benefit from consistent charging procedures considerably. Heat can be retained in stock
as these help to maintain uniform firing between processes by using insulated
conditions and hence product quality. transfer routes. In some cases,
supplementary heating can be desirable
❚ Accurately weigh stock into and out of the during transfer to prevent surface cooling
furnace to allow true yield to be monitored. of the stock.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Ferrous metals GPCS 263 Hot charging practice for continuous steel reheating furnaces
FPP 47 Quantifying important factors in iron melting in medium frequency
coreless induction furnaces
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 344 Energy savings from small, efficient melting and holding furnaces
Ceramics GPG 244 The use of low thermal mass materials and systems in the ceramic
industries

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Scheduling Furnace Operations Fact File: M7
Making the right decisions about
which furnace to use, and when, can
bring a number of benefits including:
❚ maximising product
throughput;
❚ minimising energy use;
❚ minimising furnace use;
❚ achieving delivery dates;
❚ minimising work in progress
inventory;
❚ minimising time from
customer order to delivery.

Determining the optimum schedule


can be a complex exercise and needs
to be undertaken in a systematic
manner. Computer based systems are
available to perform the task
automatically. The control cabin at Roundwood rolling mill

KEY POINTS

❚ Different designs of furnace have different ❚ When making scheduling decisions take
performance characteristics. Therefore, the full account of all operating costs involved.
most efficient furnace for one task may not This is particularly important when making
be the most efficient on another, e.g. ‘special’ products that require a change to
continuous furnaces are most suitable for normal furnace conditions. The true cost of
large volume products, and intermittent warm up, cool-down and part-load
furnaces are most suitable for small volume, operation can be very high.
speciality products.
❚ Schedule planned maintenance carefully,
❚ Furnaces are most efficient when fully laden. particularly if a cool-down is required.
Avoid part-load operation by, e.g. stock-
piling and running fewer furnace shifts.
❚ Scheduling decisions can be based on
manual analysis or, for more complex
❚ Try to avoid mixed stock loads as furnace situations, computer based ‘expert systems’
conditions will need to be set for the most (Fact File T6) can be invaluable.
demanding product, potentially causing
‘over processing’ of the remainder. Consider
segregating different stock types and
processing them separately.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPCS 135 Furnace scheduling advisory system

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Delay Strategies Fact File: M8
All furnaces will be, from time to time, subject to operational delays. It is important to have
clear strategies for dealing with these.

Failure to put adequate procedures in place will lead to lost production, energy wastage and
possibly damage to the furnace.

Heating Zone Delay Strategy


Furnace
temp., °C Start of Start of Start of
30 min delay 60 min delay 120 min delay
1150
Examples of set
furnace temperature
1100
Set furnace temperature
for intermediate delay times
1050

1000

950

900
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Time to end of delay, min

S S
Delay strategy for a walking beam type furnace reheating 140 mm square billets

KEY POINTS

❚ Delays or interruptions to furnace operation action to prevent loss of product or damage


will fall into one of two categories: to the furnace.
– scheduled, e.g. shift changes or meal
breaks; ❚ Information systems are required so that
the cause and likely duration of any delay
– unscheduled, e.g. breakdowns or feed can be quickly ascertained and
stock shortages. communicated to those responsible for
operating the furnace.
❚ A strategy for dealing with delays must be
developed in advance, documented and ❚ The delay strategy should also include advice
communicated to plant operators. on when to re-start a furnace if shutdown:
❚ The strategy should include – too late a start-up will cause lost
consideration of: production;
– changing stock throughput rates; – too early a start-up will lead to energy
– reducing furnace temperature; wastage.

– sealing furnace doors; ❚ Computerised ‘expert systems’ can help in


– shutdown of the furnace in response to the management of operational delays (Fact
prolonged delays. File T6).

❚ The actions required will vary depending ❚ The causes of operational delays should be
upon the anticipated duration of the delay. rigorously logged and periodically analysed
For example, a short delay may require little to identify any underlying weaknesses.
or no change to furnace operations, Steps should be taken to prevent repeat
whereas a longer delay may require major occurrences.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Training and Supervision Fact File: M9
Furnace operations can be
complex, and staff should be
trained and supervised
accordingly. As a minimum,
standard operating procedures
must be compiled for all aspects of
furnace operation and staff trained
to follow them. Ongoing
supervision will be required to
ensure that the procedures are
rigorously adhered to.

Motivated and empowered staff


will continually seek ways to improve A team approach to energy management
all aspects of furnace operation.
Achieving this may take some time and will require support and commitment from managers at
all levels. The benefits that will arise from having a motivated and fulfilled workforce will,
however, repay the effort involved.

KEY POINTS

❚ As a first stage, develop and document ❚ Computerised control systems are generally
standard operating procedures covering all more effective at maintaining optimum
stages of furnace operation including: furnace conditions than even the most
experienced staff.
– start-up;
– loading and unloading;
❚ Computers can be used to fully automate
– firing; control, or can provide detailed guidance to
operators on the required operating
– shutdown;
parameters (this information will be
– delays in production; automatically updated in line with any
changes in furnace conditions etc.).
– emergencies.

❚ Consider external training for operators, e.g.


❚ Ensure operators are fully trained to follow
Continuing Professional Development
the standard operating procedures.
courses.

❚ Put in place adequate supervision to check


❚ Encourage staff participation in solving
that these procedures are always followed.
problems and identifying opportunities for
improvements. Consider:
❚ Start-up procedures should be flexible
– forming efficiency teams;
enough to take account of any residual heat
within the furnace or stock. Warm-up times – suggestion schemes;
should be varied accordingly.
– publicising improvements both within
and outside the company.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors NPCS 89 Energy efficiency training through continuing professional
development
Ceramics GPCS 345 Energy management techniques in the pottery industry

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Labour Costs Fact File: M10
Labour costs, like all others associated with furnace operation, can and should be
managed effectively.

KEY POINTS

❚ The following issues should be considered: ❚ Aim to minimise stock handling


requirements by the careful consideration of
– operating procedures;
plant layout and scheduling of operations.
– numbers of staff employed;
– division of labour;
– versatility of staff; ❚ Make best use of mechanical handling aids.
– number of furnaces served;
– shift patterns; ❚ Staff versatility can be improved by
– pay rates; providing additional training (Fact File M9).
– levels of supervision;
– labour required for breakdown repairs; ❚ Effective planned preventative
– maintenance. maintenance procedures can reduce
engineering labour costs and offer scope
❚ The greatest labour requirements can often for the use of contract staff.
be associated with the loading and
unloading of the furnace. ❚ Automatic controls and computerised
‘expert systems’ (Fact File T6) can allow
❚ Labour requirements for loading can be labour requirements to be reduced, by
minimised by the careful selection of types, streamlining operations, product changes
forms and methods of raw materials delivery. etc. to minimise labour involvement.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Glass GPCS 251 An energy management and investment campaign at a glass plant

23
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Maintenance Fact File: M11
Without effective maintenance, all other
efforts to improve furnace performance
will soon be wasted.

Proper maintenance has to be an integral


part of any industrial process. This is
particularly true of furnaces because of the
aggressive nature of many of the materials
handled, combined with the use of very
high temperatures.

The consequences of inadequate


maintenance can be severe and can
include reduced throughput, increased
energy consumption and damage to the
furnace itself. Deterioration in
performance can be detected by regular
audits and effective monitoring. New ducting to recover exhaust from kiln pre-heater

KEY POINTS

❚ Effective planned preventative maintenance ❚ Check and replace seals to prevent


will lead to improved furnace availability and unwanted movement of hot and cold air
reduced operating and labour costs. The cost into and out of the furnace. Don’t forget
implications of unscheduled stoppages due to internal seals if the furnace is
breakdowns should not be underestimated, compartmentalised.
particularly if it takes some time to re-
establish stable furnace conditions. ❚ Inspect flues and ducts for blockages.

❚ If a breakdown does occur, it is important to ❚ Clean heat transfer surfaces, e.g. on waste
investigate the cause fully in order that steps heat recovery systems, regularly.
can be taken to prevent a reoccurrence.
❚ Check the condition of burners and quarls.
❚ Maintenance and calibration of control
systems are important. Reliable and ❚ Monitor refractory/insulation performance by
accurate control of furnace conditions is an visual inspection and by surface temperature
essential requirement of efficient operation. measurement, e.g. using infrared photometry.
The economics of the refractory works should
❚ Ensure drive belts on fans, etc. are regularly be assessed in the context of the cost of
changed and correctly tensioned to prevent increased energy use as the insulation
premature failure performance deteriorates, and refractory
repairs/replacement scheduled accordingly.
❚ When installing new or replacement 3-phase
motors check that the direction of rotation is ❚ Clean plant regularly to prevent refractory
correct (fans will quite happily run erosion.
backwards – but at reduced performance).
❚ The quality of the raw materials processed
❚ Change filter elements regularly to prevent: can have a significant effect on the rate of
erosion/corrosion that occurs inside the
– reduced air flows;
furnace. Be particularly aware of the
– changes to combustion and kiln destructive effect that trace contaminants
conditions; can have.
– dirt carry over;
– increased pollution.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Monitoring and Targeting Fact File: M12
It is often said that ‘if you don’t measure it, you can’t manage it’ and this is particularly true of
the parameters that affect efficient furnace operation. Without adequate information it is
difficult to make accurate decisions.

Comprehensive monitoring procedures are essential and should encompass specific items such as
temperatures and pressures as well as broader ones like throughput, energy use and
maintenance costs.

Most importantly, procedures must be put in place to analyse the data recorded and to instigate
appropriate actions in response to the results. Without these additional steps, monitoring alone
will produce little benefit. Once reliable monitoring has been established, targets should be set
with the aim of maintaining, or preferably improving, furnace performance.

A furnace control panel

KEY POINTS
❚ The frequency of monitoring should be – throughput;
selected depending upon the parameter
– yield;
concerned. Generally, it is better to sample
more frequently than required, than to – energy usage;
have insufficient data.
– specific energy consumption;
– maintenance requirements;
❚ Regularly measure and record key parameters:
– labour requirements;
– furnace internal temperature;
– resistance and reactance (induction
– furnace pressure;
furnaces).
– cooling water temperatures;
– furnace shell temperature; ❚ Data must relate to a specific furnace
and/or specific product. This may require
– furnace atmosphere;
keeping more detailed production records.
– burner combustion efficiency;

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Monitoring and Targeting KEY POINTS

❚ Where practicable, install additional sub- ❚ Put in place standard operating procedures
metering to allow the energy consumption to ensure appropriate action is taken in
of individual furnaces to be monitored and response to the monitoring results.
invest in portable test equipment, e.g.
combustion analysers and optical
❚ Plot specific energy consumption against
pyrometers, as necessary.
production. Investigate causes of unusually
high or low figures. Learn from these
❚ Plot data to allow trends to be identified investigations and set targets for
and to highlight any anomalous behaviour. improvements.
Determine ‘norms’ for all parameters
❚ Targets for future performance can be best
❚ Data analysis techniques should be set following a detailed audit of furnace
appropriate to the complexity of the performance (Fact File M1). The audit will
operation. Manual manipulation may be identify where and how improvements can
adequate for small, intermittent furnaces, be made.
but for most applications the use of a
computer will be beneficial. This can range
❚ Ensure targets are supported by appropriate
from the use of a spreadsheet package on a
implementation timescales.
PC to analyse data that have been collected
by hand, through to a fully automatic data
logging and analysis system. ❚ Implement any changes one at a time, to
allow their effectiveness to be monitored.
❚ Reports should be generated that are
concise and easy to read. The reports should ❚ Provide regular feedback on achievements
highlight anomalous results and guide the to staff at all levels. This will reinforce the
recipient towards appropriate action. The value of rigorous monitoring to them, and
use of ‘exception reporting’, i.e. only improve staff motivation through a greater
issuing reports when there is something sense of involvement.
wrong, can be an effective way of reducing
paperwork and of ensuring that when a
report is issued it receives the attention that
it demands.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPCS 183 Performance monitoring of a re-heat furnace
GPCS 321 Energy monitoring on large steel reheating furnaces
Ferrous metals GPCS 213 Demonstrating good practice in medium frequency coreless
induction furnaces
Glass GPCS 251 An energy management and investment campaign at a glass plant
Ceramics GPCS 345 Energy management techniques in the pottery industry

26
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Environmental Issues Fact File: M13
Environmental issues and legislation are already having a significant impact on furnace
operators and this is likely to increase. More information about environmental regulations can
be obtained through the Environment and Energy Helpline on 0800 585794.

Environmental issues are best addressed when integrated within a systematic management
approach which considers all aspects of furnace operation. This will ensure an effective and
efficient process. By taking a broader view of environmental issues and not just using ‘end of
pipe’ solutions, you will often increase the efficiency and lower the cost of your operations.

KEY POINTS

Emissions ❚ When installing abatement equipment, be


aware of possible adverse effects on furnace
❚ There are two main sources of potentially operating conditions, such as increased
harmful emissions from furnaces: exhaust backpressure.
– products of combustion;
❚ The most harmful or potentially polluting
– products of physical/chemical changes to processes and substances are formally
the stock. ‘prescribed’. They are regulated by
environmental legislation (see below).
❚ Products of combustion include:
Legislation
– SO2 (when burning oil or coal);
– NOx (increases with flame temperature); ❚ Under the Environmental Protection Act
– CO; 1990, it is an offence to:

– CO2. – operate a prescribed process without the


appropriate authorisation;

❚ Products of physical/chemical stock – operate a prescribed process in


changes include: contravention of the authorisation
conditions.
– acid gases (HCl etc.);
– volatile organic compounds (VOCs); ❚ There are two regulatory bodies that can
– heavy metals; authorise the operation of a prescribed
process:
– particulates.
– the local authority, via its environmental
health department;
❚ Consider also the environmental impact of
breaking up and disposing of redundant – the Environment Agency, via its network
furnaces. Older furnaces may contain of regional offices.
materials that present an environmental
hazard on disposal, e.g. asbestos and heavy ❚ In principle, local authorities will deal with
metals. As such, a licensed contractor may the ‘less polluting’ processes and those that
be required to dispose of certain materials involve emissions only to air. These
in an appropriate manner. processes require only Local Air Pollution
Control (LAPC) authorisation.
❚ Pollution may result from releases into air,
water or onto land. ❚ Larger, ‘more polluting’ processes and those
involving emissions other than solely to air,
❚ A two-stage approach should be taken to require Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)
reduce emissions: authorisation from the Environment
Agency.
– firstly, reduce the amount generated, e.g.
by close attention to combustion control;
❚ Contact the environmental health
– secondly, install abatement equipment, department of your local authority or your
e.g. scrubbers or grit arrestors. nearest Environment Agency office for

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Environmental Issues KEY POINTS

advice on whether or not an authorisation ❚ Certain furnaces may require continuous


is required. monitoring. Even if an authorisation is not
required, monitoring emissions will allow
effective management of furnace
❚ LAPC and IPC authorisations will specify an
performance.
emissions limit for each prescribed
substance relevant to your process and will
require that a monitoring programme is ❚ Consider general operations, materials
established to ensure that emissions remain handling, commissioning and the technical
within the limits of the authorisation. requirements for chimneys, vents and
process exhausts. These issues should be
❚ Authorisations will recommend that included in an effective management system.
appropriate techniques be adopted to
prevent or minimise releases and render Future Controls
harmless any prescribed substances.
Guidance is available via: ❚ The increasing concern about global
– Process Guidance Notes for LAPC warming and associated carbon dioxide
authorised processes; emissions has led the Government to set a
target of reducing such emissions by 20%
– Chief Inspectors Guidance Notes for IPC between 1990 and 2010 as part of its
authorised processes. climate change strategy. This target may be
achieved by reducing industrial energy use.
❚ Your relevant authorising body will be able
to advise you on the appropriate ❚ Changes in legislation will occur over the
publications. next few years to the LAPC and IPC regime
with the implementation of Integrated
Management Plan Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC).
How this will be applied in practice has yet
❚ Establish a management plan to ensure that to be resolved, but installations will have to
relevant issues are made the responsibility ensure that energy is used efficiently. In
of a designated person. addition, it will require the effective
management of inputs to industrial
processes. Establishing an effective
❚ When establishing a management plan,
management system now will enable
consideration should be given to:
effective control of inputs and emissions,
a) Relevant legislation, regulations and thereby pre-empting future legislation and
codes of practice – what emissions need embracing best practice.
to be controlled?
b) Existing management practices – are Further Advice
emissions controlled in the most
effective way? ❚ In addition to your local authority and
Environment Agency office, expert advice
c) Previous incidents – have there been any can be obtained free of charge from the
specific problems in the past that can be Environment and Energy Helpline on
learned from? 0800 585794.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).

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GPG253 This version published 01/01
Financial Assessments Fact File: M14
Appropriate financial assessment is essential
when considering expenditure on new furnaces
or retrofitting modifications. Many modifications
may be technically viable, e.g. the incorporation
of waste heat recovery equipment, but may be
uneconomic if the operating parameters for the
furnace are inappropriate.

Similarly, choosing between alternative furnace


designs or suppliers simply on the basis of initial
price can be a costly mistake in the longer term.
It is also important to consider the impact of
ongoing annual operating costs by using more
sophisticated financial assessment techniques.

KEY POINTS

❚ When assessing the economic viability of ❚ Minor projects (such as upgrading


any project, full account must be taken of insulation) can be assessed using ‘simple
all costs involved and the savings or income payback period’, i.e.
that should result.
Total cost
Total annual benefits
❚ Costs may include:
– design; ❚ The quicker the payback period (in years), the
– purchase of equipment; more attractive the project. Most companies
define maximum acceptable payback times
– mechanical and electrical installation; (typically 2 – 5 years) beyond which projects
– builders work; are considered to be uneconomic.
– lost production during changeover.
❚ For larger, complex projects more
❚ Benefits may include: sophisticated financial assessment
techniques such as discounted cash flow
– increased production (higher rates, (DCF) should be used.
and/or yields);
– higher quality (allowing premium price); ❚ DCF takes account of costs/savings
throughout the expected life of the project
– energy savings;
and is particularly useful when considering:
– improved reliability;
– alternative types of new furnace;
– reduced maintenance;
– the timing of furnace replacement, e.g. it
– greater flexibility; may be better to replace an inefficient
– lower labour requirements; furnace now, rather than wait a few
more years until it is worn out.
– ability to use cheaper raw materials;
– cheaper disposal costs when the furnace ❚ Step by step guidance on performing DCF
is finally scrapped. analyses is given in Good Practice Guide 69
(see below).
❚ Finding out precisely how the business case
should be prepared will give the best ❚ Some items of energy efficiency equipment
chance of it being accepted. are eligible for a financial incentive. Call
the Environment and Energy Helpline
(0800 585794) for more details of
‘enhanced capital allowances’.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 69 Investment appraisal for industrial energy efficiency

29
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Choosing the Right Fuel Fact File: T1
The correct choice of fuel is one of the most fundamental issues influencing product quality and
furnace operating costs. A number of issues need to be considered when selecting a fuel type
including:
❚ price;
❚ combustion/heat transfer characteristics;
❚ cleanliness of combustion and emissions;
❚ special fuel storage or handling requirements;
❚ reliability of supply.

While it is sometimes possible to convert existing furnaces to use different fuels, this is rarely
straightforward. It is particularly important, therefore, to select the correct fuel when specifying
a new furnace.

KEY POINTS

❚ Using electricity to heat furnaces will often – as a piped service it avoids the
provide the lowest local energy consumption administrative burden of fuel stock
but the highest energy cost. control, ordering and supervision of fuel
deliveries etc.;
Approximate cost of fuels relative to – no on-site fuel storage is required,
natural gas thereby reducing maintenance costs
and avoiding the safety and
Natural gas 1
environmental risks associated with
Fuel oil 1 bulk storage facilities.
LPG 2.5
❚ LPG and oil, while not offering the
Electricity 5 advantages listed above of natural gas, can
yield higher thermal efficiencies and
increased furnace throughput.
❚ Fuel prices can be minimised by
competitive tendering (Fact File M3).
❚ LPG requires the provision of pressurised
bulk storage facilities, vaporisation
❚ Electric heating tends to be more equipment and a gas/air mixing station to
appropriate for smaller furnaces. ensure correct air/fuel ratio at all firing rates.

❚ Fuel choice may be dictated by product ❚ In addition to storage tanks, fuel oil
requirements, e.g. high purity or the need requires effective atomisation and
to maintain a controlled atmosphere within vaporisation to ensure correct combustion.
the furnace. This places special demands on oil burners,
which in turn, require more regular
❚ Local emissions standards must also be maintenance than gas-fired burners.
considered when selecting a furnace fuel
(Fact File M13) ❚ Oil flames are hotter, more luminous and
larger than gas flames, and require larger
❚ Natural gas is often the favoured fuel for firing chambers.
furnace operation because:
– it is relatively clean burning, without ❚ Changing fuels on an existing furnace is a
soot or sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions complex matter. The following must be
and produces less carbon dioxide (CO2) considered:
than LPG, oil or coal (although nitrous – safety implications;
oxide – NOx – emissions are higher);
– flame shape;
– this cleanliness makes it easier to
– flame intensity;
comply with emissions standards and
allows the direct firing of many – flame luminosity;
products (Fact File T3); – products of combustion;
– required furnace atmosphere.

30
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Choosing the Right Fuel KEY POINTS

❚ In some circumstances it is possible to fit ❚ Oxygen enrichment can be applied as a


dual-fuel burners, i.e. burners that are retrofit to existing furnaces but, as with any
capable of burning either one of two fuel change, requires much care and special
different fuels. These allow fuel changes to consideration.
be made relatively quickly and may offer
opportunities to burn cheaper fuels, e.g.
❚ Furnaces using a combination of fuels, e.g.
interruptible natural gas while maintaining
natural gas and electricity, can provide
security of heat supply.
significant production and energy
consumption benefits in some applications.
❚ Oxygen enrichment is expensive and may
increase NOx emissions but allows:
– higher flame temperatures;
– better heat transfer;
– the use of lower calorific value fuels;
– more flexible control of furnace
temperature.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Ferrous metals NPP 54 Dual fuel regenerative burners
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 112 Gas fired shaft furnaces

31
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Combustion Efficiency Fact File: T2
Efficient combustion will ensure
that the maximum amount of
heat is released from the fuel
being burnt and help transfer this
effectively to the stock. This, in
turn, will lead to reduced
emissions, improved product
quality and help safeguard the
structural integrity of the furnace.

Achieving optimum combustion


requires the correct selection of
burner type and the matching of
it to the requirements of the
furnace. Maintaining performance
requires close attention to the
control of key combustion
parameters coupled with regular
and effective maintenance of the
fuel supply systems, burners and
their controls.
Testing the air-fuel mixture on a glass furnace.

KEY POINTS

❚ Efficient and complete combustion requires ❚ Where burners are required to have turn-
the correct air/fuel ratio and adequate down capability, i.e. to reduce their thermal
mixing. output, the control system has particular
requirements to maintain efficient
❚ While optimum conditions will be set-up at combustion across the range of firing rates.
commissioning, many factors can cause
unwelcome deviations, including: ❚ Incorrect combustion will lead to fuel
wastage, reduced throughput, poor product
– burner wear;
quality, excessive emissions and/or
– hysteresis (or slack) in control systems; structural damage to the furnace.
– variations in fuel properties, e.g. calorific
value; ❚ It is generally harder to maintain optimum
– variations in combustion air properties, combustion conditions when burning oil,
e.g. temperature, particularly where pre- compared with natural gas, because:
heat is used as a means of waste heat – oil requires effective atomisation and
recovery; vaporisation for correct combustion;
– variations in furnace pressure. – oil burners are often machined to close
tolerances to achieve this;
❚ Maintaining optimum combustion
– oil can be corrosive and abrasive, leading
conditions requires:
to more rapid burner wear;
– modern automatic controls, e.g. air/fuel – carbon and soot build-up will occur,
ratio, furnace pressure, (depending on affecting burner and furnace performance.
size and type of burner);
– routine efficiency monitoring, e.g. flue ❚ Effective combustion control is particularly
gas temperature, carbon dioxide important when seeking to maintain a
concentration; particular furnace atmosphere or when
– regular burner and controls maintenance. using oxygen enrichment.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form) plus:
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 344 Energy savings from small, efficient melting and holding furnaces

32
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Heat Transfer Fact File: T3
Unless heat is transferred effectively from Furnace

the burner flame, or heating element, to the


stock, the throughput of the furnace will be
limited and/or significant energy wastage Radiation Radiation
will occur. Combustion
products
Flame
Heat transfer must also be uniform to ensure Radiation
Burner
good product quality and to prevent under or
Radiation
overheating part of the stock.

Effective heat transfer requires close attention Convection


Radiation
to furnace design (in particular the matching Convection
of burner equipment), combined with
accurate control of furnace conditions and Steel
stock loading procedures. stock

Heat transfer in furnaces

KEY POINTS

❚ In most furnaces heat is transferred by two Instead, energy is transmitted from the
complementary mechanisms, convection flame or heating element in the form of
and radiation. electromagnetic radiation and this is
absorbed directly by the surface of the stock.
❚ In convection, heat is transferred from the As this radiation travels in direct straight
flame or heating element to the stock by lines, stock surfaces which are not ‘visible’ to
the movement of hot air (or the products of the flame will not be heated. In practice, this
combustion). This movement may occur effect can be overcome by heating the
naturally due to the buoyancy of the hot refractory lining of the furnace to a high
gases, or may be mechanically induced temperature such that it starts to radiate.
using fans.
❚ For lowest energy usage, aim to maximise
❚ The final stage of the convective heat the rate of heat transfer, thereby
transfer process, namely the transfer of heat minimising firing times (subject to stock
from the hot gases to the stock, can be constraints). Factors to consider include:
accelerated by ensuring that the gas flow is
– flame shape, luminosity and temperature
turbulent. Turbulence can also help to
(consider oxygen enrichment);
ensure that heat transfer is uniform to all
surfaces of the stock and throughout the – turbulence;
furnace. Too much turbulence can be – furnace shape;
harmful, however, as it may lead to product – furniture/stock spacing.
degradation or cross contamination. It can
also result in excessive electrical usage by ❚ Direct firing, i.e. where the products of
the circulation fans. combustion are in direct contact with the
stock, will be more efficient than indirect
❚ It is important to understand the balance of firing. Products of combustion may have an
heat transfer mechanisms within each adverse effect on stock quality, however,
furnace. This will influence other aspects of and for this reason, cleaner fuels such as
operation such as charge loading and the natural gas are often favoured.
need for turbulence. Radiation normally
dominates (particularly above 600°C). ❚ When direct firing, avoid the flame coming
into direct contact with the stock. Carefully
❚ With radiation, there is no need for hot gases control flame shape/direction or use muffles.
to act as a mechanism for heat transfer.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form) plus:
Ceramics NPP32 Fast firing of decorated ceramic ware

33
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Furnace Atmosphere Fact File: T4
The atmosphere within a furnace serves a variety of purposes including:
❚ providing a mechanism for convective heat transfer to the stock;
❚ removal of the products of combustion;
❚ removal of the products of chemical or physical change within the stock;
❚ prevention of unwanted changes or degradation to the stock, e.g. the use of a
reducing atmosphere to prevent product oxidisation;
❚ control of unwanted air ingress or excessive loss of hot furnace gases.

Accordingly, the internal furnace atmosphere must be closely controlled, particularly with regard to:
❚ temperature;
❚ pressure;
❚ velocity profiles;
❚ chemical composition.

KEY POINTS

❚ The composition of the atmosphere of a ❚ Avoid excessive internal pressures as these


furnace may need to be controlled to give will lead to leakage of hot gases out of the
the required product quality and minimum furnace (which may have health and safety
degradation. implications or damage the external
structure of the furnace).

❚ Common composition criteria are


oxidising/reduction potential and humidity. ❚ The correct amount of turbulence must be
These can be influenced by: achieved. In general, turbulence promotes
even heat transfer, but too much can be
– products of combustion;
bad for some stock causing degradation or
– products of chemical changes in the cross-contamination.
stock;
– additives. ❚ Without adequate turbulence, the increased
buoyancy of hot gases can lead to
temperature stratification.
❚ In multi-zone furnaces, it may be important
to ensure that contaminants are not carried
forward from one zone to another (use ❚ Ensure that the sizes and positions of
correct air flow patterns and/or effective exhaust ports are correct in order to induce
seals). the correct hot gas flow patterns through
the furnace.
❚ Furnace pressure must be correctly adjusted
to provide proper convective heat ❚ Excessive exhaust rates will cause unwanted
distribution and prevent uncontrolled heat loss. Inadequate exhaust rates will
ingress of ambient air, which will increase mean that the products of
energy use and/or lead to chilling of the combustion/chemical change are not
stock. Furnaces should usually be operated removed effectively.
at a pressure slightly above atmospheric.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form).

34
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Furnace Control Fact File: T5
Close control of furnace conditions is
Pressure
essential for good product quality, governor Restrictor
M
energy efficiency and minimum valve LOV
Gas
emissions. The key parameters that
need to be controlled will vary from Filter
furnace to furnace. Start by identifying
these critical parameters and then ERC Thermistor block
ensure that suitable control systems are M Filter
put in place to regulate each of them. Restrictor
valve LOV
Control systems need to be accurate, Air
responsive and reliable.
Electronic ratio control

KEY POINTS

❚ Key parameters to control include: – sensor;


– furnace pressure; – controller;
– furnace temperature; – control device (valve, actuator etc.).
– warm-up/cool-down rates;
❚ Use the correct control algorithm, e.g.
– holding time;
proportional, integral, derivative, for the
– furnace atmosphere;
application concerned.
– combustion efficiency;
– air/fuel ratio; ❚ Review existing control systems to ensure
– fuel or electrical power input. that they are:
❚ Close control requires accurate – accurate and able to provide close control;
measurement, e.g. using thermocouples, – stable and able to restore conditions
pressure transducers or orifice plates. quickly and effectively when subject to
sudden changes;
❚ Measurement devices must be carefully – flexible and able to control across a wide
positioned to avoid false readings, e.g. range of set points if needed;
thermocouples can give false readings if – easy to use and understand;
subject to flame impingement. In addition, – reliable and easy to maintain.
pressure transducers and flow meters will
not work accurately in turbulent conditions. ❚ Ensure that the set points required for each
control parameter are defined via standard
❚ Whenever possible, try to measure the operating procedures and that staff are
required parameter directly, e.g. measure trained accordingly (Fact File M9).
mass air flows directly rather than relying
on manifold pressure as the control point. ❚ When regulating gas or air flows, remember
that the use of dampers is less energy
❚ Many sensors are required to work in efficient than alternatives such as variable
aggressive conditions when applied to speed drives (Fact File T13).
furnace applications, e.g. high temperatures,
chemical attack, fouling or vibration. ❚ The effective control of furnaces, while
Reliability can be improved by careful complex, is not a ‘black art’. The optimum
selection of the sensor type and by furnace conditions for any processing
‘conditioning’ the process stream prior to requirement can always be defined and
measurement, e.g. by filtration or cooling. formalised.

❚ Rigorous maintenance regimes (Fact File ❚ The use of computerised control systems
M11) are required to ensure correct control can lead to significant performance
calibration and performance. All elements improvements particularly when dealing
of the control system must be maintained with complex multi-variables (Fact File T6).
namely:

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form) plus:
Ferrous metals GPCS 213 Demonstrating good practice in medium frequency coreless
induction furnaces

35
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Mathematical Models and Expert Systems Fact File: T6
It is no longer necessary, or desirable, to
operate furnaces on the basis of ‘trial and
error’. While the parameters affecting
furnace operation are many and complex,
modern mathematical modelling
techniques allow them to be correlated
and understood.

Microprocessor-based control systems can


be constructed which incorporate these
complex algorithms. These systems allow
the impact of multiple changes in furnace
conditions to be predicted and can select
the correct settings for optimum
performance.

These ‘expert systems’ can either be


configured to provide advice on which Expert system control station
operators can then act, or can be arranged
to provide fully automatic control of the furnace itself.

KEY POINTS

❚ Traditionally, the required furnace ❚ Even complex parameters such as heat flux
conditions have been arrived at by profiles and convective air flow can now be
experimentation, e.g. by firing a number effectively modelled.
of test pieces.
❚ Many mathematical models use purpose-
❚ The above approach makes it difficult to developed criteria (such as ‘heat-work’) as a
achieve optimum settings and judge what means of predicting furnace performance.
adjustments should be made if any
parameters are changed, e.g. fuel type,
❚ Computer-based ‘expert systems’ use these
stock size.
mathematical models to determine the best
furnace settings for any job.
❚ Powerful mathematical techniques now
exist, e.g. Computational Fluid Dynamics
❚ If conditions change, or non-ideal settings
(CFD), which allow the inter-relationships
are used, the ‘expert system’ can issue new
between all furnace variables to be
instructions and/or activate alarms or
modelled and hence understood.
interlocks to prevent off-spec production.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form) plus:
All sectors NPP 85 An on-line, real time, expert system optimiser to reduce energy costs
GPCS 160 Expert system improves performance of PLC control plant

36
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Refractories and Insulation Fact File: T7
The correct choice of refractory is essential to protect the furnace and minimise energy use.

In recent years there have been significant advances in refractory technology, particularly in the
field of low thermal mass linings (which are of especial benefit in intermittent furnaces).

When selecting a refractory specification it is important to consider its resistance to erosion as


well as its effectiveness as an insulator. Replacing or repairing worn out refractories is expensive,
particularly when the cost of lost production is considered, and so longevity is a key requirement
for a successful refractory installation.

Ceramics kiln lined with woven continuous filament ceramic fibre blanket for hot face covering

KEY POINTS

❚ Refractories provide essential high ❚ For this reason, refractories are often
temperature insulation to protect the layered with a high temperature, erosion
furnace structure. resistant refractory being used to face a less
robust, but better insulating, inner layer.
❚ A range of refractory materials are available
offering different combinations of ❚ Different areas and zones within a furnace
properties including: will require different refractory
formulations.
– maximum operating temperature;
– thermal conductivity;
❚ Low thermal mass (LTM) materials, e.g.
– erosion resistance; ceramic fibre, are now available that allow
more rapid warm-up/cool-down in
– corrosion resistance;
intermittent furnaces. This can yield
– coefficient of expansion. significant production and energy benefits.

❚ There is often a trade-off between refractory ❚ LTM materials have poorer mechanical
properties, e.g. those with good insulating properties than conventional refractories
properties have relatively poor erosion and hence the latter are often the preferred
resistance. choice in aggressive environments.

37
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Refractories and Insulation KEY POINTS

❚ Monitor refractory condition to determine


the optimum time for replacement or ❚ Installation procedures must include
repair. consideration of drying out and controlled
initial warm-up to full operating
temperature.
❚ On continuous furnaces, the condition of
internal refractories can be monitored by
regularly measuring and recording the ❚ Never attempt to ‘repair’ refractory by
external surface temperature of the furnace adding additional insulation to ‘hot spots’
shell. on the outside of the furnace shell.

❚ It is possible to carry out in-situ refractory ❚ However, external insulation can be applied
repairs in most furnaces but this is a effectively to lower temperature plant, e.g.
specialist activity and must be undertaken recuperators and regenerators.
strictly in accordance with the refractory
manufacturer’s recommendations.

❚ Correct installation techniques are essential


if refractories are to perform correctly and
have maximum longevity.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 218 Corundum-resistant furnace lining
Glass GPCS 133 External spray insulation on furnace regenerators
Ceramics GPG 244 The use of low thermal mass materials and systems in the
ceramic industries

38
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Waste Heat Recovery Fact File: T8
A large proportion of the energy used by
furnaces is lost either in the flue gases or
Other
with the hot product. If this heat can be processes
recovered and re-used, then less energy will
be required. Waste heat
recovery
device
Waste heat recovery is a widely applicable Furnace
Air
technique but is not always cost-effective. pre-heat
As with any retrofit modification, the Waste gas
economics of waste heat recovery improve stream
with larger scale and extended hours of use.

It follows that waste heat recovery


techniques are most applicable to large, Stock
pre-heat
continuous furnaces and least applicable to Stock
smaller, intermittent ones.
Recovery of waste heat from a furnace

KEY POINTS

❚ It is far better to reduce the quantity of ❚ Consider heat recovery to the furnace as
waste heat produced than to recover it. first choice, e.g. pre-heating combustion air
Therefore, ensure that all other aspects of or feed stock. Be aware, however, that pre-
the furnace operation are optimised before heating combustion air will lead to a higher
considering waste heat recovery. flame temperature and hence may increase
NOx emissions.
❚ Waste heat recovery can be applied to most
types of furnace and may lead to higher ❚ Recovered heat can also be transferred for
throughputs as well as energy savings. A use in other processes, e.g. drying, or to
variety of techniques are available, these provide space heating.
include:
❚ Alternatively, waste heat boilers can be used
– flue gas recuperation (Fact File T9);
to raise steam for power generation or
– flue gas regeneration (Fact File T11); process use.
– stock recuperation (Fact File T12).
❚ Recover waste heat at as a high a
temperature as possible to provide best heat
❚ The recovery of waste heat from flue gases
exchanger performance.
will reduce gas temperature, which can be
useful if subsequent emission abatement
❚ When assessing a waste heat recovery
processes are required.
scheme always consider:
– impact on furnace conditions, e.g. back
❚ All waste heat recovery schemes require a
pressure or flame characteristics;
heat source and a heat sink (recipient). The
most effective schemes require these to be – potential fouling of heat exchange surfaces;
matched in terms of: – maintenance requirements, e.g. a bypass
facility may be required.
– quantities of heat available/required;
– temperatures available/required; ❚ Up to 50% energy savings are possible.
– timing of heat availability/requirement;
– close physical proximity. ❚ Typical payback on investment is 2 – 5 years.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams

39
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Flue Gas Recuperation Fact File: T9
Recuperation involves the use of an
Flue
in-line heat exchanger to recover
waste heat from flue gases to pre-
heat combustion air.

Air in

Pre-heated
air out

Ceramic counter cross-flow


heat exchanger

Furnace exhaust gases

KEY POINTS

❚ Pre-heating combustion air is a popular which incorporates the heat exchanger


means of waste heat recovery as the within the burner itself.
characteristics of the heat source and sink
are inevitably matched. NOx emissions can ❚ If flue gases are hotter than 1,000°C,
increase, however. heavily dust-laden or chemically aggressive,
then flue gas regeneration (Fact File T11)
❚ Many conventional burners will accept may be preferable.
combustion air pre-heated up to 300°C.
Above this, special high temperature ❚ At lower flue gas temperature (below
burners are available. 400°C), plate heat exchangers can
effectively generate warm air for other
❚ A range of heat exchanger types is available purposes, e.g. space heating or drying, while
made from steel, high temperature alloys or liquids, e.g. thermal fluid, can be heated
ceramic materials. using shell and tube heat exchangers.

❚ A development of the recuperative principle ❚ The economics of flue gas recuperation


is the self-recuperative burner (Fact File T10) generally improves with larger furnaces and
longer operating hours.

Characteristics of heat exchanger types


Type Temp (°C) Efficiency Resistance to fouling
Plate <800 40 – 60% Poor
Shell and tube <550 70 – 90% Moderate
Radiation recuperator <1,400 10 – 20% Good
Convection recuperator <1,200 30 – 50% Moderate

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams
Non-ferrous metals NPP 48 Recuperative aluminium recycling plant

40
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Self-recuperative Burners Fact File: T10

Waste gas outlet


(drawn by eductor)

Natural gas

Hot combustion
products

A self-recuperative burner
Combustion
provides energy savings products
by pre-heating
combustion air with the
Hot combustion
exhaust waste gases via a products
heat exchanger Combustion air

incorporated in the
Self-recuperative burner
burner body.

KEY POINTS

❚ The self-recuperative burner comprises ❚ Installation costs are competitive relative to


annular chambers. The inner chamber other forms of waste heat recovery, with
carries the fuel gas, while the middle energy savings of up to 50%.
annular chamber carries the combustion air.
❚ Typical payback periods are 2 – 4 years.
❚ The fuel gas and combustion air mix and
are ignited in the combustion chamber.
❚ Self recuperative burners are best applied
on processes with waste gas temperatures
❚ Flame reversal occurs in the furnace and the between 800 – 1,500°C and can only be
combustion products flow out of the used with clean waste gases.
furnace via the outer annulus, pre-heating
the combustion air and fuel gas.
❚ In retrofit installations, flame
characteristics and the flue gas path will
❚ Self-recuperative burners can be bought off change. This is often advantageous, but
the shelf and are simple to install, temperature distribution problems can
particularly for retrofit projects. sometimes occur. NOx emissions can also
increase.
❚ The burners ensure a perfect match between
waste heat availability and demand, while
their compact design means lower heat
losses than some alternative waste heat
recovery systems.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams

41
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Flue Gas Regeneration Fact File: T11
Regeneration uses a Burner in
short-term cyclic heat exhaust mode
storage device as the
means of achieving
waste heat recovery.
Burner in
firing mode
Regenerator

Gas inlet

Reversing
Regenerator valve

Ceramic bed Exhaust


gas

Combustion air

Schematic diagram of regenerative burner firing principle

KEY POINTS

❚ A regenerative system typically comprises a ❚ Compact ceramic regenerator systems are


pair of heat-retaining ceramic cores which most widely applicable. These are about the
are alternatively heated (by passing hot flue size of a dustbin and can be close-coupled
gases through them), and then cooled to a high temperature burner. The
(using incoming combustion air), thereby burner/regenerator units are operated in
achieving heat transfer. pairs. Cycle times are typically 60 – 120
seconds.
❚ Traditional static regenerators are very large
(the size of a two storey house) but are ❚ Latest developments include a range of
robust, corrosion resistant and capable of compact, self-contained regenerative
handling contaminated hot gases. Cycle burners. These are suitable for retrofit
times are up to 30 minutes. applications. Installed in pairs, cycle times
can be as short as 15 seconds.
❚ Rotary regenerators are smaller and use a
constantly rotating ceramic disc as the means ❚ Regenerative burners are now available in a
of transferring heat between neighbouring range of sizes from 65 kW to over 5 MW.
flue gas and combustion air ducts.

Characteristics of regenerator systems

Type Temp (°C) Efficiency Resistance to fouling

Static 1,000 – 1,500 70 – 90% Good


Rotary 1,000 – 1,700 70 – 90% Poor
Compact 1,000 – 1,500 70 – 90% Moderate
Burner 700 – 500 60 – 80% Poor

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams

42
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Stock Recuperation Fact File: T12
The heat contained within hot
product (stock) as it is discharged
from a furnace is often wasted. If
this heat can be recovered,
efficiency will be improved. Waste gas
temperature control
Similarly, incoming feedstock can Charging door
be pre-heated using waste heat
contained in flue gases etc. as a Waste gas Charging
hood car
useful means of heat recovery.
Baffle
Charging
(flue covering)
unit

Shaft/melting
Pre-heating
zone
zone

Burners

Melting
chamber

Furnace body

KEY POINTS

❚ Heat is most often recovered from hot ❚ The output of many furnaces will go to
product by cooling it with air. further processes that require hot feed
stock. Under these circumstances, it is
usually better to ensure that the heat is
❚ The resulting warm air can then be used as
retained within the stock, rather than
combustion air or for other processes, e.g.
trying to remove it for recovery.
drying.

❚ Heat can be retained in hot product by:


❚ Feedstock pre-heating is most easily applied
to continuous furnaces as there are no – minimising transportation distance
problems in matching the timing of heat between the furnace and the
availability and demand. downstream process;
– minimising transport times;
❚ Feedstock pre-heating can also be applied to
– providing insulated transport routes.
intermittent furnaces, particularly if there
are a number of them and their warm-
up/cool down cycles can be sequenced to
overlap.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams
Non-ferrous metals GPCS 112 Gas-fired shaft furnaces

43
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Motors and Drives Fact File: T13
Over their operating life, electric motors can
consume electricity worth 100 times the
purchase price of the motor itself. It follows
that efforts aimed at improving the
efficiency of electric motors (and the
systems they power) will be well rewarded.

There are three basic options for reducing


the energy consumption of a motor:

❚ switch it off when not needed;


❚ select the right one;
❚ slow it down.

Laminar cooler supply pumps and new motors

KEY POINTS

Switch It Off When Not Needed Slowing It Down

❚ Turn off motors when not required, e.g. on ❚ If dampers are currently used for adjusting air
empty conveyors. Consider simple electrical flow, consider using a variable speed drive
interlocks to achieve this automatically. (VSD) instead. The power cube rule means
that just reducing the speed by 20% can
Selecting the Right Motor reduce the power consumption by up to 50%.

❚ Specify ‘higher efficiency motors’ for all ❚ The economics of installing a VSD are
new purchases (available from major influenced by:
manufacturers at little or no extra cost). – the size of the load relative to motor
rating (the smaller the load the better);
❚ Consider replacing rather than repairing
failed electric motors. – the size of motor (the bigger the better);
– the operating hours (the longer the better);
– the variability of the load (the more
variable the better).

❚ Similar savings can be made by replacing


throttle control with VSDs on centrifugal
pumping systems.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 2 Energy savings with electric motor and drives
GPCS 222 Purchasing policy for higher efficiency motors
GIL 56 Energy savings from motor management policies
Ferrous metals GPCS 125 Variable speed drives on a batch furnace combustion air fan
GPCS 356 Conflict control of a combustion air fan on a large continuous furnace
GPCS 162 High efficiency motors on fans and pumps

44
GPG253 This version published 01/01
Ancillary Services Fact File: T14
Following initial efforts to improve the energy efficiency of the furnace itself, as the major energy
user, it is worth investigating the savings available from reviewing the operation of ancillary
services, such as compressed air and cooling water services. Very often these are taken for
granted and receive little attention until they go wrong.

Savings are available from a combination of good housekeeping measures, e.g. the rapid repair
of compressed air leaks, and capital expenditure on system modifications such as improved
controls and variable speed drives.

KEY POINTS

Compressed Air Cooling Water

❚ Compressed air typically costs ten times as ❚ Fit point-of-use controls to minimise water
much as electricity. consumption.

❚ Carry out regular leak tests, adopt a system ❚ Use re-circulatory systems, e.g. with cooling
of leak tagging and repair leaks promptly. towers, rather than running mains water to
drain.
❚ Do not generate air at a higher pressure
than you need. Question the need to ❚ Position cooling towers to ensure a free
generate at a pressure above 7 bar (gauge). circulation of air.

❚ Ensure compressor rooms are well-ventilated, ❚ Pumps and fans should use energy efficient
as compressor efficiency deteriorates as air motors (Fact File T13).
inlet temperature increases.
❚ Control pumps and fans in line with
❚ Sequence control compressor capacity in cooling demand. For example, use
line with air demand, and ensure the load thermostatic sequence control or variable
compressor has automatic capacity speed drives (Fact File T13).
regulation to allow the quantity of air
delivered to match demand precisely.
❚ If multiple cooling pumps are installed in
parallel, make sure the non-return valves
❚ Maintain compressors regularly (particularly are fitted to prevent water short-circuiting
air inlet filters). back through off-line pumps and check
annually that they are still sealing properly.
❚ Consider waste heat recovery, to generate
hot water and/or warm air, e.g. for factory ❚ Adopt rigorous water treatment regimes to
heating. maintain system performance and
eliminate potential health/hygiene issues,
e.g. Legionella pneumophylla.

❚ In larger, continuous cooling water


applications, consider the use of low-
friction polymer coatings to reduce friction
losses on pump internal surfaces.

For further information, refer to the Core Guides (see the fax-back form), plus:
All sectors GPG 225 Industrial cooling water systems
GPG 126 Compressing air costs
Ferrous metals GPG 170 Reducing water pumping costs in the steel industry
Glass GPCS 251 An energy management and investment campaign at a
glass plant

45
GPG253 This version published 01/01
46

APPENDIX 1

GLOSSARY

Break clause A clause in longer term gas or electricity supply contracts which allows
the customer to seek alternative quotations at each renewal
anniversary. The supplier undertakes to match the best price received
or release the customer from the contract.

Burner quarls Refractory components surrounding the burner nozzle.

Calorific value (CV) The heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit quantity of
fuel. The gross calorific value is the total heat available after the water
formed as a combustion product has condensed. The net calorific value
signifies that the water formed is still a vapour.

Combustion air The air supplied through a burner other than that supplied for the
atomisation of fuel oils.

Combustion efficiency The proportion of the energy in the fuel (based on its calorific value)
used to satisfy all the heating requirements and energy losses
associated with the furnace excluding the heat content of the exhaust
gases. It is usually expressed as a percentage.

Continuous Typically these are ÔtunnelÕ furnaces or kilns with the stock passing
furnaces/kilns through them on a continuous basis.

Convection Transfer of heat by the bulk movement of a hot fluid, e.g. air, from one
place to another.

COP meter An electronic electricity meter which is required if competitive


electricity supply contracts are to be sought. The meter can be read
remotely by modem and conforms to an approved Code of Practice
(COP).

Correction capacitors Electrical capacitors which are installed, adjacent to either large plant
or distribution boards, to improve the power factor.

Direct firing Firing without protecting the ware from the products of combustion.

Dual-fuel burners Burners equipped to fire more than one fuel e.g. gas or oil.

Excess air Air supplied in addition to that required for the stoichiometric
combustion of a fuel.

Fouling A term used for the deposition of oxides or other process derived
emissions on the heat exchange surfaces in waste heat recovery
systems.

Furnace scheduling Refers to the management of processes to ensure the minimum waste
of energy/loss of product.

Furnace yield Tonnage of product from furnace per tonne of feedstock.

GPG253 This version published 01/01


47

Higher efficiency Higher efficiency motors are manufactured to improved design


electric motors standards employing more copper and iron. This means that the
motorÕs conversion of input electrical power (kW) to output power is
improved by typically 3 Ð 6%, depending on motor sizing.

Heat work A mathematical concept used to understand furnace performance. It is


a function of the temperature to which stock is heated and the length
of time that it is held at that temperature.

Hot inspection A term used in the glass industry but is applied in the metal industries.
The technique of inspection soon after the products are made rather
than waiting for them to cool, thereby avoiding the possibility of more
scrap being made in the meantime.

Hysteresis Lag or ÔslackÕ within a control system that leads to inconsistent


performance.

Indirect firing Applied to the ferrous, non-ferrous and ceramics industries where the
product is protected from direct flame impingement from the burners
by refractory or metallic baffles, for example muffle furnaces.

Induction furnaces These are used only for metals. Typically, a high frequency electrical
current is passed through a copper coil surrounding the product. This
induces currents within the product whose electrical resistance causes
the product to heat up.

Intermittent A general term applied to batch furnaces/kilns in the ferrous, non-


furnaces/kilns ferrous and ceramic industries.

Light up The period when the furnace temperature is being raised in preparation
for production, e.g. following a period when the burners have been
turned off.

Liquefied petroleum Usually propane, butane or a mixture of both.


gas (LPG)

Low thermal mass Refractory materials having low bulk density and low specific heat.
(LTM)

MPAN Metering Point Administration Number - a series of numbers


contained within a grid printed on all electricity bills which is unique
to you as a customer. It provides essential infrastructure information
to allow potential suppliers to provide you with a competitive
quotation.

Muffle A refractory lining to a kiln or furnace that prevents the stock from
coming into contact with combustion gases.

Oxygen enrichment The practice of adding oxygen to combustion air to increase its oxygen
content. Typically between the normal atmospheric ratio (21%) and
26%.

PID Proportional Integral Derivative Ð a widely used control algorithm


which allows close control with minimal overshoot.

GPG253 This version published 01/01


48

Plate heat exchanger A heat exchanger in which thin corrugated plates are fixed together to
form a compact unit with hot and cold fluid flowing along adjacent
passages.

Power factor An electrical term. A measure of the ÔeffectivenessÕ of electrical


supplies. A poor power factor may increase the cost of electricity.

Products of combustion The materials remaining after combustion of a fuel. Generally include
CO2, H2O, and N2 but may also include CO, H2, O2, aldehydes and
other complex hydrocarbons, sulphur compounds, N2 compounds and
particulates.

Radiation Transfer of heat by the electromagnetic waves, e.g. infrared radiation,


given off by a hot body.

Refractories A general term applied to the ceramic structures lining the hot face of
a furnace chamber.

Regenerative furnace A furnace in which the hot gases pass through chambers containing
fire-brick structures, to which the sensible heat is given up. The
direction of gas flow is reversed periodically and cold incoming gas is
pre-heated in the chambers.

Scrubbers Pollution abatement equipment used to remove particulate or other


contaminants from a gas stream.

Self-recuperative burner A burner in which waste gases are used to pre-heat the combustion air
to that burner.

Specific energy The amount of energy used to process a unit (usually one tonne) of
consumption stock.

Specific heat The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
a substance by one degree.

Star/delta Alternative arrangements for connecting the windings on electric


motors to the individual phases of a 3-phase supply.

Stratification The establishment, within a furnace, of a horizontal laminar flow of the


atmosphere with a stable vertical temperature gradient.

Stock recuperation A technique whereby the exhaust gases leave the furnace at the charge
end, thus enabling their waste energy to pre-heat the stock.

Supply capacity The maximum rate (expressed in kW or kVA), at which a customer is


(or availability) allowed to consume electricity. This figure is contractually agreed with
the local electricity company and is charged for, each month, on the
bill.

Thermal conductivity The physical property of a material that describes the rate of flow of
heat through a unit surface area of a material. The SI unit is Watts per
metre per degree Kelvin (W m-1 K-1).

Thermocouples Device for measuring temperature on the basis of the electrical current
generated by the junction between two dissimilar conductors on
heating.

GPG253 This version published 01/01


49

APPENDIX 2

LITERATURE REQUEST FORM

FAX BACK TO 01235 433066


To receive your free copies of the listed publications, photocopy this form and fill in the
company details below, tick your requirements and fax to the number above or post to: Energy
Efficiency Enquiries Bureau, ETSU, Building 168, Harwell, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0QJ.

Contact Name Position

Company Name

Address

Postcode

Tel Fax E-mail

Ref Title Tick


CORE GOOD PRACTICE GUIDES
GPG 50 Efficient operation of coreless induction furnaces
GPG 58 Cupola melting of cast iron in iron foundries
GPG 76 Continuous steel reheating furnaces: specification, design
and equipment
GPG 77 Continuous steel reheating furnaces: operation and maintenance
GPG 127 Energy efficient environment control in the glass industry
GPG 164 Energy efficient operation of kilns in the ceramic industries
GPG 252 Burners and their controls
OTHER GOOD PRACTICE GUIDES
GPG 2 Energy savings with electric motors and drives
GPG 13 Waste heat recovery from high temperature gas streams
GPG 14 Retrofitting AC variable speed drives
GPG 17 Achieving high yields in iron foundries
GPG 63 Metal distribution and handling in iron foundries
GPG 68 Electric holding of hot metal in iron foundries
GPG 69 Investment appraisal for industrial energy efficiency
GPG 126 Compressing air costs
GPG 142 Improving metal utilisation in aluminium foundries
GPG 170 Reducing water pumping costs in the steel industry
GPG 225 Industrial cooling water systems
GPG 230 Implementation of hot linking
GPG 244 The use of low thermal mass materials and systems in the
ceramic industries
GENERAL INFORMATION LEAFLETS
GIL 56 Energy savings from motor management policies

GPG253 This version published 01/01


50

Ref Title Tick


GOOD PRACTICE CASE STUDIES
GPCS 36 Computer simulation of solidification in non-ferrous sand foundries
GPCS 37 Computer simulation of solidification in ferrous foundries
GPCS 112 Gas fired shaft furnaces
GPCS 125 Variable speed drives on a batch furnace combustion air fan
GPCS 133 External spray insulation on furnace regenerators
GPCS 135 Furnace scheduling advisory system
GPCS 160 Expert system improves performance of plc control plant
GPCS 161 Cupola melting of cast iron
GPCS 162 High efficiency motors on fans and pumps
GPCS 183 Performance monitoring of a re-heat furnace
GPCS 213 Demonstrating good practice in medium frequency coreless
induction furnaces
GPCS 218 Corundum-resistant furnace lining
GPCS 222 Purchasing policy for higher efficiency motors
GPCS 251 An energy management and investment campaign at a glass plant
GPCS 263 Hot charging practice for continuous steel reheating furnaces
GPCS 267 Permanent star running of a lightly loaded motor
GPCS 282 Use of molten metal filters in non-ferrous foundries
GPCS 321 Energy monitoring on large steel reheating furnaces
GPCS 344 Energy savings from small, efficient melting and holding furnaces
GPCS 345 Energy management techniques in the pottery industry
GPCS 353 The use of filters in ferrous foundries
GPCS 356 Conflict control of a combustion air fan on a large continuous
furnace
GPCS 371 New glass furnace with energy efficiency features and
improved insulation
NEW PRACTICE PROFILES AND NEW PRACTICE CASE STUDIES
NPP 10 Computer controlled furnace management
NPP 32 Fast firing of decorated ceramic ware
NPP 48 Recuperative aluminium recycling plant
NPP 54 Dual fuel regenerative burners
NPCS 89 Energy efficiency training through continuing professional
development
FUTURE PRACTICE PROFILES
FPP 33 Reduction of costs using an advanced energy management system
FPP 47 Quantifying important factors in iron melting in medium frequency
coreless induction furnaces
ENERGY CONSUMPTION GUIDES
ECG 27 The glass container industry
ECG 38 Non ferrous foundry industry
ECG 43 The UK non-fletton brickmaking industry
ECG 48 UK iron foundry industry
ECG 61 Energy consumption in the ceramics industry
ECG 63 Energy consumption in the manufacture of domestic, borosilicate
and specialist glass

GPG253 This version published 01/01


The Government’s Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme provides impartial, Energy Consumption Guides: compare energy use in
authoritative information on energy efficiency techniques and technologies in industry, transport specific processes, operations, plant and building types.
and buildings. This information is disseminated through publications, videos and software,
Good Practice: promotes proven energy efficient techniques
together with seminars, workshops and other events. Publications within the Best Practice through Guides and Case Studies.
Programme are shown opposite.
New Practice: monitors first commercial applications of new
For further information visit our web site at www.energy-efficiency.gov.uk or energy efficiency measures.

for buildings-related topics please contact: for industrial and transport topics please contact: Future Practice: reports on joint R & D ventures into new
energy efficiency measures.

BRECSU ETSU General Information: describes concepts and approaches


Building Research Establishment Harwell, Didcot, Oxfordshire, yet to be fully established as good practice.
Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR OX11 0QJ
Fuel Efficiency Booklets: give detailed information on
Tel 01923 664258 Fax 01235 433066 specific technologies and techniques.
Fax 01923 664787 Helpline Tel 0800 585794
E-mail [email protected] Helpline E-mail [email protected] Energy Efficiency in Buildings: helps new energy managers
understand the use and costs of heating, lighting etc.

Printed on paper containing 50% post-consumer waste © CROWN COPYRIGHT FIRST PRINTED JANUARY 2001.

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