Fig. lb.
Fig. 19a.
Corrigendum
The lithographs shown in Figure lb (page 19) and Figure 19a (page 104) have
been inadvertently transposed (see overleaf).
John Sanday. Monuments of the Katmandu Valley, Paris. Unesco, 1979.
Monuments
of the Katmandu
Valley
Monuments
of the
KatmanduValley
John Sanday
The designations employed and the
presentation of the material in this
publication do not imply the expression
of any opinion whatsoever on the part
of the Unesco Secretariat concerning
the legal status of any country. territory.
city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.
Published in 1979 by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization,
7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by Duculot, Gembloux
ISBN 92-3-101644-X
French edition: 92-3-20 1644-3
Unesco 1979
Printed in Belgium
Preface
Nepal has undergone many changes since the restoration of the
monarchy to power and the opening of the country to the out-
side world. The changes have been most conspicuous in the
Valley of Katmandu where there is the densest concentration of
the population in the country. Within the valley, over the course
of centuries, various dynasties established their capitals and as a
result palatial structures, temples, monasteries and the homes of
the wealthy were built which offer a concentration of different
architectural styles. The long period of isolation which preceded
the restoration of the monarchy to power had ensured the con-
tinued survival of many cultural elements which no longer exist
in other parts of Asia which had been more exposed to the viciss-
itudes of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. As a result
the visitor today can have glimpses of ways of life which had
once prevailed over much of the southern part of the continent.
However, it is difficult for the uninitiated to fully appreciate
the cultural heritage of Nepal in the valley due to the lack of
readily accessible descriptions and historical background of the
different architectural styles and the intimate relationship of the
religious calendar to the patterns of living still found today. This
publication, written by Mr John Sanday, who had been a
Unesco/UNDP expert in Katmandu for over five years super-
vising the restoration of one of the most important monuments
in the valley, will help to make up for this lack. The author is
responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts con-
tained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein,
which are not necessarily those of Unesco and do not commit
the Organization.
Contents
Foreword 9
Introduction 13
Physical environment of the Katmandu Valley 15
Historical background 21
Religion of the people 25
The festivals 29
Development of building styles 37
Crafts and craftsmen 51
Hanuman Dhoka Durbar 57
Places to discover in Katmandu 83
Environs of Katmandu 91
Patan Durbar Square 99
Places to discover in Patan 109
Bhaktapur Durbar Square 115
Places to discover in Bhaktapur 123
Foreword
by His Excellency
Trailokya Nath Upraity.
Nepalese Ambassador
Extraordinary and
Plenipotentiary to France,
Permanent Delegate to
Unesco
The Valley of Katmandu is located almost in the centre of
Nepal and its broad fertile acres have supported the largest con-
centration of the country’s population. Inevitably, it has been
the place where different dynasties located their capitals.
Most of the Newari people, who are among the oldest iden-
tified people in the country. are also found in the valley. Today.
the Newari are small shopkeepers, businessmen, farmers and
craftsmen, and it is to the latter that we owe much of the distinc-
tive character of the different architectural styles and motifs
found among the sites and monuments of the valley.
Because of its geographical location. and political and eco-
nomic roles, the valley has been subjected in the course of its
history to a number of invasions. each of which resulted in the
introduction of religious and cultural traditions which affected
the architectural heritage of the people.
Hindu and Buddhist religions and secular architectural
traditions were brought into the valley and, in the course of
time. a blend of these two traditions developed, as had also
happened in northern India. However, in India the introduction
of Islam and the iconoclastic policies of the Muslims led to the
destruction of this syncretic style which continues in Nepal. A
third source of stimulation came from Tibet in the shape of
Tantric Buddhism which has contributed to the decorative
aspect of many of our shrines and buildings. The introduction of
European-style buildings resulted at first in a discordant note. In
some cases, particularly in the poorer sections of the city, cheap
imitations of such buildings have affected the appearance of
many of our historic quarters. Nevertheless, some of the best
contemporary buildings in Katmandu now include traditional
10
Nepalese architectural features and it is evident that the Newari
craftsmen are once again contributing to the continuity of our
architectural traditions.
The distinctive character of the old central areas of Kat-
mandu, Patan, Bhadgaon, Kirtipur and other towns attracts
many visitors today. Situated slightly away from such centres are
courtyards of quiet beauty, rarely visited and at times dilapida-
ted, where outstanding examples of old monasteries or former
homes of the aristocracy and the wealthy are found. This guide-
book will help to make up for the lack of documentation, intro-
duce the visitor to these areas, and help to awaken renewed
interest in our architectural past.
The author, Mr John Sanday, is a young British architect
who first went to Nepal to carry out a survey of the ancient royal
palace, Hanuman Dhoka. On the basis of his study, work on
reconstruction was planned by His Majesty’s Government of
Nepal-a task aided by contributions from Japan, the Federal
Republic of Germany, the Guide Foundation of New York and
Unesco-and carried out under Mr Sanday’s supervision as a
Unesco/United Nations Development Programme expert for
over five years. By his efforts to achieve authenticity in the work
of restoring Hanuman Dhoka he also contributed to the renais-
sance of many craft skills among the Newari.
With the co-operation of Unesco and the United Nations
Development Programme, we are now carrying out an interna-
tional campaign for the conservation of the cultural and natural
heritage of the Katmandu Valley. At the opening of an exhibi-
tion on the art and architecture of Nepal, held during the
twentieth session of the General Conference of Unesco in Paris
in November 1978, the Minister of Education, the Honourable
Pashupati Shumshere J. B. Rana, stated that :
I given a powerful spiritual force by the synthesis between Hinduism
. .
and Buddhism-the art and architecture of Nepal retained all through
its own idiosyncratic scripture. its own authentic style . . . As a result
Nepalese art and architecture preserve a great deal of superb quality
and make a contribution to the art of Asia out of all proportion to the
small area of the Valley of Katmandu. Yet it is not in these artefacts
alone that Nepalese culture resides. . It is vividly alive, not only in the
pagodas and stupas. or the idols and murals, but in the festivals and the
practice of religion . . . This is not a monument to dead culture . . it
flows in the hearts and the minds of our people.
On the same occasion, Mr Amadou-Mahtar M’Bow, Director-
General of Unesco, added :
11
-
I wish to take this opportunity to launch a new appeal to governments
and ask them to give their generous support to Nepal by providing the
equipment, services of experts and funds it needs to carry out the task it
has set itself. This is not so much a programme of restoration-in the
technical and limited sense of the word-as a dynamic undertaking to
safeguard a heritage which is still living and real for the people who
created it. I should also like to suggest that there be greater variety in
the forms of co-operation and I call on [institutions and people]. . .
everywhere to contribute directly and individually according to their
particular abilities, and of course within the limits of their means, to
illustrate and reinforce the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind
in the service of a cause which is close to all our hearts.
This publication is one of a series designed to publicize the
International Campaign to Preserve the Cultural and Natural
Heritage of Katmandu Valley which is being carried out by
Unesco in co-operation with the Nepalese Government. I wish
to take this opportunity to express our appreciation to the Direc-
tor-General of Unesco and to the members of the Secretariat
who have contributed to our programme to safeguard this heri-
tage.
13
Introduction
On one of the many journeys I made beyond the Katmandu
Valley into the hills, I remember vividly encountering a wizened
old Sherpa lady striding along the trail towards me with a great
sense of purpose but miles from anywhere. We greeted one
another and following normal custom in the hills engaged in a
lengthy exchange of questions. I asked her where she was going
and she replied ‘Nepal’. Thinking she had-misunderstood my
faltering Nepali, I asked her again, ‘Where are you going?’
Again she replied ‘Nepal’ and explained to me that it would take
three days to reach. It was only then that I realized that she was.
in fact, referring to the Katmandu Valley, which to her and to
many people of her generation is the Kingdom of Nepal.
From very early days, traders, explorers and travellers have
struggled through the lowlands and up the old Raj path on foot
and horseback. or over one of the numerous high passes be-
tween Nepal and Tibet to reach the fulcrum of Nepal-the
Katmandu Valley, which represented. and still represents, the
hub of activity of the country from where the prevailing
influences of religion, politics and architecture have come.
Because of its inaccessibility until recently and. even today,
the difficulty of communication and travel within the country,
the remoteness and unspoilt character of Nepal enhance the
magical qualities that draw the traveller to this unique Hima-
layan stronghold.
Like the old Sherpa lady, many of you will have to accept.
as your stay will be limited, that the Katmandu Valley is Nepal.
However, it is hoped that with the assistance of this book. you
will be able to witness and feel more deeply the true atmosphere
and character of this unique kingdom.
14
The book has been simply composed and after a cursory
study of the history, ecology and physical characteristics of the
valley and brief descriptions of its architecture, a series of tours
is set out with details of the buildings, the crafts and the tradi-
tions to be found in each area.
As the purpose of this book is to raise funds to finance the
conservation of the important cultural heritage of the Katmandu
Valley, special attention has been placed on the restoration
programmes that have already been initiated by the Nepalese
Government, together with assistance from Unesco and bilateral
agreements with individual countries such as the Federal Repub-
lic of Germany.
These tow&capes that you have travelled thousands of
miles to see are slowly disintegrating as a result of the effects of
time and weather conditions. There is the local knowledge now
backed with the training resulting from Unesco’s activities to
salvage the Hanuman Dhoka; what is lacking are the funds
needed to establish a long-term restoration programme which
could soon produce its own revenue from the sites that will
initially undergo restoration. Should you wish to contribute a
further donation to this worthy undertaking, it can be sent to the
Fund for the Conservation of the Cultural Heritage of the Kat-
mandu Valley at: Unesco, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
(France).
15
Physical environment
of the Katmandu Valley
The Valley of Katmandu, drained by the holy Bagmati River, is
almost as broad as it is wide, covering an area of 570 square
kilometres, which is roughly equivalent to the size of a single
large city such as London.
The valley forms part of the Nepalese midlands which lie
between the Mahabharat Lekh to the south, and the Great
Himalayan range to the north, at a longitude and a latitude of
85°50’E. and 27°50’N.
The alluvial floor of the valley is at an altitude of between
1,200 and 1,500 metres above sea level and is subdivided by
various watercourses, low ridges and hillocks. The mean tem-
perature varies between 7° and 24°C. The location of the valley
in a subtropical zone with good irrigation makes it most suitable
for the cultivation of rice-the staple diet of the Nepalese.
Natural phenomena are visible at every turn in the Kat-
mandu Valley. Even in the heart of the capital it is possible to
have a glimpse of the snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas and
the surrounding foothills which encircle the valley. Rivers and
their tributaries interlace the landscape and are a prominent
feature of the towns and villages. The products of nature are
everywhere to be seen, since agriculture plays such an important
role in the lives of most of the valley’s inhabitants. The changing
seasons are dominated by the intense greens or yellows of cereal
crops, the towns and villages are alive with the colours of farm
produce, the heaps of drying rice and wheat or the vivid reds of
chilli peppers laid out on mats in the sun to dry.
The surrounding foothills bordering the valley were once
heavily forested, but the density of these forests is sadly depleted
on the lower reaches as the terracing for both rice and maize
16
slowly edges its way up the sides of the valley. Within the valley,
the agricultural landscape is dramatically sculptured and con-
toured, every available square metre of land being irrigated to
boost the rice crops of the local farmers. Throughout the coun-
tryside vivid splashes of colour from the poinsettias, the mari-
golds and a host of other flowers and shrubs that are growing
wild or are cultivated for votive offerings, add to the intensity of
colour so remarkable in the valley. The agricultural scene is not
complete without the herds of goats, buffaloes and the ever-
present sacred cow. The goats rush around scavenging purpose-
fully, usually with a small child in hot pursuit trying to call the
herd to order, while the buffaloes wallow in muddy pools or
confront an unsuspecting visitor from their stable beneath the
farmhouse or round a sharp bend in the roadway. The cows are
blissfully aware of their immunity as they stroll, oblivious to the
bustle of activity through the main streets and markets, always
with a wary eye open for the chance to purloin an unguarded
cabbage.
Into this setting one adds the most colourful element-the
people of Nepal; not just the valley. As has already been men-
tioned, Katmandu Valley attracts people from all over Nepal
and it is quite likely that a fair representation of the twenty-six
or more different tribes to be found in the country can be
encountered bartering in the bazaar. The women are gaily dres-
sed wearing brightly coloured saris, sparkling necklaces and
brilliant flowers in their hair. The men are more restrained in
their attire. They usually wear baggy trousers or a lungi and a
cross-over shirt. Their hat, the Nepalese cap or top, is generally
their only concession to colour.
In the streets of the towns there is a constant bustle of activ-
ity. especially in the bazaars and the vegetable markets. People
are selling, buying, exchanging, bartering or just chatting; added
to this there is the cacophony of the rickshaws and the intrusion
of the motor vehicle, whose propulsion is apparently activated
by the excessive use of the klaxon! The variety of ethnic groups
to be encountered in Katmandu is startling, especially just
before one of the major festivals. They can range from the Bhote
tribes on the Nepalese-Tibetan border, the Sherpas, the
Gurungs, Tamangs from the middle hills, to the Rajputs, the
Majhis and the Tharus of the lowlands-not forgetting the Brah-
mins, Chetris and the Newari that inhabit the valley itself.
Because of the restrictive nature of the dwellings, a vast
amount of human activity takes place in the open spaces, the
squares, the temple forecourts and even along the streets. Grain
17
is threshed and winnowed, clothes and children are washed and
women and babies are oiled and preened in the sunshine. All
these activities take place with almost total disregard of the day-
to-day traffic and business that it may happen to inconvenience.
Such is the way of life and the background against which the
visitor will witness the splendid art, architecture and craftsman-
ship on display in the Katmandu Valley.
The visitor to Nepal is normally based in Katmandu, the
capital and central town of the valley. As a result of rapid
development and Westernization over the last ten years, great
changes have taken place in this city. However, this is a facade
because, hidden away behind it. there is still a wealth of fas-
cinating historic buildings and. of course, the traditional culture
and customs. Before embarking on a fact-finding tour regiment-
ed by the standard guidebooks, it is very worth while experien-
cing the quite special atmosphere that pervades Katmandu: the
timelessness, the magical quality of light and colour-espe-
cially in the morning and the evening-and the intangible
sense of urgency and bustle to be found in the busy streets and
bazaars. This atmosphere will contribute to your enjoyment of
the more formal tours that you will make during your stay in
the valley.
Perhaps the most famous bazaar in Katmandu is that of
Asan Tol. This is a diagonal road that cuts through the city from
the durbar square across the typical north-south, east-west orien-
tated streets. It was probably an old trading or pilgrim route
linking Baudha with Swayambhu, the two major Buddhist
centres in the valley. Along this street. even today. there is a
mass of traditional small shops in typical Newari-style terraced
buildings which are the ‘front’to a myriad of passages, court-
yards and shrines occupied by a family group. Here one finds
the traders. the businessmen and the craftsmen in what at first
appears to be an unorganized and confused distribution of
buildings. However, in each area or tol specific crafts and busi-
ness are carried out and the confusion is only created by the
recent development of the curio trade, each shop vying for a
better business site. In the centre of Asan there is still to be
found the place where rice, the staple diet of the Nepalese. is
traded. It is here that people from all over the valley and beyond
will come to buy or sell their crop. The rice, of many different
varieties, is heaped up in front of the picturesque Annapurna
Temple built in the early part of the nineteenth century. It is in
this square that the local farmers from the valley will sell their
produce-their vegetables and fruit. It is here that the sacred
cow will wander, scrounging its fodder from an unsuspecting Fig. la.
stall-holder. Branching off these main diagonal streets is a net- Katmandu Durbar
work of smaller streets enclosed by tall, terraced, overhanging Square
buildings where you will find the goldsmiths and silversmiths (nineteenth-century lithograph)
beating out intricate patterns for jewellery, or the bead and
bangle shops and the cloth markets behind the Indra Chowk.
While wandering through these streets keep your eyes open
for a religious festival, a wedding, or just someone paying
homage to his special deity with colourful floral offerings, sweet-
meats, incense or butter lamps. If you penetrate deeper into
these streets the local and unaffected examples of typical daily
life will become apparent: the potters, the mattress-makers and
the blacksmiths.
These first searchings into such an unusual culture will be
those that you will remember most vividly and, probably more
important, they will attune you to the wealth of experiences
about to come your way in the following days.
Since their development the towns and villages of the Kat-
mandu Valley have remained almost unaltered in their concept
because both the style of living and the building materials have
changed only in the last quarter-century.
Fig. lb. Roads linking one settlement to another follow the original
Bhaktapur Durbar trade routes across the agricultural land between the settlements
Square which have expanded and extended along them over the last few
(nineteenth-century
lithograph). centuries. These road patterns have dictated the development of
the cities as opposed to their layouts following some mythologi-
cal principle.
Many towns and villages lie along the trade routes that criss-
cross the valley. The age-old problem of defence and the import-
ance of occupying the least amount of irrigated agricultural
land, together with the need for protection against floods, have
resulted in many of the settlements being built on high ground
in the vicinity of streams and rivers. In spite of many reports
that Bhaktapur, Patan and Katmandu had been founded on a
mythological principle in the shape of a conch shell, a discus
and a sword respectively-the symbols of the deity Manjesuri
-it is by no means certain, and these reports need verifying. It
seems far more likely that the villages, colonies and settlements
have been amalgamated, linked with new roads and surrounded
by walls to form the cores of the towns we know.
Today Katmandu lies on the junction of two main trading
routes: the north-south route, running between Patan and the
20
foothills of the Himalayas and the trade with Tibet through
Helambhua and Langtang, and the more local route between
Swayambhu and Baudha. Patan is quartered by two trade routes
linking it with the other two cities, and Bhaktapur lies along a
busy market street. Even though the durbar squares, with their
palaces and important associated religious buildings, established
the centres of power and culture. it was the market streets that
gave the towns their alignment. In Bhaktapur, the main street is
not the one normally taken into the durbar square, but a road
that branches off to the right at the outskirts of the western entry
to the town. The foundations of the cities were established long
before the siting of the existing durbar squares, a fact that can
be easily confirmed by following some of the religious proces-
sions that have used the same traditional routes over several
centuries. These processions use streets and alley-ways that are
quite apart from the newly impressed pattern of both pedestrian
and vehicular traffic.
The similarity in the development of streets and squares
within the towns and cities is linked to the individual building
types such as the private houses, the monastic groups and the
shrines and temples. These individual elements form the ter-
races, courtyards and squares which themselves have expanded
and developed to form the town districts or tols by which locali-
ties are known. The streets have no particular name, they are
simply located by the tol they are in. The most frequently used
tol names have gained their origin from the temples and monas-
teries around which they have developed. Other tol names
reveal something of the socio-economic structure of the area and
take their names from the skills or trades of their occupants.
Likewise. some of the smaller settlements that have grown up
around a particular shrine or temple will derive their names
from the deity of the temple.
Besides the three main cities, in the valley there are several
other smaller towns and religious settlements, most of which can
offer the visitor something of interest whether it be a historic
building, a wonderful vista or a traditional craft.
To witness everything of value would take several years. It is
therefore my intention to try and limit the scope of this book
and to create with you an experience that will remain long after
you have forgotten the names and dates of the numerous his-
toric buildings that you will see.
21
Historical
background
Over the past two thousand years the Katmandu Valley has
sheltered the dominating power of the central part of the Hima-
layas, the Kingdom of Nepal. While maintaining an inde-
pendent existence. the valley has exerted a major influence on
the surrounding smaller states, but, unlike them, the valley has
enjoyed a relatively continuous development, despite the effects
of immigrants and marauders. It has been a constant source of
attraction to outsiders because of its location and its wealth of
important Buddhist and Hindu shrines. It has always been one
of the most important pilgrimage sites for Hindus in the central
Himalayas.
The beginnings of Nepal’s history are still wholly in the
realms of myth and legend. It is popularly believed that the
Katmandu Valley was originally a lake-a fact substantiated by
geology-and that it was drained by the supernatural interven-
tion of the Bodhisattva Manjusri. Thereafter the Bodhisattva is
reputed to have founded the first settlement in the valley. Fur-
ther traditions connect both the Buddha and the Mauryan
emperor Asoka with the valley, but there is as yet no historical
or archaeological evidence for either legend.
It is only in the fifth and sixth centuries that the first facts
and dates appear. These are recorded on inscriptions and
through accounts of their travels by Chinese explorers who de-
scribe the Katmandu Valley, then ruled by the Licchavi dynasty.
With the Licchavi dynasty we are on firmer ground. From the
time of the Buddha the Licchavis were known to have a tribal
republic on the northern Gangetic plains and it is probable that
the rulers of the Katmandu Valley came from this group as they
moved up from the plains around the second and third centuries
22
A.D.The earliest inscriptions of the Licchavi period are found at
Changu Narayan and belong to the fifth century.
The next great contributors to the cultural heritage of Nepal
were from the Malla dynasty, which was founded in 1350 by
Jayastithi-Malla. His reforming reign ushered in the high period
of artistic and architectural activity, much of which is still
apparent today. Under the rule of the Mallas a period of relative
stability began and lasted almost 600 years. With the death of
Jayastithi’s grandson, Yaksha-Malla, in 1428, the valley was
subdivided between his three sons and the kingdoms of Kanti-
pur, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur, now the cities of Katmandu. Patan
and Bhadgaon, were established.
This arrangement meant that the valley became divided into
three kingdoms with the consequence that none of the three
rulers was powerful enough to prevent the disintegration of his
own territory. The kingdoms shrank to city states and disunity
arose among the rulers. Constant disunity between the valley
kingdoms had almost a positive effect on the arts and architec-
ture. Despite continuous skirmishes, a competitiveness de-
veloped and was demonstrated in the erection of even more
spectacular temples and palaces.
The division between the petty kingdoms of the valley en-
abled a small kingdom called Gurkha in central Nepal to
become the strongest power in this area. As a result of clever
political manoeuvring, the downfall of the Mallas was brought
about under the leadership of the Gurkha king, Prithvi Narayan
Shah and, with the conquest of the valley, Nepal was finally
united under one leader. However. this only came about after a
protracted ten-year siege and conquest of individual settlements
which led finally to the capture of the three main cities.
About eighty years after the rise to power of Prithvi
Narayan Shah, the palace intrigues had increased to such an
extent that, in 1845. Jung Bahadur Rana had elevated himself to
the position of prime minister and de facto ruler of Nepal. For
the next 100 years the country was subjected to the rule of the
Rana family who kept the country almost totally isolated from
the outside world. The Ranas struck up a reasonable relation-
ship with the British, which meant that they travelled not only to
India but as far as Great Britain. The result of this contact is
strongly reflected in the dramatic change in the style of building
that took place. As a result of trading with nearby countries the
Arabian style of architecture became apparent, but this was
superseded by the extravagance of the neo-classical style pre-
valent in Great Britain at that time, which was copied by the
23
itinerant Ranas. The complete turning away from the well-esta-
blished traditional form and architectural style and from tradi-
tional building materials had a marked effect on the continuity
of traditional architecture, as well as on the producers of tradi-
tional materials, such as brick-makers, metalworkers and wood-
carvers.
It was only in 1951 that King Tribhuvan of the Shah
dynasty, whose reign began in 1911 and who had been exiled,
was able to seek political asylum in India. He returned a year
later to Nepal to restore the sovereignty of the crown. Under
King Tribhuvan’s son, the late King Mahendra, and his grand-
son, King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev. the present ruler.
Nepal has been undergoing a steady and remarkable transfor-
mation and accompanying social revolution.
It is only recently, under King Birendra’s guidance, that a
concerted effort has been made by the Nepalese Government to
conserve Nepal’s important cultural heritage and to this end the
first major restoration programme was undertaken on part of
the old royal palace in the Hanuman Dhoka with Unesco’s
assistance and, later, the rehabilitation of Bhaktapur was started
with the assistance of the Federal Republic of Germany.
The traditional buildings that are mostly in evidence through-
out the valley today represent the craft and architecture of the
Malla dynasty, which started in the fourteenth century, survived
the early Shah period, but rapidly faded during the Rana era.
25
Religion of
the people
Perhaps one of the most difficult elements to grasp in the Nepa-
lese people’s way of life is their religion. Their religious fervour
is indeed intense and devout. Their religious practices. especially
Hinduism, follow a typical pattern of physical offering which is
extremely colourful, as can be witnessed by the variety and
abundance of festivals that take place throughout the year.
When an attempt is made by the uninitiated visitor arriving
in Nepal to understand something of the religions practised in
the valley, the number and variety of deities immediately
apparent are indeed very confusing.
The two main religions prominent in the valley are Hin-
duism and Buddhism, the former being the religion of the
crown, as the king is considered a living incarnation of Vishnu.
Both Hinduism and Buddhism have assimilated many ele-
ments of shamanism, an indigenous folk religion based on a
belief in supernatural beings, often personifications of natural
phenomena, and in the ability of certain people, known as sha-
mans, to communicate with them.
Hindus have always felt that the totality of existence, in-
cluding God, man and universe, is too vast to be contained
within a single set of beliefs. Their religion therefore embraces a
wide variety of metaphysical systems or viewpoints, some
mutually contradictory. From these, an individual may select
one which is congenial to him, or conduct his worship simply on
the level of morality and observances. Religious practices differ
somewhat from group to group and the average Hindu does not
need any systematic or formal creed in order to practise his
religion; he need only comply with his family and social group.
One basic concept in the Hindu religion is that of dharma,
26
which is the following of natural law and the social and religious
obligations it imposes. It holds that every person should play his
proper role in society and the system of caste, although not
essential to philosophical Hinduism, has become an integral part
of its social expression. Under this system each person is born
into a particular caste whose traditional occupation, which is not
necessarily practised, is graded according to the degree of purity
or impurity inherent in it.
Other fundamental ideas common to nearly all Hindus
concern the nature and destiny of the soul and the basic forces
of the universe. Karma is the belief that the consequences of
every good or bad action must be fully realized. Rebirth is re-
quired by karma in order that the consequences of action may
be fulfilled, thus the role an individual must play throughout his
life is fixed by his good and evil actions in his previous exist-
ences. It is only when the individual soul sees beyond the veil of
illusion, the force leading to the belief in the appearance of
things, that it is able to realize its identity with that impersonal
transcendental reality, brahmin, and escape from the otherwise
endless cycle of rebirth.
The three major Hindu gods are Brahma, Vishnu and Siva,
personifications of creative, preservative and destructive forces
respectively. Almost all Hindus are followers of Vishnu or Siva,
or of one of their incarnations, and are known as either Vaishna-
vites or Shaivites. Shaivites are most common in Nepal although
Krishna, one of the incarnations of Vishnu, is quite popular.
Siva is a more complex divinity, personifying the awesome and
frightening aspects of faith such as the struggle against demons
and evil, the potential dangers of knowledge and the fact of
death and deterioration. Taken as the supreme being, Siva has
also creative and benevolent aspects appearing often under male
and female guises. Seen as a mother goddess Siva has two
aspects, one beneficent as the goddesses Uma and Parvati, the
other aspect, more often stern and terrible, as the goddesses
Durga and Kali. In his own guise, perhaps one of Siva’s most
venerated forms in Pashupati, the Lord of the Animals. Ganesh,
the benevolent elephant and master of the troupe of Siva, is a
very popular figure in Nepal. He is the son of Siva and Parvati
and is the problem-solver, the remover of great obstacles and a
god of wealth.
Although many of the high caste families tend to conform to
the Hinduism of the brahmin priests and religious texts, a majo-
rity of the people, particularly among the lower castes, are much
less orthodox in the gods they worship. The ordinary villager
27
knows relatively little about the concept of the divine unity
underlying all things, including gods, and, as a result, his belief
is in an impersonal force that controls fate.
Each village tends to have its own patron deities who can
often be related to the great deities of the Hindu pantheon.
However, more often these deities are personifications of natural
phenomena. Much importance is given to shamanism and to the
role of the goddess. While gods are usually responsible for pro-
tecting village land and resources, goddesses are responsible for
the well-being of the group. In addition to village deities, there
are other divinities, usually ancestral spirits whose worship tends
to be handed down within families and who look after the safety
of the family. The majority of the deities are worshipped out of
fear for their power and wrath rather than out of love and are
very much part of daily life. Religion is seen more as a means of
placating and propitiating powerful supernatural beings of
uncertain temper rather than as being concerned with offering
thanks and devotion to deities of lovable and beneficent guise.
Hinduism has priests but there is no ecclesiastical organiz-
ation. There are temples but there is no church. The only autho-
rity is the Vedic scripts. The priests are from the brahmin castes
and act as chaplains to families of the upper castes. The central
religious act is public or private worship, the puja, which con-
sists largely of welcoming the god to the company of its worship-
pers and, depending on the scale of the puja-a private affair or
a large public festival-the deity is bathed, dressed, incensed,
and worshipped with tire, flowers and sweetmeats and paraded
through the streets, or simple offerings are made by an indivi-
dual. For many worshippers, the idol is the actual deity. How-
ever, worship can be carried out without an idol and often an
icon or some attribute of the deity can be substituted instead.
In marked contrast to most of the Buddhist festivals, the
Hindu functions appear to be far more active and outward
demonstrations of worship, whereas Buddhism is more a mental
exercise.
Buddhism has its origins in the teachings of Siddhartha
Gautama, who was born in the Terai of Nepal in about 563 B.C.
At the age of 29 he spent six years in meditation after which he
attained enlightenment. Thereafter known as the Buddha, he
devoted the rest of his life to preaching his doctrine. He accep-
ted or reinterpreted the basic concepts of Hinduism and was
intent on restoring a concern with morality to religious life as it
had become stifled in ritual details and external observances.
Gautama promulgated these four noble truths : suffering
28
dominates life ; desire causes suffering ; desire is ended in nir-
vana ; nirvana or heaven can be achieved by the eightfold path.
This path to nirvana is an individual struggle and results in the
passing over of the individual self into the eternal self. Indi-
vidual morality is the means of gaining nirvana and not the
observance of caste or priestly rituals. However, the concept of
the union of the individual with the void as the end of existence
is common to both Hinduism and Buddhism ; the difference is
in the means.
Living as they did in close contact with Hinduism, the Rud-
dhist devotees have been very much influenced by their contacts
with their Hindu counterparts. There still exists a sense of unity
between the two religions, even to the extent that often both
religions may use the same temples and worship the same deities
and, as tantrism developed, the Buddhist community has adopt-
ed many Hindu ideas and gods.
The two main forms of Buddhism are that of Hinayana,
which was the earliest form, and Mahayana Buddhism, which
developed from the former at about the beginning of the Chris-
tian era and was based more on the example of Buddha than on
his specific statements. However, the form of Buddhism most
practised by the Newars in the Katmandu Valley is that of Vaj-
rayana, an offshoot of Mahayana, and it is here that the philoso-
phical thought of the two religions of Hinduism and Buddhism
is very similar. Vajrayana contrasts with Mahayana in its
emphasis on tantric religious symbolism but the two types do
not differ in their basic beliefs.
29
The festivals
The many different religious festivals that take place every year
form an important part of life in Nepal. As the ‘Yepalese employ
the Nepalese calendar or Bikram Samvat which does not exactly
tally with the Christian calendar. it is very difficult to give the
precise equivalent date, so the festivals have been arranged
according to the month they may fall in.
There is hardly a week that goes by without some festival
taking place. However, whether local or national in character,
most of them are associated with one or other of the divinities
sacred either to Hindu or Buddhist theology or mythology. All
festivals are celebrated with the same verve by both religions.
each possibly worshipping different facets of the same god to
suit its individual dogma.
Basant Panchami
This festival is held from the end of January to the beginning of
February to celebrate the arrival of spring. On this day, the
goddess of learning, Saraswati, is worshipped, especially by
students about to take their exams. Hundreds of people flock to
the Saraswati shrine in Swayambhu, after which they picnic on
the grassy slopes below the stupa. At Hanuman Dhoka, the king
goes in procession to the Nasal Chowk to hear the recital of the
song to spring, in which prayers are offered for a good return of
crops in the midst of a colourful ceremony that takes place
beneath a specially erected canopy.
30
Shivaratri
This event is held from the end of February to the beginning of
March and is perhaps one of the most spectacular festivals of the
year as it attracts people from all over Nepal and the northern
regions of India. A great fair, or mela, is held in Pashupati, to
which literally thousands of people come to pay homage at the
most important Hindu shrine in Nepal. They arrive the night
before to prepare for their ritual bath in the holy Bagmati River
which runs in front of the temple. After this they queue in their
thousands to make their offerings of flowers to Lord Pashupati.
The rest of the day is spent in feasting, singing and dancing. All
the environs of Pashupati are teaming with people ; all the street
traders descend on the place to sell their wares, be it fruit,
flowers or toys for the children. The road is lined with beggars
and there is usually a very colourful collection of sadhus from
India, scantily clad in loincloths and ashes with their uncut hair
piled high in a topknot upon their head.
The time to visit Pashupatinath is shortly after dawn, as the
colour provided by the worshippers as they shed their old
clothes and plunge into the freezing waters soon to bedeck
themselves in their beautiful red and gold saris before paying
homage is one of the most beautiful sights imaginable, espe-
cially when the sun penetrates the mist rising off the river. In the
evening bonfires are lit at the major crossroads throughout the
valley to ward off evil spirits.
Holi
This is often referred to as the Festival of Colour and is of strong
Indian Hindu tradition. Held in mid-March, it is a week of fun
and revelry, especially among the children who shower each
other with coloured water throughout the week. The week cul-
minates in a dangerous day when projectiles filled with coloured
water are thrown at any unsuspecting passer-by, all in the search
for fun! The only ritual is the erection in the Basantapur Square
of a bamboo pole decorated with a colourful mass of streamers
at the beginning of the week. To mark the end of the festival,
this pole is taken down and burnt.
Ghodajatra
Also held in mid-March, this was originally a Newari festival
centred around feasting with friends and worshipping Bhadra-
31
kali and Kankeswari, two deities who are paraded through the
narrow streets of Asan the night before the festival. At the same
time, the Demon Gurumpa is feasted on the Tundikhel. On the
day of Ghodajatra competitive sports such as horse racing and
cycling and a display by the army take place on the Tundikhel.
It has now become a kind of military pageant.
Chaitra Dasain and
Seto Matsyandranath
These are two separate festivals which occur at the same time, in
the third week of March. The Chaitra Dasain is timed to be
exactly six months before the Maha Astami day during the
festival of Dasain in late September. It is a day when sacrificial
offerings are made to Durga, a ritual that takes place at midday.
It is also the start of the Katmandu Rath festival. The Seto
Machhendra image is taken from its shrine off Asan To1 and is
placed in a towering chariot. In all, this festival takes four days
to complete, the chariot stopping at specific places each night
where the image is worshipped and cared for by the inhabitants
of that locality. The chariot, which is towed on 1.8-metre-diame-
ter wheels by hundreds of young boys, is very spectacular, parti-
cularly as its scale dwarfs the streets through which it passes. It is
usually moved from one stopping place to the other in the early
evening. On the fourth or final day the chariot is dragged
around a tree in Lagan Khel, after which the deity is transported
back to its temple on a small palanquin.
Bisket
The festival is special to Bhaktapur and is perhaps one of the
most exciting and frenetic of all the major public festivals.
During the mid-April week-long celebrations, the goddesses of
Bhairab and Bhadrakali are paraded in chariots throughout the
town. The revels start with a major challenge between the inha-
bitants of the eastern and western halves of the town, who con-
front one another in a tug of war of surprising dimensions begin-
ning in the square beneath the Nyatapola Temple around dusk.
The challenge is to ascertain who is to become hosts to the main
deity during the festivities. A j-metre-high chariot is erected in
the centre of the square and two long ropes, attached to each
end of the chariot, run out along the main streets of the square.
The deity is installed and, while she is protected by her guardian
32
priests, each half of the town endeavours forcibly to drag the
chariot into its territory. This battle continues throughout the
night until one side retires from exhaustion and accepts defeat.
To witness this festival, it is best to go in the company of one of
the townsfolk as, often, the participants get a little out of control
in their endeavours to win the honour of being hosts to the god.
The second stage of the proceedings is to escort the deity to the
banks of the river down a steep and twisting road. This is a
somewhat taxing undertaking and the passage of the chariot is
often hampered by the surging crowds or even a building which
may have collapsed in its path. Once the chariot reaches the
banks of the river, a long pole is hoisted to commemorate vic-
tory during the great battle of Mahabharata. The following day
the pole, which is of immense dimensions, is felled to signify the
beginning of the Nepalese new year. To give the losers of the tug
of war a chance to absolve themselves from the ignominy of
their earlier defeat, a return match is held at the end of the
festival by which time, it is hoped, their opponents will be han-
dicapped by their excessive feasting.
Rato Machhendranath
Jatra
This chariot festival, held in late April, is one of the major festi-
vals of Patan and is similar to the Rath Festival held in Kat-
mandu. The main difference is that it takes a month to complete
and the chariot is much larger. The deity is shared with the
village of Bungamati, close to Patan, and every twelfth year the
chariot itself has to be taken to Bungamati. This is a major
undertaking as the road is very hilly and far from smooth. Each
year the deity spends three months in Bungamati but in these
intervening years it is carried there on a palanquin.
The festival begins in Pulchok where the chariot is built,
and for about a month it wends its way through the streets of
Patan. Because of its immense size, members of the army are
called upon to assist in pulling the chariot. The culmination of
the festival is at Jawalakhel when the bejewelled tunic, suppos-
edly belonging to the serpent king, is publicly displayed, on a
specially selected day, in front of the king. The purpose of the
festival is to ensure a satisfactory monsoon for the rice crop in
the paddy fields.
33
Buddha Jayanti
As Nepal is the birthplace of Lord Buddha, his birthday is cele-
brated with great veneration throughout the country in mid-
May. Special ceremonies take place in the major Buddhist sites
of Swayambhu and Baudha, with both processions and large
prayer gatherings in the neighbouring monasteries. Pilgrims
come from all over Nepal to these sites to celebrate Buddha
Jayanti and they make a very colourful scene.
Janai Purnima
This festival in early August mainly concerns the brahmins but
most Hindus will nevertheless participate. The brahmins bathe
in the sacred rivers of the Vishnumati and the Bagmati, after
which they change the sacred thread worn across their chest.
Other people have yellow sacred threads tied round their wrist
to protect them from the dangers of the coming year. On this
day, thousands of people visit the Kumbheswar Temple in
Patan where they bathe in the sacred waters which supposedly
come from the holy lakes in Gosainkund set at over 4,000 metres
in the foothills above the valley. The courtyard around Kumb-
heswar is a very colourful sight during this festival as, after their
symbolically cleansing bath, the throngs of people pay homage
to the beautiful gold and silver linga, usually kept in the temple
but which on this day is placed on a platform in the middle of
the tank reached only along a narrow plank.
Gaijatra
Held in early August, this festival, akin to a carnival, takes place
in Katmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur with only slight variations
on a central theme. Families in which deaths have occurred
during the previous year will send a cow, or a young child mas-
querading as a cow, in procession around the streets of the city
as a tribute to the deceased and to assist their entry into heaven.
This procession takes place during the morning and is followed
in the afternoon with a further more carnival-like procession
when participants mimic the social and political scene of the
day. The processions staged in Bhaktapur are perhaps the most
34
extensive and amusing, with a wide range of tableaux typifying
all aspects of the people’s culture. The festival lasts about eight
days, the first and second day being the most important. On the
second day, an important Buddhist festival known as Mataya
takes place when all the viharas (Buddist monasteries or
temples) of Patan are visited in sequence. As there are as many
as 150 viharas, this is a formidable undertaking. Offerings are
made by the pilgrims and butter lamps are lit along the route.
Teej-Brata
This three-day festival, held at the end of August, is especially
observed by women. It consists of a period of fasting together
with a ritual cleansing in the Bagmati River. Women, dressed in
their finery, flock to Pashupati to bathe in the river and after-
wards to worship at the shrine of Lord Pashupati, creating a very
colourful spectacle along the river bank.
Indrajatra
Held at the beginning of September, this is perhaps one of the
most important and certainly the most spectacular of all the
Nepalese festivals, celebrated by both Hindus and Buddhists
alike. The festival lasts for about eight days during which time
there is much rejoicing, dancing and ceremony. On the first day,
a long pole is erected close to Hanuman Dhoka to propitiate
Indra, the god of rain. After its erection there is a colourful
display of classical dancing by masked dancers. On the third
day, the living goddess Kumari is brought out into the streets in
her special chariot and is accompanied by her attendants,
Ganesh and Bhairab, represented by two young boys. It is on
this day that the king attends the festivities, is entertained by the
masked dancers and also pays homage to Kumari. Throughout
the cities, many wooden masks of Bhairab are exhibited and at
certain times of the day local beer pours forth from their mouths
through a spout to revive the local revellers. Indra, with his arms
outstretched, can also be seen at vantage points, set atop a high
platform. History records that it was on this day that King
Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered Katmandu and unified Nepal.
Throughout the festival, many staged displays of classical danc-
ing and religious tableaux can be seen in the Katmandu Duibar
Square.
35
Durga Puja-Dasain
Held from the end of September to the beginning of October,
Durga Puja is the national festival of Nepal and lasts in all fif-
teen days. It is a time for family reunion and for rejoicing, there-
fore most of the festival’s activities take place within the family
group as it is often the only time throughout the year when the
whole family is together. The basic theme of the festival is the
conquest of evil ; legend has it that during the time of this festi-
val Ram Chandra vanquished Ravana of Lanka. On Phulpati,
the day of flowers, there is a colourful procession to Hanuman
Dhoka attended by the king.
The following day, Maha Astami. Durga is feted and thou-
sands of buffaloes and goats are sacrificed at shrines all over the
country symbolizing the cleansing of the soul. It is on this day
that the Taleju shrines in the main cities are opened to the faith-
ful and throughout the night thousands of pilgrims flock to pay
homage. The following days are spent in family gatherings, and
on Bijaya Dasami relatives visit the house of their elders to
receive their blessing and tikka.
Tihar
Over a period of five days in late October various animals and
gods are worshipped and houses are lit up at night with hun-
dreds of candles ; sadly, these are being replaced with electric
lights. On the first day the crow, which symbolizes Yama Duta,
the messenger of death, is called to the house and fed. Dogs are
feted and garlanded on the second day, as they are the mounts
of Bhairab. On the third day, the cow-as an incarnation of
Laxmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity-is worshipped,
and on the last day brothers are feted by their sisters with gar-
lands and sweetmeats and they are in turn rewarded with
money. Every evening Laxmi is paid special attention and her
footprints traced by worshippers can be seen leading to their
safes or treasure boxes. During this period the Newari new year
is celebrated with much feasting and gambling.
37
Development
of building styles
Perhaps the most remarkable aspect of the Nepalese cultural
heritage is the smallness of its actual limits. A few traditional-
style temples have been built in the larger provincial settlements
of central Nepal and an occasional example of a copy, the result
of the whim of some rich merchant, can be discovered in the
foothills of the Himalayas, but the major historical culture has
been concentrated in the Katmandu Valley itself. Nowadays, the
exquisite craft of Nepalese wood-carving is recognized far
beyond the confines of the valley, even beyond Nepal, but the
valley is its source and its home. In terms of artistry and crafts-
manship, when one speaks of Nepalese culture it is in the early
stages almost exclusively a Newari culture.
From the early part of Nepal’s history, there remain only a
few examples of building history, all of which are either ruined
or consist of small and large stupas, memorials to holy men,
which are solid structures and mostly of archaeological rather
than architectural interest.
The culture which concerns us is the result of much later
history, as late as the seventeenth century, and is in the form of
the traditional Newari temples and palaces which are abundant
in the Katmandu Valley. However. there are many surviving
ruins of earlier buildings now incorporated in newer ones,
earlier doors and windows or pillars supporting roof struts,
which can often be dated by inscriptions. There are a few in-
scribed stones of very early periods, but they can no longer be
related to the buildings as they are seen today. Nepal gives the
impression of being a remarkable survival of the Indian Middle
Ages ; in fact, its buildings are seldom as old as the medieval
period of Europe. However, the impression may not be so false,
38
as it seems certain that the seventeenth-century builders were
deliberately perpetuating earlier styles, just as the craftsmen
were striving to produce earlier forms of art.
The first and most striking error perpetuated in most travel
and history books refers to the multistoreyed temples rather
than to the temples with multitiered roofs. More often than not
the roofs do not correspond with the floor levels, if in fact there
are any definable floor levels as such in a temple. Such a dif-
ferentiation is very important as most of the temples comprise
mainly a sanctuary cella on the ground floor, over which there is
intentionally unoccupied space. In the case of only a very few
temples, where the shrine containing the deity occupies an
upper floor, is there more than one floor.
The concept of the temple, as opposed to the small shrine,
follows the basic ideal of any religious building to construct, as
an act of worship and dedication to a god, the finest building
that the worshippers are capable of producing. The sense of
greatness is nearly always achieved by height and the qualities
of proportion and perspective are something very special to this
style. There is, however, one great difference when comparing
the Nepalese temple to those of the Christian church or the
Mohammadan mosque. The latter two are designed to accom-
modate large congregations gathered for corporate worship,
whereas the former is intended for private individual worship
-the puja. The sanctuary, often a mere 0.5 square metres,
houses the image of the deity only. The puja enables private
communion between the worshipper and the god under cover of
the projecting roof. Even during large family festivals the prin-
ciple of individual worship is maintained as, when the leader has
performed the necessary rites for the whole gathering, individual
worship then follows. Large public festivals are held in open
spaces around the temples where numerous rest-houses, or
pathis, of all shapes and sizes provide the necessary shelter for
the pilgrims.
Concern for periods and datable styles may, in the case of
Nepalese architecture, become irrelevant because here the art is
expressed in a traditional form as opposed to an individual
form, for its vitality consists not in the development of personal
expression, but in the perpetuation of what is traditionally cor-
rect. Of course, there is a form of development and this can be
seen in the way that the traditional craftsmen are progressing
today when faced with the problems of repairing a former build-
ing, but it is obviously slower and incidental, while the main
forms have remained unchanged for centuries. Thus, while
39
marked variations in quality and decoration can be discerned in
the wood-carving and the standard building details, it is pro-
bable that the actual building styles have undergone little
change. More marked changes in traditions took place with the
advent of the first major Western influence during the Rana
rule.
There are certain styles of architecture that are easily rec-
ognizable and which can be roughly dated into centuries. Unlike
European architecture, there appears to have been little devel-
opment in building styles. There are purely local variations in
the type of decoration and this is usually dictated by the divinity
housed within the structure.
The traditional style
The most interesting and the most prolific form is the brick-built
temple with diminishing tiered roofs. It seems to be generally
agreed now that it is the survival of an Indian style, long since
discontinued in its land of origin. The survival of this style in
certain remote areas of India and also the descriptions given by
Chinese pilgrims of Indian temples which they saw over a thou-
sand years ago confirms this. Fortunately, it is not just the buil-
ding as a type that survives in Nepal, but a whole style of archi-
tecture which may owe much to India now existing as something
distinctly Nepalese.
Although they are all based on the same conceptual idea,
the temples differ in shape and size. To achieve the sense of
height and majesty they are mostly set on a diminishing stepped
plinth, are built of brick -often the special glazed brick-and
carved timbers support a heavy pitched roof construction. The
roof is covered with tiles bedded in a clay base. The top roof is
capped with a pinnacle-gajur-often very ornate and, on some
of the more important temples, of gilded copper. The temples
can be free-standing or attached to a terrace of houses. They can
be square, rectangular or even octagonal in plan and their size
can vary from a small 4.6-metre structure to something the size
of the Taleju Temple in Katmandu, which is well over 37 metres
high. There appears to be no guiding influence for the number
of roof tiers. Most temples have three roofs, the smaller ones,
mostly attendant shrines, only two roofs and temples dedicated
to Pashupati, which are often of sizeable proportions, have large
projecting roofs. There are only two free-standing temples with
five-tiered roofs. The Basantapur Tower in the Hanuman Dhoka
Palace has five roof tiers, but this is not a religious building.
40
Fig. 2.
A traditional Nepa-
Iese temple (Kasi
Biswanath).
The shikhara
Another striking building style that has become fairly common
over the last two centuries is the shikhara, a brick or stone
temple of geometrical shape with a tall central spire rising to the
heavens, suggesting the peaks of the surrounding mountains. On
each of the four elevations porticoes are attached, usually set
above a colonnaded arcade, which are said to symbolize the
entrances to rock caves. Like most other religious buildings, the
shikhara is set on a diminishing stepped plinth and built around
a small sanctuary containing the deity. The structure, usually
symmetrical in form with a spire of solid construction, is capped
41
Fig. 3.
The shikhara-a
typical example
(Batsala Durga).
42
with a pinnacle, often of gilded copper. The stone-built shikha-
ras are generally of rather special quality, as stone buildings,
because of the lack of good building stone, are not very common
in the valley. As a result, most of the stone structures have been
sponsored by royalty and are generally to be found only in the
durbar squares. One shikhara of particular note, the Maha
Baudha in Patan, is actually constructed in terracotta.
The shikhara is the typical building style of most Hindu
shrines in India and it entered Nepal as a style only in the seven-
teenth century. Many of the Nepalese shrines are, in fact, direct
copies of famous Indian shrines.
The stupa and chaitya
The stupa and chaitya are dedicated exclusively to Lord Buddha
and are solid hemispherical structures enshrining a relic of the
Buddha, whether it be his mortal remains as in the case of the
stupa at Swayambhu or some of his belongings, such as his
garments or personal effects. The smaller stupas, or chaityas, as
they are known, usually contain prayers (mantras), holy scripts
or more especially in the hill areas, the mortal remains of an
important and holy lama. Fig. 4.
The stupas vary greatly in size, from the massive Structure at The stuppa or chaitya
Baudha to some of the smaller versions to be found in the towns. (Bandhanath).
Their construction is basically the same ; the hemispherical
mound is either made-up ground, or a small hillock or rocky
outcrop from which, as is the case at Swayambhu, the mound is
formed. According to tradition, this mound of earth often covers
a series of small chaityas grouped around a central one. Cen-
trally placed on the mound there is a small square structure-
chaku-which supports the elaborate, usually gilded, pinnacle,
of thirteen stages, on the base of which are the features unique
to Nepal-the far-seeing eyes of the Buddha surveying the car-
dinal points. The third-century Asok stupas of Patan are, how-
ever, much simpler in form and have only a plain brick chaku.
The mounds of the later stupas are generally covered with brick
or lime concrete and whitewashed. During the major Buddhist
festivals the dome is decorated with yellow clay poured over the
dome to make it resemble the lotus flower.
43
44
The traditional
Newari house
The development of urban settlements and of the street patterns
within these has usually meant that domestic dwellings ,are
formed either of groups of interlocking courtyards in the more
dense areas, or of terraced lines facing onto a street or thorough-
fare. In the latter case, a less controlled form of courtyard devel-
opment of inferior structures interlocked by a series of enclosed
passages at ground level may grow up. These may run beneath
the dwellings, and link the various courtyards. The buildings
that overlook the main thoroughfares and those that occupy key
positions in large enclosed spaces are usually of architectural
importance. Their façades are generally symmetrical and con-
tain finely detailed and carved windows and doors. Symmetry is
achieved on a central axis on each succeeding floor, with the
central window of each floor emphasized by its size and quality
of detail. The houses usually have two or three storeys above a Fig. 5.
ground floor and there is seldom any order to the placing of Traditional Newari
individual units in either quality or size ; the symmetry exists dwellings.
only relative to an individual building. Where the ground floor
is not used as a shop front or a workshop, the lower part of the
elevation remains simple and unadorned with a low door flank-
ed by two small windows on either side. Irregularities that may
occur at this level are never reported in the more formal layout
of the upper storeys. Externally, the living area is marked by a
special window consisting of either three or five bays. These
windows can be of two different but standard patterns ; one
being a canted projecting bay of windows, the other a projecting
but vertical bay of windows. The bays may consist of units of
odd numbers, three or five, and on the more important build-
ings these two standard patterns are combined vertically to form
a very impressive and imposing central axis for the building.
Formerly, the typical window style was of horizontal in-
fluence with squared lattice work. Only 200 years ago, window
designs started to change and to become more vertical in form,
but they still retained the lattice work. At the turn of this cen-
tury, the trend was towards lighter and larger windows, lattice
work was omitted and iron railings and shutters were introduced
to close the now predominantly vertical style of window.
Particular utilization of the rooms is decided by their verti-
cal orientation and is not dependent on the room size. Despite
variations in size and external decoration, common principles of
space utilization developed in all social groups.
45
A central spine wall normally divides the ground floor into
two narrow rooms, the front half overlooking the street usually
serving as a shop or workshop, the rear portion as a place for
storage. Living and sleeping quarters begin on the first floor and
the location of specific functions is dictated by the size of the
house and the number of families using it, as married sons, by
tradition, take up residence with their families in their parental
home.
In the common three-storeyed house, the second floor is the
main living and family area. The spine wall is replaced by a row
of twin columns forming a large, well-ventilated, low hall-like
room suitable for family gatherings. On the exterior, large and
finely carved windows emphasize the position of this living area.
Both the kitchen and the family shrine are located in the attic
space. Because of their religious significance, strangers and
members of lower castes should never enter the kitchens or
shrines of higher caste dwellings.
46
The Buddhist monastery
The various types of Buddhist monastery in the Katmandu
Valley-as opposed to the monastic buildings of the northern
regions-are called viharas. This term encompasses basically
two styles, the bahil and the bahal.
The bahil, set on a raised platform above street level, is a
two-storeyed structure surrounding an enclosed square court-
yard. Except for the main entrance, consisting of a small cen-
trally placed doorway flanked by two blind windows in the main
elevation, the ground floor is totally sealed off from the outside.
Arcaded porticoes on all four elevations overlook the internal
yard. Directly opposite this main entrance is the free standing
shrine with a clearly defined passage-way around it. The shrine
itself is a small dark and simple rectangular room containing the
image. To the left of the entrance there is a stone staircase lead-
ing to the upper floor. Over the main entrance there is a projec-
ting window forming the central axis to the main faqade.
The bahal is again a two-storeyed building enclosing a cour-
tyard, but unlike the bahil, its floor areas on both ground and
upper floors are subdivided into several room units. The buil-
ding is generally of a more robust construction, is set on a low
plinth and overlooks a sunken square courtyard. The main
entrance door, flanked on either side by windows, leads into a
foyer with benches. As before, the main shrine is situated
directly opposite this entrance and consists of a large enclosed
room containing the main divinity. The two flanking internal
wings contain an open hall, similar to the entrance foyer over-
looking the courtyard. Set in the four corners of the building
there are stairways to the upper floor, each with a separate door-
way leading from the courtyard. Each of the narrow stairways
leads to a group of three rooms. which form a separate unit with
no intercommunicating doors or passages.
Perfect symmetry has been achieved by generally projecting
the central and corner sections of the brickwork on all façades
and by the placement of windows and doors on a central axis.
Each window is designed according to its location in the façade
and those occupying the axial position are of a typical bahal
style. Although constructed of unglazed brick, the quality of the
brickwork is excellent and is usually left exposed on the external
façades. The interior façades are, however, usually rendered
with a mud plaster and whitewashed. The entrance to the bahal
and to the main shrine is indicated by a highly carved wooden
tympanum or toran.
47
The Hindu
priest house or math
The Nepalese form of the priest house is clearly distinct from
the monastic buildings of Buddhism. First, it is not bound by
such specific rules and secondly its location, orientation and
internal planning correspond closely to that of a typical dwel-
ling. The larger math generally comprises several smaller house
units centred around a courtyard. It is usually a three-storeyed
building of solid construction, with elevations resembling those
of a residential house. It is fully integrated into a terrace of
houses along a street or overlooking a square and may only be
recognized by the superior quality of its decoration.
The variety and number of courtyards may differ and their
particular uses are also governed by their size and quality. Howe-
ver, utilization of space on the different floor levels is essentially
similar to that of the ordinary domestic dwelling. The ground
floors serve as stables, stores, servants’ quarters and guardrooms
and there are usually shrines dedicated to Siva and a puja room.
The first and second floors contain living-rooms, guest-rooms and
sleeping quarters, whereas the third floors contain the private
shrine and the kitchen area.
The exterior façades and the most important courtyard
façades are usually faced with the high quality glazed bricks and
the windows are heavily carved, as are the cornices and the brick
lintels over the windows. The interior walls are generally of good
quality plain brickwork. The public areas such as the stables,
meeting-places, etc., are paved with clay tiles while the shrines
are paved with stone slabs. The more domestic rooms have
simple mud floors. Occasionally, the rooms occupied by the
chief priest are more ornately decorated than the rest with pain-
ted panels adorning the walls. The internal walls are otherwise
plastered with mud and whitewashed.
Dharmahala :
the public rest-house
A building type common to all towns and villages is the dharma-
hala or public rest-house, a place where travellers or pilgrims
may rest free of charge. In Nepal, these rest-houses can range
from the simple patti, a small shelter usually at the intersection
of important routes, to the more impressive buildings attached
to or surrounding an important temple or shrine, or the man-
48
dapa which formerly served as the town assembly hall. These
public rest-houses were generally donated by wealthy indivi-
duals, religious groups or families, who were also responsible for
their upkeep and maintenance.
The smallest of the group is the patti, a small raised and
covered platform which is either free-standing or incorporated
into a dwelling. The layout of each patti is almost identical and
consists of a rectangular brick platform covered with wooden
floorboards. As it is sited to overlook the access routes, the front
is always open and of simple post and lintel construction.
The sattal is a general term for the more compound-type of
public building. Unlike the patti, the sattal seems to have been
built not only for the transient traveller but also for longer
sojourns by members of religious communities. Idols and
shrines erected in sattals are, for the most part, features of later
origin as they were seldom included in the original concept of
the structure.
The two-storeyed patti-type of sattal is commonly found in
the durbar squares and might originally have quartered a part of
the palace guard or other military unit. In such cases the build-
ing is a little longer than is otherwise expected. The typical two-
storeyed unit consists of a simple rectangular platform with a
small door at the rear leading into the shrine. Otherwise, similar
to the patti, it is open on three sides. The upper floor is reached
by an external stairway at the back of the sattal. This upper floor
area is extended by cantilevering the floor over the front and
side walls. On the upper floor there is another shrine, usually
housing a private divinity and placed directly above the shrine
below.
The mandapa is a square, single or multistoreyed building
which serves many functions similar to those of a patti, yet it was
mainly designed to be used as a community or reception hall. It
is generally a free-standing open pavilion, facilitating large
gatherings of people in or around it. It is always found within
settlements and has its own particular importance. Unlike the
simple patti, this type is open on all sides. The roof is supported
by an outer ring of pillars and a further four central pillars. In
some cases, a further upper floor is constructed with a separate
roof, following the typical temple structure. This upper floor is
only accessible through a small hatch in the ceiling of the lower
floor, and is used during festivals for the exposition of divinities,
such as Indra during the festival of Indrajatra. For this reason
there are canted open balcony windows on all four sides. The
sizes of the mandapa type vary considerably according to the
49
size of the town or settlement they are serving. hence the Kast-
hamandapa in the centre of Katmandu is, as can be expected,
the largest to be found.
The traditional palace
All the palaces are recognizable for their extravagant style and,
in the major cities, for their scale and complexity. The relative
proportions of these buildings are always much bigger than the
general domestic scale ; not only are the rooms larger, but all the
elements appear larger and more splendid, as these palaces were
doubtless prestige buildings and often constructed in competi-
tion with the rival petty kingdoms in the valley. The palaces
exhibit, therefore, perhaps the best examples of their period of
architecture, since the local craftsmen were encouraged to pro-
duce the finest quality of workmanship in recognition of their
patrons and sponsors. The palaces are very solidly built, not as
fortresses, as would be expected, but as elements of artistic and
architectural beauty. They incorporate the qualities of religious
architecture as well as those of monastic and domestic archi-
tecture.
The Rana Palace
Perhaps the only major and dramatic change in the styles of
architecture in Nepal can be seen in the relatively recent arrival
of the over-life-size white stucco palaces introduced by the for-
mer Rana prime ministers. This style is barely recognized today
for its unique contribution to Nepal’s architecture. Most of these
palaces, which are of colossal proportions when compared to the
style of architecture prevailing when they first appeared, and
boast of several thousand rooms and scores of courtyards, not to
mention all the buildings scattered throughout the compounds,
were built in a couple of years. The materials used were all
available locally-bricks, mud mortar, timber and floor tiles.
Only the ‘new’ style of interlocking roof tiles had to be imported
and even these were soon manufactured in the valley. The exter-
nal decorative stucco work was executed in the local clays,
copying the intricate designs at that time popular in Europe. The
interiors were lavishly furnished with reproduction period furni-
ture and decorated with exquisite crystal chandeliers and mir-
rors, all conforming to the elaborate neo-classical revival that
50
was taking place in Europe at the time. This colossal style of
building had never been experienced before and, as a result,
some of the finer points of both structural and detailed design
suffered.
The interiors were laid out on a grand scale with large state
rooms, extensive family accommodation and vast areas of cram-
ped living quarters for the family retinue and staff. Undoub-
tedly, the palaces were pretentious status symbols and, although
they were basically of identical construction, they varied in both
scale and decoration.
These extraordinary palaces now represent in Nepal a poli-
tically unstable period in the country’s history ; nevertheless,
they also stand as a unique example of a style of architecture
and an important period in the development of the towns and
cities of the Katmandu Valley.
51
Crafts
and craftsmen
One of the most rewarding aspects of the Hanuman Dhoka
Conservation Project described later was the results achieved
under restrictions imposed by relying almost entirely on local
resources and materials. It was necessary to simplify and adapt
modern conservation methods to the use of local materials and
local techniques. Various castes were employed in different
processes : the Kau or Newari blacksmiths were responsible for
much of the metalwork and the wind bells were made in a num-
ber of different households in Patan, especially by the Newari
Tammo caste. Copper roofing in the Kirtipur Tower was re-
placed by craftsmen from the Tamrakar caste.
The rediscovery of the method of making the original telia
brick used in the Malla building era was a considerable achieve-
ment. The telia brick had no longer been used in Nepalese archi-
tecture and its technique was completely forgotten.
In the conservation project it was necessary to replace many
of the defective bricks with sound ones. The practice previously
had been to use salvaged bricks. But this is not a satisfactory
method as there is a growing demand for bricks and more and
more historic buildings are being dismantled. The importance of
rediscovering the technique of making the telia brick was vital to
the success of future repair and conservation work.
The fact that the brick is called telia, which means oiled, led
us astray during our first experiments. We were unable to find
any practical information about its manufacture and had to
resort to direct experimentation. These initial efforts were made
in the traditional brick fields and, although it was unlikely that
we should produce a brick resembling in any way the original
model, we were able to draw quite a crowd. Having covered
52
ourselves in mud and oil, much to the enjoyment of the on-
lookers, a voice from the back of the crowd soon called out that
we were not making the bricks correctly. The old man who had
called out disappeared to collect his tools and then returned to
demonstrate our incompetence. A second old man then pro-
nounced this effort also incorrect. Arguments between the two
men, however, led to some sort of compromise and the bricks
were made and then tired. The results stood up almost perfectly
to several comparative tests with the original bricks. Samples of
the new bricks and the originals were paired and sent to a spe-
cialist in London for chemical analysis. The report was barely
able to differentiate between the two products.
Many varieties of brick were made and in each case the
wedge shape was preserved. We have so far made header bricks,
stretcher bricks and corner bricks with slip glazing on two faces.
There are also many different bricks required for mouldings fig, 6,
over windows and patterned terracottas which will need further A craftsman at work.
experiments later.
After initial runs of small quantities of bricks, in which the
process was perfected, an order for 10,000 bricks was placed
with a local brick kiln and the bricks produced have matched up
to the original samples.
Among the arts of Nepal perhaps the best known is the
wood-carving that adorns both domestic and religious buildings.
This is a craft that developed among the Newar tribes in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries during the Malla rule. Today it
is still maintained by these same tribes. However, the demand
from commercial enterprises gives them little opportunity to
practise their art form.
The Katmandu Valley is the main stronghold of Nepalese
culture and has important examples of art. The royal palaces of
the valley promoted the local arts and the best examples of each
period of Nepalese art are found in the buildings which com-
prise these palace ensembles.
Windows and floors are provided with a series of unique
surrounds and mouldings. Cornices are built up of basic shapes
which are derived from heads, birds or vegetal motifs. Each of
these is a unique individual element.
The Vilas Mandir of the Hanuman Dhoka Conservation
Project contains some of the finest examples of technique and
artistry in its wood-carving. The lower struts of the Basantapur
Tower are also particularly tine, as are the windows of both
buildings. The grille work of these windows is created by a very
complicated geometric interlocking construction. Over fifteen
54
patterns have been discovered in this group of buildings alone,
as well as several simpler forms. Unfortunately, the present
condition of these windows has suffered badly from deteriora-
tion due to time, saturation of the struts, and distortion and loss
due to earthquakes. They have also been heavily overpainted in
an effort to overcome their tawdry appearance. We are, there-
fore, faced not only with problems of replacement and repair,
but also with the careful cleaning and conservation of the re-
maining examples to consolidate this disappearing art form.
Among other aims set out in the proposals of this conserva-
tion project were the revival of interest in wood-carving and the
setting up of a local or family wood-carving guild. This guild
would be registered with the conservation project office as
capable of producing artistic rather than commercial work. The
people would be employed to carry out conservation and resto-
ration work such as that described above and also to work on
any new religious building that might require carving. As a long-
term policy this would maintain the original wood-carving tradi-
tion and ensure skilled and willing craftsmen for conservation. It
is also hoped that such work might increase the incomes for
these families.
When the project was in its early stages, efforts were made
to discover wood-carvers. The general opinion at that time was
that there would be little hope of finding any reliable and skilled
artisans. This would have meant that the future work of conser-
vation was far from secure in Nepal as it would have been
impossible to train carvers without some traditional expertise.
We were delighted to discover a reliable and competent team of
traditional wood-carvers and up to forty of these worked for us
on the conservation project.
As they work these artisans seem to relive their traditional
craft and their work becomes part of their religion. There
appears to be a strict control of the type of work each man can
perform based upon experience and competence. The task of
‘opening’ or carving the eyes of an image of a god can be carried
out by only three men in Bhaktapur. This honour is handed
down from generation to generation and is passed onto the next
man only after certain religious rites have been per-
formed.
It is fair to say that carving was a dying tradition in Nepal
and the men employed in the conservation project claim that
they were only able to practise their craft one month in a year.
Most of these artisans worked with the project for its duration
and their work improved rapidly. Their application was admir-
55
able even though many of them had to travel seven miles to
work each day.
Working in close collaboration with the carvers was a large
cleaning section consisting of a team of over fifty girls. All the
carved woodwork and brickwork was heavily encrusted with
paint which has had to be removed by this learn. Under the
direction of the Conservation Laboratory part of the conserva-
tion project these girls have now been trained in the processes of
cleaning.
At first it seemed that we would only be able to clean a few
sections of the building as we thought that all the work would
have to be executed in situ. We soon discovered, however, that
much of the woodwork of the windows and struts could be
safely removed and more conveniently cleaned away from the
building. A cleaning section was set up near by. The problem of
dismantling, cleaning and replacing each piece of carving to its
precise original position was overcome by the simple but effec-
tive device of numbering each piece. Thus, every piece of carv-
ing, of which there must have been somewhere around fifteen
thousand, was referenced together with a drawing. Each piece
kept its number throughout its cleaning, repairing and chemical
treatment. The number was only removed once it had been
replaced and checked against the original in the drawing. In this
way, the principles of conservation were faithfully followed and
there was no falsification of historical evidence.
As mentioned earlier, the carvings had previously been
painted. In many cases, there was evidence of up to eight layers
of colour. After initial cleaning experiments, it was generally
agreed that the carvings should not be repainted. Historical
evidence for unpainted woodwork was discovered recently when
a nineteenth-century building was dismantled revealing older
wood carving previously concealed and not coated with paint.
The brickwork was also heavily painted covering the orig-
inal glaze. It was only after closely examining the building that it
was discovered that paint had been used to achieve unifying
effects in buildings which were constructed in several phases
and with different qualities of brickwork. Fortunately, the paint
was mostly a distemper or water paint and could easily be re-
moved by washing. Even so, the building had to be washed from
its top to the ground, quite a remarkable feat as you stand back
and look at the awe-inspiring result.
57
Hanuman
Dhoka Durbar
The tour through this, the most fascinating of the durbar
squares, will take you first through the accessible parts of the
palace and afterwards to some of the associated buildings to be
found around the palace complex.
There is no building in the present Hanuman Dhoka com-
plex that dates back to before the Malla period. However, there
is every indication that the present site of the durbar could have
been used in the Licchavi period. As it stands today this old
royal palace spans many centuries and differing building styles
and uses. The complex is made up of a least ten different court-
yards or chowks. The original Malla durbar consisted of only
two of these chowks, the existing Mohan Chowk and one other
that has subsequently disappeared. Guarding the entrance to the
palace is the palace’s namesake, Hanuman, the monkey god. He
was a great patron to the Mallas as they claimed descent from
Ram Chandra, whose devotion to Hanuman was legendary. The
symbol of Hanuman was therefore used extensively and an
image was generally placed at the entrance to the palaces as
protection and to bring victory in war. This stone image was
erected by Pratap Malla in 1672. It is difficult to recognize the
features of the monkey as it is covered in an ever thickening
layer of red tikka, an offering that devotees place on its fore-
head. Periodically, a new red cape is draped over its shoulders
and the specially decorated umbrella is changed yearly.
To the right of Hanuman, the gilded door of the main
entrance to the palace is flanked by a pair of stone lions, ridden
by Siva to the left and Shakti to the right. They probably date
from Malla times.
The door. however, is of a later period as an inscription
Fig. 7.
Katmandu city map.
60
above dates its construction as 1810. The funds for this piece of
extravagance were provided by gathering hundreds of outdated
copperplate inscriptions which were then sold to provide the
gold for gilding the ornate gate.
Above the golden door there are three interesting images.
The central figures are said to be Krishna, Biswarupa and Arjun
portraying a scene from the Mahabharat. To the left of this
group, Krishna is seen with his two favourite gopinis, Rukmini
and Satya-bhama. The third group is of a king and queen. The
king’s features represent those of Pratap Malla and the three
groups were possibly set up by him.
Passing through the Golden Door you enter the Nasal
Chowk, the largest of the courtyards in the palace. The existing
dimensions of the courtyard date from the beginning of the
Shah dynasty, as it was at this time that the courtyard became
the meeting-place for the nobles of all Nepal as opposed to those
of the kingdom of Kantipur alone.
The name of the courtyard is derived from the deity Nasa-
leswar, the dancing Siva, whose shrine is the rather insignificant Fig. 8a.
white structure opposite the entrance on the eastern side. During The Hanuman
the Malla period, the Nasal Chowk served as a royal theatre and Dhoka conservation
dances and drama were rehearsed and performed there. It also
became the gathering place for meetings between the king, and
his people. During the Shah dynasty, the courtyard was extend-
ed to accommodate guests for the coronation rites. Previously,
the Mallas had always conducted these ceremonies in the much
smaller Mul Chowk.
As you move into the courtyard you will be struck by the
overpowering scale and variety of buildings surrounding you.
Just to the left of the entrance you will find a very imposing
image of Narsingh, the half-man, half-lion. This is one of the ten
incarnations of Vishnu. The sculpture is of black marble decor-
ated with silver and gold, probably imported from India. The
image was erected by Pratap Malla in 1673 to appease Nara-
singh, whom he thought he had offended when he danced in
public dressed as Narasingh. Beyond the image there .is the
Gaddi Baitak, the audience chamber of the Malla kings. It is a
long spacious verandah-like room open to the south and it still
contains the simple throne of the Mallas.
In a portico under the finely carved balcony window of the
Vilas Mandir is a very fine gilded bronze image of Maha Vishnu
which was rescued from debris after the 1934 earthquake. It is
only recently that the upper heads of the deity have been re-
placed by craftsmen from Patan and the statue has been
re-dedicated.
61
In the centre of the courtyard there is a large low platform.
Although traditions connected with this platform go back hun-
dreds of years, its present shape dates from 1826 when much of
the latest part of the palace was constructed and the courtyard
was partly stone-paved. Each year, during Indrajatra, the image
of Indra is brought from the Degutaleju Temple and placed on
the platform, a tradition that must survive from the time of the
Mallas. Recently the platform was the focal point of King Biren-
dra’s coronation ; it was here that the throne was placed as it has
been for several reigns and the crowned king received the
homage of his subjects.
Looking back over the Gaddi Baitak, you will notice two
small towers rising out of the building. On the north-west corner
is the Agam Chen which houses the traditional family shrine of
the Malla kings. Entrance to the shrine has always been restrict-
ed ; to this day its sanctity remains inviolate (even though the
Malla kings have long ceased to rule. Directly across the roof-
top from the Agan Chen. on the north-west corner, there is a
62
five-tiered tower of the Panch Mukhi Hanuman, the five-faced
monkey. Although there is no inscription, the temple apparently
dates from the year 1655. The worship of Hanuman is offered
daily according to secret rites and only priests may witness them
or enter the temple. To the north of Nasal Chowk lies Mohan
Chowk, the residence of the Malla kings. It was built by Pratap
Malla in 1649 and later ‘modernized’and repaired during the
reign of King Rajendra Bikram Shah in 1822. At present
foreigners are not permitted to enter this courtyard for religious
and security reasons. One of the central features of the court-
yard is a fine gilded water-spout, set in a beautifully carved
sunken bathing area. It was here that the king performed his
ritual bathing ceremonies, after which he ascended the large
stone throne to complete his morning devotions. Close at hand is
a globe of the world, unrecognizable today but real to Pratap
Malla in his attempt to understand the world around him.
The Mohan Chowk is built in the chokwath form, a square
quadrangle with towers at each corner. The building itself is
three storeys high with a magnificent balconied window on the
eastern wall. In niches around the walls are several scenes of the
life of Krishna carved in wood. It is hoped that, under the pro-
posed conservation programme, King Birendra will soon permit
these courtyards to be on view to foreigners.
Another courtyard that played an important part in the
daily lives of the Malla kings was the Mu1 Chowk, or main cour-
tyard, situated behind the low roof on the eastern side of Xasal
Chowk. The Mu1 Chowk was the scene of almost all the truly
important functions of the Malla period. Religious rites of all
descriptions, royal weddings, the investiture of crown princes
and ministers, as well as the coronation of kings took place in
this small courtyard.
The Mu1 Chowk is one of the earliest of the standing build-
ings. Built by Mahendra Malla in 1564, at the same time as he
was building the Taleju Mandir close by, it was changed to its
present form in 1709 by Bhaksar Malla.
The Mu1 Chowk is shaped very much like a vihara, being a
square courtyard surrounded by double-storeyed buildings. The
southern wing contains the shrine housing the image of Taleju.
In the middle of the courtyard there is a low post set into the
ground, to which the animals that are sacrificed during Dasain
and Chaitra Dasain are attached before they are decapitated
with the single stroke of a kukri-the Gurkha sword. Mul
Chowk is almost totally given over to the goddess Taleju. Her
mark is everywhere. Most of the very beautifully carved roof
63
struts depict scenes based on the stories of the Chandi, in which
the devi is depicted in the act of destroying some demon. Below
the level of the roof struts these exploits are further described in
inscriptions. All the balconied windows are exceptionally fine,
although much of their beauty is spoilt by paintwork. The shrine
in which the Taleju devi is placed during the major festival of
Dassain is richly decorated with gilded doors, windows and
tympanum. Flanking the doors there are two life-size images of
Ganga and Jamuna. On the roof over the shrine there is a gilded
pinnacle marking the roof of the shrine and in front of this there
are a further five gilded pinnacles which mark the sanctuary
itself. Again, access to this chowk is restricted to members of the
palace, save for one day during the Dasain festival, when Hin-
Fig. 86.
dus alone are permitted to pay homage to Taleju. It is, however,
The Mu1 Chowk, possible to see something of the courtyard from the terrace
Hanuman Dhoka. above the Vilas Mandir.
64
Moving towards the south-east corner of the Nasal Chowk,
you approach the part of the palace which has been recently the
subject of a major conservation project run by the Nepalese
Government with assistance from UNDP and Unesco in the
form of expertise and funds.
At the south-east corner of the Nasal Chowk there is an exit
leading into the Lohan Chowk, a stone-paved courtyard over-
looked by a three-storeyed building known as the Vilas Mandir.
or Building of Luxury. At each corner of this structure sit dif-
ferent towers, one of them being the high Basantapur Tower
overlooking the remainder of the palace buildings. This used to
be the early residence of the Shah kings. They moved from the
quarters formerly occupied by the Malla kings into this section
of the durbar during Prithvi Narayan Shah’s reign. The struc-
ture was greatly enlarged and to commemorate his conquest of
the valley and the unification of Nepal, Prithvi Narayan Shah
built, or more likely extended, the present Basantapur Tower to
its present height.
According to the inscription over the main entrance, the
Basantapur in its present form was completed on 21 March I770
and named Basant, meaning spring, as this season was being
heralded in by the festival of Basant Panchami.
The architectural history of this whole complex of buildings
is a little confused. The recent repair works have indicated that
the building has been added to and extended over several dif-
ferent periods and particular research on a comparative method
has established that the lower half of the Basantapur Tower is
adorned with carvings and inscriptions of a period before 1630.
A second period of building can quite clearly be established: the
enlarging of the palace took place under Prithvi Naryan Shah’s
guidance after he had established himself in this durbar. A third
building period appears to have taken place under the supervi-
sion of Prithvi Narayan’s son, Pratap Singh Shah, on his father’s
death. It was at this time that the upper floor of the Vilas Man-
dir and the three remaining towers were built. The towers were
named after the towns that donated and built them in recognition
of the unification of the valley and Nepal. There is also a theory
that they replaced some earlier towers, as the names of the present
towers do not tally with those recorded in the chronicles.
This group of buildings was only occupied for a hundred
years by the Shah dynasty until the mid-nineteenth century. The
buildings have served more as a backdrop for ceremonial occa-
sions. When Unesco undertook the Hanuman Dhoka Conserva- Fig. 9.
tion Project in 1972, the buildings were used as government Basantapur Tower,
offices and storage space for government archives. Hanuman Dhoka.
66
A word should be said about the Hanuman Dhoka Conser-
vation Project, as it was the forerunner of the move towards a
conservation policy in Nepal. After several tentative proposals
had been put forward to assist the Nepalese Government in
setting up a conservation policy for their important cultural
heritage, a proposal for carrying out a practical example was
made and accepted. The choice of the group of buildings in the
Hanuman Dhoka coincided with the preparations for the recent
coronation of King Birendra. and the first stage of a highly
successful programme was completed in time for this spectacu-
lar event, As a result of the success of this project and shortly
after the coronation, during which the project received consider-
able publicity, proposals were put forward for preparing an
overall study for the conservation of the cultural heritage of the
valley. Unesco has just published its findings in a report entitled
The Masterplan for the Conservation of the Cultural Heritage of
the Kathmandu Valley, which contains proposals for both a
short- and long-term programme for the valley.
Naturally. the first and most accessible aspect of this cultu-
ral heritage consists of the historic and religious buildings. An
immediate programme has therefore been put forward to con-
serve the three durbar squares, as well as the two important
Buddhist shrines of Swayambhu and Baudha. This programme
can be started almost at once using the skills and techniques
evolved in the Hanuman Dhoka Conservation Project. At the
moment, efforts, of which this guide is one, are being made to
raise the necessary funds to ensure the continuity of such a
major undertaking.
One element of great fascination to foreigners visiting Nepal
is that of the traditional building crafts. Numbered among the
achievements of the conservation project has been the re-esta-
blishment of many of the traditional building crafts that were on
the point of extinction. In undertaking a major restoration pro-
gramme such as this one. it was necessary to rely on traditional
materials and craftsmen. In the next few pages are recorded
many of the team’s experiences during the four and a half years
that the programme was operational. These descriptions are
linked with the sections of the building that were under repair
and so during your tour around you will not only be able to
witness some of the most beautiful carvings, but also be able to
learn and appreciate something of the traditional crafts of
Nepal.
For purposes of orientation, we will take the nine-storey
Basantapur Tower as being in the south-west corner, facing
67
north across the Nasal Chowk. On the north-west corner is the
Kirtipur Tower, often referred to as the Bangla Tower. It has a
domed copper roof of distinct Bengali influence. Opposite, on
the north-eastern corner, is the Bhaktapur Tower, a building of
traditional construction but of octagonal-plan form. The remai-
ning tower dominating the Juddha Sadak, or new road, is the
notorious Lalitpur Tower, a solid square structure that had a
severe lean as a result of the 1934 earthquake. It was only
recently, during the conservation programme, that this dramatic
failing was rectified. Little work has been done so far on the
Vilas Mandir. consisting of the building beneath the towers,
other than the necessary structural strengthening dictated by the
towers above and the renovation and cleaning of the facade
overlooking the Nasal Chowk, which had to be done for the
coronation.
As a starting-point, let us take the imposing elevation over-
looking the Nasal Chowk. It is hard now to believe that every
square centimetre of it was covered in paint. Up to eight layers
of paint were removed from some of the lower carved timbers.
All the details in the carvings of the windows and cornices were
obliterated. The brickwork with its unique glazing was hidden
under layers of red distemper, the intention being no doubt to
unify the facade as the upper level had been constructed in an
unglazed brick of inferior quality. The magnificent double-
storey window consists of well over five hundred different inter-
locking pieces. The detail in it is unbelievable even down to the
individual horses and birds, the miniature rampant lions and the
hundreds of specially turned pieces that form the lower fringe.
The door leading into the Lohan Chowk is one of the largest of
its kind. Again there is amazing detail : hundreds of skulls for-
ming a border to the door frame, entwining snakes and a fine
carving of Ganesh over the lintel.
It is well worth considering the exquisite carvings on the
lower half of the Basantapur Tower. These undoubtedly
represent some of the finest examples of wood-carving to be
found throughout Nepal. The erotic carvings at the base of the
struts and the inscriptions provided the information necessary to
date these works of art and possibly to give sufficient evidence
to date the building itself. It is worth studying the details of the
windows-the birds being chased by the dogs and vice versa up
the jambs of the lower windows-and to pick out the first
example of a soldier armed with a gun in the sill of the lower
right-hand window, or just to gaze upon the serene faces of the
deity and his consort in the supporting roof struts.
68
Climbing through the Basantapur Tower, you will reach the
terrace over the Vilas Mandir and from here it is possible to
study the three towers.
The Kirtipur Tower
The repair work undertaken in this tower was among the more
interesting. This small tower has a Bengali-style roof covered
with copper roofing that was originally gilded. In all aspects this
structure is unique in Nepal and presented many difficulties
when it came to rectifying its faults. The tower was in a state of
near collapse when first inspected, which was due mainly to the
failure of the roofing. The copper sheeting had been nailed
direct to the boarding and rain-water was able to penetrate the
nail holes. On either side of the ridge of the roof, where the
curve is flatter, water had crept up the overlapping joints by
means of capillary attraction and caused the boarding to rot, the
nails to loosen and the copper sheets to become unfixed. The
general rotten condition of the timbers caused a further weaken-
ing of the structure and as a result of several earth tremors the
timber joints had failed completely.
Thus, the team was faced with a structure that was insecure
and in which 80 per cent of the timbers were not re-usable. In
addition, this tower was a Structure in which there was not a
single piece of straight timber. Once it had been decided that the
tower had to be completely dismantled, it was evident that very
careful records and drawings would be needed to help re-
assemble it correctly. Every piece of carving was referenced and
handed over to one of the carving sections. Each structural
member was carefully dismantled, similarly recorded and hand-
ed over to the carpenters.
As every piece of the roof structure was curved and as many
sections were completely rotten, the first work was to gather
pieces that made up at least one quarter of the roof shape so that
we could copy exactly and make mirror images of the other
missing sections. In this way the structure was reformed and
temporarily re-erected to ensure that the pieces fitted together.
Perhaps the most arduous task was the preparation of the
rafters which were all curved and which all had to be replaced.
Again, one quarter, consisting of twenty-five rafters, was as-
sembled. It was particularly difficult to determine the shape of
original complete rafters as most of these were damaged. The pit
sawyers were persuaded to cut the timbers on a curve, some-
69
thing they had never done before, and in some cases it was
possible to cut two rafters from one balk of timber. Thus, there
could be some saving of timber.
At the same time as the carpenters were working on the
repair and replacements of the structure, the carvers were repai-
ring and replacing the damaged sections of carvings. The prepa-
ratory work took nearly nine months and about four additional
months were required for the careful fitting together of all the
pieces of this major jigsaw. As a protection against further decay
to the timbers, each piece was dipped in a chemical bath tilled
with fungicide and insecticide and left submerged there for
about two hours.
The copper roof covering posed a further problem. In terms
of conservation, the original roof covering should have been put
back. But in this case it was considered that the original copper
rooting had outlived its use. The old copper sheeting was care-
fully removed and used as a template for the new copper sheets
so that they matched the original in outward appearance and
size. The fixing was incorporated into the welted joints so as not
to pierce the waterproof copper membrane.
This repair work was carried out so as to reproduce faith-
fully the original pieces even down to the metal fixings that were
hand-forged in the original manner.
The Basantapur Tower
The Basantapur Tower, rising 30.5 metres from the ground,
posed a totally different set of problems. The matter of its sheer
size was the most daunting problem, especially having to scaf-
fold it. At first the idea of bamboo, as opposed to solid tubular
steel, scaffolding caused considerable concern. The work invol-
ved cutting and transporting the bamboos from the forests,
erecting the many pieces and tying them together with thou-
sands of metres of string. Despite all these difficulties and after
initially training the scaffolders to tie safety knots for the lash-
ings and to observe basic principles of safety, a team of twenty
to thirty men set to work on the task. The scaffolding became
the centre of speculation in Katmandu for some time, as there
was little visible progress on its erection for several months. The
top-most roof required major structural repair since it was
damaged during the 1934 earthquake. A new structural base to
the roof was inserted, replacing the old decayed and damaged
timbers. The pinnacle and its base measured 4.6 metres long by
70
1.5 metres wide and stood 3 metres above the roof. This had to
be dismantled and lowered to the ground by means of a home-
made block and tackle. It was then repaired and re-erected. The
roofs were totally replaced with new timbers and the traditional
interlocking joints were then rationalized. Previously, they had
caused inherent weaknesses in their structure. All the timbers
were also treated against further beetle and fungal attack.
The Lalitpur Tower
The repair programme on the Lalitpur Tower posed some of the
most interesting technical problems so far encountered. Unlike
the two towers in the first stage, where the problems of repair
and renovation were not clearly visible. the failings of the Lalitpur
Tower were a major attraction visible from along the main street
(Juddha Sadak). Its notorious lean of over 15° from vertical was
caused by the 1934 earthquake. It had not collapsed because, Fig. IOa.
shortly after it was damaged, some engineers, reputedly from Lalitpur Tower.
Germany, propped the building in its leaning condition to Hanuman Dhoka
(before repair).
71
prevent it from total collapse. It survived thus for just over forty
years to become a challenging subject for restoration by the
conservation project office.
Initial careful examination of the structure showed that the
actual breaking-point of the lean was where the solid brick
walling ended and the flexible timber framework took over. This
framework, consisting of an unbraced post and lintel structure
supporting a very heavy roof, was also supporting externally
complete façades of carved windows. The reason for failure was,
first, that the structure lacked any diagonal bracing but, due to
its high flexibility, all the failure was at the joints. Apart from a
few warped or twisted members, almost all the structural and
decoratively carved timbers were re-usable. The roof, being a
hipped structure, well designed and built but of very heavy
construction, was responsible for the sideways movement. In
fact, it slid across and the eaves were still parallel with the floor
after the earthquake and the tiles remained on the roof.
Because of the structure’s flexibility and the excellent condi-
Fig. lob.
Lalitpur Tower,
tion of the roof it was hoped, originally, to lighten the roof struc-
Hanuman Dhoka ture by taking off some of the easily removable carved work and
(after repair).
72
physically jacking the building back into an upright position as a
demonstration of the many possibilities in the field of building
repair. It was soon discovered, during preliminary investiga-
tions, that much of the structure supporting even the brickwork
to the tower was in a very dangerous state. Also much of the
carved woodwork on the south elevation was badly weathered.
due to its excessive exposure to the elements. It was necessary,
therefore. to dismantle carefully the building following the
technique so well tested and proven in the first stage. All the
carved windows, cornices, etc. were referenced, dismantled and
sent for repair to the carving section, and it was soon discovered
that, because of the redistribution of the loads as a result of the
damage done by the earthquake, many of the timbers were
badly damaged and would require very careful refitting. It was
therefore decided to rebuild each individual façade in the car-
vers’studios off a level base and to iron out any of the major
faults before rebuilding the tower. In this way, much valuable
time was saved as the re-erection of the timber structure was
able to proceed with the minimum of interruption once the
structural base had been repaired.
Due to the considerable movement caused by the earth-
quake. the structure beneath the tower had opened up enough
to allow rain-water to percolate the timber supports. causing
extensive structural failure almost to the point of collapse. With
the judicious insertion of concrete beams and bonders the brick-
work to replace the vulnerable timber structure, and having
rebuilt the badly damaged north wall. a firm base for the upper
section of the tower was formed. This base was strengthened by
the insertion of a concrete ring beam with anchor points onto
which the base plate of the windows could be placed. Next, the
inner structure was erected. both level and plumb, and to streng-
then the framework and prevent the lateral weaknesses, diago-
nal bracing, using specially tailored angle irons, was inserted
between the vertical posts and fixed horizontal members to form a
kind of lattice girder around the upper part of the structure. These
braces were bolted together through the vertical posts to give
added rigidity. and the whole structure was hidden in brickwork.
The roof was replaced using over 90 per cent of the original
structural members which had been duly referenced, only to
find that once they were cleaned a previous numbering system
in Newari had been used. Various key joints that had become
loose were strengthened with iron clamps or braces and timbers
that had been lengthened by using scarf joints were replaced,
where possible, using a single length.
73
The standard repair work, cleaning and conservation tech-
niques which were tested and proved to be both a successful and
a viable proposition in the first stage were used again to com-
plete the work on this tower and the final result is a fine tribute
to the craftsmen that worked on its renovation.
The Bhaktapur Tower
Unlike the other three towers which were in a very poor condi-
tion. the Bhaktapur Tower had withstood most of the devasta-
tions that had affected the others. In fact, the work that was
carried out was basic maintenance. It was originally intended to
carry out the cleaning of the roof members and the carvings in
situ, but as by now the team of carpenters had perfected the
technique of dismantling and re-assembling complicated struc-
tures and the cleaning of the long roof members was very much
easier when dismantled, the rafters and internal supports were
taken down. giving easier access to the carved windows which
were cleaned in situ.
Owing to the nature of the structural plan of the tower-a
square with the corners cut off to form an octagon at the point
where the timber framework supersedes the brickwork-it was
able to withstand major failure as a result of the earthquake.
The roof, its covering, and the carved windows, remained intact
with only very local disturbance. The work carried out, there-
fore, was of a general nature, consisting of re-roofing to incor-
porate the new techniques evolved in the first stage and the
cleaning and treatment of the woodwork to both the carved win-
dows and the roof structure. The complex roof pattern was a
real challenge to the traditional roof tilers and no doubt their
skills have gone a long way to enhance this very decorative and
unusual tower.
Perhaps the best place to survey the celebrated Taleju Man-
dir is from atop the towers of the Vilas Mandir. This very
impressive structure, built in 1564 by Mahendra Malla, is the
most splendid and most famous of the three Taleju Mandirs
built by the Mallas in the valley. The worship of Taleju devi
came to the Katmandu Valley with refugees from the Terai and
the god became the tutelary deity of the Malla kings at the time
of Jayastithi Malla’s assumption of power. When the valley was
divided into several kingdoms after 1428, the various branches
of the Malla family built their own shrines to ‘Taleju near their
palaces. This Taleju Mandir is in the Trisul Chowk and can be
75
Fig. II. reached by the Singh Dhoka. The temple is over 37 metres high,
Taleju Temple,
Hanuman Dhoka.
resting on a twelve-stage plinth, and has three gilded roofs. It
used to be the highest structure in Katmandu ; tradition had it
that it was inauspicious to build higher. Sadly, this simple rule is
no longer adhered to, as modern high-rise buildings mar the
roofscapes.
The temple in itself is of impressive size and everything
about it-the doors, windows and supporting roof struts-is of
similar proportions. The south-facing door and the torana are
gilded and the windows elsewhere are all heavily carved. The
imagery throughout is indicative of the Shakta cult. Everything
about the temple seems to emphasize its ritual remoteness. The
Fig. 12. roofs of all three stages are of gilded copper and edged with
Map of Durbar rows of wind-bells. The corners of the two lower roofs are decor-
Square, Katmandu. ated with embossed banners, while the upper roof has specially
76
designed pots hanging from each corner and is capped with a
very beautiful set of pinnacles. It is undoubtedly one of the
finest buildings in the traditional style, beautifully proportioned,
and in a wonderful setting, perhaps the most dramatic and yet
pleasing structures in the valley.
Leaving the marvels of the art and architecture behind we
will now take a closer look around the durbar square. The large
temple opposite the Hanuman gate is the Jagannath which was
originally built by Mahendra Malla in 1563. In the inner recess
of the shrine there is an important image of the Chaturmurti
Vishnu with an inscription bearing the above date. This inscrip-
tion is in Sanskrit and is the earliest yet found in the Hanuman
Dhoka. The Jagannath rests on a three-tiered platform and has a
two-tiered roof supported by some very elaborately carved roof
struts famed for their erotic carvings. Like those of the Hanu-
man Dhoka. these show a tantric influence. Unusually, each of
the four elevations contains groups of three doors that are of
excellent quality. The central door in each case carries the signs
of Mahadev : three eyes and a trident, and on each of the other
doors are the symbols of the Shakta cult to represent the god-
dess : three indentations above a decorative pot. The temple has
an inner sanctuary into which only the priests may go.
Above the roofs of the palace buildings on the left-hand side
of the golden door. there is the magnificent temple of Deguta-
leju which appears to grow out of the lower structure. It was
built by Shiva Singh Malla in the late sixteenth century and later
added to by the Shah kings. The temple is about 28 metres high,
slightly shorter than the Taleju Mandir. and is a different mani-
festation of the Shakta cult. Again, this is a special royal temple
and it can only be reached through the living quarters of the
palace onto a terrace. The temple rises above this terrace with a
three-tiered roof, richly ornamented. The north-facing door is
panelled in silver, the gift of King Girbana Yuddha Bikram
Shah in 1815. The top roof is capped with a very fine pinnacle.
Set high on a pillar opposite the Degutaleju is a statue of
King Pratap Malla, the founder of much of the art and architec-
ture that surrounds him. He is accompanied by his four sons and
two of his wives. This is an exquisite piece of metalwork and the
first of its kind depicting the king in an attitude of praise before
his favourite temple.
Almost beneath the Degutaleju there is the large golden
mask of Sweta Bhairab, fierce in appearance and standing at
least 4 metres high. It is normally screened from public view. but
is opened during Indrajatra in September when the local beer
77
pours from its mouth to be gulped down by an excited crowd.
The image was erected by Rana Bahadur Shah in 1796 to drive
off evil spirits and ghosts.
Mention should be made of the great drums across the road,
which were installed at the beginning of the nineteenth century
and are beaten during the worship of the Degutaleju. About the
same time, the great bell was erected by King Rana Bahadur
Shah to drive off evil spirits.
Adjacent to the great drums there is an unusual octagonal
temple dedicated to Krishna and built by Pratap Malla in 1637.
When Siddhi Narasingh was dedicating the famous Krishna
Temple of Patan, Pratap Malla, who was only a prince, attacked
the city.
His efforts were largely futile but he received a great deal of
criticism, and in order to gain some of his lost prestige he built
this temple in memory of his two queens. ,Again, a Sanskrit
inscription tells us that the features on the images in the shrine
resemble those of Pratap and his queens. The construction of the
temple is slightly more complicated owing to its shape, but the
three-tiered roof structure is supported by some well-carved roof
struts.
Here we must leave the section of the durbar adjacent to the
Hanuman Dhoka and move into the main part of the square
where there is a further profusion of temples. As you walk up
the short street that joins the two open spaces, the buildings on
the right are, in fact, the west wing of one of the original Malla
courtyards. It is known as the Masan Chowk, which translated
literally means the cremation courtyard. An interesting theory
suggests that this building group actually represents today the
north-westernmost corner of old Katmandu, as it was common
for such a courtyard to be placed on the outer extremities of the
palace complex and to be thus orientated. Recently this build-
ing, which had been used as a shopping arcade and condemned
as structurally unsound, was the subject of an interesting piece
of building conservation. The original structure had been badly
damaged by the 1934 earthquake and you can see today the
effect of this damage in the leaning and bulging walls. The
members of the Hanuman Dhoka Conservation Project Office
who were called in to advise on the structure felt that this build-
ing was such an important feature in the streetscape with its
leans and bulges-in fact, graphically telling the story of its past
history-that it should be consolidated in its existing state. This
was cleverly done by consolidating the structure with reinforced
concrete columns and beams inserted in the thickness of the
78
walls and floors. The building was carefully cleaned of its stucco
finish to reveal the beautiful glazed brickwork. The special
window on the corner, where the king is said to have sat watch-
ing his subjects, is an unusual and particularly fine example of
traditional craftsmanship. Not only does it demonstrate fine
wood-carving but also some beautiful gilded metalwork and, if
you look closely, you will see carvings in ivory and bone as well.
The building now stands as an important focal point in the
durbar square streetscape and maintains its characteristic old
age.
As one enters the second square on the right. there is an-
other unusual temple dedicated to Siva and Parvati. It stands on
what was probably a dance platform long before the temple was
built in the late eighteenth century. This rectangular temple is
unusual in form as, although it conforms in principle to the
typical building style, its detail and construction are very dif-
ferent. It is likely that it was made up of various bits of an older
building, The carvings are of an earlier period and the eastern
windows of stone are unique. Overlooking the platform in the
upper window of the temple are the images of Siva and his
consort, Parvati, who have always captured the imagination of
the local people because of their poses and expressions which
are so life-like.
The most imposing temple in the square is the dominating
Maju Deval shrine. Set in the centre of the square, it was built in
1690 by Riddhi Laxmi and is dedicated to Siva. It is worth clim-
bing the base of the temple for the overall view of the durbar
square.
The next largest temple in the courtyard is the Trailokya
Mohan Mandir. which was built by Parthibendra Malla in 1480.
It is often referred to as the Das Avatar Dekaune Mandir, as it is
here, during the festival of lndrajatra, that dances depicting the
ten incarnations of Vishnu are performed. The temple is dedica-
ted to Vishnu. and his vehicle Garuda can be found on the
eastern side carved out of stone. This is one of the best examples
of the Garuda to be found in the valley. It was erected by
Riddhi Laxmi nine years after the completion of the temple.
Adjacent to this temple is a three-storey building with a
white stuccoed façade and some beautifully carved windows. It
is in the form of a bahal and is the dwelling of the Kumari, the
living goddess, who is a young virgin of the Shakya caste con-
sidered to be an incarnation of Taleju. The religious institution Fig. 13.
was founded by Jaya Prakash Malla in the mid-eighteenth cen- Kasthamandap-
tury and the construction of the bahal dates from the same Marutol.
80
period. The Kumari plays an important role during most of the
Taleju festivals, but the most spectacular is that of Indrajatra,
when she rides in a chariot around the city. The worship of
Kumari is of strong Newari Buddhist influence, although many
Hindus, including the royal family, pay their respects to her at
the major festivals.
The Kumari Ghar, as it is often called, has important socio-
religious significance. It is built in the style of a Buddhist bahal
and there is a shrine to Buddha in the courtyard. The inner
façades, like the main one, contain beautiful carved windows.
doors and roof struts. The inner balcony windows are especially
fine and it is here that the Kumari appears from time to time in
the company of her guardians to see and be seen by her ad-
mirers.
Continuing south-west towards the diagonal route from
Maru Tol, where the square narrows, there is a small building
that has more the appearance of a rest-house than a temple,
although it is dedicated to Narayan. It is a very important build-
ing containing a wealth of interesting carvings. Its foundation
date is unknown, but it appears to date from the sixteenth cen-
tury. Today it has lost both its original function as well as its
name. It was originally a sattal but later became a temple dedi-
cated to Maxmi Narayan, when the addition on the north eleva-
tion was made. Today it serves as a money-changer’s stall but it
is hoped that, under the new durbar square conservation pro-
gramme, it will be restored to its original form and function.
Before moving on to the majestic buildings of Maru Tol, a
word about the small shrine, the Ashok Binayak, commonly
called the Maru Ganesh, which is located in a corner adjacent to
the Kasthamandap. Its size belies its importance, for the popu-
larity of this shrine in the Katmandu Valley is great. It is one of
four main shrines dedicated to Ganesh. It is common practice to
venerate the Ganesh prior to carrying out other worship. The
Katmandu Ganesh is worshipped by the royal family, especially
by the king, during the coronation ceremonies, and by both
Hindus and Buddhists throughout the valley. The entire surface
of this shrine is gilded and. although there is no inscription, i-t is
assumed to be fairly old. However, the present roof was put on
by King Surendra in 1847.
The third area of this extended durbar square, known as
Maru Tol, is dominated by the Kasthamandap. This is not only
the largest building of its style in the valley but also the oldest.
The history of this site dates back to the eleventh century and
many of the surviving timbers are thought to be of this period.
81
Since the sixteenth century it has been known as the Maru Sat-
tal.
Legend has it that the timber used in the construction of the
Kasthamandap came from a single tree which is said to have
provided timber for the adjacent Singha Sattal as well. The
name ‘Kasthamandap’translated literally means ‘the wooden
pavilion’ and it is also the derivation of the name Katmandu.
The date of its construction is a little uncertain as the word used
in the inscriptions for building and renewing is the same.
Throughout its history there have been many changes and alter-
ations to the Kasthamandap ; nevertheless, it is still remarkably
like the descriptions of Nepalese architecture given in the Chi-
nese travel books about Nepal in the seventh century.
The building consists of three large open halls set one above
the other with a full balcony with low railings, which surely
underlines its original use. Today, there is a shrine dedicated to
Goraknath, but previously it was used by sadhus, who carried
out the tantric rites of the Chakra Puja here. The building has
been recently restored to its present form and cleared of traders
who had taken it over. Historically, it is perhaps the most impor-
tant building in Katmandu and it still retains its elegance and
proportions, although like so many other buildings it has lost its
original function. The other two important buildings in Maru
To1 are the Kabindrapur, a four-storeyed building with three
tiers of roofs, and the Singha Sattal, so named after the leaping
lions or griffons on the corners of the building.
Kabindrapur, or Dhansa as it is sometimes referred to, is of
rather special form. It is difficult to recognize as a temple as the
lower part of it is occupied by a large fruit store. It was construc-
ted by Pratap Malla in 1673 and dedicated to Narasingh as
another form of appeasement for publicly miming him. Pratap
was a great patron of the arts, and he thought himself to be a
literary person, well versed in song and dance ; he adopted the
name of Kabindra-master poet-hence the temple’s name.
Singha Sattal, or Silyan, is a large house with shops below.
The upper level is now used as a gathering place for the singing
of bhajans. Inside, there is an image of Garud Narayan, which
was uncovered during excavations for a new house nearby in
1863. The bronze lions. however, were only put in place about
fifty years ago and are no doubt the source of the building’s
present name.
83
Places to discover
in Katmandu
The following buildings or areas, excluding the durbar square
and its immediate vicinity, can all be discovered on foot and are
within a maximum of half an hour’s walk from the durbar
square. Most of the buildings of interest are located on. or close
to, the Bhimsenthan to Asan To1 diagonal trade route, running
between Bhimsenthan. through Maru Tol. the durbar square, to
Indra Chowk, Asan and Bhotahiti.
To the west of Maru To1 and the durbar square there are a
few buildings of great interest that can be easily located. At
almost the western extremity of the diagonal road is the Bhim-
sen temple. As a protector and promoter of trades and crafts,
Bhimsen became a popular god among the Newari in the seven-
teenth century. The temple was built in the mid-seventeenth
century and has no doubt undergone alterations and additions
since then. It is of unusual form in that it is a two-storey temple
with the main sanctuary on the upper floor and a row of shops
below. The building is capped with two diminishing gilded
metal roofs which are set over a lower tiled roof. The shrine is
not accessible to foreign visitors but it is interesting to see the
many devotees paying homage each morning. Formerly, the
statue of Bhimsen was taken in procession every twelve years all
the way to Lhasa in Tibet.
To the south-east of Bhimsenthan at Jaisideval is a largish
temple of the late seventeenth century. Its location is said to
have been the centre of Katmandu during the Licchavi period as
on the eastern side of the temple there is an early Licchavi in-
scription. Returning along the road, passing through the Maru
To1 containing the Kasthamandap and its associated buildings
and through the durbar square, you pass through Makhan To1
84
with its gold markets into a road flanked by attractive arcaded
buildings where materials are sold. These buildings were modi-
fied in the late nineteenth century. At this point it is worth while
looking back towards the durbar square to see the splendidly
located Taleju Temple-a building of magnificent proportions
dominating the typical streetscape of Katmandu.
This narrow and bustling street leads to a busy forecourt
known as Indra Chowk, in front of the rather garish shrine of
Akash Bhairab. Again, this temple follows the unusual form of
an upper sanctuary like that of Bhimsen, with shops below. ‘The
date of its construction is uncertain, but it does play an import-
ant part in many of the religious festivals, especially the festival
of Indrajatra, when the large mask of Bhairab is displayed in
front of the temple, bedecked with flowers. It is sometimes pos-
sible to enter the upper sanctuary to enjoy the bhajan or musical
gatherings that take place in the evening.
Continuing along the main street, passing two temples on
your left, you enter once again the narrow street of Asan, which
is lined with traditional terraced dwellings with their shops and
stores at ground level. The only warning you will get of the next
important group of buildings will be a pair of pillars supporting
griffons which are protecting the entrance to the Seto Mach-
hendra. Entering through a narrow doorway, past a bhujan room
on the right where music is played and sung nightly. you reach a
courtyard of considerable proportions in the centre of which is a
very splendid temple with a two-tiered roof. This is a Buddhist
shrine and one of the few monastic courtyards to have such a
temple. The temple was built before the beginning of the seven-
teenth century but underwent renovations and alterations in the
mid-seventeenth and nineteenth centuries.
It is highly ornamental with gilt copper roofs and a profu-
sion of metal banners, prayer wheels and other decorations. The
top roof is capped with an ornate pinnacle. The supporting roof
struts at the lower level, clad in gilded metal, illustrate the
diverse forms of the Avalokitesvara. The surrounding courtyard
of paved stone is large and spacious, and has numerous small
chaityas and stone pillars supporting Buddhist deities. There is
also an interesting female figure of distinct European flavour
supporting a lamp that must have come from one of the Rana
palaces. The enshrined deity is Padmapanti Avalokitesvara, the
most compassionate divinity in the valley, white in colour and
commonly known as Janmadye or Machhendranath. He is the
chief deity of the Matysandranath festival in Katmandu which
takes place in March. (See page 31.) Around the temple, the
85
daily ‘life mingling with the constant stream of worshippers is
very typical of the Nepalese way of life. Added to this, you may
be fortunate enough to witness a family gathering or local festi-
val taking place. A small opening diagonally opposite the
entrance leads to a pottery market, where pots of all shapes and
sizes are brought from around the valley to be sold.
Moving through to the main road, you turn right through an
interesting collection of shops where cotton mattresses are made
and you will find yourself back on the diagonal road alongside a
small temple with the strange name of Lunchun Lun Bun
Ajima. The first thing you will notice is that the temple sanc-
tuary is below the level of the existing road. Over the years the
road has been resurfaced one layer atop the other until only
recently a tarmac surface was laid. As a result, the level and
indeed the water-table have risen as much as a foot above the
original. This temple has beautiful proportions despite the
Fig. 14.
Asan Tol-Tiland unpleasant white tiles that have been added to the facade.
Ghark Krishna Continuing along the street towards Asan, you will find a
Temple. very fine octagonal temple sandwiched between two residential
86
buildings and projecting into the road. The shrine is dedicated
to Krishna and it is one of very few remaining polygonal
temples. It has carvings of remarkable quality arcaded at
ground-floor level, with fine pillars that support a series of
exquisitely carved windows above. Directly adjacent to this
temple on its left there is a historically important residence of
the early nineteenth century known as Tilang Ghar. It is famous
as the first house in Katmandu outside the palace to be permit-
ted to use glass windows. Between the two floors on the facade.
there is a stucco frieze depicting marching soldiers carrying
guns. It is said to be a copy of a similar frieze on one of King
Prithvinarayan Shah’s fortifications at Nawakot in Trisuli.
Further along, the street broadens into the small square
known as Asan, where there are three small temples. The most
interesting is the Annapurna Temple, hidden behind mounds of
rice sold on its forecourt. This temple, which was possibly con-
structed in the early nineteenth century, belongs to a Buddhist
tantric sect and the object of worship in the sanctuary is not an
image of a deity but a pot known as a ‘purnakalasha’, Mere.
symbols and mystic diagrams are used in worship rather than
iconographic forms. Although it is primarily a Buddhist shrine,
many non-Buddhists worship here. A particular form of worship
performed by a Bajacharya priest known as ‘homa’ is often
performed.
If you now take a turning to the left and follow the road
between several small shops occupied by silversmiths making
jewellery, it will eventually open onto a square known as Ban-
gemuda, where there is a group of fairly standard temples. By
taking the left-hand turning you can return to Indra Chowk. At
this corner you will notice a large baulk of timber with literally
thousands of nails of all shapes and sizes knocked into it. The
placing of a nail in this timber is said to be the cure for tooth-
ache ! It is also the quarter where all the dentists are to be
found, no doubt on hand should the other cure fail.
From the New Road
Gate to Narayan Hiti
Take the New Road Gate as a starting-point. If you face the
large open parade ground. known as the Tundikhel, where all
the military parades and massed gatherings take place, and turn
right past the military and general hospitals, you will find on the
right-hand side a temple on a raised level. known as Mahakala.
87
Formerly this location could have been a bahal, hence the small
shrines on the opposite side of the road. This is a Buddhist
temple housing one of the Buddhist tutelary divinities which
usually stand guard at the entrance to Buddhist viharas. Maha-
kala is regarded as the protector of the land and legend says that
while he was passing through the heavens, the famous tantric
preceptor, Manjubajra, bound him with mantras and enshrined
him in this temple, which is one of the most worshipped in the
valley. People flock to it every morning on their way to work.
Following along the road you will reach Rani Pokhari, an
extensive pond in the middle of which is a domed temple set on
an island. This temple and pond were built in 1670 by Pratap
Malla to console his wife on the death of their son, Chakrabar-
tindrais, and they are dedicated to Siva. The present temple
replaces an earlier one damaged during the earthquake in 1934,
which was also a replacement of the original. Although no one is
permitted to enter the enclosure. it is possible to see some of the
rather interesting statues and decorative elements that surround
the pond such as the magnificent stone elephants.
At the north-western corner of the pond, continue along the
road towards the new royal palace. Turning to the left beside the
Nook Hotel, continue along this road until you meet a large
building on your left that is guarded by a large pair of ferocious
stone lions set on either side of an entrance. This is Chhusya
Bahal, one of the oldest buildings of its kind still standing intact
in the valley. It closely follows the description given of a typical
bahal but especial note should be made of the very fine carving.
The bahal was completed on 13 March 1649. and on the
same day the stone statue of Harihara Lokeshvara was installed
in the shrine. The building, according to records, was inaugur-
ated by King Pratap Malla only in 1667. It is said that many of
the roof struts are of the fifteenth century and they are of par-
ticularly fine quality, representing Pancharaksa and Pujadebi.
Beneath these figures are carvings of the Nakshatras with in-
scribed illustrations. The beautifully carved torana over the
entrance, dated 1673, illustrates the theme of Buddha’s penance.
Unfortunately, this important building has been sadly neglec-
ted ; it is hoped that under the valley conservation programme
funds will be found to restore it.
Near by, a short way along the road, is Musya Bahal, similar
to Chhusya and constructed in 1663. The fading frescoes around
the inner walls depict the Buddha and add to the monastic
atmosphere. Again, the roof struts are beautifully carved. Its
condition is slightly better than that of Chhusya.
88
By either retracing one’s steps or by wending a path through
Thamel, you should now make for Narayan Hiti, adjacent to the
new royal palace. Beyond the main entrance to the palace and
close to one of the entrances to the earlier palace, a flight of
steps leads to the Narayan Mandir, which was built in 1793. This
shikhara-style temple is set in a large and peaceful courtyard full
of interesting small shrines. Close to the entrance of this temple,
but on the other side of the road, is the water conduit which
gave the palace its name. Two of the flanking spouts resemble
the heads of crocodiles with unusual grimaces on their faces. It is
said that they witnessed the patricide of a certain King Dharma-
deba who tricked his son into killing him in order to bring back
the supply of water, which had unaccountably dried up.
Before reaching the Annapurna Hotel on the right-hand
side, there are the remains of a large Rana Palace, the Fohara
Durbar, which is all that is left of a vast complex of palace build-
ings of a variety of European styles that was said to have stret-
ched over a kilometre including La1 Durbar. The palace boasted
magnificent gardens and fountains as well as elaborate interiors
panelled with mirrors and decorated with crystal chandeliers.
This structure attempts to hold itself proudly in memory of its
splendid past, but its future is far from assured.
The temples along
the Bagmati River
For the next walk of discovery, it will be necessary to find some
method of conveyance to the Patan bridge, close to the Blue Star
Hotel. This walk will take you along the shores of the holy Bag-
mati River: the area known as the ‘Ghats’or the place where
Hindus cremate their dead. This area is used less extensively now
and should there be a cremation it will be at the further end of the
Ghats at the confluence of the Vishnumati with the Bagmati.
The first temple you reach is the Hem Narayan, a building
of obvious Mogul influence. It is a domed, stuccoed building
built on the instructions of Jung Bahadur Rana, the first Rana
prime minister. There is a very fine statue of him set on a stone
pillar opposite the entrance to the shrine.
The next large traditional temple you reach along the river
bank is the triple-roofed Tripura Sundari, which was built in
1818 at the request of Queen Tripurasundari, the wife of Rana
Bahadur Shah, to increase her own religious merit. The temple
stands on a broad pedestal with small temples at each corner
89
containing members of the Panchayana deities. The supporting
roof struts illustrate the figures in the Mahabharata epic. Along
the Ghats as far as Pachali there is an assortment of temples of
differing sizes. One unusual group consists of three shikharas
grouped over a single sanctum ; this was probably built during
the late nineteenth century.
At the end of the river bank is a further cluster of differing
shikharas and temples, together with the cremation platforms.
Although little research has been carried out in this area, it is be-
lieved that several of the temples are of early foundation and an
early chaitya, possibly of the Licchavi period, has been located.
Some of the
Rana palaces
The Singha Durbar, an enormous palace, considered to be one
of the largest private dwellings of its kind, originally consisted of
seven courtyards and over one thousand rooms. Alas, it was
severely damaged by fire recently and all that remains is the
magnificent front elevation. Its construction was the dream of
Chandra Shumsher Rana, the prime minister of the day, who
wanted to incorporate all his personal and official needs in one
enormous edifice, which eventually seemed like a small city. He
achieved the construction with the guidance of the engineers.
Kumar and Kishor Narshing, and thousands of workers in
under two years. A wide driveway leads through formal gardens
up to the main entrance portico, which fortunately still exists.
The elevation is decorated with an odd style of Corinthian
column supporting a meagre pediment. The most impressive
element is its size and the fact that it was built only seventy-five
years ago within two years.
Along with several other palaces, such as Babar Mahal.
built in 1913 by Chandra Shumsher and said to be based on
Buckingham Palace in London, and Singha Mahal (1919) the
Singha Durbar was built on the eastern side of Katmandu. The
latter is close to the new road leading out to the airport.
To complete a short tour of the Rana palaces it is worth
looking at one of the earliest palace estates to be established.
This is the Hari Bhawan. now the offices of the Indian mission.
which is located close to the sports stadium. It was built by
Prime Minister Bhimsen Thapa in 1805. and was originally
known as Bagh Durbar because live tigers were caged at its
entrance. It acquired its present name when, in 1940, it was
occupied and renovated by Hari Shumsher.
91
Environs
of Katmandu
Swayambhu
Swayambhu, the Buddhist shrine set on a hillock to the west of
Katmandu, is ostensibly the oldest settlement in the Katmandu
Valley. There are two ways of reaching it: either along the pil-
grims’ route, across the river from Katmandu and up the narrow
and steep stairway on the eastern side of the hillock, or by a
road, recently constructed, which arrives at a point on the saddle
of the hill beneath the shrine and only a short distance from it.
The walk from the centre of Katmandu takes about half an
hour.
The founding of Swayambhu is wrapped in legend. It is said
that the Katmandu Valley was formerly a lake upon which no
lotus grew. Vipssaya Buddha, many aeons ago, threw a root of
the lotus onto the lake and then repeated charms over it, saying,
‘When this lotus shall flower, Swayambhu, or the Self-Existent
One, shall be revealed as a flame’. Much later, Visvabhu
Buddha prophesied the prosperity of the valley as soon as a
Boddhisatva should cause the land to appear above the waters.
It was then that Manjusri, assuming the form of Visvakarma,
struck an enclosing hill to the south of the valley and drained it
by way of the Bagmati River, through what today is known as
Chobar Gorge. Swayambhu thus came into being and a shrine
was built on the hill to protect the lotus.
Though much altered, the Swayambhu stupa today over-
looks the valley, surrounded by several smaller shrines and
Fig. 15. temples. There is also a Tibetan monastery, which was estab-
Swayambhu- lished in its present form in the 1950s though it is said to have
general view. been founded much earlier.
92
The dome of the stupa is of the same low flat type character-
istic of the others to be found in the valley, and it stands upon a
large platform, constructed presumably by levelling off the top
of the hill, which falls away steeply on all sides. The eastern
approach road is guarded towards its summit by pairs of ani-
mals-garudas, peacocks, horses. elephants and lions-all being
the vehicles of the five Buddhas. At the top of the stairway, there
is an enormous vajra or thunderbolt, 1.5 metres long. a symbol
of sacred power. resting upon a mandala. around the drum of
which are cut the symbols of the Tibetan calendar. The eyes of
supreme Buddhahood peer down from the base of the pinnacle
over the dome and above towers the great gilded pinnacle with
its thirteen rings and crowning parasol.
Around the main shrine. gilt figures, dedicated to the five
divine Buddhas, are set in iron-curtained shrines. In a recess
beneath each figure is the beast or bird sacred to the Buddha.
Very close to the stupa there is an important shrine, the Harati
Ajima, a two-tiered temple of Hindu influence containing an
image of Bhagbati. The temple is clad almost entirely in gilded
copper with very fine detailing. According to local people. the
main deity in this temple protects children from disease, es-
pecially smallpox. and it is therefore common for mothers to
bring their new-born babies here for immunization.
Flanking the steps are two imposing shikhara-style shrines.
The one to the north was built by Pratap Malla in 1654 and the
one to the south at the same time by Ananta Priyadevi, one of
his queens. Around and about the platform to the stupa, there
are several hundred small chaityas and votive offerings among
which are some early Lichhavi relics. Set into a recently con-
structed brick surround, there is one of the finest stone statues of
the standing Buddha. It is considered one of the oldest statues of
its kind in Nepal and dates from the ninth or tenth century.
Taking the northern route down from the stupa you will pass
another impressive seated Buddha from the same period. Oppo-
site there is an uninspiring single-storeyed building known as
Shantipur. In contrast to its appearance, the history of this
building is intriguing. It is said that a certain Gunkamdeva
displeased the gods by committing incest and so they caused a
drought and famine. To appease the gods, the nine nags were
brought under the control of Gunkamdeva with the help of
Shantikar, who was living in the temple and from whom the
temple derives its name. The nags worshipped him and each
gave him a likeness of himself drawn with his own blood, de-
claring that whenever there was a drought plentiful rain would
93
fall as soon as these pictures were worshipped. Even today, in
cases of severe drought the king will, as a final resort, visit this
shrine to pray for rain.
On the western banks of the Swayambhu hill there are
several other shrines, including a small chaitya sacred to Man-
jusri. who is identified with his partner Saraswati. They are
worshipped by both Hindus and Buddhists, making it one of the
main national shrines of Nepal.
The siting of Swayambhu is magnificent. There are wonder-
ful views over Katmandu as well as the valley and, on a clear
day. the sunset over the hills and the snow peaks in the distance
is indescribably beautiful.
The following collection of sites is to the east of Katmandu and
all are within a short taxi ride of one another. For those using a
bicycle, there are short cuts through the back streets, but you
will need a good map to find your way.
Pashupatinath
and Gujeswari
These constitute the largest temple group in the valley, covering
an extended area on both sides of the Bagmati River. The shrine
of Pashupatinath is one of the holiest Hindu shrines to be found
not only in the valley but also in Nepal. Set on the banks of the
Bagmati River, one of the major uses of this religious centre is as
a place where the souls of dying people can be released by
laying them with their feet in the river ; after death their mortal
remains can be cremated on the river bank.
Pashupatinath is also the scene of several colourful festivals
that take place throughout the year as well as a place for con-
stant individual worship. Despite the continuous activity on the
river banks and around the temple there is always a sense of
peace and tranquillity here.
The present temple, dedicated to Siva Pashupati, Lord of
the Animals, dates from 1696, but its history goes back to the
beginning of the fifteenth century. The present temple was
constructed by Birpalendra Malla after the former structure had
been severely damaged by termites.
Throughout its important history there have been so many
additions and refurbishings that it is now difficult to tell how
much of the original structure survives. The roofs and the pedi-
ments over the main doors are of gilded copper. The doors
94
themselves are of repoussé silverwork of very fine quality. ‘The
main entrance to the shrine, along the road from the west, is
marked by a giant golden bull. The inner sanctum contains
several fine images and shrines given by important and wealthy
worshippers. Along the west bank of the Bagmati there is an
amazing collection of stone sculptures, some of them dating
from the fifth century, as well as a collection of small shrines.
Many of the sculptures and shrines are of Buddhist origin. Set
back from the river on the west side there is a variety of court-
yard buildings which house the poor.
Crossing the river by the upstream bridge you can see the
two large cremation platforms directly beneath the main temple,
used only by the royal family and prime ministers. On the oppo-
site bank are other votive shrines and another complex of court-
yards, where pilgrims lodge during the big festivals. Continuing
up this long flight of stone paved stairs you come to a peaceful
area known as Gujeswari. set in a wooded glade. The main
temple on the upper temple is a shikhara, dedicated to Gorak-
nath. The shikhara was built in the eighteenth century and
houses a footprint of the Goraknath. Below this group there is
the temple of Gujeswari, the shrine of the spouse of Siva in her
manifestation as Kali. Its construction date is not known but the
first records of repair were made by Pratap Malla in the seven-
teenth century. Access to this shrine is also limited to followers
of the Hindu faith. To itemize and identify all the beautiful
religious works of art to be found in this temple complex would
take too long and be too difficult. but most of the important
examples will speak for themselves.
Chabahil
Returning to the main road and continuing in the direction of
Baudhanath, it is worth stopping a while at Chabahil, the small
stupa located on the west of the road before you enter the next
village. The village known as Chabahil is a very early settlement
containing two important bahals. the Ganesh shrine protecting
Pashupati and the stupa reckoned to be of the third century B.C.
and therefore one of the earliest in the valley. It has legendary
associations with King Brishadev, and there is a story that it was
built with the remains of the materials excavated during the
construction of Baudhanath. There are several early classical
stone sculptures, including a standing Buddha of the ninth cen-
tury and an interesting stone image of Manjusri set in a small
95
brick construction. Around the base of the stupa itself, there is
an interesting collection of stone carvings, including images of
horses and female devotees. In a stucco building to the north of
the stupa, there is a large seated Buddha of unknown origin with
a small aperture beneath it. Local belief has it that if you can
crawl through this opening you are never guilty of telling lies.
The Chabahil and Kuti Bahal are to be found at the back of
the stupa. Little remains of their former beauty but according to
legend Chabahil Bahal was founded by Charumati, the daugh-
ter of King Asoka. Access to them is difficult to describe but any
of the local people will lead you to them.
Baudhanath
On the outskirts of Chabahil, you will have your first glimpse of
the massive Baudhanath stupa, which rises out of the paddy
fields against the brilliant blue sky and the backdrop of the snow
peaks of the Himalayas. This is truly one of the great sights to
behold in the Katmandu Valley. At first, it is not possible to
relate its size to anything tangible, but gradually the encircling
dwellings become apparent. When you arrive at the entrance to
the stupa you feel dwarfed by its size and there is nowhere that
you can stand back and take it in as a whole. Once you have
started on the circumambulation of the shrine you will be dis-
tracted by the trinket shops and the children who congregate
around this centre of pilgrimage. Baudhanath has always been a
trading centre and the shops that now sell souvenirs were for-
merly owned and run by Newari goldsmiths and silversmiths
who traded with Tibet, and Tibetans used to travel, as they still
do today, from the mountains to trade and barter during the
major festivals, thus combining business with pilgrimage. On the
western side of the stupa there are still lodging houses for itin-
erant hillmen, more especially from the Gurung settlements.
Of the traditional Newari goldsmiths shops only one still
survives in its original form and that is in the north-western
corner. Newari traders, especially silversmiths, are still to be
found near the gateway to the stupa itself, where traditional
silver repoussé work is carried out. Unfortunately, their original
building has been superseded by an ugly concrete box.
The origin of the stupa is a little obscure. It is reputed that it
was built by a girl of supernatural birth called Kangma, who
was guilty of stealing flowers from Indra’s heaven. As punish-
ment she was reborn as the daughter of a swineherd in the
96
Katmandu Valley. She married, had four children and was
widowed. Left to her own devices, she became a goose girl and
accumulated a fortune from her labours. She wanted to build a
noble temple to Buddha Amitabha and requested the king to
give her as much ground as the hide of a buffalo would cover.
The king agreed and the girl cut the hide into thin strips. and
joined them together. Stretching the thongs out to form a square
she claimed-and in spite of local jealousies, was given-the
land on which she commenced building the Baudhanath stupa.
After her death her sons completed the stupa and placed in it
some relics of Kasyapa Buddha. Over the centuries, however,
the basic form of the stupa has been altered. Today, the dome is
set on a platform in the shape of a mandala and supports a
finely proportioned pinnacle which. unlike Swayambhu. is
square in section. The dome and its base are painted white and
coloured with yellow paint in the form of petals to signify the
lotus. During the major festivals, hundreds of prayer flags are
draped from the pinnacle to the perimeter of the platform. The
enclosing wall around the stupa is studded with hundreds of
prayer wheels that are spun by the faithful as they promenade
around and around the stupa.
As at Swayambhu. there is, at the entrance to the stupa
itself, an image of Chwaskamini Ajima in silver plate set in a
small shrine. Behind the shrine there is a splendid over-life-size
prayer wheel and alongside it there are some interesting images,
some of which are of Hindu origin.
To get just a brief insight into the Buddhist way of life, it is
worth visiting one of the many new monasteries that have
sprung up around Baudhanath. Most of the monasteries follow
a standard pattern of layout. An open porch leads into the main
chapel with the main altar containing the divinities facing the
entrance. The chapel is usually square in plan and generally
about 8 by 8 metres. The heavy ceiling structure and roof are
supported by four centrally placed pillars with heavy carved
cantilever brackets. The interior is usually rather dark and an air
of tranquillity pervades. They are, despite the lack of light,
ornately painted with scenes from the life of the Buddha. The
pillars and brackets are embossed and embellished with gold
paint and the ceiling is painted in vivid colours. The chapels are
always spotlessly clean and visitors are welcome at all times. If
possible, one should visit such a monastery during one of the
daily prayer recitals, as it is only then that the true atmosphere
can be felt.
97
Dhum Varahi
When returning, if you take the new ring road from Chabahil in
the direction of Maharajgung you will be able to visit one of the
oldest shrines in the valley. It is the shrine of Dhum Varahi,
which is located on the left of the road, a short distance after the
bridge over the Dhobikola River. This sixth-century stone sculp-
ture set in a small brick shrine is of Vishnu in his incarnation as
the boar. He assumed this disguise to destroy the demon Hira-
nyaksha who was pulling the earth under water. It is a life-size
sculpture of great beauty and it is remarkable that a piece of
such fine quality should be found in such a remote area. It can
only suggest that there was an important settlement here some
time in the past.
Budhanilkantha
The next place to visit is Budhanilkantha, which can be reached
Fig. 16. along the main road through Maharajgung, leading north out of
Budhanilkantha- Katmandu. If you continue along the ring road and take the
the reclining Vishnu. next turning north after this last stop you will be on the right
98
road. Budhanilkantha lies beneath the hill of Shivapuri and at
the northernmost extremity of the valley. It is another represen-
tation of Vishnu, reputedly dating from the fifth century. The
image depicts Vishnu asleep, reclining on a bed of snakes as a,
result of having drunk a draught of poison. The image, which is
said to be carved out of one piece of stone, is set in a pool thus
giving it the appearance of floating. During the major festival of
Baikuntha Chaturdasi in the month of November, thousands of
people from all over the valley flock to worship this image of
Vishnu.
If there is still time available, it is worth while continuing
along the road and driving up to the former isolation hospital
above the new school. From here there are magnificent views
over the valley.
99
Patan Durbar Square
As in the Katmandu Durbar Square, there are very fine build-
ings of religious and royal foundation centred around the royal
palace. The Patan Durbar Square is smaller than that of Kat-
mandu ; nevertheless it contains some very special buildings. As
the palace is no longer occupied as an official residence, it is
possible to visit all the courtyards and therefore to get some idea
of what those inaccessible areas in the Hanuman Dhoka are like.
Unlike the latter, the chowks or courtyards of Patan are not
interconnecting. Each chowk is accessible from the main road
along which they are strung, and at the rear they lead through
narrow doorways to the former palace garden. On the opposite
side of the road to the palace there are some interesting temples,
mostly founded by royal patronage.
The Patan Durbar Square is located in the very heart of the
city, at the meeting-point of the two trading routes now known
as Mangal Bazaar. The open square containing the palace and
the temples is delineated by a boundary of irregular-shaped
dwellings. All the temples located in this open square are set
facing the entrance to the palace, even though there was no
predetermined layout. Most of them were built by royalty in
memory of their respective parents and therefore their religious
importance varies. However, each building records an element
of the historical development of this durbar square.
The palace courtyards, which appear to have been built as
separate units, following traditional plans, are of typical con-
struction, but have no regard for the neighbouring structures.
No existing building in the palace dates before the seventeenth
century, although the present structures probably stand on
almost identical foundations of earlier buildings or even replace
100
101
Fig. 17
Patan city map.
A Temple included in guide
* Stupa included in guide
stupa
A Temple
0 Landmark
0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 mile
m - m -
102
them. The palace took its present form largely during the reign
of Siddhi Narasingha Malla and Shrinivasa Malla, who reigned
between 1620 and 1660 and between 1660 and 1684 respectively.
Sundari Chowk, the most westerly courtyard and the first
you come to, was completed in 1627 and was designed as the
residence of Siddhinarasingha and his family. At the same time,
the Tusa Hiti, the beautiful bathing tank and water-spout, were
built in the centre of the courtyard. The octagonal form of this
tank was to emphasize the king’s devotion to the eight Nagas,
the goddesses of rain. The inner walls of the tank are lined with
hundreds of deities in stone and metal. consisting of the Astama-
trikas, the Astabhairabs, the Astanagas as well as the Dashavatal
of Vishnu, in fact all the favourite gods of the king. The water-
spout itself is a gilded conch shell and the water is piped from
the surrounding hills. The perimeter of the tank is surrounded
by a pair of dragons carved in stone. At the entrance to the bath
there is a stone slab raised off the ground, which was used as a
throne for meditation by the king, The courtyard is enclosed by
a three storeyed building with exquisitely carved details in the
windows, doors and other decorative elements. These would
have been the living quarters of the king and his family.
The present entrance to this courtyard is through a very
narrow doorway to the left of a more impressive entrance. This
larger entrance was completely bricked up until recently, as it
was said that the doorway was controlled by an evil spirit. To
this day, nobody will use it for fear of the consequences. The
main entrance is guarded by images of Narasingha Hanuman
and Ganesh. The central window over the door is of gilded
metal and is flanked by windows decorated in ivory. Even the
name Sundari Chowk, meaning ‘magnificent’, given by Sid-dhi-
narasingha hardly does justice to the beauty of this little court-
yard.
The next courtyard is the Mu1 Chowk, completed in 1660. It
is probable that Siddhinarasingha commenced its construction
and that it was completed by his successor Shrinivasa as a dedi-
cation to the goddess Durga. However, the deity Mantraju, for
which the small central gilded sanctuary, the Bidya Mandir., was
erected, was the favourite house goddess of the ruler. Shortly
afterwards, Shrinivasa Malla erected a temple for the Agam-
devta, or secret house goddess, in the south wing of the court-
yard, which is still guarded by the life-size figures of Ganga and
Yamuna in gilded bronze. Over the shrine there is a three-tiered fig. 18.
roof. What remains of the beautiful metal doorway at the map of Patan
entrance of the shrine is indeed a tribute to the metalworking Durbar Square.
103
castes for which Patan is still famous. As in the Hanuman Fig. 19a.
Dhoka Palace, the Patan Mu1 Chowk is a low two-storey Patan Durbar Square
building housing the priests who officiated in the palace. (nineteenth century lithograph)
Although much altered in recent years, it still retains its beauti-
fully carved supporting roof struts depicting the Bhairabs and
the Matrikas. Much of their beauty. however, is masked by the
thick layers of paint covering them. In the north-eastern corner
there is the Taleju Temple, which was built by Shrinivasa Malla
and completed in 1671. It was erected over the three-storeyed
palace building and consists of a three-tiered roof, the corners of
which have been cut off to give it the impression of having an
octagonal form. This building can only be entered by the priests
responsible for the worship of the deity.
As the courtyard was used as a gathering place for various
religious dances and ceremonies, it will be noticed that the doors
are much larger and the entrance is guarded by two stone lions.
Adjacent to the Mul Chowk and dominating the palace
complex because of its size is the Degu Talle, again constructed
by Siddhinarasingha in 1641. It was originally a four-storeyed
building, although it reached five storeys before it was destroyed
by fire. It is built off a part of the palace with a triple-tiered roof
Fig. 19b. structure. The temple is dedicated to Taleju Bhawani, and is
Patan Durbar Square inaccessible to all but the priests. There is a special room built
(today). on the orders of the king where he could retire for prayers,
meditation and the recitation of mantras. Recently. this building
has undergone renovation.
The third courtyard of the palace complex, now occupied as
a museum, is the Keshabharayan Chowk. This is the main
palace building and the last of the courtyards to be completed. It
took about sixty years to build starting in the reign of Shrinivasa
Malla and was dedicated by his successor. Shrivishnu. in 1734.
To facilitate this extension of the palace, it was necessary to
remove the adjacent Buddhist monastery known as Hakhusi
Bahal, which caused difficulties of a mainly religious nature.
The bahal was duly removed and rebuilt close by. Since then, on
the occasion of certain Buddhist festivals, an image of Lord
Buddha, encased in a square copper container, is placed in front
of the main door where it is the object of great devotion.
The inner courtyard façades have succumbed to the results
of poor alterations and restoration. The external elevation.
however, is of exceptional beauty and well worth closer study.
It is probable that the projecting balconies and the beautiful
106
central gilded window were added to the lower storeys by Shri-
Vishnu Malla and erected, according to the chronicles, in three
months. Although these windows are coated in dirt and paint, it
is possible to visualize the intricacy of the carvings. The central
gilded window is one of the finest of its kind and it is here that
the kings would sit to look out over their subjects and to gaze
upon the beautiful Krishna Mandir.
Leaving the Keshab Narayan Chowk, the most striking
building opposite, the magnificent Krishna Mandir, will be the
first to catch your eye. It was the favourite of its builder, Siddhi-
narasingha Malla, who completed it in 1637, having taken six
years to construct it. It is one of only a few buildings in stone
and contains some very delicate relief carvings of the two epics,
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, around the lintels above
the colonnade. The temple is of the shikhara style and the tower
only emerges after the second storey. The temple is set on a
stone plinth and the lower floor to the shrine is arcaded. The
actual sanctum is on the first floor which is formed, as is the
second level, of a series of smaller pavilions capped with pin-
nacles. Take a moment to study the friezes depicting the epics.
Although to all but the scholar it is difficult at first to separate
one from the other, the individual tableaux are graphically
illustrated and follow in sequence in a clockwise direction rather
like a strip cartoon.
Adjacent to the Krishna Mandir is a large two-tiered temple
with a pair of guardian elephants on either side of the entrance
to the sanctuary. This is the Bishwanath Temple, built in 1626
by Siddhinarasingha. It is of unusual form in that around. the
inner sanctum it has an arcade of finely carved timber pillars
which are supported by carved stone sills. Above each pair of
pillars there are ornately carved toranas depicting various divin-
ities or aspects of Siva. The supporting carved roof struts figure
Ganesh, Surya-the sun god- Annapurna, and Siva with Par-
vati. It is one of the earlier temples in the durbar square and
merits a closer look than most.
Close by is another large temple, the Bhimsen Mandir,
which is one of the most important temples in the square. Like
the Bhimsen Temple in Katmandu, it is worshipped in espe-
cially by the businessmen of Patan. The sanctuary is also on the
upper floor and is lit by a large balconied window over the
entrance door. The temple was built under royal patronage by
Shriniwasa Malla and completed in 1681. Although it has been
‘modernized’by the application of glazed tiles and silver paint
to the lower carvings, there are still some fine carvings to be
107
seen. For example, on the southern elevation, a wooden panel
narrates episodes from Bhimsen’s life. The topmost of the three
tiers of roof is covered in gilded metal and has a fine set of
finials ; from the centre of this roof falls a metal ribbon-like
banner with mantras engraved on it, given by some wealthy
benefactor. The temple is open for worship every day, but is
especially popular on Tuesdays and Saturdays.
Directly opposite the entrance to Bhimsen Mandir there is
perhaps the oldest physical structure in the durbar square-the
Mangal Hiti-an important water conduit which was originally
excavated in the tenth century during the Lichhavi period. This
tank is now at least 4 metres below the present street level and
still provides a good source of water which pours from the
mouths of three stone crocodiles. There are also images of
Lakshminarayan and Barume set into the walls of the conduit.
Returning to the upper end of the durbar square, you will
find further interesting temples and shrines. The large three-
tiered and arcaded temple dedicated to Hari Shankar was built
by Siddhinarasingha in the seventeenth century. The size of this
temple is important. It acts as a stop to the southern end of the
square, as the temples and bell beyond are not of such impor-
tance to the square’s overall environment. The kneeling ele-
phants at the entrance to the sanctum and the exquisitely carved
toranas are noteworthy.
Somewhat dwarfed by the Hari Shankar Mandir is a small
two-tiered temple of great historical importance, the Char
Narayan Mandir. It was built in 1566 by Purandharsingha and
there is an inscription recording his setting up images of
Narayan and his four attendants. The style of building charac-
teristic of these early temples is well represented here. The tem-
ple’s proportions are squat with a dominating set of roofs ; the
angle of the brackets is flatter, but perhaps the most dominant
features on all four elevations are the heavy doors and flanking
windows with simple sills and frames. These doorways lead into
an inner circumambulatory around the shrine, which has open-
ings on all four sides and contains a central stone linga repre-
senting the deity.
Although it is on the edge of the durbar square, the unusual
octagonal stone temple dedicated to Krishna, and completed in
1723, is worth looking at. There are a few traditional temples
with an octagonal plan but this is the only stone building of its
kind. Although plain in decoration, its design was no doubt
influenced by the Mogul architecture of India. It was built by
Yogamati, Yogendra Malla’s daughter, after the death of her
108
father and son Lokaprakasha, to gain merit for them in their
next life.
This completes the tour of the most important buildings in
this durbar square, which must rank as being one of the most
beautiful city environments in the world. Perhaps during your
walk among these unique buildings you will have noticed, first.
that they are not shown off at their best and that, secondly, even
to an untrained eye, both their structure and fabric are in a poor
condition. Now this is where the activities of Unesco can assist
the Nepalese Government in raising funds and in implementing
a conservation programme to save this cultural heritage. Any
funds towards this programme would be welcome. Details of
where to send donations can be found in the introduction to this
book.
109
Places to discover
in Patan
There are two separate walks around Patan that can be com-
bined into one but, as they are on either side of the durbar
square, for the sake of ease they have been divided.
North Patan:
Kumbheswar
and Kwa Bahal
Taking the northern route out of the durbar square, leaving
Bhimsen Mandir on your left, you enter a typical streetscape
starting narrow, only to widen out into a small open square in
front of a temple. The large temple on the right is dedicated to
Krishna. It is a well-proportioned three-tiered temple with fine
roof struts depicting the incarnations of Vishnu.
The little two-tiered temple on the right is worth a closer
look, if only to see the fine Garuda image which was donated in
1706, the nag or snake set into the paving and the beautiful
stone image of Vishnu with four hands in the shrine.
The street narrows again and the original paving to the road
and the open drainage system are apparent. An opening to the
left contains an insignificant little two-tiered shrine ; however, in
the shrine known as Uma Maheswar there is one of the most
beautiful stone carvings of the tenth century. It is a representa-
tion of Siva and his consort Parvati. Beneath them, an inscrip-
tion records its construction.
A few hundred metres beyond, a turning to the left leads
down a paved street between two lines of fine terraced houses
110
typifying the traditional Newari town house. As the street opens
out to your right there is the beautiful Kumbheswar Temple
towering above the surrounding houses.
Kumbheswar is located within its own complex of rest-
houses, small shrines and a tank. The main temple, with its
magnificent five tiers of diminishing roofs, is reckoned to be the
oldest temple in Patan, although today its form is very different
to what it was originally. It was built in 1392, during the reign of
Jayastithi Malla, when the temple was referred to as two-tiered.
It was during the reign of Shrinevasa Malla, 1660-84, that the
upper three roofs were added making it one of two major
temples in the valley with five roofs. The temple itself is very
delicate in design but the two lower roofs have similar propor-
tions to that of the Char Narayan mentioned earlier. The sup-
porting roof struts, the windows and doors are all heavily carved
and are very beautiful. As you will notice, their condition is,
sadly, very poor. The inner sanctum contains a very beautiful
gilded silver linga.
In the compound there are several interesting smaller
shrines of varying ages and importance. Several of these are of
Licchavi origin, making this sector of Patan one of the earliest
parts of the city. It is a very important site for religious festivals ;
the main festival being the Kumbheswar Mela, during Janai
Purnima, which is described in the chapter on festivals, on
page 33.
One of the earliest Buddhist stupas in Patan is located just
behind Kumbheswar. Taking a right-hand turn out the back
gate of the compound beneath the enormous pipal tree, the road
leads round to the left. Follow this for a few hundred metres ,and
the stupa will be visible on the left. This is one of the five stupas
believed to have been built by Asoka, the Mauryan king of
India, while visiting Nepal on a pilgrimage. Its origin, therefore,
dates back to the third century B.C. Unlike the others, this stupa
has been plastered over but it is certain to have been a fairly
recent alteration. There are several other good Buddhist sculp-
tures within the compound.
Retracing your tracks to Kumbheswar, take now the direct
but narrower road into the city between further good examples
of town dwellings. After the road widens, you will see on your
right a small entrance guarded by a pair of temple lions. This is
the entrance to the Kwa Bahal, one of the most spectacular of
the many hundreds of Buddhist monasteries to be found in and
around Patan. Often referred to as Hemavarna Mahavihar, this
monastery was founded in 1409 and is dedicated to Gautama
111
Buddha. The whole façade of the main temple enshrining the
Buddha and the roofs are covered with embossed gilded copper.
The metalwork, especially of the toranas, is very detailed and
finely executed. The small shrine in the centre of the courtyard
is lavishly embellished with metal designs and figures, all of
which merit a closer look. You will notice that many details are
of strong Hindu influence. The crowning pinnacle, or gajur, to
this shrine is very ornate indeed and, although a little
top-heavy, a masterpiece on its own. This is still a very active
monastery and many different families take in in turns to look
after and officiate at the shrine. The people are very friendly
and one of the boy monks will be pleased to take you up into the
monastery to see the frescoes and other images of Buddha. This
is one of the few monastic buildings that is well endowed and
where a conscious effort is made by its members to look after
the building’s structure and fabric.
Returning to the main road, you can continue along it and
take a sharp turning to the left, which will lead you back to the
durbar square.
South Patan:
Maha Baudha,
Uku Bahal,
Min Nath and
Machhendra Nath
Having passed through the durbar square, you take a turning
left, in an easterly direction, through the vegetable market and
pass along a brick-paved street between terraced houses of a
much later period. After several hundred metres the road opens
out into a fairly large terrace square containing two stone shik-
hara temples and a water conduit.
The water conduit is known as Sundhara, or golden tap,
because of its beautiful gilded water-spouts. The exact history of
this watering place is not certain but records show that it
underwent renovation in 1701. This square is one of the import-
ant stopping places during the Rato Machhendra chariot festival
and legend has it that the water-spouts were constructed to pro-
vide refreshment for the god.
At this point you take a right turn up a paved street. Almost
at the top of the street, there is a narrow entrance to the right
which leads through to the rather special terracotta temple
112
known as Maha Baudha. This shikhara-style temple is located in
a narrow irregular courtyard that must have been a monastery.
It is now unfortunately dwarfed by ugly modern buildings. The
design and material of the temple are unique in the valley. All
the façades are completely covered with hundreds of terracotta
plaques in relief, each depicting the Buddha seated in a niche.
The temple is built in two parts, a square base containing the
shrine and the high tapering tower with four small pinnacles in
each corner. This temple is a copy of the Mahabodi Temple of
Bodhgaya in Bihar, India. The builder, Abhayaraja Shakya, saw
the original while on pilgrimage and bringing back an image of
the Buddha decided to enshrine it in a similar structure. Appar-
ently it took several generations to complete. During the violent
earthquake of 1934, this temple was badly damaged. Subse-
quent efforts at repairing it were confused by the great many
parts that could not be put back during the renovation. and Fig. 20.
these were therefore assembled separately and now form a Maha Baudha.
secondary shrine in one corner.
Turning right out of the alley, the main street takes a further
sharp right turn. However, you are now looking for the Uku
Bahal which is located off an opening to the left. The Uku Bahal
is one of the most famous Buddhist monasteries in Patan. 1 t is
probable that King Shivadeva had the temple built sometime in
the 1650s and he performed his own initiation rites here. A very
splendid doorway to the main shrine. with a decorative metal
arch, was donated in 1676 and the struts supporting the first roof
depicting the live Mahabuddhas were donated in 1653, all of
which establishes this as one of the earlier bahals. The building
is large and rectangular with two tiers of roof. The upper roof is
capped with a resplendent series of gilded pinnacles. The court-
yard is tilled with a wonderful collection of animals made of
metal. as well as several important votive chaityas, which makes
it a great favourite among visitors.
Returning to the main street you continue straight ahead
along the main road. This is the route taken by the chariot.
Continue along this road until you enter the area of the metal-
workers at a short distance before a main junction. In this tol or
district, you will be able to see the coppersmiths beating out the
brass and copper cooking pots of all sizes. varying from the
domestic pot to enormous cooking pots that are used during
festival picnics.
At the point where this road meets a main road, you turn
left. A short way up this road there will be an opening on both
sides leading on the right to the Machhendra Temple and on the
114
left to the Min Nath, which we will visit first. This is a small two-
tiered temple enshrining a Buddhist deity. The deity is brought
out during the great Machhendra festival and follows behind the
big chariot in a much smaller chariot dragged by the local chil-
dren. The temple has an elaborate entrance with latticed doors,
a torana and big prayer wheels. It was built by Halarchan Dev
during the sixteenth century.
Across the road is the entrance to one of the most famous
temples in Patan and one of the most popular in the religious
life of the community. It is the Macchendra Nath. probably built
by Shrinivas Malla in the 1670s. It is a beautiful three-tiered
structure located in a large open park, with metal-covered roofs
bordered with wind bells. It has intricately carved doorways
with flanking windows on each elevation. Each entrance is guar-
ded by a pair of animals and the plinth is enclosed with a wall of
prayer wheels. There are some fine carved struts with represen-
tations of the Avalokiteswara on the upper section, while
beneath there are scenes of torture being meted out to the con-
demned souls in hell. The deity represented in the shrine is
Avalokiteswai Padmapani. popularly known as Matsyandra-
nath. He is worshipped by all as the god of rain and plenty,
hence the importance of the Macchendra festival just prior to
the monsoon. As explained in the section on festivals, the god
was originally the Bundyo of Bungamati. Each year, the god
therefore spends three months in Bungamati, an arrangement
probably made by Shrinivasi Malla.
Returning to the main road, you turn left out of the temple
compound and walk down the hill, passing through the shops
that sell most of the metalwork in Patan. These shops are owned
by the Tamrakar caste who beat and cast copper and brass for
everyday implements, for votive offerings in the temples.
One interesting little shrine dedicated to Bishwakarma, the
god of the craftsmen, can be found down an alley on the left,
shortly before you reach the durbar square. This shrine is, in
fact, an agam or private house god, worshipped by a guthi
group. The façade to the shrine is of embossed and gilded cop-
per which was added in 1885. The shrine is located at ground
level in an open niche with a very decorative torana over it.
Above the door is a window with an unusual solar disc and
interlocking triangle design. Both the upper windows are flank-
ed with interesting embossed images and divinities. The en-
trance is guarded by the figures Ganga and Yamuna.
It will be necessary to retrace your tracks to the main road.
from where the durbar square is only a short distance.
115
Bhaktapur Durbar Square
Unlike the other durbar squares, that of Bhaktapur is not in the
city centre, but lies to the north of the city and is linked only by
small alleyways to the more important and imposing square
known as the Taumadhi Tol. located south-east and below the
durbar square.
The present durbar square is a shadow of its former self, as
much of it has disappeared or was razed to the ground during
the 1934 earthquake. Legend has it that there were as many as
ninety-nine courtyards attached to this palace. In 1742, twelve
existed in reality, of which only six remain today. The result of
the earthquake is still evident ; whereas in other areas temples
were rebuilt, in this square the damage was so severe that in
many cases only the bases remained, other areas are still under
rubble. Prior to the earthquake, it seems that there were prob-
ably three separate groups of temples, but today the square
seems very empty and fringed only with buildings.
Unlike the other two durbar squares, it is not possible to
enter and examine the chowks of the royal palace, except for the
Nag Pokhari and the areas you can see from visiting the inter-
esting museum which is located in sections of the palace.
Let us first take a look at the palace buildings. It is difficult
to determine exactly the early history of the palace but it is
believed that it was built when the city was established in the
ninth century. At this time, the palace was known as Tipura and
was the seat of the defacto authority of the kingdom. However,
none of the structures of this period still remain and most infor-
mation uncovered to date indicates that most of the palace,
other than the Mu1 Chowk, dates from the late sixteenth, early
seventeenth century.
A Temple included in guide
l Landmark included in guide
117
The focal point of the palace now is the centrally placed
golden gate, or Sun Dhoka, as it is called. Facing this, the build-
ings to the left or west, which represent two wings of the palace,
were constructed during the reign of Jagat Jyoti Malla from
1613 to 1637. They have since been much altered and today they
form the major part of the museum.
The Sun Dhoka, often compared to Ghiberti’s famous doors
in the Baptistery in Florence, Italy, was erected in 1753 by Jaya
Ranjit Malla, and is perhaps the finest example of gilded cop-
per-work to be found in Bhaktapur and even in the Katmandu
Valley. It is very ornate and the panels around the door-frame,
which depict a series of ten divinities including Ganesh. are in
very fine repoussé work. The gate is capped with a small gilded
roof surmounted with decorated finials and detailed images of
winged lions and elephants. Although rather strangely located
Fig. 21.
Bhaktapur city map. the gate marks the entrance to the Taleju Temple.
One of the striking monuments of the square is the statue of
Bupatindra Malla raised on a pillar opposite the Sun Dhoka.
The king is kneeling on a throne supported by four lions, which
rest on a stone lotus flower. The king carries his weapons of war
at his side but is in an attitude of prayer. He is dressed in the
attire common in those days. This statue is a just tribute to a
man who was responsible for not only renovating many of the
buildings surrounding him but also for their construction.
Passing through the gate and through a further low entrance
door you enter what is known as Beko Chowk, which today
appears to be the backs of a series of palace buildings and
hardly the main route to reach the Mu1 Chowk. Following this
courtyard around to the left you will come to an entrance door
with a carved wooden surround of exquisite beauty. Unfortu-
nately, foreign visitors are not permitted beyond this doorway
into the Taleju Chowk and the Kumari Chowk, which are said
to contain some of the most important works of art in the valley.
The foundation of the Mu1 Chowk dates back to the thirteenth
century. Unlike the other two durbar squares, the Taleju shrine
in Bhaktapur is not an impressively tall building, but a shrine of
a single storey with rich ornamentation. By placing yourself
judiciously in the doorway, it is possible to have a glimpse of
some of the beautiful gilded copper images in front of the main
shrine, the roof of which is capped with as many as eleven small
spires and some rather exotic serpents that slide down the ribbed
roof. This courtyard has been the subject of many donations by
various Bhaktapur monarchs, but especially Bupatindra Malla.
118
119
Beyond the Mu1 Chowk is the Kumari Chowk, said to be
one of the gems of Nepalese architecture, which is attributed to
Jitamitra Malla.
In the north-east corner of the courtyard, a small wooden
door leads into a former courtyard containing a beautiful
bathing pool known as Nag Pokhari. This bathing courtyard was
constructed in the early seventeenth century under the direction
of Jagatir Malla, and later repaired by Jitamitra Malla when he
had the wooden post with a gilded head of Vasuki, the snake
god, erected. The sunken pool with its beautiful golden water-
spout was formerly richly adorned with tine stone sculptures. It
is probable that, as in the other durbar squares, it was originally
surrounded with buildings. The water is said to be piped by
conduit for seven miles. It is worth studying the remaining
sculptures and in particular the beautiful gilded water-spout.
Fig. 22. Returning to the main square, on your left as you re-enter
Map of Bhaktapur the square, there is an impressive wing of the palace built in
Durbar Square. 1697 by Bupatindra and generally referred to as ‘the palace with
the fifty-five windows’. It is a building of three storeys with, on
the lower storeys, finely carved windows and doors and, on the
upper floor, an open hall with fifty-five arcaded windows. This
upper floor formerly projected, but during the 1934 earthquake
the building was badly damaged and had to be reconstructed.
Now these windows no longer form a projection, The palace was
recently painted but it is hoped that the brick and timber will
soon be returned to their natural colour.
Originally, on the right flank of the palace, there were fur-
ther courtyards but all that remains of these today are the guard-
ian lions. Similarly, several temples and rest-houses succumbed
in the earthquake and all that remains are a few base platforms.
Different varieties and styles of temple remain in the durbar
square. At the entrance to the square is a two-tiered temple
known locally as Bansi Narayan. It has the format of an early
structure but its date of foundation is not known. The wood-
carvings of the roof struts represent incarnations of Vishnu and
the deity enshrined is Krishna.
Behind the Bansi Narayan is an interesting shikhara-style
temple built in a mixture of stone, brick, timber and terracotta.
The temple is dedicated to Durga, the spouse of Siva.
Commanding a focal position close to the Golden Gate is
the impressive temple of Batsala Durga, one of two very beauti-
ful stone shikharas to be found in the durbar square.
Behind the statue there is a beautiful stone shikhara-style
building dedicated to Batsala Durga. The construction of this
122
temple, which is a close copy of the Krishna Temple in Patan
durbar, is attributed to Bupatindra Malla and it was completed
in the late seventeenth century. About the temple there are
many stone carvings of various divinities. Other interesting
features are the copper pinnacles and the wind bells, which are
an unusual feature on temples in the shikhara style. On the same
platform as the Batsala Durga Temple are two bells ; the large
one, rung during the worship of Taleju, was erected by Ranajit
Malla in 1737, and a second bell, set adjacent to the entrance of
the shrine, was placed there by Bupatindra Malla to counteract
the ominous tone of death knell which he had heard in a dream.
This temple has only recently undergone extensive repair
and consolidation in the hands of the Hanuman Dhoka Conser-
vation Project Office. The structure was being undermined by
tree roots which had smashed several stones. Earlier damage
caused by the earthquake and the pinnacles were repaired ;
many missing bells were matched with the original and repla-
ced, and the stonework was carefully cleaned.
Adjacent to the Batsala Durga on the northern side and
close to the palace of fifty-five windows, there is the Bhagbati
Temple, the smaller of the two stone temples built in the shik-
hara style. It was erected in the seventeenth century, probably
by Nupatindra Malla, and once again dedicated to Durga. Its
most noteworthy features are the splendid pairs of guardians
lining the steps to the sanctuary. In front of the sanctum, a series
of relief panels depicts the Matrika goddesses.
The large two-tiered temple to the right of the Batsala
Durga is known as Pashupatinath. This broad-based temple set
on a low plinth was built by King Yaksha Malla, probably in the
late fifteenth century, and has undergone several alterations
during its history. It is said that King Yaksha was instructed in a
dream to build the temple by Lord Pashupati. He was also to
visit the temple every day. On the one day he failed to appear,
Bagmati River flooded its banks. The temple does in fact
resemble the main Pashupati Temple and there is also a small
shrine to Gujeswari. The temple was severely damaged in the
1934 earthquake and most of it was rebuilt. The supporting roof
struts are, however, from the original building and are of simple
classical form, depicting Siva and important characters from the
Ramayana. Beneath, there are several examples of erotica.
123
Places to discover
in Bhaktapur
There are two worth-while walks in Bhaktapur, one is beyond
the durbar square to the Taumadhi Tol, containing the famous
Nyatapola ; the other is a tour through the eastern half of Bhak-
tapur taking in the Tachapal Tol area, which is at present part of
a major rehabilitation scheme being carried out by the Nepalese
Government with assistance from the Federal Republic of Ger-
many.
The Taumadhi To1 is an extension of the durbar square,
whereas to reach the Tachapal area takes about twenty minutes’
walk through the streets of Bhaktapur. It is possible to drive
there but there are some interesting buildings and shrines to see
on the way which you would otherwise miss.
Taumadhi Tol-
Nyatapola
and Kasi Biswanath
Following the narrow road beyond the Pashupatinath you enter
into one of the most impressive squares, known as Taumadhi
Tol, over which towers the famous Nyatapola Temple. This
temple, built by Nupatindra Malla in 1702, is set on a stepped
platform of five diminishing plinths and has five tiered roofs of
beautifully tapering proportions. Despite its rather garishly
painted exterior, the carvings to the arcaded pillars, windows
and supporting roof struts are of exceptional beauty. The latter,
numbering 108, are representations of the diverse forms of Bha-
gubati Mahishamardini and other lesser divinities. The eaves of
all the roofs are edged in hundreds of small wind bells. The
inner sanctum contains a beautiful sculpture of Mahishamardini
124
or Siddhi Lakshmi. but this shrine is only occasionally visited by
select priests. The inner sanctum is approached up a long flight
of steps. which is lined with pairs of guardians arranged in order
of increasing power from the bottom. The lowest figures, stand-
ing about 2.5 metres high. represent Jai Ma1 and Patta. the
famous wrestlers of Bhaktapur reputed to possess the strength of
ten men. Above them stand a pair of elephants possessing ten
times the strength of the wrestlers. Next come two lions ten
times more powerful than the elephants. These are superseded
by two griffons which outrank the strength of the lions by 10 to
1. Finally, the stairway is topped by two minor deities, Simhini
and Vyangini, who possess ten times the strength of the mytho-
logical griffon. This ascendancy in strength implies that che
multiplication of power culminates in the goddess here wor-
shipped. who is dominant over all through her supreme though
unseen strength.
It is said that during the building of the temple. Bupatindra
Malla himself carried bricks to the site, inspiring the locals to
carry in five days sufficient materials for its erection.
Close to the Nyatapola, on the eastern side of the square, is
another important shrine known as the Kasi Biswanath. which is
dedicated to Bhairab. It is said that the Nyatapola was built to
quell the nuisances of this Bhairab image. Its original construc-
tion as a single-storeyed building is attributed to Jagat Jyoti
Malla, but in the early part of Bupatindra Malla’s reign, it was
extended to its present form and completed in 1708. The present
structure, however, was only reassembled after the 1934 earth-
quake, using parts of the original fabric. The temple is rectangu-
lar with the main shrine at ground level. There are three tiers of
roofs, the uppermost being gilded sheet metal surmounted with
several ornate pinnacles. The supporting roof struts, of which
there are fifty-six. depict the forms of the Matrika and Bhagmati
goddesses. During the festival of Bisket, an image of Bhairab is
taken around in a chariot and he is identified with the image of
Kasi Biswanath. According to legend, Biswanath came one day
to see the Bisket festival in the disguise of a human being. A
tantric priest, recognizing him, wanted to capture him and
started to bind him with mantras. Biswanath began to disappear
but the priest, in despair, cut off his head, which is said to be
enshrined in the temple.
The square, with its two main roads running diagonally
across it, is of greater religious significance than that of the
durbar square, as it is often used as a gathering place during the
major festivals.
125
Taking the road in a westerly direction, it is worth looking at
a very attractive group of traditional dwellings overlooking a
small square located a short way along the road on the left-hand
side. These houses belong to wealthy farmers and contain some
very fine carved windows. The paved road and the excellent
brickwork, which harmonizes well with the colour of the wood-
work, help to make this a unique group of buildings. This road
is, in fact, the head of the road that runs down to the river, and
the one which the chariot has to negotiate during the Bisket
festival. Ignoring the rather unpleasant open drains, it is worth
walking down the street which, at the bottom, opens out again
into another beautiful streetscape. It is here where the ground
flattens out that the main part of the Bisket festival takes place
when the image of Bhairab is removed from the chariot and
placed in one of the small shrines and worshipped.
It is possible to cut through along one of the small paths to
the right, at the point where the road opens out but, for the less
intrepid, it is wiser to return to the main road leading out of
Taumadhi and follow it to the left. This road is most likely the
former main trading and pilgrimage route through Bhaktapur.
Follow this road for about a hundred metres and then. by turn-
ing left, you should arrive in the district where most of the pot-
ters of Bhaktapur live. The road opens out into a square which is
usually filled with potters working at their wheels. It is hard to
find a way through the hundreds of pots of all shapes and sizes
that are drying in the sun prior to their baking in the kilns
behind the square. Obviously, this trade is dependent on the
weather and is mostly carried out when the craftsmen have time
to spare from their agricultural work.
Returning again to the Taumadhi Tol, you can either
retrace your tracks to the durbar square and drive to Tachapal
or, if walking, cross the square on the diagonal and follow along
the road leading into the eastern sector of the town,
Taumadhi To1
to Tachapal
After turning slightly to the right. the route leads through an
area crowded with shops. On the right, set into the line of
shops, you will come across an impressive building which has
recently undergone renovation as part of the Nepalese
Government/Federal Republic of Germany Bhaktapur Devel-
opment Project mentioned earlier. The building, known as the
126
Sukul Dhoka Math, was built by Ranajit Malla in about 1740
for a group known as the Sanyasis of Lakshmanapuri, and an
endowment was set up by the king for daily worship to take
place. The king placed a linga, Banalingeswari, in the shrine in
1744.
Here the wood-carvings are of exceptional quality, espe-
cially the windows on the first floor. The future of this building
was only recently assured, as its condition before renovation was
very dilapidated. During its repair the main façade was consoli-
dated ; the former shop openings were filled in and the building
was returned to its original form. The courtyard behind was
gutted and rebuilt, and the renovated building will now be put
to a more suitable use.
Continuing along the road, on the right is a small three-
tiered temple, known as Golmadhi Ganesh, built in the mid-
seventeenth century. Opposite there is a large and deep hitti, or
tank, that has recently undergone repair. There are several inter-
esting stone sculptures, some of them quite early, set in niches
around the spout.
Beyond, the road widens and in the shops on the right dyers
can be found hand-printing and dying the traditional local cloth.
The road climbs a slight incline and from here on the work of
the Bhaktapur Development Project will become evident. The
streets have been repaved, the plinths of the houses reformed
and storm-water and sewage drains have been introduced. This
street eventually opens out onto the focal point of this project,
the area known as Tachapal Tol. Here, all the important build-
ings have undergone restoration, water tanks have been cleaned
out and repaired and a sewage system has been installed as well
as a new drinking water supply.
Surrounding the square there are several maths, the most
important being the Pujari Math, several small temples and
shrines, and a fair number of important private dwellings.
Dominating the square at the eastern end is the famous Datta-
traya Temple, one of the most renowned temples not only of
Bhaktapur but of the whole valley. It was originally built as a
mandapa and its similarity to the Kasthamandapa in Katmandu
is fairly evident. It is much smaller but none the less impressive.
It only became known as Dattatraya Temple because the front
part of the building was added later to house the images of
Shiva Brahma and Dattatraya. A stone inscription states that a
small shrine was built to commemorate the spot where a famous
guru died. This shrine was later enlarged by Yaksha Malla in
about 1427 as a chapara, a type of pilgrims’ rest-house. During
127
the reign of Viswa Malla, the building was extended to form the
temple as it stands today to serve as both a place of rest and an
important shrine. The deities, as already stated, represent the
three major Hindu deities or trinity. The entrance is protected
again by the famous wrestlers of Bhaktapur, Jai Mal and Patta,
who are flanked by the symbols of the deities within. Beyond,
there is a fine image of Garuda set on a high pillar.
Just behind and slightly to the right is a building closely
associated with the Dattatraya-the Pujari Math, one of the
most celebrated maths to be found. In this square alone there
are nine different maths. Since only thirty maths have been
identified in the whole valley, the importance of this square can
be fully realized.
The construction date of the Pujari Math is uncertain and
steeped in legend. However, there are records stating that a
math was built on this site during the reign of King Yaksha
Prakash Malla (1428-82) ; it is recorded that the math was conse-
crated and opened for public puja during the year 1480. During
Raja Vishwa Malla’s reign, it is also recorded that intensive
renovations were carried out to restore the building to its orig-
inal form. Later. in 1763, further extensions and alterations were
made by the mahanta, or chief priest, of the time. The math
suffered considerable damage during the 1934 earthquake, and
it was only with German aid that the building once again
underwent major repair with a view to restoring it to its original
condition. Today, it serves as the headquarters of the Bhaktapur
Development Programme and is open to tourists. The exterior of
the building belies the true brilliance of the carvings in the in-
terior courtyard. Although rather imposing, the exterior has
fairly standard styles of carving, except for some windows down
a side alley which are carved in the form of a strutting peacock ;
a symbol which today gives the monastery its more common
name. However, the inner courtyard, which can only be seen if
the building is opened for viewing, surpasses nearly all other
examples of carving so far discussed, with the exception of that
found in the Hanuman Dhoka Palace. The courtyard was prob-
ably the result of the eighteenth-century renovations and is
worth close study. There is a profusion of detail in the windows,
cornices and pillars, all of which are of highly complicated
design. The brickwork is also unusual. It is much darker and the
joints are sealed with a resinous mixture, known as saldup, a
system apparently only used in Bhaktapur.
You will find a considerable amount of information avail-
able about the development programme, as there is a permanent
. 128
exhibition mounted in one of the rooms in the Pujari Math.
Some of the upper rooms to the math are painted with inter-
esting murals, an unusual feature in Nepalese buildings and,
should they be accessible. they are well worth visiting.
Returning once again to the bottom end of the square, there
is an interesting two-storey building dedicated to Bhimsen. The
building was constructed in 1605 and contains an unusual ear-
then image of Bhimsen. The lower floor of the building is desi-
gned as a pathi with a small door looking out over the newly
restored series of water conduits behind. Over the main shrine
there is a gilded roof capped by several unusual pinnacles.
There is not space to identify the other nine maths ; how-
ever, it is worth taking a closer look at some of the façades to the
buildings overlooking the square.
Returning to the top of the square and continuing along the
narrow road beside the Dattatraya, you will pass several other
recently renovated buildings. Towards the end of the road, on
the right, there is a small but delightful temple complex. This
temple, known as Wakupatinarayan, is dedicated to Garud
Narayan and although probably of early construction, its exact
date is not known. The small two-tiered temple, set in a neat
stone-paved courtyard, is extensively covered or decorated with
metal. The doorway is of embossed metal and the torana, the
roof and the finials are all of gilded copper. Take a close look at
the details on the roof: the small sun heads at the rib ends, the
birds sitting on the corner pieces, and the highly ornate pinnacle
with the inscribed metal ribbon falling down the roof from it. In
front of the temple, there are several fine metal symbols and two
beautiful garuds.
Wakupatinarayan is almost at the easternmost extreme of
Bhaktapur. Continuing a short way beyond the complex, take a
sharp left turn up a hill through a residential area. At almost the
top of this road, you will arrive outside a simple building fol-
lowing almost the style and proportions of the dwellings you
have just passed. This is in fact what is known as an Agan house,
in which a god belonging to a particular sect is kept. This one is
the dwelling of Navadurga and her associates, who are impor-
tant for their roles in the religious lives of the people of Bhakta-
pur. A troupe of masked dancers, known as the Navadurga,
performs ritual dances at all the major festivals in Bhaktapur
throughout the year. The dancers, who come from a class known
as Banamala, are highly venerated and greatly feared. The
masks for this dance are kept on the first floor of this building, a
dark, sinister place smelling of blood from the many sacrifices
129
associated with tantric rites performed to appease the goddess
and her associates. The final dance at the end of July enacts the
ritual death of Navadurga. During the dance, the masks are
smashed and burnt. The goddesses are reborn once more during
Dassain, with the creation and dedication of new masks which
will survive the year. These masks are made in papier mâché by
craftsmen.
The building itself is typical of the Agam house style. It is a
long rectangular structure with two storeys and a single pitched
roof. The windows and doors have ornately carved toranas and
the supporting roof struts depict the Astramatrika.
At the end of the road, there is a large tank surrounded by
further dwellings. Turning left alongside the tank. walk to the
end of this open space and turn left again to follow a narrow
alley that leads you back into the Tachapal Tol. passing a small
temple known as Salan Ganesh, dedicated to the Ganesh that is
strongly linked with the Taleju shrine in the palace.
The recently restored tank situated behind Salan Ganesh and
the other repairing and restoration activities again demonstrate
the importance of the well-organized Bhaktapur Development
Programme, and it is hoped that it will act as an example for many
other similar undertakings in the Katmandu Valley.
From Tachapal Tol, it is necessary to retrace your tracks
back to the durbar square.
On your return by car, it is worth while stopping briefly to
take a look at the Siddhipokhari, an enormous tank located
close to the army headquarters in Bhaktapur. It is on built-up
ground near the Tundikhel and measures nearly 100 metres
long. The tank was constructed in the sixteenth century and
legend has it that a serpent of untold size lives in the waters. For
this reason, it is never emptied in case the serpent might escape.
Even now the inhabitants of Bhaktapur will not dare enter the
compound of the Siddhapokhari for fear of meeting this mon-
ster. Several additions have been made to the tank throughout
its history, the most recent by King Mahendra in 1958.
If you have time to spare. it is worth returning to Katmandu
along the old route passing through Thimi, a place that is famous
for its pottery. On the road just outside of the town there is a small
shop where the renowned papier mâché masks are made.
If you are in Nepal during the dry season, you will see the
brickyards out in the fields along the roadside, where the Nepa-
lese have been making their bricks for centuries. It is in these
fields that the first of the new batch of the special glazed bricks
were made and the regeneration of an old craft began.