Discrete Mathematics

Lecture 3
Elementary Number Theory and
Methods of Proof
Harper Langston
New York University
 Proof and Counterexample
• Discovery and proof
• Even and odd numbers
– number n from Z is called even if ∃k ∈ Z, n = 2k
– number n from Z is called odd if ∃k ∈ Z, n = 2k + 1
• Prime and composite numbers
– number n from Z is called prime if
∀r, s ∈ Z, n = r * s à r = 1 ∨ s = 1
– number n from Z is called composite if
∃r, s ∈ Z, n = r * s ∧ r > 1 ∧ s > 1
 Proving Statements
• Constructive proofs for existential statements
• Example: Show that there is a prime number that
can be written as a sum of two perfect squares
• Universal statements: method of exhaustion and
generalized proof
• Direct Proof:
– Express the statement in the form: ∀x ∈ D, P(x) à
Q(x)
– Take an arbitrary x from D so that P(x) is true
– Show that Q(x) is true based on previous axioms,
theorems, P(x) and rules of valid reasoning
 Proof
• Show that if the sum of any two integers is
even, then so is their difference
• Common mistakes in a proof
– Arguing from example
– Using the same symbol for different variables
– Jumping to a conclusion
– Begging the question
 Counterexample
• To show that the statement in the form “∀x ∈ D,
P(x) à Q(x)” is not true one needs to show that
the negation, which has a form “∃x ∈ D, P(x) ∧
~Q(x)” is true. x is called a counterexample.
• Famous conjectures:
– Fermat big theorem: there are no non-zero integers x, y,
z such that xn + yn = zn, for n > 2
– Goldbach conjecture: any even integer can be
represented as a sum of two prime numbers
– Euler’s conjecture: no three perfect fourth powers add
up to another perfect fourth power
 Exercises
• Any product of four consecutive integers is
one less than a perfect square
• To check that an integer is a prime it is
sufficient to check that n is not divisible by
any prime less than or equal to √n
• If p is a prime, is 2p – 1 a prime too?
• Does 15x3 + 7x2 – 8x – 27 have an integer
zero?
 Rational Numbers
• Real number r is called rational if
∃p,q ∈ Z, r = p / q
• All real numbers which are not rational are
called irrational
• Is 0.121212… a rational number
• Every integer is a rational number
• Sum of any two rational numbers is a
rational number
 Divisibility
• Integer n is a divisible by an integer d, when
∃k ∈ Z, n = d * k
• Notation: d | n
• Synonymous statements:
– n is a multiple of d
– d is a factor of n
– d is a divisor of n
– d divides n
 Divisibility
• Divisibility is transitive: for all integers a, b, c, if a
divides b and b divides c, then a divides c
• Any integer greater than 1 is divisible by a prime
number
• If a | b and b | a, does it mean a = b?
• Any integer can be uniquely represented in the
standard factored form:
n = p1e1 * p2e2 * … * pkek, p 1 < p 2 < … < pk, p i is a
prime number
 Exercises
• Prove or provide counterexample:
– For integers a, b, c: (a | b) à (a | bc)
– For integers a, b, c: (a | (b + c)) à (a | b ∧ a | c)
• If 2 * 3 * 4 * 5 * 6 * 7 * 8 * 9 * m = 151 * 150 *
149 * 148 * 147 * 146 * 145 * 144 * 143, does
151 | m?
• Show that an integer is divisible by 9 iff the sum
of its digits is divisible by 9. Prove the same for
divisibility by 3.
• Show that an integer is divisible by 11 iff the
alternate sum of its digits is divisible by 11
 Quotient and Remainder
• Given any integer n and positive integer d, there
exist unique integers q and r, such that n = d * q +
r and 0 ≤ r < d
• Operations: div – quotient, mod – remainder
• Parity of an integer refers to the property of an
integer to be even or odd
• Any two consecutive integers have opposite parity
• The square of an odd integer has reminder 1 when
divided by 8 (read in book)
 Exercises
• Show that a product of any four consecutive
integers is divisible by 8
• Show that the sum of any four consecutive
integers is never divisible by 4
• Show that any prime number greater than 3
has remainder 1 or 5 when divided by 6
 Floor and Ceiling
• For any real number x, the floor of x, written x, is the unique
integer n such that n ≤ x < n + 1. It is the max of all ints ≤ x.
• For any real number x, the ceiling of x, written x, is the
unique integer n such that n – 1 < x ≤ n. What is n?
• If x is an integer, what are x and x + 1/2?
• Is x + y = x + y?
• For all real numbers x and all integers m, x + m = x + m
• For any integer n, n/2 is n/2 for even n and (n–1)/2 for odd n
• For positive integers n and d, n = d * q + r, where d = n / d
and r = n – d * n / d with 0 ≤ r < d
 Exercises
• Is it true that for all real numbers x and y:
– x – y = x - y
– x – 1 = x - 1
– x + y = x + y
– x + 1 = x + 1
• Show that for all real x,  x/2 /2 = x/4
 Contradiction
• Proof by contradiction
– Suppose the statement to be proved is false
– Show that this supposition leads logically to a
contradiction
– Conclude that the statement to be proved is true
• The sum of any rational number and any
irrational number is irrational
 Contraposition
• Proof by contraposition
– Prepare the statement in the form: ∀x ∈ D, P(x) à
Q(x)
– Rewrite this statement in the form: ∀x ∈ D, ~Q(x) à
~P(x)
– Prove the contrapositive by a direct proof
• For any integer, if n2 is even then n is even
• Close relationship between proofs by
contradiction and contraposition
 Exercise
• Show that for integers n, if n2 is odd then n is odd
• Show that for all integers n and all prime numbers p, if n2
is divisible by p, then n is divisible by p
• For all integers m and n, if m+n is even then m and n are
both even or m and n are both odd
• The product of any non-zero rational number and any
irrational number is irrational
• If a, b, and c are integers and a2+b2=c2, must at least one of
a and b be even?
• Can you find two irrational numbers so that one raised to
the power of another would produce a rational number?
 Classic Number Theory Results
• Square root of 2 is irrational
• For any integer a and any integer k > 1,
if k | a, then k does not divide (a + 1)
• The set of prime numbers is infinite
 Exercises
• Show that
– a square of 3 is irrational
– for any integer a, 4 does not divide (a2 – 2)
– if n is not a perfect square then its square is irrational
– √2 + √3 is irrational
– log2(3) is irrational
– every integer greater than 11 is a sum of two composite numbers
– if p1, p 2, …, pn are distinct prime numbers with p1 = 2, then
p1p2…pn + 1 has remainder 3 when divided by 4
– for all integers n, if n > 2, then there exists prime number p, such
that n < p < n!
 Algorithms
• Algorithm is step-by-step method for
performing some action
• Cost of statements execution
– Simple statements
– Conditional statements
– Iterative statements
 Division Algorithm
• Input: integers a and d
• Output: quotient q and remainder r
• Body:
r = a; q = 0;
while (r >= d)
r = r – d;
q = q + 1;
end while
 Greatest Common Divisor
• The greatest common divisor of two
integers a and b is another integer d with the
following two properties:
– d | a and d | b
– if c | a and c | b, then c ≤ d
• Lemma 1: gcd(r, 0) = r
• Lemma 2: if a = b * q + r, then gcd(a, b) =
gcd(b, r)
 Euclidean Algorithm
• Input: integers a and b
• Output: greatest common divisor gcd
• Body:
r = b;
while (b > 0)
r = a mod b;
a = b;
b = r;
end while
gcd = a;
 Exercise
• Least common multiple: lcm
• Prove that for all positive integers a and b,
gcd(a, b) = lcm(a, b) iff a = b