THEOLOGICAL

WORDBOOK
OFTHE
OLD TESTAMENT
Volume 1
R. Laird Harris, Editor

Gleason L. Archer, Jr., Associate Editor

Bruce K. Waltke, Associate Editor

MOODY PRESS
CHICAGO
 © 1980 by
THE MOODY BIBLE INSTITUTE
OF CHICAGO

7 Printing/ RM / Year 88 87

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be repro-

duced in any form without permission in writing from the
publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied
in critical articles or reviews.

Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament

Includes bibliographies and index.

1. Bible. O.T.-Dictionaries-Hebrew. 2. Bible.
O.T.-Theology-Dictionaries. I. Harris, Robert Laird.
II. Archer, Gleason Leonard, 1916- III. Waltke,
Bruce K.
BS440.T49 221.4'4'0321 80-28047
ISBN 0-8024-8631-2 (set)

Printed in the United States of America

 INTRODUCTION
The value of books for theological word study of the Old and New Testaments has long
been reco'gnized. W. E. Vine's word studies are well-known in the New Testament field. The
major work, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, is now being matched by an
extensive Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, which will run into many volumes.
Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament follows in this tradition, but approaches the
matter from a practical and less exhaustive viewpoint than the major studies. The busy pastor
or earnest Christian worker who has neither the time nor background for detailed technical
study should yet have a tool for the study of the significant theological words of the Hebrew
Bible. The editors and Moody Press are of the conviction that essential to the right under-
standing ofthe theological terms ofthe Old Testament is a belief in the Bible's truth. Spiritual
things are "spiritually discerned" (1 Cor 2: 14). Therefore, about thirteen years ago, they
enlisted the help of some forty evangelical scholars who would write essay definitions of the
important theological terms in the Old Testament that would be helpful to their brothers in the
work of interpreting Scripture.
Word study does not lead to a tc;italunderstanding of the Old Testament text-or any text.
Words must always be taken in context. They have an area of meaning, thus 'ämar may
sometimes mean "speak," sometimes "command." Thus, it overlaps with däbar on the one
band and ·.räwaon the other. Also, the etymologies of words are not always determinative of
meanings, In English we use words every day that are of pagan origin but no longer bear any
such connotation. We derive the names of our months from Roman deities and our weekdays
from the Norse mythologies, but we believe in neither. The Hebrews also did not invent their
language. lt was used in Canaan before the Conquest. Therefore, some Hebrew wörds may be
of Canaanite .origin, which is not to suggest that the Hebrews used them with the original
Canaanite connotation. Biblical usage is therefore the best criterion ofthe meaning of a word,
and to that end our authors have depended heavily on their concordances. But usage is often
limited, and all the evidence available was evaluated, we think judiciously. There will be
dµferences of opinion among our readers as to some of the conclusions here presented. Such
differences will arise in part from different viewpoints brought to bear on the subject. Obvi-
ously these studies are neither complete nor final, but the editors and authQrs believe that the
definitions given can be well defended. We hope that the work may result in the edification of
the church of Christ through the assistance it may give to her ministers and His servants.
Often it was not easy to decide which words would be defined, and of those, which ones
would receive lengthy discussion. In many cases, thedecisions made couldbe questioned. Partly
because of this and partly because of the convenience of having all the Old Testament words
at least touched upon in one reference book, it was decided ·to include also the vocables not
chosen for essay treatment and give them one-line definitions-usually following the lead of
the long-time standard, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, by Francis
Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs.
lt was decided not to include the Old Testament names, except for a few of special theolog-
ical import, like Abraham, Jerusalem, Jordan, and so on. For the principles ofname formation
in the Hebrew world, one may consult the work of Dr. Allan A. MacRae, "The Semitic Names
in the Nuzi Tablets," in Nuzi Personal Names, ed. l. J. Gelb, University ofChicago, 1943.
The bibliographies following many ofthe articles were supplied largely by the contributors,
but the editors also attempted to supplement their material. Dr. Tom Finch, a recent graduate
of Dallas Theological Seminary, combed leading theological journals of the past thirty years,
especially those in English, for articles bearing on the meaning of the words under discussion.

lll
INTRODUCTION
The editors then checked those articles as to their applicability. Other sources have often
been noted, such as the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (which has an index of
Hebrew words discussed) and the Theologisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament . .The
Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament was not largely available.
The listing is arranged according to the consonants of the Hebrew alphabet (see "Sugges-
tions for Use" for details). The Wordbook collects related words and defines nouns, adjec-
tives, and so on, together with the root from which they are derived. Grouping together
related words has the advantage of convenience and economy. lt perhaps has a disadvantage
of overemphasizing etymology above usage. lt has a further disadvantage in that nouns with
prefixes appear out of their alphabetical order. To obviate this problem, any word whose
spelling differs from that of its root is listed in the proper alphabetical sequence with a
numerical cross reference to the root. (Again, for details see "Suggestions for U se. ")
In Hebrew, as is weil known, most of the roots are verbs, and they are built on a tri-
consonantal pattern. With only twenty-two consonants, a system of tri-consonantal roots is
somewhat limited. The Hebrew vocabulary was far less than the rieb English vocabulary of
around 750,000 words. And the biblical vocabulary is only a percentage-an unknown
percentage-ofthe words in use in the living language. Even so, some combinations ofletters
form one, tw.o, or even more roots using the same consonants. These roots are marked as I,
II, III, and so forth. Actually, the various authorities sometimes differ as to whether one root
has two somewhat divergent meanings or whether two separate roots are involved. In such
cases, the writers usually discuss the question.
The value of the Wordbook is largely due to the faithful work ofthe forty-six contributors
who agreed to study the words assigned them and compress their study into the allowed
format. Their articles are signed.
The contributors were asked to study their words from the viewpoint of biblical usage,
etymological background, comparison with cognate languages, translations in the ancient
versions, synonyms, antonyms, and theological significance. Also, they were to consider the
use of their words in passages of special difficulty. Naturally, not all of those items were
applicable to every word. And the writers feit the pressure of fitting their study into the
narrow limitations of a two-volume book of this nature. Many things they would have liked to
include could not be worked in.
lt should be explained that although • the contributors held the same high view of the
truthfulness. of the Bible and the reliability of its text, they were of different denominational
and exegetical traditions. The editors in general have allowed the writers to speak for them-
selves. Some variations in treatment may therefore be expected. For instance, some use the
name "Yahweh" for lsrael's God, some the word "Lord," some "Jehovah." (This matter is
discussed under the possible root of the name, häya.) In a number of cases where a writer
gave only one opinion on a particular question, the editors for the sake of completeness
mentioned a different view. In cases of significance, these additions were submitted to the
contributors and approved. In less significant cases, the editors themselves added such
additional material, believing that it did not violate the integrity of the author. If in any such
case, time and circumstances prevented conference and the authors' views have not been
fairly represented, the editors can only express sincere regret and hope that no harm has been
done. In some cases when helpful additional material, perhaps speculative, or other views
were available, the editors have added bracketed material with their own initials.
All the articles were read by the editor. Also, the two associate editors each read about half
of the articles. So all were double-checked. Final responsibility for what may be amiss rests
with the editor.
The work has taken much longer than expected. Selecting authors and encouraging them to
meet deadlines was a long process. A number of the authors, as weil as the editors, were

IV
 INTRODUCTION
heavily involved in the translation of the New International Version and gave it priority. But
the contributors were careful and faithful, and the material in time became voluminous. We
are jndebted to Chrisona Peterson (now Mrs. Julian Schmidt), our copy editor, for her very
extensive work in editing, styling, alphabetizing, cutting, pasting (ad infinitum), and
proofreading. Dr. Tom Finch has already been mentioned in connection with bis work on the
bibliographies. Two students at Covenant Seminary, Jeffrey Weir and Ken Wolf, worked on
the Index of Correspondence, between the numbers of the Wordbook and those of Strong's
Concordance, found at the back ofthe book. Moody Press and its representatives, first David
R. Douglass. then William G. Crider, were most helpful and supportive at every turn. Finally,
hearty thanks are due to the Xerox machine and the process of computer tape printing, which
greatly assists in producing a book of complicated typography and considerable extent like
this one.
With gratitude to the Lord for the completion of this work, we pray for His blessing upon it
(Psalm 90: 17).

R. Laird Harris
Gleason J. Archer, Jr.
Bruce K. Waltke

V
 CONTRIBUTORS
Entries are made in order of authors' last names.

R.L.A. ALOEN, Robert, L., Ph.D., Profes- J.E.H. HARTLEY, John E., Ph.D.,
sor of Old Testament, Conservative Chairperson, Division of Philoso-
Baptist Theological Seminary, Den- phy and Religion, Azusa Pacific
ver, Colorado College, Azusa, Califomia
R.H.A. ALEXANDER, Ralph H., Th.D., C.D.I. ISBELL, Charles D., Ph.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Lan- Former Associate Professor of Old
guage and Exegesis, Western Con- Testament, Nazarene Theological
servative Baptist Seminary, Port- Seminary, Kansas City, Missouri
land, Oregon W.C.K. KAISER, Walter C., Ph.D., Dean
R.B.A. ALLEN, Ronald B., Th.D., Pro- and Chairman of the Old Testament
fessor of Old Testament Language and Semitic Languages, Trinity
and Exegesis, Western Conserva- Evangelical Divinity School, Deer-
tive Baptist Seminary, Portland, field, Illinois
Oregon E.S.K. KALLAND, Earl S., Th.D., D.D.,
G.L.A. ARCHER, Gleason L., Ph.D., Pro- Professor Emeritus of Old Testa-
fessor of Old Testament and Semi- ment and Former Dean of Conser-
tic Languages, Trinity Evangelical vative Baptist Seminary, Den ver,
Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois Colorado
H.J.A. AUSTEL, Hermann J., Ph.D., J.P.L. LEWIS, Jack P., Ph.D., Professor
Dean, North West Baptist Semi- of Bible, Harding Graduate School
nary, Tacoma, Washington of Religion, Memphis, Tennessee
A.B. BOWLING, Andrew, Ph.D., As-
sociate Professor of Bible and Reli- G.H.L. LIVINGSTON, G. Herbert, Ph.D.,
gion, John Brown University, Professor of Old Testament, As-
Siloam Springs, Arkansas bury Theological Seminary, Wil-
G.L.C. CARR, G. Lloyd, Ph. D., Professor more, Kentucky
of Bible and Theological Studies, T.E.M. MCCOMISKEY, Thomas E.,
Gordon College, Wenham, Mass- Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament
achusetts and Semitic Languages, Trinity
G.G.C. COHEN, Gary G., Th.D., Presi- Evangelical Divinity School, Deer-
dent, Clearwater Christian College, field, lllinois
Clearwater, Florida ·A.A.M. MACRAE, Allan A., Ph.D., Presi-
W.B.C. COKER, William B., Ph.D., As- dent and Professor of Old Testa-
sociate Professor of Bible, Asbury ment, Biblical School of Theology,
College, Wilmore, Kentucky Hatfield, Pennsylvania
L.J.C. COPPES, Leonard J., Th.D., Pas- E.A.M. MARTENS, Eimer A., Ph.D.,
tor, Harrisville, Pennsylvania President and Professor of Old Tes-
R.D.C. CULVER, Robert D., Th.D., Pro- tament, Biblical Seminary, Fresno,
fessor of Old Testament and He- California
brew, Winnipeg Theological Semi- J.N.O. OSWALT, John N., Ph.D., As-
nary, Otterburne, Manitoba, sociate Professor of Biblical Lan-
Canada guages and Literature, Asbury
C.L.F. FEINBERG, Charles L., Th.D., Theological Seminary, Wilmore,
Ph.D., Former Dean and Professor Kentucky
Emeritus of Semitics and Old Tes- R.D.P. PATTERSON, R. D., Ph.D., Pro-
tament, Talbot Theological Semi- fessor of Old Testament, Grand
nary, La Mirada, California Rapids Baptist Seminary, Grand
M.C.F. FISHER, Milton C., Ph.D., Presi- Rapids, Michigan .
dent and Professor of Old Testa- J.B.P. PAYNE, J. Barton, Ph.D., Late
ment, Reformed Episcopal Semi- Professor of Old Testament, Cov-
nary, Upper Darby, Pennsylvania. enant Theological Seminary, St.
P.R.G. GILCHRIST, Paul R., Ph.D., Pro- Louis, Missouri
fessor of Biblical Studies, Covenant C.R. ROGERS, Cleon, Th.D., Director,
College, Lookout Mountain, Ten- Freie Theologische Akademie,
nessee Seeheim, West Germany
L.G. GOLDBERG, Louis, Th.D., Pro- i.B.S. SCOTT, Jack, B., Ph.D., Former
fessor of Theology and Jewish Professor of Old Testament, Re-
Studies, Moody Bible Institute, formed Theological Seminary, Jack-
Chicago, 1llinois son, Mississippi
V.P.H. HAMILTON, Victor P., Ph.D.,
Chairman of Division of Philosophy c.s. SCHULTZ, Carl, Ph.D., Professor
and Religion, Asbury College, of Old Testament, Houghton Col-
Wilmore, Kentucky lege, Houghton, New York
R.L.H. HARRIS, R. Laird, Ph.D., Profes- E.B.S. SMICK, Eimer B., Ph.D., Profes-
sor of Old Testament, Covenant sor of Old Testament, Gordon-
Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Conwell Theological Seminary,
Missouri South Hamilton, Massachusetts

vii
CONTRIBUTORS
J.E.S. SMITH, James E., Th.D., D.J.W. WISEMAN, Donald J., D. Lit.,
Academic Dean and Professor of Professor of Assyriology, School of
Old Testament, Central Florida Oriental and African Studies, Lon-
Bible College, Orlando, Florida don, England
H.G.S. STIGERS, Harold G., Ph.D., L.W. WALKER, Larry, Ph.D., Profes-
Former Professor, Author, and sor of Old Testament and Hebrew,
Lecturer, Glendale, Missouri Mid-America Baptist Seminary,
G.V.G. VAN GRONINGEN, Gerard, Memphis, Tennessee
Ph.D., President, Trinity Christian H.W. WOLF, Herbert, Ph.D., Associate
College, Palos Heights, Illinois Professor of Old Testament,
B.K.W. WALTKE, Bruce K., Th.D., Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois
Ph.D., Professor ofüld Testament, L.J.W. WOOD, Leon J., Ph.D., Late Pro-
Regents College, Vancouver, fessor of Old Testament, Grand
British Columbia, Canada Rapids Bible Seminary, Grand
Rapids, Michigan
C.P.W. WEBER, Carl Philip, Ph.D., E.Y. YAMAUCHI, Edwin, Ph.D., Pro-
Teacher, Letcher High School, fessor and Director of Graduate
Whitesburg, Kentucky Studies, History Department,
w.w. WHITE, William, Ph.D., Specialist Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
in Biblical Languages, Warrington, R.F.Y. YOUNGBLOOD, Ronald F.,
Pennsylvania Ph.D., Associate Dean of Graduale
M.R.W. WILSON, Marvin R., Ph.D., Pro- School and Professor of Old Testa-
fessor of Biblical Studies, Gordon ment, Wheaton College, Wheaton,
College, Wenham, Massachusetts Illinois

viii
 SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
The Wordbook is essentially a Hebrew lexicon and can be used like any other Hebrew lexi-
con. However, it has certain special features which are designed to facilitate its use, especially
for those Jess at home in the Hebrew language. lt is primarily intended tobe a ready tool for the
pastor and the serious student, who want to study carefully and understand more fully the
sacred text.

Transliteration of the Hebrew Letters

One feature of the Wordbook is its use of transliteration of the Hebrew into English letters.
This is not only in line with the practice in Ugaritic and Akkadian studies, but will doubtless be
of assistance to the non-specialist to whom the Hebrew characters are unfamiliar. The system
of transliteration used does not claim to be final or scientific; it is practical. Actually, there is
not füll agreement on early Hebrew pronunciation, the length and quality ofits vowels, etc. But
this system aims to give an English equivalent for every consonant; its vowel notation, too, gives
a one-to-one equivalence which will allow the Hebrew to be fully reproduced from any trans-
literated form.
As is well known, only the consonants were written in early Hebrew and, in general, the con-
sonants are of more importance in carrying the meaning of a Hebrew word while the vowels
are more significant in marking the form. There are twenty-two consonants (twehty-three if Sin
and Shin are distinguished) and most of these have a parallel in the English alphabet. The Hebrew
letters Zayin, Lamed, Mem, Nun, Samekh, Qoph, Resh and Shin are easily represented as the
English letters z, 1, m, n, s, q, r, and sh. See the transliteration table.
There are six Hebrew consonants whose pronunciation may be "hard" or "soft." These are
the so-called Beghadh-Kephath letters, b, g, d, k, p, t: the Hebrew letters Beth, Gimel, Daleth,
Kaph, Pe and Taw. When written with a hardening dot in the middle, these letters are pronounced
like their English equivalents. Ifthere is a vowel sound before them (and ifthey are not doubled)
they are pronounced differently, but mean exactly the same thing (i.e. they differ phonetically,
but not phonemically). Technically speaking, these six letters are stops, but they receive a frica-
tive pronunciation, i.e. the point of articulation is not entirely closed, if a vowel sound precedes
them. This variant pronunciation may be represented approximately as b/v, g/gh, d/th (as th in
"that"), k/kh, p/f, and t/th (as th in "thin"). Some systems oftransliteration represent this varia-
tion ofthese six stops. But since it makes no difference at all in the meaning ofthe words, it has
beenjudged better to represent all these letters always by their sound as stops-the "hard" pro-
nunciation. So Beth is always b; Gimel, g; Daleth, d; Kaph, k; Pe, p; and Taw, t. (In some sys-
tems of transliteration the soft pronunciation is represented thus: bh, gh, dh, kh, ph, th; in others
it is t,, g, ~. 15.,p, and t.)
Two consonants are called emphatics. Their ancient pronunciation is difficult to determine
accurately, but the Teth is some kind of a "t" and the Tsadhe some kind of an "s." They are
represented as ~ and t respectively. (In some systems of transliteration the Tsadhe is written

Three more consonants have no equivalent in English. They are guttural sounds made in the
Jarynx. They are usually represented thus: 'Aleph by an apostrophe ('), and 'Ayin by a reverse
apostrophe ('), and Heth by a p. There is another kind of "h" used in Ugaritic, Arabic and
Akkadian, not in Hebrew, which is made with the tongue not quite against the roof of the mouth
(technically a voiceless palatal fricative). This is represented, when it occurs, by lJ.

ix
SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
A second "s" apparently was pronounced exactly like Samekh, "s," though it looks like Shin
(having a dot over the left upper corner instead of the right). To distinguish this letter Sin from
the Samekh we use an acute accent over the Sin, thus: s.
The remaining three consonants He, Waw, and Yodh are sometimes pronounced and some-
times silent, being used in conjunction with vowels. When they are pronounced, their pronuncia-
tion is like that of their English equivalents, He, h; Waw, w; and Yodh, y. In some systems of
transliteration the Waw is called Vav and pronounced "v" because ofpast German influence on
Hebrew studies. If, however, these letters are used as vowels, the long vowel resulting is always
(and only then) marked with a circumtlex accent ·. Examples will be given below.
All double consonants (those marked in Hebrew by a doubling dot in the middle of the letter)
are simply written twice in the transliteration.
The consonantal transliterations may be listed as follows:

'Aleph N
Beth :l or :.i b
Gimel J or ZI g
Daleth , or '!! d
He (pronounced hay)
Waw ,
l"'Ior l!! (final consonantal l"'I) h
w
Zayin T z
Heth (or J;Iet) n 9
Teth tQ t
Yodh (or Yod) ' y
Kaph ::, %1or '!! k
Lamedh ', l
Mem ~ or Cl m
Nun (pronounced noon) J ori n
Samekh Cl s
Ayin l)
Pe (pronounced pay) l:l S or t') p
Tsadhe l or f ~
Qoph (English q, but not qu)
Resh ,
i' q
r
Sin (pronounced seen) iv s
Shin (pronounced sheen) ~ sh
Taw r, or I'\ t

There are thirteen füll vowels in Hebrew and four half-vowels. Another sign, which marks the
end of a syllable (the silent shewa) has no sound and is not marked in the present system. The
transliterations of these vowels and also their pronunciation following the letter "m" are as
follows:

Pathah a r,, ma as in man

Qame~ ä ~ mä as in ma
Final Qame~ with vocalic He l"'I T
ä l"'I~ mä as in ma
Hiriq ~ mi as in pin
Hiriq with Yodh '~ mi as ee in seen
Seghol e ~ me as in met
Sere e ~ me as ay in may
Sere with Y odh ' e '~ me as ay in may

X
 SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
Qamei,-Hatuph (in closed syllable) 0 mo as au in naught
Holem ö mö as in mole
· Holem with Waw ö mö in mole
Qibbu~ (short in closed syllable) ü mü oo in nook
Shureq (always with Waw) 0 mO as oo in fool

Various other combinations of voweis and silent consonants are self-explanatory:

Qame~ with final consonantal He r-i. äh l'!~ mäh

Qamei, with final vocalic 'Aleph M T
ä' M~ mä'
Sere with final vocalic He M„ eh :,~ meh
Seghol with final vocalic He eh :,~ meh
"···
The half-vowels are all pronounced virtually alike-like "o" in Democrat:

Shewa e 7? me
Hateph-pathah ä ~ mä
Hateph-seghol e ~ me
Hateph-qames ö ~ mö

A few examples of transliterated words are: ,;, däbar, ,;;, döber, M?~,döb"ra, ,~:), däbur,
,;j7? medabber, .,,,~ 'adübbar.
For those less familiar with the use of Hebrew in transcription, a little attention to the
above tables will make the visualization of the equivalent Hebrew letters easy. For those less
familiar with the Hebrew characters, the use of transcription will make the word studies fully
usable.
lt may here be added that the transliteration is the same for Aramaic and similar for Arabic,
Ugaritic, and Akkadian. In Ugaritic and Arabic there are a few extra consonants: Ha, lJfor
another kind of palatal "h" already mentioned; Ghain, gor g for another kind of 'Ayin; g and ~
for other kinds of "d"; '? for another emphatic sibilant; and !! often used for "sh." The system
found in L.H. Gray, Introduction to Semitic Comparative Linguistics (Columbia Univ., 1934)
is followed.
The asterisk preceding a verbal root indicates that although this root is quoted in the Qal form,
it only appears in the derived stems, Piel, Hiphil, etc.
The dagger before a word indicates that this word is specifically treated in the discussions of
meaning below.

Finding Words in the Lexicon

In the standard Hebrew lexicon, Brown, Driver and Briggs (BDB) printed in 1905, the words
are arranged under the roots from which they are derived. Thus for mizbealJ "altar," one must
look under the verb zäba/J, "to sacrifice." In the more recent lexicons, like Koehler and Baum-
gartner, the words are arranged alphabetically. So the word mizbealJ is found under "m." In the
Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, the advantages of both of these systems appear.
The words, indeed, are arranged under the roots; the verbal root and the derived words are dis-
cussed together. But all the derivatives are also listed in their proper alphabetical position with a
convenient numerical cross reference to lead the user to the root verb where, if it is theologically
important, a discussion of the meaning of the root verb and all its derivatives will be found.

XI
SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
An effort has been made to !ist alphabetically all the derivatives whose consonants differ from
those of the verbal root even if their proper alphabetical position is close to the root itself. The
exception to this practice is the treatment of feminine forms of masculine nouns, which end in
"ä." These are given as derivatives in their proper place under their root verb, but they are not
usually cross referenced if there is a corresponding masculine form. Thus, "li.:t~(mägor) from
"l~JI(gur), no. 332, will be found under ~ "m" and will have a cross reference, no. 332a under
gür no. 332. But the feminine form :i,i.:i~ (m•gora) does not have a cross reference. lt will be
found by looking for "li.:t~(mägor) no. 332a which refers to the root no. 332 under which both
the masculine and feminine nouns appear. Nouns with consonants identical to the verb are not
cross referenced.
In the alphabetical arrangement, the vowels are completely disregarded, except that the vowel
letters He, Waw, and Yodh are treated as consonants. For instance, :i,~ is followed by ~,~
then r:r~,~ then iii~ l)~i~ :i,~,~:ir".I~and :i;~-;n;
Note that in the transcription, the letters with circumtlex always include the Hebrew vowel
letters, He:,, Waw ,, or Yodh' and these letters are considered in the alphabetization; but the
vowels without vowel letters are not considered. The doubling of letters also is not considered
in the alphabetic arrangement. Of course, the order of the Hebrew alphabet as given above in
the transliteration chart is the one followed.
In Hebrew there is considerable freedom in writing the Holem with Waw (full writing) or
without Waw (defective writing). The same applies to the Hiriq with or without the Yodh. In
most cases, both forms are given and are alphabetized accordingly in two different places.
Sometimes, however, if the variant spelling is quite minor it may have been overlooked. So if,

,n
for instance, "liM ~or is not found under Heth, Waw and Yodh, it would be advisable to look under
~ör where it does appear. Remember always that to find a word in the Hebrew alphabetiza-
tion that has been transcribed into English, it is necessary to consider only the consonants, but
this includes the vowel letters which are indicated by the circumtlex. Thus, megora, mentioned
above, would be alphabetized under Mem "m," Gimel "g," Waw "w," Resh "r," and He "h."
In cases where there is a difference in the Hebrew text between the written consonants (the
Kethib) and the vowels attached (the Qere), both forms are not always noted, but an effort has
been made to list one or the other reading.
All of the biblical Hebrew vocables are included in the Wordbook. Those judged for one reason
or another tobe oftheological significance are given essay-type definitions. The rest, on which
there is no special disagreement or theological question, are given one-line definitions, usually
following BDB. Proper names of people or places are not included except in cases like Abraham,
Jerusalem, Jordan where there is special theological interest. lt is not, perhaps, necessary to
apologize for the brevity of the definitions. Scholars who wish to do extensive research on indi-
vidual words will want to look elsewhere, and the bibliographies usually appended should give
some assistance. But the Wordbook is already large enough to fulfill its purpose-to help the
serious Bible student and pastor in bis work of interpreting the Word of God. Valuable material
for further study of Hebrew words may be found in Kittel's Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament and Colin Brown's New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Both
of these works have indexes to the Hebrew words treated at various places.
In order to make the material in the Wordbook more accessible, there is a numerical index
at the back which correlates the numbers of the Hebrew words as given in Strong' s Exhaustive
Concordance of the Bible with the numbers of the roots and derivatives as given in the-Word-
book. If a word is being studied in any verse of the Old Testament, that word can easily be found
in Strong and its Hebrew number noted. Then one may enter the index at the back of the Word-
book and fintl the number used in the Wordbook listing and easily turn to it. For further details,
consult the heading of the Index. The Strong numbers of names are normally omitted, but the

XII
 SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
Strong entries marked "Chaldee" (i.e. Aramaic) are listed. They all are found in the Aramaic
section in the back of the Wordbook.
In a work of this nature perfection is unattainable. The comparison with Strong even brought
to light misprints remaining after years ofuse and many reprintings. Butan effort has been made
to proofread the Wordbook carefully. As errors and omissions are brought to our attention they
will be corrected in future printings.

xiii
 ABBREVIATIONS
General Abbreviations

adj. adjective inf. infinitive

adv. adverb inf.abs. infinitive absolute
Akk. Akkadian inf. const. infinitive construct
Aram. Aramaic MS, MSS manuscript (s)
BA Biblical Aramaic masc. masculine
c. circa (about) op.cit. opus citandum (previously cited)
cf. confer (compare) part. participle
chap. chapter pf. perfect
fern. feminine pi. plural
Gr. Greek q.v. quod vide (which see)
Heb. Hebrew sing. singular
impf. imperfect Ug. Ugaritic
impv. imperative V., VV. verse (s)

Books of the Bible

Old Testament lsa Acts

Gen Jer Rom
Ex Lam I Cor
Lev Ezk II Cor
Num Dan Gai
Deut Hos Eph
Josh Joel Phil
Jud Arnos Col
Ruth Ot, I Thess
I Sam Jon II Thess
II Sam Mic I Tim
I Kgs Nah II Tim
II Kgs Hab Tit
I Chr Zeph Phm
II Chr Hag Heb
Ezr Zech Jas
Neh Mal I Pet
Est II Pet
Job New Testament I Jn
Ps Mt II Jn
Prov Mk . III Jn
Eccl Lk Jude
Song Jn Rev

Books and Journals

AB Anchor Bible (cited by author and AOOT K. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and the
book) Old Testament, 1966
AI Roland deVaux, Ancient Israel: Its ASV American Standard Version of the
Life and lnstitutions, trans. 1961 Bible
AV Authorized (King James) Version of
AisWUS J. Aistleitner, Wörterbuch der ugari- the Bible
tischen Sprache, 4th ed., 1974 BA Biblical Archaeologist
ANET Ancient Near Eastern .Texts, ed. J. BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of
Pritchard, 3d rev. ed. 1969 Oriental Research

XV
ABB RE VIA TIONS

BDB Brown, Driver, Briggs, A Hebrew-Eng- JTOT E. Jacob, Theology of the Old Testa-
lish Lexicon of the Old Testament, ment, 1958
1905 KAI H. Donner and W. Rollig, Kanaan-
BETS Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological äische u. aramäische Inschriften, I,
Society (later the Journal) II, III 19&µi6
Bib Biblica KB L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Lex-
BL H. Bauer and H. Leander, Historische icon in Veteris Testamenti Libros,
Grammatik der hebräischen Sprache 2d ed., Eng.-Ger., 1958
des A. T., 1922 KD K. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Commentary
BS Bibliotheca Sacra on the Old Testament
BWANT Beiträge zum Wissenschaft vom Alten KJV King James Version of the Bible
und Neuen Testament LAP J. Finegan, Light Jrom the Ancient
CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Orien- Past, rev. ed., 1959
tal Institute of the Univ. of Chicago, Lis G. Lisowsky, Koncordanz zum heb-
1956ff. räischen Alten Testament, 2d ed.,
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly 1958
DBT Dictionary of Biblical Theology, ed. X. LXX The Septuagint Version ofthe Old Tes-
L. duFour, 1967 tament in Greek
DSS Dead Sea Scrolls Moscati S. Moscati, An Introduction to the
DTOT A. B. Davidson, Theology of the Old Comparative Grammar of the Semi-
Testament, 1904 tic Languages, 1964
EQ Evangelical Quarterly MT The ·Masoretic Text of the Hebrew
ETOT W. Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Tes- Bible
tament, I, II, trans. 1965 NASB New American Standard Version of
Exp The Expositor the Bible
ExpT The Expository Times NBC New Bible Commentary, 2d ed., ed. F.
FSAC W. Albright, From the Stone Age to Davidson, A. Stibbs, E. Kevan,
Christianity, rev. ed. 1957 1954
GB W. Gesenius, F. Buhl, Hebräisches NBD New Bible Dictionary, ed. J. Douglas,
und aramäisches Handwörterbuch, 1962
17th ed. 1915 NEB New English Bible
GKC W. Gesenius, E. Kautzsch, A. Cow- NIV New International Version of the Bible
ley, Hebrew Grammar, 2d English NTS New Testament Studies
ed., 1910 Or Orientalia
HCHL W. Holladay, Concise Hebrew and OTOT G. Oehler, Theology of the Old Testa-
Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testa- ment, rev. trans. G. E. Day, 1883,
ment, 1971 repr. Zondervan
HDB Hastings Dictionary of the Bible, 1911 OTS Old Testament Studies
HIOT R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly
Old Testament, 1969 PTOT J. B. Payne, Theology of the Older
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual Testament, 1962
1B Interpreter's Bible PTR Princeton Theological Review
ICC International Critical Commentary RB Revue Biblique
(cited by author and book) RSP L. Fisher, Ras Shamra Parallels, I, II,
IDB Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, 1972-75
ed. G. Buttrick, 1962 RSV Revised Standard Version of the Bible
IEJ RTWB A. Richardson, Theological Word
Israel Exploration Journal
ISBE Book of the Bible, 1950
International Standard Bible Encyclo-
SJT Scottish Journal of Theology
pedia, ed. J. Orr, 1929
SOT R. Girdlestone, Synonyms of the Old
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental So- Testament, their Bearing on Chris-
ciety
tian Doctrine, 1897, repr. Eerdmans
JBL Journal of the Society of Biblical Lit- SOTI G. Archer, Survey of Old T~stament
erature and Exegesis Introduction, 2d ed., 1974
JBR Journal of Bible and Religion TDOT H. Botterweck and H. Ringren,
JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Theological Dictionary of the 0. T.,
Society (formerly Bulletin) 1-III, 1974ff.
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies THAT E. Jenni u. C. Westermann, Theologi-
JQR Jewish Quarterly Review sches Handbuch zum Alten Testa-
JSS Journal of Semitic Studies ment

XVI
 ABB RE VIA TIONS

ThT Theology Today WBC Wycliffe Bible Commentary, ed. C.

TOT Theology of the Old Testament (author Pfeiffer and E. Harrison, 1962
specified for different titles) WBE Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, ed. C.
TS Theological Studies Pfeiffer, H. Vos, J. Rea, 1975
UT C. H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook, 1965 WJT Westminster Theological Journal
(Grammar cited by chapter and sec- YBis E. J. Young, The Book of /saiah, vols.
tion; texts cited by chap (16) and I, II, III, 1965-72.
no. of line. Glossary cited by chap
(19) and no. of word) YGC W. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of
Vos,BT G. Vos, Biblical Theology, 1948 Canaan, 1968
vRTOT G. von Rad, Theology of the Old Tes- ZAW Zeitschrift für alttestamentliche Wis-
tament, Eng. ed. I, II, 1962--65 senschaft
vS.AkkH W. vonSoden, Akkadisches Handwör- Zor F. Zorrell and L. Semkowski, Lexicon
terbuch hebraicum et aramaicum V. T.,
VT Vetus Testamentum (Supplements, 1940ff.
Supp VT) ZPEB Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible,
Vulg The Vulgate version of the Bible in ed. M. Tenney, Zondervan, 1-V,
Latin 1975

XVII
 =t! ('ab). See no. 4a. death or also to etemal punishment. lt is not an
:1/1 ('eh). See no. la. easy question. Obviously the word usually refers
:·M ('öb ). See no. 37a. to some great 1oss, in most cases death. Esther·s
famous self-dedication. ··If I perish. I perish"'
::H ( "hb). Assumed root of the following. (4: 16), had her seif sacrificing death in view-
la :::il/'.I( "eh) freshness, fresh green. only that.
lb t:•:;it1 ("ähfh) barley. The verses that may look beyond the grave to
'äbib. Barley. This noun refers to barley that further affiiction for the wicked may be listed: Ps
is already ripe, but still soft. the grains of which 49: 10 [H 11J: cf. vv. 12. 20 [H 13. 21 ]): 73:27 (cf.
are eaten either rubbed or roasted (KB). The ASV vv. 18. 19): 83:17 [H 18]: Prov 10:28: 11:7 (cf.
and RSVagree (but see Lev 2: 14). The seventh 24:20): and Ezk 28:16. These verses, like many
plague brought ruinous hail upon Egypt's barley others, can be interpreted to refer only to death
crop at least two weeks before it was fully of the body. But they are in a context of consid-
ripened and ready for harvest ( Ex 9:31 ). Abib eration of the hereafter. One · s conclusion will
was also the early name (later. Nisan) of the first doubtless be influenced by general considera-
month of the Jewish calendar (the month of tions. If the oT "has no belief in any life beyond
Passover). In that month the barley came to ear. the grave worthy of the name, · · as N. Snaith says
but the usual time of harvest was the second (DIOT, p. 89), then these verses will not be
month (Iyyar). According to Lev 2: 14 the grain pressed to speak of etemal destruction of the
offering was to consist of the firstfruits of "ähih. wicked. But if immortality is found repeatedly in
This root occurs ten times. Ps, Prov, etc. as M. Dahood argues, then they
Bibliography: Smick. E. 8., ··calendar ... in may (See Psalms, III. in AB, pp. xli-lii and
WBE. Smick, E. B„ in Bibliography).
L.J.C. Psalms 49 and 73 are frequently cited as refer-
ring to a future life. Psalm 49:15 [H 16] uses the
significant phrase „ he will take me, .. the verb
2 i;~ ( "abad) perish, be destroyed; Piel and used for Elijah's translation to heaven and also
Hiphil destroy. used in Ps 73:24, "take me to glory." lt is not
far-fetched therefore to think that terms like
Derivatives "perish," ('abad or diimii II q.v.), or "their
2a i;;H ( "öbed) destruction (Num 24:20, tombs their houses forever" or "decay in the
24 only). grave" (N1v) or "death will feed on them" may
2b :,i:M ('aheda) lost thing (e.g. Deut weil refer to everlasting destruction. Psalm 83: 17
•z:z':3: Ex 22:8). [H 181 is perhaps not as clear as the others, but
2c i'~"' ( 'abdän) destruction (Est 8:6: the emphasis on the total overthrow of the
9:5). wicked is impressive. Ezekiel 28: 16, if it refers as
2d tii"T;~ ( "ahaddbn) destruction, ruin, many think to Satan who inspired the prince of
Abaddon. Tyre, does not bear on the punishment of the
wicked, but on Satan himself. He who once
The verb 'äbad is a common word for to die,
walked in the holy mountain ofGod. in the midst
or, in the case ofthings, reputation, etc., to pass
of the stones of fire will be disgraced (}Jä/a/) and
away. (The cognates in Akkadian, Arabic, and
destroyed ( "iibad) and in the process removed
Ugaritic express similar ideas.) In the Pie! and
from (min) the mountain ofGod and the stones of
Hiphil it is used transitively in the sense of kill or
fire. lt sounds like etemal punishment.
break down (houses, idols, kingdoms). Egypt
was destroyed (Ex 10:7: KJV, NASB: "ruined," 'abaddön. Destruction, Abaddon. This word is
RSV,NIV) though Pharaoh would not admit it. transliterated in Rev 9: 11 and used as the Hebrew
Joshua wamed that if Israel sinned they would name ofthe devil, called in Greek Apollyon. This
soon perish from the land (Josh 23: 16). Jonah · s usage is not identical with the oT ·usage, but is an
gourd came up in a night and perished in a night interesting commentary on it. The word is used
(Jon 4: 10). The foolish and senseless people per- six times in the oT. Twice it is in parallel with
ish (Ps 49: 10 [H II]). The man without under- sh''b/ (q.v.), (Prov 15:11: 27:20) and once with
standing will perish like the beasts (Ps 49:20 [H qeber "'grave" (Ps 88: 11 [H 12]). The sixth time
21]). (Job 31: 12) the word stands alone. lt is obvious
Probably the main theological question about that the word refers to the destruction of the
this root is whether it refers merely to physical grave, but the contexts are not clear enough to

3
 3 :,;~ ( 'äbii)

prove that it refers to etemal destruction. The occurs with shäma ·. 8otterweck contrasts the
passages in Job and Prov are poetic personifica- two: "The difference seems to be that 'ähci de-
tions and do not clearly refer to sinners more than notes the first beginnings of a positive reaction,
to the righteous. Psalm 88 refers to the troubles of whereas shiima· indicates complete obedience"
the Psalmist and though it is highly poetic, can (TDOT. 1, p. 25).
hardly be referred to a place of torment. On such The idea of exercising the will is expressed
matters other passages must also be consulted when one is asked to acquiesce to another's re-
(e.g. Job 27:13-23; lsa 66:22-24). quest (e.g. in II Sam 13:25. David is not willing to
Bibliography: Heide!, A., "Death and the Af- go with Absalom). Another dimension is added in
terlife," in The Gi/!farnesh Epic, 2d ed„ Univ. cases where the will is exercisec'I against God's
of Chicago, 1949, pp. 137-223. Harris, R. L., law or command (Ex 10:27; II Sam 13:14). Fi-
Man-God's Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, nally, the refusal to comply may carry overtones
pp. 162-177. Smick, E. 8., "The 8earingofNew of perversity as when Israel will not hearken to
Philological Data on the Subjects of Resurrection God (lsa 30:9) in spite of his waming in Lev
and lmmortality in the OT. ·· WTJ 21: 1, pp. 12-21. 26:21. The refusal of the people is summed up in
R.L.H. the words. "but you would not" (Deut 1:26; lsa
30:15; d. Mt 23:37).
This word is also used of God's unwillingness
3 M1't.C
('äba) I, accede to a wish, accept (a re-
to destroy his people owing to his love for promi-
nent men offaith (e.g. Moses, David. Deut 10:10;
proach), want to, be willing, consent to (ASV and
II Kgs 8:19; 13:23), and of his unwillingness to
Rsv similar except in cases where secondary
implications predominate). pardon them when his love and patience are
repeatedly spurned (II Kgs 24:4).
Derivatives Most interesting is Deut 2:30. Sihon will not Jet
3a tii•:;ia< ( 'ebyim) needy person. Israel pass. The scripture enigmatically explains
3b :i;i•:il( ( 'äbiybna) caperberry. that this unhampered exercise ofhis will is due to
God's having hardened his heart in order to de-
3c M:ll< ('cheh) reed, papyrus.
3d •i~~ ( 'äbby) oh! (eytmology dubi- liver him into Israel's hand.
ous.)
'ebyön. One in the state of wanting, a needy or
The primary meaning of this root is "'the poor person. The etymology is uncertain. ASV
willingness (inclination) to do something under and RSV translate similarly. 'ehyön emphasizes
obligation or upon request. · · lt is to be distin- ··need" and thus is tobe distinguished from 'oni
guished from nädab which implies volunteering, "affiicted," da/ ··poor," and räsh "wcak" (the
rä~ön denoting a willing pleasurable to the doer. Qal participle of rish "destitute'"). This noun has
l)äpa.f implying a compliance suiting what is fit- a questionable connection with Ugaritic 'hyn(t).
ting, or a favorable disposition, and yä'al indicat- Some scholars say 'ebytm is of Egyptian deriva-
ing an exertion of one's will to do something. tion (Paul Humbert, Revue de /'Histoire des Re-
Also, compare 'äwa, yä'ab, and tä'ab. Our root /i!fions, 32. 1, pp. 1~). and others of general
occurs 112 times. The verbal form occurs only in Semitic derivation (G. J. 8otterweck, "'ehybn,"
the Qal and all but twice with a negative partiCle in TDOT, I, pp. 27-41).
(lsa 1:19; Job 39:9). 8ecause in some cognate The 'ehybn is poor in a material sense. He may
languages the root means "tobe unwilling," G. J. have lost his ancestral land (Ex 23:11). lt may be
8otterweck concludes that "the primary em- that he has reverted to borrowing (Deut 15:7. 9,
phasis here is not on the intention as a psycholog- 11). He may be the recipicnt of special gifts on
ical factor in the inner man (cf. 'äwa, usually Purim (Est 9:22). He may be without clothing
with nepesh as subject!) but on the main be- (Job 31: 19) or lacking food (Ps 132:15). Certainly.
havioral patterns and actions in which the inten- used in this sense of material want the "poor" is
tion is manifested" (TDOT, I, p. 24). But possi- one who has fallen on hard times (Job 30:25).
bly the cognates are only showing a polarity of This noun is used socially of those needing pro-
meaning. tection. In the Mosaic legislation God provides
The basic meaning of the verb is set forth in protection for the needy among his people by
those two cases where it is used positively commanding that they be treated fairly and that
(perhaps originally only with negative significa- payment of loans should be forgiven them in the
tion, 8. Johnson, TDOT, I, pp. 24-26). Job 39:9 year of release (Deut 15:1-4). God commands his
speaks of a wild ass whose natural inclination is people to loan liberally to the needy (Deut 15:7,
to refuse man's service. In lsa 1:19, Israel is 9, 11) in spite of the release. And if a brother sells
urged to show a positive intention toward God himself into slavery to pay his debts, he is to
and not to "refuse" (rnä'an) and "reber· serve as a hired man only until the year of jubilee
(rntira), lsa 1:20. Here, as often elsewhere, 'aha when he would go out free and return to the

4
 4 M:IN ('bh)

property of his fathers (Lev 25:39-41 ). Finally, abab (cf. "Papa," in TDNT, V, p. 960), rather
God himself helps the righteous needy when than from the verbal root 'bh, Assyrian, ahu
there is no other helper (1 Sam 2:8; Job 5: 15; Ps "decide" (suggesting that the father is the "de-
132:15; note the description of their plight in Job cider," BDB, p. 3). lt designates primarily "be-
24:2-14). getter," though by extension, ancestor, and
This social sense is found throughout the OT. metaphorically, an originator, chief, or associate
In Prov the needy are those oppressed by the in some degree.
wicked (30: 14). The king is to minister justice for The noun 'ab occurs 1191 times in the Hebrew
them (31 :9), and the good woman sees to their OT, plus nine times in the Aramaic (the form
need (31:20). In the prophets (Jer, Ezk, Arnos) 'iibi, Job 34:36, KJV "my desire," is probably a
the needy are those who are oppressed (contrary verb, "l desire," from ba'ya, KB, cf. Asv,
to Mosaic legislation) by the wicked (Arnos 4: 1) "would that"). Most instances refer to a literal
or who receive just treatment from the godly (Jer father (from Gen 2:24, even before the fact of
22: 16). Arnos especially has a major concern for paternity, 4: 1, down to Mal 1:6); but 'iib may
their rights. Cf. further Arnos 2:6; 5:12; 8:4, 6). designate any man who occupies a position or
King Josiah is praised because "he judged the receives recognition similar to that of a father:
cause of the poor and needy" (Jer 22:16). the "father" of a servant is his master (II Kgs
lsaiah refers to the needy as the firstborn (fa- 2: 12); "a father to the poor" (Job 29: 16) is their
vored ones) of God. He teils us that God is their protector; "a father to the inhabitants of
stro'nghold (lsa 25:4). The psalms (where thirty- Jerusalem" (lsa 22:21) is their governor; and "a
three of the sixty occurrences appear) usually use father to Pharaoh" (Gen 45:8) is his advisor. The
the word in the sense of the righteous whose des- title „ Father" is thus used for one in authority (II
titution is caused by enemies and who see their Kgs 2:12), whether prophet (II Kgs 6:21), priest
help in God alone. Hence, David can describe (Jud 18:19), or king (1 Sam 24:11 [H 12]), or
himself as needy (Ps 9:18 (H 191; 86:1). The even-as a personification-the grave, "Thou art
needy are the godly who walk uprightly (Ps my father" (Job 17:14).
37:14). God's true spiritual people are the needy In other passages 'ab refers to a grandfather
(Ps 72:4) who are oppressed by the wicked (Ps (Gen 28:13; 32:9 [H 10]) or more remote ancestor
12:5 [H 6]) within Israel and whose stronghold is (Gen 10:21; I Kgs 15:11; cf. Ex 10:6, "fathers'
God himself (Ps 109:3!). Consequently, they cry fathers"), especially iffounding a tribal unit, e.g.
to God for help (Ps 12:5 [H 6]; 70:5 [H 61), and he Abraham as the father of the Hebrews (Deut
delivers them (Ps 40:17 [H 18]). 26:5; Isa 51 :2; Jn 8:39), although Jacob is proba-
Psalm 72: 12 represents the Messiah as the ful- bly their "first forefather [who] sinned" (lsa
filler of God · s promise to help the needy (cf. lsa 43:27; cf. v. 28 and cf. McKenzie, J., Second
29: 19). Jsaiah, in AB, p. 59). If a clan congregated in one
Bibliography: Fensham, F. Charles, "Wid- area, its ancestor could then be called, for exam-
ow, Orphan, and Poor in Ancient Near Eastern ple, the father of Tekoa or of Hebron (1 Chr 2:24,
Legal and Wisdom Literature," JNES 21: 129- 42). From this it was but a step to father as the
39. Honeyman, A. M., "Some Developments of founder of a group or guild, e.g. "the father of all
the Semitic Root 'by," JAOS 64: 81--82. who play the lyre and pipe" (Gen 4:21).
Lambdin, Thomas 0., "Egyptian Loan Words in So Yahweh became the Father of Israel his son
the Old Testament," JAOS 73: 145-55. Patter- (lsa 63: 16) when he formed the nation (lsa 64:8
son, Richard D., "The Widow, the Orphan, and [H 7]; Deut 32:18). Yet his fatherhood concerns
the Poor in the Old Testament and the Extra- primarily that covenantal, saving relationship, in
Biblical Literature," BS 130: 223-34. which he loved Israel (Hos 11: 1; Jer 31 :20),
Richardson, TWB, p. 168. Van der Ploeg, J., "bought'' them by redemption from Egypt (Deut
"Les Pauvres d'Israel et leur Piete," OTS 7: 32:6), and continued to remember his "firstbom
237-42. Ward, William A., "Comparative son" (Ex 4:22; Jer 31:9) with providential direc-
Studies in Egyptian and Ugaritic," JNES 20: tion and fatherly care (Jer 31 :9-10). He shows
31-40. TDOT, I, pp. 24-41. THAT, 1, pp. 20-24. particular paternal concern for the fatherless (Ps
L.J.C. 68:5 [H 6]), the poor, and the afllicted (cf. Prov
22:22-23).
4 :,:a,c (' bh) II. Assumed root of the following.
Apostates could even "say to [an idol made
4a t:tc ('ab) father, forefather. ASV, RSV
from] a tree, 'You are my father'" (Jer 2:27).
similar, except that bet 'ab "father's
Occasionally the entire creation is related to
house," may be rendered "family."
God's fatherhood: his challenge to Job, "Has the
4b ci:i,:M ('abrahiim) Abraham, "father rain a father?" (Job 38:28), suggests that, while
'~f ä multitude." man is not its "begetter," God is (vv. 4-5, 25-27;
'äb. Father, forefather. This primitive noun cf. the Ugaritic El's position as literal "father of
apparently is derived from such baby sounds as mankind"). Yet just as in the NT, the oT (apart

5
5 *'!!;~ ( 'abak)
from the figurative "children" in Jer 3: 19) never teaches should be upheld. lt thereby shifts the
speaks of a universal fatherhood of God toward application of 'äh from God to Abraham, who
men (cf. G. B. Stevens·s concession, The Theol- hereafter becomes "father" of the faithful, both
of?y of the NT, p. 70; cf. p. 68). Malachi's ques- in respect to his subjective attitude (of faith, Gai
tion. "Have we not all one father? hath not one 3:7; Rom 4:16) and his objective inheritance (of
God created us?" (2: 10). is directed to those who righteousness, Gai 3:29; Rom 4: 11. 13).
inherit "the covenant of our fathers ... Bibliography: Anderson, K. T .. "Der Gott
In a special sense David, Yahweh's anointed meines Vaters," Studia Theo[of?ia 16: 178-88.
king over Israel and mediator of the Davidic cov- Albright, W. F., "Abraham the Hebrew: A New
enant (Ps 89: 3. 28). appealed to God as his Archaeological Interpretation,;· BASOR 163:
Father (v. 26 IH 271); and the Lord replied, "I 36-54. ---, "The Names Shaddai and Ab-
will make him my firstborn. the highest of the ram," JBL 54: 173-204. Cross. Frank Moore,
kings of the earth" (v. 27 [H 281). Butjust as the "Yahweh and the God of the Patriarchs," HTR
next verse speaks of David's "seed ... to endure 55: 226-59. Eitan, l., "Two Onomatological
forever." so the words. "I will be his Father, and Studies," JAOS 49: 30-33. Gibson, J. C. L.,
he will be my son" (II Sam 7: 14), refer to David "Light from Mari on the Patriarchs," JSS 7:
(v. 12), and Solomon (v. 13a; I Chr 22:IOa): but 44-62. LaGrange, M. J., "La Paternite de Dieu
also they look beyond to the etemal Messiah (v. dans l'AT," RB 5: 481-99. Lehman, Manfred R.,
13h) and speak of the unique fatherhood of "Abraham's Purchase of Machpelah and Hittite
Yahweh to his Son Jesus Christ (Heb 1:5). Simi- Law," BASOR 129: 15-18. Payne, J. B., Theol-
larly in Ps 2:7 (and I Chr 22: !Oh) the author David ogy of the O/der Testament, Zondervan, 1962,
(Acts 4:25) sees beyond himself to God's future pp. 304-307; 425-26. Pope, Marvin H., EI in the
anointed one (Heb Messiah, Ps 2:2). the begotten Vf?aritic Texts, Supp VT 3: 1-116, esp. p. 47f.
Son of God. Christ would then, in turn. become Richardson, TWB, pp. 12, 76. Stöger, A.,
an "eternal father" to his people (lsa 9:6, E. J. '"Father," Sacramentum Verhi, 1, 1970, pp.
Young. New International Commentary. Jsaiah, 260-65. Williams, James G., "The Prophetie
/, pp. 338-39). ·Father'," JBL 85: 34~8. Wright, G. E., "The
But while Yahweh is to be "like a father ... Terminology of Old Testament Religion and its
toward them that fear him" (Ps 103:13). i.e. to- Significance," JNES 1: 404-14. Young, E. J.,
ward the group of his "adopted lredeemed] "The God of the Fathers," WTJ 3: 24-40,
sons, · · is he father also to the individual believer. TDNT, V, pp. 929-82. TDOT, I, pp. 1-18, 52-58.
as in the NT (Rom 8:15; Gai 4:6)? Jeremiah 3:4 THAT, I, pp. 1-16.
says, "My Father, thou art the guide of my J.B.P.
youth"; but this may weil be the personified na-
tion speaking (cf. H. Schultz' assertion of "noth-
ing higher till the NT," OT Theo/of?y, II, p. 138). •i:::i~ ( 'aboy). See no. 3d.
Yet individualization does appear in Ps 27: 10,
"When my father and mother forsake me, then c~:::i~(' ebus ). See no. IOa.
the Lord will take me up" (cf. David's personal
faith, I Sam 30:6; Ps 23), or in Prov 3: 12, "Whom C'l'.I~;~ ('tiba!(i/:lim). See no. 234a.
the Lord loves he reproves, even as a father the :::1':;ll$('äbib). See no. Ja.
son in whom he delights." The infrequency of the
divine name ·· Father" in the oT may have been ~i•;t:t('ebyon). See no. Ja.
due to its abuse in Canaanitish fertility cults (0.
:i;i•;~ (' abiyona ). See no. 3b.
Baab, The Theolof?y of the OT, p. 123, citing Jer
2:27; TDNT, V, p. 968). i•;I$ ('äbir), i•~~ ('abbir). See nos. 13c,d.
Among the oT·s proper nouns that employ the
element 'äh, the most famous is Abraham,
though at his call he bore the shorter name, 5 *'!!;1$('äbak) turn. Occurs only in the Hith-
Abram ('ahräm, Gen 11:26--12:1), literally, pael (lsa 9: 17; Jud 7:3).
"Father !Godj (is) lofty." But when Yahweh es-
tablished his covenant with Abram (17: 1-2), he 6 ,;i:c ('äba/) I, mourn, lament. (Asv and RSV
said, "Your name will be Abraham ('abrähäm), translate similarly, but more uniformly
for I will make you the father of a multitude, "mourn," w hile RSV occasionally reads
('ab-hamon) of nations" (v. 5). Some propose "grieve. ")
that the root räham is no more than a variant of
rum "to be lofty" (E. A. Speiser, in AB, Derivatives
Genesis, pp. 124, 127). But in light of the known 6a t,;~ ('ebel) mourning.
Arabic noun ruhämun, "multitude" (KB, p. 8), 6b ,;;1$ ('äbe/) /, mourning, mourn-
the change in meaning which the verse itself er; cf. Ugaritic.

6
 9 i;~ ('eben)

'abal describes mouming rites for the dead, though 8 ,;~ ( 'abiil) surely. Adverb. Cf. bat, no.
often, in its thirty-nine occurrences, it is used 246d, which also may have asseverative force.
figuratively, "The land moumeth" (lsa 24:4).
Some propose a separate meaning, "to dry up,.,
when 'iibal parallels yabesh (Jer 12:4; 23: 10;
Arnos 1:2; KB, p. 6): but "mourning" is contex- 9 i;:i~ ('eben) stone.
tually preferable (Jer 12: 11). Derivative
Biblical mourning for the dead (expressed by
9a i;:ii-t (' öbe n) wheel, disk.
'abal, siipad, etc.) involved emotion, usually ex-
pressed audibly (Jer 22: 18; 48:36) and visibly 'eben. Stone. The meaning of 'eben is almost
(Gen 37:34; Ps 35: 14; Mic 1:8), especially for the singularly "stone," and in the ,cognate Semitic
decease of important leaders (II Chr 35:24-25; languages both meaning and usage are the same.
Ezk 31: 15). Professional mourning women could Stones are common in the middle east, and the
be hired (Jer 9:17; Eccl 12:5), or the emotion word occurs more than 275 times in the Hebrew
could be merely simulated (II Sam 14:2, 'abal, and Aramaic of the Bible. In all but a few places,
Hithpael. "feign oneself a moumer"; Mt 11:17). which are cited below, the meaning is simply
Yet the oT forbad such pagan exhibitions as tear- "stone."
ing one·s hair or flesh for the dead (Lev 19:28; In its first occurrence, 'eben refers to precious
21:5; but see Jer 16:6; 41:5); for the oT gave an stones (Gen 2: 12). The usual meaning of 'eben
underlying assurance of immortality (Ps 73 :24: hashshöham is "onyx stone," although "come-
Job 19:25-27; Prov 15:24) and held out the pros- lians" (NEB), lapis lazuli (Torah and NAB), and
pect of bodily resurrection (Ps 16:9-11; Isa 26: 19; others appear here and the half dozen other
Dan 12:2). places where these two words come together.
Our English word „ sapphire „ reflects the He-
'ebel. Mourning. "Mouming" might last brew sappir. This occurs with ·eben in Ezk 1:26
seven days (Gen 50: 10: I Sam 31: 13; cf. II Sam and 10: 1. An indication that the stone is valuable
11:27) or even seventy (Gen 50:3-4; thirty in is the word millu'im, which basically means
Num 20:29; Deut 34:8). From the first incident "full." But the derived meaning is "conse-
arose the place-name Abel-mizraim: 'ähel the crated." Notice this combination in Ex 25:7,
mourning, mi.\-rciyim, of Egypt (Gen 50: 11). where it means a jewelry "setting," and else-
Bibliography: DeWard, Eileen F., "Mourning where. Sometimes y•·qarii meaning "precious"
Customs in 1,2 Samuel," JJS 23: 1-27, 145-66. or "costly" modifies it (II Sam 12:30 et al.). In I
Tur-Sinai, N. H .. "The Ark of God at Beit Chr 29:2, which includes several of the above
Shemesh (1 Sam. VI) and Peres 'Uzza (2 Sam. combinations, the modifiers pük and riqmii,
VI: 1 Chron Xlll)," VT 1: 275-86. IDB, III, pp. translated in the KJVas "glistening" and "of di-
452-54. TDOT, I, pp. 44-47. THAT, I, pp. 27-30. verse colours, .. appear. Others have "antimony"
J.B.P. and "colored" (Rsv), "coloured" and "striped"
(rn), "carnelian" and "mosaic" (NAR). In Prov
17:8 is found the expression 'eben !Jen, which is
literally "stone of grace" and is usually rendered
7 ',::,M ( 'hl) II. Assumed root of the following. "precious" or the like. Isaiah 54: 12 has two
7a t',;1$ ('abel) II, stream,brook(KB,p. additional word combinations. 'eben 'eqdä/J and
6; cf. II Chr 16:4, 'abel mäyim, literally, stream 'eben !Jepe$: "carbuncles" and "pleasant
of water), was once derived from an assumed stones" (KJv), "garnet" and "jewels" (NEB),
root, 'äbal II "grow green" (?), suggesting "mead- "crystal" and "precious stones" (JB). Ezekiel
ow"(?) (BOB, p. 5), but is now associated with (28: 14, 16) speaks of the "fire stone ... From the
an Aramaic type of participial form of yäbal context (especially v. 13 with its 'eben y''qarii),
(q. v.) "to bring" (W. F. Albright, BASOR 89: 15); this easily translated expression probably refers
cf. lsa 30:25, yible mäyim, literally, "ditches of to a stone which sparkles. Even today diamonds
water"). 'äbel occurs solely in four Jordanian or are frequently described as fiery.
Transjordanian place-names: Abel-beth-maacah A second major category is "stone" used in
(II Sam 20:14-15, 18; I Kgs 15:20 = Abel-maim. the natural state. Genesis 11:3 is the first usage of
II Chr 16:4). Abel-shittim (Num 33:49), Abel- the word as building material. Jacob used a stone
keramim (Jud 11:33, which KJVtranslates "plain pillow (Gen 28: 11) and Moses sat on a stone (Ex
of the vineyards"), and Abel-meholah (7:22). 17: 12). Stones were used to cover wells (Gen
(But see Jer 12:4; Arnos 1:2: Jer 12:11, NIV.) 29:2-3) and seal caves (Josh 10: 18). Stones also
'äbel, found in I Sam 6: 18 should be read, with served as pillars or caims (Gen 31 :45-46). Natur-
some MSS, 'eben "stone" (cf. vv. 14-15), as ally, stones were used for throwing (Lev 20:2)
found in Genesis 50: 11. See 'ribel 1. and slinging (Jud 20: 16).
J.B.P. The word "stone" is used as a title for God

7
10 C~tc
('äbas)
(Gen 49:24, cf. ~ur "rock"), and for the Messiah Derivatives
(Isa 28: 16). I0a c~::i>.e ('ebus) crib.
Stones were made into tablets for writing, as I0b ci::i~r,, (ma'abus) granary. Occurs
for the Ten Commandments (Ex 34:1), or into only in Jer 50:26.
bowls (Ex 7: 19). From stone the images of false
deities were carved (Deut 28:36). The phrase
"hewn stone" ( 'eben ,:äzi1, Ex 20:25) refers to r, 11~;,,:;~ ('aba'bü'öt). See no. 217a.
stones which were dressed or squared off.
The w-0rd 'eben is used to denote the charac-
teristics it possesses. Exodus 15:5 refers to its 11 i':lM ( 'bq) l. Assumed roqt of the following.
weight and 15:16 to its motionlessness. Else- 1Ja ;,;tot('äbiiq) dust.
where its commonness is noted (1 Kgs 10:27). Job 11b :,~;~ ( 'ahäqa) powder. Occurs
refers to its strength (6: 12) and firmness (41:24 [H only in Song 3:6 in the phrase 'abqat
161). Akin to this last reference is Ezekiel's allu- rokel "powders of merchant," i.e.
sion to a "stony heart" (11: 19). scent powders.
Stones were used for weights (Lev 19:36), al-
though the denominations or counterparts are 12 *i':lM ('iibaq) II, wrestle. Occurs only in
imperfectly known to us. Note the "royal stone" the Niphal (Gen 32:25-26).
of II Sam 14:26 (KJV"king's weight").
The word refers to "hailstones" (e.g. Josh 13 "\:lM ('hr). Assumed root of the following.
10:11), and to "limestones" (lsa 27:9; KJV 13a t"l;>.t (eher), :'l"\:IM ('ebra) pinions.
"chalkstones"). 13b "\:lM ('abar) t~fly.
The word "stone" appears in place names. 13c t,;:iM (' iihir) strong.
The best known (mostly from the hymn "Come, 13d t,•~~ (' abbir) mighty.
Thou Founf') is "Eben-ezer" (Heb 'eben
'eher, 'ebrä. Feather or wing. These nouns are
hä'ezer, l Sam 7: 12). There is also the "stone of
probably derived from the same root. A de-
Bohan" (Josh 15:6, JB, translated "stone of Bo- nominative verb, 'ahar "to soar" or "toflutter,"
han" in KJVand "Eben-Bohan" in NAB),and the
appears only in Job 39:26.
"stone of Zoheleth" (I Kgs 1:9, KJv; translated
The adjective ·ahhir "mighty," "strong," or
"Serpent' s Stone" in Rsv, "Slippery Stone" in
"brave," is also probably derived from this root.
the Berkley Version, and "Sliding Stone" in JB).
The word azel (l Sam 20: 19) connected with 'äbir. Mighty, the Mighty One of. This word oc-
"stone·· may be a preposition or adjective, not a curs only in poetical passages. The first is Jacob's
proper name. blessing on his son Joseph (Gen 49:24). The third
Note that if an altar was built with stones, they stich of that verse, which contains this word, has
were to be undressed stones, doubtless to make the expression "the hands of the Mighty One,"
impossible the engraving of idolatrous repre- which is paralleled in the preceding line by the
sentations on them (Ex 20:25; Deut 27:5). expression "hands were made strong." The fol-
Bibliography: Diringer, David, "The Early lowing stich has "the stone of Israel" to parallel
Hebrew Weights Found at Lachish," PEQ 74: "the Mighty One of Jacob." The word "stone" is
82-103. Emerton, J. A., "The Meaning of •~:;ilt 'eben which sounds something like 'iibir
tv"!;,in Lamentations 4: 1," ZA W 79: 233-36. "Mighty One" and emphasizes his strength fur-
Harris, J. S., "The Stones of the High Priesfs ther.
Breastplate," Annual of Leeds University 5: The two appearances of the word 'äbir in Ps
40-62. LeBas, Edwin E., "Zechariah's Climax to 132 (vv. 2, 5) are paralleled by the divine name
the Career of the Comer-stone," PEQ 1950: YHWH. The same is true of its three appear-
102-22. Seitz, Oscar J. F., "'What Do These ances in lsaiah (1 :24; 49:26; 60: 16). Notice the
Stones Mean?'" JBL 79: 247-54. Seilers, Ovid distribution of the term throughout this book,
R., "Sling Stones of Biblical Times," BA 2: often trisected by critics.
41-44. Tiegman, Edward F., "The Stone Hewn The name 'äbir used as a substitute for deity
from the Mountain," CBQ 18: 364-79. TDOT, I, may be compared with pa/Jad the "Fear" of
pp. 48-51. Isaac (q.v., Gen 31:42, 53). This word "Fear" is
R.L.A. also taken by some as a surrogate for deity used
especially in patriarchal times. lt is possible tobe
translated "Kinsman." (Albright, FSAC, p. 248;
c~:;ilt (' ahne{). See no. 256a. Dahood, in AB, Psalms, I, p. 81.)
lt is undeniable that 'äbir relates to the Akka-
dian abäru "be strong." Not so certain is the
10 C;lt't (' abas) feed, /alten. Occurs only in connection with the Ugaritic 'br "bull" or
Prov 15:17; I Kgs 5:3. "humped buffalo." However, as in Hebrew, it

8
 24 *~':rl$(' adab)

may be an element in a divine name in Ugaritic. blood in order to sprinkle the people. In Isa 22:24
Th" Ugaritic form ihrd may mean "the Mighty ·aggüll(if are common household vessels which
One of Hadd." can be hung on nails. The word appears in Assy-
rian agan(n)u "bowl" and Ugaritic (A. H. Hon-
'abbir. Horse, stallion, bull, Apis, chief, mighty,
eyman, "The Pottery Vessels of the Old Testa-
strong, valiant, stout(hearted), stubborn. See
ment, .. Palestine Erploration Fund. 1939. pp.
'äbfr for derivations and cognates in othcr Scmitic
78-79).
languages and to that list add a New Egyptian
cognate which definitely means "stallion" from
R.L.A.
the hieroglyph.
21 t)JN ( 'gp). Assumed root of the following.
The word is used to denote strength or leader-
21a ~~!< ( 'ögap) band, army (occurs
ship in a man (1 Sam 21 :8; Job 24:22; 34:20; Jer
only in Ezk ( l 2: 14; l 7:2 J; 38:6, 9, 22;
46:15; Lam 1:15). hardness of heart (Ps 76:5 [H
39:4).
6]; Isa 46: 12). angels (Ps 78:25). bulls ( Ps 22: 12 [H
13]; 50:13; 68:30; lsa 34:7; Jer 50:11), and horses
22 "\~l;I ("ägar) /,gather (food, Prov. 6:8; Deut
(Jud 5:22; Jer 8:16; 47:3). Some in these last two
28:39; Prov 10:5).
groups may be interchanged. lsaiah 10: 13 can be
read as "strong man." "bull," or "Apis," the
23 ~JN ( ·w) II. Assumcd root of the following.
name of the sacred Egyptian bull (so RSv).
23a :i,iJ!< ( ·ag6ra) payment (l Sam 2:36).
Bibliography: Alt. A.. ""The God of the
23b i"r'lj~N ( ·i1.11:eret) letter.
Fathers" in Essays on OT History and Religion.
tr. R. A. Wilson, Blackwell, 1966, pp. 25 ff. 'iggeret. Letter. ASV, Rsv translate the same.
TDOT, I, pp. 42-43. THAT. I. pp. 25-26. This word means "letter" (royal and general). lt
R.L.A. may be a loan word from Akkadian egirtuliiirtu
which parallels the Hebrew word in usage and
refers to legal documents such as deeds (perhaps
c:;i,~l'.t( 'abraham). See no. 4b. related to Persian angira. angara [R. Köbert,
Orientalia 14: 478-79[). Hence, 'iigeret may be a
letter written on a clay tablet. Biblical Aramaic
14 i-i:il'.C( ·ahrek). Meaning dubious (Speiser. attests 'ig1<aä "letter. .. In Esther ·iggeret is
Genesis in AB. translates "attention!"). used synonymously with si'per. the usual He-
brew word for "letter" (cf. Est 9:20, 26). Another
15 iJN ( 'gd). Assumed root of the following. synonym is the Persian loan word nisht"wan.
15a :i,~!< ( 'ägüddti) band. ·i,r::ger('f occurs ten times in later passages con-
taining historical connections with Babylonia or
16 TiJ~ ('egö;:,) nuts (only in Song 6: 11). Assyria.
The 'iggeret could be open or closed (Neh 6:5).
lfwe arc right in equating "iggeret with Akkadian
:i,1,1<( ·ag,kii). See no. 23a. egirt11/igirt11. then it refers to the ancient practice
of writing the full text on a clay tablet and cover-
ing the tablet with an envelope of clay upon
17 ',JN ( 'g/). Assumed root of the following. which a summary of the contents was written.
17a ',~t,1 Cc'gel) drop (only in Job Finally, it was properly sealed .
. 38:28). Bibliography: CAD 4, 45 "egirtu ...
L. J. C.
18 CJN ( 'im). Assumed root of the following.
18a C~l-1 . ( ·agam) troubled pool.
18b c~~ ('ägem) sad (onlyinlsal9:l0). '?t;i';\,!<( ·agar(ä/). See no. 380a.

19 ,~;l'.C( ·agman), ,;~~~ ( 'agmön) rush, ~"IJ~ ( 'egr,-1p). See no. 385a.
bulrush. i!< ( 'i'd). See no. 38d.

20 1JN ( ·gn ). Assumed root of the following.

24 *:::l':!t(( ·adah) grieve. Occurs only in the
20a -:-,~N ( ·aggiin) bowl. ASV and RSVtrans-
, -late somewhat differently. Hiphil (1 Sam 2:33).

An ·aigän is probably a ]arge deep two-

handled, ring-based bowl. This word occurs three cii~ ('edöm). See no. 26e.
times. •~ii!<('adbmi). See no. 26f.
In Ex 24:6 Moses holds the blood of victims in 1ii1;1· ( 'ädön). See no. 27b.
·a1a?änöt. He dips a bunch of hyssop into the ,,,~ ( 'addir). See no. 28b.

9
25 ciN ('dm)

25 ciN ('dm) 1. Assumed root of the following. think it refers to man's exceptional relationship
25a toiN ( "ädäm) man. mankind, Adam. with God. F. Horst declares that man is a crea-
25b t:,~;~('tidämä) ground, land. ture who "hears the word of God. speaks to God
in prayer and obeys him in service" (TDOT, I, p.
'ädäm. Man, mankind; also human (adj.), some- 85). In contrast to these somewhat neo-orthodox
one (indef); Adam (thefirst man). The ASV and RSV approaches the image of God in the narrow sense
translate the same with notable exceptions. In refers to man as a rational-moral creature (cf.
Job 31 :33 the RSV obscures the reference to Deut 4: 10-12). Significantly God's first words to
Adam. Although the etymology of 'ädäm cannot man are both a command and a prohibition (Gen
be explained with certainty (cf. TDOT. I, p. 78), 2: 16-17): man alone is responsible for his deci-
the word probably relates to the original ruddi- sion, man alone determines his destiny by voli-
ness of man·s complexion (cf. F. Maas. 'ädäm tional choice, and only man isjudged as righteous
TDOT. 1. pp. 78-79). This word for man has to do or sinful by God's law. An older biblical theology
with man as being in God's image, the crown of holds that the "divine likeness is rather to be
creation. lt should be distinguished from 'ish referred to the whole dignity of man in virtue of
(man as opposite of woman, or as man distin- which human nature is sharply distinguished
guished in his manliness). 'i'mhh (man as weak from that of the beasts; man as a free being is set
and vulnerable), ;:eher (man as mighty and no- over nature, and designed to hold communion
ble), and m•· tim. Ugaritic 'adm normally means with God, and tobe his representative on earth"
"people," and is parallel to /'im. or is used in the (G. F. Oehler, O/d Testament Theology). Payne
appellation 'ah 'adm, "father of mankind." remarks that "the terms 'image· and 'like-
'ädäm occurs exclusively in the Singular abso- ness · ... are used interchangeably .... The
lute. 562 times. image thus connotes •freedom' and 'blessed-
'adam also refers to generic man as the image ness·, as it reflects within man the cosmic, ethical
of God and the crown of creation or is a personal and beneficent sovereignty of the Testator him-
name. Hence in Gen 1-3 it is the word usually self. . . . The divine image thus implies all the
used for man. (In later passages of Scripture it is various aspects of God's reflected glory and
difficult to distinguish in meaning from 'ish.) honor .... lt may be defined, in summary. as the
Here, man is distinct from the rest of creation in totality of man·s higher powers that distinguish
that: he was created by special and solemn divine him from brute creation .. ( PTOT. p. 227). The
counsel (Gen 1:26): his creation was an imme- apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus says of the crea-
diate act ofGod: he was created after the divine tion of man: he "made them according to his im-
type: he was created with two distinct elements agc. and pul the fcar of man upon all tlesh, and
(Gen 2:7): he was placed in an exalted position gave him dominion ovcr beasts and fowls. Coun-
(Gen 1:28): he was intended for a still higher (in scl and a tonguc, and cyes, ears. and a heart.
the sense of a permanent and fulfilled) position. gavc he them to understand. Withal hc filled thcm
Hence, man (as 'üdclm) was the crown of crea- with the knowledge of understanding. and showed
tion. Genesis I sets forth 'ädä111 as the goal and thcm good and cvil ... and they shall praisc his
vice-regent of creation, while Gen 2 shows how holy namc, that they may search out his marvel-
the creation was formed as the scene of man·s lous works" (Eccles 17:3-9).
activity, i.e. it was formed around 'ädä111. In the Even after ehe fall 'ädäm is used of man! The
first three chapters of Gen there is a wordplay on image of God is still the central distinction.
man, mankind, and the first man „Adam ... Hence, murder is an attack on the image of God
'ädäm connotes man in the imagc of God as to: (Gen 9:6). However. the fall lowered man·s posi-
soul or spirit (indicating man·s essential simplic- tion before God (Gen 6:5--{i; 8:21 ). ruptured his
ity, spiritualit y, invisibility. immortality). physi- communion with God, and brought the curse of
cal powers or faculties (the intellect and will with death on him so that he did not fulfill his intended
their functions). intellectual and moral integrity exaltation. Thal part of the divine image consist-
(true knowledge. righteousness. and holinessJ. ing of true knowledge. righteoll-6ness. and holi-
body (as a fit organ of the soul sharing its im- ness was destroyed. Only in and by Christ, the
mortality, and as the means through which man new Adam (Rom 5: 12-21 ). can the original divine
exercises his dominion), and dominion over the promise be realized.
lower creation.
The image of God in man has been much dis- 'adämä. Ground, land, earth. The ASV and RSV
cussed. Engnell, Wildberger, and von Rad refer it reflect thc difficulties in deciding which of the
to man·s dominion over the non-human world. English words to use in translation. Originally
Humbert and Koehler contend that it indicates this word signified the red arable soil. From this it
man·s external form, which seems inappropriate came to denote any cultivated. plantable ground
in view of the repeated assertion of God·s spiritu- and/or landed property. At times it approaches
ality. Brunner. Kierkegaard, and Berkhouwer the meaning "home country" (see especially Jon

10
 26 ciK ('dm)

4:2), but probably not in a political sense (how- this creation-fall-redemption pattern around
ever, Isa 14:2; 19:17, and especially Ezekiel's al- 'ädäm/'adämii (1 Kgs 8:34, 40). This cycle gov-
most exclusive "land of Israel," et al.). One erns the history of Israel (1 Kgs 13:34; 14:15; II
should compare and distinguish 'ere $ .. earth, Kgs 21:8; 25:21). Nehemiah recognizes the same
land," and 'äpär, "dry earth, dust." Also, con- theological pattern (Neh 10:37 IH 38)).
trast helqa "portion, field," yabbiisha "dry In the eschaton God will change the inner con-
land, dry ground," and sädeh "field, land, open stitution of 'ädäm (fully restore the divine image)
country." ·tidämti occurs 224 times. so as to eliminate the possibility of a fall and as-
The Bible makes much of the relationship be- sure eternal possession of the 'adämä which
tween man ('adiim) and the ground ('tidäma). yields its fruit freely (Ezk 36:25-30; cf. Jer
Thal this might be vivid in the mind of the reader 31 :33-34; II Cor 5: 17; Heb 8:8-n}--the return to
we will transliterate the words in the following the garden of Eden (Ezk 36:35).
discussion. Initially, God made 'ädäm out of the Bibliography: Asselin, David Tobin, 'The
'adämii to till the ·tidäma (Gen 3 :23, to bring Notion of Dominion in Genesis 1-3," CBQ
forth life?). The 'adämä was God's possession 16:277-94. Bloom, Alfred, ''Human Rights in Is-
and under his care (Gen 2:6). Thus, the first rael's Thought," Interp 8: 422-32. DeFraine, J.,
'iidäm (the man, Adam) and his family were to "lndividue et Societe dans Ja Religion de I' An-
act as God's servants by obeying him in maintain- cien Testament," Bib 33: 324-55, 445-75.
ing the divinely created and intended relation- Koehler, Ludwig, Hehrew Man. Abingdon,
ships vertically and horizontally. As long as this 1957. May, Herbert G., "Individual Responsibil-
condition was sustained God caused the 'tidämii ity and Retribution," HUCA 32: 107-20. Oehler,
to give its fruitfulness (blessing) to 'ädäm. G. F., O/d Testament Theolo[<y, Funk & Wag-
Then came sin. The unit 'ädäm (Adam and nall, 1883, pp. 146-47. Payne, J. Barton, Theol-
Eve; see also Rom 5:12) violated the created o[<yof the O/der Testament, pp. 221-31. Porter,
structure. The 'adämii, henceforth, brought forth 1. R., "The Legal Aspects of the Concept of
thorns and thistles rather than freely giving fruit 'Corporate Personality' in the Old Testament,"
(Gen 3:17). Since 'ädäm had disrupted the VT 15: 361--80. Richardson, TWB,- pp. 14-15.
paradisiacal life-producing state, he was driven Thomas, D. W., ed., Archaeo/ogv and Old Tes-
off the paradisiacal 'adämä and sentenced to re- tament Study. Oxford: Clarendon, 1%7. Wright,
turn to the 'ädämii (Gen 3:19). He was driven to J. Stafford, Man in the Process of Time,
it rather than it being given to him. He was to go Eerdmans, 1956. TDOT, I, pp. 75--87, 88-98.
down rather than up. His life moved in and to- THAT, I, pp. 41-56. 57-59.
ward death rather than in and toward life. How- L. J.C.
ever, the gracious Creator did not completely de-
stroy 'ädäm. He promised to bring forth from
'iidäm a lifegiver (Gen 3: 15). As a token of that 26 ciK ( 'dm) II. Assumed root ofthe following.
promise the Creator caused the 'adämii to give of 26a tc"!~ ('ädöm), Clj~ ('ädem) be
its fruit (blessing) to 'ädäm (note the curse on red.
Cain, Gen 4: 12, 14, whereby the 'adämii was no 26b Cl"!~ ( 'ädöm) red.
lon[<erto give its strength to him). Because of 26c c,·K ( 'ödem) carnelian.
disobedience ·ädäm received a curse from the 26d Cl"!K (' edöm) name of condiment.
'adäma rather than life. Thus, we see that 26e tci"ltt Cedbm) Edom.
'iidäm/'tidäma are deeply involved in the pattern 26f t'~i,~ ( 'tidomi) Edomite.
creation-fall-redemption. 26g Cl"t~"!K ('adamiddäm) be reddish.
This pattern is repeated throughout the OT. 26h •:·;~,~ ( ·adn11)11i) red, ruddy.
After the flood God said he would never again
'ädöm, 'ädern. Tobe red. The RSV and ASV trans-
curse the 'adämii because of 'ädäm (Gen 8:21).
He made a new covenant (creation) with Noah late the same.
Ugaritic 'adm is the rouging done by the nobil-
(Gen 9:1-17) who became the father of 'ädäm
ity after bathing. Also note Old Akkadian
(since only Noah and his immediate family were 'adämu "dark red," as of a garment, Akkadian
in the ark, Gen 7:7). Noah became a tiller of the
adamätu "dark red soil" and adamu "red
'ädäma (Gen 9:20). and God blessed his efforts.
blood," and Aramaic 'ädam, as of blood. The
However, Noah sinned. In Abraham the promise
biblical stative describes the color of skin (like
(redemption) given by God through Noah to coral, Lam 4:7). war shields (parallel to scarlet,
Shem emerges in the form of Paradise regained, Nah 2:3 IH 41), fermented wine (Prov 23:31), sin
i.e. the promised land ( ?1dämii, Gen 28: 14-15).
(lsa 1:18), and tabernacle curtains (Ex 25:5). The
In the Mosaic legislation God gives the 'adämä verbal form occurs ten times.
or takes it away according to the obedience of his
people (Lev 20:24). lts fruitfulness depends upon 'edöm. Edom, Edomite. This name was given
their obedience ( Deut 11:17). Solomon repeats to Esau, who desired red pottage more than his

11
27 ,,~ ('dn)

birthright (Gen 25:30; 36: 1). He is described as 27 1iM ( 'dn). Assumed root of the following.
having been "ruddy," "adderet, at birth (Gen 27a t,:ii-t ( 'ede11) pedestal.
25:25). His descendants were identified by either 27b t1hi;t ( 'ädön) lord.
of his names (Edom, Gen 36:9, or Esau, Jer 49:8.
'eden. Pedestal, base, or socket, The ASVand
10) or by Seir, the mountain where he settled (cf.
Rsv translate the same except in Song 5:15 (Asv
II Chr 20:22-23 ). The Edomites assimilated some
"pillars," Rsv "bases") an<l Job 38:6 (ASV
of the peoples settled in the land when they ar-
"'bases" RSV "foundation"). The 'eden was a
rived (Deut 2:22, IJ.öri,q.v.). In the Bible the area
base into which pegs were inserted in order to
assume<l the name of its Edomite inhabitants.
hold planks and pillars upright. The word occurs
This word occurs ninety-eight times.
ftfty-four times and all but twiae in Mosaic legis-
The history of Edom is an outworking ofGod's
lation regarding the tabernacle. The word em-
statements. In Gen 27:27-29, 39-40 Isaac pro-
phasizes solidity, coming from a root meaning
phetically blesses Jacob and Esau. The latter is to ··be strong . .,
live in a desolate place (cf. N. Glueck, "Trans-
These bases were tobe made of various metals
jordan," in D. W. Thomas, ed., Archaeologv ancl
<lepending on their location in the tabernacle.
O/d Testament Study, pp. 429-53), to live by the
God"s concero over such detail regarding wor-
sword, and to serve his brother. Subsequently,
ship is a principle that can hardly be ignored. In
he is to shake and cast off Jacob's yoke. Esau's
the or, the ritual and the equipment connected
immediate reaction was hostility.
with worship was no light thing. Every detail was
Israel was not to force their way through Edom
pre~cribed by God and those who desired to
to the promised land (Num 20:14), and neither
please him were obligated to obey. lt is not true.
were they to despise their brother (Deut 23:7--8).
however. that attention to external detail at the
When God did lead them through or past the bor-
expense of the appropriate inner spiritual disposi-
ders of the land he strictly protected the rights of
tion pleased God (see also ''änii "afflict, oppress,
the Edomites to whom he had given the area
humble,., Deut 6--11).
(Deut 1:4-5). But the E<lomites acted in a very
Job employs our word to describe the creating
·•unbrotherlike" fashion, gathering themselves to
activity of God (38:6). lt is paralleled with "cor-
repulse Israel. When Balaam the prophet was
nerstone." Hence, comparing himself to a build-
summone<l by Balak, Balaam reiterated „ Ja-
er, God infers that he is the one who established
cob· s „ supremacy, stating their future subjuga-
the earth's footings, laid creation's cornerstone,
tion and possession of Edom (Num 24: 18). The
and saw to the securing of the creation.
history of Israel attests repeated subjugations of
and rebellions by Edom. So bitter was the Edo- 'ädön. Lord, Lord, Loao, master, owner. No
mite hostility toward „Jacob" that they rejoiced doubt exists about the meaning of this word. The
when their brother was destroyed and led captive Ugaritic 'adn means "lord" or ••father" and the
by the Babylonians (Ps 137:7). They gleefully Akkadian adannu carries a similar meaning,
joined in the fray (Arnos I :6, 9. 11). doing vio- ·•mighty ..,
lence to Israel. They scornfully appropriated In the simple unsutfixed form or when pointed
Jacob's land for themselves (Ezk 36:5). The 'adöni or 'ädona(y), for the first common singu-
prophets reaffirmed God's order. Edom was to lar sutfix or with other pronominal suffixes,
be punished at the hands of the Babylonians and 'ädön usually refers to men. Sarah used it in ref-
subjugated by Israel (lsa 11: 14; Jer 27:3--6, Ob erence to her husband (Gen 18:12), Lot used
1: 1-21). it in addressing the angehe visitors (Gen 19:2).
Such was and would be the pattern of Edom·s Abraham 's servant repeatedly called his mas-
history, that the Lord may be magnified beyond ter by it in Gen 24. The pharaoh of Egypt was
the border of Israel (Mal 1:5). What a clear illus- called by this title (Gen 40: 1), as weil as Joseph
tration of divine election, .. Jacob I loved and his "vizier" (Gen 42:10). Ruth used it of Boaz
Esau l hated" (Rom 9: 13). before they were married (2: 13). Hannah ad-
dressed Eli the priest by this term (I Sam 1: I 5).
'ädömi. Edomite. This adjective is the gentilic
Saul's servants called him by the title as weil (1
of "edom. lt occurs eleven times.
Sam 16:16). Likewise, officers less than the king,
Bibliography: Woudstra, M. H., "Edom and
such as Joab, had this appellation (II Sam 11:9).
Israel in Ezekiel,., Calvin Theolo1<ical Journal 3:
In I Kgs 16:24 there is the unique reading
21-35.
··shemer, 'owner· of the hill, Samaria." The
L.J.C.
prophet Elijah bore the title "lord" (1 Kgs 18:7).
However, there are numerous passages, par-
ticularly in Psalms, where these forms, which are
the only ones to apply to men, refer to God.
C;IO".T!'.t
('tidamiddäm). See no. 26g. Exodus 34:23 combines "the Lord, YHWH, the
•Ji~,tc ( 'admoni). See no. 26h. God of Israel" (hä'ädön yhwh · elöhe yisrä'e/).

12
 28.1 ,;,-,'j~
('iidarkon)

Deuteronomy 10:17 uses both the singular and which is majestic. Because of the infrequent ver-
plural in the construction "Lord of lords" bal usage in Hebrew and its occurrence in pre-
('ö.döne hä't1dönim; cf. Ps 136:3). In Ps 8:1 [H 2] dominantly poetic passages, 'ädar may be a
God has the title "YHWH our Lord" (yhwh North Canaanite loanword. Phoenician attests
'ädönenu). The Messiah bears this title in Ps 'ädar as a verb ("tobe mighty"), in the Piel, "to
1l0:1. make great,,. an adjective ("great, mighty"), and
Several personal names include the element a noun ("noble, upper class"). In Ugaritic 'dr
'adiini: Adoni-bezek (Jud 1:5): Adonizedek (Josh means upper class or mighty. As an adjective it
10:1); Adonijah (three men, I Kgs 1:8; II Chr refers to the material from which Aqhat's bow is
17:8; Neh 10:17); Adonikam (Ezr 2:13); and made (2 Aqht 6:20-23.) The noun 'eder should be
Adoniram (1 Kgs 4:6). differentiated from f;örfm "nobles," and särim
When 'ädön appears in the special plural form, "princes." As an adjective 'ad dir should be
with a first common singular pronominal suffix compared to words like 'iimi,r, f?ä'{m, 'ayil et al.
('ö.dönä[y]), it always refers to God. lt appears in The root occurs forty-six times.
this form more than three hundred times, mostly This root is frequently used in reference to
in Psalms, Lamentations, and the latter prophets. God. Moses sings that God showed that he was
Just as ·elöhim (God) is plural in Hebrew, so this mighty in holiness by delivering the people from
word might also be called an intensive plural or Egypt (Ex 15:10). Here the idea of superior
plural of majesty. Only rarely is the suffix trans- power is set forth (cf. v. 6). His demonstrated
lated (cf. Gen 18:3; Isa 21:8; Ps 16:2). power over Egypt made his majesty known and
To avoid the risk of taking God's name feared by the Philistines (1 Sam 4:8). Although
(YHWH) in vain, devout Jews began to sub- the sin of the Israelities caused sporadic defeats,
stitute the word 'ädönii(y) for the proper name God's eternal sovereignty subsequently over-
itself. Although the Masoretes left the four origi- came those kings who claimed temporary
nal consonants in the text, they added the vowels superiority (Ps 136:18). God's name is acclaimed
e (in place of ii for other reasons) and ii to remind as glorious over all in power and majesty (Ps 8: 1
the reader to pronounce 'tidönii(y) regardless of !H 2]). His exclusive lordship (power) over
the consonants. This feature occurs more than oceanic waves (Ps 93:4) and mountains (Ps 76:4
six thousand times in the Hebrew Bible. Most [H 51) is rightly expressed by 'iidar.
translations use all capital letters to make the title Not only is God exalted, but he sovereignly
"LORD." Exceptions are the ASV and New exalts other things, e.g. his law (lsa 42:21) whose
World Translation which use ··Jehovah," majesty God will vindicate. God raised up Israel
Amplified which uses "Lord, .. and JB which uses and clothed her with majesty. Ezekiel uses the
"Yahweh." What those cautious Jews did was figures of a vine and tree to describe how God
similar to our custom of saying "that is" when cuts off and exalts Israel at will (Ezk 17:8, 23; cf.
we see the abbreviation „ i.e." in the text. Later Zech 11:3).
the Jews substituted other words such as "the
name," "the blessed," or "heaven" (cf. Mk 'addir. Mighty, majestic (adj.); noble, principal,
14:61-62). stately. When used substantively, 'addir paral-
In those places where 'adönii(y) yhwh occurs lels "mighty ones" (Jud 5:13), "rulers" (Jer
the latter word is pointed with the vowels from 30:21), and is sandwiched between "captains"
'e/öhfm, and the English renderings such as and "governors" (II Chr 23:20) as the leaders of
"Lord GOD" arose (e.g. Arnos 7:1). postexilic Israel. In the difficult verse Ps 16:3 it
Bibliography: Zimmerman, Frank, "'EI and seems to refer to the saints. In the eschaton the
Adonai,'' VT 12: 190--95. Richardson, TWB, p. Messiah is described as the one who will be over
130. TDNT, III, pp. I058--S6. TDOT, I, pp. Israel (Jer 30:21) as the 'addir. This is tobe none
59-72. THAT, I, pp. 31-37. other than Jehovah himself (lsa 33:21).
R.L.A. 'adderet. Mantle, cloak, majesty (noun); noble,
majestic (ac/.j.). The noun and adjective are used
28 *iiM (' ädar) to be majestic (occurs twice interchangeably (Ezk 17:8, 23; Zech 11:3). The
fn' the Niphal and once in the Hiphil). noun "mantle" is at first surprising, but it refers
to a costly robe (Josh 7:21) or prophets' mantle,
Derivatives etc. (II Kgs 2:8).
Bibliography: Ahlstrom, G., "'OR," VT 17:
28a "i'.'!1-1( · eder) glory, magnificence; man-
·,ie, cloak. 1-2.
28b ti•i!'C ( ·addir) majestic.
L.J.C.
28c tri,'.'!l't (' adderet) glory, cloak. 28.1 ,;,.,,M('
adarkön) daric. This Persian
Basically, this root connotes that which is loan w~~d is probably to be distinguished from
superior to something eise, and, therefore, that dark'mönfm "drachma," no. 453c. (So KB.)

13
29 :lt'.f~(' aheb)
29 ::,1;1 ( 'aheb) love, like, be in luve, lovely. while Isaiah charged them with loving to sleep
(56: 10). The verb itself is sometimes an infinitive,
Derivatives as in Josh 22:5 and Isa 56:6. At least once it is a
29a t:::ii:t ( 'a/wh) love. gerund, "a time to love .. (Eccl 3:8).
29b t::,K t ·,J/wh) love. The participles often translate as „friend."
29c t:,;r)i:t ('ah<ihti) love. From II Chr 20:7 comes !he notion that Abraham
is the „friend„ of God. As noted above, the En-
There is little variation in the basic meaning of glish word "lover, .. translating the Pie! partici-
this verb. The intensity of the meaning ranges
ple. often carries a derogatory connotation imply-
from God·s infinite affection for his people to the
ing prostitution (Hos 2:7; 9: 12;.Ezk 16:33, 36-37;
carnal appetites of a lazy glutton.
Jer 22:20, 22; 30: 14; Lam 1:19; Zech 13:6, etc.).
The verb appears in all moods of the Qal stem
plus Niphal participle and Pie! participle. The six- 'ahab. Love, lovely, lovers. (KJV and most oth-
teen Piels are not intensive, but usually refer to ers.) Berkeley translates "love-gifts" in Hos 8:9
illicit „lovers:· The prophets Jeremiah (22:20, and JB renders "fair" in Prov 5:19. This word
22; 30:14), Ezekiel (16:36; 23:5, et al.), and Hosea occurs only in these two passages and is plural in
(2:5-13) use the word to speak of lsraers adulter- both. The passage in Prov carries a good conno-
ous relations. Zechariah has the word in the pre- tation, '"lovely doe," but in Hosea the connota-
sumably messianic passage, .. l was wounded in tion is negative, "hired lovers."
the house of my friends .. ( 13:6).
'alzeh frequently describes love between
'öhab. Love. The JB translates "delight" in
Prov 7: 18.
human beings. The love of father for son is
This word means the object of love in Hos
exemplified by Abraham and Isaac (Gen 22:2)
and Israel and Joseph (Gen 37:3). A slave might 9: 10, where it is parallel to "shame" and "Baal."
„love„ his master and wish to identure himself to There it may be parsed as an infinitive construct.
him for the rest of his life ( Ex 21 :8). This is the In Prov 7:18, its only other occurrence, 'öhab
word used in the rule ·· /01·e your neighbor as also has an illicit overtone.
yourse1r· (Lev 19:18). "Love„ ofthe stranger is 'ahäbä. Love. Typical of abstractions in He-
also incumbent on the faithful (Deut 10:19). Sam- brew this noun is feminine. Like the cognates
son had apparently told Delilah that he „loved„ which share the same root letters, the meaning is
her (Jud 14:16: 16: 15). Ruth „loved„ Naomi her .. love ...
mother-in-law (4: 15). Elkanah "loved„ his wife The noun 'ahäbti describes the love of hus-
Hannah (1 Sam 1:5). and Rebekah „loved„ her band toward wife, as that of Jacob for Rache!
son Jacob (Gen 25:28). Hiram·s "love„ for David (Gen 29:20). God·s '"love" for his people is des-
illustrates international friendship or irenic poli- ignated by the same word (Deut 7:8; II Chr 2: 11;
tics between the two (1 Kgs 5: 1). Notice that et al.). Jonathan's affection for David is also
nowhere is the love of children toward parents 'a/zähä (I Sam 18:3; 20:17; cf. II Sam 1:26).
mentioned. Rather. they are to honor. revere, 'ahähü occurs frequently in the wisdom litera-
and obey. ture and a few times in the !alter prophets. Prov-
People may love things concrete or abstract. erbs uses the word in its most abstract form:
Isaac „loved„ savory meat (Gen 27:4): others are ··Iove covers all sins" ( 10:12), '"better a dinner
said to „love„ oil (Prov 21:17). silver (Eccl 5:9). where love is·· (15: 17; cf. Eccl 9: I, 6). Naturally,
and gifts (lsa 1:23). The Psalmist „loved„ God·s the word is used in the Song of Solomon. lt is the
commandments (Ps 119:47). law (v. 97). tes- term for „love'" in several familiar verses. "His
timonies (v. 119). and precepts (v. 159). Men can banner over me is love" (2:4). "I am sick of
"love„ evil (Ps 52:3 IH 51), or death (Prov 8:36). love .. (2:5; 5:8). "Love is strong as death" (8:6).
vanity (Ps 4:2 iH 3 ]). cursing (Ps 109:17). or a .. Many waters cannot quench love" (8:7).
false oath (Zech 8: 17). Or they can "love„ good Famous passages in the prophets use this word
(Arnos 5:15). truth aml peace (Zech 8:19). salva- as weil. .. ! have loved you with an everlasting
tion (Ps 40:lo iH 171). and wisdom (Prov 29:3). love .. (Jer 31 :3)... I drew them ... with bands of
God has commanded man to „love„ him (Deut love·· (Hos 11:4). ·· And what does the LORDre-
6:5). and the Psalms contain testimonies of quire of you but to do justice and to love mercy„
obedience to that commandment ( 116:1; 145:20). (Mic 6:8). lit. '"the love of mercy" ('ahlihat
Conversely, God „loves" men. especially his l1esed).
people Israel (Deut 4:37: lsa 43:4; Mal 1:2). The Bibliography: Audet, Jean-Paul. "Love and
Lord also „loves„ other things. such as the gates Marriage in the Old Testament, .. Scripture 10:
ofZion (Ps 87:2). righteousness andjudgment (Ps 65~3. McCarthy, DennisJ., ··Noteson the Love
33:5). and the holy temple (Mal 2:11). In a few ofGod in Deuteronomy and the Father-Son Rela-
places the verb introduces an infinitive. Jeremiah tionship Between Yahweh and Israel," CBQ 27:
( 14:10) accused the people of loving to wander, 144-47. McKay, J. W., "Man·s Love for God in

14
 35 iiiti~ (' aharon)
Deuteronomy and the Father/Teacher-Son/Pupil The tabernacle was essentially a tent, com-
Relationship," VT 22: 426-35. Moran, William posed of two layers of cloth and two layers of
L., "The Ancient Near Eastern Background of skins stretched over a wooden framework (Ex
the Love of God in Deuteronomy," Interp 19: 26:7, 14-15). lt is designated "tent of meeting"
399-411. Torrance. T. F., "The Doctrine of ('öhel mö'ed, Ex 33:7-11, etc.), as weil as "tent
Grace in the Old Testament," SJT 1: 55-65. oftestimony" ('öhel 'ediit, Num 9:15; 17:22-23,
TDNT, I, pp. 21-35; IX, pp. 124-27, 154-59. etc.)
TDOT, I, pp. 99--117. THAT, I, pp. 60-72.
'ohölä, 'ohölibä. Oholah, Oholibah. Ezekiel
R.L.A.
uses these nouns as symbolic names for Samaria
and Jerusalem: Oholah ("her tent") and
30 i'IMM('ahäh) alas, ah in most translations, Oholibah ("my tent is in her,,,' Ezk 23 :4, etc.).
but also "oh" (JB, Joel 1: 15), "0" (NEB, Jer
The names Oholiab (tent of the father, Ex 31:6)
4: 10), and "oh no" (NAB, Ezk 4: 14).
and Oholibamah (tent ofthe high place, Gen 36:2,
41) are from this noun.
This interjection is common to both Hebrew Bibliography: Ben-Mordecai, C. A., "The
and English; the translation "ah" is practically a Tent of Meeting (Ex 33, 7-11 ), .. JQR 30: 399-
transliteration (though the Oxford English Dic- 401. Clifford, R. J ., "The Tent of EI and the ls-
tionary does not suggest a Hebrew derivation of raelite Tent of Meeting," CBQ 33: 221-27. Guil-
"ah." lts origin is obscure). In most places it is lebaud, M.L.G., "The Tent over the Taberna-
used with "Lord GOD" (Josh 7:7; Jud 6:22; Jer cle," EQ 31: 90--96. Haran, Menahem, "The Na-
1:6; 4: 10; 14:13; 32: 17; Ezk 4: 14; 9:8; 11: 13; other ture of the 'Ohel mo'edh in Pentateuchal
occurrences are Jud 11:35; II Kgs 3:10; 6:5, 15; Sources," fss 5: 50--65. Morgenstern, Julian,
Joel 1:15). "The Ark, the Ephod, and the Tent," HUCA 17:
Bibliography: THAT, I, p. 73. 153-265; 18: 1-52. ---, "The Tent of Meet-
R.L.A. ing," JAOS 38: 125-39. TDOT, 1, pp. 118-29.
J.P.L.
31 •M~ ('ehi) where (Hos 13:10, 14).
33 *':>MM( ·ähal) II, to be clear, shine. Occurs
32 ':>::itc(' ähal) l, to pitch a tent. Denomina- ~~ce (in the Hiphil), in Job 25:5.
tive verb.
Parent Noun 34 ':>MM
(' h/) III. Assumed root of the following.
34a ':>:;itc( ·iihäl) aloes.
32a t':>t:i'
M (' öhel) tent, dwelling.
Derivatives M;'?titc ('ohöliba). See no. 32c.
32b tM?titc (' ohöla) Oholah. 35 ,;-.r,~ ('aharon) Aaron. The older brother
32c tM;'?titc (' ohloliba) Oholibah. o"rMoses. A Levite and the first high priest.
This verb occurs in the Qal (Gen 13:12, 18) and
Piel (Isa 13:20). The Bible records that Aaron was the son of
Amram (1 Chr 6:3). Aaron was the spokesman for
'öhel. Dwelling, home, tabernacle, tent (ASV Moses, who had complained to God that he was
and Rsv similar). slow of speech (Ex 4:10--14).
'öhel, a masculine noun, occurs 340 times and Aaron married Elisheba the daughter of Am-
is used for the animal skin or goat's hair (Song minadab the sister ofNahshon (Ex 6:23) and they
1:5) dwelling of nomadic people (Gen 4:20; 13:5; had four sons: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and
18:16; 25:27; etc.), shepherds (Jer 6:3), women lthamar. The first two "offered strange fire" and
(Gen 31:33; Jud 4:17; cf. Isa 54:2), warriors (I died near the tabernacle (Lev 10: 1-2; Num 3:4).
Sam 17:54; Jer 37:10; etc.), and cattle (II Chr The other two served as priests under Aaron until
14:14). lt is also used for the bridal tent (II Sam he died, and then Eleazar became the high priest
16:22). (Num 20:26).
The word ·öhel continued tobe used for a habi- With Hur, Aaron held up Moses' arms, bearing
tation or home (I Kgs 8:66; 12:16; Ps 91: 10; Jud the rod ofGod, during the battle with Amalek (Ex
19:9), including David's palace (lsa 16:5) long 17: 12).
after the lsraelites had adopted more permanent According to Ex 30, Aaron 's duties included
dwe!lings. 'öhel is figuratively used for the burning sweet incense daily (v. 7), lighting the
people of Edom (Ps 83:7), Qedar (Ps 120:5; Song Iamps nightly (v. 8), and making atonement
1:5), Judah (Jer 30:18), Cushan (Hab 3:7), and yearly (v. 10). Leviticus 16 outlines more respon-
others. The "tent of the daughter of Zion" (Lam sibilities. He was to bring certain sacrifices for
2:4) is a figure for Jerusalem. the atonement when he entered the holy place (v.

15
36 iM ('o)

3). He wore the holy linen coat, linen underwear, are in the books of Moses and particularly in the
a linen sash, and a linen mitre (v. 4). The actual legislation. Usually it introduces an alternative
procedures are described in the verses which fol- situation or an exception to a general principle. In
low in Lev 16. Lev 13:47-49 'o is used ten times.
lt was Aaron who was culpable in the golden R.L.A.
calf incident (Ex 32:35). One hears a note of in-
sincerity in his protest, "I cast it (i.e. the people's
gold) into the fire, and out came this calf' (Ex itc ('aw). See no. 40a.
32:24).
Aaron survived most of the wilderness journey
and died at the age of 123 (Num 33:39). Moses 37 :iM ('wb). Assumed roo't of the following.
and Eleazar witnessed his decease on Mount Hor 37a t:iM ('ob) one that hath a familiar
(Num 20:25-29). spirit (KJV and MV).
His name occurs only a few times in the histor- Modem versions have a variety of terms in-
ical books, once in the prophets (Mic 6:4), and cluding medium, ghost, spirit, spirit of the dead,
only eight times in the Psalms. The best known is necromancer, imd wizard. In Job 32:19 the word
Ps 133:1-2 (cf. Ex 30:25, 30): means wineskin or bottle (NEB "bellows").
Behold, how good and how pleasant it is Hoffner lists the following cognates: Sumerian
For brethren to dwell together in unity ! ab(.lal), Hittite a-a-bi, Ugaritic 'eb, and Assy-
lt is like the precious oil upon the head, rian abu (see bibliography).
That ran down upon the beard, The pair 'ob and yidd''oni (q.v.) often appear
Even Aaron's beard; together (Lev 19:31; 20:6, 27; Deut 18:11; I Sam
That came down upon the skirt of his garments. 28:3, 9; II Kgs 21:6; 23:24; II Chr 33:6; lsa 8: 19;
lt was, of course, the oil not the beard that ran 19:3). Since the former, which is feminine, refers
down to the skirt of his garments (cf. the NIV). to women who practice this variety of sorcery,
In the NT, Luke (1 :5) makes a note of and the other, which is masculine, refers to such
Elizabeth's descent from Aaron. Stephen refers men. The word yidd"'oni is derived from the root
to his outstanding sin of idolatry in the sermon "to know" (yada').
recorded in Acts 7:40. And, naturally, references God's people were commanded to stay away
to Aaron appear in Hebrews (5:4; 7: 11; 9:4). In from these occultists (Lev 19:31). In fact, the
this epistle, which stresses the superiority of punishment for turning to such "mediums" was
Christ to various other divine institutions and OT death by stoning (Lev 20:27). Naturally, 'ob is
personages (angels, Moses, the priesthood), included in the complete !ist of similar abomina-
Christ is superior to Aaron. Jesus, the Son of tions in Deut 18:10-11. All of these occupations
God, is called the great high priest (4: 14) who deal with the occult. Man has desired, from time
though personally without sin, is touched with immemorial, to know the future. In those days
the feelings of our infirmities (4: 15). As the argu- some occultists read cloud formations, others ex-
ment develops, the apostle asserts that Christ is amined livers (Ezk 21:21 [H 26)), while still oth-
of the lineage of Melchizedek, a pre-Levitical ers consulted ghosts.
priest-king (Heb 7: 11). Through chapter 9 of the The word 'ob apparently refers to those who
Epistle to the Hebrews its author underscores the consulted ghosts, because I Sam 28 describes one
superiority of Christ's work and continual minis- in action. The famous "witch" of En-dor is an
try, "But Christ having come a high priest of the 'ob. Although Saul had outlawed "witches" and
good things to come, through the greater and "wizards," he nevertheless consulted her. Dis-
more perfect tabernacle, not made with hands, guising himself, he had the "medium" bring up
that is to say, not of this creation, nor yet through Samuel from the dead. She was successful, and
the blood of goats and calves, but through his although he complained of being disturbed, he
own blood, entered in once for all into the holy announced to Saul the bad news that God was
place, having obtained eternal redemption" (vv. displeased and that Saul and his sons would die
11-12). the next day.
R.L.A. One explanation. of this phenomenon is that
God responded to the weakness of men and ac-
commodated himself to what he himself had for-
36 iM (' o) or, whether, not the least, if, other-
bidden. lt may have been that the woman was a
wise, also, and, then. bona fide and successful 'ob and that her other
The Ugaritic cognate is 'u and the Akkadian is successes were not hoaxes. Apparently this
'ü. diabolical device was a real threat to the faith of
This conjunction occurs almost three hundred God's people. On the other hand, the interview
times in the Hebrew Bible. Three-fourths of these may have come by way of a waking vision, sent

16
 38 iiN ('wd)

by God but without involving any actual trans- 'ed. Calamity, destruction, ruin, disaster, distress,
portation of Samuel from the dead, even though vengeance, trouble, misfortune, doom, te"or,
his appearance in this vision conveyed an authen- down/all, peril. Apart from one reference in Ezk
tic message from God. Note, the woman was her- 35:5), all twenty-two occurrences of 'ed appear
seif surprised. in poetical sections. lts use in Deut 32:35 is part
lsaiah discredits these "necromancers" and of the Song of Moses, and II Sam 22: 19 is identi-
implies by his choice of words that the sounds of cal to Ps 18:18 [H 19].
spirits so raised are nothing more than ven- The expression "day of calamity" constitutes
triloquism: "The mediums and the wizards who one-third of the references. lt is parallel to
chirp and mutter" (8:19). lsaiah makes two more "doom" ( 'litfdot) in Deut 32:35, "day of wrath"
analogies to the sounds made by an ·ob: "From ('abärot) in Job 21:30, and "the time of their
low in the dust your words shall come ... your punishment" (p'qüddätäm) in Jer 46:21. Note
speech shall whisper out of the dust" (29:4). that Ezk 35:5 has "the time of their calamity"
There is apparently no connection between the parallel to "the time of their final punishment"
kind of black magic implied by the word ·ob and ('awon qe~). In Ob the expression "day of their
Elihu's use of it in Job 32: 19. The near-universal calamity" appears three times in one verse (13).
judgment that 'ob means "wineskin" in this In Job 31:23, 30:12, and Ps 18:18 (parallel to II
verse indicates that any relationship between the Sam 22:19), the righteous sufferer is in view.
words is very tenuous. They may simply be Otherwise the wicked person or nation deserves
chance homonyms. "destruction." Proverbs 1:26-27 and 6: 15 illus-
One of the stops during the wilderness wander- trate the former while Jer 48: 16 and 49:32 picture
ings was Oboth ( ·obbt) which looks like a plural the lauer.
of 'ob (Num 21: 10-11; 33:43-44). Yet it might be This word is to be distinguished from the
translated as "place of waterskins" or the like, Sumerian loan word 'ed (i~). meaning "mist" or
which sounds more suitable for the name of a "flood" (see below).
place than "sorcerers."
'ed. Mist (KJV, Asv, Rsv,) vapor (Berkley Ver-
Other terms for diviners and divination are:
'ittf, 'änan, 'ashshap, ~arrom, yidd'"onf, käshap,
sion) jlood (JB, NEB)stream (NAB).These are the
na~ash, qäsam. various translations of Gen 2:6. Most versions
translate "mist" in Job 36:27.
Bibliography: Gaster, M., "Divination
Based on these two biblical contexts and the
(Jewish)," in Encyclopedia of ReliRion and
Akkadian and Sumerian cognates, edu and
Ethics, IV, Scribners, 1955. Hoffner, Harry, Jr.,
A.DE.A respectively, the meanings other than
"Second Millennium Antecedents to the Hebrew
'ob," JBL 86: 385-401. Lust, J., "On Wizards "mist" and "vapor" have been suggested. Ear-
and Prophets," Supp VT 26: 133-42. Montague, lier translators did not have access to the ancient
Summers, The History of Witchcraft. U niversity cuneiform languages which help to determine the
Books, 1956. Rabin, Chaim, "Hittite Words in meaning of these difficult words. The LXX trans-
Hebrew," Or 32: 113-39. TDOT, I, pp. 130-33. lators guessed at n:riyiJ(spring) in Genesis and
VEqJEAl] (cloud) in Job. The Akkadian edü- refers
R.L.A.
to the annual inundation of Babylon by the Eu-
phrates as weil as to irrigation. If Eden was
watered by floods and irrigation rather than rain,
,;1H ('uba[). See no. 835g.
it may have been located in an area like southern
Mesopotamia where it does not rain. Such a loca-
tion would suggest that the paradisiacal situation
38 iiK ( 'wd). Assumed root of the following. was not worldwide but peculiar to Eden's im-
38a iiK ( 'uc/) brand, firebrand (Arnos 4: 11; mediate environs.
Zech 3:2; lsa 7:4). The Jobpassage is rich with meteorological de-
38b t:iiiK (' odil) cause.
tails. However, "mist" is not demanded there;
38c t,;~ (' ed) distress, calamity. one of the several options such as "stream"
38d ti~ ( 'ed) mist.
would weil fit.
'ödä. Because, cause, concerning, sake, about, Bibliography: Harris, R. Laird, "The Mist,
of, that, on account of. This feminine noun oc- the Canopy, and the Rivers of Eden," JETS 11:
curs only in the plural (' bdot or 'odot) and is 177-79. Saebo, Wayne, "Die hebräischer
always preceded by the preposition 'al meaning Nomina 'ed und 'ed," Studia Theoi<>Ria24:
"for" (except in II Sam 13:16 where most assume 130-41. THAT, I, pp. 122-24. Speiser, E. A.,
the 'al is an orthographic irregularity). Otherwise "'ED in the story ofCreation" Oriental and Bib-
the word appears in Gen 21:11, 25; 26:32; Ex lical Studies, Collected Writings, Univ of Phila.
18:8;Num 12:1; 13:24: Josh 14:6; Jud 6:7; and Jer Press, 1967, pp. 23-34.
3:8. R.L.A.

17
39 MiN ( 'wh)
39 MiK ('wh) I. Assumed root of the following. that is probably a different word built instead on a
39a •~ ('i) /, coast, region. root tä' a "to designate" or it may be a noun from
·awa II "a mark," therefore "a boundary."
40 M)t' ('awa) II, desire, long, lust, covet, wait R.L.A.
/ongingly, wish, sigh, crave, want, be greedy,
prefer.
41 *Mlt' ('äv.·a)III, sign, mark, describe with a
Derivatives mark. Occurs only in the Hithpael (Num
34: 10).
40a t,~ ( ·aw) desire.
40b t:,~~ ('awwa) desire. Derivative
40c •j~r, (ma'away). desire.
41a tl"liK ('ot) sign, mark, token, ensign,
40d t:'TJ~!'I (ta'awa) desire.
standard, miracle, miraculous sign,
Often the subject of this verb is nepesh mean- proof, warning.
ing variously "seif," "soul," "appetite" (e.g.
'öt. This is the general word for "sign," and it
Deut 12:20; 14:26; I Sam 2: 16; I Kgs 11:37; Job
covers the entire range of the English term and
23:13; Isa 26:9). Sometimes the object is "meat''
the Greek word semeion. On the pedestrian end
(Deut 12:20), "fruit" (Mic 7: 1), or delicate food
of the scale it includes what amounts to a
(Prov 23:3, 6). The object may be "evil" itself "signboard" or "standard" (Num 2:2). lt also
(Prov 21:10) or a "kingdom" (II Sam 3:21; I Kgs
includes such important concepts as the rainbow
11:37). Occasionally the object is unspecific. Ac-
"sign" to Noah (Gen 9:12-13, 17).
cording to Num 11:4 the people ··1usted a tust'' or
1. ·ot first occurs in Gen 1: 14, where it refers
"feit a gluttonous craving" (JPS). Other examples
to the luminaries serving as "signs" to distin-
are Prov 21:26 and Eccl 6:2.
guish the seasons. In Jer 10:2 it has a similar
The last of the Ten Commandments in the form
meaning.
given in Deut uses this word: "Do not ·covet'
2. According to Gen 4:15, the Lord set a
your neighbor's house" (Deut 5:21b). In the
"mark" on Cain. The meaning of this word is
phrase "do not 'covet' your neighbor's wife"
uncertain.
(Deut 5:21 a), the Hebrew verbis }Jmd. }Jmd is the
3. A third use of the word is illustrated by Gen
only verb in the Ex parallel.
9:12-13, 17, according to which the rainbow is a
Of the twenty-seven occurrences of the word
"sign" of the covenant. Circumcision is the
only four are in the prophets. Perhaps the best
"sign" in Gen 17:11. Also, the Sabbath is tobe a
known is Arnos 5: 18, "Woe to you that 'desire'
"sign," according to Ex 31: 13, 17 and Ezk 20: 12.
the day of the LORD."
lt is this use of "sign" that is meant when Chris-
Numbers 34: 10 uses this verb (or another verb
tians refer to the ordinances as outward "signs"
spelled identically) in a unique way. There it
of inward grace.
means "point out" (KJV), and many modern
4. Most of the eighty occurrences of ·öt refer
translations render "draw a line for" a border.
to "miraculous signs." All the plagues on the
Possibly this is derived from täwa (q.v.) meaning
Egyptians are called "signs." In these contexts
in the Hiphil "make a sign."
the complementary word mopet (q.v.) meaning
'aw. Desire. Proverbs 31 :4 has the only occur- "wonders" often occurs (Ex 7:3; Deut 4:34; 6:22;
rence of ·aw. lt may be a shortened masculine 7: 19; 26:8; Neh 9: 10; Isa 20:3; et al.). This word
form of the feminine noun 'awwa (q.v.) also 'ot is used in Isaiah's famous prophecy to Ahaz
meaning "desire." Because it appears in con- (7: 11, 14). The shadow's advance on the palace
struct it is pointed 'ew (in the Qere text). steps was a "sign" for the ailing king Hezekiah
(II Kgs 20:9; lsa 38:7). Likewise God showed
'awwä. Desire, lust, will. This feminine noun
Gideon a "sign" by igniting the offered food (Jud
appears in Deut 12:15, 20-21; 18:6; I Sam 23:20; 6: 17). .
Jer 2:24; Hos 10:10. Note that 'awwa occurs in
5. The word 'ot sometimes means "token."
construct with nepesh (souVmind) in all passages
except the last one. For example, Aaron's rod was tobe a "warning
to the rebellious" (Num 17:25 NAB and Heb, v. 10
ta'Awä. Desire, p/easant, lust, greed, dainty, de- in other English versions). In the same category
sirable. Like the other nouns built from the root are the stones in the Jordan (Josh 4:6), the ham-
'wh ('aw and 'awwa), this noun has the meaning mered plates on the altar (Num 16:38 [H 17:3]),
of "desire" extending to both good and bad ob- and the witness pillar in Egypt (lsa 19:20).
jects. 6. A dreamer or a prophet, true or false, could
In Num 11:34-35 and 33:16-17, this feminine produce "signs" according to Deut 13:lff. The
noun forms part of the name of the station in the fulfillment of Jeremiah's threat of punishment
wildemess, qibrot-hatta'awa ("Graves of was a true "sign" (Jer44:29), while Isaiah speaks
Greed"). In Gen 49:26 it means "boundary," but of "signs" of liars (44:25).

18
 44 ',iN ('wl)

Naturally, these categories are artificial and -posit a gradation in the words for fool, ·ewil
overlap. The simple fact that one Hebrew word would be one step below k' sil and only one step
covers them all is proof of that. The word · · sign · · above niibiil (q. v .). An even stronger word in
either signifies the unusual event itself or in Prov is le~,often translated "scoffer." The 'ewil
someway points to that unusual event. Or it may is not only a k'' sil because of his choices, but he
point backward to a historical event such as the is also insolent.
stones in the Jordan (Josh 4:6), or even forward The ·ewil identifies himself as soon as he opens
to such a promise as a thornless future world (Isa his mouth. He would be wise to conceal his folly
55:13). by keeping quiet (Prov 17:28). When he starts
Bibliography: Knight, Harold, "The Old Tes- talking without thinking, ruin is at hand (Prov
tament Conception of Miracle," SJT 5: 355~ 1. 10: 14). While a wise man avoid6 strife, the fool
Pritchard, James B., "Motifs of Old Testament quarrels at any time (Prov 20:3). He cannot re-
Miracles," Crozer Quarterly 27: 97-109. strain himself and will "display his annoyance at
Richardson, TWB, p. 152. Robinson, H. W., once," whereas a wise man overlooks an insult
"The Nature-Miracles of the Old Testament," (Prov 12:16 NIV). A fool has no balance in his
JTS 45: 1-12. TDNT, VII, pp. 209-29. THAT, I, relations with others. The wisdom instructor in-
pp. 91-94. dicates that while stones and sand are most bur-
R.L.A. densome, a fool's anger is even more intolerable.
As indicated, 'ewil primarily refers to moral
42 •iM ('oy). Woe! Alas! Oh!
perversion or insolence, to what is sinful rather
This onomatopoetic interjection occurs than to mental stupidity. This kind of a fool de-
twenty-two tim es in the OT. Often the preposition spises wisdom and is impatient with discipline.
"to" with a first person pronoun ("me" or "us") He who does not fear God is a fool and will be
follows to indicate despair. Isaiah 6:5 is an exam- unable to grasp wisdom or benefit from godly dis-
ple: "Woe to me because I am undone!" With the cipline (Prov 1:7). While the wise accept godly
second or third person pronoun it indicates threat instruction, the boastful or babbling fool who re-
or denunciation. Numbers 21 :29 illustrates this: jects it will fall down by the predicaments he
"Woe to you, Moab!" makes for himself (Prov 10:8). Because a fool
Possibly the slang expression Oy! in English is feels that his own way is without error, he does
a transliteration of this Hebrew word coming into not seek or listen to counsel as the wise one does.
English through Yiddish. The fool is overbearing in his attitude since he
Bibliography: Wanke. Gunther. •iK und '1:'I," has all the answers (Prov 12:15). A fool despises
ZAW 78: 215-18. his father's instructions, in contrast to the one
R.L.A. who shows good sense in regarding reproof (Prov
15:5). This kind of fool is also licentious, taking
43 mM (' wh) IV. Assumed root of the following.
sinful enjoyment with a wayward woman (Prov
43a •~ ('i) II, jackal. 7:22).
43b ;,~~ ( 'ayya) hawk, falcon, kite. This moral perversion is seen in the statement,
"Fools mock at guilt" (Prov 14:9). The word for
guilt can also mean the trespass offering (Lev 5).
''lt' ('ewi/), '?'1~ ('ewi/i). See no. 44a,b. Thus the fool scorns and despises restitution for
the injuries and sins he commits (NIV, "mock at
making amends for sin"). He flouts his responsi-
44 'i1M ( 'w/) I. Assumed root of the following.
bility to the community as a responsible person.
44a t',•1~ ( ·ewil) foolish. On a contrary note the upright (or wise) have a
44b t-';>itt ( 'ewili) foolish (Zech II: 15).
good reputation and are weil liked.
44c tl"\~~M (' iwwe/el) folly, foolishness,
Even if a fool were pounded with a pestle in a
/oolish. (Asv, RSVsimilar.)
mortar along with the grain, no desirable results
'ewil. Fool, foolish, foolish man, although the would follow (Prov 27:22).
word is rendered "fool" in twenty of twenty-six A deplorable situation was seen in the northern
usages (Asv same, Rsv similar). kingdom, when Hosea was called an ·ewil by the
Some derive ·ewil from yii ·al "be foolish," general populace (Hos 9:7). The people had for-
while another possibility is from an Arabic word gotten the law of God (Hos 4:6) and they consid-
meaning "be thick," and therefore "thick- ered the precepts of the law a strange thing (8: 12).
brained"or "stupid ... In their perversity they regarded the teaching of
The NIVrenders "fool"' in Prov 1:7 with a foot- the prophet as being contrary to their world view.
note: "The Hebrew words rendered Jool in Prov- Actually, through their twisted judgment, they
erbs, and often elsewhere in the OT denote one gave themselves away as fools. The adjectival
who is morally deficient." Such a person is lack- use of foolish follows the same idea of the noun · s
ing in sense and is generally corrupt. If one can moral insolence. The tragedy is that this condi-

19
45 ',iN ('wl)
tion will never lead the foolish to know the Lord
<Jer 4:22).
45k
451
,~!:'('ayyä/)
t:,7~~('ayyäla)
stag, deer.
doe.
'iwwelet. Folly, foolishness, each twelve
'uläm. Porch, hall. (ASV uses "porch"; RSV
times, is associated with a k'si/ and overlaps in
has "porch, hall," or "vestibule. ") Sometimes
meaning. Thus, a fool displays his folly, i.e., his
equated with 'eläm. l occurs mainly in I Kgs and
'iwwelet (Prov 13: 16). The folly ( 'iwwelet) of
Ezk as part of a temple or palace. Apparently it
fools is deceit (Prov 14:8). One is regarded a fool
because of his folly ('iwwelet), since folly seems was an enclosed porch or entrance hall, since it
could have windows (Ezk 41:26) and is compared
a special product of fools (k" silfm).
to a palace (I Kgs 7:8).
But the aspect of moral insolence is prominent.
A quick-tempered man acts foolishly and is likely The question of the porch is bound up with the
to do things he might later regret (Prov 14:17). reconstruction of the temple, which is uncertain.
Likewise one who is quick-tempered makes his The older view was that the temple had two
folly prominent to attract the attention of others rooms like the tabemacle, a main hall and the
(Prov 14:29). A foolish man perverts his own holy of holies. There was also a porch out front.
way. His kind of way is his own fault, not God's The view favored by many today is that it was a
(Prov 19:3). Discipline is important to children three-room temple like Syrian temples that have
because foolishness is part of a child's nature. A been found. W. F. Albright held that the two pil-
remedy for correction is the rod of discipline in lars out front were free standing and totally out-
order to drive the foolishness from him (Prov side the structure (Archaeology and the Religion
of Israel, Johns Hopkins Press, 1946, pp. 143-
22: 15). One must keep in mind that this discipline
48). More recent study would suggest that the
is important to curb moral insolence that might
lead in turn to rebellion against God. Proverbs front of the building was really a half-porch or
emphasizes the necessity for discipline (13:24; vestibule with an open front. The two side walls
23: 13-14; 29: 15). But it is to be tempered with may have had windows (though Ezk 41:26 may
compassion and concem (1:8-9), The folly of a refer to windows in the front wall of the high main
quick-tempered person is contrasted with the hall that rose above the porch). In any case, the
great understanding (te buna, q. v.) of one slow to front of the vestihule would have been open with
anger (Prov 14:29). Similarly, the senseless find the roof supported by the side walls and the two
joy in folly, while by contrast the one who walks great pillars in front. This arrangement would
straight is a man of understanding. have given a very imposing entrance similar to the
palaces at Megiddo and elsewhere (D. Ussishkin,
'i!wili. Foolish. Used only once in the sense "King Solomon's Palaces," BA 36:85-98).
of an overseer in Zech II: 15, describing the The height of the porch was surely not 120
foolish shepherd who had no concem for the (cubits) (II Chr 3:4, KJV) but 20 cubits (some LXX
people to whom he was to minister. MSS). Probably the consonants for cubit 'mh be-
Bibliography: Donald, Trevor, "The Seman- came reversed and were read as one hundred
tic Field of 'Folly' in Proverbs, Job, Psalms, and m'h.
Ecclesiastes," VT 13: 285-92. Greenstone, A "porch" or "hall" figures prominently in
Julius, Proverbs, Jewish Publication Society, connection with Solomon's temple, his palace
1950. Harris, R. Laird, "Proverbs," in WBC. complex, and the temple of Ezk 40-48. lt is never
Kidner, Derek, Proverbs, Inter-Varsity; 1964, used in connection with any other building. Ac-
pp. 39-41. Walker, W. L., "Folly," in ISBE, II, cording to I Kgs 6:3, the hall in front of Sol-
pp. 1124-25. TDOT, I, pp. 137-39. THAT, I, pp. omon' s temple was twenty cubits wide and ten
77-78. cubits deep. Its width equaled that of the temple
L.G. proper. This entrance hall added a third section
to the holy place and holy of holies of the taber-
45 mc
1 ('w/) II. Assumed root of the following. nacle. In the front ofthis "porch" or "vestibule"
45a 1mc ('ü/) I, body, belly (Ps 73:4). were set up the two pillars, Jachin and Boaz (1
45b 1mc ( 'ü/) II, leading man, noble (II Kgs 7:21). The excavators of Arad think that they
Kgs 24: 15). have found a porch area in the sanctuary at that
45c tc'?~M ('ü/äm) I, porch. site. The altar of burnt offering was built in front
45d t'?;M (' ayil) /, ram. of the porch (II Chr 8: 12), and this juxtaposition
45e t'?•~ ( 'ayil) II, door post, jambs, of porch and altar is noted elsewhere also (II Chr
pilaster. 15:8; cf. Matt 23:55). In Ezk 8: 16 wicked men are
45f t',•a,c ( 'ayil) III, leader. seen at the entrance to the temple, "between the
45g t',•~ (. ayi/) IV, terebinth. porch and the altar,'' worshiping the sun with
45h t:i7!'( ('e/a) terebinth. their backs to God. J oel 2: 17 describes godly
45i tii ,ic
(' elon) terebinth. priests weeping and praying "between the porch
45j tc7•!'C ( ·eläm) portico. and the altar."

20
 45 ',iM ('w/)

The "porch" of Solomon's palace complex is from 'ül "to be first, in front of," pointing to the
not weil unders tood. The "hall of pillars" is as- ram as the leader of the flock. lt is mentioned
sociated with the "house of the forest of Leba- prominently in the Bible. The ram was valued for
non" (1 Kgs 7:2, 6). This hall of pillars, a colon- its wool (II Kgs 3:4) and its tasty meat (Gen
nade structure, measured fifty cubits by thirty, 31:38). Jacob presented rams along with other
and may have functioned as an entrance hall to animals as a gift to Esau (Gen 32: 15). The ratio of
the larger "forest of Lebanon" building. Another ten female lambs to one ram is typical in raising
porch or portico stood in front of the hall of pil- animals; the males are used for meat and the
lars (v. 6). The same word is used ofthe "hall of females kept for the next generation. lt is
the throne," also called the "hall of judgment" noteworthy that most animals sacrificed were
(v. 7). The exact relationship of this hall to the males. The sacrificial laws kJo were given in a
other "halls" or "porches" of v. 6 is prob- way that was not impractical. Rams or their wool
lematical. lt may have been directly adjacent to were included in the tribute payments which the
the royal residence itself. Verse 8 indicates that Moabite king Mesha made to Ahab (II Kgs 3:4)
Solomon built for Pharaoh's daughter a house and which the Arabians gave to Jehoshaphat (II
modelled after the "hall of the throne." Chr I 7: 11). Areas noted for their rams were
The largest number of references to "porch" Bashan and Nebaioth, which is probably
occur in Ezekiel 40-46 in connection with the Nabatea, in spite of the linguistic problem of the t
hard-visualize temple described by the proph- and (. Ram skins dyed red were an important
et. Several times the phrase "the porch of the covering for the tabemacle (Ex 25:5).
gate" occurs (40:7-8, 15, 39; 44:3). These Rams were frequently offered as sacrifices.
porches were porticos of the gates between the When God instituted his covenant with Abram, a
city and the outer court and the similar gates be- ram was one of the animals slain (Gen 15:9). On
tween the outer court and the inner. These gates Mount Moriah the ram caught in the bush became
are so described that we can compare them to the the substitute for the beloved Isaac (Gen 22: 13).
typical Solomonic gateways unearthed in The "ram of ordination" was sacrificed at the
Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer. The "prince" was consecration of Aaron and his sons to the priest-
to enter and leave the temple by way of this hood (Ex 29: I, 22). When the altar of the taber-
"porch of the gate" (44:3; 46:2, 8). There were nacle was dedicated, rams were among the otfer-
two tables on each side of this porch where the ings presented (Num 7:15, 21, etc.). Ezekiel
burnt offering, sin offering, and guilt otfering visualizes a ram as a bumt otfering at the dedica-
were to be slaughtered (40:39). Probably the tion of a new altar (Ezk 43:23, 25).
porch was also the place where the prince ate Rams were offered as regular sacrifices
bread before the Lord (44:3). throughout the year. Only a ram was tobe used
In 40:48-49 the dimensions of "the porch of for a guilt otfering (Lev 5: 15f.; 19:21-22), called a
the temple" are given as twenty cubits in length "ram of atonement" (Num 5:8). Often rams were
and eleven in width. These measurements are among the bumt offerings, linked with bulls and
almost identical to those of the porch of Sol- lambs. The order is usually given as bulls, rams,
omon' s temple. To reach the porch, a staircase and lambs (Num 28:11; I Chr 29:21). Rams for
flanked by pillars was provided (v. 49). burnt offerings were accompanied with grain of-
While many of the details regarding Ezekiel's ferings and liquid offerings, the amounts ofwhich
"porch" remain obscure, it is clear that greater were less than those used for bulls but greater
prominence is attached to this area and that, un- than those for lambs. They were offered at the
like Solomon·s temple, distinct activities are as- new moon festival (Num 28: I 1-14), Passover
sociated with it. (Num 28:19-20), Pentecost (Lev 23:18), and the
Bibliography: Vincent, L. H., Jerusalem de Day of Atonement (Lev 16:3, 5). Rams were also
/'Ancien Testament, II, Paris: J. Gabalda. 1956, slain as peace offerings (Lev 9:4f.). One ram for a
p. 428. IDB, II, pp. 513-14, 657. See John B. peace offering was prescribed to fulfill a nazirite
Taylor, Ezekiel (Tyndale), for a sketch of vow (Num 6:14, 17, 19). ·
Ezekiel's temple. Note especially the possible Rams are mentioned in several passages that
positions of the pillars in front of the structure or condemn the multiplication of sacrifices designed
within the entrance to the "porch." The latter to please God automatically (I Sam 15:22; Isa
position is favored by the Solomonic palaces at I: 11; Mic 6:7). These familiar verses while dem-
Megiddo. onstrating the importance of rams as sacrificial
The plan of the gateways to the courts is better animals, indicate the importance of the wor-
shown in W. Zimmerli Biblische Kommentar shiper's heart attitude.
zum A.T., II, pp. 1006, 1040. In Dan 8, the ram symbolizes the kings of
Media and Persia. In Ezk 34:17 "rams" are
'ayil /. Ram, male sheep. Like the word for paired with male goats as symbols ofthe rich and
"porch" ('ü/äm), "ram" is probably derived powerful in Israel. These tyrants use their homs

21
45 1,nc ('wl)

to oppress the weak ofthe tlock (v. 21). The im- to "burning with lust among the oaks." Accord-
plication is that God will conduct a sacrifice and ing to Hos 4:13-14, the shade provided by !arge
will destroy these fat and strong ones. trees made them desirable as "high places," i.e.
cultic shrines.
'ayil II. Projecting pillar, püaster. 'ayi/ occurs Another metaphorical usage (lsa 61 :3) calls the
once in I Kgs 6:31 and twenty-one times in Ezk faithful in Zion "oaks of righteousness," firmly
40-41. According to I Kgs these "pillars" or planted by the Lord to withstand evil.
"posts" were five-sided and were located at the A possible reference to 'ayil occurs in Ezk
entrance to the inner sanctuary of the temple. As 31: 14, where tall, proud trees, representing As-
depicted in Ezk, they feature palm tree orna- syria and Egypt, are felled by_the Lord.
ments (40:31) and are associated with the gates of
the temple area and with the porch of the temple. 'ela. Terebinth (usually the same in ASV,RSV).
Examples from the monarchy are described and The exact identification of this tree is disputed.
pictured in Albright, Archaeology of Palestine, Most versions translate the word by the term
Pelican, 1961, pp. 125-26. "oak." The tree is infrequently mentioned in
Scripture, being found in six distinct historical
'ayil III. Mighty, leader. Some authorities con- situations: where Jacob hid idols (Gen 35:4);
sider 'ayil III to be a separate word from 'ayil where an angel met Gideon (Jud 6: 11, 19); a val-
I, ram (BDB), while others treat it as part of it ley where David fought Goliath (1 Sam 17:2, 19);
(KB). There are only five possible usages of this where Absalom caught his hair (II Sam 18:9);
word. The first, in Ex 15: 15 (KJV,"mighty men"), where the unnamed prophet rested (I Kgs 13: 14);
compares the leaders of Moab with the chiefs of and where Saul's bones were buried (1 Chr
Edom. The plural form in each term shows that 10:12). lt is used as a symbol of judgment (lsa
the reference is not restricted to the king. 1:30; 6: 13) and under its limbs Israel committed
In Ezk, where "ram" is used symbolically (see idolatry (Ezk 6:13; Hos 4:13).
'ayi/ l, there are three instances of metaphorical
usage. Ezekiel 17: 13 refers to the "mighty of the 'elön. Terebinth, oak. (Asv and Rsv usually
land," the leaders and skilled workmen deported translate "oak" with a marginal note "tere-
from Israel by Nebuchadnezzar. A parallel pas- binth." The KJV erroneously translates as
sage is II Kgs 24: 15, which also contains the word "plain. ")
'ele as the preferred reading (Qere), though the lt is generally conceded to be the same as ·e/a.
the consonants in 'u/e (Kethib) may preserve the The tree figures often in Abraham's travels (Gen
original root 'u/ (see 'ayil l). These "leading 12:6; 13:18; 14:13; 18:1). A noted one is men-
men" were exiled along with King Jehoiachin, tioned near Ebal and Gerizim (Deut 11:30). The
his family, and officials. RSVtranslates the term on one occasion "divining
The singular form occurs in Ezk 31: 11, refer- oak" (Jud 9:37), while ASVfollows KJVin translat-
ring to the "despot of the nations," the king of ing "the oak of Meonenim." Apparently certain
Babylon who destroyed Assyria's power. There such trees became so famous as landmarks that
is some disagreement about Ezk 32:21. Many they were generally recognized by all as suitable
manuscripts have ·e/e instead of 'e/e. If the for specifying rendezvous.
former is correct, the expression refers to the 'eläm. Porch, portico (KJV "arches"). Closely
once "mighty leaders" who have gone down to related are ·uläm and ·ayil, II. 'eläm occurs
Sheol. some sixteen times, only in Ezk 40:16-36 and
always in the plural. These "porches," or "ves-
'ayil IV. Terebinth, oak. Probably from 'u/ "to
tibules" or "colonnades" are associated with the
be in front, prominent" (see 'ayi/ 1). The "oak of
guard rooms and side pillars of the gates of the
Paran" (El-paran) ofGen 14:6 may have been an
temple (vv. 16, 21, 29, 33, 36). They were appar-
important landmark because of its size (cf. the
ently side enclosures along the entire length of
"oak of Moreh" in Gen 12:6). Some scholars be-
the gateway, or enlarged areas at the end of the
lieve that 'ayil refers to a !arge tree, not a specific
gate. See the bibliography for suggested plans of
species. The terebinth grows to a thirty foot
these gateways.
maximum.
The word is closely related to 'e/a, another 'ayyälä. Doe, hind. This noun is the feminine
designation for the terebinth tree. In lsa 1:29-30 of 'ayyäl "stag, deer." lt is known in Ugaritic
the two words seem almost interchangeable. also ( 'y/t). All of its eleven occurrences are in
Modem translations alternate between "oak" poetic passages. Three times reference is made to
and "terebinth." the doe giving birth. In Ps 29:9 a thunderstorm
Of its five occurrences, the most important are called "the voice of the Lord" makes the doe go
in lsaiah. According to lsa 1:29, Zion will be into labor (cf. Job 39: 1). An alternative view as
ashamed of the oaks and gardens it has desired. old as R. Lowth (1815) is cited by Dahood though
This passage is clarified by Isa 57:5, which refers rejected by him (in AB, Psalms /, p. 179). lt

22
 48 m~('wn)
reads ·ayyälot "does" as ·e/ot or 'elot "oaks" 48 ?iH ( 'wn) I. Assumed root of the following.
and translates the line "makes the oaks bend." lt 48a mi:t ('äwen) trouble.
is not only difficult to have the reading that the 48b tc•;~~ (t''ünim) toll.
storm makes the does bear prematurely, but also
the parallel line speaks of the storm stripping the 'äwen. Trouble, sorrow, idolatry, wickedness, in-
forests-which would favor the reading "oaks" iquüy, emptiness. (RSVand NEB prefer "evil," and
(so the NIV). During a severe drought, the doe "mischief" over KJv's favorite, "iniqui-
gives birth only to abandon her young (Jer 14:5). ty. '') The primary meaningofthe word seems to
This is apparently unusual owing to the affection- have two facets: a stress on trouble which moves
ate nature of the doe (Prov 5: 19). on to wickedness, and an emphasis on emptiness
Another trio of verst:s refers to the doe as a which moves on to idofatry. The word is used
surefooted animal, able to make its way on high, eighty-five times. A noun from an identical root
dangerous terrain. The Psalmist rejoices that God 'wn II is pronounced 'on and means "vigor,
has made his feet like a doe·s feet in preparation wealth" (q.v.).
for battle (18:33 [H 34] = II Sam 22:34). Habak- The root does not occur in verbal forms; nor-
kuk uses the same imagery to exult in the security mally it functions as a masculine noun, some-
God gives (3:19). When Jacob blesses Naphtali, times as an adjective.
he predicts that the tribe will be · · a doe let loose" One of the basic meanings of 'äwen is "trou-
(Gen 49:21), roaming free and secure. Naphtali's ble" which is clearly shown in Gen 35: 18. Just
part in the victory over Sisera may be in view before she died, Rachel named her newbom son,
(Jud 4:6; 5: 18). Ben-oni, (son of sorrow). In Deut 26: 14 and Hos
Twice in the Song of Solomon (2:7; 3:5) the 9:4 'äwen designates mourning in association
daughters of Jerusalem are adjured "by the ga- with death. 'äwen is sometimes in proximity to
zelles or by the does of the field." This is proba- 'ämal "toil, labor" (q.v.). In Job 5:6; Ps 90:10;
bly a word play on taking an oath using "LoRD of and Hab 1:3, 'äwen is parallel to 'ämäl and em-
hosts" and "god." "Gazelles" is identical to phasizes physical trouble. In Isa 10:1, Ps 7: 14 [H
"hosts" (~''bä'ot) and "does" ('aylot) is very 15](cf. Job 4:8) 'ämäl is the result of ·äwen in the
close to 'elohim. sense that sin brings trouble. The relationship be-
The phrase "to the doe of the moming" intro- tween 'äwen and 'ämal is shown further by the
ducing Ps 22 probably refers to the melody to be tendency of the latter to drift to the connotation
used. of deceitful words as in Ps 140:10. Also, both
Bibliography: Howie, Carl Gordon, "The words occur with other words for deceit in Job
East Gate of Ezekiel's Temple Enclosure and the 15:35; Ps 10:7; 36:3-4; 55:11; and Isa 59:4. Ob-
Solomonic Gateway of Megiddo," BASOR 117: serve in Job 36:21 that 'äwen is contrasted with
13-19, esp. p. 16. another word for affiiction ·6ni and both here and
H.W. in Job 34:36 'äwen would seem to point to decep-
tive planning or speaking which leads to sorrow
46 •';,1H ('ülay) perhaps, suppose. or rebellion.
This adverb is often associated with personal In this sense of deception, 'äwen is tied to
or national crises. Sarah expressed hope that thoughts and words in Prov 17:4; lsa 32:6; Ezk
Hagar would produce a child for her (Gen 16:2), 11:2; Hos 12:12 and possibly Hos 6:8 (see LXX).
and Balak hoped to curse Israel through Balaam From this base 'äwen becomes a labet for
(Num 22:6, 11). Jacob feared that Isaac would idolatry in Isa 66:3 and the phrase "Beth-aven,"
discover his deceit (Gen 27: 12), and Job wondered probably a name of shame for Bethel (Hos 5:8;
ifperhaps his children had cursed God (1 :5). 'ülay 10:5, 8; cf. Arnos 1:5; Ezk 30:17), Also the word
also expresses mockery (lsa 47:12; I Kgs 18:27). describes idols in Isa 41 :29, and seems to denote
H.W. non-existence in Arnos 5:5.
This trend of meaning in 'äwen is reinforced by
c71H ( 'üläm) 1. See no. 45c. its proximity to standard Hebrew words for de-
ception, fraud, and falseness in Prov 6: 12, 18;
19:28; 22:8; Isa 29:20; Zech 10:2. lt may be that
47 c71H ('üläm) II, but, however, nevertheless.
this strand of meaning comes from a possible
This strong adversative is found ten times in early kinship to 'äyin, which means "nothing."
Job, where Satan argues that God should test Job In by far the greater numbers of instances, the
(1: 11; 2:5) and where Job and his friends voice versions prefer to translate 'äwen as "evil," "in-
deep differences (5:8; 11:5; 13:3). God's sover- iquity," or "wicked." But an interesting term
eign will can be expressed through this term (Gen occurs about twenty times in Job, Ps, and Prov; it
48:19; Ex 9:16). Contrasts between past and pre- is workers of iniquity ( ·äwen) and may designate
sent are emphasized (Gen 28: 19; I Kgs 20:23). men skilled in magic pr idolatrous ritual.
H.W. Generally, biblical theologians have given little

23
49 mc('wn)
attention to 'awen as a contributor to an under- venture in the century after Solomon came to
standing of sin. Since the word stresses the plan- grief before the ships could leave Ezion-geber.
ning and expression of deception and points to Some scholars believe that "Tarshish" normally
the painful aftermath of sin, it should be noted means boats used for carrying ore or metals.
more. A reference to the gold of Ophir has been found
on a preexilic sherd uncovered at Tell Qasileh.
t"ünim. Toil. This masculine noun occurs in
The inscription reads, "Gold of Ophir for Beth-
the plural, possibly to intensify the force of the
horon, thirty shekels" (B. Maisler, "Two Hebrew
word occurring only in Ezk 24: 12. Translators
Ostraca from Tell Qasile," JNES 10:265-67).
have been unable to agree on its precise meaning,
This find indicates that at least one king after
so we have "lies" (KJV), "in vain" (Rsv), and
Jehoshaphat was successful ln procuring addi-
"corrosion" (NEB).
tional Ophir gold.
Bibliography: Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bible,
The value of the gold of Ophir is implied in
Desclee, 1964. Guillaume, A., "The Root 'wn in
poetic passages. In Isa 13:12 it is compared to
Hebrew," JTS 34: 62--64. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin
"pure gold" (cf. Job 28:15-16). In Ps 45:9 [H 10)
in the O/d Testament, Rome: Herder, 1963.
Quell, G., Sin, London: Adam and Charles the queen is depicte~ as clothed in gold from
Ophir. In Job 22:24 the word "Ophir" is under-
Black, 1951. Smith, C. R., The Bible Doctrine of
stood to mean "the gold of Ophir."
Sin, London: Epworth, 1953. TDOT, I, pp. 140-
The site of Ophir has not been conclusively
46. THAT, I, pp. 81--83.
identified. Several theories have been formu-
G.H.L.
lated, taking into account the products identified
with Ophir and the three-year length of the jour-
49 iiM ('wn) II. Assumed root of the foUow- ney. Most likely the three years refers to one
ing. entire year and parts of two others. Perhaps the
49a t,iM ('bn) vigor, wealth. best case can be made for locating Ophir in the
Somali Republic, a country on the horn of Africa,
This root occurs as a noun only twelve times. once called Punt. The products obtained in Ophir
In Gen 49:3; Deut 21:17; Job 40:16; Ps 78:51; are known in Africa, and the Hebrew words for
105:36, the word designates reproductive power the two kinds of monkeys (apes and baboons?)
as evidenced in the firstbom son. In lsa 40:26-27 are related to Egyptian words (qf and ky).
the creative power ofGod is highlighted. Physical A different theory would place Ophir in India,
strength and/or wealth is denoted in Job 18:12; where the commodities in question were also
20:10; Hos 12:9. available, particularly if "almug" wood is san-
G.H.L. dalwood. Some identify Ophir with Supara, sixty
miles north ofBombay. Trade between India and
the Persian Gulf is attested from the second mil-
50 "\~~iM ('bpir) Ophir.
lennium e.c. Once Jerome translated Ophir as
This proper name refers to the eleventh son of "India" (Job 28: 16), reflecting a strong tradition
Joktan (Gen 10;29) and to a region famous for its in his day.
gold. The name is mentioned with "Sheba" and A third alternative is the southwestem coast of
"Havilah" in Gen 10:28-29 and I Chr 1:22-23. Arabia. The close relationship between Ophir
Since those two designations are place names, and Sheba and Havilah in Gen 10:29 supports this
some authorities feel that the person "Ophir" identification. Macafir in Yemen has been
must be connected with the place. Others dis- suggested as a site for Ophir. This theory does
avow any relationship between the two. not preclude the possibility that some of the
Ophir is first mentioned in connection with commodities were originally brought to Ophir
David, who had amassed three thousand talents from India.
of gold from Ophir for the construction of Sol- Bibliography: Albright, William F ., Archae-
omon 'stemple (1 Chr 29:4). Solomon joined with olof?y and the Reli{?ion of Israel, Johns Hopkins,
Hiram of Tyre to send ships from Ezion-geber to 1953, pp. 133-35, 212.
Ophir in quest of the same gold (1 Kgs 9:28). H.W.
These ships also brought a large number of almug
trees and precious stones (I Kgs 10: 11), and 51 'r~M ( 'u,O to hurry, urge, be pressed (with
quantities of silver, ivory, apes, and baboons the same meaning in Arabic).
(peacocks? I Kgs 10:22). Actually, v. 22 does not
mention Ophir, but the ships of Tarshish were This verbis used four times in Prov to discour-
most likely the !arge vessels that traveled to age haste to get rich (28:20) and hasty words or
Ophir every three years (cf. II Chr 9:21). In I Kgs actions (29:20; 19:2; 21:5). In the famous Josh
22 :49 KingJehoshaphat built "ships of Tarshish" 10: 13 the sun was in no hurry to set.
to joumey to Ophir in search of gold, but this One's territory can be too "confining" (Josh

24
 52 ,iM ('or)
17:15), and persons can be "urged" into action avoids isolating the sun as "the light" lest the
(Ex 5:13: Gen 19:15). Hebrews succumb to the tendency to worship it
H.W. (cf. Job 31 :26-27). Another of God' s lights was
the pillar of fire that illumined the night for the
Israelites during the wildemess wanderings (Ex
"lfiN ('osar). See no. 154a. 13:21: Ps 105:39). This was probably more awe-
some than lightning, which also displayed the
52 "liM ( 'or) to be or become light, shine; in the glory of God (Ps 77: 18 [H 19): 97:4: Job 36:32).
Hiphil stem, to give light, cause to shine. Cor- Manmade lights included the sacred lampstand
responds to Ugaritic 'r "tobe bright: to illu- in the tabernacle (Num 4:9, 16; 8:2) which cast its
mine," and Akkadian urru "day." light in the holy place. Lamps buming olive oil
lt occurs infrequently in the Qal and Niphal but were highly valued for use in people's homes
some forty-five times in the Hiphil. lt refers to (Prov 13:9).
the shining of the sun, but its metaphorical usages 'or is used metaphorically when a person's
are more common. face or the eyes are viewed as light-bearing ob-
jects. Sometimes literal eyesight is intended (Ps
Derivatives 38: 10 [H 11J, probably also the difficult I Sam
52a t"liM (' or) light. 14:27), but more often the "light of the face"
52b rn,iM (' ()ril) /, light. refers to a cheerful face expressing good will (Job
52c :,-iiM ('ora) II, herb (only in II Kgs 29 :24). The favor of a king is seen in his face
' 4:39). (Prov 16:15), and "the light ofGod's face" indi-
52d "11M ( 'ur) jlame. cates divine approval (Ps 44:3 [H 4]; 89:15 [H
52e tC'"11M ( 'urim) Urim. 16]).
52f t"liM1; (mü'or) luminary. In the famous priestly blessing of Num 6:25,
52g :i,11-1~ (m''üra) (light) hole. the Hiphil stem of the verb is used in a similar
context: "The Lord make his face to shine upon
The concept of light in Scripture is important, you, and be gracious to you." This time-honored
dealing with personal and impersonal forces on expression occurs five times in the Psalms, in-
both literal and metaphorical levels. Light is voking God's saving and restoring presence on
closely related to life and happiness, which may behalf of his servants (Ps 31: 16 [H 17); 67: 1; [H
account for the frequent comparisons between 2]: 80:3, 7, 19 [H 80:4, 8, 20): 119:135). In Dan
God and light. Since the ancient world often wor- 9: 17 the great statesman implores the Lord of
shiped the sun, God's role as creator of light is mercy to !et his face shine upon his sanctuary and
stressed. Eventually, he will make the sun un- reverse the desolate conditions in Jerusalem. The
necessary (lsa 60: 19-20). expression finds a parallel in Ugaritic, "the coun-
Light is frequently used as an indicator of time, tenace of the sun shines upon me," meaning "I
separating day from night (Gen 1:5). The em- enjoy the favor of the king."
phasis is on the shining of the sun in the early Light can also symbolize general "life" or
moming (Gen 44:3: Jud 16:2), so that "light" can "prosperity." "To see the light" is "tobe born"
sometimes be translated "dawn" (Neh 8:3). A (Job 3: 16), and the ·'light of life' · is a poetic refer-
distinction may be drawn between "daybreak" ence to being alive (Job 33:30; Ps 56:13 [H 14]).
and the "daylight'' that follows (Jud 19:26) the Some, however, contend that this compound
rising of the sun (lsa 60:1-3). Arnos (8:9) men- should be rendered "the land of the living" be-
tions ajudgment of darkness that will strike Israel cause this is the meaning of the word in Phoeni-
"in broad daylight." cian. lt makes excellent sense in such passages as
Light is of course associated with light-bearing Job 33:30. The word "land" is found in Ps 116:9,
bodies, but it is distinct from them, as seen in its a close parallel to Ps 56: 13 [H 14]. Dahood
creation apart from the luminaries (Gen 1:3). The (Psalms, /, ll in AB) suggests the meaning "land
sun and the moon are the „ greater light" and the of eternal life."
"lesser light'' (Gen 1: 16: Ps 136:7), and the stars In Ps 36:9 [H 101 "light" is parallel to "the
are closely associated as "stars of light" (Ps fountain of life." In line with this usage Dahood
148:3)."Every passage that speaks ofthe shining argues that "to see light" is often really to see the
('or in the Hiphil) or the light ('ur) of the sun light ofGod's face in immortality (Ps 36:9 [H 10];
(Gen 1:14-16: Isa 30:20: 60:19: Jer 31:35: Ezk and contra Ps 49: 19 [H 20]). This is the expres-
32:8: Ps 136:7-9) also refers to the light of the sion in Isa 53: 11 when the Lxx and DSS texts
moon and sometimes also ofthe stars" (TDOT, I, speak in this vein of immortality for the suffering
p. 151).These heavenly luminaries are an integral servant (cf. Ps 17:15).
part of the wonder of the cosmos as founded by Job 22:28 describes prosperity as light shining
the Creator and serve as a clock to regulate the on one's ways, and a few chapters later "good"
seasons (Gen 1: 14: Ps 104:19: Jer 31 :35f.). The OT is compared with "light" (30:26). Unfortunately,

25
52 iiN (' or)

Job has encountered "evil"' and "darkness," a see !Jöshen) and were involved in obtaining
sei of contrasts in line with Amos's portrayal of oracular judgments from God (Num 27:21).
the day of the Lord as one of darkness and not Although ·lirim probably derives from 'or "be
light (5: 18). A day without light speaks of trouble light" (q.v.), Ugaritic 'r (so BOB, p. 22), other
and calamity. possibilities include ·arar "curse," and ·drii
Prosperity and life are closely linked with joy, "pluck off' (KB, p. 23). Only in postexilic times
so it is appropriate to find "happiness"' as a do Urim and Thummim occur without the article
meaning for "light." The two concepts are paral- or its equivalent, indicating that despite KJV
lel in Ps 97: 11. In Est 8: 16 (using 'öra) "light" is capitalization, these were originally common
one of several words describing the relief and joy nouns, meaning "lights and perfections" (see
feit by the Jews in Persia when the decree to tämam ), as the LXX and later Greek phötismoi kai
destroy them had been rescinded. Proverbs 15:30 teleotetes, or, more freely, delosis kai a/etheia
speaks of the light of the eyes that makes the "illumination and truth ...
heart happy. The Urim and Thummim appear in Scripture
Another prominent metaphorical usage relates without explanatory identification, except that
light to instruction. When a man finds wisdom, they were tobe put "in the breastplate ... and be
his face lights up (Eccl 8:1). The teaching ofone's upon Aaron's heart" (Ex 28:30), which may
parents (Prov 6:23) as weil as the word ofGod are suggest that these are none other than descriptive
a lamp to one·s feet, a light to one's path (Ps terms for the twelve precious stones of the im-
119:105, 130). In Psalm 19, which compares the mediately preceding context, inscribed with the
written Scriptures w nature and to the sun in par- names of the tribes of Israel (vv. 17-21), and set
ticular, the commandments of the Lord are said in the breastplate of judgment upon Aaron · s heart
to enlighten the eyes (v. 8 [H 91). Most likely the (v. 29). But cf. Lev 8:8 which seems to say they
challenge to Israel ··10 walk in the light of the are additional to the twelve. Josephus assigns
Lord" denotes adherence to the laws and teach- oracular characteristics to the twelve stones,
ings of God (lsa 2:3, 5; cf. 51:4). In a word, claiming they would shine when Israel was to be
whereas darkness is associated with death (Job victorious in battle (Antiquities. 3. 8.9). Talmudic
3:5; 10:21; Ps 88:6: 91:6), failure and suffering tradition suggests that the Shekinah would il-
(Jer 28:12: Arnos 5:18, 20; Lam 3:2), folly (Job lumine letters in the tribal names to spell out rev-
37:19; 38:2: Eccl 2:13), and sin (Job 24:16: Ps elations, ( Yoma. 73,a-b: although five of the
74:20; Prov 2:13: Jer 49:9), light is associated twenty-two Hebrew letters do not appear in these
with life (Mal 3:20 [H 4:2]), salvation and pros- twelve names). Actually, the combining of
perity (Job 29:3: Isa 58:8; Ps 36: 10 1H 9]), wisdom "dreams, Urim, and prophets" (1 Sam 28:6) indi-
(Ps 19:9[H81: 119:105, 130: Prov 6:23; Dan 5: 11), cates that, even as the first and last terms denote
justice (lsa 42: 1-3. 6: 49:6: 51 :4f.: Mic 7:8). revelations to the mind of the petitioner through a
The ultimate development is to compare God prophetic intermediary. so Urim denotes a corre-
himself with light. The Lord is my light and my spondingly personal revelation, through the mind
salvation (Ps 27: 1), though a flaming fire to purge of that priestly intermediary who wore the shin-
out wickedness (Isa 10:17). lsaiah describes the ing stones of the breastpiece in lsrael's sanctuary
Messiah as a great light shining in a land of deep (cf. Moses' association of Urim and Thummim
darkness (9:2 lH 1]). He will be "a light to the with the tribe of Levi, Deut 33 :8, and David's
nations" so that God's salvation may reach the seeking divine guidance through the man who
ends of the earth (42:6: 49:6). wore the priestly surplice (' epod, q. v.) I Sam
Though the OT is careful not to identify God 23 :9-12: 30:7-8. to which, in turn, the breastplate
and the sun. the shining glory ofGod is described was attached (Ex 28:25-28).
in terms of the sun (Ezk 43 :2). He is the resplen- Negative critics presume that the 'iirim were
dent one (Ps 76:4 iH 5]) with healing in his wings, images, magical dice, or divining disks, flipped
or rays (Mal 4:2 IH 3:201). In the future age of like coins, giving a "yes" ans wer should the light
bliss the glory of the Lord will rise upon us (lsa ('ur) side come up (cf. !DB, IV, p. 739 and the
60: 1-3) and he, not the sun, will be an everlasting RSV emendation of I Sam 14:41). But töm does
light (lsa 60: 19-20). not mean "dark." And the priestly oracles were
not limited to yes-or-no answers (Jud 18:5-6; II
'urim. Urim. This word occurs seven times in Sam 5: 19) but provided detailed explanations
the oT. only in the plural. A presumed singular (Jud 1:1: I Sam 10:22: II Sam 5:23). Scripture
'lir "light" (Asv ••flame," lsa 50:11). whence condemns pagan, mechanical divination (Hos
"fire" (Isa 31:9: 44:16). 'lirim meant also east, 4: 12). Mention of official oracles ceases after the
region oflight (lsa 24:15 NIV, NASBmarg.). In all time of David (replaced by prophets?), and the
but two cases the Urim appear with the Thum- breastpiece with its Urim seems to have perished
mim. Both were placed in the high priest's in the exile (cf. Ezr 2:63: cf. Josephus·s claim of a
"breastplate of judgment" (Ex 28:30: Lev 8:8: Maccabean destruction, Antiquities. 3 .8. 9).

26
 55 ~iT~ ( •ezob)

mä'ör. Light, luminary. This masculine noun me'äz. Since. Derived from min 'äz "from
is a close synonym of ·or, but occurs only twenty then," as in Jer 44: 18. lt occurs eighteen times,
times. lt is used of the lampstand in the taberna- seven times as a preposition or conjunction (Ruth
cle several times (Ex 35:14; Lev 24:2; Num 4:9, 2:7; Gen 39:5). In the absolute it is used ofthe re-
16). cent past (II Sam 15:34)or the more remote past. In
Isa, a duster of verses prove that God has "long
'örä /, Light, joy. This feminine form of 'or
since" predicted the future (44:8; 45:21: 48:3, 5,
occurs only three times in the OT (Ps 139:12; lsa
7, 8). God's throne was established · ·from of old' ·
26: 19; Est 8: 16).
(Ps 93 :2), which looks beyond creation (Prov
Bibliography: Lindblom, J., "Lot-Casting in
8:22).
the Old Testament," VT 12: 164-78. Mangan,
H.W.
Edward A., "The Urim and Thummim," CBQ
1:133-38. May, H. G., "Ephod and Arie!," AJSL
56:44--69.Richardson, TWB, p. 129. Robertson, 55 ,i1'4 ('ezob) hyssop. (Asv and RSV similar.)
Edward, "The 'Urim and Thummim; What Were This word occurs ten times, primarily in the
They?" VT 14: 67-74. TDNT, IX, pp. 316-27. Pentateuch. The English meaning is derived from
TDOT, I, pp. 147-66. THAT, I, pp. 84-90. the Greek "uoown:oc;,which is only an attempt to
H.W. transliterate the Hebrew. Hyssop is a small plant
that grows on walls (1 Kgs 4:33 [H 5: 131), proba-
riiM ( 'öt). See no. 4 la.
bly to be identified with marjoram of the mint
family. lt was used to apply blood and water in
53 *r'l1M ( 'iit) consent, agree (Niphal only). purification ceremonies.
The importance of hyssop stems from the
0'".)1M (' urim). See no. 52e. Exodus. God told Moses to have each lsraelite
family slay a lamb, dip a bunch of hyssop in the
54 1~ (' äz) then. blood in the basin and then smear some of the
Derivative blood on the sides and top of the doorframe (Ex
12:22). When the Angel of the Lord passed by
54a t1~~ (me' äz) in time past, long since,
and saw the blood, he spared the firstborn son in
since.
that harne. Thus, the hyssop functioned as a
This adverb appears 130 times. lt is related to brush to apply the blood.
Ugaritic idk "then." Its use in Hebrew is em- In Lev 14:4-6 hyssop is used in a purification
phatic, occurring in many important contexts and ceremony for a man cured of leprosy. The hys-
often in poetic passages. As a temporal adverb, it sop, along with a live bird, cedar wood and scar-
can refer to both the past and present. After the let yarn, was dipped in the blood of a bird killed
great victory over Egypt at the Red Sea, "then over running water. The man being cleansed was
Moses sang this song to the LoRD" (Ex 15:1; cf. then sprinkled seven times with this mixture of
Num 21: 17). "Then" introduces Joshua's request blood and water. The same procedm;e applied to
for the sun to stand still (Josh 10:12). When the a house which had a "leprous" outbreak (likely
temple was dedicated "then Solomon assembled mildew, see $ära'at). lt too was tobe sprinkled
all Israel (I Kgs 8: 1). seven times with the same mixture (Lev 14:49-
'äz also occurs in future contexts, specifying 52).
the time when the eyes ofthe blind will be opened Similar was the procedure for persons or ob-
(lsa 35:5) or when the return from captivity will jects contaminated by contact with a corpse.
bring ecstasy (lsa 60:5). After Abraham's servant Special ashes for purification were prepared by
had sought a wife among his relatives, "then" he burning the body of a sacrificed red heifer and
would be free from his oath (Gen 24:41; Ex throwing on top of it cedar wood, hyssop. and
12:44). scarlet yarn (Num 19:6). Whenever anyone or
The victory songs of Ex 15 and Jud 5 use az anything had been near a dead body, running
emphatically. When news about Israel's triumph water was added to the purification ashes, and
was heard, "then the chiefs of Edom were dis- hyssop was used to sprinkle the contaminated
mayed'' (Ex 15:15). In Jud 5:8, 11, 13 it is used to person and objects on the third and seventh days
describe the sequence of the battle with the of their ritual uncleanness (Num 19:17-19). Any
Canaanites. unclean person who failed to comply with these
"Then" can also express strict logical se- regulations was to be cut off from Israel.
quence. If Israel keeps the Sabbath, "then" they In the Mishnah (H. Danby, Oxford, 1933) there
will find delight in the Lord (lsa 58:14). Apart are seventeen pages of rules for preparing and
from meditating in the law, David claims, "I sprinkling this water (pp. 697-714 ). Needless to
would have perished" (Ps 119:92; cf. II Kgs say, some of the mies give minutiae even to the
13:19). ridiculous. The spiritual character, however, is

27
56 ',i~ ( 'äzal)

lacking. These rules represent the ideas of the basically non-poetic books, it occurs in poetic
Pharisees of Jesus· day. passages, such as the songs of Lamech (Gen
The combination of cedar, hyssop, and scarlet 4:23), of Moses (Deut 32: 1) and of Deborah (Jud
found in Lev and Num is intriguing. Cedar and 5:3). The vast majority of its forty-two occur-
hyssop seem to represent the most magnificent rences are in imperatival forms.
tree and most insignificant bush respectively (1
Kgs 4:33 [H 5: 13]). Cedar is a symbol of strength, 'özen. Ear, hearing. This noun occurs almost
splendor, and longevity and it may emphasize the two hundred times and is applied most often to
importance of these rites. man, though it is used of a dog·s ears (Prov 26: 17)
In Heb 9:19 there is reference to Moses taking and of a sheep's ear, partially rescued from a lion
the blood of calves, water, scarlet wool, and hys- (Arnos 3: 12). Anthropomorphically, God is said
sop in order to sprinkle the scroll of the covenant to possess "ears" or "hearing."
and all the people as he established the Sinai cov- The ear can perhaps best be studied under
enant, though the scarlet and the hyssop are not three headings: as an organ of hearing, as a part
expressly mentioned in Ex 24:6-8. of the body subject to symbolic actions, and as a
When David in repentance cried out to God, sign of responsiveness and understanding. These
"Purify me with hyssop, and I shall be clean" (Ps usages are frequenüy interrelated.
51:7 [H 9]), he referred to the laws ofNum 19. He The ear as the physical organ of hearing has
knew that if he were not cleansed, he would be been implanted by God (Ps 94:9), who himself
cut off from his people. can hear. The Psalmist uses a teleological argu-
Perhaps the mention of the hyssop plant given ment for the nature of God from the human ear:
to Christ on the cross (Jn 19:29) refers symboli- "He who planted the ear, does he not hear?" (Ps
cally to the infinite purification that was accom- 94:9). In contrast, the manmade ears of idols hear
plished through his death. nothing at all (Ps 115:6; 135:17). When the physi-
Bibliography: Harrison, R. K., "The Biblical cal organ is mentioned, frequently "hearing" is a
Problem of Hyssop," EQ 26: 218-24. Shewell- good translation for "ears." "To speak in the
Cooper, W. E., "Flora" ZPEB, II, p. 570. ears" of someone is "to speak in his hearing"
H.W. (Gen 44: 18).
Since the ear represents hearing and obedi-
iiT~ ( 'ez6r). See no. 59a. ence, it is involved in important symbolic ac-
:i~,;1~ ('azkärya). See no. 551d. tions. If a slave chose to serve his master perma-
nently, his ear was pierced with an awl (Ex 21 :6:
56 ,1~
( 'äzal) to go away, about. Deut 15:17; cf. Ps 40:6 [H 7]). By this legal act,
the slave was bound to obedience for his entire
This verb is used of a buyer who brags about life. At the ordination of Aaron and his sons to
his purchase after he goes his way (Prov 20: 14). the priesthood, some blood from the sacrificial
Israel also shifts its position, moving from one ram was placed on the lobes of their right ears,
ally to another (Jer 2:36). thumbs, and big toes (Lev 8:23-24; Ex 29:20).
Three times the sense is "to be exhausted." Similar was the case of a person cleansed from
Water "evaporates" (Job 14:11), lsrael's leprosy. Blood as well as olive oil was applied to
strength was depleted (Deut 32 :36), and Saul's his right ear, thumb, and big toe on the eighth day
bread was gone (1 Sam 9:7). of his purification ceremonies (Lev 14:14, 17).
Combined with 'ez "goat" it makes the word Earrings were apparently given by the groom
'llzä'ze/ "Azazel," "the goat of going out" or to the bride at a marriage (Ezk 16:12) (The "ear-
.. Scapegoat" of Lev 16. ring" for Rebekah [Gen 24:22 KJV] was a nose
H.W. ring), but they are associated with idolatry in Gen
35:4. The Israelites tore off their gold earrings so
57 •u~ ('äzan) I, listen, give ear. that Aaron could make a golden calf (Ex 32:2-3).
As a sign of complete rejection, the ears and nose
This verb is used only in the Hiphil stem, in- were mutilated by the rampaging enemy (Ezk
dicating it is denominative. 23:25).
Parent Noun Most references to the ear or hearing involve a
response from the hearer. To hear, or to incline
57a +tM ('özen) ear.
the ear, means to pay close attention, e.g. to the
Derivative words of the wise (Prov 22:17). How often God
pleads with wayward Israel to listen and heed his
57b i1~ ('äzen) implements, tools.
warnings in view of impending judgment (Hos
azan occurs primarily in poetic books as a 5: 1; Jer 13:15). Even heaven and earth are called
parallel to the verbs shäma' "to hear," and hiq- to listen as witnesses of the covenant promises of
shib "to pay attention." Even where it is used in Israel (Deut 32: 1; lsa 1:2). Predictions of national

28
 59 'ii~ (' iizar)

disasters are said to make the ears ring or tingle, the prophets condemned cheating merchants
so shocking is the message (1 Sam 3: 11; II Kgs {Arnos 8:5; Mic 6:11).
21:12; Jer 19:3). Job wanted his case weighed by God (Job
Twice, the term ··hardness" or "heaviness" is 31 :6). God is able to weigh the hills on balances
applied to the ears of Israel. They have stopped (Isa40:12), and he regards nations as the dust on
their ears from hearing the word of God through scales (Isa 40: 15).
the prophets (Zech 7: 11-12), for God had brought The balances of antiquity were a simple bar
on them judicial deafness (Isa 6:10; cf. II Chr suspended at the middle with pans on each end.
24:19; Neh 9:30). Like the idols, the nation had Fora picture of an Egyptian balance, see L. M.
ears but could not hear (Jer 5:21). Once the Petersen, '"Balance" in ZPEB.
people' s ears are called "uncircumcised," closed The weights were called 'abänim (q.v.) stones,
to the words of their covenant God (Jer 6: 10). being usually made of stcine shaped and ground.
Hearing and understanding are closely linked The chief opportunity for cheating lay in the
on occasion (Job 13:1), and "ears" can almost weights used.
mean "mind" (Job 33: 15). Horst noted: "The H.W.
ears are regarded as the instrument by which
speech and orders are noted, not the brain, as i'n~ ('azeq). See no. 577b.
with us. Hence the ear is the seat of 'insight'"
59 '1ttt (' äzar) to gird, clothe. (ASV, RSV trans-
(TDNT, V, p. 546). Proverbs 23: 13 condemns re-
late similarly.)
fusal to hear the cry of the poor and thus remain
ignorant of their plight. But the man who turns a Derivative
deaf ear to talk of murder is commended (lsa 59a t-ii1~ ('ezor) waistband.
33:15). The importance of the organ to one's
spiritual life is stated by Job: "Does not the ear This verb usually occurs in the Qal or Piel,
test words, as the palate tastes food (Job 12: 11). once in the Niphal and three times in the
Many references relate to God's ability to hear Hithpael, primarily in the poetic books. Often
and take action. The arrogance of Assyria came military preparation is in view.
to his ears and resulted in its destruction (Isa 'ezör. Waistband, belt. Of its fourteen occur-
37:29). Most passages deal with God's response rences, eight are in Jer 13:1-11. Elijah wears a
to prayer. The Psalmist frequently pleads with leather belt around his hairy garment {II Kgs 1:8),
God to hear his cry for help (Ps 80: 1 1H 2]; 54 :2 but Jeremiah dons a tight-fitting linen waistband
[H 4]) and save him from the enemy. At the dedi- (13:1, II). He left it to rot by the Euphrates as a
cation of the temple, Solomon asked that God's symbol of the corrupt nature of Israel (Jer
ears would ever be attentive to the prayers of his 13:10-11).
people (II Chr 6:40). Daniel turned toward that The "belt" or "waistband" characterized sol-
temple to ask God to incline his ear and do some- diers' dress. The Assyrians did not wear a loose
thing about the ruins of Jerusalem (Dan 9: 18). belt as they swept south (Isa 5:27; Ezk 23:15).
When prayer is not answered, it is not because God is the one who prepares or girds the Psalmist
God has become hard of hearing (Isa 59: 1). The with strength for battle (Ps 18:32 [H 33], 39 [H 40]
sin of Israel cut them offfrom his saving response = II Sam 22:40). God girded Cyrus, perhaps
(Deut 1:45). equipping him with armor (Isa 45:5). The weak
"To uncover the ear" (~äla 'özen) is "to dis- are armed with strength, but the arrogant are
close important information," such as a plot shattered (I Sam 2:4). God challenges the nations
against the king (I Sam 22:8, 17). In a legal con- to gird themselves for battle, but they face certain
text, it means "to bring a matter to one's atten- defeat (lsa 8:9).
tion" (Ruth 4:4). When God is the subject, "un- Sometimes the military significance is replaced
cover the ear" means "to reveal" truth to his by a more general '"prepare for action." God
servants (I Sam 9:15; II Sam 7:27). commands Job to gird up his loins like a man and
Bibliography: Richardson, TWB, p. 104. meet God's arguments (Job 38:3; 40:7). And
TDNT, V, pp. 546-51. THAT, I, pp. 95-97. Jeremiah is given the same order in preparation
H.W. for a controversial ministry (Jer 1: 17).
When God turned David's mourning into danc-
ing, he clothed (girded) him with gladness {Ps
58 *l!tt ('äzan) II, weigh, test, prove. Only in
30: 11 [H 12]). A similar metaphor characterizes
the Pie! (Eccl 12:9).
the Messiah, who wears righteousness and truth
58a t'!OC~ (m'zn) balances, scales.
around his waist (lsa 11:5).
Always occurring in the dual, mö' z'nayim indi- In Ps 65:6 [H 7] God as Creator is said to be
cates a pair of scales. Scales were used to weigh "girded with might." The King of the universe is
silver at a purchase {Jer 32: 10). Accurate scales "clothed with majesty," "girded with strength"
were God's delight {Lev 19:36; Prov 11:1), and (Ps 93:1).

29
60 Mt$('ä/:1)
Bibliography: Wright. G. E., "lsraelite Daily Later, Ezekiel predicted that the fragmented
Life ... BA 18: 50-79. nation of Israel would someday be reunited, as he
H.W. symbolically joined two sticks (37: 17). Once
again Judah and Ephraim would be one nation
piiTK ('ezröu'). See no. 583b. with one king (37:22). Abraham was viewed as
n-,rij ('ezräh). See no. 580b. "the one" from whom all the people descended
(lsa 51 :2: Mal 2: 15). the one father of the nation.
60 ni;c ( 'ii/J) /, alas!
MK ('äh) II. III. See no. 66a, 62a.
Diversity within unity is also seen from the fact
that 'e/Jad has a plural form, 'ii/Jiidim. lt is trans-
i:tk('oalJ). See no. 65a. lated "a few days" in Gen 27:44: 29:20. and Dan
11:20. In Gen 11: 1 the plural modifies "words":
61 itri:t ( 'ehad) one, same, single, first, each,
"the whole earth used the same language and the
once, fern. 'u!wt (l'11JI:().
same words ... Apparently it refers to the same
This word occurs %0 times as a noun. adjec- vocabulary. the same set of words s poken by
tive, or adverb, as a cardinal or ordinal number. everyone at the tower of Babel. The first "same"
often used in a distributive sense. lt is closely in Gen 11:1 is singular, analogous to "the same
identified with yälJad ··10 be united" and with law" of the Passover applying to native-born and
n,'sh "first, head," especially in connection with foreigner (Ex 12:49; cf. Num 15:16), or to the
the "first day" ofthe month (Gen8:13). lt stres- "one law" of sure death for approaching the Per-
ses unity while recognizing diversity within that sian king without invitation (Est 4: 11).
oneness. In the famous Shema of Deut 6:4. "Hear, 0
'elJad can refer to a certain individual (Jud Israel ... the LORDis one, ·' the question of diver-
13:2) or a single blessing (Gen 27:38). Solomon sity within unity has theological implications.
al<me was chosen by the Lord (1 Chr 29: 1). The Some scholars have feit that. though "one" is
notion ofuniqueness is also found in II Sam 7:23 singular, the usage of the word allows for the
and Ezk 33 :24 (for this verse with reference to doctrine of the Trinity. While it is true that this
God. see below). The phrase "in a single day" doctrine is foreshadowed in the OT, the verse
can refer to the suddenness of judgment (lsa concentrates on the fact that there is one God and
10:17: 47:9) or blessing (Isa 66:8). that Israel owes its exclusive loyalty to him (Deut
Adverbially. 'elJad means ··once" or "one 5:9; 6:5). The NT also is strictly monotheistic
time" (II Kgs 6:10). God solemnly swore to while at the same time teaching diversity within
David "one time" that his descendants and the unity (Jas 2: 19; 1 Cor 8:5-6).
throne would last forever (Ps 89:35 [H 36 J). In [The lexical and syntactical difficulties of Deut
Hag 2 :6 the Lord warned that he would shake 6:4 can be seen in the many translations offered
heaven and earth "once more in a little while ... for it in the NIV. The option "the LORD is our
Yet this prediction of the overthrow of nations God. the LORD alone" has in its favor both the
probably included a near as weil as a far fulfil- broad context of!he book and the immediate con-
ment (cf. Heb 12:26). The expression "in one text. Deuteronomy 6:4 serves as an introduction
day" denotes the swiftness ofthe Lord's acts (lsa to motivate Israel to keep the command "to love
9:14 [H 13]: Zech 3:9). (the LORD)" (v. 5). The notion that the LORDis
Sometimes the phrase "as one man" can mean lsrael's only God suits this command admirably
"all at once" (Num 14:15), but when Gideon was (cf. Song 6:8f). Moreover, these two notions, the
told he would defeat Midian "as one man" it LoRD's unique relation to Israel and lsrael's obli-
probably meant "as easily as a single man" (Jud gation to love him, are central to the concem of
6: 16). The phrase can also refer to a nation Moses· addresses in the book (cf. Deut 5:9f.; 7:9;
aroused to take united action against gross injus- I0:14ff., 20f., 13:6; 30:20; 32:12). Finally
tice (Jud 20:8: I Sam 11:7). Zephaniah's mention Zechariah employs the text with this meaning and
of people serving God "with one shoulder" (3:9) applies it universally with reference to the escha-
likely means "shoulder to shoulder." solidly ton: "The LORDwill be king over all the earth; in
united. Likewise in Ex 24:3 "with one voice" that day the LORDwill be (the only) one, and His
expresses that all Israel was involved in entering name (the only) one" (14:9 NASB).
into the Covenant with Yahweh. In Job 31 : 15 and Mal 2: 10 the word is used to
The concept of unity is related to the tabema- denote that one and the same God created all
cle, whose curtains are fastened together to form men. The reference to the one Shepherd in Eccl
one unit (Ex 26:6, 11: 36:13). Adam and Eve are 12:11 probably indicates that God is the only
described as "one flesh" (Gen 2:24), which in- source of wisdom. e.K.w.]
cludes more than sexual unity. In Gen 34: 16 the Bibliography: Knight, A. F., "The Lord is
men of Shechem suggest intermarriage with One," Exp T 79: 8-10. TDOT, I, pp. 193-200.
Jacob's children in order to become "one THAT, I, pp. 104-106.
people." H.W.

30
 62 MMM('f:ih)

62 :iMM ( '/Jh). Assumed root of the following. (Num 20: 14). partly because Esau and Isaac were
62a ti,i:t ('ii/J) II, brother. sons of Abraham. Several times Edom is con-
62b :iiMM ( 'ahawa) brotherhood. demned for mistreating brother Israel (Arnos
62c t~\n~ ('ii~uil) sister. 1: 11; Ob 10. 12). Hiram, king of Tyre, called Sol-
omon "my brother" (1 Kgs 9: 13). but it is also
'ä!t. Brother, relative, fellow countryman, friend. Tyre which is judged for ignoring a "treaty of
From a root common to all Semitic languages, 'ä/J friendship" (literally, "brotherhood," Arnos 1:9).
occurs 630 times in the 01. Owing to its wide "Brother" is also used by Jacob to address
range of meanings and the practice of polygamy, strangers politely (Gen 29:4 ). The old man of
it is sometimes necessary to describe a füll Gibeah calls his perver.ted neighbors "brothers"
brother as the son of one·s mother (Deut 13:6 [H (Jud 19:23), when Job's term would have been
7]; Ps 50:20: Jud 8: 19). The relationship between more appropriate: "I have become a brother to
füll brothers was extremely close. so the admon- jackals" (30:29). In the Mari tablets and west
ition to kill a brother who has become an idolater semitic inscriptions, the word is used to address
is severe indeed (Deut 13:6 [H 71). Every man is persons of equal rank and to refer to professional
expected to be bis brother·s keeper (Gen 4:9). colleagues as weil as kinsmen.
The 01 is replete with stories about half-brothers, Some authorities have attributed the impor-
those with different mothers. Abraham was tance of brothers to a fratriarchal framework.
Sarah's half-brother (Gen 20:5, 12), and his sons Rule of brothers is known in the near east, and
Ishmael and Isaac were born to Hagar and Sarah. Laban's behavior toward his sister Rebekah may
The rivalry between Joseph and his half-brothers be an example of fratriarchy. Even though their
turned into hatred (Gen 37:2-5). and Absalom's father was still living (Gen 24:50), it was Laban
hatred for Amnon resulted in murder (II Sam who played the leading role.
13:29). Even full brothers like Cain and Abel, or Speiser likens the claims of Abraham and Isaac
Jacob and Esau had similar experiences. The Le- that their wives were "sisters" to a similar cus-
vites, however, properly put loyalty to God tom in Nuzi where a high-born wife was adopted
above family solidarity when they killed their tobe also a sister. This gave her higher status and
own sons and brothers guilty of idolatry (32:29). helps to explain the actions of these patriarchs.
More remote descendants from a common U nfortunately. the custom was not recognized in
father are called brothers. Thus "brother'· oc- Egypt and Gerar. lt was evidently derived from
curs together with "children of Israel" (Deut an old fratriarchate. For details see E. A. Speiser
24:7). "Brother" is used more widely of Ab- Oriental and Biblical Studies (Univ. of Pennsyl-
raham·s nephew Lot (Gen 13:8) and Laban·s vania, 1967, pp. 62~2).
nephew Jacob (Gen 29: 15). Members of the same The responsibilities of brothers are also known
tribe are also called "brothers, .. fellow-Levites through the institution of Levirate marriage. If a
(Num 16:10) or Simeonites (Num 25:6). The "rel- man died without having a son, his brother was
atives" of Samson among whom he should have obligated to marry the widow and name her
selected a wife probably refer to his own tribe of firstborn son after his brother to "build up his
Dan (Jud 14:3). brother's house" (Deut 25:5-10: Gen 38:7-9). lt
The meaning also includes all the children of was a serious sin, however, to have sexual rela-
Israel generally. as the parallelism with tions with a brother's wife while he was still alive
"brothers" shows (Lev 25:46: Deut 3: 18). This is (Lev 18:16: 20:21). The oldest son was given a
doubtless the background of the NT usage of double portion of the inheritance (Deut 21: 17). A
"brothers·· as fellow believers. Moses' fellow priest was permitted to defile himself for the
countrymen slaving in Egypt were called "his death of a sister or brother (Lev 21 :2). Apart from
brothers" (Ex 2:11; 4:18). All were descended these, no other laws involving brothers are men-
from Abraham and Jacob. lsrael's prophets (Deut tioned in 01 legal materials.
18:15)and kings (Deut 17:15) must be "brothers··
and not foreigners. Israelites were not to take 'ä!töt, Sister, relative, beloved. Derived from
advantage of the financial distress of other Israel- the same root as "brother" and with the same
ites (Lev 25:35; Neh 5:8), who were to be con- semantic range, it occurs only 114 times. Again,
sidered as "friends" ("neighbors," rea') or the distinction between full sister and half-sister
"brothers" (Deut 15:2). The word is used as a is not clear (Gen 20:5). Usually to indicate the
parallel or synonym with "neighbor" (Lev 19:17; latter the father is said to be the same (Ezk
Jer 9:4 [H 3 ]). In Prov there is reference to a 22: 11).
friend who is better than a brother (18:24; 27: 10). "Sister" can also be used in the sense of
When David eulogized Jonathan, he called him a "close relative" (Gen 24:60), a woman of the
"brother" in this deep sense (II Sam 1:26). same nationality (Num 25:18), or a close friend
Sometimes various nations claimed "brother" (Prov 7:4). The meaning "beloved" or "darling"
status. Israel referred to Edom as "my brother" is clear in Song4:9-12 and 5:1-2, where "sister"

31
63 ~M~ (' ä/:zCt)

occurs parallel to "bride" four times. This may only Hophal usage). Once it is applied to "bolt-
stem from an earlier custom, according to which ing" the city gates (Neh 7:3).
it was permissable to marry one's sister (Gen Sometimes "to take hold of' has the violent
20:5f.). In Hurrian society it was also the practice connotation of „ seize" or "catch." The lsrael-
for husbands in the upper classes to adopt their ites caught Adoni-bezek (Jud 1:6) and Jephthah
wives as "sisters" to form the strongest marriage caught and killed the men of Ephraim unable to
bond. This fratriarchal feature may explain the pronounce "Shibboleth" (Jud 12:6; II Sam 2:21).
frequent wife-sister motif of Genesis (see 'äb A ram is caught in a thicket (Gen 22: 13) and a fish
'"brother"). in a net (Eccl 9: 12). Job says that God has
In Lev 18:9, 11 sexual relations with a sister or "grasped me by the neck and shaken me to
half-sister are forbidden. Amnon's rape of his pieces" (16:12). .
half-sister Tarnar, Absalom's füll sister, must be "To take" can also refer to selection, as the
understood in this light (II Sam 13: lf.). Since men taken by Jot (1 Chr 24:6) or the two percent
"sister" is used in the expression "one to another" of the plunder taken as the Levites' share (Num
(Ex 26:3), some scholars interpret Lev 18:18 as a 31 :30, 47).
condemnation of polygamy. Context strongly Metaphorically,, the righteous man is said to
argues against this, however. "hold to his way" (Job 17:9). One can "grasp"
Israel and Judah are called "sisters" in Jer 3 :7, an idea or "take hold" offolly (Eccl 7:18; 2:3).
and Jerusalem is castigated as a sister of Samaria God in his grace will "take hold of my right
and Sodom (Ezk 16:46). hand" as a sign of his guidance and favor (Ps
Bibliography: Gordon, C. H., "Fratriarchy in 73:23; cf. lsa 45:1, bllzaq). Psalm 139:10 speaks
the Old Testament," JBL 54: 223-3 l. Neufeld, of God's right hand leading and "laying hold" of
Edward, "The Prohibition against Loans at the Psalmist. In Deut 32:41 the Lord sharpens his
lnterest in Ancient Hebrew Laws," HUCA 26: sword "to take hold of justice."
355-412. Riemann, Paul A., "Am I My Brother's A common idiom is to be seized by pain, sor-
Keeper?" lnterp 24: 482-91. Speiser, E. A., row or fear, often as a woman in childbirth. An-
"The Wife-Sister Motif in the Patriarchal Narra- guish grips the enemies of Israel (Ex 15:14-15),
tives," in Oriental and Biblical Studies, Univer- but Israel herself suffers labor pains as she faces
sity of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 62--82. TDOT, I, exile (Jer 13:21). King Saul was seized by the
pp. 188-92. THAT, I, pp. 98-103. Fora different agony of death on the battlefield (II Sam 1:9), and
view, cf. Kitchen, K. A., The Bible in its World, the nations of the world endure pain and anguish
Paternoster, 1977, p. 70. as the day of the Lord approaches (Isa 13:8-9).
H.W. In the Niphal stem the verb usually means "to
acquire property," thus overlapping with the
63 ~Mtt ('äbu) reeds, rushes. noun 'abüz.z.ii "possession." Sometimes both
noun and verb occur in the same verse (Josh 22 :9,
M,till ('abawa). See no. 62b. 19). The Niphal may arrive at this meaning
i,;r,1;1 (' äbot). See no. 62c. through its reflexive use, "to take for oneself."
The property in view is almost always land.
64 ('llbaz.) to
Ti'.11;1 take hold of, seize, grasp. Hamor invited Jacob and his sons to "acquire
Derivative property" in Shechem and Canaan (Gen 34:10).
Later, Joseph gave his father and brothers pos-
64a t:im~Ct1büz.z.a) possession. session of the best land of Egypt (Gen 47:11, 27),
Most of the verb's sixty-eight occurrences are but only as a temporary residence.
in the Qal stem, but several Niphal forms are
found. Its uses are rather evenly divided between 'Aliüzzl. Possession, property. (KJV and ASV
the literal and metaphorical, both positive and consistently use "possession" but RSV occasion-
negative. ally renders "property. ") The majority of its
The basic idea of the root is "to take hold of." sixty-six uses pertain to the possession of land
Jacob "took hold" of Esau's heel (Gen 25:26); (the verbis so used only in the Niphal). The word
Samson "took hold" of the city gate (Jud 16:3); is also used in conjunction with "inheritance"
Ruth "held" the cloak as Boaz poured six mea- (nabtila).
sures of barley into it (Ruth 3: 15). The curtains of Normally the property under discussion was
Xerxes's palace were held by cords of linen on located in the land of Canaan. All of that land had
silver rings (Est 1:6). Men could "hold" or been promised to Abraham as "an everlasting
"wear" swords (Song 3 :8). possession" (Gen 17:8), a promise repeated to
Pertaining to architecture, it is used of the Jacob (Gen 48:4). Five times in Genesis, Ab-
tloors of the side rooms that were "attached" to raham's purchase of the Cave of Machpelah is
the temple by cedar beams (I Kgs 6:10), or ofthe mentioned (23:4, 9, 20; 49:30; 50:13). By gaining
footstool attached to the throne (II Chr 9: 18, the possession of this burial site for Sarah, Abraham

32
 made the down payment on the eventual full pos- especially with suffixes. A very com-
session of the land. Canaan is called "the land of mon word.
the LoRD's possession" in Josh 22:19, to distin- 68c 'jljl$ ( 'aharay) afterwards; only in
guish it from Transjordan where the tribes of Prov 28:23.
Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh chose to settle 68d t,ini:t ('ähor) back part, the rear,
(22:9). mostly in adverbial phrases, "back-
Within Canaan each family had its individual ward."
property, considered its inheritance. Even if it 68e ri•;jii~ ('ahöranit) backwards.
had tobe leased to others, or was consecrated to 68f li"lt,11$(aharon) hindermost, west, be-
the Lord, the land always reverted to the original hind (of place), /alter, last, comingafter
owner in the year of Jubilee (Lev 25:10, 13, 28; (of time); the feminine 'aharonii is
27:24). The daughters of Zelophehad were suc- used adverbialfy.
cessful in their bid to acquire property as an 68g tr,'".'lt,11$(' aharft) after part, end (of
inheritance, since they had no brothers (Num place), latter part, future (of time).
27:7). The verb 'ähar is only used seventeen times
The Levites received no land as a possession, mainly in the Piel and is not as significant as its
but they did have cities and their surrounding derivatives. lt refers to situations of staying be-
fields (Lev 25:33). The Lord was the possession hind, delaying, waiting (but not waiting in hope
of the Levites; he was their inheritance and share like yähal or qäwa).
(Ezk 44:28; Num 18:20).
lt was the Lord who promised to the Messiah, •a~er. Another. This word is often used in
son of David, that the ends of the earth would be normal situations, "another place," "other
his possession (Ps 2:8). seven years," etc. Of remark is only the frequent
Once, in Lev 25:45-46, persons are called phrase in the plural "other gods." lt is used in the
property. lsraelites were allowed to keep resident first commandment (Ex 20:3), in the warnings of
aliens as their permanent possession. Deut 13:2 [H 3) ff., of the prophets' rebukes (Jer
Bibliography: Yaron, R., "A Document of 7:6 ff.). lt appears sixty-three times according to
Redemption from Ugarit," VT 10: 83-90. THAT, BDB. Only in Ps 16:4 and Isa 42:8 is it used
I, pp. 107-109. absolutely. In the difficult verse Ps 16:4, we may
H.W. perhaps take the word "sorrows" ('aH'botam)
of the first stich from the root 'ä~ab II (as does
65 l"!l"IM(' M) I. Assumed root of the following. the Targum) and read "their idols." This would
65a l'.IM ('öah) jackal. Occurs only in make a better balance for "other [gods]" in the
lsa 13:21. parallel.
'ätiör. Backpart, backwards, This derivative is
66 l"ll"IM( 'M) II. Possible root of the following. less used than others (forty-one times). The
66a 1"11:1 ('äh) III, firepot, brazier. common meaning is just "backward." Enemies
are turned backward. lt is used ethically in Jer
67 ':>l"IMChi). Assumed root of the followlng.
7:24, "they went backward and not forward."
67a :i71"11$('ahlii) ah that!
Ezekiel's scroll was written within and without
67b t:,7;7~1$ (' ahlämii) amethyst, jasper.
(i.e. on the back).
'1$1ämä. Amethyst. Found only in Ex 28: 19 Theologically, the only instance that calls for
and 39: 12, refers to a stone in the third row on the discussion is Ex 33:23, "thou shalt see my back,
breastpiece of judgment wom by the high priest. but my face shall not be seen" (KJV, most ver-
"Amethyst" is a transliteration of the Septuagint sions the same). But in no other place is the word
word. The identification is not certain. Amethyst used for the back of a person' s anatomy. This is
is a purple stone, perhaps corundum. KB favors a gab or gaw or 'örep. The word 'ähor means
red or brown jasper. "back" in the sense of direction. Joab saw the
battle before and behind him (II Chr 13:14).
68 ,lji:c ( 'ähar) tarry, delay, defer. The RSV is Ezekiel saw the apostate twenty-five leaders fac-
similar, NIV "remain," "lose no time." The ing the east with their backs toward the temple,
NIV uses "delay" usually in place of "tarry." i.e. it was behind them (Ezk 8: 16). Is it not there-
fore probable that in the theophany of Ex 33:23
Derivatives the emphasis is not on an extreme an-
68a t,r,tl$ ( 'aher) another. thropomorphism saying that Moses could see
68b "11'.11$ ( 'ahar) after, behind (of place); God's back but not his face? Rather, it was meant
after, afterwards (of time); used as an that Moses could see the glory and afterglow be-
adverb, "afterwards" and also as a hind the Lord as he passed by, but his very pres-
conjunction with 'lisher "after that." ence could not be seen. Of course the an-
Often used in the plural form 'ahlire thropomorphism is possible and not even objec-

33
 tionable, but a semi-physical distinction between idea that the NT church thought of itself as living
face and back is apparently not the strict meaning in the "last days." The "perilous times" spoken
of the words. of in I Tim 4: 1 may just be a serious warning for
the indefinite future (cf. Mt 24:6).
'atu1rit. After part, latter part, future. Used On the second question, does 'a/Jarit alone
sixty-one times, this word is also not as common ever refer to the future Iife, M. Dahood has
as some other derivatives, but has theological claimed that it sometimes clearly does (Proverbs
import. As is clear from other derivatives, the and Northwest Semitic Philology, Pontifical Bi-
general meaning ofthe root is after, later, behind, blical Institute, 1963, pp. 48-49, 51). There are
following. H. W. Wolff has likened the Hebrew several interrelated verses in Prov using our
conception of time to the view a man has when he word. Proverbs 24: 14 (parallel to 23: 18) says
is rowing a boat. He sees where he has been and there is an ·a/Jarit (NIV "future hope ") for the
backs into the future (lecture notes). lt is true that righteous. His hope (tiqwa) will not be cut off.
qedem means "before" as well as "ancient Proverbs 11:7 says that when a wicked man dies,
times." So the root 'ii/Jar refers to what is "be- his hope (tiqwa) perishes. For the righteous,
hind" as well as to "future things." lt might be Prov 12:28 promises life and immortality ( 'a/
observed that this is not necessarily due to the mawet, "no death", Dahood, op. cit. p. 28). But
psychology of the Hebrews, for the usage was the evil man has no future hope ( ·a/Jarit) and the
doubtless established in Canaanite before the lamp of the wicked will be snuffed out (Prov
Hebrews arrived. But 'a/Jarit does refer to the 24:20, NIV). Dahood holds that Prov 20:20 refers
future. to the afterlife: his Iamp will be snuffed out in the
There are two theological questions at issue. sleep of darkness (i.e. death). There is thus an
First, does 'a/Jarit hayyiimim (the end of the interlocking of the words 'a!Jarit in the sense of a
days) refer to the general future, or more specifi- blessed future after death, tiqwa "hope" beyond
cally to the last days, the final segment of time? death, and for the righteous ·a/ mawet "no
The writer has argued elsewhere that it usually death.'' Dahood points out that the same colloca-
refers just to the general future ("The Last Days tion (except for tiqwa) occurs in Ugaritic, II
in the Bible and Qumran," in Jesus of Nazareth, Aqhat VI 11. 26-36 'Yhich H. L. Ginsberg trans-
Savior and Lord, ed. C. F. H. Henry, Eerdmans, lates, "Ask for life O Aqhat, the Youth, ask for
1966, pp. 74-79). The second question is, does life (/Jym) and 1'11give it thee, for deathlessness
'a!Jarit alone sometimes refer to the future life? (bl mt ==Heb. 'a/ mawet), and 1'11bestow it on
As to the first point, the expression 'a/Jarit thee. 1'11make thee count years with Baal. ...
hayyiimim is used fourteen times (Gen 49: 1; Num But Aqhat, the Youth answers .... Further life
24:14; Deut 4:30; 31:29; lsa 2:2 = Mic 4:1; Jer ('uhryt = Heb. 'a/Jarit}-how can mortal attain
23:20; 30:24; 48:47; 49:39; Ezk 38:16; Dan 2:28 it? How can mortal man attain life enduring?"
[Aram.] and 10:14; Hos 3:5). The KJV translates Certainly the collocation of verses in Prov along
the Gen, lsa and Mic references with "last with the similar usage of the key words in Ugar-
days," the rest with "latter days." The Rsv uses itic seems to warrant Dahood's conclusion that
"latter days" except for Gen and Deut 31:29 the "affirmation of a future life ... seems ines-
where it has "days to come." The NASB uses "lat- capable."
ter days" seven times, "last days" six times and Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 110-17.
"days to come" in Gen and Num. The NIV uses R.L.H.
"later days" in Deut 4:30; "last days" in lsa, Mic
and Hos, "the future" in Dan 10:14 and "days to 69 o•;~}:lt;/r:t~( 'a!Jashdarp'' nim) salraps.
come" in the other passages.
lt can be seen that none of these translations 70 i?l;l~r:t~ (' a!Jasht'riin) royal. Occurs only
use the phrase as an invariable technical term for in Est 8: 10-14.
the final segment of time. The interpretation de- t:I~ ( 'a[). See no. 72b.
pends on the context. lt is possible to use this
phrase both for the eschaton and for the general 71 it:1M ('{d). Assumed root of the following.
future because obviously all eschatology is fu- 71a ,~~ ('ti{äd) bramble, buckthorn.
ture, but not all future is eschatology. lt does
seem clear that lsa 2:2ff. ( = Mic 4: 1 ff.) refers to iit:1!( Cetun). See no. 73b.
the eschaton ("last days" KJV, NASB, NIV), but
that the reviving of Moab and Edom are simply 72 t:lt:IM ( 'u). Assumed root of the following.
prophesied for some future day (Jer 48:47: 49:39: 72a t•~i.,! ('i{{i) charmer (KJV, ASV, NAB);
cf. the Ammonites, 44:6). The above-cited article sorcerer (RSV. Amplified): magician
suggests that the corresponding NT phrase also (Berkeley): wizard (rn): oraclemonger
often refers to the general future, not to the final (NEB) (Ex 8:7 [H 3). 18 [H 14) and
segment of time. This brings into question the I Sam 24:4 [H 5)).

34
 75 ,~ ('ay)

'iOi, Charmer. This word. describing some 'ekakii "how"; 'epöh "'where." The word
variety of occultist, appears only in Isa 19:3 'ayyeh is probably a lengthened form of 'ay. The
where it is plural ('i{!fm). Because ofthe context, meaning and usage are almost identical. Parallel
a !ist including idols, mediums, and wizards, its passages interchange ·ay and ·ayyeh (Isa 36: 19 =
meaning can be easily guessed. Furthermore, the II Kgs 19:13).
adverb 'ar is formed of the same radicals mean- The interrogative adverb is sometimes used in
ing "slowly." "softly :· ··gently, .. or "secretly" requesting information (Gen 18:9; 22:7; I Sam
(cf. Gen 33:14: II Sam 18:5; I Kgs 21:27; Job 9: 18), but more often no answer is expected. This
15:11; lsa 8:6). There is an Arabic cognate which is particularly true of poetic passages. If God is
means "'to emit a moaning or creaking sound ... on your side, where is the fury of the oppressor
lsaiah 8: 19 and 29:4 indicate that these various (Isa 51:13) or. in Joh 14:IO, after man expires,
kinds of witches and wizards made low, chirping where is he?
or muttering sounds. Although ·i{!i does not ap- Frequently "where" is used by men question-
pear in either passage, the general representation ing the existence and power of God. lndividuals
of necromancy in the Bible furnishes a satisfac- (Mic 7: 10) as weil as nations ask, "Where is your
tory background to the understanding of 'i{!i God?" (Ps 79: IO: 115:2), or where is the word of
along t he se line s. God (Jer 17:15) or the God ofjustice? (Mal 2:17).
The Hebrew words lä'af, /a'f, and lä{ may also Gideon, doubting, asked what happened to the
shed light. The first is a verb probably derived as miracles he had heard about (Jud 6: 13). The same
a by-form from lü{ that occurs as a term for earnest longing characterizes the plea for God's
"cover" or "cover over" in II Sam 19:5. The action in lsa 63: 11.
second is perhaps an adverb appearing in Jud The Lord employed sarcasm to ask Judah
4:21 only and meaning „ softly" or "secretly." where were her gods. when that idol-loving na-
The KJV translates the third läf as "'with tion met distress (Deut 32:37; Jer 2:28). ·ay,
enchantments" in Ex 7:22; 8:3. 14, and as strengthened by the enclitic zeh. is used as the
"softly," "secretly," and "privily" in Ruth 3:7: Lord asks where there is a house that could pos-
I Sam 18:22 and 24:5, respectively. sibly contain him (lsa 66: 1).
R.L.A. The strengthened interrogative also occurs in
Est 7:5. The king asked where the queen's tor-
'lli~ ( 'i(!i). See no. 72a. mentor might be found. Rhetorical questions with
zeh are illustrated by II Chr 18:23 and Job 38:19.
73 Clt;)l;t ( 'ä(am) shut, shut up. Combined with mizzeh. 'ay (or 'f:) means
"where have you come from?" This construction
Derivative is used by human beings (I Sam 30: 13). angels
73b 11r:i~ ( 'e(ün) thread, yarn. Occurs (Gen 16:8), and even by God in addressing Satan
only in Prov 7:16. (Job 2:2).
'ek. How. This interrogative pronoun is used
74 i~i;t ( 'ä(ar) shut up, close. Occurs only in in simple questions, e.g. Jehoiakim's official asks
Ps 69:16. Baruch, ··How did you write these words?"' (Jer
Derivative 36: 17). But usually it is used in rhetorical questions
to indicate reproach ("how dare you say I love
74a itli~ ( 'i(!h) shut, bound. This ad- you," Jud 16:15), despair ("how the mighty have
jective occurs only in Jud 3:15; 20:16. fallen," I Sam 1:19), amazement ("how the op-
pressor has ceased." lsa 14:4). horror ("'how
75 'l;t ('ay) where. they are destroyed in a moment," Ps 73: 19), or
Derivatives desire ("how I would set you among my sons,"
Jer 3:19).
75a M'l;t ( 'ayyeh) where?
75b ti•~ ( 'f:k) how? 'ekä. How, where. A more emphatic form of
75c t:,:,•M ( 'f:kä) how? where? 'ek, applied to reasoning (Jer 8:8), mocking (Ps
75d ti:,•~ ( 'f:k<i) where? 73:11), and exclamations (Jer48:17). Laments in
75e t:,;i;i•~ ('f:käkä) how? particular are stressed (lsa 1:21; Lam 1: J; 2: !;
75f i1'1;t ( ·ayin) where? 4:1-2). The meaning "'where" is also attested (II
75g tii;t ( 'ä11) where? Kgs 6: 13; Song 1:7).
75h t:,·c•~ ( 'f:pöh) where? 'ekö. Where. Found only in II Kgs 6: 13.
The interrogative adverb 'ay is related to the where the written text has 'f:koh. This is prob-
Ugaritic ·y. Most of its thirty occurrences are in ably another example of 'f:kä "where."
rhetorical questions. lt combines with other ad- 'ekäkä. How. Formed ·e plus käka, "thus," it
verbs to form ·1~k"how"; 'f:kä "'how, where"; occurs twice in Song 5 :3 in the sense of "must 1."

35
76 '~ ('f)
In Est 8:6 the queen wonders how she can bear to enemy to Israel' s enemies. In every other in-
see the destruction of the Jews. stance the word is used in the participial form
'öyeb meaning "enemy."
'ayin. Where. Probably derived from 'ay.
The Ugaritic cognate 'b conveys the concept of
This adverb is always combined with min in
hostility, as used in parallelism with .fo' "hate"
me'ayin. lt is a synonym of 'e mizzeh (see under
in UT 16: Text 51.7.35,36.
'äy). Often travelers were asked, "Where have
While the word usually refers simply to the
you come from?" (Gen 29:4; Jud 19:17), as God
enemies of a nation or an individual, theological
asked Satan in Job 1:7. lt occurs in rhetorical implications are inherent in a number of contexts.
questions expressing frustration (Num 11:13; II
The defeated enemy was a mark of God's bless-
Kgs 6:27) or distress (Jer 30:7). According to Ps ing on Israel (Lev 26:7-8; Deut 6:19). But when
121: 1-2, one' s help comes from the Lord. In this
Israel forsook God she could expect to be de·
famous verse, the original KJV read, "I will lift up
feated at the hands of her enemies (Lev 26: 17, 25,
mine eyes unto the hilles: from whence commeth
32 etc.; Num 14:42; Deut 1:42; II Kgs 21:14).
my helpe." The "from whence" was interpreted
lsrael's victory over her enemies was con-
by some as a relative pronoun, indicating that the ditioned upon obedience, e.g. observing God's
help was thought of as coming via the hills. But it
commandments (Lev 26:3; cf. v. 7) and repenting
seems more Iikely that the Hebrew is a question,
(1 Kgs 8:33; II Chr 6:24).
and the answer is in v. 2-that is, in the Lord
The defeat of David's enemies was a mark of
himself.
God's favor on him (II Sam 7:9; 22:18, 41).
'ayin may be contrasted to the form 'än, which
The destruction oflsrael's enemies was seen as
is not combined with min.
a result of God's intervention and thus became
'än. Where. Contracted from 'ayin, it often evidence of God' s sovereignty (Josh 23: 1; Jud
occurs with the Iocative with verbs of motion to 8:34; I Kgs 8:46).
ask, "where to" in questions directed to man Even God has enemies, but they will experi-
(Gen 32: 17 [H 18]) or God (II Sam 2: 1). The com- ence certain retribution (lsa 66:6; Ps 37:20; 68:1
pound 'ad 'äna "how long," is used by God, [H 21).
complaining about lsrael's prolonged Jack offaith The word occurs in several contexts in an ethi-
or obedience (Ex 16:28; Num 14:11). Men also cal sense. One should not rejoice over the fall of
ask God how Iong it will be before he responds an enemy (Prov 24:17). Even one's enemies will
(Hab 1:2; Ps 13:1-2 [H 2-3]). be at peace with him when his ways please the
Lord (Prov 16:7).
'epö. Where, what kind. Infrequently used
(nine times), it is compared with 'ay or 'ayye. 'ebA. Enmity, hatred. The meaning of this
Once it means "what kind of men" (Jud 8: 18). lt word, as shown by the root 'äyab, is "hostility"
is a combination of 'ay (q.v.) and pöh (q.v.). or "hatred." In most of its occurrences it con-
Bibliography: Muir, J., "The Significance of notes the hatred in which a hostile act is perpet·
rN in Genesis 5,24 and Psalm 39,13," Exp T 50: rated whether in a legal context (Num 35:21-22)
476-77. THAT, I, pp. 125-26. or a context describing the hostile acts of lsrael's
H.W. enemies (Ezk 25:15; 35:5).
'iyöb. Job. The etymology of the name Job is
76 •1:4 ('f) III, alas! Occurs only in Eccl 4: 10;
uncertain. Some have understood the name tobe
10:16.
a derivative of 'äyab "tobe hostile," the partici-
77 •1:4 ( 'f) IV, not. This adverb is used only pial form of which is the common word for
"enemy." This supposed derivation would have
once (Job 22:30). lt is probably to be iden-
tified in the name 'f käbod "No Glory." the literary significance of depicting Job's ada-
mant attitude in the face of his trials as he refused
•1:4 ('f) I, II. See nos. 39a, 43a. to accept the suffering imposed on him. If seen as
a passive form of 'äyab the name would connote
78 :~tt ('äyab) tobe an enemy. (ASV, Rsvtrans• the concept of "the object of hostility" (BOB)
late similarly). depicting Job as one who suffered at the hand of
God. There is little linguistic evidence for these
Derivatives views however.
Another suggestion is that the name derives
78a t~;•!'t (' ebä) enmity, hatred.
from the Arabic 'wh "turn" and connotes the
78b t:i~l:4 ( 'iyob) Job.
concept of repentance (BOB).
The basic meaning of the verb is "tobe hostile The name has been attested in various forms in
to," "tobe or treat as an enemy." This meaning several West Semitic texts as a common proper
is evident in the only non-participial occurrence name (KB in Ioc.) which may mean either "no
of the word, Ex 23:22, where God becomes an father" or "where is (my) father?" lt is quite

36
 81 r~ ('ayin)
possible that the name bears no literary signifi- 'emä. Dread, fear, horror, idol, terrible, ter-
cance and is rather to be seen as the name of an ror. (Rsv similar except that it translates as
ancient personage whose conduct in trial made "dread wrath" in Prov 20:2.)
him a worthy example ofthe godly man's attitude In all of its occurrences the word ·ema con-
toward suffering. notes the concept of "fear." lt occurs only once
Job is cited along with Noah and Daniel in Ezk in a metaphorical sense in Jer 50:38 where it
14:14,20as an ancient worthy who was an exam- means "idol"; evidently in the sense of that
ple of righteousness. which is to be feared.
Bibliography: Baab, 0. J., "The Book of Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 219-21.
Job," Interp S: 329-43. Hawthorne, R. R., T.E.M.
"Jobine Theology," BS 101: 64-75, 173--86,
290-303, 417-33; 102: 37-54. Pope, Marvin, Job
81 1~l4 (' ayin) eise, except, to be gone, incura-
in AB, pp. 6-7. TDNT, II, pp.811-13. TDOT, I,
ble, neither, never, no, nowhere, none, nor,
pp. 212-18. THAT, I, pp. 118-21.
norany, noranything, not, nothing, to nought,
T.E.M.
past, unsearchable, weil nigh, without. (ASV
.,,!'.!('ed). See no. 38c. and Rsv are similar.)
l"l~l;C( 'ayya). See no. 43b. This word is basically a negative substantive
used most frequently in the construct form(' en).
l"l~l;C(ayyeh). See no. 75a. The word therefore has no single meaning and the
:i'" ('iyob). See no. 78b. exact translation must be determined in each con-
text. The negative concept is always present
'!f'!'.I('ek), :,;,'!'.!('eka). See no. 75.
wherever the word is used. lt is characteristically
used to negate a noun or noun clause, cf. GKC
79 ,:~ ( 'eyäl) strength (ASV"help").
par. 152 d and i-o.
The connotation of help is supported by the As indicated above, the word is used in numer-
Syriac from which this word is probably bor- ous negative expressions. Some basic usages of
rowed. The root 'u/ apparently occurs in Ugari- this negative root in the 01 are noted below.
tic, however, in parallelism with 'zm (UT 19: no. The word may express the idea of absence as in
164) "strength." In Ps 88:4 [H 5], the word oc- Gen 2 :5, the lack of men to till. Related to this
curs in a couplet in which the writer describes concept is the expression ofnon-existence (1 Sam
himself as reckoned among the dead, a concept 10:14) or of that which is gone, has disappeared (1
which seems to support the connotation Kgs 20:40). We see this same idea in Eccl 3:14
"strength" in the expression "no strength" of where it expresses nothingness. Akin also is the
line two. usage in Isa 44: 12, where the concept is that of
79a 1"11':!:~ (' eyälut) strength. (Asv "suc- fading out or failing, in reference to a man's
cor"; Rsv "help. ") strength. Finally, absence is seen as primary in
the negative time concept of Ezk 28:19, "no
The basic meaning of this word seems to be more," "never more."
"strength" (see 'eyäl. This feminine abstract use
A second basic usage of this negative root is in
of the word occurs as a surrogate for God in Ps
the idea of alternatives. In Gen 30: 1, the concept
22:20 (its only occurrence), where it is used in
is that of either/or. In Gen 44 :26 it is expressed as
parallelism with the tetragrammeton. According
a condition (unless/except). Still in Gen (Gen
to KB it is merely a feminine form of 'eyäl above.
45:6), the negative alternative is expressed
For related words native to Hebrew see '01. (neither/nor).
T.E.M.
The third usage we shall note is that of impos-
,~tc('ayil). See no. 45d,e,f,g.
sibility. This is expressed in a variety of ways.
The grain of Joseph, impossible to number, is so
',~1:4('ayyä/), :,7z1:.4
('ayyäla). See no. rendered (Gen 41 :49). Limits which cannot be
45k,I. exceeded are similarly expressed (II Chr 20:25).
r,1,:!'.I (' eyälut). See no. 79a.
Perhaps the most frequent use of the root to ex-
C?'!'.I('eläm). See no. 45j. press impossibility is in negative compound con-
cepts such as incurable (II Chr 21: 18), unsearch-
80 C'H ('ym). Assumed root of the following.
able (Job 5:9), and infinite (Nah 3:9).
80a tc 'l;C (' äyöm) terrible.
At times the root expresses the simple negative
80b t:ir;'l'.I ( 'ema) dread. "not" as in Jud 14:3. lt can also convey the con-
'äyöm. Terrible (Rsv "dread"). In its occur- cept "almost" as it does in Ps 73:2. In this latter
rences (Song 6:4, 10; Hab 1:7), the word con- usage it is close in function to the parallel word
notes the awesome dread inspired by a mighty kfm 'at also meaning "almost," "nearly."
army. lt is used metaphorically in Song 6:4, 10. Frequently the negative root is joined to insep-

37
s2 :,9,~ (' epa)
arable pronouns forming in one word both the tive and much )arger than the normal measurlng
subject and the negative as in Ps 59: 13 [H 14], container.
"they shall not be" (cf. Ps 73:5; Gen 5:24; Ex Bibliography: Al, pp. 199-203. Ap-Thomas,
5: 10). Sometimes the simple negative root ac- D. R., "The EphahofMeal inJudges6, 19," JTS
companies the independent pronoun as in Neh 41: 175-77. Huey, F. B., "Weights and Mea-
4:17. sures," in ZPEB. Segre, Angelo, "A Documen-
Other Semitic languages have similar words to tary Analysis of Ancient Palestinian Units of
convey this negative concept, although for the Measure," JBL 64: 357-75.
most part they are not cognates of our Hebrew J.B.S.
word. Among Semitic cognates used in a similar
way are the Moabite ·n. the Assyrian iiinu, and :,t,•I( ( 'epöh). See no. 75h ..
particularly the Ugaritic 'yn (UT, 19: no. 99). Mi~•l'.I ('epo'). See no. 144.
J.B.S.
83 W'M ( 'ysh). Assumed root of the following.
7'1'.1('ayin). See no. 75f. 83a tw•M ('ish) man, mankind, champion,
great man, husband, person, what-
82 M~'l'.I ( ·epa) ephah. (Asv, Rsv generally the soever, whosoever. (ASV,RSVsimilar.)
same, but Rsv sometimes supplies the word
for clarification.) The word 'ish connotes primarily the concept
of man as an individual and thus differs in that
lt is a dry measure, frequently mentioned in the regard from the more general concepts inherent
01, estimated to be equivalent to from three- in the words 'enosh and 'ädäm ("mankind").
eights to two-thirds of a bushel. Two possible roots have been suggested for the
There were ten ephahs in a homer (which is word, 'nsh and 'ysh('wsh). Iffrom the latter, the
thought tobe a donkey load) and ten omers in one word 'ish may be related to the Akkadian ishänu
ephah. The seah was probably one-third of an meaning "strong."
ephah. The ephah was the same as the liquid The word is used variously in the 01. Most
measure, the bath. commonly it denotes any individual male. Less
There is much uncertainty in the size of the frequently it has the more specific connotation of
bath and ephah. Estimates vary from about "male," emphasizing the male sex, as distinct
twenty-two liters (twenty dry quarts) to about from the female sex (Ex 35:29; Lev 13:29; II Chr
forty-five liters (forty-one dry quarts) with the 15:13) or man in his sexual role ("to know a
former favored by most. Jar handles have been man," Gen 19:8, etc.). Characteristically this is
found stamped htmlk "bath of the royal stan- zäkär.
dard." Unfortunately, no suchjar has been found lt is used in many technical expressions such
with enough pieces to reconstruct the jar and as "man of the earth" (Gen 9:20) meaning
measure the capacity. U ntil that occurs, things "farmer," "man of the field," connoting a hunter
are uncertain. (Gen 25:27) and "man of God," referring to a
Moses had Aaron save one-tenth of an ephah prophet (Deut 33: 1, etc.).
of manna as a memorial (Ex 16:36). for a sin Frequently the word functions as an indi-
offering, one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour was vidualizing element connoting the concept
required (Lev 5: 11) and also for the offering on "each" as in "each person" (Gen 10:5). lt also
the day of Aaron·s anointing (Lev 6:20 [H 13]; cf. functions in a broadly inclusive sense meaning
Num 5:15; 28:5). In Ezk this is increased to one- "whoever" (Lev 15:5).
sixth ephah for some offerings (Ezk 45: 13; 46: 14). One of the most common usages of 'ish is in
Also, a cereal offering of one ephah was to ac- the sense of "husband." The word begins to
company each bull or ram offered according to achieve significance in this sense first in Gen
Ezk 45:24; 46:5, 11. 2:23-24 where the origin of woman is described.
On one occasion a yield of an ephah for each While the derivation of 'ishshil from 'ish
homer planted indicated extremely hard times suggested by this passage is difficult philologi-
(lsa 5:10}-the yield being one tenth of the seed cally (there may be no more than a word play),
planted! there is no question that the words "This ... is
The ephah is used to measure such dry sub- bone of my bones ... She shall be called woman
stances as flour, barley, and parched grain (Jud because she was taken out of man·· ( v. 23), com-
6:19; Ruth 2:17; I Sam 17:17). Regarding the municate a close and intimate relationship that
measurement of such grains, stern warnings were Adam could not find apart from one who shared
given. Different volumes of measure for the his own station and nature; indeed, his own life.
ephah were not allowed (Deut 25:14; Arnos 8:5; lt reflects God's desire to provide man with a
Mic 6: 10). rat her, one just ephah was required companion who would be his intellectual and
(Lev 19:36; Deut 25:15; Ezk 45:10). physical counterpart. The permanency intended
The ephah in Zech 5:6-10 is obviously figura- in the relationship is expressed in the assertion

38
 85 ,;~ (' akal)

that man should leave bis parents and cleave to r,~~,"K ('akt'riyut). See no. 971c.
his wife. M?'~·~
- ('akila). See no. 85c.
A husband could divorce his·wife under certain
conditions (Deut 24:1-4) but divorce was not en-
couraged (Mal 2:16; Jer 3:1).
85 ',;,!$ ('akal) eat, consume, devour, burn up,
feed. (Asv and RSVare generally the same.
The relationship of husband to wife is used as a
metaphor of God's relationship to his people. One notable exception is found in Ps 27:2
where Rsv has "slander" instead of "eat my
This relationship is the basis of assurance for the
flesh" in accordance with an Akkadian and
people of God in the book of Hosea where the
Aramaic idiom, ··to eat a piece ofme" mean-
marriage relationship forms a central motif (see ing ··to slander me. ")
Hos 2:16).
Man possesses great individual worth in the OT, Derivatives
for anyone who murders a man is himself to be 85a t,;;,·K ('ökel) food.
put to death (Lev 24: 17). God observes the ways
85b t:,~:iK ( 'okla) food, fuel, meat,
of men (Job 34:21; Prov 5 :21) and the invitation of
T~tding, describing often the act of
wisdom goes out to all men (Prov 8:4) demon-
consuming.
strating God's concern for the individual.
85c tM7':;i-, (akila) an eating, a meal, meat.
As with 'eno.~h a distinction obtains between 85d t',;,~r; (ma'iikä/) food,fruit, meat.
God and man. Balaam observed that God was not 85e tr,;;;,tci; (ma'äkelet) knife.
man that he should lie (Num 23:19).
85f r,!f':i~r; (ma'akölet) fuel.
Bibliography: Hallevy, Raphael, "Man of 85g r,?.·:zii; (makkölet) food stuf/, food.
God," JNES 17: 237-44. Hoffner, H. A., "Sym-
bols for Masculinity and Femininity," JB L 85: This same root occurs in Arabic, Assyrian and
326-34. May, Herbert G., "Individual Responsi- Aramaic as weil as Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 104).
bility and Retribution," HUCA 32: l07-20. Generally the meaning is the same but in the
TDOT, I, pp. 222-35. THAT, I, pp. 130-37. Aramaic as noted above, there is the idiomatic
T.E.M. use with qera~ "to eilt a piece of' meaning "to
slander" (Dan 3 :8).
i;r,,l:t ('iton). See no. 188a. The primary meaning of this root is "to con-
sume." The object consumed depends on the
84 '!ltc ('ak) surely (affirmative emphasis), but subject. Predominantly, the subject is man or
(restrictive emphasis), also as a particle of some animal and therefore the object consumed
emphasis, not translated. (Great variety is some kind offood. Ifthe subject is fire or some
exists in actual translation due to the nature other non-animal consumer, then the object may
of this particle. Context and judgment of the be wood or other consumable material. Figura-
translator will determine the word selected tively, droughts, famines, and pestilences are said
or whether to translate at all.) to consume, meaning that they overcome. From
This particle primarily conveys emphasis and this is also derived the usage of oppressors con-
often is not translated. When it is translated, the suming their victims.
sense is either an emphatic affirmative (Gen 26:9; The basic meaning of "to consume" is used in
29:14; Ex 31:13; Ex 31:13; Jer 19:19; Lam 2:16 at least six different ways. First, it occurs fre-
etc.) or an emphatic restrictive (Gen 7:23; 9:4; quently in the context of hardship, whether de-
18:32;Ex 12:16; Lev 11:4; Num 22:20; Josh 22: 19; served or not. Drought, fire, war, and other
l Sam 8:9, etc.). plagues devour the innocent as weil as the guilty
At times either sense fits in the context, and (Gen 31 :40; Num 21 :28; Jer 2:30; Joel 1:4; II Sam
translators differ in how they read it. 18:8). Greedy oppressors, foreign nations as weil
Many times no translation is preferable to either as sinners in Israel, devour the innocent (Ps 14:4;
of the above alternatives. Only emphasis is in- Ps 79:7). Sometimes the devourer is an insect or
tended, i.e. "Jacob was just gone out" (Gen 27:30); an animal (I Kgs 21:23; Isa 51:8). Hardship is also
"the first day" (Ex 12:15); "on the tenth day" associated with being forced to eat, actually or
(Lev 23:27); "if the young men have kept them- symbolically, what is unpleasant (Isa 36: 12; Gen
selves from women" (1 Sam 21:4 [H 5]); "do not 3:14; Hos 10:13; Ps 127:2). This leads to the cause
fret to do evil" (Ps 37:8). and effect relationship expressed in Ezk 18:2.
Bibliography: Snaith, N. H., "The Meaningof A second context for the root is in worship or
Hebrew '!ltc," VT 14: 221-25. devotion. Certain foods are either eaten (II Chr
J.B.S. 30:18; Ex 23:15) or refused (Dan 1:12; l0:3) in
devotion to the Lord. Sinners likewise eat before
:lf1tc ('akzäb). See no. 970b. pagan gods (Ps 106:28; Ezk 18:11). The unbe-
ii;,tc ( 'akzär), '"!;,tc (akzäri). See nos. liever is forbidden to eat in worship of the true
971a,b. God (Ex 12:48).

39
86 i;~ (' aken)
A third contextual use of the root, eating weil, Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 236-41. THAT,
indicates prosperity (Joel 2:26; Gen45:18; II Kgs I, pp. 138-41.
18:31 ; Prov 24: 13; Deut 8 :3) or the Jack of pros- J.B.S.
perity when eating does not satisfy (Mic 6: 14).
Closely related to this is the circumstance of eat- 86 i;;ii;t ("äken) surely, truly, indeed. (In ASV
ing what others eamed as a symbol ofvictory (Isa and Rsv generally the same although not al-
61 :6) but others eating of it symbolizes defeat (Isa ways translated.)
65:22). The word occurs in four basic contexts ex-
A group of lesser contexts must also be noted. pressing a note of surprise or exasperation: fear
The root can denote being zealously involved or (Gen28:16; Ex2:14; Isa40:7; Jer3:23;4:10;8:8),
simply being consumed (Ps 69:9 [H 10]; Gen warning (Job 32:8; Ps 82:7; Jer 3:20; Zeph 3:7),
31: 15). Eating can also be indicative simply of self-confidence (1 Sam 15:32), and faith in God
reward for work done (Prov 27:18; Arnos 7:12). (Ps 31 :22 [H 23 ]; 66: 19; lsa 45: 15; 49:4; 53 :4; Jer
One indication of the arrival of the blessed hope 3:23). Among the Semitic languages it appears to
ofbelievers is the time when no flesh, only vege- be unique to Hebrew.
tation, will be consumed (lsa 11:7), indicative of Bibliography: Goldbaum. Fredric J ., "Two
the state of blessedness before the fall of Adam Hebrew Quasi-Adverbs: ,~, and ,~M," JNES 23:
into sin. 132-35.
'ökel. Food, meat, prey. This noun is a basic J.B.S.
word for food. lt first occurs in Gen 14:11 refer-
ring to the spoils of war. The primary use of the 87 l'l;ll;t ('äkap) press, urge. Occurs only in
terrn is in the Joseph account (Gen 41-47). lt Prov 16:26.
seems throughout to refer to food seen as a Derivative
necessity of life, vital. lt is used particularly of
that which the Lord provides. We see this in 87a l'l;;i!'.I('ekep) pressure. Occurs only
three stages: first, that provided for men and be- in Job 33:7.
asts in Eden before the fall (Gen 1:29-30); sec-
ond, that provided for Noah and bis family during 88 ,~M ( 'kr). Assumed root of the following.
the flood (Gen 6:21); and third, that provided 88a i~M ('ikkär) plowman, husbandman.
after the flood to all men (Gen 9:3). God is the 89 ,l!C ( 'ä/) I. Possible element of the following.
provider (Ex 16:15; Lev 11:39). Sometimes, in
89a w•:;i~'7~('e/gäbfsh) hail. Occurs
judgment, men become the food offire (Ezk 15:4, only in Ezk 13:II, 13; 38:22.
6; 21:32 [H 37)) and ofwild beasts (Ezk 34:5, 8).
89b t1•~U'71!C ('algumfm) a tree (KJV
'oklä. Food, fuel, meat, eating, often describing "algum") from Lebanon.
the act of consuming. This term is more general, 89c Cl'~1??1!C(' almüg!(im) a tree (KJV
anything which the Lord has deterrnined to be "almug") from Lebanon. Occurs only
edible. in I Kgs 10: 11-12.
'Akilä. An eating, a meal, meat. Occurs but
89d t1i:,'71!C
(' alqüm) band of soldiers (Prov
30:31).
once (1 Kgs 19:8) and perhaps refers to some
unique nourishment in that it sustains Elijah forty 90 ,l!C('a/) II, not, no, nor, neither (this ad-
days. verb of negation is usually reflected in ASV
ma'Akäl. Food, fruiJ, meat. This term is also and Rsv in the same general way, although
quite general in meaning but is used frequently of the choice of negatives used varies).
more dainty foods or delicacies (Gen 2:9; 3:6; This particle expresses the negative as either a
40:17; I Kgs 10:5; Job 33:20, etc.). These three wish (Gen 13:8; Jud 19:23) or a preference (Prov
derivatives have specialized and quite limited 17:12), thus indicating its more reserved intent
use. than the very adamant lö'. Consistent with this
ma'Akelet. Knife. This word is used to denote concept, whenever it is used with a verb, the verb
the knife by which Abraham intended to sacrifice is in the jussive (which often is indistinguishable
Isaac (Gen 22:6, 10) and the knife used by the from ihe imperfect). Cf. GKC 109, c-e.
Levite to dismember his concubine (Jud 19:29). lt lt can be also used in a command (II Kgs 9:15)
also describes the teeth of devourers of the poor but never with an imperative. The negative com-
slicing them in greed. ma'llkölet (two times) is mand is usually lö' with the indicative as in the
found only in lsa 9 and means "fuel," occurring Ten Commandments.
once in a passage of hope and once in a passage Finally, inasmuch as it expresses preference, it
describing oppression (9:5 [H 4]; 9:19 [H 18)). often occurs in prayers to God (Dan 9: 19; Ps 31: 1
makkölet (once) apparently refers to a ration of [H 2]; 71:1), where it introduces a plea-"let me
food. never. ... "

40
 93 M',N (' lh)

Bibliography: Bright, John, '"The Apodictic stand in the predicate position as an adjective, in
Prohibition: Some Observations," JBL 92: 184- which case the verb "tobe" is understood (Gen
204. 2:4, "These are the generations").
J.B.S. lt takes the article only after substantives
which are themselves determined by the article.
',~ (' el). See no. 93a. The pronoun occurs similarly in the cognate
form in Arabic, Ethiopic, Syriac, and Aramaic.
91 ',~ ( 'e/) unto, into, beside, against, in refer- J.B.S.
ence to. (Asv, RSVare generally the same but
varying in the specific English preposition
used due to differing interpretations.) 93 ri,K ('/h). Assumed root of the following.
The preposition expresses primarily motion 93a t',!'.' ('e/) god, God.
toward someone or something. As such, it occurs 93b t::t',t,t ('e/öah) god,God.
in a wide variety of contexts expressing motion, 93c tc•ri'',t,t ( 'elöhim) gods, God.
attitude, direction, or location. '/h is the assumed root of 'el, 'elöah, and
Physical motion "toward" is the primary con- 'elöhim, which mean "god" or '"God." The
cept expressed by this preposition with numerous Ugaritic term for "god" or the "chief god" is 'i/,
examples (e.g. Gen 1:9; 14:7). The motion some- plural 'i/m, occasionally plural 'i/hm (cf. UT 19:
times carries '"into" that which is approached, as no. I63). The Phoenician term is '/ "EI"; the
in Gen 6: 18 "into the ark." plural is 'Im which seems tobe construed some-
Closely akin is the concept of mental motion as times as a singular (cf. Z. Harris, Grammarof the
seen in God's grief "into" his heart (Gen 6:6). Phoenician Lan{?ua[?e, Jewish Publication Soci-
We see also its use to express motion toward, ety, 1936, p. 77). The Aramaic is 'eläh, plural
in the sense of "in reference to," a kind of un- 'elähin, The Akkadian form is ilu.
seen gesture (Gen 20:2) where Abraham speaks The view that the three Hebrew terms come
"in reference to" his wife, not "to" her (cf. also I from one root is much disputed and a final verdict
Sam 3:21, "in reference to" the ark being taken). is lacking. Some hold that the two are distinct,
At times the sense of motion is lost altogether deriving 'el from the root 'w/ (strong). Others see
and the description of a state or condition pre- 'elöhim derived from the root 'lh, together with
vails, e.g. Gen 24:11, "by a weil"; or II Sam 'elöah, that root meaning "fear." Still others
14:30, "by mine" rather than "unto mine." For hold that both 'el and 'elöhim come from 'elöah.
this reason, apparently, the preposition came to More probable is the view that 'elöhim comes
be interchangeable with 'al at times, e.g. Gen from 'elöah as a unique development of the He-
22:12, "upon the lad"; Josh 5:14, "upon his brew Scriptures and represents chiefly the plural-
face." This interchange of 'al and 'el may have ity of persons in the Trinity of the godhead (see
occurred in the living language but may partly be 'elöhim).
due to scribal changes. lt was assisted by the 'elöah is also a basic Hebrew term for the God
circumstance that Aram has no 'el and uses 'al of Israel, but is used less frequently (see 'elöah
(from 'iilal "go in") in the sense of Hebrew 'el; and 'et, a separate though perhaps related
cf. BDB, p. 41. generic term for God).
Finally, the preposition can also mean
"against," although motion toward is evident, as 'el. God, god, mighty one, strength. In the
in Gen 4:8, where Cain "rose up against Abel." common use of the word to denote either the
Here 'el no doubt retains something of the origi- generic name "god" or "the God" of Israel, the
nal sense of both physical and mental motion to- ASVand RSVare usually alike. However, in some
ward. specialized uses of the term they differ from KJV
J.B.S. and from one another, e.g. ASVand RSVtreat Jud
9:46 as a proper noun "EI-Berith" while KJV
~•;t?~ ('elgäbish). See no. 89a. translates "god"; Ps 29: 1, Rsv translates
"heavenly beings" while ASVhas "sons of the
t:1•rp~7"'
('algümmim ). See no. 89b. mighty"; Ps 50: 1, ASVand RSVhave "mighty
92 r1,~ ('el/eh)
lations).
these (the same in most trans-
one," KJV"mighty God;" Ps 80:10 [H 11], ASVren-
ders "cedars ofGod," Rsv has "mighty cedars"
and KJVsimply „ goodly cedars": Ps 82: 1, ASV
This demonstrative pronoun serves as the says "congregation of God" but Rsv translates
plural of zeh. When it stands alone, without an "Divine counsel"; Ps 89:6 [H 7]) ASVand KJV
accompanying noun or pronoun, it has the sense ··sons of the mighty" but Rsv "Heavenly be-
of "these things" (Deut 18:12). ings"; lsa 57:5, KJVhas "idols" but ASV,Rsv read
lt is generally in apposition with a substantive, as another Hebrew word, "oaks"; and finally,
with or without a suffix (Ex 10:1). lt may also Ezk 32:21, KJV and ASV "strong among the

41
93 :,',N (' lh)

mighty" while Rsv renders it simply "mighty guish the term as used hiblically from others who
chiefs ... might be so named (A. B. Davidson, Theology of
The primary meanings of this root as used in the O/d Testament, p. 61).
Scripture are "god" (pagan or false gods), A study of the various accornpanying descrip-
"God" (the true God of Israel) and less fre- tions of EI where the name occurs in Scripture
quently, "the mighty" (referring to men or leads to the rather solid conclusion that, from the
angels). By far the predominant usage is for the beginning of the use of this term in Scripture, it
true God and it is to this usage that we will give was intended to distinguish the true EI (God)
major attention. from all false uses of that narne found in other
The name "EI" is a very ancient Semitic term. semitic cultures.
lt is also the most widely distributed name among We note first the use of EI in terms denoting
Semitic-speaking peoples for the deity, occurring God's greatness or superiority over all other
in some form in every Semitic language except gods: ha'el haggädol "the great EI" (Jer 32:18:
Ethiopic. Pope. in his study of "EI" in the Ps 77:13 [H 14]: 95:3): hä'el 'öseh pe/e' "EI doing
Ugaritic. notes that it is the most frequently oc- wonders" (Ps 77:14 [H 151); 'el 'elim "EI ofels"
curring name for the deity in proper names ("God of gods." Dan 11:36); 'e/ 'elöhe härii/J6t
throughout the ancient Semitic world (Marvin /'' kol-hcHär "EI, the God of the spirits of all
Pope, EI in the Ugaritic Texts. p. 1). flesh" (Num 16:22; 27:16).
We must agree with Pope that etymologically Next, consider epithets relating to El's posi-
the bottom of the barre! has been scraped with tion: 'el hashshamäyim "EI of heaven" (Ps
little success (Pope, EI in the Ugaritic Texts, p. 136:26); ·el mima'al „ EI that is above" (Job 31 :28);
19). Most frequently mentioned suggestions for 'el 'elybn "EI most high" (Gen 14: 18-19,20,22; Ps
an original meaning are "power" or "fear" but 78:35).
these are widely challenged and much disputed. Again, as a precaution against overfamiliarity
[lt may be noted that even if the origin of the with God because of the use of a cornmon Sernitic
word in Canaanite or proto-Semitic is from a root term, God is described as ·el mistater „ EI who
meaning power, this by no rneans indicates the hides himself" (i.e. known only by self-
connotation in Hebrew religious usage. Our word revelation, lsa 45: 15). Yet God does see us at all
"deity" comes from a root known in Sanskrit to times as Hagar affirmed, 'el ro' f "EI who sees me"
mean "sky" but we do not worship a sky-god. (Gen 16:13).
R.L.H.] Most specially EI is accompanied in Scripture
The question of the relationship between the by those epithets which describe him as the
biblical use of ·el and the Semitic concepts of EI Savior God of Israel. As such he is called hä'el
has received rnuch attention particularly since hanne'emän "Faithful EI" (Deut 7:9); hii'el haq-
the discovery of the Ugaritic texts, which have qädbsh "Holy EI" (lsa 5:16); 'ef 'emet "EI of
apparently established the fact that the terrn EI truth" (Ps 31:5 [H 6]; Deut 32:4); 'N shadday
was used in reference to a personal god and not „ Alrnighty EI" (Gen 17: I; 28:3; 35: 11; 48:3; Ex
rnerely as a generic term in the ancient Semitic 6:3: Ezk 10:5); 'el gihhiir "EI the heroic" (lsa 9:6
world. [H 5]: 10:21); ·etde'bt "EI ofknowledge" (1 Sam
Space will not allow us to develop the various 2:3); 'el hakkabod "EI of glory" (Ps 29:3): 'el
points of view on this matter. The article by 'öläm "EI of eternity" (Gen 21:33); 'el-~addiq
Frank M. Cross, published in 1975, in the first "Righteous EI" (lsa 45:21): and 'el qannä'
volume of the Theo/ogical Dictionary of the Old "Jealous EI" (Ex 20:5: Deut 4:24; 5:9; 6: 15; Josh
Testamelll, gives rnuch attention to this. Cer- 24: 19: Nah 1:2).
tainly we do not have to accept the view that In contradistinction from all false "els" (gods),
assumes an ancient polytheisrn in Israel which he is declared tobe 'e/ !Jay the "Living EI" (Josh
was gradually refined so that various gods such 3:10; I Sam 17:26, 36; II Kgs 19:4. 16; Ps 42:2
as EI, Shaddai, and Elyon were finally merged [H 3]; 84:2 [H 3]; Isa 37:4: Jer 10:10, 23:36; Dan
into Hebrew rnonotheism under the heading of 6:20, 26 [H 21,27]; Hos 1:10 [H 2:11). In accord
Elohim or Yahweh. The bibliography following with strict biblical rnonotheism he is therefore 'el
this article suggests further reading for those who 'e/Jäd, the one EI (Mal 2:10). Andin the passage
would like to pursue this matter. most quoted elsewhere in the Old Testament EI is
A. B. Davidson has observed the pronounced described in terms of those attributes by which
tendency in Scripture to accompany 'el with God desired to be known by his people (Ex
epithets. lndeed, as we study the word as used in 34:5-7: cf. Deut 4:3 I; II Chr 30:9; Neh 9: I 7, 3 I;
Scripture, we must conclude that it is almost al- Ps 103:8; Joel 2:13, etc.).
ways qualified by words or descriptions which The very personal relationship between the EI
further define the word. This leads A. B. David- of Scripture and his believers is seen in the fol-
son to conclude that these qualifications both lowing epithets: hä'N ht1-·e1 "the EI of Bethel"
elevate the concept of EI in Scripture and distin- (Gen 31: 13: 35:7); 't;I sal'i "EI my rock" (Ps 42:9

42
 93 :,',.c ('lh)

[H 10]); 'ely'shu'äti "EI my Savior" (lsa 12:2); Marvin H. Pope in his Book, EI in the Ugaritic
'el ~ayyäy "EI of my life" (Ps 42:8 [H 91); 'et Texts, has noted that 'elöah never has the article
!(omer 'äläy "EI the performeron me" (Ps 57:3); although it is once determined by the suffix (Hab
"the EI of. .. " (Gen 49:25, etc.); 'eli '"My EI" 1: 11) and found once in the construct (Ps 114:7).
(Ps 89:26 [H 27]; 102:24 [H 25]; 118:28); hä'el He further points out that it never occurs in com-
mii'uzzi "EI my fortress" (II Sam 22:33); hä'e/ bination with another divine name.
ham'az'reni ~äyil "EI the girder of me with We shall first look at the usage outside Job.
strength" (Ps 18:32 [H 33 I); hä'el hannoten Three times it occurs in parallel to "rock" as a
n' qämot li "the EI giving me vengeance" (Ps descriptive term forGod (Deut 32: 15; Ps 18:31 [H
18:47 [H 48]; II Sam 22:48). 32]; lsa 44:8). Once it is found in a context in
Thus, in an evangelistic sense, he is described which God is described us a shield to those who
in such epithets as 'e/ m'hölleka "EI who begat take refuge in him (Prov 30:5). Three times it is
you" (Deut 32:18); 'e/ möshi'äm "EI their used in a context of terror for sinners (Ps 50:22;
Savior" (Ps 106: 21); 'e/ mo~i'o mimmi~raim "EI 114:7; 139:19).
his (their) bringer from Egypt" (Num 24:8; This would suggest that the term conveyed to
23:22); 'e/ y''shürun "EI of Jeshurun" (Deut God's people comfort and assurance while con-
33:26); and ·et 'elohe yisrä'e/ "EI the God of Is- veying fear to their enemies. The concepts of
rael" (Gen 33 :20). strength and might conveyed by the term are fur-
Frequently therefore we find the term "EI" ther seen in the three successive verses of
combined with or associated with the personal Daniel's vision about the great anti-god (Dan
name for lsrael's God, Yahweh (Josh 22:22; Ps 11:37-39). Here the anti-god's god ( 'elöah) seems
85:8 [H 9]; 118:27; lsa 42:5, etc.) which testifies to be "strength" itself. In Hab 1:11 the term is
that he is indeed 'ef no.fe' EI who forgives (Ps used similarly.
99:8) and consequently hä'el y'shu'ätenu "EI of In Hab 3:3, the prophet speaks of 'elöah com-
our salvation" (Ps 68: 19-20 [H 20-21)). ing from Teman. In Job, Teman is associated
Whether or not the name EI can be identified with one of Job's three friends, Eliphaz (Job 4: 1).
etymologically with the concept of fear, it is Interestingly, the term 'eloah, used for God, is
clearly often associated with this idea in biblical predominantly used in Job by Job and Eliphaz in
epithets. He is called hä'el haggädöl w" hannorä' their debating. Only in one context does Zophar
"EI, great and terrible" (Neh 1:5; 4:14; 9:32; use the term ( 11:5-7). Bildad never does. Of
Deut 7:21; 10:17; Dan 9:4) or simply, 'et na'iirä~ course Elihu uses it, perhaps in imitation of the
"Terrible EI" (Ps 89:7 [H 8]). He is also de- former speakers (six times in chapters 33-37).
scribed as 'e/ !?"mülöt „ EI of recompenses" (Jer God himself, in speaking to Job, uses the term
51:56) or more severely 'e/ nöqem "EI the re- twice: once in a context of his providence and
venger" (Ps 99:8; Nah 1:2), and sometimes sim- once in parallel to "the Almighty" (see our dis-
ply ·el n 'qäm „ EI of vengeance" (Ps 94: 1). cussion on the concept of might associated with
Being indignant is a continuous characteristic of the name).
EI in Scripture (Ps 7:11 [H 12]). This term for God was usually clearly used for
Only in Job do we find extensive use of EI lsrael's God, the true God. This is evident from
without epithets. There the -term is treated by Job the fact that the Levites in the postexilic period
and his friends as the common term for the true used the term in quoting the descriptive revela-
God and its use there, unlike other parts of Scrip- tion ofGod given in Ex 34:6-7, where the original
ture, far outnumbers the occurrence of Elohim revelation to Moses had used EI and Yahweh
(q.v.). (Neh 9:17).
The Hebrew word is quite similar to the
'elöah. God, god ( ASV, Rsv similar). The exact Aramaic 'elah, the usual narne forGod in Biblical
relationship between this name for God in Scrip- Aramaic. lt has been suggested that the term has
ture and ·e/ or ·elöhim is disputed and far from come, via Aramaic, from two elements: EI and
settled. lt occurs in some of the oldest OT poetry Ah (a shortened form of Ahyeh, Ex 3:14, "l shall
(Deut 32:15, 17) and very frequently (forty-one be," the designation of Yahweh in the first per-
times) in the debates between Job (an ancient be- son; Feigin, Samuel 1., "The Origin of Eloh,
liever) and his friends. lt appears therefore tobe 'God', in Hebrew," JNES 3: 259). This suggests
an ancient term for God which was later dropped the possibility that originally two separate gods
for the most part until the time of the exile and were involved and later combined. Such a
after, when there was great concem for a return suggestion does not seem likely inasmuch as the
to the more ancient foundations. lt is not fre- term is in Scripture almost always used as a des-
quently used outside Job. lt occurs once in lsa, ignation of the true God.
once in Prov, twice in Hab, four times in the Ps, lt is probably akin to the term EI. lt was in use
and then in the postexilic books: II Chr, Neh, and quite early, then, after a period of neglect among
Dan, a total of five times. God's people, the term was revived to a limited

43
93 r,',a,c(' lh)

use perhaps through the contacts with Aramaic, of creation: lsa 45:18, "God, Former of the
where a similar term was in constant use. Earth"; Jon 1:9 "God of Heaven Who Made the
Sea and the Dry Land."
'Möhim. God, gods,judges, angels. (Generally, A second category of titles expresses God's
agreement is found in ASVand Rsv, however in sovereignty: lsa 54:5, "God of All the Earth"; I
some passages where the meaning is not clear Kgs 20:28, "God of the Hills"; Jer 32 :27, "God
they differ from KJV: Ex 31 :6, where Rsv has of All Flesh." The God of All the Kingdoms of
"God" but KJV "the judges"; similarly in Ex the Earth" (cf. lsa 37: 16); God of Heaven (Neh
22:28 [H 27] where RSVhas "God" but KJV"the 2:4, 20); "Yahweh God of the Heaven" (Gen
gods" or as a margin "judges.") This word, 24:7; II Chr 36:23); God in the Heaven (II Chr
which is generally viewed as the plural of ·elöah, 20:6); "The Lord God of the Heav1m and God of
is found far more frequently in Scripture than the Earth" (Gen 24:3; see Deut 4:39; Josh 2:11);
either ·e/ or ·elöah for the true God. The plural and finally "God of gods and Lord of Lords, the
ending is usually described as a plural of majesty Great, the Mighty, and the Terrible Who Does
and not intended as a true plural when used of Not Regard Favorites and Does Not Take
God. This is seen in the fact that the noun 'e/- Bribes" (Deut 10:17). All of these titles may be
öhim is consistently used with singular verb subsumed under the rather brief "God Most
forms and with adjectives and pronouns in the High" (Ps 57:2 [H 3]).
singular. As sovereign God, ·elöhim is often described
Albright has suggested that the use of this as Judge: simply "God Judge" (Ps 50:6; 75:7 [H
majestic plural comes from the tendency in the 8]) or "GodJudge in the Earth" (Ps 58: 11 [H 12]).
ancient near east toward a universalism: "We Another category of titles focuses around
find in Canaanite an increasing tendency to em- God's majesty or glory. Among these we find
ploy the plural Ashtoröt ·Astartes', and Anatöt "God of Etemity" (lsa 40:28); "God of Justice"
· Anaths', in the clear sense of totality of manifes- (lsa 30: 18); "God ofCertainty" (Isa65: 16); "Liv-
tations of a deity'" (William F. Albright, From ing God" (Jer 10: 10); and "This Holy God" (I
the Stone A.i,>eto Christianity, 2d ed., p. 213). But Sam 6:20). ·
a better reason can be seen in Scripture itself By far the most frequent category of titles are
where, in the very first chapter of Gen, the those pertaining to the Savior God. Here we in-
necessity of a term conveying both the unity of clude numerous constructs in which God is
the one God and yet allowing for a plurality of linked to individuals whom he has called: "Their
persons is found (Gen 1:2, 26). This is further God" (Gen 17:8); "The God of Abraham" (Gen
borne out by the fact that the form ·elöhfm oc- 26:24); "The God of Abraham ... and the God of
curs only in Hebrew and in no other Semitic lan- Isaac" (Gen 28:13); "The God of Abraham, the
guage, not even in Biblical Aramaic (Gustav F. God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob" (Ex 3:6),
Oehler, Theolo.i,>yof the O/d Testament, p. 88). etc. (More than one hundred such titles are found
The term occurs in the general sense of deity in the Old Testament.) Sometimes to these titles
some 2570 times in Scripture. Yet as Pope has is added the personal name, "Yahweh" (Gen
indicated, it is difficult to detect any discrepancy 24:12).
in use between the forms ·e/, •elöah, and 'elöhim Similarly, we find titles linking God by the con-
in Scripture (Marvin H. Pope, EI in the V.i,>aritic struct grammatical form to Israel as a whole or to
Texts, p. 10). some part of it: · 'God of the Armies of Israel'· (I
When indicating the true God, 'elöhim func- Sam 17:45)or "God of Jerusalem" (II Chr 32: 19).
tions as the subject of all divine activity revealed All of these represent God as savior of bis
to man and as the object of all true reverence and people as does the simple "God of Salvation" (1
fear from men. Often 'elöhim is accompanied by Chr 16:35; Ps 18:46 [H47]. etc.; cf. Ps 88:1 [H 2]).
the personal name of God, Yahweh (Gen 2:4-5; Some titles reflect God's actions on behalf of
Ex 34:23; Ps 68:18 [H 19], etc.). his people in the past: "The Living God, Speaker
While the individual occurrences of the term from the Midst ofthe Fire" (Deut 5:23 [H 26]; cf.
·elöhim for God are far too numerous to treat I Kgs 18:24); "God, the Bringer of Prisoners into
here, some significant appositives and descrip- Prosperity" (Ps 68:7); "God ... the Bringer out
tive phrases or clauses associated with the name to you Water from the Flinty Rock" (Deut 8: 15);
are given below. These descriptive words at- "Your God Who Separated You from the
tached to the noun ·elöhim really serve as titles Peoples" (Lev 20:24).
and indicate the various titles by which God's And finally, we find titles expressing the inti-
people came to know him. The term ·elöhim is macy of God with bis people: ''The God of Near-
the favorite term in titles. They are usually at- ness" (Jer 23:23); "Your God in Whom you
tached by means of the construct, the relative Trust" (II Kgs 19:10); "God Your Chastener"
clause or by participial phrases rendered as titles. (Deut 8:5); The God Feeding Me My Life Long
The first category of titles pertains to bis work Until Now" (Gen 48:15); "God of My Righ-

44
 94 :i7tt('äla)
teousness" (Ps4: 1 [H 21); "God of My Mercy (Ps dai," JBL 60: 114-45. --, 'The Patriarchal
59:17 [H 18]); "God of My Strength" (Ps 43 :2) Ideal of God," JBL 60: 113-28. Miller, Patrick
and "Our God Being Merciful" (Ps 116:5). D., "EI the Warrior," HTR 411-31. Pope, Mar-
In reference to one particularly difficult pas- vin H., EI in the Ugaritic Texts, Brill, 1955.
sage from the point of view of interpretation, Richardson, TWB, p. 89. Segal, M. H., "EI,
which therefore bears on the translation, Cyrus Elohim, and YHWH in the Bible," JQR 46: 89-
Gordon has said, "lt is my contention that here 115. Thomas, D. Winton, "A Consideration of
(Ex 22:8-9 [H 7, 8]) 'elöhim does not mean God Some Unusual Ways of Expressing the Superla-
as the LXX translates, nor judges, which is the tive in Hebrew," VT 3: 209-24. Van Allman, J.
interpretation of Peshitto and Targum Onkelos, J., A Companion to the Bible, Oxford, 1958.
followed by Rashi and Ibn Ezra, by several En- Weingreen, J ., "The Construct-Genitive in He-
glish versions and by the Lexicon" (Cyrus H. brew Syntax," VT 4: 50-59. Wilson, Robert
Gordon," 'elöhim in its reputed meaning of rul- Dick, "The Names of God in the Old Testa-
ers, judges," JBL 54: 140, 149). He goes on to ment," PTR 18: 460-92.
demonstrate to his own satisfaction that from our J.B.S.
knowledge of the Nuzi tablets we can conclude
that ··gods" is the better translation and that the 94 M7tl ( 'alti) II, to swear, make a solemn
passage refers to the "oaths of the gods" which oath. (Rsv is generalty better in translation
he calls a weit attested ancient oriental court pro- than ASV, i.e. "laid an oath on" preferable to
cedure. He therefore sees this text as a heathen "adjured," I Sam 14:24). The term is used in
survival in the Mosaic legislation, one that was expressing solemn oaths between men and
obliterated in the later Deuteronomic and priestly between God and man.
recensions.
This is unacceptable from the point of view of Derivatives
Scripture's attestation to being God's Word and 94a t1i7tt('alti) an oath, solemn statement,
its clear doctrine of the existence of only one promise, curse (for broken oath), oc-
God. The question of whether "God" or curring more frequently than the
"judges" is tobe used here is difficult. If "God" verb.
is correct, we understand by the passage that 94b t,,7~!'1 (ta'a/ti) curse (punishment
every man is ultimately answerable to God and forbrokenoath), only once, Lam3:65.
stands or falls before God no matter what judg- 'alä. Oath. In its most basic form we see the
ment men may make.
noun used in the sense of a solemn promise be-
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "The Names
tween men (Gen 24:41; 26:28). For that reason it
Shaddai and Abram," JBL 54: 175-92. --,
is also applied to solemn statements of testimony
From the Stone Age to Christianity, Johns Hop- given in court (Lev 5:1; Prov 29:24) and before
kins, 1957. --, Archaeo/ogy and the Religion God (Num 5:21ff.; Jud 17:2; I Kgs 8:31; I Sam
of Israel, Johns Hopkins, 1942. Bailey, Lloyd R., 14:24; Neh 10:29 [H 30]; Ezk 16:59; 17:13ff.).
.. lsraelite EI Sadday and Amorite Bel Sade,"
From this we can see how it was used to ex-
JBL 87: 434-38. Cross, Frank Moore, "Yahweh press the very solemn covenant between God and
and the God of the Patriarchs," HTR 55: 226-59.
his people (Deut 29: 12 [H 11]) and more particu-
--, "EI and Yahweh," JSS 1: 25-37. --, larly, the warnings of judgment attached to that
.. 'My God' in the Old Testament," EQ 19: 7-20.
covenant should the people prove to be faithless
Davidson, A. B., The Theology of the O/d Tes- (Deut 29: 14-21 [H 13-20]). lt is used in this latter
tament, Edinburgh: T & T Clark. Delta Vida. G.
sense also in lsa 24:6; Jer 23:10; 29:18; 42:18;
Levi, "EI Elyon in Genesis 14: 18-20," JBL 44:12 and Dan 9:11.
63:1-9. Drafkorn, Ann E., "Ilani/Elohim," JBL
76: 216-24. Eerdmans, B. D., The Religion of ta'AIA. Curse. (The same in ASV, Rsv.) This
Israel, Leiden, Universtaire pers Leiden, 1947. noun occurs only once in Lam 3 :65. lt applies to
Feigin, Samuel J., "The Origin of 'Eloh, 'God,' the enemies of God's people and is described as
in Hebrew," JNES 3: 259. Gordon, Cyrus H., dullness of heart.
"Elohim in its Repeated Meaning of Rulers, Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., "The
Judges," JBL 54: 140-44. Jacob, Edmond, The Curse, Blasphemy, the Speil, and the Oath,"
Theology of the Old Testament, Harper Brothers, HUCA 23: 73-95. Brichto, Herbert C., The Prob-
1955.Keil, Karl F., Manual of Historico-Critical lem of "Curse" in the Hebrew Bib/e, JBL Mono-
Introduction to the Canonical Striptures of the graph Series, vol. XIII, Society of Biblical Liter-
O/d Testament, l, Eerdmans, 1952. Kelso, James ature and Exegesis, 1963. Lehman, Manfred R.,
A., "The Antiquity of the Divine Title," JBL 20: "Biblical Oaths," ZAW 81: 74-92. Price, J. M.,
50-55. Kohler, Ludwig, O/d Testament Theol- "The Oath in Court Procedure in Early Baby-
ogy, Westminster, 1957. Kuhn, H. B., "God, lonia and the Old Testament," JAOS 49: 22-29.
Names of," in APEB. May, H. G., "EI Shad- Scharbert, Josef, "'Fluchen' und ·Segen' im

45
95 M?t$(' älä)

Alten Testament," Bib 39: 1-26. Tucker, G. M., trusted but who were deceitful and of no value
"Covenant Formsand Contract Forms," VT 15: (Job 13:4; Isa 19:3; Zech 11:17).
487-503. TDNT, V, pp. 459--61. TDOT, I, pp. In Scripture they are contrasted to the true
261--66. God, the Lord, the Creator (Ps 96:5) and before
J.8.S. him they tremble (lsa 19: 1). are put to shame (Ps
97:7), and are destroyed (lsa 2:18).
95 l'T71$
('ä/ä) 1//, wail. Only in Jon 1:8. Bibliography: TDOT, L pp. 285-4!6. THAT, 1,
95a t"!;71$('a/yii) fattail (ofsheep). (The pp. 167--68.
same in ASV,RSV.) J.B.S.
This portion of the sheep was mentioned as a
distinct part of the offering in the heave offering 100 ',',N ('/1) II. Assumed root of the follow
(Ex 29:22), in the peace offering (Lev 3:9; 9:19), ing.
in the guilt offering (Lev 7:3) and in the offering 100a tl'!'7N ( 'a/lii) oak.
of consecration on the occasion of the ordination 100b tii~~ ('allön) oak.
of Aaron and his sons to the priestly office. The 'allä. Oak. This word is apparently from the
fat tailed sheep are still the common ones in root 'II and occurs only once in Josh 24:26. The
Palestine. meaning of the passage is uncertain. lt refers to
J.B.S. an oak in the sanctuary of the Lord under which
Joshua set up a stone for a witness against Israel,
l'T71$('allii). See no. 100a. after the people affirmed obedience to God's
l'T7!:t('ela). See no. 45h. covenant. The Asv gets rid of the difficulty by
translating the preposition as "by" rather than
96 1'7N ( 'i//u) if, though. Only in Eccl 6:6, Est "in." The Rsv is more literal.
7:4.
'allön. Oak (same in ASVand RSV). The term
97 ',1',i,c ('e/ul)Elul, the sixth month. Occurs refers to one of the great trees of the forest (lsa
only in Neh 6: 15. For other month names see 44: 14). Three times in particular it is associated
no. 613b. with Bashan where it symbolized pride (lsa 2: 13;
possibly Ezk 27:6) and very thick forests (Zech
ii',i,c ('e/{in ). See no. 45i. 11:2). Elsewhere it is also used to symbolize
ii'71$ ('allön). See no. 100b. strength (Arnos 2:9).
~1'7t4(' al/up ). See no. 109b. In lsa 6: 13, the stump of the oak is likened to
the remnant of Israel which survives after it is cut
98 *rT71$ ('iilah) be corrupt morally. Occurs down.
only in the Niphal. Once, the oak is referred to as a place of pagan
worship (Hos 4:13). lt was also the tree where
l'!;',1$( 'a/yli). See no. 95a. Deborah. Rebekah's maid, was buried (Gen
35:8).
99 ',',N ('/1) I. Assumed root of the following. J.B.S.
99a t-,•',~ ( 'e/i/) something worthless (par-
ticularly as an object of worship), 101 '""N ( 'al/av) alas! woe! Occurs only in
gods, idols. (Generally the same in - Mic 7:1: job 10:15.
0

the ASVand RSV.)

102 *C71$( 'ä/am) bind, be made dumb (Niph-
This term comes perhaps from a root meaning al).
"to be weak, deficient ... lt is used primarily in
Scripture to describe vain objects of worship, i.e. Derivatives
the gods of this world, whether literal idols made 102a :,~',N ('älümmii) sheaf.
with hands. riches, or deceitful men.
In Lev 19:4, its first appearance, the word is
102b c~f ('e/em) silence.
102c c,N ('illern) dumb.
parallel to "molten gods" (cf. 26:1). lt is also
applied to any works of one·s hands as an object
of worship (lsa 2:8: Hab 2: 18).
c•~~7t4 ('almüggim). See no. 89c.
In Isaiah's day, Jerusalem and Samaria were
103 i~71$ ( 'a/män) widowed, forsaken, forsaken
described as kingdoms of idols, i.e. a people who
as a widow (the same in ASV,Rsv).
worshipped vain things (lsa 10: 10-11 ). Suchidols
were classed along with divination and lies (Jer The adjective occurs once in Jer 51 :5 in the
14:14). They were clearly good for nothing (lsa sense of Israel abandoned by God, as a widow,
2:20: 31:7). by her husband who had died.
They even included people in whom men J.8.S.

46
 108 t'\7~('älap)

104 i~7~ ('almön) widowhood. (Thesamein manded to care for those who are "widows in-
ASV,RSV
.) deed," i.e. widows in need (1 Tim 5:3-11 ).
Even in the time of Job the way one treated
This noun is used to describe the state ofBaby-
widows was indicative of his moral character.
lon afterGod'sjudgment, in its one use, Isa47:9.
Job was accused of mistreating widows by
J.B.S.
Eliphaz who supposed that his troubles came
from such evil conduct (Job 22:9). Job vehe-
105 l"ll7,7~
('almänä) widow. (ASVand RSVthe mently denied having mistreated them and
same.) The word has only one basic mean- claimed to have done them good (Job 29: 13; cf.
ing, "widow." 31: 16).
Thus oppression of widows became a frequent
The primary meaning, "widow," is seen example of wickedness among men and nations
throughout its usage in Scripture. The word first (Ps 94:6: lsa 10:2, etc.).
occurs in Gen 38: 11 in the account of Judah's The cognate root is found in Assyrian and
dealings with his daughterin-law, called a widow Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 126) both for "widow" and
after her husband's death. "widowhood."
The several contexts in which we see the term
used in Scripture will help us to see its signifi- 106 rmr,7~('almänüt) widowhood (same in
cance in God's Word. First, we note God's care ASV,RSV).
and concern for widows. God hears their cry (Ex Twice the term is applied to the garments of
22:21-22) and he executesjustice on their behalf Tarnar, widow of Judah's sons (Gen 38: 14, 19). lt
(Deut 10:18). Therefore God deals with them out applies to a state of living for the concubines of
of exceptional pity, as defenseless. He is their David, defiled by Absalom (II Sam 20:3 ); and
judge in a special way (Ps 65:5 [H 61), treating also to Israel figuratively (lsa 54 :4).
them with the same tendemess he shows to the Bibliography: Fensham, F. Charles, "Wid-
orphans (Ps 146:9). He also protects their inher- ow, Orphan, and Poor in Ancient Near Eastern
itance (Prov 15:25). When others are judged, a Legal and Wisdom Literature," JNES 21: 129-
special call to faith is issued to them (Jer 49: 11). 39. Patterson, Richard, "The Widow, the Or-
To the end of the oT period. God expresses his phan, and the Poor in the Old Testament and the
concern for widows (Mal 3:5). Extra-Biblical Literature," BS 130: 223-34.
But being widows, they were restricted in TDNT, IX, pp. 444-48. TDOT 1, pp. 287-91.
some relationships while not in others. They THAT, I, pp. 169-72.
could not marry priests (Lev 21: 14: Ezk 44:22) J.B.S.
unless widows of priests. However, widows who
were daughters of priests could return to their 107 ') ~7~ ('a/möni) someone, a certain one.
father's home and eat again of the holy food of
the priests (Lev 22:13). Also being widows did 108 ti'itt ('älap) l,learn(Qal);teach(Piel).(Asv,
not exempt them from vows made (Num 30:9 Rsv translate the same.)
[H 101). All of this indicates that they were a
unique category in Israel according to God's Derivatives
legislation and due special regard from the 108a ti,M ('e/ep) cattle,oxen.
people. 108b tti~~~ ( 'allüp) docile.
The existence of widows was not indicative of
'älap is rare, occuring only four times (three in
good times and the presence of many widows in
Job). In two contexts (Prov 22:25: Job 15:5) the
the land indicated God's displeasure with the
teacher is evil. In the other two, Elihu uses the
people and punishment of them (Ex 22:24 [H 23 J;
term, once describing himself as teacher, once
Jer 15:8). Indeed, on two occasions, cities under
putting words into the mouth of others (Job
God's judgment are called widows: Jsa 47:8
33 :33; 35: 11). If his words are without knowledge
(Babylon): Lam 1:1 (Jerusalem).
(J~b 38:2), then perhaps this word scripturally
Because of God's concem for the widows, the
has only bad connotations and does not express
people were frequently commanded to protect
teaching or learning that is valid.
and provide for them, being careful to execute
justice on their behalf. The people were blessed 'allup /. Docile (adjective); Jriend (noun).
when they had regard for widows (Deut 14:29). (Rsv and ASVdiffer considerably in some places
Leaders were responsible to defend them and to where Rsv translates "friend" while ASVprefers
see that justice was done (lsa 1:17, 23). "guide" [Jer 3:41). The primary sense is that of
The reason for this concern is obvious. one who is always in company with another, i.e.
Widows were often elderly, often without much a guide or companion or friend. As such, the com-
income, and easy prey for the unscrupulous. In a panion is not expected to betray (Ps 55:13 [H 14]);
similar social situation the NT church is com- he ought not to be forsaken (Prov 2: I 7); and it is

47
109 *!:\'~(' älap)
tragic when such friends are divided (Prov 16:28; besides Hebrew, e.g. Aramaic, Arabic, and
17:9). However, times come when one cannot Ugaritic (UT, 19: no. 133) with the same basic
trust them (Mic 7:5). meaning of one thousand.
J.B.S. [lt is occasionally alleged that since 'e/ep
means a company of a thousand men it could
109 *ti'?M (' iilap) II, producing thousands (oc- mean any military unit, even of reduced strength.
c~rs only in the Hiphil. Ps 144:13). De- From there it came to mean a family unit or clan,
nominative verb. even a small one. But this means that the IOO0's
of the mustering of the soldiers in Num I and 26 is
Parent Noun reduced to a small figure in accord with the desire
109a tti,l'.t ('e/ep) thousand (sameinAsv, of the commentator. The wilderness wandering
RSV). and its miraculous supply is' also reduced to
naturalistic proportions. But it should be remem-
Derivatives bered that the conquest of Transjordan and of
109b te,~~l!I Ca/hip) chief. Palestine was not accomplished by a handful of
men. Also such juggling must alter the text of the
The verb, derived from the noun, is used only Numbers passages which by the addition of their
once (Ps 144:13), in a prayer asking God's bless-
totals clearly speak of JOOO'sof soldiers. R.L.H.]
ings so that the sheep will produce thousands.
'allup. Chief, ruler of a thousand. (Generally
'elep. Thousand. This numeral. a feminine
the same in Asv, RSV but in Zech 9:7; 12:5-{i, RSV
noun, usually precedes the noun it accompanies. has "clan. ") The word occurs exclusively to
When the accompanying noun precedes, it is
describe a rank in the families or clans of Edom
plural. If other numbers are joined to 'e/ep they (Gen 36: 15ff: Ex 15:15; 1 Chr 1:51ff.). This usage
usually precede it. The basic meaning is one probably also lies back of the Matt reading in 2:6
thousand but it is often tobe taken as a figurative where "princes" of Judah reflects a pointing 'a/-
term. lup in Mic 5:2 [H 1J.
This numeral is usually employed in tabula- Bibliography: Davis. John J., "Biblical Nu-
tions, censuses, and other enumerations in the
merics," Grace Journal 5:30-4. ---, "The
basic sense of the figure l000 (Gen 20: 16; 24:60;
Rhetorical Use of Numbers in the Old Testa-
Ex 12:37: Num 1:2l ff.).
ment," Grace Journal 8: 40-48. Wenham, J. W.,
There are, however, several specialized us- "Large Numbers in the Old Testament," Tyn-
ages. One is in the basic sense of the largest basic dale Bulletin 18:19-53. Wolf, C.. "Terminology
division ofleadership in political oversight or mil- of lsrael's Tribal Organization," JBL 65: 45-49.
itary leadership (Ex 18:21: Num 1:16; 31 :4: Deut TDNT. IX. pp. 467-69.
1:15; I Chr 13:1: 27:1; Arnos 5:3). J.B.S.
From this usage another which developed was
the application of the term as representative of
the extreme, i.e. Eccl 6:6, an extreme number of I IO *'1'7t't( 'ä/a.y)
urge. Occurs only once, in
years. This in turn is related to the practice of Jud 16:16 (Piel).
making the numeral representative of the oppo-
site extreme of that which is quite small or few in 111 C~ Cim) if,not,whether,when,since. (Asv,
number (Deut 32:30: Josh 23:10; Job 9:3: lsa vary considerably inasmuch as the con-
RSV
30: 17). At times the concept seems simply to rep- text and interpretation of the text determine
resent that which is excessive (Mic 6:7; Song the exact translation of this particle.)
8: 12). The basic meaning is "if" and this meaning
A notable use of the term is in connection with can be seen in most of its occurrences. In the
God. In such contexts the basic idea seems to hundreds of passages where the word occurs,
be "indefinite" or "innumerable," e.g. God's several basic types of contexts can be seen.
mercy is tobe shown to thousands (Ex 20:6: 34:7; First, it occurs most often in conditional
Deut 5: 10; Jer 32: I 8). This mercy is also to reach clauses. e.g. Gen 4:7; Jud 13:16: I Sam 20: 14. etc.
to a thousand generations (Deut 7:9), as is bis Next we find many occurrences of 'im in oath
command (Ps 105:8). The cattle on a thousand contexts in which, in reality. a larger context is
hills belong to God (Ps 50:10). A thousand years assumed. In the !arger. assumed context is an
are but as a day in his sight (Ps 90:4 ). oath, only rarely stated in full (II Kgs 9:26; cf.
These examples show that God uses the term Job 1:11).
in reference to himself figuratively. an indefinite Sometimes the oath involves a negative as in II
or innumerable amount. This same practice is Sam 19:14. David is here promising to make
seen in the NT, e.g. II Pet 3:8-10 and probably Amasa bis new commander in place of Joab. He
also in Rev 20:2, 5. calls on the Lord to judge him severely (the
The root occurs in several Semitic languages judgment is never spelled out, perhaps because it

48
 112 Mr;!$('äma)

is so awful as to be unspeakable) if Amasa is not JAOS 54: 295. Lehman, Manfred R., "Biblical
tobe David's commander. Oaths," ZAW 81: 74-92. Van Leeuwen, C. "Die
Other examples of the füll oath are found in I Partikel CH," OTS 18: 15-48.
Kgs 20: 10 (used by Ben-Hadad), II Kgs 6:31 (also J.B.S.
Ben-Hadad). This suggests that the oath was in
broader use than Israel alone, among the Semites C!'.t ('em). Seeno.115a.
at any rate.
From this fuller form of the oath, we see the
practice frequently of abbreviating the oath, 112 l"l91$ ('ama) maid-servant, female slave.
(ASVand Rsvgenerally the same but Rsv pre-
omitting "the Lord do so to me and more also."
fers "female slave" in the Pentateuchal
Thus in Gen 14:23, "If I shall take a thread or a
regulatory passages regarding slaves, while
sandal-thong or if I shall take from anything
Asv prefers "servant" or "maid. ")
which is yours" or in other words "I will not
take." Other examples of this abbreviated form, The term is applied both to literal slaves and to
even at times apparently God swearing by him- those who figuratively call themselves by this
self, are as follows: Num 14:30 (God declaring term as an expression of humility and submis-
that none except Caleb and Joshua will come in sion .
..__ if you will come in" = "yoµ will not The first occurrence of the term is in reference
come in"; I Sam 17:55, " ___ if I know" = "I to Abimelech's female servants (Gen 20: 17). We
do not know," etc. see too that the patriarchs had such servants:
The peculiar result of this idiom is that in such Hagar (Sarah), Bilhah (Rache!), etc. Even return-
contexts 'im has negative force; 'im /o' is posi- ing Israelites after the Exile counted these ser-
tive. This Hebrew idiom, coming through the vants among their possessions (Ezr 2:65). They
LXX, is rightly interpreted in Heb 3:11, 18 (KJV), were also found in Egypt (Ex 2:5) andin Nineveh
but missed in 4:3, 5 (KJV). (Nah 2:7 [H 8)).
A third context in which 'im occurs is that of God, in giving the Law to Israel, provided for
alternatives. Frequently this idea is conveyed by servants, male and female. They had rights (Ex
a double use of 'im, e.g. Ex 19:13, "if beast if 21 :7, 20, 26, etc.). God was clearly concerned for
man ... " = "whether a beast or a man"; I Chr their wellbeing and physical as weil as spiritual
21:12, "ifthree years ... and ifthree months .. . needs (Ex 20:10; Lev 25:6). They were to wor-
and if three days ... " = "whether ... or .. . ship with their master's family in spiritual fellow-
or ... ". ship (Deut 12:12, 18). But they were a posses-
In some contexts 'im seems to have the force sion.
of "when·· as in Gen 38:9. Even here however, A distinction was made between foreign slaves
the meaning "if' is seen in the sense of a continu- and Hebrew servants. The latter had more rights
ing condition: "whenever he came in ... he and freedoms (cf. Lev 25:44 and Deut 15:12-18).
would spill ... " or "if he came in ... ", this is But clearly, God expected his children to show
what he did. Here we see the waw joined to the kindness and consideration for the needs of these
verb as waw consecutive, making it in effect an female slaves (Job 19:15; 31:13).
imperfect. Several uses of the term in a figurative sense
We also find several cases of the use of 'im in are also found in Scripture. A wife or prospective
the sense of "since." In Job 14:5, for example, wife often referred to herself or was referred to in
"since his days are numbered: may also be „ if this way in respect to her man, e.g. Ruth to Boaz
his days ... " and in Job 22:20, "since our (Ruth 3:9); Abigail to David (1 Sam 25:14);
enemies are cut off" may equally read "surely Bathsheba to David (1 Kgs 1:17).
our enemies ... " (Asv, RSv) or even „ if our Sometimes a woman so referred to herself in
enemies... ". In Jer 23 :38, we can read either · · if conversation, as Hannah to Eli (1 Sam 1: 16-cf.
you say" or "since you say." II Sam 6:22; 14:15; I Kgs 3:20).
Often we find 'im used as an interrogative par- Finally, in the highest sense, devout women
ticle. In Gen 38:17, for example, we can read addressed the Lord, calling themselves God's
Tamar's response to Judah "will you give ... "or servants in a fashion much as Paul did in the NT:
..if you will give ... " When the structure is ac- so Hannah (I Sam I: 11). This same attitude is
companied by the sign of the interrogative as in seen in the Psalmist who referred to his mother as
Josh 5: 13, then there is no uncertainty. Actually God's maidservant when addressing the Lord (Ps
it is quite usual to have an interrogative he car- 86: 16; 116:16; which, however, is taken by Da-
ried on by 'im (cf. disjunctive and double ques- hood as from 'emet and rendered your true son.
tions, GKC par. 150, g. h). "Psalms" AB in loc., so also M. Mansoor JBL
Bibliography: Daube, David. "Direct and In- 76; p. 145 on the basis of a DSS text).
direct Causation in Biblical Law," VT 11: 246- The cognate root is found in several Semitic
69. Eitan, I., "Three · im Particles in Hebrew," languages, including Ugaritic (UT, 19: no. 147).

49
113 7i~te (' amon)

Biblwgraphy: Fensham, G. Charles, "The has fallen (lsa 33 :9; Jer 14:2), so also, Jerusalem
Son of a Handmaid in Northwest Semitic," VT after the fall (Lam 2:8). Clearly, God's objective
19: 312-22. Rupprecht, A., "Christianity and the in such discipline was to bring his people to their
Slavery Question," JETS 6: 64-68. knees as a warning and to humble them (Hos 4:3;
J.B.S. Joel 1: 10, 12).
As an adjective, the term was therefore used
:"!7?1/.C
('ammii). See no. 115. by Israel' s enemies as a term of derision (N eh 4 :2
:i7?tt ('ümmii). See no. l 15e. [H 3:34]) and by the truly humbled believer as an
expression ofhis contrition and recognition ofthe
113 1i~I$ ('am6n) I, Amon, an Egyptian God. need ofGod's help (Ps 6:2 [H 3]).
(In Nah 3:8, Rsv has "Thebes" and further
translates "Nile" for "canal." ASVis more 'ümlal. Weak, feeble. (Asv, ···withered away."
literal having "No-amon." In Jer 46:25, RSV"languishing. ") The adjective is used once
Rsv translates „ Amon of Thebes" while as an expression of the Psalmist's contrite heart
ASVhas „ Amon of No." These are the only before God (Ps 6:2 [H 3]).
two occurrences of the name.) 'ämeläl. Feeble. (The same in ASV,RSV.) lt
The term · · Amon" refers to an Egyptian deity occurs once, an adjective describing the Jews,
and therefore also to the city of that deity, i.e. used by their enemies (Neh 4 :2 [H 3 :34]).
"the city of Amon." Since one Egyptian term for
·•city" is "no" it is transliterated in ASV to J.B.S.
"No-Amon," while Rsv simply identifies it by the
common opinion that the city was the famous 115 C~M ('mm). Assumed root ofthe following.
Thebes. 115a tc~ ( 'em) mother.
As Thebes became prominent in Egypt, the 115b :"!l'pl/.C
('ammii) I, mother city.
god of the city became more generally acknowl- 115c t:irptc ('ammii) II, cubit.
edged and finally identified with the great Egyp- 115d :iiptt (' ammii) III, only in lsa 6:4.
tian god, Re or Ra, i.e. Amon Re. Meanin[? doubtful.
In Scripture the city of this god is mentioned 115e Ml'ptt ('ümmii) tribe, people.
twice. In Jer 46:25, the city is mentioned as an
object of God's wrath, sure to fall to Nebuchad- 'em. Mother, point of departure (once). (Asv
nezzar because it symbolized the pride of Egypt. and Rsv generally the same.)
In Nah 3 :8, it becomes an example by its fall of The word always (except once) means
the sureness of the fall of all world cities, particu- "mother." In most occurrences it refers literally
larly of Nineveh. to the female parent. lt is used at times in a
J.B.S. figurative sense.
·em refers to Eve, figuratively as mother of all
1i~M ('iim6n). See no. 1161. living beings (though she was also the literal
:i;~~~ ( 'emünii). See no. l 16e. mother, Gen 3 :20); to Deborah as a mother in
Ti~'$ (iimb,r). See no. 117c. Israel (Jud 5:7); to a city as mother to its inhabi-
r•~tt ('ammi,r). See no. 117d. tants (lsa 50:1; Ezk 16:44; Hos 2:2 [H 4]): and
"1'~1$ ( 'ämir). See no. 118d. even to a worm as mother of Job (Job 17:14).
On some occasions the term is applied to non-
114 *':i~I$ ( 'äma/) to languish, be exhausted. human mothers: Ex 34:26; Deut 22:6.
(Generally the same in ASV,Rsv.) In studying the contexts and senses in which
Derivatives the word is used we note several of particular
interest, first, texts which relate to the duties of
114a t',7~~ ( 'ame/ä/) feeble.
the mother. She is tobe a source of comfort (lsa
114b t',';,~t::t (' ümlal) feeble.
66:13), a teacher (Prov 31:1), and a discipliner
The verb occurs primarily in the Pulal conjuga- (Zech 13:3).
tion, describing a state of exhaustion or extrem- We note also what her children owe her. These
ity. lt is used to express the state into which the obligations may be defined as positive duties and
objects of God's punishment and discipline negative duties. On the positive side, her children
come: the proud mother who boasts over her bar- owe her obedience (Gen 28:7), blessings (Prov
ren rival (1 Sam 2:5); Moab (lsa 16:8); Egypt (lsa 30:11), honor (Ex 20:12), fear (i.e. respect, Lev
19:8); the whole world (lsa 24:4). 19:3), and mourning when she has died (Ps
Words associated with it are "wither," 35:14). On the negative side, her children must
"mourn," and "lament" (lsa 24:4; 33:9; Jer not strike her ( Ex 21 : 15), rob her (Prov 28 :24),
14:2). chase her away (Prov 19:26), bring her to shame
Most particularly, it describes the state of Is- (Prov 29:15; so Lev 18:7), set light by her (i.e.
rael and its people after the punishment of God ridicule her, Deut 27:16), nor forsake her law

50
 116 ,~~ ('äman)

(Prov I :8). This shows clearly the high standing Succession," EQ 29: 29-34. Huey, F. B.,
of motherhood in a redeemed society. "Weights and Measures, .. in ZPEB.
Yet, the mother·s role in her adult son·s life J.B.S.
was clearly subordinate to that of his wife (Gen
2:24). His duties to his mother could not supplant I 16 11;1;C('äman) to confirm, support, uphold
or take precedence over his duties to his wife. (Qal); to be established, be faithful (Niphal);
A pagan mother could indeed love her son, and tobe certain, i.e. to believe in (Hiphil). (Asv,
presumably the pagan son could feel a sense of Rsv usually the same. One notable excep-
duty to his mother (Jud 5:28). tion is Gen 15:6 where Rsv has "believed,"
The sense of guilt expressed by Job and the while ASVhas "believed in.")
Psalmist (Job 3 I: 18: Ps 51 :5 IH 7]) does not indi- Derivatives.
cate any particular blemish on their mothers but
116a tj~M ('ömen) faithfulness.
expresses the doctrine we call original sin.
The occurrence of the word in Ezk 21 :21 1H 26] 116b t'!~tt ('amen) verily, truly, amen.
is unique and evidently means "the parting (fork) 116c il?tt ('omman) steady-handed one,
of the road" in the sense of the origin (mother) of artist.
the road. 116d t'!~l'.I ('emün) faithful, trusting.
l 16e t:,~~~!:( ( ·em{ma) firmness, fuleliJy,
The cognate root is found in most Semitic lan-
steadiness.
guages with the same basic meaning as the He-
brew: Phoenician, Arabic, Ethiopic, Aramaic, 116f t:i;~~ ('omna) /, bringing up, nour-
ishment.
and Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 155).
116g tM1~tt ('omna) II, verily, truly.
'ammä. Cubit, a linear measurement. (The 116h tM1~!:I ('amäna) faith, support, sure,
same in ASVand RSVexcept where used in a certain.
figurative sense, see Isa 6:4; Jer 51:13). l 16i tc1~~ ('ümnam) verily, indeed.
The term is basically used to describe a linear 116j c1~tt ('omnam) verily, truly.
measurement used at least from the time of 1I 6k tl'I~·!:( ( 'emet) firmness, truth.
Noah. lt is used throughout Scripture into the II 61 t'!i~~ ( 'ämon) II, artificer, architect.
postexilic period. This very important concept in biblical doc-
The measurement is estimated to be approxi- trine gives clear evidence of the biblical meaning
mately 17½ inches or the average distance from of "faith" in contradistinction to the many popu-
the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. This is lar concepts of the term. At the heart of the mean-
somewhat confirmed by information in the ing of the root is the idea of certainty. And this is
Siloam Inscription stating that the tunnel (which borne out by the NT definition of faith found in
measures 1749 feet) was 1200 cubits long. This Heb 11:1.
would make the cubit then used (in Hezekiah's The basic root idea is firmness or certainty. In
day) approximately 17½ inches. the Qal it expresses the basic concept of support
The cubit was used in building the ark of Noah and is used in the sense of the strong arms of the
(Gen 6), the tabernacle and its furnishing (Ex parent supporting the helplcss infant. The con-
25ff.), the temple of Solomon (I Kgs 6:fT.). and stancy involved in the verbal idea is further seen
the temple seen by Ezekiel (Ezk 40fT.). lt also in that it occurs in the Qal only as a participle
measured the distance between the ark of the co- (expressing continuance). The idea of support is
venant and the people as they went into the prom- also seen in II Kgs 18:16, where it refers to pillars
ised land (Josh 3 :4). of support.
Goliath was over six cubits tall (I Sam 17:4), In the Hiphil (causative), it basically means "to
and Haman's gallows was fifty cubits high (Est cause tobe certain, sure" or "tobe certain about,"
5:14). A portion ofthe wall of Jerusalem repaired "to be assured." In this sense the word in the
in Nehemiah's day was 1000 cubits long. Hiphil conjugation is the biblical word for "to
At times it is used figuratively as in Isa 6:4, believe" and shows that biblical faith is an assur-
where the measure stands for the foundation of ance, a certainty, in contrast with modern con-
the threshhold of the temple in Isaiah's vision. cepts of faith as something possible, hopefully
Again in Jer 51: 13. the term applies to the extent true, but not certain.
of covetousness or evil gain. Following from this we find the word in the
From its wide occurrence in other Semitic lan- passive Qal participle used with a passive mean-
guages evidently this term was generally used as ing "one who is established" or "one who is con-
a standard measure throughout the ancient near firmed, .. i.e. "faithful one" (II Sam 20: 19; Ps
east, but it varies somewhat from place to place 12:1 [H 2]; 31 :23 [H 24]).
and from time to time. In the Niphal conjugation the meaning is "tobe
Bibliography: Al, pp. 196-99. Harrison, R. established" (II Sam 7: 16; I Chr 17:23; II Chr
K., "The Matriarchate and the Hebrew Legal 6: 17; Isa 7:9). The Niphal participle means "tobe

51
116 ir.itc('äman)

faithful, sure. dependable" and describes believ- is frequently listed among the attributes ofGod (1
ers (Num 12:7; I Sam 2:35; Neh 9:8). This form is Sam 26:23; Ps 36:5 [H 6]; Ps 40:10 [H II]; Lam
also used to describe that upon which all cer- 3:23). lt describes his works (Ps 33:4); and his
tainty rests: God himself·(Deut 7:9), and his cov- words (Ps 119:86; 143:1).
enant (Ps 89:28 [H 29]). 'emuna is also used to refer to those whose
One interesting illustration of the relationship Jives God establishes. He expects to see faithful-
between ··belief" and "being established" is ness in them (Prov 12:22; II Chr 19:9). Indeed,
seen in lsa 7:9. Ahaz is told that unless he be- such faithfulness or a life of faith is characteristic
lieves (Hiphil) he will not be established (Niphal), of those justified in God's sight (Hab 2:4). God's
i.e. without faith he has no stability. word of truth establishes man's way of truth or
The various derivatives reflect the same con- faithfulness (Ps 119:30).
cept of certainty and dependability. The deriva- From this we can also see the concept of a duty
tive 'timen "verily" is carried over into the New being entrusted to a believer which becomes his
Testament in the word amen which is our English trust (faithful responsibility, I Chr 9:22; II Chr
word "amen." Jesus used the word frequently 31:15, etc.) or office.
(Mt 5:18, 26, etc.) to stress the certainty of a 'omnä /. Brought up, nurtured, sustained.
matter. The Hebrew and Greek forms come at (Same in ASV, Rsv.) This noun speaks of
the end of prayers and hymns of praise (Ps 41: 13 Esther·s having been sustained (strengthened and
[H 14]); 106:48; II Tim 4:18; Rev 22:20, etc.). guided) by Mordecai as a child (Est 2:20).
This indicates that the term so used in our
prayers ought to express certainty and assurance 'omnä II. Truly, verily, actually. (The same
in the Lord to whom we pray. in ASV.Rsv.) In the two contexts in which this
adverb occurs, the speaker is perhaps seeking to
'ömen. Faithfulness, truth (ASV, "truth"; Rsv excuse his wrong, therefore "actually" may be
as an adjective, "true"). The noun is used once the best translation (Gen 20:12; Josh 7:20).
to describe God's counsel (lsa 25:1).
'ämänä. Settled provision, support. (ASV, Rsv
'ämen. Verily, truly, amen. (Generally, the same.) This noun is used in connection with a
same in ASV.Rsv.) The word expresses a certain firm commitment on the part of the people of
affirmation in response to what has been said. lt Jerusalem in Nehemiah's day (Neh 9:38 [H 10:1])
is used after the pronouncement of solemn curses and also applies to a fixed provision for the sin-
(Num 5:22; Deut 27: 15ff.; Neh 5: 13; Jer 11:5) and gers of that day (Neh 11:23).
after prayers and hymns of praise (1 Chr 16:36;
'ümnäm. lndeed, really. (Same in ASV, RSV.)
Neh 8:6; Ps 41: 13 [H 14J, etc.). Twice the term is
used to describe the Lord (lsa 65:16), and once This word is always found in interrogative sen-
simply to approve the words of a man (1 Kgs tences and always suggests doubt on the part of
1:36). Finally, Jeremiah uses the term once sar- the asker: Sarah's doubt of bearing a child (Gen
castically in response to the false prophets (Jer 18:13); Balaam's doubt ofBalak's power to pro-
28:6). mote him (Num 22:37); Solomon's doubt of
God's dwelling only on earth (I Kgs 8:27; II Chr
'emün. Trusting, faithfulness. (Basically the 6:18); the Psalmist's doubt that pagan godsjudge
same in ASV.Rsv.) The term is applied to na- righteously (Ps 58:1 [H 2]).
tions as a measure of their righteousness and ac-
'emet. Truth, faithfulness, verity. (ASVand Rsv
ceptability to God (Deut 32:20; lsa 26:2). lt also
usually the same.) This word carries underlying
applies to individuals who are contrasted to the
sense of certainty, dependability.
bad (Prov 13:17) and the false (Prov 14:5). One to
We find it used in several categories of con-
whom the term applies is rare indeed (Prov 20:6).
texts, all of which relate to God directly or indi-
'emünä. Firmness, faithfulness, fulelity. (Asv, rectly.
Rsv generally the same. Both give a marginal note First, it is frequently applied to God as a
in Hab 2:4 where they translate "faith' · instead of characteristic of his nature. In Gen 24:27, for
••faithfulness" in accord with Paul's use of the example, it describes God who leads Abraham's
verse in Rom 1:17; Gai 3:11.) servant to the right wife for Isaac. In Ex 34:6, it is
There are at least ten distinct categories in given as one of the verbal descriptions of God
which this noun is used in Scripture. In its first which constitute God's goodness. Other exam-
occurrence in Scripture it expresses the sense of ples are Ps 25:5; 31:5 [H 6]; Jer4:2; 10:10.
steady, firm hands, a very basic idea (Ex 17:12). lt is a term fittingly applied to God's words (Ps
From this mundane sense, Scripture moves al- 119:142, 151, 160; Dan 10:21).
most entirely to a use of the word in connection As a characteristic of God revealed to men, it
with God or those related to God. therefore becomes the means by which men
Basically, the term applies to God himself know and serve God as their savior (Josh 24: 14; I
(Deut 32 :4) to express his total dependability. lt Kgs 2:4; Ps 26:3; 86:11; Ps 91:4; lsa 38:3), and

52
 117 l"~~ ('äme~)

then, as a characteristic tobe found in those who in Gen 25:23 in the Qal stem. The Lord revealed
have indeed come to God (Ex 18:21; Neh 7:2; Ps to Rebekah, before her sons were born, that they
15:2;Zech 8:16). would be progenitors oftwo nations, and that one
Because it is an attribute of God which is man- would be stronger than the other. David sang a
ifest in man's salvation and life of service as song of deliverance for the mercy which the Lord
God's child, the word is often coupled with granted in delivering him from Saul, an enemy
another attribute ofGod related to our salvation, stronger than he (II Sam 22: 18 with its parallel in
"mercy" or "love" (/Jesed, Gen 24:27; Ps 61:7 Ps 18:17 [H 181). David expressed a similar sen-
[H 8]; 85:IO [H II]; 115:1; Prov 14:22; 16:6; timent in his prayer in the cave (Psa 142:6 [H 7]).
20:28). In the days of Jeroboam's revolt against the
And because these attributes of God's truth Davidic dynasty, the Lord defeated the northern
and mercy lead to God's peace toward sinful kingdom and its forces at'the hand of Abijah, and
men, saved by Goi;l's grace, the word is also often the Judean army "prevailed" despite a weil laid
coupled with peace (Isa 39:8; Jer 33:6). ambush (II Chr 13:18).
As we study its various contexts, it becomes As a parallel to the more usual verb /Jii.zaq, the
manifestly clear that there is no truth in the bibli- word is employed repeatedly in God's charge to
cal sense, i.e. valid truth, outside God. All truth Joshua to be strong for the arduous tasks he as-
comes from God and is truth because it is related sumed at the death of Moses (Josh 1:6, 7, 9, 18).
to God. Moses spoke similar words of encouragement to
his understudy (Deut 31 :7, 23). He charged the
'ämön II. Master-workman?, people? (There is
people in like manner (Deut 31 :6).
considerable uncertainty about this word and its
The Piel stem conveys the concept of making
use and whether it is to be read as 'amon or a
one·s heart obstinate or hard against the right as
variant of hiim{m "people." Therefore transla-
in the case of Sihon, king of Heshbon (Deut 2:30).
tions differ.) The word occurs only twice. In Prov
The hardening of Pharaoh's heart before the
8:30, the meaning seems to be that of an artificer
Exodus is described by two synonymous verbs.
(one true in hand and skill). In Jer 52: 15, it may
Arnos employs the same stem in his warning to
mean simply "people" or perhaps "the skilled
Israel that, when the Lord commences his visita-
ones" (who remained in Jerusalem).
tion in wrath upon them, the strong will not be
Bibliography: Bright, John, "Faith and Des-
able to rely on their strength any more than the
tiny," Interp 5: 3-26. Napier, B. D., "On
agile will be able to escape by flight (Arnos 2: 14).
Creation-Faith in the Old Testament," Interp
In a remarkable poetic description of wisdom,
16:21-42. Perry, Edmund, "The Meaning of
the sacred writer indicates that Wisdom was pre-
'emuna in the Old Testament," JBR 21: 252-56.
sent when God confirmed (made firm) the skies
Ramsdell, Edward T., The Old Testament
above (Prov 8:28). Joash's repairs on the temple
Understanding of Truth," JR 31: 264-73.
were successful because of the devotion of the
Richardson, TWB, pp. 75, 269. TDNT, I, pp.
laborers who strengthened the structure (II Chr
232-38; 335-36; VI, pp. 183-91; 194--202.TDOT,
24: 13). ·ii.me .r is used in the Piel stem in connec-
I, pp. 292-322. THAT, I, pp. 177-99. tion various subjects, including the physical
J.B.S. strength of the virtuous woman for her numerous
household tasks (Prov 31: 17), power for the war-
117 1'~1;!('iime.r) be stout, strong, alert, bold, be rior to carry on his military duties (Nah 2: 1
solid, hard. (KJV, Asv, and Rsv translate
(H 21), and the strengthening of Rehoboam's
similarly.)
royal power at the defection of the northern
Derivatives tribes (II Chr 11:17). lsaiah's classic satire on
idolatry speaks of how the idolator secures for
117a trt.iN ('öme.y) strength.
himself the tree of his choice (lsa 44:14).
117b t:i;~tc ('am.ra) strength.
The Hithpael serves to designate the strength
117c tri~!;! ('amo.r) strong or piebald from.
of the conspirators against Rehoboam (II Chr
117d tr-~~ (' ammi.r) strong. 13:7), and the determination of Ruth to follow
1l7e tl"fl7,~1; (ma'ilmä.rä) power, strength.
Naomi (1:18).
This verb is found forty-one times in the OT. The Hiphil expresses strength offaith and hope
Ugaritic attests a parallel to the term. (Psa 27:14; 31:25).
In the Piel stem the verb can be rendered
'öme~. Strength. This noun is found only
"make firm," "strengthen," "secure," "hard-
en" (one's mind). The Hiphil stem manifests the once, in Job 17:9, where it refers to the righteous
growing stronger.
force of "exhibit strength," "feel strong." In the
Hithpael stem the translation is "strengthen one- 'am~ä. Strength. The only oT reference to this
self,"· "persist in," "prove superior to," "make word is Zech 12:5, expressing the reliance of Ju-
oneself alert." The first occurrence of the verb is dean chiliarchs on the inhabitants of Jerusalem.

53
118 ""i~l$(' iimar)

'ämö~. This adjective occurs only in the 'iina, shiiba', niidar, among others), the verb
plural and only in Zech 6:3, 7 where it indicates 'iimar can be used in the infinitive form with the
horses hamessed to chariots. KJV renders "bay," preposition, i.e. /e' mor to introduce the com-
Rsv · · dappled gray.'' The word is used to describe mand, oath, response etc.
the fourth pair of horses in a series. The first A usage often confused and incorrectly inter-
three are given colors and it seems incongruous preted on the basis of a study of the English ver-
to call the last pair "strong." KB defines as sions alone, is "say in the heart" (Deut 8:17; Ps
"piebald" from a root ·iimes II witnessed to in 14:1). The meaning is "think," a subvocal speak-
Arabic. ing.
Although there are only a few examples of the
'ammis (spelled defectively 'ammi$) Strong.
use, the verb sometimes means ·:promise." Such
The first occurrence refers to Absalom's well-laid
is the force of the verb in a passage pointing to
conspiracy (II Sam 15: 12). Job speaks of God's
God's promise to David for a perpetual dynasty
power (9:4, 19). lsaiah speaks of God who is
(II Kgs 8: 19), the promise to Israel to possess the
strong to chasten Israel (28:2), and shows his
land ofpromise (Neh 9:15), or Haman's promise
might in creation (40:26). Arnos uses the term
to Ahasuerus to pay the king for the opportunity
of one who survives God's judgment (2: 16).
to destroy all the Jews of his realm (Est 4:7).
ma'ämä~ä. Power, strength. This noun appears Although the Hebrew language has a weil at-
only once. in Job 36:19. in construct plural in tested and frequently used verb for "command"
Elihu's question to Job. (.)'iiwa q.v.), 'iimar also serves for this meaning.
Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 323-27. THAT, I, This usage is found in God's command to Joshua
pp. 209-10. (Josh 11:9), Hezekiah's command concerning the
C.L.F. offerings after the cleansing of the temple (II Chr
29:24), and Ahasuerus's command by letters to
reverse the edict to slaughter the Jews by hanging
118 "l~tt ('ämar) say, speak, say to oneself(think),
Haman and his sons (Est 9:25).
inteml, command, promise. (KJV, ASV, and
As in modern languages, the Niphal is em-
Rsv reveal similar renderings.)
ployed to mean that which "is said" by way of a
Derivatives current saying (Gen 10:9; 22:14; Jer 16:14).
118a "l~K ('ömer) speech, word. An interesting usage, though not a frequent
one, is that of "avow," "induce to say." In his
I 18b t:,j91C ('imrii) utterance, speech.
closing addresses, Moses reminded Israel that
118c :i,91e ('emra) utterance, speech. they had vowed through him to have God as their
118d "1'7;~ ('ämir) top, summit of tree.
own (Deut 26:17-18).
l 18e "lr,l~r,l (ma'timar) word, command.
The use of the verb as "act proudly" is found
The Niphal stem may be translated "it is said" in Ps 94:4 (the Hithpael). In lsa 61:6 the sense
and "be called ... The Hiphil means "induce to appears to be "boast" in a good connotation.
say ... The Hithpael conveys tbe force of "act The derivation of 'ämar is said by Wagner
proudly." The verb appears in the OT almost five (TDOT, I, p. 328) tobe no longer disputed. The
thousand times. This common verb, as with its root occurs in all the Semitic languages with
parallels in other languages, has a wide variety of either the meaning "be visible," "make visible,"
meanings. "see" (Akkadian, Ethiopic, Ugaritic) or "say,"
This verb shares with four others (pe-aleph "command" (Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic). lt
verbs) the peculiarity of the quiescence of the seems probable that the meaning "to see" or
initial consonant in a long o, revealing the loss of "make visible" is the original meaning. The
the consonantal value of the aleph. semantic development to "make plain" then
The commonest usage of the verb is in direct "say" is natural.
conversation, whether the subject is God (Gen Of the more than five thousand uses of the
1:3), the serpent in the garden of Eden (3:1), root, the majority hardly need comment. They
Adam, terrified, trying to hide from God (3: 10), are close to the equivalent English word, "say."
Balaam·s ass in his attempt to divert the stubborn Indeed, the infinitive with / becomes oftenjust a
prophet (Num 22:28), the war horse eager for bat- mark of direct discourse somewhat like the quo-
tle (Job 39:25), the sea disavowing Wisdom's tation marks of English.
abode in it (Job 28:22), the trees of the forest in However. the word "say" gathers various con-
search of a king (Jud 9:8). lt is readily seen that notations from the contexts in which it is used
the verb is pressed into service in literal contexts, and some of these are of theological interest. lt is
personifications, allegories, and strict narratives. a question, however, how many of these special
A variety of nouns, clauses, adverbs, preposi- meanings are inherent in the word 'iimar and
tional phrases are employed after the verb. Even how many are due to the context.
when synonymous verbs are used (dibber, $iiwa, For instance, ·iimar sometimes means "to

54
 118 ir.,1$(' ämar)

command." These are cases where the word is the Jack of a formula, yet the claim to revelation
spoken by God or some competent human au- in the matter of the writing of the scroll, "All the
thority. God commanded ( 'ämar) Abram to go words that I have spoken (däbar) unto thee
(Gen 12:1). The Lord had spoken ('amar) to against Israel ... from the day I spoke (dabar)
Joshua and Joshua executed that word as a com- unto thee ... unto this day" (Jer 36:2). There is
mand ($awä) (Josh 11:9). But in the case of the no magic in the vocable ·amar. The power is in
Ten Commandments the synonym däbar is used God the speaker. R.L.H.]
to introduce them. At their end the Lord said 'ömer. Speech, ward, thing, something. (KJV
('amar) to Moses, "Thus you shall say ('amar)
and ASVrender in Job 22:28, thing; RSV,matter.)
to the lsraelites." Thus the differences between
A word of wide connptations ( cf. dabar) is
'iimar and dabar need not be overemphasized.
The word 'amar is used repeatedly by God to variously translated in different contexts. Thus,
the term under consideration has been rendered
introduce revelation. One would suppose that
utterance, saying, discourse, matter, promise,
this usage emphasizes that God's revelation is a
plan, purpose, decree, command, and appoint-
spoken, transmissable, propositional, definite
matter. The "word" does not make it a revela- ment. lt is found six times in the oT. The refer-
ences (Job 22:28; Ps 19:2-3 [H3-4j;68:II [H 12];
tion. God gives the revelation to persons as one
77:8 [H 9]; Hab 3:9) appear only in poetic pas-
person imparts knowledge to another-by spo-
sages and the lofty language of prophecy
ken word. The word däbar is used in such a con-
(poetry). (lt should be stated here that 'emer is
text also, "God spoke (däbar) unto Noah" (Gen
used forty-nine times; some lexicons !ist the cita-
8:15). The formula is frequent in Lev, "The Lord
tions of both words together.) The parallels to the
spoke (dabar) unto Moses saying (/e'mör), speak
(däbar) unto the children oflsrael" (Lev 12:1-2). word are commandment, words, voice, medita-
tion, prayer, and law (instruction). Unquestiona-
God's word is creative. Genesis I has the
bly, the term most often employed for "word" is
phrase "God said" ('ämar) some ten times. Half
dabar, which is used of God 394 times with the
of these times it is "God said, let there be" and
force of commandment, prophecy, admonition,
then it happened. At other times it says "God
or encouragement. In Job 22:28 Eliphaz advises
said. let there be" and then God proceeded to
Job to find his delight and trust in God, so that if
create. This creative word ofGod is signalized in
he decides on a "matter," it may be realized for
Ps 33:9, "He spoke ('amar) and it was done; he
him. The Psalmist in Ps 19:2-3 [H 3-4] refers to
commanded and it stood fast." The parallel
the "speech" of natural creation. The use in Ps
word, "he commanded" (.rawa), and the situa-
68: 11 [H 12) possibly relates to the command of
tion in Gen I may give us a word of warning
God pictured at the head of his army with the
against thinking that the "creative word does
command relayed by heralds (fern of office)
what it says" (TDOT, I, p. 336), as if the word
throughout the ranks. The force in Ps 77 :8 [H 9] is
had a power independent of God. Rather, it is
to the "promise" of God to the righteous. The
God the Creator who does what he will. This will
reference in the admittedly difficult Hab 3 :9
of God is expressed in words of command and
they are effective because he makes them so. seems to point to the "oaths" (that is, the prom-
ises) made to the tribes of Israel.
[The word of God was given to prophets from
Moses to Malachi and they spoke and wrote 'imrä. Word, utterance, speech, saying. (KJV
these words to the people. Especially the and ASV similar, "word"; Rsv, "promise. ")
prophets of the monarchy eile the word with the There are thirty-six uses of the word, mostly in
formula, "Thus saith (' amar) the Lord." Since poetry (nineteen references in Ps 119; seven in
the work of H. W. Wolff and C. Westermann other psalms) in the singular collective. Because
(Basic Forms of Prophetie Speech, trans. by H. the concept is a prominent one, it is natural that
C. White, Westminster, 1967)and others, this has synonyms will be employed to avoid repetition.
been taken as a messenger formula similar to that Bibliography: Heinsch, P., Das Wort im
in secular use when a messenger bearing a letter Alten Testament und im Alten Orient, 1922.
speaks the letter in the name of his sender. The Jacobs, E., Old Testament TheoloKy, 1955, pp.
emphasis is on the source of the prophets' mes- 127-35. May, E., "The Logos in the Old Testa-
sages. The message is not an invention of the ment," CBQ 8: 393-98. Mowinckel, "The Spirit
prophet. This formula occurs over 130 times in and the Word in the Pre-exilic Prophets," JB L
Jeremiah alone. The formula indeed lays em- 53: 199. Richardson, TWB, p. 232. Ringgren, H.,
phasis on God, the revelator. lt must be remem- Word and Wisdom, 1947. Rundgren, F., "Heb-
bered, however, that the commission to Jeremiah räisch basar 'Golderz' und 'amar 'Sagen', Zwei
is given once at the beginning of the book. The Entomologien," Or 32:178-83. TDNT, IV, pp.
whole book, and not just the pieces introduced by 91-100. TDOT, I, pp. 328-47. THAT, I, pp.
the formula. was the words of God through 216-19. TWNT, IV, pp. 69ff.
Jeremiah to his rebellious contemporaries. Note C.L.F.

55
119 •-:i~tc('emöri) Amorites (collective). Ex 1:11 in the LXX. Designated now by Tell Hisn
(KJV. Asv, Rsv similar, rendering and Matariyeh, On was from ancient times the
Amorite[s[.) important center of Egyptian sun worship. lt has
been suggested that A ven (the same Hebrew con-
The name occurs eighty-seven times in the OT
lt was employed of Palestinian settlers in general. sonants as the fully written On) in Ezk 30: 17 is
They are designated in place of the Canaanites as the same as the On of Genesis (N1v Heliopolis).
the people whom Israel was to destroy (Gen There were two Ons in Egypt, one in Upper
15:16; II Kgs 21: 11). Older settlers of Judah were Egypt and the other in Lower Egypt. The biblical
called Amorites (Josh 10:5--6). Amorites were lo- On is the latter. lt was about ten miles northeast
cated on the west shore of the Dead Sea (Gen of modern Cairo. The history of On is clothed in
14:7), at Hebron (Gen 14:13), Shechem (Gen obscurity. In the era of the Pyramid Texts it
48:22), Gilead, Bashan (Deut 3:10), and Hermon boasted a great sanctuary. There was a temple of
(Deut 3:8; 4:48). the sun to Ra and Atum. lt is thought that
Bethshemesh ("house of the sun") is a pseudo-
The Amorites lived in the mountains, as did the
Hittites and Jebusites (Num 13:29), their name nym for On in Jer 43:13. Figuring in Egyptian
perhaps signifying mountain dwellers. history in the uprising against the Assyrian
In Abraham's time the Amurru were the prom- Ashurbanipal, On has been deserted since 525
B.C.
inent people of westem Asia. In the third millen-
nium e.c. the Amorite kingdom spread over the C.L.F.
greater part of Mesopotamia and Syria-Palestine. 1~ ('än). See no. 75g.
the latter being designated as the "land of the
Amorites." Thus the name belongs to the early 122 Ki~ (' ännä') ah now! I beseech you.
Babylonian per"iod of Near Eastem history. An
Amorite dynasty ruled in northern Babylonia 123 ::"UK ( 'nb). Assumed root of the following.
with Babylon as their capital, to which Ham- 123a ri;nlC (' arnebet) hare.
murabi belonged. Amorite kingdoms lasted to the
time of Israel's conquest of Canaan, a fact at- 124 :,~~ ('änä) I, mourn.
tested by the Amama Tablets and Hittite records.
After the defeat of Sihon, an Amorite king, their Derivatives
kingdom disappeared.
Bibliography: Clay, Albert F., The Empire of
124a :i:,~('aniya) mourning. This
noun occurs only in Isa 29:2; Lam
the Amorites, Yale Oriental Series, Researches, 2:5.
6, Yale University, 1919, p. 192. Gibson, J. C. L., 124b :,~;!:'() (ta'iiniya) mouming. Oc-
"Light from Mari on the Patriarchs," JSS 7: curs only in lsa 29:2; Lam 3:5.
44-62. ---, "Observations on Some lmpor-
tant Ethnic Terms in the Pentateuch," JNES 20: 125 :i,N ('nh) 11.Assumedrootofthefollowing.
217-38. Lewy, Julius, "Amurritica," HUCA 125a t•;~ (' oni) ships, fleet.
32:31-74. Tur-Sinai, H., "The Amorite and the 125b t:i:,~
('öniya) ship.
Amurru of the lnscriptions," JQR 39: 249-58.
In I Kgs 10:II, KJVand ASVtranslate "navy";
Van Seters, John, "The Terms 'Amorite' and
'Hittite' in the Old Testament," VT 22: 64~1. Rsv "tleet." The noun oniya appears thirty-
Livrani, M., "The Amorites," in Peoples of OT one times. lt is the common word for ship
(Jon 1:3). lt is already attested in the Tell el-
Times, ed. K. A. Kitchen, Clarendon Press,
Amarna texts. The singular of this noun, a
1973.
feminine noun, designates a single ship. The
C.L.F.
plural of this noun and the short collective form
120 !V~~ ( 'emesh) yesterday. ('oni "tleet") occur often. The phrase 'anshe
'onniyot "seamen" denotes those who manned
them (l Kgs 9:27). Because the lsraelites had no
ri~~ ('emet). See no. 116k.
good harbors on the Mediterranean in the north
121 „K ('ön), liK ('on) On. (KJV, ASV, RSV and because the hostile Philistines controlled the
render similarly.) coastal area toward the south, the sea was not an
area of traffic for the Hebrews. However, during
The name appears only three times in the oT: the illustrious reign of Solomon, the nation en-
Gen 41:45, 50 and 46:20. lt was a city in Lower joyed maritime activity, not so much on the
Egypt where lived Potiphera, the priest ofOn and Mediterranean, but the Gulf of Aqabah. lsrael's
father-in-law of Joseph. The Egyptian name was acquaintance with seagoing vessels dates from
An, Ant, and Annu; later the city was named their contact with the Phoenicians.
Heliopolis, "sun-city." lt was known for the Bibliography: Barnett, R. D., "Early Ship-
worship of the sun god Ra. The name occurs in ping in the Near East," Antiquity 32:220-30.

56
 Sasson, Jack M., ··canaanite Maritime lnvolve- The term occurs 188 times, fewer than would
ment in the Second Millenium B.C.," JAOS be expected (see the short form nahnü ). As with
86:126-38. other Hebrew pronouns, its use is often for em-
C.L.F. phasis (also in oblique cases) "just we." The first
person plural pronominal suffix appears fre-
126 *M~l;I ('äna) III, be opportune, meet. quently. Ugaritic Jacks an independent full form.
The verb occurs only four times, three times in lt may be posited that the protosemitic form
the Pie! or Pual meaning "cause to meet," i.e. lacked the initial aleph and that this longer form
"deliver" or in the passive "be caused to meet," with aleph developed in analogy to the singular
i.e. "happen." In the Hithpael it develops into 'iini and ·iinöki.
"seek a quarre!." 128a UMJ (nahnt'l) ,we, reading discer-
' ~ible as a short form of 'anahnü.
Derivatives (KJV,Asv, and Rsv render uniformly,
126a MlMl'l (ta'änii) occasion, time of es- "we.")
-,~~us (of a donkey Jer 2:24).
Ugaritic offers no parallel to this form, al-
126b :i,M· r-, ( tö 'iina) opportuniJy (for a
though it has a suffix related to it. The word ap-
'quarre!), Jud 14:4.
pears only six times (Gen42:1 I; Ex 16:7~: Num
Wil~ ('enosh). See no. 136a. 32:32; II Sam 17:12; and Lam 3:42). This short
form of the pronoun may be the original.
127 •n:1;1(änal_z) sigh, groan, gasp. C.L.F.
Derivative
•;t,e ('onf). See no. 125a,b.
127a t:i1;m~ ('änähii) sighing, groaning.
'änah occurs twelve times, only in the Niphal :,~;~ ('aniya). See no. 124a.
and mostly in poetic passages.
The term occurs in Ugaritic. This verb is not 129 •:tt ('iinf) /. (KJV, ASV,and RSVare simi-
the most frequently used in the 0T for the act of iar.)
mourning. säpad and 'äba/ refer more to public lt is not surprising that the important first per-
acts of mourning and wailing as at a funeral. bäkii son singular pronoun occurs hundreds of times in
refers to weeping in any sorrow as does 'änah. the oT. lts presence is attested in Ugaritic, al-
So important was the duty of funerary mourning though the word was formerly thought to be a
that its omission was a serious misfortune ( I Kgs characteristic of the late "P" document. The
14:13 säpad). Those who were immediately in- longer pronoun 'iinökf is also used in Ugaritic. In
volved in the mourning were the members of the its independent form the pronoun is found as the
deceased's family (Gen 50: 10 säpad). Apart from subject in noun clauses. Because it is the pronoun
funerals, public mourning was connected with ofthe speaker, it requires no further indication of
repentance (Ex 33:4 'äbal; Joel 1:13 säpad; gender. Since a participle manifests no elements
2:12-13 misped). In pagan practices borrowed by of the finite verb, the personal pronoun is essen-
Israel from her idolatrous neighbors lacerations tial to indicate the subject ofthe clause. When the
and mutilations accompanied mourning (cf. the pronoun is added to the finite verb, it lends em-
prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel). Of the verb's phasis, as in II Sam 12:28, "Lest I myself capture
twelve citations, four appear in Lam (1 :4, 8, 11, the city." Though in later Hebrew the emphasis
21) and four occur in Ezk (9:4; 21:11 (bis), 12). is not so clearly demarcated, in earlier Hebrew,
The remainder are in Ex 2:23; Prov 29:2; Isa 24:7; in prose at least, the stress is unmistakable.
and Joel 1:18. The instances in Lam all relate to Three areas of emphasis with the independent
the destruction of Jerusalem in 587/86 B.c. pronoun may be pointed out. 1. lt is found after a
Ezekiel's references point to exercise of heart on verb with the pronominal suffix of the first person
the part of those who sighed over Israel's desper- as in Gen 27:34 where Esau pleads, "Bless me,
ate spiritual condition. even me also." 2. lt occurs after a noun with the
'Anätiä, Sighing, sigh, groaning. (KJV,ASV,Rsv first person pronominal suffix as in II Sam 18:33
similar, "sighing. ") This noun refers to groan- [H 19:IJ: "Would I had died (lit., would my
ing in either physical or mental distress. lt occurs death, even mine)." 3. lt appears after a preposi-
eleven times in the oT, only in the poetic (six tion with the pronominal suffix in I Sam 25:24,
times in Ps and Job) and prophetic books (three in "Upon me, even me."
lsa, one in Jer, and one in Lam). Bibliography: THAT, I. pp. 216-19.
C.L.F. C.L.F.

128 i:n:M ('anahnü) we. (KJV, ASV, Rsv are 129.1 '!JlM (' änäk) plummet. Perhaps a loan
'similar, "~e. ") ~~rd.

57
130 ~;,)tc (' änöki) I. (KJV, Asv, and RSVren- ple). lt is considered a vital part ofth~ bo?Y· G~d
der alike.) made man a living being by breathmg mto h1s
nose/nostrils (Gen 2:7). The nose, although re-
This form of the first person singular pronoun
ferred to as the organ for smelling (Deut 33: 10) or
occurs more than two hundred times in the 0T,
a place for omaments (lsa 3 :21) or fo~ hooks by
but less often than the shorter form. lt is found in
which to lead captives (II Kgs 19:28), 1s also spo-
Assyrian and Ugaritic and other Semit_ic lan-
ken of as an organ necessary if a man's or ani-
guages, but is lacking in Aramaic, Arab1c, and
mal's life is to continue (lsa 2:22).
Ethiopic. lt has been suggested that the longer
By the act of breathing, emotions can be ex-
and shorter forms of the pronoun had parallel
growths, the longer adding a demonstrative ele- pressed. Perhaps it was observed that the nose
dilates in anger. God is said to be ·· 'erek 'ap-
ment (like Heb köh '"here"). In certain instances
payim" (lit. '"long of anger," i.e. long before get-
both pronouns are used interchangeably. In other
ting angry) in such passages as Ex 34:6; Num
cases they manifest a definite choice on two
14:18; Ps 86:15: Neh 9:17. The thought is that
counts, either because of the demands of the
God takes a long, deep breath as he holds his
rhythm or because of the apparent preference of
writers of the exilic period for the shorter form. anger in abeyance. A ruler is said tobe persuaded
by a display of forbearance, patience, i.e. '"the
When the pronoun is added to a verb for em-
long of breath" (Prov 25:15).
phasis, the short form is almost always used
(Deut 12:30; Jer 17:18). In the rhetorical style of The main use of 'ap is to refer to the anger of
men and of God. This anger is expressed in the
Deuteronomy the longer form is employed. Par-
appearance of the nostrils. 'ap gives specific em-
ticular phrases are found now with one pronoun,
phasis to the emotional aspect of anger and
and now with the other. lt is always the short
form in the phrase, ··as I live" (Num 14:21). The wrath, whereas its synonyms and terms related to
longer form is regularly employed with a predi- them give particular expression to other aspects.
cate (II Sam 1:8). In exilic 0T books the usage of The anger of God is particularly related to the
sin of his people, which pains and deeply dis-
the short form far outstrips the long: Ezekiel em-
ploys the former 138 times and the latter once pleases him (II Kgs 13:3). Sin offends a?d_wo~~ds
(36:28).
his love. The emotional response to th1s 1s d1vme
anger. This anger, though fierce (Jer 25:37) is not
C.L.F.
sinful, evil, or the source of capricious attitudes
or deeds. However, it is expressed in chastise-
131 *m:c('änan) complain, murmur. Occurs ment (Ps 6: I [H 2]; Isa 12: 1) and punishment
only in the Hithpoel (Lam 3 :39; Num 11: 1). (II Sam 6:7; Jer 44:6).
Man's anger can be legitimate (II Sam 12:5).
132 ClH ( 'änas) compel, constrain. Only in But the oT Scriptures warn that anger can be out-
-Est 1:8. rageous (Prov 27 :4) and. stirs up strife (Prov
29:22). In contrast, it is said that the man slow to
133 l'\~I:' ('änep)
to he angry, to be displeased. anger appeases strife (Prov 15: 18) and a wise man
(ASV,RSVsimilar.) turns from it (Prov 29:8).
Bibliography: Erlandsson, S., ""The Wrath of
Derivatives
Yhwh," Tyndale Bulletin 23:111-16. Hanson, R.
133a tl'\H ('ap) 1, nostril, face, anger. The P. C:, ""The Wrath of God," Exp T 58: 216-18.
-double pe in the plural shows its de- McKenzie, John L., ··vengeance is Mine,"
rivation from 'änep. Scripture 12: 33-39. Morris, L. L., ""The Wrath
133b :,~lH ('änapä) an unclean bird (Lev ofGod," Exp T 63: 142-45. TDNT, V, pp. 392-
ii':19; Deut 14:18). lts derivation is 418. TDOT, I, pp. 348--00. THAT, I, pp. 220-24.
uncertain. G.V.G.
'änep is used to express the Lord"s attitude of
anger toward the covenant people when they 134 ;,~~ (änaq) cry, groan.
have sinned, e.g. Moses (Deut I :37), Aaron (Deut
9:20), the people (Deut 9:8). Men acknowledge Derivatives
God"s prerogative, but plead that he not continue 134a ~i?J~ ('t'lnaqa) I, crying, groaning.
tobe angry. 134b :ii?J~ ('änaqa) II, ferret or shrew-
'ap. Nostril, face, anger. The term 'ap in He- mouse.
brew refers first of all to a part of the body. spe-
cifically the nose, nostril, (snout of pigs, Prov 135 llilM ('änash) I, desperate, incurable, desper-
11:22) and also face (II Sam 25:23) or counte- -:Uetywicked, woeful, very sick. (Rsv similar
nance (cf. UT 19: no. 264, an opening of the except that it translates as „ disaster" in
body, or possibly the body itself, e.g., nose, nip- Jer 17:16.)

58
 137 tu~M('nsh)
The basic meaning of the word is "tobe sick" earth, not heaven. He is mortal, not divine, and
(II Sam 12: 15) but most frequently it is used to so cannot prevail against God. The distinction is
describe a wound or pain which is incurable as also evident in man's mortality (Ps 90:3) and
attested by the contexts of Jer 15:18; 30:12. lt is God's immortality (vv. 2, 4), God's nature as op--
used metaphorically in lsa 17: 1I ; Jer 17: I 6. In J er posed to man's is set forthin such questions as,
17:9 it describes the desperate spiritual state of "Do you see as man sees?" (Job 10:4) and, ··Are
the heart in terms of illness. your years the years of a man?" (Job 10:5).
Man·s insignificance in view ofthe vastness of
136 WlK ('nsh) II. Assumed root of the follow- the universe is set forthin the question, "What is
ing. man?" (Ps 8:4). His lot on earth is difficult (Job
136a tWil~ ( 'enosh) man, mortal man, 7:1; 14:19), but he does enjoy,God's providences
person. (ASV,RSVsimilar). (Ps 104:15; cf. v. 14).
The word 'enös/; reminds man of his tran-
The basic meaning of 'enosh is "man" in the
sience and of his lowly position before the Al-
sense of "mankind." The word can refer to an
mighty.
individual only in the most general sense (e.g.
Messiah is described as being like the son of
"blessed is the man who does this [lsa 56:2)) and
man ( 'i'nosh Dan 7: 13) a term which describes his
thus lacks the specificity of 'fsh. lt is used mainly
close relationship to the human race. (Note in the
in the poetic material.
Daniel passage that there might be a studied con-
The verbal root of 'enösh is uncertain. If it is a trast to the four preceding symbols of Kingdoms
derivation of 'änash "to be weak, sick," the which are beasts.
basic emphasis would be on man's weakness or Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 345-47.
mortality, a connotation permitted by some con- T.E.M.
texts, particularly those that emphasize man's in-
significance (e.g., Ps 8:4 [H 5]; Job 7: 17). The 137 WlK ('nsh) III. Assumed root ofthe follow-
word may be derived from a different root 'ns ing.
unattested in Hebrew but found in Arabic and 137a tiifl:t ('ishsha) woman, wife, female,
Ugaritic. lt has the connotation of friendliness or each, every. (Asv and RSVsimilar.)
sociality in Arabic and the similar concept of
companionability in Ugaritic. Ifderived from this The word 'ishshii is the most common word for
root the basic emphasis of ·enbsh would be on "woman" and "wife" in the OT.
man as a social being. The origin of woman is explained in Gen 2:23,
While it is true that the word frequently em- 24, She is depicted as the physical counterpart of
phasizes man's frailty and humanness, these man, deserving of his unswerving loyalty. lt is in
concepts may derive from the theological this context (vv. 24-25) that the word is first used
framework in which the ancient Hebrews viewed in the sense of "mate" or "wife."
mankind and not necessarily from an inherent The Bible holds waman in the highest regard
root meaning. The word frequently has a general and sets forth "graciausness" (Prov 11: 16) and
sense and its usage in parallelism with other gen- "worth" (Ruth 3: 11) as wamanly ideals. Haw-
eral terms for man such as 'ädäm (Ps 73:5), ever, beauty without discretian is condemned
b'ne'ädäm (Ps 144:3), and its use in association (Prov 11:22).
with "land ofthe living" (Job 28:13) would seem Warnen held positions of prestige in the oT.
to argue for derivation from the unattested 'nsh. The wise woman af Tekaa, Deborah, and Esther
The stress would then be on man as he comprises are only a few of the many warnen of influence
the human race. in OT history.
The basic meaning "mankind" is evident in There are, however, warnings against the adul-
such passages as Job 28: 13; 36:24 [H 25); Ps 90:3; terous waman and the harlot. Congress with
lsa 13:12 and in Deut 32:26; Job 7:1; lsa 24:6 them will lead to certain punishment (Prov 6:24-
where it is used of man as the one who inhabits 29) and even spiritual death (Prov 2: 16-19).
the earth. The expression "born of a woman
A major theological concept underlying the use y"/Ctd 'ishshii. uses 'ishshii. in a collective sense
of this word is the fundamental distinction be- connoting man's mortality with its inherent frail-
tween God and man. Elihu sets forth this concept ties (Job 14:1: 15:14; 25:4).
in his affirmation that God is greater than man Women were forbidden to wear men·s clothing
(Job 33: 12), The Psalmist calls on God to exercise (Deut 22:5). See Hoffner (bibliog). They were
his might so that man may recognize his insignifi- permitted to be taken as booty in the conquest of
cance before him (Ps 9:19-20 [H 20-21]). This a city (Deut 21:10-11).
fundamental difference is the basis of the affirma- The word 'ishshii occurs in a number of set
tion in Ps 10: 17-18 that "man who is of the expressians, e.g. ·ishshii n ,,hf' ii, a prophetess,
earth" will no more strike terror. Man's sphere is and 'ishshii zbnii, a harlot.

59
138 :icN (' sh)

Metaphorically, a noble woman represents 44:29) relate to Jacob's concern for Benjamin's
wisdom, but a foolish woman (Prov 9:13) repre- welfare. The references in Exodus (21:22-23)
sents that which is opposed to wisdom. deal with injury to a pregnant woman.
The word is frequently used in the sense of C.L.F.
"wife." The good wife is highly honored in the
OT. He who finds one finds a source of blessing See no. 138a.
1i0tt ('äson).
(Prov 18:22) and honor (Prov 12:4). A fruitful ,ic!( (' esor). Seeno.141a.
wife is a sign of blessing (Ps 128:3). Her honored l'\'l;)tt ('äsfp). See no. 140b.
position is evident in the fact that she is "from ,•r;:itt ('äsfr), .,,,tc(' assfr). See no.
the Lord" (Prov 19:14). The classic picture ofthe 14lb,c.
ideal wife is set forthin Prov 31: 10-31. A quarrel-
some wife, however, may be a source of conten-
tion (Prov 19:13; 21:9, 19; 25:24; 27:15). 139 Cl0H ( 's m). Assumed root of the following.
The legal role of the wife is clearly defined in 139a 00H ('äsäm) storehouse. Occurs
the OT. Adultery is punishable by death for both ·~nly in Deut 28:8; Prov 3:10.
parties (Deut 22:22). A woman suspected of adul-
tery could be made to take an oath of innocence 140 l'\9tt (' äsap) gather, remove, gather in
and subjected to a kind of lie detector test by her (harvest).
husband in the sacred precincts to determine her Derivatives
guilt or innocence (Num 5:11-31). Hebrew ser-
vants could have wives (Ex 21 :3). If a servant's 140a l'\tiH ('ösep) gathering.
m.aster gave him a wife, the servant stood in 140b tl'\'l;)tt ('äsfp) ingathering, harvest.
danger of being separated from his wife when his 140c 11·0H ( 'äsöp) what is gathered, store.
period of service ended (Ex 21 :4-5). The newly 140d m9;i'~ ('asepa) a collecting, gather-
married wife was not to be separated from her ing.
husband (Deut 24:5) and the widow was provided 140e Mf~~ (' asüppa) collection.
for in the Levirate system (Deut 25:5). 140f tl'\~~Q~ ('iisapsüp) collection, rabble.
The role of the wife is used as a metaphor in a The Niphal is translated "be gathered" (by
number of important passages. Adultery (Ezk death), "assemble," "be removed," "perish."
16:32) and divorce (Jer 3: 1) figure strikingly in the The Pual is rendered "be gathered," whereas the
prophetic message of denunciation. Israel was Hithpael has the force of "gather themselves."
seen as the wife of the Lord, a figure expressive (KJV, ASV, and RSV render similarly.) The verb has
of the deepest love. Yet they spurned God, as a the same meaning in Ugaritic.
wayward wife spurns her husband. In Mal 2:14 This verb occurs 199 times. Ugaritic attests a
the initiation of the marriage relationship be- cognate root. The two principal words for
tween the Lord and his people is the Mosaic cov- "gather" are 'äsap and qäba$. Transitively, the
enant. verb under consideration denotes "to bring to-
Bibliography: Böhl, Franz M. Th., "The Po- gether," "collect"; intransitively, "to come to-
sition of Women in Ancient Babylonfa and Is- gether," "assemble." The phrase "gathered to
rael," BS 77: 4-13, 186-97. Brooks, Beatrice Al- his fathers" is frequently used for "to die" or
lard, "Some Observations Concerning Ancient "death" (Gen 25:8, 17; 49:29, 33; Deut 32:50; II
Mesopotamian Women," AJSL 39: 187-94. Kgs 22:20).
Crook, Margaret B., "The Marriageable Maiden There are some scholars who suggest that this
of Prov 31: 10-31," JNES 13: 137-40. Hoffner, phrase intimates, albeit indistinctly and vaguely,
H. A., "Symbols for Masculinity and Feminin- an early belief in life after death with recognition
ity," JBL 85: 326-35. Schofield, J. N., "Some of loved ones in the afterlife. lt may, however, be
Archaeological Sites and the Old Testament a euphemism for death without clear theological
(Nuzu)," Exp T 66: 315-18. Yaron, Reuven, import. The transitive force can denote the
.. Aramaic Marriage Contracts from Elephan- gathering of a host (Ps 27: 10; cf. lsa 52: 12).
tine," JSS 3: 1-39. THAT, I, pp. 247-50. An important use of the word is connected with
T.E.M. the harvest for which the usual word is qä$ir.
Since Israel was an agricultural people. the har-
vest (qä$ir) held for them great significance (Gen
138 MCM ( 'sh) Assumed root of the following.
8:22; 45:6). Events were counted from or related
138a tiictt ( 'äson) mischief, evil, harm,
to harvests (Gen 30: 14; Josh 3: 15; Jud 15:1; Ruth
hurt. (KJV translates "mischief';
1:22; 2:23; I Sam 6:13; II Sam 21:9; 23:13). The
ASV and Rsv render similarly,
three main feasts of the Jewish religious calendar
"harm. ")
answered to three harvest seasons ( Ex 23: 16;
The noun appears five times, always without 34:21-22). The Feast of Passover was at the time
the article. The passages in Genesis (42:4, 38; of barley harvest, the feast of Pentecost was at

60
 141 "1~1$
('äsar)

the wheat harvest (Ex 34:22), and the Feast of 141 ,1;1~ ('äsar) tie, bind, harness, gird, im-
Tabernacles at year's end came during fruit har- prison. (KJV,ASV,and Rsv render similarly,
vest. Between barley harvest and wheat harvest tie, bind, imprison.)
fall a few showers which increase the wheat yield
(cf. Arnos 4:7). From the time of wheat harvest Derivatives
until the fruit harvest there is no rain (II Sam 141a ,~O!'.t( ·esür) band, bond.
21:10; Jer 5:24). The Mosaic law surrounded the 141b t,,01;1 ( 'äsir) bondman, prisoner.
harvest with definite laws on gleaning (Lev 19:9), 141c ti•~~ ('assir) prisoners.
firstfruits (Lev 23: 10). and the prohibition of har- 141d ii;,N ('issär) bond, binding obliga-
vesting a crop for which they had not labored tion.
(Lev 25:5). 141e tr.i'o~ (mäsöret) bond.
The Gezer Calendar sets forth the harvest sea- 141f t,~;~· (möser) band, bond.
sons in ancient Israel. Olives were harvested from
the middle of September to the middle of Novem- This term occurs thirty-four times in the OT.
ber. Trees were beaten with long sticks (Deut The root is attested in U garitic with the force of
24:20; lsa 17:6). Flax was harvested in March- "to bind." With milf.,äma the meaning is "to
April by cutting it off at the ground, then allowing begin the battle," "make the attack." In the
the stalks to soften (called retting) by dew or other Niphal the rendering is "tobe bound," "impris-
moisture (Josh 2:6). In April or early May barley oned"; in the Pual stem the translation is "tobe
harvest took place with wheat harvest in May- taken prisoner." Another usage refers to binding
June. The harvesting of figs, grapes, and pome- oneself with an oath or obligation.
granates, summer fruits, was during August- A number of Hebrew words indicate the con-
September. cept of binding, such as räkas "to fasten" (Ex
There are figurative usages also. Destruction of 28:28) and .yür "tie up" (Deut 14:25). lt is em-
a harvest indicated God's punishment (Job 5:5; ployed in the sense of making one a prisoner (Jud
lsa 16:9; Jer 5:17). The "time of harvest" often 15:10; Ps 149:8 [H 91). Imprisonment is often
denoted the period of destruction (Jer 51 :33: Hos mentioned in the OT, showing that this was a
6: 11; Joel 3: 13 [H 4: 13]). The joy of harvest des- common form of punishment among the lsraelites
ignated great rejoicing. The harvest of the Nile and foreign nations (Gen40:3; 42:19; Num 15:34:
denoted an abundant ingathering (lsa 23:3). A I Kgs 22:27; Jer 37:15, 21). Among the Hebrews
harvest that was past indicated a lost and irre- there were no Special prison buildings until prob-
trievable opponunity (Jer 8:20). ably the postexilic era. In Assyria and Egypt such
A derived use of the verb occurs with the buildings existed. In Israel rooms or pits con-
meaning of "withdraw" or "remove." When nected with the royal palace or the homes of
Saul heard the Philistine commo.tion in their court officials served in this capacity.
camp (1 Sam 14:19), he ordered the priest to There are several cases in which the liberty of
withdraw his hand from the ark of God. individuals was restricted: Joseph's brethren
'äsip. lngaJhering, harvest (of grain and fruits). were kept for three days (Gen 42: 19): Shimei was
This noun appears twice, in Ex 23:16 and 34:22. restricted to the city of Jerusalem (1 Kgs 2:36):
The first passage deals with the three pilgrimage the man who gathered sticks on the Sabbath was
feasts in lsrael's sacred calendar: the second confined (Num 15:34); Micaiah was imprisoned
treats the same feasts in summary fashion. by Ahab (1 Kgs 22:27); Hanani by Asa (II Chr
16:10; Hoshea, after his fruitless attempt to form
'äsepä. Collecting, gathering, or collection: (KJV an alliance with Egypt. by Shalmaneser (II Kgs
and ASVrender "are gathered" [in the pit]; RSV 17:4): Jehoiachin and Zedekiah in Babylon by
translates "will be gathered together. ") Nebuchadnezzar (II Kgs 25:27; Jer 52: 11).
This noun is a hapax lef{omenon (lsa 24:22), The book of Jeremiah has much to say about
appearing in lsaiah's so-called apocalypse imprisonment in Israel during the later years of
(chaps. 24-27) in connection with what some the Davidic dynasty. The prophet was put in fet-
exegetes believe is an eschatological revelation. ters, at the upper gate of Benjamin (Jer 20:2),
At least the resurrection is in view (lsa 25:8). because he had forewarned the people of Judah's
'äsapsup. Rabble. ( KJV. ASV similar with fall. During the siege of the capital, Jeremiah was
"mixed multitude"; Rsv "rabble. ") This mas- imprisoned in the court of the guard in the king's
culine collective noun occurs once in Num 11:4 in residence (32:2). apparently in the quaners ofthe
reference to the motley collection of people who sentry who guarded the palace. Finally, the
followed Israel from Egypt. prophet was accused of treason and confined in
Bibliography: Albright. W. F„ BASOR 92: the house of Jonathan the scribe. lt is thought
16ff.;Wright, G. E., Bihlica/ Archaeology, West- that the place was not a private residence, but
minister, 1957, pp. 180ff. rather a building of that name which had been
C.L.F. taken over to serve as a prison. This has greater

61
142 t'\~ ('ap)

cogency when one reads that the house had a of refuge were provided for manslayers who were
dungeon and cells. innocent of murder (Num 35). When Isaiah pre-
For a short time he was in the dungeon or pit sented the bill of particulars of Israel's sins, he
(bor) of Malchijah (Jer 38:6). predicted that Assyria would be God's agent of
Prisoners were treated in conformity with the wrath on Israel. Imprisonment and death would
gravity of their offence. Samson was placed be the consequences (Isa 10:4). Isaiah in his
under hard labor (Jud 16:21) and physically muti- well-known apocalyptic section (chaps. 24-27)
lated by blinding. Adonibezek was incapacitated, foresaw the cataclysmic visitation of God upon
his thumbs and !arge toes cut off (Jud 1:6). Spe- the kings and leaders of the earth. They will be
cial diet and garb were assigned prisoners (1 Kgs gathered as prisoners into the pit, confined there,
22:27; II Kgs 25:29). Punitive imprisonment was and later punished with ultimate wrath (Isa
apparently unknown in the ancient near east, 24:22). In the first of the Servant Songs, Jsaiah
Greece, and Rome. In the Code of Justinian the predicts that Messiah will liberale Satan's pris-
custodial aspect of imprisonment was instituted oners, a figurative statement of Messiah's re-
with the position that "a prison is for confine- deeming grace (Isa 42:7). Assir (Ex 6:24; I Chr
ment, not for punishment." 6:22 [H 7] 37 [H 22)), was a son of Korah, called
son of Ebiasaph; he was named after his great-
'äsir. Prisoner, captive. (KJV, ASV, and RSV
grandfather.
translate similarly.) Parallels are attested in
Ugaritic, Arabic, and Aramaic. Fourteen refer- mäsöret. Bond (construct). KJV and ASVare
ences appear in the oT, of which two are marginal similar, with Rsv giving rendering in footnote.
readings (Gen 39:20, 22). Contrary to Western The word appears only in Ezk 20:37 of Israel's
concepts of imprisonment, ancient law did not judgment by God.
mete out incarceration as a punishment. Prisons moser. Band, bond. (KJV renders "bands"
served as a temporary confinement until further
where ASVand RSVtranslate „ bonds.") The
review and deliberation of a case. Places of con-
Ugaritic offers a parallel to this term. Eleveo. us-
finement differed; some were private houses (Jer ages of this word are found in the oT. The English
37: 15), underground dungeons (Jer 37: 16), the translation "band" (or "bond") is a rendering of
court of the guard (Jer 32:2), or perhaps even a
more than one Hebrew word in the Scriptures. ln
cistern (Jer 38:6). In Gen 39:20, 22 Joseph,
its Iiteral sense a band is anything that connects,
wrongly accused, is imprisoned with two of
encloses, confines, or strengthens. Figurative
Pharaoh's chief officers. Out of this situation by
usage denotes that which chastens or restrains.
the overruling of God, Joseph is elevated to a
Jeremiah (5:5) sets forth lsrael's wickedness in
position second to Pharaoh. Samson the judge which the rulers of the nation have overstepped
was imprisoned by his enemies, the Philistines, in the restraints ofGod. Jeremiah uses literal bonds
order to wreak vengeance on him for his success- to convey God's warning to Israel that they, as
ful campaigns against them (Jud 16:21, 25). Isaiah
weil as surrounding nations, will be brought
employs the concept figuratively as he describes under the domination of Nebuchadnezzar (27:2).
the activity of the King of Babylon in his impris- Spiritual liberation from sin is in view in the
oning multitudes of the earth (lsa 14:17). The case of Ps 116:16. In lsa 52:2 the bonds men-
postexilic prophecy ofZechariah likens·the exiles tioned are those of Zion's captivity. In a strik-
to liberated prisoners of hope (Zech 9: 11). In-
ingly clear eschatological reference in Ps 2:3 the
teresting are the parallels of the word: solitary (Ps
allied nations of earth are pictured as definitely
68:6 [H 7]); poor orneedy (Ps 69:33 [H 34 ]); those
opposed to the restraint and sovereign rule of
appointed to death (Ps 102:20 [H 21)); inhabitants God. A singularly beautiful protrayal of redeem-
of darkness and deep gloom (Ps 107:10).
ing lovingkindness is found in Ps 107:14, where
'assir. Prisoners (usually collective). KJV,ASV, the literal and spiritual emphases of bonds inter-
and Rsv render alike, "prisoners", except in Ex change.
6:24 where the translation is uniformly "Assir." Bibliography: Elon, M., "Imprisonment," in
The root concept is found in Ugaritic. There Encyclopedia Judaica, VIII, 1972, pp. 1299-
are three references in the OT, all in the prophecy 1303. Gordon. C. H., UT 19: no. 284. Sheehy,
of lsaiah (10:4; 24:22; 42:7). Exodus 6:24, I Chr D. F., "Prisons," in New Catholic Encyc/opedia,
6:22 [H 7) and 6:37 [H 22) have the proper noun, XI, 1%7, pp. 791-793.
· · Assir.'' In I Chr 3: 17 the word ·assir is taken by C.L.F.
some as the first son of Jeconiah. Others translate
it "Jeconiah (the captive)" which seems to fit the I'\~ ('ap) I. See no. 133a.
context better. The OTmentions Egyptian, Assy-
rian, Judean, Babylonian, and Philistine pris-
oners. Solomon imprisoned Shimei ben Gera in 142 I'\~ (' ap) 1/, also yea. (KJV,ASV,and RSV
the city of Jerusalem (1 Kgs 2:36-37). The cities render similarly.)

62
 143 rtQtot('apa)

The conjunction occurs over 120 times. lt may Eli the priest (1 Sam 2: 18). The eighty-five priests
denote that which is added to a preceding state- at Nob were girded with linen ephods (1 Sam
ment with the force of "also,': ··yea." A pointed 22: 18). David was wearing a linen ephod when he
example is found in the rebellious answer given accompanied the procession bringing the ark into
to Moses in Num 16:14, "Also (moreover) you Jerusalem (II Sam 6: 14). Doubtless. the ephod of
have not brought us into a land flowing with milk the high priest was more elaborate and or-
and honey."' The conjunction is rare in prose; namented than those worn by lay worshipers.
more often it is found in poetry as setting forth a In time of crisis the will of the Lord was sought
new thought (1 Sam 2:7). In elevated prose it ap- through the ephod (cf. David in I Sam 23:9; 30:7).
pears in Lev 26: I 6 and following verses. With In Israel both prophecy and the ephod were
great intensity of feeling Isaiah builds up to a authorized means of ascertaining the will of God.
crescendo in lsa 48:12-13, 15 and elsewhere in The technical phrase for consulting the ephod
chapters 40-48. What is often in view is some- with the Urim and Thummim is "to come before
thing unexpected, "even," "indeed" (Job 14:3; the Lord" (Ex 28:30; Jud 20:27; I Sam 14: 18, 41 ).
15:4). In both poetry and prose a previous state- When the Hebrews feil into idolatry, they used
ment is built into an a fortiori argument, "how teraphim and graven images in conjunction with
much more" (after a positive sentence). or ··how the ephod (Jud 17:5; 18:14, 15, 17, 20; Hos 3:4). lt
much less" (after a negative one). The usages is safe to assume that in these instances the
may be summarized as additional use, ··also .. ; ephod was a priestly garment (cf. that made by
emphatic, "I for my part"; antithetic, "but''; Gideon, Jud 8:27), perhaps adorned with costly
compounds, "yea, truly"; conditional, ··when" gems (as in the case of Micah, Jud 17: 1-5).
ki follows the conjunction as in Prov 11:31, or After the captivity, the ephod did not serve the
interrogative as in Gen 3: I, · · Is it indeed that God function described in the Pentateuchal legislation
has said?'" (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65). Some believe that the
C.L.F. spiritual influence of the prophets served to over-
shadow this means of ascertaining the will of
142.1 iiCl!'.I ('epöd), it1!'.I ('epöd) ephod. God.
Another form of the word is ·apüddii, found in
(KJV, Asv, and RSVtranslate similarly.)
Ex. 28:8; 39:5; Isa 30:22. lt has been suggested
This word is found forty-eight times in the OT. that the robe with the golden bells may have been
Parallels are found in Assyrian and Ugaritic. In included in the word "ephod."
the Cappadocian texts epadum seems to mean a Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "Are the
plaid robe. At Ras Shamra there was found a Ephod and the Teraphim Mentioned in Ugaritic
Ugaritic hymn (c. 1400 e.c.), which referred to an Literature?" RASOR 83:39ff. Albright. W. F ..
ephod, probably a garment of the goddess Anath. Yahweh and the Guds of Canaan, Doubleday,
lt is not certain that there is a correspondence to 1968, pp. 171, 174, 177, 179, 197, 20~205. Ar-
the Hebrew priestly garment. There is even some nold, W. R., Ephod and rhe Ark. Harvard Uni-
question as to the correctness of the translation versity, 1917. Foote, T. C., "The Ephod,'' JBL
ofthe passage. One scholarly view is that the 0T 21: 1-47. Grintz, Y. M., "'Ephod," in Encyclo-
ephod with the sacred ark was a kind of miniature pedia Judaica, 1972 vol. 6, pp. 804-806.
temple. The ephod has even been compared to C.L.F.
the tent-like shrine carried into battle by certain
Arabian tribes. The prevailing view is still that 142.2 1'.'!!il:t ( "appedden) pa/ace. A Persian
the ephod was a garment for the high priest in loan word.
Israel.
lt was a sacred garment originally made for the
143 :i;il$ ('iipa) hake. (KJV, ASV, RSV trans-
high priest (Ex 28:4ff.; 39:2ff.). lt was made of
late similarly.)
gold, blue, purple, scarlet and fine twined linen,
fastened by two shoulder pieces and woven band Derivative
for a girdle for the ephod. Two onyx stones, on 143a :,~~~ (ma'apeh) something baked
which were engraved the names of the tribes of ·(Lev 2:4).
Israel, were placed on the shoulder pieces. The
ephod may have extended below the hips or only In the Qal. 'äp<i is translated as indicated; in
to the waist. A breastplate with twelve precious the Niphal it is rendered "to be baked" (with
stones in four rows was attached to the ephod leaven). There are twenty-five references in the
with pure gold chains. Under the ephod was the oT. The verb is attested in Ugaritic. The partici-
blue robe of the ephod reaching to the feet of the ple of the Qal is used substantively and rendered
priest. throughout as "baker ...
Ephods were worn by others. Samuel was The term and its derivative refer specifically to
girded with a linen ephod while ministering under the baking of bread and cakes made with flour

63
144 ic~ ('epo)

and oil. Such baked food was a basic element in "darkness," whereas ASV and RSV translate
the daily diet of the Hebrews and their neighbors "thick darkness. ") For the figurative usage the
(Gen 19:3; 1 Kgs 17:12-13). Because bread was KJVtranslates, as do ASVand Rsv, as in the case of
such an important commodity in the near east (cf. the literal use.
our "staff of life"), bakers were important offi- There are nine instances of the occurrence of
cers, as in Egypt (Gen 40: 1) and Assyria where the word in the OT. Most appear in Job, two ref-
the chief baker was singled out by an eponym. erences in the Psalms, and one in lsa. This noun
Baking was essential to the preparation of sacred is used less frequently than f)oshek.
meals (Gen 14:18) and certain bloodless offerings Light and darkness are well-known opposites
(Lev 21 :6), especially in relation to the show- in Palestine. In that land the light does not fade
bread of the sanctuary. The showbread and the gradually after twilight. Sunset ~s preceded by
baked offerings were an integral part of the wor- brightness, which is soon changed with the dis-
ship of Israel (Lev 2:4ff.; 24:5). Bread was usu- appearance of the sun. Within an hour, sunset
ally baked in an oven, a household duty of has given way to the darkness of night.
women. The Hebrew verb is often used There are symbolic uses of darkness as there
synonymously with cooking in general (Ex are of light. As light presages glory, blessing, pur-
16:23). ity, so darkness foreshadows disaster.
C.L.F. The light of God is required to reveal man's
darkness and expel it (Job 34:21-22; Ps 139:11-
144 i!:l!'.I('epo), Kic!'.I ('epo'), Ki!:l'!'.I('epo') 12; Mic 7:8-9).
then, so. Job (3 :6) bewails the day of his birth and the
night in which he was conceived. For that night
lt has been suggested that the word originally
he wishes that only the deepest darkness might
came from po or poh, a particle with a demon-
overtake it, so that it would not be reckoned
strative force and a prosthetic aleph. The adver-
bial use of the particle is rendered "wholly," among the months or years. He pleads for a little
respite before he goes to the place where only
"so," "therefore." The word occurs fifteen
darkness is the order of the realm (10:22). He
times in the oT. When employed as an interroga-
wishes (23: 17) that he could have been cut off
tive pronoun, it is translated "where." The parti-
cle is used in connection with interrogative pro- before calamity overtook him, so that he might
have been spared the agony. The prowess ofman
nouns and adverbs. In Gen 27:33 Isaac asks
Esau, "Who then is he?" lt is used with an inter- in his research into the secrets and phenomena of
rogative adverb in Isa 19:12: "Where then are thy earth, characterized by darkness, is presented in
Job 28:3, whereas in 30:26 Job laments that
wise men?" Another use of the particle is in a
command or wish, e.g. Job 19:23: "Would, then, whenever he looked for a source ofhope (light), it
that my words were written!" The term also ap- always turned into misfortune (darkness).
pears after 'im. Gen 43:11 reads, "If it be so, The Psalmist is grieved at the extreme enmity
then, do this." which the wicked harbor against the upright, be-
To summarize, the particle is found in sen- cause they use the cover of darkness to make
tences containing a question, command, or wish. their onslaughts (Ps 11:2). In a psalm that
lt appears after interrogative particles; apart from breathes the protection of God over his own, the
the interrogative; before the interrogative; after Psalmist assures the trusting heart that no pesti-
an expression of a wish, mi yiten; after the words lence of the night will strike down the soul abid-
'im, or 'im-16', "ifnow"; following 'im and apart
ing in God (Ps 91 :6).
from it; and in exhortations, meaning "then." lsaiah looks to a day of God's blessing on Is-
C.L.F. rael when God himself will dispel their ignorance
(29: 18).
:il~!:IH ('apuna). See no. 146c. 'Apelä. Darkness, thick darkness, calamity,
,~!:11$-
('äpil). See no. 145d. gloominess. KJV,ASV,and RSVare similar, "thick
~'!:11$('äpip). See no. 149a. darkness" (with f)oshek). The term is used liter•
ally, as when darkness feil upon the land of Egypt
145 ',!:IH ( 'pi). Assumed root of the following. for three days during the time of the ten plagues
145a t',J;,'H ('opel) darkness, gloom. (Ex 10:21-22). lt is also used figuratively of calam-
145b ',~!$ ( 'äpel) gloomy. ity or distress. Darkness symbolizes moral failure
145c t:,7p~ (' apela) darkness, gloominess. and its punishment (Prov 4:9). Most of its ten
145d ''!:11$ (' apil) late. usages occur in the prophetic books.
145e ',p~r,, (ma'ape/) darkness.
ma'pelyä. Deep darkness. (KJVrenders "dark-
145f t:i;7!?~1.' (ma'pelya) deep darkness.
ness"; ASVand Rsv "thick darkness. ") lt occurs
'öpel. Darkness, gloom (poet.), calamity, (fig.). only in Jer 2 :31 where Jeremiah remonstrates
spiritual darkness. (In Job 3 :6 KJV renders with Israel for their apostasy from God.

64
 147 CQl!C
('iipes)

Bibliography: IDB, III, pp. 130-32. May, H. noun form "ends of the earth" or "extremities of
G., "The Creation of Light in Gen I :3-5," JBL the land."
58: 203-11.
C.L.F. 'epes. Ceasing, then end, extremity, non-
existence, cessation of, nought. (KJV, ASV,and
146 1llM ('pn). Assumed root of the following. Rsv render "ends of the earth"; when the word
146a t,~iM ('opan) 19iM ('öpän) wheel. occurs as a particle the versions translate simi-
146b 1!;1.M('öpen) circumstance, condi- Iarly .) The OTshows forty references to the term,
· tion (onlyinProv25:II). including three more ofthe adverb 'apsi, the final
146c 1"1~11:)lt( 'apünii) despair (meaning vowel being understood by some as the yodh
uncertain.) Occurs only in Ps 88: 16. paragogic. Ugaritic texts contain the word in
'öpan. Wheel. (KJV,Asv, and RSVrender alike, connection with the end of a throne, that is, its
"wheel.") top.
The noun for wheel, in the dual number, is at- Isaiah's use of the word to express nonexis-
tested in Ugaritic. Ofthe thirty-five references to tence is indeed vivid. When he describes the
wheelin the OT,twenty-five are found in the book apocalyptic cataclysm of the last times which will
of Ezekiel. The most frequent use of the term is overtake the enemies of the Lord, he declares
in reference to the wheel of a chariot (Ex 14:25; that nobles and princes will not be there for the
Nah3:2; Ezk l:15ff.). The oldest wheels discov- roll call (34: 12). When extolling the transcendent
ered are clay models of chariot wheels and parts greatness of the Lord of earth, the same prophet
ofapotter's wheel (cf. Jer 18:3) from the fourth evaluates all the nations as nothing compared to
millenniume.c. Early wheels were made from Hirn (40: 17). In the most scathing denunciations
wooden planks joined together by pegs. Lighter of idolatry on record, Isaiah castigates the idols
wheels came into use around 1500 e.c., along of the pagan nations, especially of Babylon, as
with horses. This gave the Egyptians a decided being nothing. Their work is nothing, and their
militaryadvantage. The wheel was also used in images are nonentities (41: 12, 24, 29). Reviewing
connection with Solomon's temple. There the national history, he relates that Egypt took ad-
bronze stands had small chariot wheels with vantage of Israel when they came to sojoum
axles,hubs, rims, and spokes (I Kgs 7:33). These there. The Assyrians oppressed them for nothing,
wheelsformed the bases of the temple's lavers. that is, without sufficient cause (52:4).
Both Ezekiel (1, 10) and Daniel (7:9) had visions 'epes occurs as a particle ofnegation mostly in
of God's throne set on a platform with wheels. poetry. lt is then synonymous with the usual par-
The celebrated wheels within wheels of Ezk 1 ticle 'en. Such usage is found in Isaiah's pro-
had axles set at ninety degree angles somewhat nouncement ofwoe on the nation·s ungodly in his
likea gyroscope, so that the platform could go at song to the vineyard. They Iaunch an all-out drive
oncein any ofthe four directions, without a steer- for the acquisition of as much property as possi-
ing mechanism. The whole picture symbolized ble, so that there is no room left for others (5:8).
the omnipresence of the Lord, and the rapidity Arnos uses the word in a similar fashion in de-
with which he executes judgment in his rule of scribing the decimation that will attend Israel's
theearth. Wheels were employed with machinery captivity (6: 10).
for drawing water (cf. Eccl 12:6, Kt1lKa/). The Because Israel was despondent over their sub-
rollersof a threshing wagon or cart are mentioned jugation by the idolatrous Babylonians, and
in Prov 20:26 and Is 28:27. Later Hebrew com- might have been led to think that the gods of the
monly uses gal,:al as a synonym (q.v.) by me- heathen were mightier than the God of Israel,
tonymyfor a wagon (Ezk 23:24). Isaiah reminds them repeatedly there is no one in
C.L.F. the supernatural or natural realm who is His
equal (47:8, 10), a good rendering being, "I am,
147 C!:11$('äpes) fail, cease, come to an end. and there is no one eise beside me." Hear the
Derivatives beautiful refrain in Isa 45:5, 6, 18, 21.
'epes is also used as an adverb of limitation.
147a tc!;I~ ( 'epes) ceasing. Israelites were permitted to receive interest from
147b CP.H('öpes), dual C~Q'rtt ('opsa- foreigners. Nevertheless, they were not to take it
yim) the extremities, i.e. the soles from their brothers in the land, lest some fall into
of the feet or the ankles (Ezk 47:3). poverty (Deut 15:4).
The KJVtranslates variously "faileth," "fail, .. The plural denotes the extremities of the earth
"is at an end," "brought to nought"; ASVrenders in relation to the power of God against his foes
"faileth," "fail," and '"brought to nought;" RSV (Deut 33:17), or the worldwide extent of God's
prefers "is gone," "is no more," and "come to salvation (Isa 52: 10), or the outreach of Mes-
nought." The four oT references are Gen 47:15- siah's kingdom (Zech 9: 10). The ultimate bounds
16;Isa 16:4; 29:20. The root is common in the of the earth known to the ancient Hebrews were

65
148 e'\Clt4
('apap)

India and Ethiopia (Est 1:1). There is no evidence 151 'it!N( 'pr) II. Assumed root of the following.
that the Israelites, even when in apostasy, ever 151a .,~~ (' aper) covering, bandage. Oc-
worshiped the earth, as did the people of Ugarit curs only in I Kgs 20:38.
and Phoenicia. Earth was one of the brides of 151b ~i•,~tc ( 'appiryön) sedan, litter,
Baal and the source of the creation of heaven and palanquin. Occurs only m Song
earth. 3:9.
Bibliography: BDB. suh 1·oce. Gaster. T. H., 151c to•j~!:' ('eprayim) Ephraim.
"Earth," in Encyclopedia Judaica, 1972, pp.
338-40. Myth, Legend and creation in the Old 'eprayim. Ephraim. (KJV, ASV, and RSV are
Testament, Harper and Row, 1969, pp. 56, 98, similar, .. Ephraim. ") The name appears 139
103, 144, 188, 294. Gordon, C. H., Ugaritic times in the 01 with various connotations, as will
Textbook, 1965, no. 309 in Glossary. IDB, vol. II, be shown below. The name is said to mean ··dou-
pp. 2-3. KB, sub voce. ble fruit," evidently from the presence of the dual
C.L.F. ending. Ephraim was the younger of the two sons
of Joseph and Asenath, who were born to them in
tlQ~ ('epa'), M~~!:' ('ep'a). See nos. Egypt. With his brother Manasseh he was
i791a,b. adopted by Jacob, thus becoming the progenitor
of an lsraelite tribe. Jacob in blessing Ephrairn
148 tiPI;' ("äpap) surround, encompass. above Manasseh (Gen 48) was predicting the
coming prominence of the tribe that descended
149 *i'PI;' (' äpaq) hold, be strong. from him (Gen 41 :50ff.; 48:20ff.). In Jacob's final
blessing he included both grandchildren under
Derivative the name of Joseph (40:22f.). At the Exodus the
149a i''tll;' ('äpiq) channel (for water). men of war from Ephraim totaled 40,500, but
when they were mobilized a second time they
were down to 32,500 (Num 1:33; 26:37). On the
150 'it!N ( 'pr) I. Assumed root of the following.
march in the wilderness, Manasseh and Benjamin
150a t-,~~ ( 'eper) ashes. (KJV, ASV, and
joined Ephraim on the west of the tabemacle
· Rsv render alike ... ashes.")
(2: 18ff.). Hoshea the son of Nun was the Ephra-
The word is found twenty-one times in the 01. imite among the spies sent into Canaan (13:8).
lt has a wide variety of uses. lt is often employed When Moses blessed the tribes before his death,
parallel to the similar-sounding word 'äpär he pointed to the future ascendancy of this tribe
(dust). lt denotes that which is the result of burn- (Deut 33:17).
ing. lt is used figuratively for what is without Joshua, a member of this tribe, succeeded
value (lsa 44:20) or loathsome (Job 30: 19). lt sig- Moses as leader of the nation. Shechem and
nifies misery (Ps 102:9 [H 10]), shame (II Sam Shiloh, both in the territory allotted to the sons of
13:19), humility before God (Gen 18:27; Job Joseph, became the place of national assemblies
42:6), and repentance and contrition (Dan 9:3; Mt and the focus of the people's worship. The lead-
11:21). Ashes of a red heifer with so-called water ership of Samuel the prophet further underscored
of separation were used in the rite of purification the prominence of Ephraim. From the era of the
(Num 19:9-10, 17). Ashes of sacrifices were min- conquest of Palestine the tribe was quite jealous
gled with running water to cleanse from pollu- of its prestige (Jud 7:24; 8:1; 12:lff.). Their loy-
tion; they were also a sign of fasting (lsa 58 :5; Jon alty to and support of Saul as first king may be
3:6). Sackcloth and ashes were the usual indi- traced to the close ties between Joseph and Ben-
cations of repentance and humility, often coupled jamin. However, they never appear to have been
with fasting (Job 42:6; Est 4:1; I Macc 3:47). satisfied with the transfer of the royal prerogative
Ashes with dust were the customary signs of to Judah in the rule of David (II Sam 2:8f.).
mourning (lsa 61 :3). The mourner or penitent They saw in the revolt of Absalom an opportu-
threw the ashes toward heaven, so that they feil nity to weaken the influence of the tribe of Judah
back on himself, especially on his head, a custom (II Sarn 15:13). When Solomon's extravagance
attested among non-Hebrew also. In deep dis- and the ineptness of Rehoboam brought about
tress mourners sat on heaps of ashes (Job 2:8). general disaffection with the Davidic dynasty, the
Ashes on the head were also a token of humilia- Ephraimite Jeroboam took full advantage of the
tion and disgrace (II Sam 13:19). The king of Tyre situation. From the disruption of the Solomonic
(q.v.) mentioned in Ezk 28:18 was tobe reduced kingdom to the captivity of Samaria (722/21 a.c.),
to ashes by God's judgment. Ephraim held such undisputed leadership that
Bibliography: De Ward, Eileen F., "'Mourn- Ephraim and Israel were interchangeable as
ing Customs in 1, 2 Samuel," JJS 23: 1-27, 145--66. names of the northern kingdom.
Richardson, TWB, p. 70. The sons of Joseph had their allotment of terri-
C.L.F. tory in the central section of western Palestine,

66
 153 ,;tt ('ä~al)

and it appears that the territory of Ephraim and curse section. Israel as a nation will become a
Manasseh was held in common (Josh 16; 17:14). ·•sign" or "wonder," i.e. a spectacle or demon-
They did not expel the Canaanites from their stration of the rewards of disobedience. Psalm
cities, but subjugated them (Josh 16:10; 17:13). 71 :7; Isa 8: 18; 20:3; Ezk 12:6, 11; 24:24, 27; and
The area was quite productive, so the people en- Zech 3:8 use the word similarly. The psalmists or
joyed a prosperous life. U nfortunately, the mea- the prophets are themselves the object lesson.
sure of their material blessing was not paralleled Other miracles described by this ward are the
by spiritual strength, but rather decline and moral rending of the altar to authenticate the prediction
decay (Isa 28: 1, 4; Jer 31: 18; Hos 9: 13; 10:11). about Josiah's advent (I Kgs 13:3, 5), the recov-
As noted, the territory of Ephraim was the hill ery of Hezekiah from mortal illness (II Chr 32:24,
country of central Palestine. Around the central 31), and the restoration af Ezekiel's speech (Ezk
valley are ridges, valleys, and spurs. The area is 24:24, 27). Joel uses the word to describe celestial
one of the most fertile in all the land. Currently it and terrestial manifestations of God's power in
is planted with olive, carob, and pomegranate "the great and terrible day ofthe LoRo" (2:30 [H
trees, among others. Before the Conquest the re- 3 :3-4 ]). Peter paraphrases this verse in Acts 2: 19,
gion was wooded (Josh 17:18), and beasts ofprey using the Greek plural synonyms terata and
roamed there during the time of the monarchy semeia.
(II Kgs 2 :24). R.L.A.
The gate of Ephraim was a chief gate in the
wall of Jerusalem (Neh 8:16; 12:39). ',•tM ('äsi/), ',•;~ (' aHil). See no.
Bibliography: Aharoni, J ., The Land of the .153b,c..
Bible, Westminster, 1967, pp. 236-237. Ewing,
W., "Ephraim," in ISBE, II, 1952, p. 963. Roth,
153 ',;~ ('ä$al) lay aside, reserve, withdraw,
Cecil, "Ephraim," in Encyclopedia Judaica. VI,
withhold. Denominative verb.
pp. 806-9.
C.L.F. Parent Noun
153a t',J~ Ce$el) beside, by, near.
152 1'1!:lM
( 'pi). Assumed root of the following.
152a tr,~i~ (mopet) wonder, miracle, sign, Derivatives
portent. 153b ',•tM ( 'ä$il) side, corner, chief.
153c ',•;~ ( 'aHil) joining, joint.
This masculine noun is of no certain etymol-
ogy, No verb or other noun uses the same root •e~el. Beside, by, near. A preposition appear-
letters. However, the meaning of mopet is not ing fifty-nine times in the OT. There is no particu-
questioned. Often it is parallel to 'ot (q.v.), which larly outstanding or unique use of the ward. lt is
also means "sign," "symbol," "portent," used simply, as its meaning suggests, to indicate
"wonder," or "miracle" (Ex 7:3; Deut 4:34: proximity: of place (by Gibeah, Jud 19:14; by
6:22; 7:19; 13:lff.; 26:8; 28:46; 29:2; 34:11; Neh En-rogel, I Kgs 1:9; beside the plains of Moreh,
9:10; Ps 135:9; Isa 8:18: 20:3: Jer 32:20, et al.). Deut 11:30; by Bethlehem, Jer4 I: 17); of position
"Judgments" and "works" are parallel to mopet (beside the altar, Lev 1:16; the lion standing by
in I Chr 16:12 and Ps 105:5. The 1.xx renders the carcass, I Kgs 13:25; two lions standing be-
mopet as terata "prodigies," "marvels." side the arms of the throne, I Kgs 10:19; beside
The first occurrences of möpet in the OT are in his house, Neh 3:23); to some other person (lay
Ex 4:21; 7:3,9; 11:9-10. In these verses it refers my bones beside his bones, I Kgs 13:21; he came
to Moses' rod changing into a snake (7 :9), as weil near where I stood, Dan 8:17; I remained there
as to the ten major plagues on the Egyptians. with the kings of Persia, Dan IO:13; brought them
Most of the usages in the Deuteronomy passages to their brothers, II Chr 28:15; the queen was
refer both to the miraculous punishments and the sitting by him, Neh 2:6; beside Ezra, Neh 8:4).
wonderful provisions God made for bis people in Several times the preposition is used in a
the wildemess (e.g. water, manna, quails, and the metaphorical context, at least three times in
pillar of fire). In this connection also note Neh Prov. Proverbs 7:8 refers to the unsuspecting
9:10; I Chr 16:12; Ps 78:43; 105:5, 27; 135:9; Jer man who carelessly saunters through the street
32:20. 'near· the corner where dame folly Jives. As a
Deuteronomy 13:lff. and 28:46 are exceptions. matter of fact she lies in wait "at" every corner
In the former pericope mopet refers to a "por- (7:12). Wisdom, on the contrary, has been "by"
tent" or perhaps a prediction that a questionable God's side from the beginning (8:30).
prophet or dreamer gives. Depending on whether In the days of Samuel the Philistines captured
the 'ot (sign) or the mopet (wonder) comes to the ark from the Israelites and attempted to place
pass, the would-be prophet is authenticated or it in one of their temples "beside" Dagon (1 Sam
condemned. The Deut 28:46 passage is in the 5:2). The result was nothing short of disastrous.

67
154 iJtc (' ä~ar)

And so it always has been. God challenges any 156 ::,jl;t (ärab) to lie in wait, ambush.
false god I try to place beside him in my life.
Y.P.H. Derivatives
156a ::i-iH ('ereb) a lying in wait.
154 "lfl;t ('ä$ar) to store, lay up, used mini- 156b ::,~'·M ('öreb) ambuscade.
mally in the or, once in the Qal, Arnos 3:10 156c l"l:ll"IH ('orba) artlfice.
(although KB 3 , p. 80 adds II Kgs 20: 17/lsa 156d t:i~:i~( 'arüba) window, sluice.
39:6); once in the Niphal (Isa 23:18); once 156e ::i:i~r; (ma'aräb) ambush.
in the Hiphil (Neh 13:13). The verb is used forty times in the or, most
Derivative frequently in Jud (fourteen. times) and Joshua
(seven times). In the majority of these twenty-
154a t-i;iH (' ii.)'är) treasure, treasury, one instances, ambush as a method of warfare is
storehouse. described.
(Eighty times in the OT according to KB 3 p. 23), As Yadin has pointed out, there were five ways
most often in I Chr (thirteen times) and II Chr to conquer a fortified city: (1) penetration by
(eight times). lt is unnecessary to accept the fre- force from above the fortifications; (2) penetra-
quent emendation (as in RSV and JB) in Zech 11:13 tion through the barriers; (3) penetration under
of "cast it into the treasury ('o.)'ar)" for "cast it the barriers (tunneling); (4) siege; (5) penetration
to the potter (yii.)'er)" in the celebrated passage by ruse.
about thirty pieces of silver (see Torrey in bib- There are at least two illustrations of this last
liography). method in the or, both using the verb 'ärab. One
There are at least nine words in biblical He- is the capture of Ai (Josh 8), the other is the holy
brew for "treasure" of which this is one. lt is war conducted against the Benjamites by their
used in either a literal sense, referring to the trea- fellow lsraelites for the shameful act of the
sure in the king's house or in the temple or one's former in condoning the actions of one of their
individual acquisitions, and secondly in a cosmic own who had violated the Levite's daughter (Jud
sense, the source ofGod's possessions and bless- 20). In both instances the strategy is the same: (1)
ing. Specifically there are ten references to the positioning of an ambush behind the city; (2)
"treasures/treasury of the king's house" (e.g. I the deceptive flight by the assault force to draw
Kgs 14:26) and nine references to "treasures/ the defenders out of the city and after them in
treasury of the temple of the Lord" (e.g. I Kgs pursuit; (3) the storming of the city by the ambush
7:51). party; (4) the "fleeing" assault force turns now to
Many of these references are in a military con- counterattack.
text. A defeated nation was obliged to give up her Frequently the enemies of the pious are de•
treasures to the victor. Both Asa (l Kgs 15:18) scribed as those who "lurk," lie in wait for the
and Joash (II Kgs 12:19) gave to the Arameans unsuspecting: Ps 10:9; 59:3 [H 4]; Lam 4:19; Ezr
Benhadad and Hazael treasures from both the 8:31. Even God is viewed as a "lurking" bear
temple and the royal treasury. Nebuchadnezzar who has turned against his people (Lam 3:10).
helped himself to both (II Kgs 24: 13), as did the The verb may describe the actions of criminals
Egyptian Pharaoh, Shishak, much earlier (l Kgs before they strike: 1 Sam 22:8,13; Mic 7:2; Prov
14:26). 1:11,18; 7:12; 12:6; 23:28. Against such there
At the individual level, treasure is tobe happily must be constant vigilance.
accepted and used, not abused (Prov 8:21) but if 'äriibä. Window, chimney, jloodgate. Twice
it becomes an end in itself the consequences are the word is used to describe one of the two
dire (Prov 10:2; 15:16;21:6, 20). sources of the waters in the deluge (Gen 7:11;
There are several references to divine store- 8:2). In addition to rain from above there was also
houses, e.g. Ps 33:7; 135:7; Job 38:22. God's an auxiliary source, "the fountains of the great
treasure house is in the heavens (Deut 28: 12). In deeps," i.e. subterranean water. The phrase
Jer 50:25 reference is made to God's "armory." "windows of heaven," in the deluge context, is
Bibliography: Torrey, C. C., "The Foundry in some of the more recent Bible translations
at Jerusalem," JBL 55: 247--oO. Wolf, C. U., rendered "sluices," (N1v"floodgates"). There is
"Treasure, Treasurer, Treasury," in IDB, IV, no reason not to believe that the writer in Gen
pp. 693-94. when using the phrase "window ofheavens" was
Y.P.H. weil aware of his own figurative language to de-
scribe the torrential downpour.
155 i:,i:c ('aqqo) wildgoat. Occurs only in If God channels the waters of judgment and
Deut 14:5, in !ist of clean animals. cleansing through these windows, he also sends
his blessing through these same windows (Mal
',!'.t"I~ ('ari'e/). See no. 159a. 3:10). Similarly compare II Kgs 7:2, 19 where

68
 158 ri,-,('ara)

Elisha has made predictions of an incredible re- clothing is worn by the high priest and prince (1
duction in the price offood, much to the disbelief Macc 10:20, 62, 64; 11:58; 14:43; 2 Macc 4:38).
ofthe king's squire. Thus, such apertures are the The NT associates purple with imperial and pagan
means of God's cleansing or his blessing. Rome, dressed as she was in this particular cloth-
Two unique uses of ·arüba are (1) window, in ing (Rev 17:4; 18:16). In a fiendish attempt to
the sense of a "chimney" through which smoke make Jesus look as ludicrous as possible, bis ac-
passes (Hos 3:13), and (2) the small opening in a cusers dressed him in purple at his trial (Mk
pigeon )oft (Isa 60:8). 15:17; Jn 19:2, 5). Jesus apparently dressed like
The reference to "those who look out of win- everybody eise and was indistinguishable at this
dows are darkened" (Eccl 12:3) is probably not a point-so much so that his accusers bad to hire
poetical reference to the eyes which become dim Judas to point him out-no purple and no halo.
with old age, but to some funereal practice (Da- In the OT, it should be observed that purple is
hood), or some disaster of unidentifiable nature fairly weil reserved for liturgical settings. The
(Sawyer). curtains in the temple were purple (Ex 26: 1), as
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Canaanite- was the veil (Ex 26:31) and the ephod, a kind of a
Phoenician Influences on Qoheleth," Bib 33: breastplate, of the high priest (Ex 28:6).
213-15.Gaster, T., "Cosmogony," in IDB, I, pp. Such purple was obtained from mollusks along
702-9. __ "Old Testament Notes," VT 4: 79. the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The
Sawyer, J .F.A., "The Ruined House in pigment was secreted by a gland in the lining of
Ecclesiastes 12: A Reconstruction of the Original the stomach. The very name "Canaan·· means
Parable," JBL 94 519-31. Harris, R. L., ""The "the land ofpurple" and the name "Phoenicia"
Bible and Cosmology," JETS 5:15. Yadin, Y., is to be related to the Greek word phoinos "red-
The Arts of Warfare in Biblical Lands, purple." lt is in this kind of dye-work that Lydia,
McGraw-Hill, 1%3, vol. I, pp. 16, 100, 110-11; the first European convert to Christ, was em-
vol. II, pp. 262--03. ployed, ··a seller of purple" (Acts 16:14). Prepa-
V.P.H. ration of the royal purple of classical times is de-
tailed in ""The Magie Lure of Sea Shells," by P.
157 Jjtc ('arag) weave. A. Zahl and V. R. Boswell (National Geo-
graphie, 135: 401).
Derivatives The root argmn appears in Ugaritic definitely
('ereg) loom. Only with the meaning ·•gift to an exalted personage"
157a JiM lil Jud
but whether it may also mean "purple" is open to
fo:14; Job 7:6.
question (Rabin).
157b n~n~ (' argiimiin) purple.
Bibliography: Jensen, L. B., "Royal Purple
'argimän. Purple, including most likely all of Tyre," JNES 22: 104-118. Landsberger, B.,
shades ofthis color from deep red-black to violet. "Ueber Farben Im Sumerisch-Akkadischen,"
lt is common in the English language to associate JCS 21: 158--02.Rabin, Chaim, "Hittite Words in
colors with moods or feelings. Thus traditionally Hebrew," Orientalia 32: 116-18.
purple is associated with anger, red with shame, V.P.H.
yellowwith cowardice, green with nausea, and so
forth. The OT comes closest to this when it fre-
quently expresses God's anger as "his nose
158 M,tc('ara) I, pluck, gather.
turned red.·· Purple, however, is never used in Derivatives
this way.
158a t•i~ (arf), M~;~ ('aryeh) lion.
As is weil known, purple has been symbolically
the dress of gods, royalty, and sometimes nobil- 158b M~;t_t ('ürya) manger, crib.
ity. Classical sources certainly bear this out 'Ari, 'aryeh. Lion. These are two of the seven
(Homer, Iliad 4, 141-145, and Suetonius, Life of words which are translated ··Jion" in the OT.
the Twelve Caesars 6. 32 for the opinion of the There is no demonstrable difference between the
infamous Nero on the subject). The same is said two. Thus I Kgs 10:19 refers to the decorative
of the kings of Midian in the days of Gideon (Jud lions ('ariiyot) by the arms of Solomon's throne.
8:26). Mordecai was similarly decorated by the For the twelve lions referred to in the following
Persian Ahasuerus (Est 8: 15). Anyone who is ca- verse (10:20) 'aryeh is used.
pable of informing the distraught Belshazzar on God is likened to a lion (lsa 38: 13) who has
the significance of the "writing fingers" is prom- broken the bones of Hezekiah, and similarly in
ised, among other things, that he will be dressed the anonymous Lamentations (Lam 3: 10). The
in purple (Dan 5 :7, 16, 29). In the KJV the word is "lion," however, can become the lion chaser
translated ··scarlet." lt is the Aramaic word against those who stalk Israel as a lion (Jer 49: 19;
'arg'wiin, some shade of red-purple. In the 50:44). This is a natural figure of speech to desig-
Apocryphal books it is recorded that purple nate Israel's enemies, a picture ofpride, strength,

69
159 M"'IH('rh)

and rapacity: Jer 4:7; 5:6 (Nebuchadnezzar?); Syntax," Or35: 90. Lipinski, E., "Etymological
Joel 1:6; Nah 2: 11-13 [H 12-14 ]. But again, God and Exegetical Notes on the Mefa 0 ," Or 40:
can send lions against the lions: II Kgs 17:25-26. 332-34.
In the psalms of lament the writer's enemies are On Arie!: Albright, W. F., "The Babylonian
frequently described as Iions: 7:2 [H 3]; 10:9; Temple Tower and the Altar of Burnt Offering,' ·
17:12; 22:13, 21 [H 14, 22]. JBL39: 137-42. May, H. G., "Ephod and Arie!,"
In the NT Satan is described as a "roaring lion" AJSL 56: 44-69. Feigin, S., "The Meaning of
(I Pet 5:8), but even there he is outdone by the Arie!," JBL 39: 131-37. May, H. G., "Ephods"
"lion out of the tribe of Judah" (Rev 5:5). The and "Arie!," AJSL56: 44-69.
thrust here is not ferociousness, but regality. V.P.H.
Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 374-87. THAT, I,
pp. 225-28. Glück, J. J., " ·• ri and lavi (/abi'): an
Etymological Study," ZA W 81 :232-35. Porter, J.
,;.,.,('ilron).
('iiruz).
T~'1l;C See no. 160e.
See no. 166a.
R., "Samson's Riddle: Judges XIV 14, 18," JTS 160 T'1M ('rz). Assumed root of the following.
13: 106-109. Ullendorff, E., "Contribution of 160a ti'.')!-1( 'erez) cedar.
South Semitics to Hebrew," VT 6: 192-93. 160b MTiM ( 'arzii) cedar pa.nels (Zeph
V.P.H. ':z:14 only).
160c n,~ ('iiruz) frrm, strong (Ezk 27:24
159 M'1M ('rh) II, Assumed root of the following. only).
159a '?M•'1M ( 'ilri' e/) Ariel; ',•M'1M
· ('·il-~i'el) heanh. ·· · ·, 'erez. Cedar. A tree of the pine family, one
which grows best in a high and dry region. The
These two words can be considered together. Talmud (Rosh Hashana 23a), says that the in-
The latter one is used in Ezk 43: 15-16. lt is a habitants of Palestine called ten different trees
cultic object, an altar hearth that is superimpo~ed cedar. lt is, however, the cedrus libani, the cedar
on the base of the altar, having homs at its four of Lebanon, that is most widely referred to when
comers. lt may also be the top two sections of a the word 'erez is used in the Bible.
three tiered altar. Comparison has been made Not only the lsraelites saw fit to make use of
with this word in Ezekiel and the expression in this timber. As far back as the reign of Ur-
the Mesqa lnscription, 'r'/ dwdh, which Mesha, nammu-late 2000s e.c.-ancient kings from
the king of Moab, claimed to drag before his na- Mesopotamia came here to arrange for the export
tional god Chemosh. Was it an altar he dragged, of the cedar of Lebanon to their home. Lebanon
or is 'r'I a personal name, "my light is-God," or is called, in a text of Naram-sin, "the cedar
what? lt is difficult tobe sure. Cf. II Sam 23:20 mountain'' (ANET, p. 268). In Egyptian litera-
and I Chr 11:22. ture, Wenamon, an official of the Temple at
In both of these verses in Ezekiel there is both Amon at Karnak, is sent to Byblos to procure
a Kethib ("written") tradition and a Qere ("spo- Lebanon's cedars for a ceremonial barge of the
ken") tradition. The Kethib is 'ilriel and the god Amon-Re. This takes place in the late King-
Qere is 'ilrf' el. dom Period, at the close of the twentieth dynasty.
The word "Arie!" occurs in a prophetic oracle In Canaanite poetry of the second millennium
in Isa 29:1,2,7. lt is a name given to Jerusalem. e.c. when a palace of Baal was tobe built, work-
God will bring disaster upon Ariel (Jerusalem) ers went "to Lebanon and its timbers, to Shirion
and make her like an Ariel. and its choicest cedars," (1/bnn wc ~h /sryn ml:,md
There are at least three possible etymologies arzh) UT 16: Text 51:VI: 20-21.
for Ariel as used in Isa. One is to connect it with The average height of such cedars is about
the Hebrew words 'ilri and ·et, "the-lion-of- eighty-five feet, though some have measured
God." The second is to connect it with a verb, over one hundred feet. In trunk circumference
not used in Hebrew, 'iirii "to bum" with a "l" the cedar may reach forty feet. Not infrequently
afformative. The third is to relate it to the Akka- the tree's horizontal spread ofbranches equals its
dian word arallu, the name for both the nether- height. lt is also common for this tree to spread
world and the world mountain. Although the its roots among the rocks and thus secure a
etymology in Isaiah's oracle is unclear, the mean- stronghold.
ing is clear. Israel shall become, under the judg- The Lebanon cedar in the Bible is used primar-
ment ofGod, an Ariel, an altar hearth, that is, the ily in building. A particular oil in the cedar pre-
scene of a holocaust. lt will not be an animal that vents destruction by dry-rot and insects. Such
is bumed, but Israel herself will be the victim. cedar was used on the inside of the temple (I Kgs
But, God's intervention will prevent total annihi- 6:15, 18); the outside too (I Kgs 7:12); the altar of
Jation (29:7). incense (1 Kgs 6:20). Similar wood was used in
Bibliography: On the phrase 'r'/ dwdh in the the second temple (Ezr 3:7; Song 1:17(?)). In
Mesha Inscription: Andersen, F. 1., "Moabite addition to buildings cedar was used in the mak-

70
 162 '!'l':,1$
('arak)

ing of ship rnasts (Ezk 27:5) and in religious rites 8 :20). Conversely, one is to spurn the path of evil
(Lev: 14:4, 49, 51-52; Nurn 19:6). (Ps 119:101) for it is a false path (Ps 119:104, 128).
lt is only natural that this lofty, firmly-rooted To follow the path of truth and life is to follow
tree should be used as a rnetaphor to describe a God's own path (Ps 25:4, 10; 44:18 [H 19};
person's or nation's rnoral character. lt can be 119:115, where the word is a synonym forGod's
used both positively and negatively. Balaarn de- Torah; lsa 2:3 ).
scribes Israel as a "cedar beside the waters" The way which one chooses deterrnines one's
(Num 24:6). She is both secure and prosperous. destiny. There is such a thing as the "road" ofno
The opposite effect is achiev.ed through the return (Job 16:22). Bildad speaks of the "fate/
metaphor of Jer 22:23. Jehoiachin assurned his path" of all that forget God (Job 8: 13). Interest-
"nest arnong the cedars" rnade hirn inviolate and ingly, the 1.xxtranslates 'örah here as ta eschata
immuneto judgrnent. Israel, by God 's grace, has "the end ... Proverbs 1:19 indicates, "Such is the
proliferated, as extensively as the branches of a 'way/end' for those who are after dishonest
cedar (Ps 80: 10 [H 11]). Other strong "cedars," gain," that consequences of evil behavior are in-
however, have tlourished by violence, not by trinsic to that action and are not superimposed as
God's good grace (lsa 2: 13; Ezk 31 :3; Zech a penalty. Thus the Bible can say that the way
11:1-2). Such cedars, strong as they rnay be, (derek) of the transgressor is hard.
must be broken by God' s power (Jer 22 :7; Ps When Jesus contrasts the two ways, the two
29:5). doors and the two destinations in the Sermon on
Bibliography: Haupt, Paul, "Heb. arz, the Mount (Mt 7: 13-14), he is basically repeating
Cedar, Ass. irefo, Balsarnic Juice," JAOS 45: the concept of 'örah and derek, as taught in He-
322-23. Shewell-Cooper, J. E., "Cedar," in brew wisdorn literature. Our Lord's reference to
ZPEB. hirnself as "the way, the truth, the life" rneans
V.P.H. that Jesus is the way to the truth about life. He is
not the answer. That would be an o.versirnplifica-
161 M'jl$ (' ärah) to wander, joumey, keep com- tion. He is the way that leads to the answer. Only
pany with. after one steps out on the way does he discover
that Jesus is the truth about life. Wisdom litera-
Derivatives ture too challenges us to step out on the right
161a tmM ('orah) way, path. way, the way of Iife, the way that leads to life.
161b l'!M"\M ('örüha) meal, allowance (of V.P.H.
•fo-~d).
161c l'!l:,';lM ( ·örha l caravan. '".1!'.I(' äri), n•,~ (' aryeh). See no. 158a,b.
The verb is used five tirnes in the OT. Job is 'l'.';".1~( ·arf' el). See no. 159a.
accused of ··keeping cornpany" with the workers n:':l!.'I('üryii). See no. 158b.
ofiniquity (34:8). Norrnally it rneans "traveller,"
one who is on the rnove (Jud 19:17; II Sam 12:4; 162 '!!jtc (' ärak) tobe long.
Jer 14:8, where it is applied to God; Jer 9:2 [H 1]).
Derivatives
'ör~. Way, path. Although the word appears
162a ti, M (' örek) length.
fifty-eighttirnes in the oT, forty-five of thern are
limitedto three books: Prov, nineteen times; Ps, 162b ti~tc (' ärek) long.
fifteentimes; Job, eleven times. Most often ·orah 162c ti",1;t ('arök) long.
is used in a figurative way, describing the way to 162d n;~,~ ('arüka) healing.
life or to death. lt often is parallel with the word The verb is used only three times in the Qal
derek, rneaning "way, lifestyle." "Teach me stern: Gen 26:8; Ezk 12:22; 31:5. The remaining
your way (derek), 0 Lord, and lead rne in a plain thirty-one occurrences are in the Hiphil stem,
(?) path ('örah)," (Ps 27:11). "Do not enter the with the meaning "rnake long, prolong." As we
path ('orah) of the wicked, nor go in the way will see, the verb is found most frequently in
(derek) of evil men" (Prov 4:14; cf. Ps 139:3; Deut, eleven tirnes, rnostly in the formula, "That
Prov 2:8; 12:28; Job 6: 18; Isa 30: 11). (it rnay be weil with you and that) you may 'pro-
The contrast is between the way of sin/death long' your days in the land."
and the way of obedience/life. These exhaust the lt cannot be denied that God intended for his
options available to man. Man makes his own creatures, arnong other blessings, the blessing of
choice but he cannot choose his own conse- long life. Prernature deaths in the Bible are the
quences. The path of life (Ps 16:II; Prov 2: 19; exception. 'ärak is used first in this context of
5:6; 10:17; 15:24) corresponds with the path of long life in the fifth cornmandment, "Honor your
integrity(Ps 27: 11), the path of uprightness (Prov father and rnother (caring for the elderly?) so that
2:13), the path of justice (Prov 2:8; 17:23; lsa you rnay have a long life in the land the LORD
26:8; 40:14). the path of righteousness (Prov your God has given you" (Ex 20:12).

71
163 c,~ ('tm1m)

lt is in Deut that one finds the heaviest prolif- ca! associations and did not merely mean to be
eration of the phrase, "That you may prolong longsuffering and to be angry. When he is com-
your days/your days may be prolonged" (Deut passionate his nose becomes long, so long in fact
4:26,40;5:33 [H30];6:2; 11:9; 17:20;22:7;25:15; that it would take forever to burn completely.
30: 18; 32:47). In every instance the promise is
'ärök. Long, protracted. Is used only three
prefixed by a moral contingency. lt is only as
times. "There was a "long' war between the
Israel keeps God's laws and commandments
house of Saul and of David" (II Sam 3:1; com-
(Deut 4:40) that she is guaranteed security in her
pare Jer 29:28; Job 11:9).
land.
V.P.H.
To be sure, longevity itself is not sacred. The
antediluvians (Gen 5) were bad enough in the first
163 Cl?~ (aram) Aram, Syria.. The latter trans-
century of their Jives, worse in the second and
lation is found in most English versions,
third century of their lives, but by the eighth aild
the KJV for example.
ninth centuries they were so hopelessly incorri-
gible that God had to cleanse the earth. Long The origins of the people called Arameans is
years did not produce repentance but hardness of clouded in mystery, but the prevailing view is
heart. that they were a group of western Semitic,
The obituaries of the patriarchs reveal the Aramaic speaking tribes who infiltrated the
same. At the end of Abraham's life (175 years) it Fertile Crescent as early as the third quarter of
is recorded that "he died at a ripe old age, an old the second millennium a.c. Their original home
man who had lived his full span of years" (Gen was probably the Syro-Arabian desert.
25:7-8). Virtually the same is said of Isaac (180 lt is not until much later, however, the last half
years old, Gen 35:28-29). But, by contrast, Jacob of the tenth century a.c. to be specific, that the
says that his own life (130 years) consisted of Arameans reached the climax of their political
only a few years and unhappy ones at that (Gen domination in Upper (northwest) Mesopotamia.
47:8-9). This may be the Bible's way of saying The climax of Aramean power in Syria comes in
that life's donation is more important than life's the ninth century a.c., and parallels and interre-
duration, not how long one lives, but how weil lates with early developments in the divided
one lives. monarchy.
Biblically and geographically, Aram is as-
'örek. Length. Frequently as a measurement
sociated with Upper Mesopotamia in the Patri-
of some edifice such as the ark (Gen 6:15), the
archal period. Abraham is the brother of Nahor
tabernacle or some part of the same, or a city. In
the grandfather of Aram (Gen 22:20-21 ). Both
the latter case one recalls Zechariah's vision of
Isaac (Gen 25:20) and Jacob (Gen 28:5) marry
the man going forth to measure the "length" and
Aramean wives. Jacob himself is described as a
breadth of Jerusalem about tobe rebuilt (Zech 2 :2
"wandering Aramean" (Deut 26:5). Finally we
[H 6]). An angel calls the man back, for God is
may note the extraordinary reference in Arnos
going to make Jerusalem )arger than the human
9:7. Here it is related that God not only brought
blueprint calls for. lt will be a city without walls.
the Israelites from Egypt (south), but also the
The noun also is used often with the word
Philistines from Caphtor (the west) and the Ara-
"day(s)" to express a protracted period of time:
means from Kir (northeast, Elam?). Once again
Ps 21:4 [H 5]; 91:16; Prov 3:2, 16; Deut 30:20.
one finds the scriptural affirmation that it is God
"Length of days" might in some contexts signify
who controls the movements and destinies of all
the everlasting afterlife, according to Dahood (Ps
nations.
23:6; 91:16; lsa 53:10, yä'arik).
After the three generations of these patriarchs
'ärek. Long. Appears only in the construct no further references in the Bible are to be found
form 'erek, never in the absolute. lt is used fif- until the time of Saul, a gap of five hundred years
teen times. lt is used ten times in connection with at the bare minimum. The lsraelites first come
God, four times in connection with man (Prov into hostile contact with the Arameans towards
14:29; 15:18; 16:32; Eccl 7:8), once in connection the end of the eleventh century a.c. in the reign of
with the wingspread of a bird (Ezk 17:3). Saul (l Sam 14:47, king(s) of Zobah), the action
Applied to either God or man it is used most having shifted now to Syria (Damascus). This
frequently in construct to the word ·appayim, skirmish was to be an ominous harbinger of
and is translated "longsuffering, slow to anger/ things to come between these two peoples. Al-
wrath." Literally, when the Bible says God is though David was successful in subjugating the
"longsuffering" (Ex 34:6; Num 14:18; Ps 86:15, Arameans (II Sam 8:3; 10:6-19) they regained
etc.) it reads "God is long of nose." When he is their autonomy a generation later under Rezon
angry, his nose becomes red and bums. lt may be during Solomon' s period of decline (l Kgs
questioned whether in the living language the 11:23-25). Again, God had raised Rezon as a "sa-
idioms had not already dropped their etymologi- tan" (adversary) against Solomon (l Kgs 11:23).

72
 166 ,-1K ('rn)

Asa, the third king of Judah, was the first to vine judgment. lt may be the Aramean Ben-
seek the support of these Arameans against Hadad (Arnos 1:3); the Philistine city of Gaza
Baasha king of Israel (1 Kgs 15:16-22). Appar- (Arnos 1:7); the Phoenician city of Tyre (1: 10); of
ently the anomaly of the situation never dawned Edom (Arnos 1:12); of Ammon (1:14). One can-
on Asa: squabbling believers appealing to unbe- not miss the holy war imagery in such passages.
lievers as a supportive force. Such policies of Because of its arrogance, the nation is deprived
foreignalliance were to perturb the prophets to of one or some of its most imposing edifices.
no small degree. This is not, however, something from which
Perennial strife between the Arameans and the God guarantees immunity to his own. The
northern lsraelites really begins during the reign citadels of Jerusalem too will be burned (Arnos
of Ahab (874~53, I Kgs 20, 22). In the latter case 2:5; cf. Hos 8:14). lsrael's will suffer the same
Ahab is goaded into action by four hundred fate (Arnos 3: 11). God even hates her citadels
clergy of Baal. In opposition to these religious (Arnos 6:8) for they are filled with violence and
hirelings, a "four-hundred and first" prophet, extortion (Arnos 3:10; cf. Lam 2:5, 7; Jer 17:27).
Micaiah, urged non-involvement, but was ig- Divine judgment does not spare the house of
nored by Ahab. Such irruptions between these God; in fact, it begins there.
contiguous peoples, halted only by a common Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., "The Etymol-
threat to both from the Assyrians, were to last for ogy of 'Armon'," JQR 14: 329.
over a hundred years, down to the time of V.P.H.
Jeroboam II (783-743 e.c., II Kgs 14:25, 28).
lt is no coincidence that the literary prophets
emergeprecisely on the heels of this century-old
165 ,.,M('rn) I. Assumed root of the following.
165a i:-,·M ('ören) jir or cedar. Occurs
war, a war that produced in Israel at least a soci- · only in Isa 44:14.
ety deeply divided between the impoverished
massesand the wealthy few. lt is to this cleavage,
with all the accompanying social corruption, that 166 l'1M (' rn) II. Assumed root of the following.
166a tiiitc ('aron) ark, ehest, cofjin (Asv
the early prophets addressed themselves. The
war and its aftermath had created more problems and RSV similar).
than it had solved. The LXX renders kibötos, Vulgate arca. A
Bibliography: DuPont-Sommer, A., "Sur !es masculine noun which occurs 193 times, it is as-
Debuts de l'Histoire Arameenne," Supp VT 1: sumed to derive from the root 'rn.
40-49.Gibson, J. C. L., "Light from Marion the The noun designates a box used for several
Patriarchs," JSS 7: 44-62. __ , "Observa- purposes. The remains of Joseph were placed in a
tions on Some Important Ethnic Terms in the coffin in Egypt for eventual burial in Palestine
Pentateuch," JNES 20: 217-38. Kitchen, K. A., (Gen 50:26). Sums of money for the repair of the
in NBD, pp. 55-59. Malamat, A., in Peop/es of temple were collected in a ehest (II Kgs 12:10-11;
Old Testament Times, ed K. A. Kitchen Oxford, II Chr 24:8, 10-11).
Clarendon, 1973, pp. 134-55. Mazar, Benjamin, ·ärbn is most frequently used for the ark of the
"The Aramean Empire and its Relations with Is- covenant. Noah's boat, called an "ark" in the
rael," BA 25: 98-120. Tadmor, H., "The South- English Bible, is in Hebrew {ebä, not 'arbn. As
em Border of Aram," Israel Exploration Journal described in Ex, Bezaleel made the ark of acacia
12: 114-22. Unger, M. F., Israel and the Ara- wood. There were gold rings on the corners
means of Damascus, James Clark, 1957. through which staves were placed for carrying it
V.P.H. (Ex 25:10-21; 37:1-9). In size the ark was 2½ by
1½ by 1½ cubits, and was overlaid inside and out
164 ciM ('rm). Assumed root of the following. with gold (Ex 25: 11). lt was surmounted by the
mercy seat (kappöret) and cherubim with out-
164a "hi~;~ ('armbn) cittulel, palace.
stretched wings. The ark contained the tables of
This noun is always translated as "palace" in stone with the law (Deut 10:1-5; Ex 40:20), a pot
KJV except Prov 18:19 where the translation is of manna, and Aaron's rod which budded (Heb
"castle." lt describes a fortified dwelling, usually 9:4). The Damascus Document, fragments of
a part of the royal complex. Speiser has con- which were found at Qumran, has the peculiar
nected Hebrew 'armbn with the Assyrian root tradition that a copy of the Law was in the ark
ramuwhich means principally · 'to found a dwell- and it was sealed, which explains why David had
ing, to dwell." not read it! (C.D.C. 5,3). The ark was sei in the
Of the thirty-two uses of 'armbn, twenty-two most holy place in the tabernacle.
ofthem are in the prophetic books, and eleven of In the wildemess the ark was carried by the
these are found in Arnos ( 1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14, etc.). Levites (Deut 10:8) before the line of march. A
In each the essence is that God will burn up "the liturgical formula was recited when it was trans-
palaces" of a certain individual or nation in di- ported (Num 10:35-36). The ark was prominent

73
167 Tjtc ('ere$)
at the crossing of the Jordan (Josh 3-4) and in the Shemesh (1 Sam 6) and Peres Uzza (II Sam o; I
capture of Jericho (Josh 6-7). lt was at Gilgal Chron 13)," VT 1: 275-86. Woudstra, Marten H.,
(Josh 7:6), Shechem (Josh 8:33), Bethel (Jud The Ark of the Covenant from Conquest to
20:27-28), and later Shiloh (I Sam 3 :3). lt was Kingship, Presbyterian and Reforrned, 1965.
carried into battle against the Philistines at TDOT, I, pp. 363-73.
Aphek. They captured it (1 Sam 4 :3-11) but it J.P.L.
caused plagues in the Philistine cities (1 Sam
6:3-4). lt was returned to Israel and for twenty ri;n~ ('arnebet). See no. 123a.
years remained in the house of Abinadab at
Kiriath-jearim. Finally David brought it up to
167 r'.'l!'.t ('ere,r) earth, land, city (•state), (under)
Jerusalem (1 Sam 7:1-2; II Sam 6:lff.; Ps 132:1- . world.
8). Helping move the ark, Uzzah feil dead for
touching it (II Sam 6:6-11 ). After that incident, it According to KB 3 (p. 87), this word appears
remained three months at the house of Obed approximately 2400 times in the oT. More specifi-
edom. Later it was carried on a military expedi- cally, THAT I, p. 229, remarks that 'ere$ is the
tion against the Ammonites (on one interpreta- fourth most frequently used noun in the oT, ap-
tion of II Sam 11:11), but it remained in pearing 2504 times in the Hebrew sections and 22
Jerusalem at Absalom's revolt (H Sam 15:24f.). times in the Aramaic sections.
Solomon placed it in the holy of hohes of the The first two meanings Iisted above are far and
temple (1 Kgs 8). The ultimate fate of the ark is a away the most crucial. Thal is, ·ere$ designates
mystery. Jeremiah 3:16-17 may imply its exis- either (a) "the earth" in a cosmological sense, or
tence as late as the time of Nebuchadnezzar. lt (b) · 'the land" in the sense of a specific territorial
was the subject of later Jewish legend (II Macc designation, primarily the land of Israel.
2:4f.; T. Sota 13: 1; The Lives of the Prophers, In the former meaning, we are informed first
ed. Torrey, I, p. 36). There was no ark in either (Gen 1:9-13) that God created the earth on the
Zerubbabel's or Herod's temple (cf. Josephus, third day. All is done here by the divine fiat. The
Wars 5.5.5). earth is not the product of a primordial sub-
Often designated "the ark" (hä-'iiron), it is stance, as is the case in the Babylonian Enuma
also "the ark of the Lord" (Josh 4: 11, etc.) and Elish where the earth is formed from part of the
"the ark of God" (1 Sam 3:3, etc.). lt is called cadaver of the fallen and slain deity Tiamat. lt is a
"the ark of the God oflsrael" by the Philistines (1 sphere that is totally under the control of divine
Sam 5:2-11, etc.). The ark is most often "the ark sovereignty. The earth is the Lord's (Ps 24: 1). He
of the ·covenant" ('aron habb''rit, Num 10:33, is its King (Ps 47:2, [H 3 J), and its Lord (Ps 97:5).
etc.; 184 times), "the ark of the testimony" As such the world is good, and is not to be writ-
('aron hii-'edüt, Ex 25:22, etc.; 13 times); "the ten off as intrinsically evil, the work of a de-
ark of thy might' · (Ps 132:8), and once "the holy miurge. Absolutely no tinge of an "escapist men-
ark" ('arön haqqödesh; II Chr 35:3). tality" is to be found in the oT. The reader of
The Wellhausen school assigns the description Scripture cannot but notice how relatively silent
ofthe ark to P and consequently considers it tobe the 0T is about the next life or another world. By
late. The effort to make the ark the empty throne contrast this is a dominating motif in other an-
ofGod is not based on concrete biblical evidence. cient near eastern literature. Can this be one of
First a container for the tables of stone, the ark the Bible's ways of accentuating the goodness of
was the visible sign of the presence of God at the the earth. the here and now?
sanctuary. But it was also an object carried into Because the earth is the Lord"s, it is answer-
battle (Josh 6: 11). As a powerful symbol of God's able to him. As sin escalated. God determined to
presence it had tobe treated with proper respect. destroy the earth (Gen 9: 11). But ultimately our
Calamity came to the Philistines, the men of righteous God is not happy with mere judgment,
Bethshemesh, and Uzzah for failure to show it for this simply destroys the wicked. lt uncreates.
proper reverence. The ultimate expression of righteousness is
Bibliography: Al, pp. 297ff. Davies, G. Hen- neither dis-creativity nor turning the clock back.
ton, "The Ark of the Covenant," in IDB, I, pp. lt is redemptive righteousness that is ultimate
222-26. Gutmann, J ., "The History of the Ark,'' righteousness. This is why we have the rainbow
ZAW 83: 22-30. Haran, M., "The Ark and the covenant. God's intention is to establish a new
Cherubim: Their Significance in Biblical Ritual," heaven and a new earth (Isa 65:17; 66:22; Rev
Israel Exploration Journal 9: 30-38, 89-94. 21: 1).
---, "The Disappearance of the Ark," Israel The second major use of 'ere~· is to designate a
Exploration Journal 13:46-58. Morgenstern, Ju- particular territory. Here the references to Pales-
lian, "The Ark. the Ephod. and the Tent," tine are of special significance. The boundaries of
HUCA 17:153-265; 18:1-52. Richardson, TWB, this new land, promised to Abraham and his
p. 174. Tur-Sinai, N. H., "The Ark ofGod at Beth seed, are first spelled out in Gen 15:18. lt is of

74
 168 ijtc (' ärar)

interest that this promise has been fulfilled geo- A striking fact is that there is such a prolifera-
graphically only two times, briefly during the tion of words in Hebrew which have been gener-
period of David, and again during the time of the ally all translated "to curse ... The list includes at
Hasmoneans during the intertestamental period. least six: 'iirar, qiilal, 'iilii, qäbab, niiqab,
This land belongs to the Lord, as does the earth zii'am. To group all of them together under the
at large. lt is his heritage (1 Sam 26: 19). The land one general English equivalent, .. ,o curse," is
is holy only because the God of holiness has much too superficial. The distinctions between
given it to his people. There is nothing intrinsi- each have been thoroughly worked out in the
cally sacrosanct about this land any more than monograph of Brichto (see bibliography).
there is about the city of Jerusalem or the temple. The verb ·iirar occurs sixty-three times in the
IfGod departs, the sanctity leaves too. oT, most of which are in tke Qal (fifty-four). In
The world of the Bible is divided into two sec- this particular stem the most popular form by far
tions, Israel and the nations. One is holy, the is the passive participle ('ärur and related forms).
other is impure. Although God govems every- lt is used forty times, Deut 27:15ff. and 28:16ff.
where, the area of his sanctity and self-revelation accounting for eighteen of those. The verbis also
are limited to the boundaries of the land of Israel. used twelve times as an antonym of bärak "to
In alien lands the people were not even capable of bless" (Gen 9:25-26; 12:3; 27:29, etc.).
worshiping the Lord (Ps 137). This is illustrated On the basis of Akkadian ariiru „to snare,
in the book of Jonah. While it is said by the pro- bind" and the noun irritu „noose, sling" Brichto,
phet himself that the Lord of heaven rules the sea following Speiser, advances the interpretation
and the dry land (1 :9), yet he attempts to flee that Hebrew 'iirar means „to bind (with a spell),
from the presence ofGod (1 :3, 10). This can only hem in with obstacles, render powerless to re-
mean !hat Jonah attempts to flee from the area of sist." Thus the original curse in Gen 3:14, 17,
divine revelation. Here he hopes the land ofGod „cursed are you above all cattle" and "cursed is
willnot come upon him. No wonder then that the the ground for your sake" means "you are
prophet's messages to the exiles ring with the call banned/anathematized from all the other ani-
that God will bring his people back to this land. mals" and "condemned be the soil (i.e., fertility
The meaning „underworld" (not given in BOB) is to men is banned) on your account." Similarly,
uncertain and appears to depend on the compari- God's word to Cain, "you are cursed from the
son of the usage of some verses of the Psalms earth" means Cain is banned from the soil, or
with similar concepts in pagan literature. more specifically, he is banned from enjoying its
Bibliography: 'erefi as underworld: Cross, F., productivity. Cf. also Josh 9:23; Jud 21 :18; I Sam
and Freedman, D., JNES 14: 247-48. Dahood, 26:19; II Kgs 9:34 (barred from proper burial);
M., Bib40: 164-66 and elsewhere. Holladay, W. Mal 2:2. One recalls the passage where King
L., VT 19: 123-24. 'erefi as city-state: Dahood, Balak of Moab hires Balaam to „curse" the ls-
M., Bib44: 297-98. --, Supp VT 16: 46-47. raelites (Num 22:6ff.). The king wants the magi-
--, Bib 50: 337. Watson, W. E. G., Bib 53: cian to say some word or recite some incantation
92-93. General: Barr, JSS 20: 149-64. De Gug- that will „immobilize" the lsraelites, giving the
lielmo, Antonine, .. The Fertility of the Land in Moabite king the necessary opportunity to defeat
the Messianic Prophecies," CBQ 19:306-11. Del- his numerically superior foe. Of course such was
cor, M., .. Les Attaches Litteraires, l'Origine et not automatically effective. According to Kauf-
la Signification de r Espression Biblique 'Prendre mann, "The lsraelite idea stripped magical ac-
a Temoin le Ciel et la Terre ·," VT 16: 8-25. Hen- tions of their autonomous, metadivine potency
rey, K. H., .. Land Tenure in the Old Testa- and made them serve as vehicles for the manifes-
ment," PEQ 86: 5-15. Miller, Patrick, D., "The tation of the will of God" (Y. Kaufmann, Reli-
Gift ofGod," Interp 23: 451-65. Unger, Merrill Rion of Israel, p. 84).
F., "The Old Testament Revelation of the Crea- lt will be observed that the majority of · ·curse''
tion of Angelsand the Earth," BS 114: 206-12. sayings with 'iirar fall into one of three general
Whitcomb, John C., .. The Creation of the categories: (1) the declaration of punishments
Heavens and the Earth,"' Grace Journal 8: (Gen 3:14, 17); (2) the utterance of threats (Jer
26-32. TDOT, I, pp. 388-404. THAT, I, pp. 11:3; 17:5; Mal I : 14); (3) the proclamation of laws
228-35. (Deut 27:15-26; 28:16-19. lt is interesting that all
V.P.H. these curse-sayings are a reflex of one violating
his relationship to God. To illustrate from Deut
168 "1~1$('ärar) to curse. 27:15-26, idolatry (v. 15), disrespect for parents
(v. 16), deceiving one's neighbor (vv. 17, 24),
Derivative manipulating the disadvantaged (vv. 18-19), sex-
168a M"IM~ (m''erii) curse. Used five ual aberrations (vv. 20, 21, 22, 23), bribery (v. 5),
'iimes: Deut 28:20; Prov 3:33; 28:27; and not observing God's law (v. 26) all bring the
Mal 2:2; 3:9. condemnation of the curse.

75
 That curse formulae existed throughout the an- historical and ancient textual evidence Cassuto
cient world no one will deny. But the difference concludes, "None of the identifications of the
between them and those of the OT are adequately biblical Ararat with a specific mountain has any
illustrated in this quote from Fensham: "The basis in the Scriptural text, for the expression on
mechanical magical execution of the treaty- the mountains of Ararat, correctly interpreted,
curse ... stands in glaring contrast to the ego- only connotes a mountain-unspecified-in the land
theological approach ofprophetic writings ... the of Ararat," (p. 105).
ego ofthe Lord is the focal point ofthe threat, the Debate still continues among "arkologists"
execution and punishment of a curse ... Curses whether or not there is an ark-or-anything-at the
of the ancient Near East, those outside the Old top of modern Mount Ararat. There are those
Testament, are directed against a transgression who are both hopeful and optimistic
on private property ... but the moral and ethical (Montgomery, Morris) and those who are uncon-
obligation in connection with his duty to one God vinced and even cynical (Stiebing). The latter
and love to his neighbour is not touched on" (pp. view says that the deluge story is an adaptation of
173-74). its Babylonian counterpart, the Epic of Gil-
Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., "The gamesh, in which it is said of Utnapishti's boat
Curse, Blasphemy, the Speil, and the Oath," that "on Mt. Ni~ir the ship landed/Mt. Ni~ir held
HUCA 23:73-95. Brichto, H. C., The Problem of the ship fast, allowing no motion." Of course one
"Curse" in the Hebrew Bible, JBL Monograph need not be cynical, like Stiebing, tobe reserved
Series, vol. XIII, 1%3. Fensham, F. C., "Com- about what is being found on Mount Ararat. lf the
mon Trends in Curses of the Near Eastern finds prove tobe remains of the ark, this will be a
Treaties and Kudurru-Inscriptions Compared wonderful confirmation; if they do not prove to
with the Maledictions of Arnos and Isaiah," be, the Gen story still stands.
ZAW 75:155-75. Gerstenberger, Erhard, "The Bibliography: Cassuto, U., Commentary on
Woe-Oracles of the Prophets," JB L 81 :249--03. Genesis, II, Jerusalem: Central Press, 1964, pp.
Gevirtz, Stanley, "West-Semitic Curses and the 103-105. Montgomery, J. W., The Quest For
Problem of the Origins of the Hebrew Law," VT Noah's Ark, Minneapolis: Bethany, 1974.
11:137-58. Lehman, Manfred R., "Biblical Morris, J. D., Adventure on Ararat, San Diego:
Oaths," ZAW 81:74-92. Richardson, TWB, p. Institute for Creation Research, 1973. Stiebing,
58. Scharbert, J., "'Fluchen' und 'Segnen' im W. H., "A Futile Quest: The Search for Noah's
Alten Testament," Bib 39: 5-8. Speiser, E. A., Ark," BAR 2: 1-2, 13-20. Westermann, C.,
"An Angelic 'Curse': Exodus 14:20," JAOS 80: Genesis (Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testa-
198-200. TDOT, I, pp. 405-18. THAT, I, pp. ment), 1973, pp. 594-%.
236-40. V.P.H.
V.P.H.
170 ittjt-1 ( ·äras) betrothe.
169 =j,~
(' arara!) Ararat, famous as the
name ofthe mountain on which Noah's ark 171 tujl;t ('ärash). Assumed root of the follow-
came to rest. ing.
171a riw:-,~ ('äreshet) desire, request.
In the Scripture Ararat is both a land and a °Th1sfeminine noun occurs only in Ps
mountain. We are told in II Kgs 19:37 and Isa 21:3.
37:38 that the sons of the Assyrian king Sen-
nacherib fled to this land (in Akkadian, Urartu)
172 tut_t('esh) jire.
after murdering their father. Urartu was an im-
portant nation around Lake V an in Armenia. lt is Derivative
now divided between Turkey, the Soviet Union,
172a ii'W/M ('ishsheh) fire offering.
Iran, and Iraq. lts period of significance and
power was from the ninth century B.c. until its 'esh appears over 375 times in the Bible. Pre-
destruction in the next century by the Assyrian ponderantly, these references are in the context
Tiglath-Pileser III. In 612 B.c. it feil to the Medes. of either God's revelation of himself to man
Cf. Jer 51 :27. (theophany) or man's approach to God (worship
A careful reading of Gen 8:4 shows that the and sacrifice).
Bible does not say that the ark landed on "Mount According to Gen 3:24, the climax of creation
Ararat." What it does say is that the ark landed is a sword of fire ([aha( ha}Jereb) placed at the
on "the mountains (häre) of Ararat." Hence the east of the garden of Eden. The only way man
NEB translates Gen 8:4 as "a mountain in could get back in was to go through the fire. As a
Ararat." In this range what is now called Mount climax to God's covenant with Abraham, a flam-
Ararat is easily the most imposing, rising to ing fire (lappid 'esh) moves between the sepa-
16,900 feet above sea level. After surveying the rated pieces of animals (Gen 15:17) as God's sig-

76
 176 ,,w~ (ashshur)

nature to the contract. The Lord appears to Patrick D .. "Fire in the Mythology of Canaan
Moses in/as a flame offire (Ex 3:2), a fire which and Israel," CBQ 27: 256---0!. Morgenstern, Ju-
purged the bush of every bug on it and a fire lian, The Fire upon the Altar, Quadrangle, 1963.
which protected the bush from any landing buz- TDNT, VI, pp. 934-41. TDOT, I, pp. 418-28.
zard or browsing goat. Moses' response was THAT, I, pp. 242-46.
one of fear and attraction. He was "lashed with V.P.H.
terror, leashed with longing." The nocturnal pil-
lar of fire preceding and following the people of 173 tVK ( 'ish) There is, there are. Softer form
God in the wildemess guarantees the faithful that for the usual yesh. 1s used in II Sam 14:19
they are led and followed by the divine presence. and Mic 6: 10.
lt is not hard to believe that the pulse rate and
heartbeat of Moses considerably accelerated 174 itVK ('shd). Assumed root ofthe following.
when he ascended Mount Sinai, engulfed in 174a tiw~ ('eshed) bottom, slope.
smoke (Ex 19:18). To take another portion of 174b :i;~~ ( ·ashedii) foundation.
Scripture, look at the prophetic literature, the 'eshed. Bottom, slope, lower part, which is the
first chapter of Ezk for example. The prophet's construct of 'äshed (itself not found in the OT),
life begins with a vision of God which is deter- appears only in Num 21:15, "and the 'slope' of
minative for the rest of his life. lt is a vision the valley/ravine. ··
dominated by fire (Ezk 1:26-27). We can ap- This is in a quote from the otherwise unknown
preciate Ezekiel's problem. He is trying to ex- "Book of the Wars of the Lord," another witness
plain something he has never seen before, i.e. to the fact that the oT did not exhaust the literary
God. output of ancient Israel.
What does fire symbolize in the oT? For one In the plural it is 'ashedot/'ashdot "hillsides"
thing it symbolizes judgment. lt separates from (Josh 10:40; 12:8). One meets the transliteration
the tree oflife (Gen 3:24). Sodom and Gomorrah "Ashdothpisgah" in the KJV in Josh 12:3; 13:20;
are consumed by fire (Gen 19:24). Nadab and Deut 3: 17; 4 :49. The reference is to the western
Abihu, the sons of Aaron, are consumed by fire slope of Mount Pisgah in Transjordan. From here
for offering "strange fire" (Lev 10:lff.). Was it Moses viewed the promised land before his
because they took the fire from a place outside death. [Probably also in Deut 33:2, cf. Niv. R.L.H.]
the altar area, or were they und er the influence of V.P.H.
alcohol, or what? The strategic thing is that they
were disobedient at the point of worship. A simi- 175 :"!lVK ( 'shh). Assumed root of the following.
lar experience befell the sons of Korah (Num 175a :i:~tt (' oshyii) buttress. Occurs
16:lff.). Ezekiel sees the angelic being scattering only in Jer 50:15.
coals of fire over backslidden Jerusalem (Ezk
10:2). ('ishsheh). See no. 172a.
On the other hand fire may symbolize cleans- ('ishsha). See no. 137a.
ing. On the heels of the war with Midian (Num
31) the priest says that anything that passes
176 ,nv~ (ashshür) Asshur, Assyria, one of
the sons of Shem, the eponymous ancestor
through fire will be clean (Num 31:21-24). lsaiah
of the Assyrians (Gen 10:22).
saw the temple filled with smoke, saw God's
gloryand was purified (Isa 6). Cf. Mal 3 :2 for the The land of Assyria took its name from the city
phrase "refiner's fire." This means then that to of Assur, a city on the west bank of the Tigris in
one fire means death and to another life. To one it modern lraq. The city in turn took its name from
means etemal judgment and to another eternal the deity Ashur who was primarily a warrior and
blessing.God's wrath is against all that is impure. a conqueror and whose symbol was an archer
with a winged disk. The god is the symbol of the
'ishsheh. Fire offering, offering made by city and the state. Assur the god is Assur the
fve. The etymology of this word (from 'esh or state.
something eise) is debated (Driver). lt can be Assyria first emerges, albeit briefly, as an in-
appliedto any offering which was wholly or par- dependent state on the heels of the Ur III dy-
tiallyconsumed by fire. Thus it is applied to the nasty, c. 2000 a.c. After this period of autonomy
burnt offering (Lev 1:9, 13); the cereal/grain of- the Assyrian state feil under the control offoreign
fering (Lev 2:3); peace offering (Lev 3:3); the rulers for about five hundred years, first the
guiltoffering (Lev 7:5); the consecration offering Amorites, then the Hurrians.
(Lev 8:28). lt is used over sixty times in the OT. The first person to claim the title "king of the
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Ugaritic and land of Assyria" was Assuruballit (c. 1362-1327
Hebrew Words," in Vf[aritica VI, Paris, 1969, B.c.). The empire reached its zenith in its earlier
pp. 181--84.Gradwohl, R., "Das 'Fremde Feuer' expansion under Tukultininurta I (c. 1244-1208
vonNadab und Abihu," ZAW 75: 288-96. Miller, B.c.), the period of the conquest and the judges,

77
177 '!!W~
('eshek)

but it had no apparent contact with Israel at this Three times the word is used in the Song of
time. With the exception of the reign of Tiglath- Solomon to describe the physical attraction be-
pileser I (c. 1115-1077 B.c.) Assyria went once tween the lovers: she about him (Song 1:14); he
again into several centuries of weakness and about her (Song 7:7_,g [H 8-9]).
eclipse. They were never a threat to Israel during Such „ clusters" of grapes were either delici-
the period of the United Monarchy. ous for eating (Mic 7: 1; Deut 32 :32) or for prepa-
lt is, however, in the period of the divided ration in the making of wine (lsa 65 :8). Such clus-
monarchy, especially the ninth century s.c., that ters were used in the beverage served to the
there takes place an Assyrian resurgence that is Egyptian Pharaoh, as indicated by the dream of
to present Israel with a threat she has never en- Joseph's cellmate, the chief butler (Gen 40:10).
countered before, something she never had to Numbers 13:23-24 refers to the brook Eshcol,
face from the earlier Philistines, Moabites, etc. a body of water near Hebron (probably to the
That threat is the ominous appearance of a mili- north), discovered by the Hebrew spies who had
tant, hostile people with worldwide conquering been despatched by Moses to reconnoiter the
ambitions. No longer is the concern simply bor- land of Canaan. The name was given to this
der skirm1shes. Now it is a fight for the right to brook because of the --c1usters" of grapes that
existence. Surely it can be no accident or coinci- there were, clusters so !arge that they had to be
dence that shortly after this Assyrian resurgence carried on a pole between two men. A charac-
there appears in Israel a new institution, the clas- teristic of the land of promise is its lushness and
sical. literary prophets who will put these hercu- fertility, a land flowing with milk and honey. lt
lean nations into historical and theological will be the same in the eschatological day, a land
perspective. in which there will be abundance of wine.
lt is the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (859- Herdner claims to have found the same root in
825 B.c.) who is the progenitor of this revitaliza- a Ugaritic text, 'ulkl, but Gordon does not list
tion and the harbinger of still worse things to such a word in his Ugaritic glossary.
come for Israel. The initial sparks were lit at the Bibliography: Herdner, A., --un nouvel
battle of Qarqar (not mentioned in the Bible) on exemplaire du rituel RS 1929 n°3, .. Syria 33: 104.
the Orontes River in Syria in 853 s.c. This was a V.P.H.
confrontation between Shalmaneser and a coali-
tion that included, among others, Syria and Israel 179 ',w~ ('shl). Assumed root of the following.
(under Ahab). Any hopes Israel had for survival 179a ',~~ (' eshel) tamarisk tree.
were virtually wiped out a century later by
Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.c.). lt is he who
180 C?Ql;t('äsham) be desolate, be guilty, to of-
began the policy of incorporating the conquered
fend, to acknowledge offense, to trespass. (ASV
territory into the empire as provinces. lt was also
and RSV prefer the terms "guilt'' and
he who used to a greater advantage than any be-
"guilty" more than "trespass, .. and NEB
fore him the policy of transplanting conquered
populations. Under Shalmaneser V Israel feil in does not hesitate to use words like repara-
tion, compensation, penalty and punish-
722 s.c., by now little more than a formality.
ment.)
The literary prophets saw in these epochal
events, culminating in 722 s.c., the first decisive Derivatives
fulfillment of their collective interpretation of his-
tory. lsaiah had viewed Assyria as the Lord's
180a tcW1;t('äshihn) faulty.
tool for chastening his people (5:26-29; 10:5-19). 180b tc~t:t ( 'äshem) guiltines.1.
180c t~~~~ ('ashmä) sin.
But interestingly, no specific Assyrian king is ac-
corded a title as is the Babylonian Nebuchadnez- The primary meaning of the word 'iisham
zar ( .. my servant") or the Persian Cyrus (.. my seems to center on guilt, but moves from the act
anointed one "). In the end Assyria destroyed which brings guilt to the condition of guilt to the
God's people only after God's people had de- act of punishment. In any particular passage it is
stroyed themselves. often difficult to determine which thrust the word
V.P.H. has. The word is used with its derivatives I03
times. Synonyms such as 'iiwvn and rasha'
i1w~ ('rishtir). See no. 183c. often are translated with the word, --guilty," but
:,~:~•~ ('äshishii). See no. 185d. normally their meanings are „iniquity" and
:i;~l;t ('oshyii). See no. 175a. "wicked ... respectively. The word is used in
Ugaritic in the cognate ·rm(UT 19: no. 422; Ais
177 '!!Wl'.t( ·eshek) testicle. Occurs only in Lev WUS no. 474).
·21:20, in phrase m''rr)af:, 'äshek. The verb 'äsham occurs in the Pentateuch in
Leviticus, chapters four, five and six. and in
178 ',i:,~~ ('eshkö/) (grape) cluster. Numbers 5:6-7. The setting is cultic but also

78
 180 Cl~tt
('shl)

ethical. Any individual who had sinned was a 'äshäm. Guiltiness, offeringfor sin, sin, trespass,
guilty person. A procedure of obliterating guilt is trespass offering. With a few exceptions this
outlined. Normally, restitution must be made ac- masculine noun denotes the trespass offering
cording to cash values, plus a twenty percent (Rsv, NEB "guilt offering"). In Gen 26:10
cash penalty. An animal of specified value was Abimelek refers to a possible sin and its resulting
brought to the priest, sin was confessed and the guiltiness (Rsv "brought guilt," NEB "make us li-
animal sacrificed in a specific manner. The goal able to retribution"). The NEB probably has
was atonement and forgiveness. caught the basic meaning here. KJVhas "tres-
In J ud 21 :22 the verb seems to represent the pass," in Lev 5:7, 15 but more correctly ASV
consequences of breaking a vow. In II Chr 19:10, "trespass offering," Rsv "guilt offering." All
the first use of 'äsham stresses guilt as a result of other twenty-two times in Lev the meaning is
breaking the law of God; whereas, the second "trespass offering." The same is true of Num-
applies to the judges who must warn people that bers 5:7--8; 6: 12; 18:9, of I Sam 6:3--4, 8, 17; of II
sin has consequences. Kgs 12:16, and of Ezk 40:39; 42:13; 44:29; 46:20
A contrast between punishment and redemp- and ofisa53:IO. But inPs 68:21 [H 22] 'äshäm is
tion is apparent in Ps 34:21-22 [H 22-23]. In this sin (Rsv "wrongs," ASV "guiltiness"), and
instance, 'äsham is the punishment itself. The punishment is threatened. What of 'äshäm in
sting of an inner guilt feeling is absent in Prov Prov 14:9? KJV has "mocks at sin," Rsv has
30:10 also, for it points to the possible falseness "wicked," NEB has "too arrogant to make
of an accusation made against a slave. amends." None denote guilt, per se.
An exhortation (Hos 4: 15) not to offend (Rsv
"be guilty," NEB "guilt offering") is directed to 'ashma. Sin, cause of trespass, trespass offering.
Judah. Was Judah not to play the harlot like Is- The KJVtranslates mostly "trespass" or "sin,"
rael, or not to incur guilt? Compare with 5:15 i.e. the acts of sin, but marginal readings some-
where Ephraim is depicted as being punished by times have "guiltiness" (Asv, Rsv prefer "guilt"
God but they need to realize their offence (Rsv or "guilty") in Lev 4:3; 22:16. Joab argued that
"guilt"), that they were sinners. The next verse, numbering of Israel was cause for trespass (Asv,
6: I, indicates possible salvation. "cause of guilt," Rsv "bring guilt") in I Chr 21 :3.
Hosea 10:2 says Israel is found faulty (Rsv In II Chr 24:18; 28:10,13; 33:23, KJV regards
"bear their guilt," note NEB "they are mad"). ·ashmii as "sin or trespass," but Asv and Rsv
Guilt is understood as the consequence of idol sometimes prefer "guilt." Does the noun desig-
worshipand of a divided heart (NEB "crazy"), but nate the acts of sin or liability to penalty before
punishment was yet to come. In Hos 13:1, "of- God? The same observation holds true of Ezr
fended" (Rsv "guilty") points to acts of sin, but 9:6-7, 13, 15; 10: 10, 19, but all three versions agree
the next verse shows Israel still sinning and that sins (Rsv "wrongs") are intended in Ps 69:5
punishment is not mentioned until 13:3. Isaiah [H 6] and Arnos 8: 14, though RSVand NEB simply
24:6and Joel 1:18 depict ·äsham as the end result transliterate the Hebrew as though it were the
of sinning, even affecting animals. name of a goddess.
Jeremiah (2:3) declared that those who devour
Israel shall offend (Rsv "became guilty," NEB "no 'äshem. Faulty, that which is faulty. The KJV
one ... went unpunished"). Is the meaning of translates this adjective in Gen 42:21 as "guilty"
'äsham the act of sin, the condition of guilt, or (Asv, RSV,same) and is the rare instance where a
the end result of punishment'l Since the last feeling of guilt is associated with the word. II
phrase in verse three speaks of a future evil, RSV Samuel 14:13 is more legalistic. David is faulty
would seem tobe correct. The same is true of Jer (ASV, "guilty," Rsv "convicts himself '). And
50:7. probably in Ezr 10: 19 being "guilty" (KJV,ASV)is
In Ezk 6:6 guilt is the condition after punish- better than "guilt-offering" (Rsv).
ment has happened. On the other hand, in 22:4, In summary, the root ·äsham includes acts of
guilt is the consequence of idol worship but be- sin, responsibility for them, punishment and its
fore punishment (cf. v. 15). So also 25:12, and aftermath or, as an alternative, atonement. The
Hab 1:11. In response to Zechariah's preaching, word denotes any breach ofGod's covenant with
the rulers claimed they are not guilty ( 11:5), even Israel and any divine act of dealing with it,
whilekilling people. But Jack of aguilt feeling will whether punishment or atonement.
not forestall judgment. Bibliography: Kellerman, Diether," 'Asäm in
Throughout these passages, 'äsham varies in Ugarit?" ZAW 76: 319-22. Kidner, F. D., Sac-
stress. lt may denote acts of sin, responsibility riftce in the Old Testament, London: Tyndale,
for sin, punishment, and even the aftermath of 1952. Morris, Leon, "'asham," EQ 30: 196-210.
punishment. Perhaps, one may hold that the Richardson, TWB, pp. 207, 226-29. Ringgren,
'äsham connotes the totality of alienation from Helmer, Sacriftce in the Bible, Association
God, including its consequences. Press, 1963. Snaith, N. H., "The Sin Offering

79
181 e'\WH('ashshiip)
T •

and the Guilt Offering," VT 15: 73-80. TDOT, I, Pie! it is used eleven times with several nuances
pp. 429-37. THAT, I, pp. 251-56. of which the most prominent is "to bless, called
G.H.L. blessed": Gen 30: 13; Mal 3: 12, 15; Job 29: 11; Ps
72: 17; Prov 31 :28; Song 6 :9; similarly in two
181 t'\WM (' ashshäp) astrologer, enchanter, ex- cases in the Pual, Ps41:2 [H 3]; Prov 3:18. The
•o-,.cist (JB), conjurer, necromancer (BDB). relationship, if any, between Qal "to go" and Piel
"to bless" is not apparent. Two derivatives each
The word 'ashshiip describing some variety of
come from the meaning "bless," and "to walk."
occultist appears in both Hebrew and Aramaic.
There are two verbs in Hebrew meaning "to
In the Aramaic form the middle letter is not dou-
bless." One is biirak and the other 'iishar. Can
bled. All occurrences are in the book of Daniel
any differences between them be tabulated? For
(1:20 and 2:2 [Heb]; 2:10, 27; 4:4; 5:7, II, 15
one thing bärak is used by God when he "bles-
(Aramaic]). The Assyrian tishipu means the
ses" somebody. But there is no instance where
same. 'iishar is ever on God's lips. When one "blesses"
The meaning of this word must be determined
God the verbis bärak, never 'äshar. One sugges-
solely by context, since no etymology is ~ppar- tion to explain this sharp distinction, i.e. that
ent. Perhaps it is a loan word from Babyloma and
'iishar is reserved for man, is that 'äshar is a
related to the Assyrian shiptu ("conjuration").
word of envious desire, "tobe envied with desire
Since the word is found only in Daniel, this is all
is the man who trusts in the Lord." God is not
the more Iikely. The Hebrew word 'ashpti is
man and therefore there are no grounds for aspir-
made from the same letters and means "quiver"
ing to his state even in a wishful way. Similarly
(Job 39:23; Ps 127:5; Isa 22:6, 49:2; Jer 5: 16; Lam
God does not envy man, never desires something
3: 13), but any connection of meaning would be a
man is or has, which he does not have, but would
guess although arrows were sometimes used in
like to have. Therefore God never pronounces
divination (Ezk 21 :21 [H 27)).
man "blessed" ( 'ashre) (Janzen). lt should also
In Dan 1:20 'ashshiipim are parallel to /Jar-
be pointed out that when bärak is used t~e initia-
tummim (magicians, q.v.), while in 2:2 they are
tive comes from God. God can bestow hts bless-
~Iso grouped with the m e kashsh 'pim (sorcerers)
ing even when man doesn't deserve it. On the
and kasdim (Chaldeans). The Aramaic word
other band, tobe blessed ('ashre), man has to do
giiz' rin (soothsayers/astrologers) in the lists of
something. Finally, bärak is a benedictio~,
Dan 4:7, 5:7, and 11 is the equivalent of the Heb
'iishar more of a congratulation. The former 1s
m'kashsh'pim used elsewhere.
rendered by eulogetos in the LXX and the latter by
Bibliography: Cornfeld, G., "Magie, Divina-
makarios.
tion and Superstition," in Pictorial Biblical En-
To be "blessed" (' ashre), man has to do some-
cyclopedia, Macmillan, 1964.
thing. Usually this is something positive. A
R.L.A.
"blessed" man, for example, is one who trusts in
God without equivocation: Ps 2:12; 34:8 [H 9];
182 t'\tuM ('shp). Assumed root ofthe following.
40:4 [H 5); 84:5 [H 6]; 84:12 [H 13]; 146:5; Prov
182a :i,w!'.t
('ashpa.) quiver for
16:20. A "blessed" man is one who comes under
arrows. Derivation uncertain
the authority of God's revelation: his Torah, ~s
182.1 .,,,tt
certain.
('äshpär) datecake. Meaningun-
119:1; 1:2; Prov 29:18; his word, Prov 16:20; hts
commandment, Ps 112:1; his testimony, Ps 119:2;
his way, Ps 128:1; Prov 8:32. The man who is
beneficent to the poor is blessed (Ps 41:1 [H 2]);
183 'i~!;t ( 'äshar) to go (straight), walk.
Prov 14:21). Note the negative approach of Ps 1,
Derivatives "blessed is the man who does not." He isolates
I83a t'it~ (' esher), 'if!;t (' äshär) himself and shuns the company of certain people,
the ungodly. The psalm ends by noting that it is
htlppiness, blessedness. precisely these ungodly who will in the end be
183b t'i;i'M ('ösher) happiness. isolated. They will not stand in the judgment.
183c t-,,·w~ ('äshur), i~W!;t(' llshür) step, They will be conspicuous by their absence for
going.
they will perish.
183d tituM ('llshür) step,going.
183e t'i~M ( 'iisher) Asher.
183f
183g
c•,~M ('llshürim) boxwood.
,~~M~ (t' 'ashshur) boxtree.
'esher. Happiness, bliss. Always occurs as
'ashre usually defined as the masculine plural
const~ct of the noun 'esher (which form is non-
183h :i,w~' ('ashera.), M''W'-4 ('llshera) existent in the Hebrew Bible), "O the happi-
Ashera. ness,es) of." Perhaps "bliss" would be a better
The verb occurs in the Qal only in Prov 9:6, translation. lt is used forty-four times in the or,
"go/walk in the way of understanding." In the twenty-six of which are in the Psalter and eight in

80
 183 ,iq~ ('ii.shar)

Prov. lt appears in the Pentateuch only in Deut with the Phoenicians and the Philistines than they
33:29,in the historical books only in I Kgs 10:8 did with the inland Hebrews who were landlub-
(= II Chr 9:7), and in the prophets in Isa 30:18; bers. Their likenesses to each other would be
32:20;56:2. akin to those of a man from Kansas and a man
from Maine.
'ösher. Happiness, a hapax legomenon, used The Asher tribe never produced any religious
in Gen 30:13, "What happiness is mine." or political leader throughout her history, not
'lshtJr,'ashshür. Step, going, feet, the latter even during the days of the frequent appearances
formoccurring in Job 31 :7 and Ps 17:11. of the charismatic judges. Deborah even has to
Both words are confined to Ps (six times), Job reprimand them for their unwillingness to partici-
(two times), and Prov (once). Dahood (see bib- pate in the fight against the Canaanites. They pre-
liography)has argued for the existence of the ferred to stay in more familiar surroundings, the
wordin Eccl 7:26, "The feet ofher are dragnets" seacoast, rather than to commit themselves to
(' flsher > 'llshure). battling the enemy and making themselves vul-
lt should be observed that in the six Ps pas- nerable (and not only have the Asherites been
sagesthe noun is often used in parallel with apart guilty of this!).
of the body. In Ps 17:5 it is parallel with pa'am
"foot"; in Ps 37:31 with leb "heart"; in Ps 40:2 'Asherä. Asherah. Both a Canaanite goddess
[H 3) with reget "foot" and again in 73:2; and and a wooden cult object in the OT. The word is
finallyin Job 31:7, here in conjunction with both translated "groves" in the KJV presumably on the
leb "heart" and 'ayin "eye." All this lends cre- basis of the LXX alsos and nemus in the Vulgate.
denceto the possibility that 'llshür also refers to Before examining the OT itself we turn to the fa-
somepart of the body, feet, or legs. mous Ugaritic texts from Ras Shamra. lt is they
In Scripture the word is used metaphorically, which teil us who Asherah was. Her name is a
meaningsomething like "lifestyle." lt may em- feminine participle of the Ugaritic verb "lr (Heb
phasizethe believer's fidelity to God's way: Ps 'iishar "to go"'). One of her titles is rabbatu
17:5;44:18[H 19);73:2; Job 31 :7; Prov 14:15. The a{iratu yammi, "Lady Atirat of the Sea," or "the
word may also be used in a context affirming lady who treads on the sea." She is the consort or
God's faithfulness in helping one to keep in his wife of the divine EI, and as such enjoys the title
way:Ps 40:2 [H 3]; 37 :31. qaniyatu elima, "progenitress/creatress of the
gods." Her most famous son was Baal. A charac-
'äsher. Asher, Jacob's second son by Zilpah, teristic of all mythological literatures is "in the
the handmaid of Leah. Chronologically he is beginning there were two." In the Bible, how-
Jacob's eighth-born son. The name is to be re- ever, we meet "in the beginning there was one."
latedto the verb 'iishar in the Piel meaning of "to The issue is not simply arithmetic. The fact that
bless," the "happy, fortunate one," akin to the one does not read about Mrs. God in Gen I and 2
nameFelix in the New Testament. may be one of the Bible's ways of stating that
The specific etymology is found in Gen 30: 13: only God finds fulfillment in himself.
"And Leah said, what fortune (b' 'oshr;, 'happy In one of the famous mythological texts from
amI' in KJV) for the daughters will call me blessed Ugarit, the Kret epic, it is predicted to Kret of his
('ishsh'runi), and she called his name Asher bride that "she will bear you seven sons/and an
(' äsher)." Albright has discovered a related eighth (daughter) 'Octavia'/she will bear you the
word,albeit feminine, analogous to Asher in a !ist lad Yasib/who will suck the milk of Asherah."
of Egyptian slaves from the eighteenth century Hence, (divine) life is guaranteed and be-
B.c. lt appears there as 'sh-ra. Further Pen- queathed.
tateuchalreferences to Asher may be found in the To turn to the OT, there is no actual description
blessingof Jacob (Gen 49:20) and in the blessing of an Asherah there. Was it a tree, a pole, some
of Moses (Deut 33:24-26). The former passage kind of tree symbol, an image? lt apparently was
underscoresthe fertility of the land as does the not a natural object but one that was constructed
latter. by man, an artifact. lt was "made": I Kgs 16:33;
In the land partition section of Joshua the terri- II Kgs 17:16; 21:3; it was ··set up": II Kgs 17:10;
toryassigned to the tribe Asher comes third from II Chr33:19; Isa27:9; it was "built": I Kgs 14:23.
the end (Josh 19:24-31) followed only by Naph- Only once is the verb "to plant" used, Deut
taliand Dan. lt was alloted territory in northwest 16:21, and here the meaning is "implant." The
Palestine, not far from the Phoenician cities of conclusion then is that in the OT Asherah stands
Tyreand Sidon. Biblical Israel does not appear to for the Canaanite goddess represented by a
be homogeneous. lts systems of twelve tribes carved wooden image implanted into the ground,
embracedpopulations with contrasting ways of usually adjacent to an altar dedicated to the god
life. Asher, along with Zebulon and Dan, were Baal and located on a hilltop under a leafy tree
navigational.As such, they had more in common (Patai).

81
184 '"lt~(' asher)

lt is in the period of the divided monarchy that the latter, sixty-eight times for the former accord-
the Asherah cult flourished both in Israel and ing to BDB, p. 979b, but Dahood in Bib 33: 45
Judah, though its existence before is documented lists the ratio as 89/67).
by the command in Ex 34: 13, the prohibition of Taking into consideration the prolific use of
Deut 16:21, and the incident at the threshold of 'llsher in biblical Hebrew, it is of interest to ob-
Gideon's life of service to God, Jud 6:25ff. Re- serve that the equivalent has tumed up only once
hoboam's career marks the beginning of this in in the Ugaritic texts: UT 16: Text 2060:34-35,
Judah (1 Kgs 14:23). In the north the cult received 'arr il bq( w stn ly "find out what is available and
its greatest momentum from the incentive of write to me."
Jezebel who was responsible for the presence of Tobe sure, the preponderant use of 'asher is
"four hundred prophets of Asherah" (1 Kgs as a normal relative, usually with an expressed
18:19). Even a reform-minded king such as Asa antecedent. But there are other nuances.
(1 Kgs 15:13) or later Hezekiah (II Kgs 18:4) was Williams (see bibliography) lists seven syntacti-
unable to liquidate the movement. lt was cal uses of the particle and surely more could be
knocked down, but not knocked out. There was added by other Hebrew grammarians. For exam-
an almost inevitable resurrection even in the ple, one use of 'asher is to express result: "'So
wake of reform. Compare son Manasseh's policy that' if man could number the dust of the earth"
(II Kgs 21 :7, even to the point of placing the (Gen 13:16). .Another is to express purpose:
image in the temple) on the heels of father "Keep his statutes ... 'that' it may go weil with
Hezekiah's reform (II Kgs 18:4). Apostasy and you" (or is this resu)t'l Deut 4:40); "I am going
idolatry just behind revival! What one generation out to the field to glean among the sheaves 'in
attempts to get rid of a subsequent generation order to' find favor in his eyes" (Ruth 2:2, a
may trot back in, however reprehensible it may translation missed by both KJv and Rsv; Sasson,
be. All too frequently this has been the pattem in Interpretation 30: 418). A third is to introduce a
the human race. causal statement: "They plundered the city 'in
Bibliography: 'äshar, 'ashre: TDOT 1, pp. reprisal for/because of their sister" (Gen 34:27).
445-48. THAT 1, pp. 257--60. Dahood, M., A category not noticed by Williams is that in Ps
"Hebrew-Ugaritic Lexicography I," Bib44: 298. 71:20, ·· 'Although' you made me see trou-
Hillers, D. R., "Delocutive Verbs in Hebrew," bles ... you will restore me to life," a concessive
JBL 86: 321-22. Kaser, W., "Beobachtungen use of 'asher (note how the KJVinserts a word in
zum altestamentlichen Makarismus," ZAW 82: italics to make sense once it has settled on the
225-250. Lipinski, E., "Macarismes et psaumes translation of 'asher as ··which").
de congratulation," RB 75: 321--67. On a number of occasions ·asher is affixed to
'äsher;: Albright, W. F., "Northwest- prepositions, for example ba'asher (nineteen
Semitic Names in Light of Egyptian Slaves from times), but much more often with k'-ka'asher
the Eighteenth Century B.C.," JAOS 74: 229. (see the adequate outline ofmeanings in BDB, p.
Witfall, W., "Asshur and Eber, or Asher and 455).
Heber?" ZAW 82: 110-13. Bibliography: BDB, pp. 81--84. Archer, G., A
'ashera: TDOT I, pp. 438-44. Albright, W. Survey of O/d Testament lntroduction, Moody,
F., Yahweh And The Gods of Canaan, Double- 1964, pp. 465--66. Gaenssle, C., "The Hebrew
day, 1968, pp. 121-24. Barr, J., "Seeing the Particle 'shr," AJSL 31: 3--66, 93-159. Gevirtz,
Wood For the Trees? An Enigmatic Ancient S., "On The Etymology of the Phoenician Parti-
Translation," JSS 13: 11-20. Patai, R., "The cle 'sh," JNES 16: 124-27. Gordon, C., VRaritic
Goddess Asherah," JNES 24: 37-52. Reed, W. Textbook, p. 369. Williams, R. J ., Hebrew Syn-
L., The Asherah In The O/d Testament, Texas tax: An Outline, University ofToronto, 1%7, pp.
Christian University, 1949. 77-78.
V.P.H. V.P.H.

184 "\IUM ('asher) who, which, the relative 185 ~~M ('shsh). Assumed root of the follow•
·--p~rticleused very frequently in the Hebrew ing.
Bible (Mandelkem's concordance uses al- 185a MV•~~('ashfsha) raisin-cake, which
most twenty pages, small print, four col- is consistently translated in the
umns to each page, to !ist all of the occur- KJVas "flagons (of wine)."
rences). The word occurs in Ugaritic as 'acit. but the
By contrast, the relative particle she- is used precise etymology is obscure. Driver connects it
only sporadically in several books of the Bible, with an Arabic root meaning "inflorescence of
Jud, Ps, Song of Solomon for example. In Eccl the grapevine" and together with the translation
the relative she-, however, is used almost as in Aquila (oinanthe) suggests that 'ashfsha
much as the relative 'asher (eighty-nine times for means: ( 1) the inflorescence of the palm studded

82
 187 r,~ ('et)

with numerous flowers and a grape vine covered emphatic meaning was lost and ·et became a par-
with berries, and (2) a raisin-cake resembling ticle with no special meaning.
such a clump of berries pressed into a solid mass. Bibliography: On a similar particle in other
The word is used only five times in the or. In II Semitic Ianguages and texts: Andersen, F. 1.,
Sam 6: 19 ( = I Chr 16:3) we are told that David, in "Moabite Syntax," Orientalia 35: 117-18.
the process ofbringing the ark to Jerusalem, gave Leahy, T., "Studies in the Syntax of IQS," Bib
out a bread roll, some dates (?), and a raisin-cake 41: 152-54.
to his people. That such a food item was delecta- On Biblical Hebrew 'et: Hoftijzer, J .. "Re-
ble is substantiated by the third use of 'ashishä, marks Concerning the Use of the Particle 't in
Song 2:5, "Feed me with raisin-cakes ... with Classical Hebrew," Oudtestamentische Studien
apples." See also Isa 16:7 (NIV). 14: 1-99. MacDonald, J.,. "The Particle 't in
The last reference is Hos 3: 1, ··As Y ahweh Classical Hebrew," VT 14: 263-75. Saydon, P.
loves the children of Israel although they turn to P., "Meanings and Uses of the Particle 't," VT
other gods and love raisin-cakes." The last part 14: 192-2!0. Walker, N .. "Concerning the Func-
of this verse may also be translated, "To other tion of 'eth," VT 5: 314-15.
gods who love raisin cakes." The meaning is not V.P.H.
clear. Most likely the reference here is to similar
"sacrificial cakes" (kawwänim) that the people 187 I'\~ ('et) II, with, together with.
made for or offered to the "queen of heaven," On occasions there is a different nuance. To
i.e. Ishtar, the Assyrian goddess of fertility (Jer illustrate, "I have gotten a man 'from' ('et-) the
7:18; 44: 17-19). The point would be then that Lord" (Gen 4: 1). "'The Lord ... will fight for you
God's love for his own is a longsuffering love. (läkem), according to all he did 'for' you ('it-
Even participation in obnoxious pagan rites by t' kem) in Egypt" (Deut 1:30). "I have not sinned
the covenant peoples does not move God to ab- against you (/äk} but you are doing evil ·against'
rogate his love for them. me ('ittf) to fight against me (bi)" (Jud 11:27).
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Hebrew Notes To return to the basic meaning "with," this
on 'Song of Songs' and 'Lamentations'" in preposition is used frequently in a particular
Festschrift Alfred Bertholet, Tübingen: J.C.B. theological context. This is (a) in the promises of
Mohr, 1950, p. 144. God to man: · · 1 am/will be with you' ·; (b) affirma-
V.P.H. tions from man that God is indeed with them; (c)
prayers of petition that God may be with them.
The scripture then is replete with the idea that
186 r,~ (·et) l. Untranslated particle.
God calls his people to fellowship with himself,
An untranslated particle in Hebrew often de- be it in the garden of Eden, in the odyssey of an
scribed in grammars (somewhat superficially) as Abraham, in a covenant situation at Sinai, in the
the sign of the direct object after a transitive tabernacle, in a wilderness, crossing a Jordan,
verb. Its origin is unknown. The prevailing view entering a Canaan, and so forth. At this point we
is that 'et was originally a noun meaning "es- should observe that the NT is no different. lt is
sence, substance, seif," a significance which it Mark (3:13-15) who teils us that Jesus· primary
subsequently lost in the historical development of reason for calling the twelve was "that they
the language. might be with him." The call to fellowship always
When 'et is used to signify an accusative (nota precedes the call to service.
accusativi) it is generally, though not always, in A glance, however, at biblical and post-biblical
prose and when the object of the verb is deter- history shows that nothing is more difficult than
mined by the definite article. More important walking with God. And we are not the problem-
than indicating an accusative, the function of ·et God is! Certainly Adam and Eve couldn't suc-
is to emphasize the word to which it is attached. ceed at it long. By Gen 3, they are longing for
For this reason one observes that ·et is used a past that is gone forever. Look at the lsraelites.
not only with the accusative but with the subject By 586 e.c. the song ofGod had gone and Ezekiel
(nota nominativi) ofboth intransitive and passive saw God's presence leaving first the temple, then
verbs. Copious illustrations could be offered but the city.
two will suffice. With 'et as subject of an intransi- The reason lies in the nature of God, his holy
tive verb compare II Kgs 6:5: "The axe-head feil and jealous love, and in the fact that everywhere
into the water" ( w' 'et-habbarze/ näpal 'el- God meets man, he places a moral demand on
hammäyim). With 'et as subject of a passive verb him. lt is obedience and sensitivity to the Holy
compare Gen 17:5: "And your name ('et-shimkä) One that makes God and myself compatible.
shall no more be called Abram." Bibliography: Meek, Theophile J., "Translat-
To summarize, 'et was originally a substan- ing the Hebrew Bible," JBL 79: 328-35. TDOT,
tive, and was used to emphasize the noun to I, pp. 449--03.
which it was prefixed. In the course of time the V.P.H.

83
188 Mt,1$('äta)

r,~ (' er) III. See no. 192a. iirii;t ('atbn). See no. 190a.
1;1~ (' at). See no. 189a. ;,irii;t ('ätbq). See no. 191a.
;,•i,,~ (attfq). See no. 191b.
188 :it11;t (' ata) to come.
Derivative 190 1MM ( 'tn) Assumed root of the following.
190a t,iMl;t (ätbn) she-ass, she-donkey.
188a 1iM•M ( 'ftbn) entrance. This mas-
culine noun occurs only in Ezk The she-ass is prized as a valuable possession:
40:15. Gen 12:16; 32:16; Job 1:3; 42:12. Pope observes
that she-asses ('äton) are listed among Job's
The normal word for "come" is bb' which is possessions but not male asses (l;zamör). He ob-
used over twenty-five hundred times in the oT. serves, "Female asses are mentioned because
By contrast 'äta is used only twenty times, they exceeded the male asses in number and in
twenty-one times if one accepts the emendation value, because of their milk and their breeding.
proposed by Dahood for Ps 74:9, "Our signs we They are also better for riding than male asses"
do not see, there is no longer a prophet, and no (AB, Job, p. 7).
one has ·come' (' ittanu > ·atänu) who knows No wonder then that Kish dispatched his son
how long." Eighteen of the twenty are in the Qal Saul to find the she-asses that had wandered off
and two in the Hi phil (lsa 21: 14; J er 12:9) with the (1 Sam 9:3, 5, 20; 10:2, 14, 16). Saul, however,
meaning "to bring." In the Aramaic sections of did not find what he was looking for (as Colum-
the oT, 'äta occurs exclusively for "to come" bus). He did not find the she-donkeys but he did
and there sixteen times. Observe also that all of find a crown for his head. Similarly it is on the
the Hebrew occurrences are in poetic passages, back of a donkey (l;zamör), a colt, and the foal of
never prose. a donkey (ben-'atönot) that the Messiah will ride
Nine times the root appears in lsaiah, mostly in into Jerusalem (Zech 9:9). Speiser (AB, Genesis,
the latter half except for 21: 12, 14. No particular p. 362) connects this verse with the phrase in Gen
continuity marks the seven remaining passages: 49: 11, b' nf 'atönb, "the young/foal of his she-
the coming of the future (41:23; 44:7; 45: 11); the ass" which he translates "purebred." He relates
coming of Cyrus (41 :25); those who come to de- it to the phrase in the Mari texts mar atanim
hauch themselves (56: 12); the coming of wild "choice, purebred ass."
beasts to devour God's people (56:9; cf. Jer 12:9) Finally it is on an ·ätbn that the diviner Balaam
humanity in general (41:5). rides (Num 22tf.). The donkey even spoke to
The verb is used to describe the "coming" of Balaam (Num 22:28; cf. talking snake in Gen
God only in Deut 33 :2. lt is used for "coming" to 3:ltf.). lt is unprofitable to pursue whether the
God in Jer 3 :22. The root appears four times in ass gave forth an audible sound, or was merely an
Job: 3:25; 16:22; 30:14; 37:22. experience in the mind of Balaam, or both. What
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Hebrew- is important is that the story demonstrates that
Ugaritic Lexicography I," Bib 44: 299. Gordon, God's control over nature is so exhaustive and
VRaritic Glossary, no. 407. TDNT, V, pp. 861- complete, and his word so powerful that he could
65. THAT, I, p. 267. use a dumb animal as the bearer of his word.
V.P.H. V.P.H.

189 :il'\M ('atta) thou. (KJV, ASV, and Rsv are

• iimilar, "thou. ") :,:r,ac (' etna) ,~i:i~ (' etnan). See nos.
• 2.s°24a,2529a.
Ugaritic and other Semitic parallels are com-
mon. This second person singular pronoun oc-
191 i'MM ( 't q). Assumed root of the following.
curs a few hundred times in the OT. lt is appended
191a i'iMM ('atoq) gallery, porch. Oc-
to verbs for emphasis. Its use in oblique cases
c~rs only in Ezk 41: 15.
(genitive and accusative) is to afford stress to a
191b ;,•i,,~ (' attfq) gallery. Occurs only
preceding suffix.
in Ezk 41:15-16; 42:3, 5.
Derivatives
189a .f'\M ('at) thou (feminine). 192 MMM('tt). Assumed root of the following .
189b =~~ ('attem) you (masculine). 192a r,~ (' et)III, plowshare.
189c irj~ ('atten) you (feminine).
. C.L.F.

84
193 ' (b'). b' 'er also designates slime or bitumen pit (Gen
A very common preposition with a wide range 14:10) and the pit as a place of destruction (Ps
of meanings. BDB list mainly: in, at or by, with 55:23 [H 24]; 69:15 [H 16]).
(of accompaniment or of instrument), a verbal b' 'er is also used figuratively. The strange
complement of specialized meaning, and, used woman is like a pit (Prov 23:27), but one's be-
loved is a weit of living water (Song 4:15). A
with the infinitive construct, to introduce a tem-
man's wife is his own weil (Prov 5:15).
poral clause. Currently the Hebrew prepositions
are recognized as having an even wider range of The noun is also used in place names such as
meaning.Ugaritic evidence indicates that b' also Beersheba, Beer (Num 21 :16), and Beerelim (lsa
often means „from," as does the preposition /' 15:8).
(Gordon,UT 19: no. 435; Ais WUS 486). b„er 18'tay rö'i. Weil of the living one who sees
R.L.H. me. This is the name of a particular site be-
tween Kadesh and Bered, as yet unidentified. lt
:,1$; (bi'a). See no. 212a. was the dwelling place of Isaac (Gen 24 :62; 25: 11)
and the site of Hagar's deliverance from thirst
(Gen 16:14). The name is connected with the
194 *'ltli (bä' ar) declare, make plain.
phrase "thou art a God who sees" (Gen 16:13),
Derivatives but is the subject of much conjecture.
194a t'l!'.C:P(b' 'er) weil, pit. b"'er sheba'. Beersheba. "Weil of Seven" or
194b t•K·"\ '!'.17
"lt'.t:P(b''er laf:iay ro'f) weil "Weil of the Oath," it marked the southem ex-
of the living one who sees me. tremity of Palestine, "From Dan to Beersheba,"
194c t11;t,t:t:P (b''ersheba') Beersheba. and its converse (Jud 20:1; etc.; I Chr21:2, etc.).
194d t"\K·i (bo'r) cistern, pit, weil. lt was a sanctuary (Gen 21:33; 46:1-5; Arnos
194e t"li:D (bor) pit, cistern, weil. 8:14; 5:5). Two explanations for the name are
This verb occurs only in the Pie) stem. lt de- given in Genesis. One derives it from the oath
(shebu'ii) between Abraham and Abimelech at-
scribeswriting on tablets of stone made clear and
tested by seven (sheba') lambs (Gen 21:31>-31).
distinct(Deut 27:8) or some writing upon tablets
The second connects it with an oath (shebü'ii)
whichis legible at a hurried glance (Hab 2:2). In
figurativeuse the verb means to make clear by swom by Isaac (Gen 26:31). [This is probably an
example of a name explanation which was not
explaining(Deut 1:5).
intended to be etymological but a word play for
b0 'er. Weil, pit. A feminine noun possibly interest and easier° memory of the incidents. The
frombä'ar „to make plain," but connection un- place may have been called Beersheba before the
certain. incidents were described. Another clear example
Welts for water were dug in the earth (Gen of such a non-etymological word play is Babel in
21:30;26:18, 21-22, 25) and the discovery of Gen 11:9. Babel in Akkadian means "gate of
waterwas an occasion for rejoicing, celebrated in God." But it sounds somewhat like the verb
song (Gen 26:32; Num 21: 17-18). Ordinarily bälal "to confound." R.L.H.]
waterhad tobe drawn (Gen 24:11, 20), and so a
bö'r. Cistern. This is a masculine noun from
flowingweit ("living water") was a particularly
goodfortune (Gen 26: 19). In a land where water the root bar (Jer 2:13 and Kethib of II Sam
23:15-16, 20; see Mr). A cistem dug in rock
was scarce, wells were a source of contention
which stored water in the rainy season. In time
(Gen26:19-21). Israel promised that they would
the water stagnated, and earthquakes cracked the
drink no water from the wells of Edom and
rock and plaster. Jeremiah contrasts Jehovah, an
Ammonif they were allowed to pass through
artesian well, with idolatry, a stagnant, leaky
theirterritory (Num 20:17). When not in use, the
cistem.
weit could be protected with a stone covering
(Gen29:2ff.). So covered, the well served as a hör. Cistern, dungeon, /ountain, pit, weil. (ASV
biding place for David's informers (II Sam and RSV similar.) bor, related to bö'r (cistem,
17:18-21).Water was drawn by women, and so Jer 2: 13), as weit as to b' 'er (weit) to which it is
theweilserved as a meeting place for the servant parallel (Prov 5:15), is a masculine noun perhaps
of Abraham and Rebekah (Gen 24:llff.), Jacob from the root b'r which means "to write
and Rache! (Gen 29:2ff.), and Moses and Zip- plainly. ". lt occurs sixty-five times.
porah(Ex 2:15ff.). bor may refer to a large pit in the earth. One of

87
195 tt.i~;(bä'ash)
David's mighty men slew a lion in a pit (II Sam 16; 32:18), Assyria (Ezk 32:23), Elam (Ezk
23 :20; I Chr 11:22). In the dry climate of Palestine 32:24), Edom (Ezk 32:29), and Sidon (Ezk 32:30)
(already in pre-Israelite times, Deut 6: 11; Neh are threatened with being brought down to the
9:25), cisterns were hewn from rock and then pit.
plastered. They stored water collected during the Bibliography: Heide(, A., "Death and the Af-
rainy season for use in the dry season. The time terlife," in The Gilgamesh Epic and 0. T. Para/-
when plastering began is uncertain. Frequent al- leis, 2d ed., University of Chicago, 1949, pp.
lusion is made to digging cisterns or wells (II Chr 137-223. Sutcliffe, Edmund F., The O/d Testa-
26:10) and drawing water from them (II Sam ment and the Future Life, 2d ed., Newman
23:16). Drinking water from one's own cistern is Bookshop, 1947. Trump, Nicholas, J., Primitive
Rabshakeh's promise of life as it ought to be Conceptions of Death and the Nether World in
(II Kgs 18:31; Isa 36: 16). bör is to be distin- the O/d Testament, Pontifical Biblical Institute,
guished from "spring" (ma'yan; Lev 11:36). Is- 1969. TDOT, II, pp. 463--05.
rael's laws recognized the <langer of animals fal- J.P.L.
ling into an open pit, and made the owner of the
pit liable for damages in such cases (Ex 21 :33- 195 tult; (ba'ash) stink, abhor. (Asv, Rsv
34). Such <langer is also recognized in Qumran similar.)
(CDC 11, 13) where it is specified that an animal Derivatives
was not to be lifted out on a Sabbath.
Pits or cisterns with their steep smooth sides 195a !UNZ (b• 'ösh) stench.
made excellent prisons (cf. Isa 24:22). Hence 195b M~~; (bo'shii) (stinking things)
Joseph's brothers held him prisoner in a pit until stinking or noxious weeds.
they sold him to the Midianites (Gen 37:20-29). 195c c•wt._t:;i
(b' 'üshim) stinking or worth-
In Egypt he was kept in a dungeon (Gen 40:15; less things, wild grapes.
41: 14). The last plague on Egypt affected even When Moses struck the water of the Nile, the
such prisoners (Ex 12:29). Jeremiah's opponents fish died and the river became foul (Ex 7:18, 21).
threw him into a pit, but Ebedmelech rescued After the plague of the frogs, the land was foul
him (Jer 38:6-13). bet habbör (house of the pit) (stank). When some tried to save their allotted
may also be a general word for dungeon (Ex share of manna, it bred worms and emitted a
12:29; Jer 37:16). Cisterns served as convenient stink (Ex 16:20). But the double portion gathered
dumping areas for corpses (Jer 41 :7, 9), and they on the sixth day did not become foul (Ex 16:24).
served as hiding places intimes of <langer (I Sam This term, stink, is also used by the Hebrew
13:6). foremen of the Israelite slave force who com-
Well-known cisterns serve as geographical lo- plained to Moses and Aaron that they had made
cations, e.g. the weil of Bethlehem (II Sam Israel's savour odious in Pharoah's presence (Ex
23:15-16), the weil of Sirah (II Sam 3:26), the pit 5:21).
of Beth-eked (II Kgs 10:14), and the weil at the Other usages for stink or foul: David cried out
threshing floor of Secu (I Sam 19:22). because his wounds were foul and festering on
In figurative usage, the wicked who lays a account of his folly (Ps 38:5 [H 6]). Jacob
snare is like a man who digs a pit and falls into it exclaimed to Levi and Simeon that their actions
(Ps 7:15 [H 16]). One's wife is his own cistern and caused him to be odious to the people of Canaan
he should find satisfaction with her (Prov 5: 15). with drastic consequences (Gen 34:30). Qohelet
Death is the breaking of the wheel at the cistern says that dead flies ferment and make perfumed
(Eccl 12:6). Sarah is the pit (quarry) from which oil stink (Eccl 10: !).
Israel was hewn (lsa 51: 1-2). Experiencing great The idea of abhorrence is seen in David's deci-
<langer may be compared to being cast alive into a sion to fight for the Philistines. They thought that
pit from which one may cry to the Lord (Lam David had made himself odious to the lsraelites (I
3 :53, 55) and be delivered (Ps 40:2 [H 3 ]). De- Sam 27:12). The affair of Absalom and his
liverance from captivity is being set free from the father's concubines was calculated to make Ab-
waterless pit (Zech 9: 11). salom abhorrent to David and to bring about mis-
The state of death is a going down to the pit (Ps understanding between father and son (II Sam
28:1). Hence the dead are those who go down to 16:21). Other shades of meaning are seen in the
the pit (Ps 88:4 [H 5). 6 [H 7); 143:7). The pit is in actions of wicked rnen who are loathsome (or act
some sense a synonym of Sheol (q. v.; cf. Prov disgustingly, Prov 13:5).
1:12; Isa 14: 15, 19; 38: 18). Ezekiel, however, dis- Thus this word either describes objects that
tinguishes between them (32:18-32). The Psalm- have a foul odor, bad relationships between
ist in distress pleads for deliverance from the pit people creating abhorrence, and the general prin-
(Ps 30:3 [H 4]) and likens his recovery to being ciple that evil deeds are so rotten that they have a
drawn up from the horrible pit (Ps 40:2 [H 3]). bad smell in God's nostrils.
Peoples like Tyre (Ezk 26:20), Egypt (Ezk 31: 14, L.G.

88
 198 .,~; (bägad)

1% :i;; (biiba) apple of the eye (i.e. pupil). their speecb. According to tbe Sumerian Enmer-
Derivation uncertain. kar Epic (141-46), at one time men praised Enlil
"witb tongue," possibly a retlection in secular
197 '7?.; (bäbel) Babel, Babylon. history of this event.
Babylon's greatness and reputation is retlected
Babylon is the Greek spelling of tbe name in biblical sources (lsa 13; Mic 4: 10), including
whicb in Hebrew is uniformly "Babel_." Tbe Jeremiah's reference to Babylon's walls (51:12,
words occurs some 290 times and refers to an an- 58), and of its religious system which venerated
cient city on the eastern bank of tbe Eupbrates Marduk and/or Bel as gods of tbe city. Both
about twenty miles south of Bagdad, near tbe names are known in the Bible (lsa 39: 1?;_ Jer
modern village of Hilla in Iraq. Akkadian seems 50:2). Enuma Elish, . the early Babylonian
to derive the name from babili(m) or from Genesis, mentions a pantheon of gods and god-
another earlier Sumerian source. But in both desses. Even as late as the first century A.D.,
cases it means "Gate of God." Genesis 11:9 John referred to the religious system, Babylon, as
gives tbe name as Babel (perhaps from bii/al "to the "Mother of harlots and of the abominations
confuse") but probably intended as a parody, a ofthe earth" (Rev 17:5). lt is no wonder that God
word play referring to wbat happened wben the took Judah to Babylon so as to preserve a rem-
languages were confused. nant of Judah by allowing them to experience
Tbe first definite occurrence of bab-ili(m) is in first-hand the horrible folly of idolatry (for this
the texts of the Third Dynasty of Ur (2300-2200 reason more than half of all the biblical refer-
e.c., approximately Abrabam's day), although ences are in J er).
the Scriptures state tbat Babylon along with Whereas Nebuchadnezzar envisioned the
Erecb and Akkad was one of tbe earliest cities in proud city that usurped Jerusalem's headship as a
the South (Gen 10:10). head of gold (Dan 2), Daniel saw its true bestial
The city figured prominently under Ham- character as a lion (Dan 7). Daniel based his
murabiplaced by some at 1792-1749, by others at prayer for lsrael's release on Jeremiah's predic-
1728-1686e.c. and noted for bis legal code. Tbe tion that the captivity would last seventy years
might of Assyria prevented Babylon from being (Jer 25:11-12; 29:10; Dan 9:2ff.). But whereas
prominent (from tbe 1100s), althougb Tiglath- Jeremiah predicted the length of the captivity,
pileser III (745-727 e.c.) gave the city luster, rul- Isaiah foresaw the shape of Israel's exodus from
ing in it as Pulu, a name that occurs in the Bible Babylon through the conquest of Cyrus (lsa 41;
as "Pul" (II Kgs 15:19). Merodach Baladan at 43:14; 45:lff., etc.).
about 700 e.c. represented a figure of resistance Bibliography: "Babylon," in Encyclopedia
to Assyria and no doubt was looking for allies Judaica, IV, pp. 30-34. Jacobsen, T., "Babel,"
(lsa 39:1). The city was destroyed by Sen- and "Babylon," in IDB, I, pp. 334-38. Wiseman,
nacherib in 689 e.c. because ofrebellions, but the D. J ., Babylon, O.T., ZPEB I, pp. 439-48. Krael-
city was rebuilt by the succeeding Assyrian king, ing, E. G. H., "The Towers ofBabel," JAOS40:
Esarhaddon (680-669 s.c.). 276-81. Parrot, A., Babylon and the Old Testa-
The Cbaldeans moved into Babylonia (the ment, Philosopbical Library, 1958. Saggs, H. W.
area)under Nabopolassar in 626 s.c. and with bis F., The Greatness That Was Babylon, Glasgow:
great successor Nebuchadnezzar II, proceeded McClelland, 1962. Siff, Myra, Harold Ginsberg,
to build the Neo-Babylonian empire. In 612, As- Israel Ta Shma, "Babel, Tower of," in Encyclo-
sur, capital of Assyria, feil. Nebuchadnezzar pedia Judaica, IV. TDOT, I, pp. 466-69.
conquered Judab in 6~05 (Dan 1) and annexed L.G.
it in 587-586 (II Kgs 25). The empire extended its
rule to the borders of Egypt and under Nebu- J~ (bag). Qere is baz, no. 225a.
chadnezzar, Babylon was a magnificent city.
Less able rulers followed, andin 539 tbe Persians 198 ,~; (biigad) deal (act) treacherously, deal
conquered Babylonia (Dan 5). The Persian em- deceitfully, (deal) unfaithfully, offend. (Asv
pire feil two hundred years later. Babylon re- and RSVsimilar except most of ASVand Rsv
tained some importance under tbe Seleucids and use "treacherous[ly]'' in place of "trans-
succeeding Parthians, but it eventually feil into gress[or]. ")
ruins. Derivatives
Its first occurrence in the Bible pertains to the
Towerof Babel episode in which man in a titanic 198a ti~:D (beged) I, treachery.
social revolt attempted to throw off the rule of 198b tri,iJ:ii (bögedot) treacherous.
God and acbieve unity and peace witbout God. 198c tiü; (biigod) treacherous.
Thesymbol of tbeir unity was the tower, and the 198d ti~?. (beged) II, garment.
strength of tbeir unity was their common lan- The various verb forms appear forty-seven
guage.As a result, God judged them by confusing times, twenty-one times using the participle as

89
199 ii (bad)
verbal noun to describe the one who deals 199 i; (bad) I, white linen.
treacherously. He is one who does not honor an
There is uncertainty as to the derivation of this
agreement. The root in South Arabic means "to
noun. KB derive it from bad II (201a), a piece. lt
deceive."
The verb is used to denote unfaithfulness in is used of the boy Samuel in his linen ephod (1
several different relationships. lt is used in con- Sam 2: 18). The priests of Nob wore the linen
nection with unfaithfulness in marriage. The ob- ephod (1 Sam 22: 18). David danced before the
ject of the faithlessness may be the wife (Ex 21:8, Lord wearing a linen ephod (II Sam 6:14). The
a slave wife; Mal 2:14, wife of one's youth), or priests wore linen vestments, linen breeches,
the husband (Jer 3:20). The latter passage also turbans, caps, tunics (Ex 28:42; 39:28; Lev 16:4).
illustrates that the word is used to describe Is- Angels appear clad in linen garments (Ezk 9:2-3;
10:2, 6). ·
rael' s unfaithfulness to the Lord (Jer 9:2 [H 1]).
In addition to the metaphor of unfaithfulness in L.G.
marriage to describe lsrael's revolt against the
Lord, the Lord or his covenant is sometimes the ,; (bad) II. See no. 201a.
explicit object ofthe verb (1 Sam 14:33; Ps 78:57; ,; (bad) III. See no. 202a.
119:158). Even to question his justice is an act of
treachery (Ps 73: 15). Involved in unfaithfulness 200 M,; (hädä') devise, invent (bad sense).
to the Lord's covenant may be unfaithfulness to
one's brother (Mal 2:!0ff). Thus the word is also 201 i'j; (bädad) alone (three times only).
used of breaching man-made treaties and the so- (Asv and Rsv same except in one instance,
cial responsibilities expected in normal human re- "no straggler," lsa 14:31.)
lationships. The men of Shechem dealt treacher-
ously against Abimelech whom they had made Derivatives
their king (Jud 9). Job feit betrayed by his friends 201a ti; (bad) II, alone, by itself, apart,
(Job 6: 15), andin Jeremiah's time property rights besides.
were violated by treacherous men (Jer 12:6). 201b t,,; (bädäd) alone.
Wine (according to MT), or riches (according
to 1Q Hab 8 :3) may cause men to behave this way The core concept is "to be separate and iso-
(Hab 2:5). lated." lt can also connote the idea of dividing
The treacherous are sometimes rewarded in into parts. This verb underscores the idea of iso-
kind (Jud 9; lsa 33:1). In any case the Lord will lation, e.g. the lonely bird on the housetop (Ps
judge such false folk (Ps 25:3; Prov 2:22; 11:6; 102:8), the donkey (simile of Ephraim) wilfully
21:18). going alone to Assyria (Hos 8:9), and the lone
army straggler.
beged. Treachery. Appears twice, in lsa
24: 16, as part of a play on words and in Jer 12:1 bad II. Alone. This derivative is used over
referring to treacherous dealers in treachery. one hundred times, usually in the compound
/'bad. lt may have a positive, a negative, or a
bög"döt. Treacherous. (Zeph 3 :4, RSV uses neutral connotation. Positively, the word is used
"faithless men"). lt would seem that the idea of of the Lord's incomparability and uniqueness in
treacherous is more apropos since a strong ren- his exclusive claim to deity as seen in his extra-
dering is needed to underscore false prophets as ordinary works (Deut 4:35; 32:12; Job 9:8; lsa
men of treachery who mislead an entire nation. 44:24; Neh 9:6), or in his splendid exaltation (Ps
bägöd. Treacherous (twice, Jer 3:7, 10). 72:18; 148:13; lsa 2:11, 17). Also, positively,
Balaam celebrated lsrael's dwelling alone (Num
beged II. Garment. The relation of this word 23:9), which seems to refer to his sole posses-
to the above root is not clear. KB cite a corre- sion of the land of Canaan and to his security
sponding semantic development in Arabic from in it (cf. Jer 49:31).
the noun "dress" to a verb "disguise." But the But negatively, lsrael's deplorable isolation is
details are not known. the result of the Lord's judgment on her (Isa
beRed is a general word and may be used in 27:10; Mic 7:14; Lam 1:1). Commenting on the
reference to any kind of garment, from the robes last passage Rudolph noted: "This is not the
of the rich and mighty to the rags of the poor and 'splendid isolation' of Num 23:9 and Deut 33:28,
the leper. lt is used for the holy robes of the high but the loneliness of a mother deprived of her
priest and also for cloth used to cover the taber- children" (cited in TNDT, I, p. 476).
nacle furniture (Num 4:6-13) or a bed (1 Sam The word also has a negative connotation when
9: 13). a man is abandoned by his community or by God.
Bibliography: TDOT, I, pp. 470-72. THAT, I, Thus the unclean leper must suffer alone apart
pp. 261--03. from human fellowship (Lev 13:46) and Jeremiah
L.G. complained that because of his unique call he

90
 cannot sit at the company of merrymakers (Jer priests (diviners; Jer 50:36). The boaster's omens
15:17).The psalmists under the chastening hand were idle talk (lsa 44:15).
ofGod feit alone-separated frommen and aban- L.G.
doned by God (Ps 102:1-7 [H 2--8]).
This contrast between loneliness caused by 203 *',~; (biidal) separate selves to, to be sepa-
abandonment and uniqueness in exaltation help rated (Niphal), make a difference, divide,
one to better appreciate the Lord Jesus Christ separate, sever (Hiphil; RSVtranslates "went
who by enduring the loneliness of the cross se- over" in I Chr 12:8, "banned" in Ezr 10:8,
cured a throne at God's right hand (Phil 2:6-11). and "designated" in Ezr 10:16).
Then too it is not good for a man to Jive alone
withouta wife (Gen 2: 18) and a man alone may be Derivatives
exposed to personal <langer (II Sam 17:2). One 203a ,,; (biidiil) piece, severed piece.
feels the cold solitude of Jacob as he waits alone 203b M?,:;i~ (mibdiilil) separate place.
at nightbefore his encounter with Esau, and finds 203c t'?•".!:p(b 'dil) alloy, tin, dross.
himself reassured only after he secures the 203d tn,,:p (b'dolafJ) bdellium.
angelicbenediction (Gen 32:24 [H 25]).
The word is used more neutrally in these fa. This verb, used only in the Niphal and Hiphil,
mous passages: "Man does not live by bread has the basic connotation "to be separated" or
alone" (Deut 8:3) and "against thee, thee only, "to separate," "to divide." This connotation oc-
have I sinned" (Ps 51:4 [H 6]). curs in such passages as Gen 1:6 where the fir-
mament separated the waters; Gen 1: 14, 18
As an adverb of Iimitation there is "through
thee alone do we confess thy name" (lsa 26:13) where the celestial luminaries are seen as creat-
while/' bad followed by min becomes the prepo- ing the distinction between night and day; and Ex
sition "apart from," "besides": the children of 26:33 where the veil is pictured as separating the
Israel... besides children (Ex 12:37), fortified two areas of the temple.
cities... besides unwalled villages (Deut 3:5). The word occurs several times in contexts in
There are cases where the min is prefixed, e.g. which Israel's separation from foreigners is set
mi/1'bad which might be an inverted /' bad min: forth (Ezr 6:21; Neh 9:2; 10:28 [H 29]). This was
there is no other besides him ( miW bado, Deut an ideal of the postexilic community reflecting
4:35). their desire to preserve the ethnic integrity of the
nation. In Lev 20:24 the word is used similarly
Stillanother rendering is that of a definite part, except that it was God who separated Israel from
e.g. of each there shall. be an equal part (bad
b'bad Ex 30:34), as well as the plural (baddim)
the nations to a place of privilege. As a result
Israel is to make a distinction (biida/) between
denoting:extended from something, e.g. strength clean and unclean animals (v. 25).
(KJv;ASV"members," Rsv "limbs," as from a
The word was also used in a somewhat techni-
man, Job 18:13); rods or branches of a vine (Ezk
cal sense as weil. lt could mean to discharge an
17:6;19:14);staves (Rsv "poles") used in carrying
army (II Chr 25: 10) or to designate cities for spe-
the ark of the covenant (Ex 25: 13), table of shew-
bread (Ex 25:27), or altar of burnt offering (Ex cial purpose (Deut 4:41; 19:2, 7) or individuals for
27:6-7), altar of incense (Ex 30:4-5). lt is also service (1 Chr 25:1; Ezk 39:14). In Ezr 10:8 it is
used of the bars of a fortress (Hos 11:6). used in the sense of "ban" with reference to un-
faithful members of the postexilic community.
bädäd. Alone (seven times), solitary (twice), The concept of separation inherent in biidal
desolate (lsa 27: 10), solitarily (Mic 7: 14), only (Ps was used to describe God's special activity in
4:8). setting apart Aaron to the consecration of the
The basic concept is solitariness: the leper is to holy things (I Chr 23: 13) and the setting apart of
live alone, in isolation (Lev 13:46), Israel dwells the Levites (Num 16:9; Deut 10:8). Israel was set
in safety alone (free from attack) (Deut 33:28), apart tobe God's heritage (1 Kgs 8:53).
the Lord alone guided Israel (Deut 32: 12). The word also describes the separation from
L.G. God that is the result of sin (lsa 59:2).

202 ,,:i (bdd) II. Assumed root of the follow- b•dil. Plummet, tin (Asv similar, RSV"alloy. ")
This word (to separate) denotes that which
ing.
202a ti; ( bad) III, liar (twice), lie is separated from precious meta! or meta! ore
(three time s). Possibly from a root and thus in Isa l :25 refers to meta! which in
bd' combination with precious meta! reduces the
precious meta) to dross. lt is used in that sense
The etymology of this word is uncertain. Its figuratively of Israel (Ezk 22: 18). The word also
basic meaning is empty, idle talk. Moab's idle means "tin" in a number of contexts. Tin with
boasts were false (Isa 16:6). The term "empty copper give the alloy bronze. Tin was therefore
talkers" described false prophets, e.g., oracle important in antiquity. Tarshish in Spain was ap-

91
204 ;,j; ( badaq)

parently its main source. The expression ··stone 18]). The day of the Lord especially will be
of tin" refers to a plummet in Zech 4: 10 (but is marked by nations such as Babylon being
not the word used in Arnos 7:74!). alarmed (lsa 13:8). With the appearing ofthe cho-
sen king, God will address the conspiring nations
b0 döl~. Bdellium. Possibly a stone (pearl?) or
and "terrify (biihal) them in his fury" (Ps 2:5).
maybe a resin (so KB), b'döla}J was a product
Thus, the preliminary psychological defeat of the
from the land of Havilah (Gen 2: 12). The color of
enemy is part of God's acts in that war.
manna was compared to bdellium (Num 11:7).
But individuals also know disturbance emo-
The derivation is uncertain.
T.E.M. tionally at the hand ofGod (cf. Job 23:15). bähal
is frequent in Daniel in connection with dreams
',•i:.i (b'df/). See no. 203c. and visions, both of the prophet (4:5) and of the
r,7;·~ (b"döla}J). See no. 203d. king (5:6).
This connotation of fear from confrontation
204 i'".!f ( bädaq) mend, repair. Perhaps a with the supematural is seen in Saul" s terror at
denominative from the following noun. the appearance of Samuel (1 Sam 28 :2 I) and ls-
204a i''.'.l;l(bedeq) fissure, rent, breach. rael' s fear in the presence of sudden death (Lev
26:16; Ps 78:33).
205 :,:,: (bhh). Assumed root of the following. An additional meaning of biihal "hurry," "be
205a t1:,: (böhü) void, waste, emptiness. hasty,'" is found in narrative literature (e.g.
Always occurring with töhü "waste" (q.v.), II Chr 35 :21 ; Est 2 :9; Dan 2 :25) and wisdom ma-
böhü describes the primordial condition of the terial, where it is associated with rash acts or
earth, "void" at the beginning of creation (Gen haste in securing wealth (e.g. Eccl 5:2 [HI]; 7:9;
I :2), or "made empty" by God's judgment (lsa Prov 20:21 28:22).
34: 11; Jer 4:23). lt is probable that the descrip- behälä. Sudden terror. In the four passages
tions in Isaiah of the desolations of Edom and where behäla is employed, God is always the
those in Jeremiah of Israel borrow this phrase agent bringing terror on Israel. God threatens ter-
from the Genesis picture of a primordial chaos. ror (Lev 26: I 6), or is said to have brought behiilä
Bibliography: Young, Ed ward J., "The Inter- on them (Jer 15:8; Ps 78 :33) because of their dis-
pretation ofGenesis 1:2," WTJ 23: 151-78. regard of him. lt seems that both meanings of
E.A.M. biihal "alarm'" and "haste" are brought together
i•:i; (biihfr). See no. 21 lb. in the noun, behäla "sudden terror."
E.A.M.
206 tQ::,~(baha/) a costly stone, perhaps por-
phyry. 208 c:i: (bhm). Assumed root of the following.
208a t:i~n: (b'hema) beast, animal, cat-
207 ',::,; (bähal) be disturbed, disturb, alarm, 'tie'.
terrify; to hurry. (Asv renders "be trou- 208b tr,i~ti:!) (b'hemot) hippopotamus.
bled," "dismayed" but Rsv frequently uses
b"hemä. Beast, animal, cattle. (Asv and Rsv
the more intensive "terrify," "panic,"
similar.) Used 137 times, b'hema denotes
"alarm. ")
four-footed animals and is distinguished from
Derivative birds (Gen 6:7), fishes, and reptiles (I Kgs 4:33
[H 5:13]).
207a t:i7:;t?. (behiila) sudden terror, alarm.
b'hemii is in contrast to man ('ädiim) (e.g. Ex
The verb bähal occurs fifty times, eleven of 9:9-10) and though both are subsumed under liv-
which are in the Aramaic section of Daniel with ing things (}Jayya), there is nowhere a classifica-
similar meaning. Synonyms are }Järad "tremble, tion of man as animal. b' hema can refer to both
be afraid," pii}Jad "be afraid," and yii[?ör a gen- wild beast, though exclusive use as wild beast is
eral word meaning "to fear." yäre' refers to a rev- less frequent (cf. Jer 7:33) and domestic animal.
erential fear. biihal usually expresses an emotion When referring to domestic animals, b' hema
of one who is confronted with something unex- usually includes both !arge cattle (bäqär, q. v .)
pected, threatening or disastrous (e.g. Israel at and sheep (~ö'n), but not the "creeping things'"
the news of Abner·s death, II Sam 4: I; or the (remes) that creep along the ground. These are
Benjamites when ambushed, Jud 20:41). perhaps the smaller animals, lizards, rodents,
God disturbs nations, sometimes to the point of etc.
panic. Thus Edom was alarmed when she heard b' hema, often collective, are God's creation
how God intervened in Israel"s behalf at the Sea (Gen I :26) and are preserved by him through his
ofReeds (Ex 15:15). The Psalmist anticipates the provision (Ps 36:6 [H 7]; cf. 104:14).
panic which will descend on his enemies as God Man's rule over the animal world is not tobe
moves against them (Ps 6:10 [H I IJ; 83:17 [H interpreted as exploitation. Ruthless treatment of

92
 212 Ni!ll (bo')

natural resources, including animals, brings trunk of an elephant? In this case the elephant
judgment (Hab 2: 17). Indeed, so intertwined is would be an even more likely candidate. R.L.H.)
man's moral life with the world of nature that sins The mention of be hemot heightens the impact
bring havoc also in the world of nature (Hos 4: 1- of the passage which is that even the strongest
4). Jeremiah states that human moral evil will creature is God's creation. The Greeks, it has
bringabout an absence of animals (Jer 9: 10 [H 9); been remarked, were arrested with the beautiful
cf. 9:4ff.). Righteous men have regard for beasts as expressive of deity; the Hebrews were im-
(Prov 12:10). pressed with the huge, even the ugly, as repre-
Several prohibitions relate to man with respect senting the power of deity.
to beasts. He is not to make an image of God in E.A.M.
their likeness (Deut 4:17). Human beings are not
to have sexual intercourse with beasts on the rii~::,; (b'hemot). See no. 208b.
penalty of death (Ex 22:10, 19 [H 9, 18]; cf. Lev
18:23).Certain animals, primarily but not only 209 i:,::i (bhn). Assumed root of the following.
those that do not chew cud or have cloven hoofs, 209a ti::,·, (böhen) thumb, big toe (al-
were unfit for food (Deut 14:4~). likely for . ways used of both together).
hygienicreasons (cf. Lev 11:46; 20:25, see R. L. Blood was applied to the thumb of the right
Harris, Man-¼od's Eternal Creation, Moody, hand and the big toe of the right foot at the con-
1971,pp. 139-44). secration of the high priest (Ex 29:20) and his
In apocalyptic material, beasts become a sym- sons (Lev 8:23-24), and also to the right ear. The
bol for bad nations, though another term is used ritual would at least suggest that the priests were
there (e.g. Dan 7:7). to hear, work, and walk for the Lord. Oil, in addi-
tion to blood, was similarly applied at the cleans-
b•hemöt. Hippopotamus (Asv "hippopotamus"; ing of lepers (Lev 14:14). In the conquest of Ca-
RSv"behemoth"). naan. Adonibezek, the Canaanite king, was hu-
Though used only once (Job 40:15), behemot
miliated at his capture by the amputation of
has evoked considerable discussion. As an ex- thumbs and big toes and thus rendered unfit to
tension of the plural of be hemil (q.v.) akin to the reign (Jud 1:6-7).
superlative in the English, be hemot refers to a E.A.M.
!argebeast, the brute beast par excellence. Judg-
ingfrom the description in Job 40: 15, be hemot is 210 ;,:,::i ( bhq ). Assumed root of the following,
a land animal in distinction to leviathan 210a ;,::i·, (böhaq) harmless eruption of
(/iwyätän, q.v.), likely a sea monster, though the skin (Lev 13:39).
some have regarded be hemot as a water crea-
ture. 211 i:,::, (bhr). Assumed root of the following.
The debate centers on whether b'hemot is to 211a t?'l'.')0 ;(baheret) white patch of
be regarded as a natural animal, the hip- skin (Asv "bright spot"; Rsv
popotamus, or whether there is a reference to an "spot").
animal monster which in myths of the ancient
middleeast, so it is maintained, functioned as the Found in Lev 13 and 14 only, baheret is a pos-
adversary of the hero whom the hero, divine-like, sible sign of a skin disease (~ära'at, q.v.). The
overpowered. b"hemot is best thought of as a checking of the symptom by the priest under-
!arge land animal whose habits are known and scores the concern in the Bible for bodily
described but which, as is the custom in poetry, hygiene.
may symbolize another meaning here as the E.A.M.
strange beast of mythology. lt is possible there-
fore that an allusion to a mythological beast 211b i•:,;i ( biihir) bright, brilliant, of
exists in the Job passage, but such allusion is not light.
to be interpreted as legitimating these myths as
true. (See the discussion of such mythological al- 212 Mi: (bo') go in, enter. In the Hiphil,
"bring." (Asv and RSV generally similar.)
lusions under [ita!J.) The pagan concept, if it is at
all in view, is modified by the addition of "which Derivatives
I have made" (Job 40: 15). The Statement that
b' hem6t is "first of the works of God" (Job
212a t:,tt; (bi'ä) entrance.
212b tMi::i~ (miibo') entrance.
40:19) is a reference, not to chronology, but to
the largeness of b'hemot ("he ranks first among
212c t:itt1:~ (t'bu'ii) produce.
the works of God," N1v). [If b 1'hemot is a real bo'. the fourth most frequently occurring verb
creature the description of a "tail like a cedar" is in the OT, is used 2570 times, for the most part
strange. Could it be that the word ziinäb "tail" with everyday meanings of "go, arrive, enter a
also can be used for other appendages-as the house," or, more idiomatically, "to die" (go to

93
212 Mil (bo')
the fathers) or for sexual relations (come in to that his words must come to pass (Deut 18:22). Of
her). A synonym is hälak "go"; an antonym is course, the words of a false prophet may also
yü$ü' "go out." come true, and thus one must examine the
Theologically the verb bo' appears in varied theological content of the word as weil (Deut
but significant contexts. Four aspects can be 13:3).
identified. By bringing to pass either his threats or his
First, bb' is found with reference to YHWH as promises YHWH demonstrates his dominion
one who comes to his people. At the founding of over history (Josh 23:15; II Kgs 19:25: lsa 31:2).
Israel as a nation he came in thick clouds to Frequently the predictions use the causative
Mount Sinai (Ex 19:9; 20:20). From Sinai he Hiphil stem with ho' showing clearly that it is
came with his ten thousands to fight for his YHWH who is sovereignly guiding history (Ex
people (Deut 33:2-5; Hab 3:3). In accordance 11:1; I Kgs 21:29; passim). fo a passage that ex-
with his promise that he would come to every tols YHWH above graven images one reads,
place he chose to cause his name to be remem- "Behold the former things have come to pass"
bered (Ex 20:24), he came to Mount Zion with his (lsa42:9). Gods are challenged to declare "things
ten thousands of holy ones (Ps 68:17 [H 18]). to come" (ho') (lsa 41 :22). The promise of land
Thus he comes to fight for Israel throughout her and progeny to the patriarchs is only one of many
history (lsa 30:27), which is an eamest that in the promise-predictions that have come to fulfillment
future he will give Israel an ultimate and univer- and which argue for the superiority of YHWH.
sal victory over evil (Ps %:13; 98:9). As in the A characteristic expression referring to the fu-
past he fulfilled his promise to judge the nations ture, but not necessarily to the final days of the
(cf. lsa 19:I; Jer 25:31 ), so he will come in the world history, is "days are coming" (participle of
future to judge the evildoers (lsa 66: 15). He will bo'). Although employed by Arnos (8:11; 9:13)
come as a mighty warrior bringing back his and lsaiah (27:6: 39:6), it is Jeremiah who most
people from the ends of the earth (lsa 40:9-11 ), frequently uses it as an introductory phrase,
and he will dwell in Jerusalem (Zech 2: 10 [H 14]). sometimes to announce judgment (e.g. Jer 9:26
The notion that the LORDis a God who comes [H 24]; 19:6; 48:12; 49:2) but also to announce
with salvation is succinctly captured by Hosea: salvation (Jer 16: 14), including the eatablishment
··Let us press on to know YHWH; his going forth of the new covenant (Jer 31 :31) and the appear-
is sure as the dawn; he will come to us as the ance of a kingly messiah (Jer 23 :5).
showers, as the spring rains that water the earth" In a word bö' is used in the announcements of
(6:3 ). This anticipation which characterizes the threat and promise. Thus even as bö' is used in
oT finds its fulfillment in part in Jesus Christ of the announcement of judgment against Eli (1 Sam
whom it can be enthusiastically heralded, "Bles- 2 :3 1) and against Hezekiah (II Kgs 20: 17). the
sed be he who enters (bo' "cometh," ASV) in the pre-exilic prophets use it in the form of a pro-
name of the LoRD" (Ps 118:26). God's coming to phetic perfect with reference to the judgment
save is essentially an intervention and almost al- coming upon Israel (Arnos 8:2; Hos 9:7; Mic 1:9;
ways regarded as imminent. 7:12). For Zephaniah it is the coming day of the
But he also comes to judge sinful Israel (Ps Lord's fierce anger (2:2); for Jeremiah it is a day
50:3 ). In fact, one of the last prophecies of the oT of calamity also for Egypt (46:22) and Babylon
is that YHWH will suddenly come to his temple (50:27); for Ezekiel it is the day of distress (Ezk
as a refining fire (Mal 3:1). 7:7, 10); and for Joel a day of destruction from
But in addition to these statements regarding Shaddai (Joel 1:15). This judgment will come be-
his personal coming, other texts reveal various cause the people refused to repent (lsa 5:19; Jer
ways in which he comes: in a dream to Abi- 25:8-11; Zeph 2:3).
melech (Gen 20:3); through messengers closely Our verb is also used in the proclamations of
identified with him and yet distinct from him (Jud salvation that Israel will come back to the land
6: 11; 13:6-10): in connection with the ark (1 Sam (Mic4:8; Isa35:10;51:ll;Zeph3:20; Ezk 11:16;
4:6-7); andin the word of a prophet (Num 22:38; 34:13). Ezekiel, moreover, saw the glory of the
I Sam 2:27). LORD coming into the new temple (43:4) and
Secondly, "coming" (bb') is associated with Haggai forsaw the wealth of all the nations com-
the promise-fulfillment motif. The verdict con- ing to the temple (2:7). Ezra was among those of
ceming the words (i.e. promises) of God by the Diaspora who came back to the house ofGod
Joshua is that "all have come (bb') to pass" (3:8).
(J osh 23: 14). John B right observes that as best he Thirdly, the word is used in connection with
can teil, on every occasion when bb' is used of the coming ""Messiah" who will bring salvation.
God's word or purpose, it has the force of "come Although Gen 49: 10 is fraught with text-critical
to pass," "come true'' (John Durkam & J. R. matters, it is at least certain that Jacob speaks of
Porter, eds., Proclamation and Pre.sence, John a ruler that will come from the tribe of Judah.
Knox, 1970, p. 206). The test of a true prophet is Ezekiel and Zechariah further this hope for the

94
 213 n:z(buz)
"coming" one (Ezk 21 :27 [H 32]; Zech 9:9f.). 16:9ff.). The end-of-the-year harvest in October,
According to Zechariah this triumphant king is chiefly a fruit harvest, concluded with the obser-
poor, and comes riding on a donkey, a symbol of vance of the festival of booths (Lev 23 :39; cf.
his lowliness. Deut 16:13ff.).
Finally, bo · is used with reference to the man Thirdly, both in legal and wisdom literature the
who comes to the sanctuary in company with his firstfruits of the produce ( t" bü ·ii) are designated
community in order to pray and bring sacrifices for YHWH (cf. Prov 3:9; Deut 14:22). Israel was
(Deut 12:5; 31: 11; II Sam 7: 18; Isa 30:29; Jer 7:2, to tithe ('äsar) all the produce of the field annu-
10; Ps 5:7 [H 8]; 42:2 [H 3]). Whereas priests had ally. Every three years the agricultural tithe was
to satisfy specific regulations in· order to enter designated particularly to the Levite, the
this sacred sphere (Ex 28:29f.; 29:30; etc.), all sojoumer, the fatherless, and the widow (Deut
who enter must exhibit righteous behavior (Ps 15; 26:12; cf. 14:28). ·
24). Foreigners also could come to pray (1 Kgs Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., "Some Ob-
8:41), but eunuchs were excluded from the cultic servations Conceming Biblical Prayer," HUCA
community (Deut 23:1 [H 2]). When the people 32: 75-90. Driver, G. R., "Hebrew Notes," VT
came to the sanctuary they also went to the 1: 241-50. Speiser, E. A.," 'Coming' and 'Going'
priests (Deut 17:9). They also went to the prophet at the City Gate," BASOR 144: 20-23. TDNT, V,
to inquire of the LORD(e.g. I Kgs 14:3, 5; II Kgs 861~5. TDOT, II, pp. 20-49. THAT, 1, pp.
4:42; Ezk 14:4, 7). 264~8.
E.A.M.
bi'ä. Entrance. Used once, bi'ii refers to an
entryway within the temple area in which the of-
fensive image of jealousy was erected (Ezk 8:5).
213 mi (buz) despise, hold as insignifrcant.
mäbö'. Entrance, entry, setting (of sun). While (Asv and RSVusually similar, though Rsv
mäb6' refers concretely to the entrance of a city renders "scom" in Song 8:7, Prov 30:17,
(Jud 1:24) or temple (II Chr 23: 13) etc., it is used and "belittle" in Prov 11:12.)
in an abstract sense in the phrase "going out and
comingin" (II Sam 3:25) which in Hebrew idiom Derivatives
means "the whole range ofa man's life" (cf. con- 213a tn~ (buz) contempt.
texts: blessing Deut 28:6, surveillance I Sam 213b tn!1~ (buza) contempt.
29:6, petition I Kgs 3:7, promise Ps 121:8, and
judgment Isa 37:28). With derivatives, büz appears twenty-four
times, almost entirely in wisdom and poetic ma-
t•bu'ä. Produce, yield. (Asv often "increase"; terial. Synonymsare bäza "despise" and nii'aJ
Rsvuses "increase" only once and prefers "pro- "despise to the point of rejection." An antonym
duce," "harvest," "yield" or "gain." Both oc- is yäre' "reverence," "regard," buz is probably
casionally use "fruit. ") a by-form of bäzii (q.v.).
Used forty-two times with highest frequency in One may despise (huz) either people or their
Lev. Deut and Prov, t"bu'ii refers to the yield of sayings, or, to include a closely related synonym,
the ground, crops both in the form of grain and one may despise (häza) also oaths (Ezk 17:16),
fruit. Poetic and prophetic literature extends this birthrights (Gen 25:34), or even God (Mal 1:6).
meaning to refer to "result." The yield (r' bu'ii) But to do so incurs God's wrath. To despise (büz)
of wisdom is better than choice silver (Prov 8: 19). wisdom is characteristic of fools (Prov 1:7; 23 :9).
The gain (l'"bu'a) ofthe wicked is sin and trouble Destruction is the end result for those who disre-
(Prov 10:16; 15:6). Jeremiah identifies Israel as gard, i.e. despise (huz) the law (Prov 13:13).
the firstfruit of YHWH's harvest (t" bu'ii Jer 2:3). Youth is counseled, "Do not despise your
Three affirmations can be made conceming the mother" (Prov 23:22). The seriousness of belit-
produce ofthe ground. First, it is God who makes tling a neighbor is evident from another proverb
yield (I" bu ·a) possible. Israel was assured that which depicts such action as betraying Jack of
even in the sabbatical and jubilee year the yield sense (Prov 11:12) or as sinful (Prov 14:21).
wouldbe sufficient to meet the need (Lev 25:3ff., Scripture emphasizes the dignity of man (Ps 8:5;
12, 19ff.). God is praised for bringing about a [H 6]) and whoever undercuts that dignity.
fruitful yield (Ps l07:37; cf. Deut 33:14). He whether for reasons of racial difference, eco-
promises blessing in the form of productivity nomic standing, or even age is guilty of sin. For
(Deut 16:15; cf. lsa 30:23). this reason there is punishment, e.g. for one who
Secondly, the ingathering of produce (t'bü'a) scoms parents (Prov 30:17). To despise one's
was an occasion of celebration. There were two neighbor is failure to love the neighbor as one
festivals of harvest in addition to the Festival of loves himself. Jesus· reason for persons to refrain
Unleavened bread. The feast of weeks (firstfruits from despising children (kataphroneö, Mt 18:IO)
of grain) was observed in May-June (Deut is that in heaven their angels behold the face of

95
214 *'!!~:(buk)
the Father, i.e. God has regard for them. lt is Derivatives
sinful to despise the innocent. 216a t•l;)~:I~ (y' hüsf) Jebusite.
büz. Contempt, put to shame. (Asv and RSV 216b :ii;1:,~ ( m' hüsti) downtreading, sub-
similar, though Rsv once "be laughed at" (Gen jugation.
38:23). The opposite of huz is hillel "praise" 216c :,1;1:11;1(t'hüsa) downtreading=ruin,
(Prov 12:8). down/all.
Contempt is characteristic of the wicked (Prov
18:3) and is often directed at the righteous (Ps This verb occurs twelve times. Often joined
31: 18 [H 19)), who then cry for God's mercy and with "enemies," bus is primarily destructive ac-
intervention (Ps 123:3-4; cf. Ps 119:22). Tobe tion (e.g. Zech 10:5), and differs from its
regarded by others as unimportant or insignifi- synonyms diirak "march,'' "tread (winepress),"
cant is the luxury of those who are secure (Job and riimas "trample," '"tread (clay)," which
12:5) but it is irritable, if not hurtful, to those who may, but need not, denote destruction.
are the objects of büz and who understandably God is often the subject who is either asked to
avoid it (Gen 38:23). Job was terrified by the trample down (büs) the enemy (e.g. Ps 44:5 [H 6])
··contempt offamilies" (clansmen?) so he sought or who himself promises to trample down (büs)
God who would deal righteously with him (Job peoples (lsa 63:6) such as the Assyrians (lsa
31 :34-35). 14:25). bus is used anthropomorphically, but one
On the other hand, justice and the vindication should not miss the accompanying emotion of
of righteousness demands that the wicked be anger (cf. lsa 63 :6).
treated with contempt. Twice God is said to pour Metaphorically, bus is used of "desecration"
contempt (büz) on princes. In the context of a (e.g. sanctuary, lsa 63: 18).
description of God's greatness, Job uses the ex-
y0 büsi. Jebusite(s). Descendants of Canaan
pression to indicate that God is not intimidated
(q.v.; Gen 10:16), these peoples lived in the hill
by princes (Job 12:21). The Psalmist calls on
country of southern Palestine (Num 13:29), and
people to praise God for his deeds, among which
occupied the area which during the time of King
is God's contempt on princes (Ps 107:40). lsaiah
David was captured and became known as
by faith warned the arrogant invading Assyrians
Jerusalem (II Sam 5:6; cf. Josh 18:28). As inhabi-
that Jerusalem looked on their proud horde with
tants of the hill country, they are associated with
contempt and scorn (II Kgs 19:21; lsa 37:22).
the Amorites (cf. Josh 15:63; 10:5).
This stance is consistent with the proverb "men
The Jebusites are listed nine times as members
with warped minds are despised" (Prov 12:8,
NIV).
of a six-nation group (Ex 3:8, 17; 23:23; 33:2;
Deut 20: 17; Josh 9: 1; 11:3; 12:8; Jud 3 :5), whose
büza. Contempt. Used in Nehemiah's prayer good land God was giving to Israel (Ex 13:5). God
(Neh 4:4 [H 3 :36)), büza as illustrated by To- promised to drive out the Jebusites before Israel
biah'sjoking remark, is sufficient reason for a cry (Ex 23:23). They were tobe destroyed so that
to God for intervention. Israel would not leam their abominable practices
One may hold someone in such high regard in (Ex 34: 11). But instead Israel, particularly the
love that by contrast one despises ( büz) a house tribe of Benjamin, failed to expel them (Jud 1:21).
of wealth (Song 8:7). But apart from such usage Consequently the Jebusites eventually intermar-
of the verb, büz is regarded as inappropriate, ried with the Israelites and became the occasion
even sinful. in part for lsrael's idolatry and apostasy (Jud
E.A.M. 3 :5ff,),
That the stronghold of the Jebusites under
214 *'!J~ll (buk) perplex, con/use. Occurs only David became the place for the temple as weil as
in the Niphal. the capital illustrates not only the fulfillment of
God's promise but also the decisive overtum of a
Derivative pagan enclave to bring about God' s glory.
214a :i;i~:,~ (m''biika) confusion, In Josh 15:63 it says also that Judah failed to
confounding (Mic 7:4). drive out the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem.
Jerusalem was on the border of Judah and Ben-
215 ,1z (hu/) Bul, the eighth month. Deriva- jamin. Both failed. lt is not to the contrary that
tion uncertain. For other month names see Judah had once taken Jerusalem and fired the city
no. 613b. (Jud 1:8). There was a spot which changed hands
so often in the Korean war that it was called
',1z (bu/). See no. 835d. "heartbreak ridge" ! These are the fortunes of
war. The Jebusites were not dislodged until
216 c~z (büs) trample down (Rsvand ASVsimi- David's campaign (II Sam 5:6-9),
lar). Although presented negatively as a group and

96
 222 ~ii (bosh)

described as nokri (foreigners, Jud 19: 11), an in- prove" (Jastrow 197b). The root, form, and
dividual Jebusite, such as Araunah (or Ornan, meaning are debatable. The LXX reads "my heart
who offered his threshing floor to King David), is saw," KJV"to declare." The ASVand Rsv, follow-
seen to be a man of generosity· and grace (II Sam ing the Vulgate, emend to tur "to explore," "to
24:18ff.;cf. I Chr21: 18ff.). Araunah is probably a examine.
Hurrian name meaning "lord," "nobleman" (see J.P.L.
W. C. Kaiser, "Araunah," in ZPEB, I, pp. 257-
58), which fits weil with the presence of Hurrians ,;: (bor). See no. 194e.
(Horites) among the non-Israelite population of
Jebus. Condemnation of a group does not pre-
222 tui!!I (bosh) be ashamed, put to shame, dis-
clude the uprightness of individuals within it. The
view of some that the priest Zadok, inducted by
concerted, disappointed. (ASVand RSVnor-
David, was earlier a priest at a Jebusite sanctuary mally translate with the above, or in a few
instances with "confound." Idiomatic us-
has insufficient evidence and is contrary to the
ages such as "delay" and "cease" are dis-
biblical description (II Sam 8: 17).
E.A.M. cussed below.)
Derivatives
217 1n::i (bw'). Assumed root of the following. M~1!!1 (busha) shame.
222a
217a r,-11;,,v;,~ ('aba'bü'ot) blisters, boils 222b M;~; (boshna) shame.
(Ex 9:9). 222c :,~·: (boshet) shame.
222d tui::i,; ( mübosh) private parts (ASV
218 r,::i (bw.)'). Assumed root of the following. "secrets "). Occurs only in Deut
218a Mi'~ (be.)'a) egg. 25: 11 as masculine plural
m'büshim.
219 't'1:D(bü.)') Byssus, a fine, costly white fab-
ric. The primary meaning of this root is "to fall into
disgrace, normally through failure, either of seif
A synonym is shesh, an Egyptian loan word or of an object of trust." Along with its deriva-
which occurs from earlier literature as late as tives, it occurs 155 times, all but 25 times in the
Ezk. büs is found in late biblical writings only, prophets or the Psalms. No less than 38 occur-
including Chr. There are cognates in Akkadian rences are found in Jeremiah and 20 in Isaiah.
and Phoenician. The word was borrowed into The word is often paralleled with külam "to be
Greek as byssus. humiliated," and less frequently with /Jütat "to
bü.)', a costly cloth, was a luxury import (Ezk be shattered, dismayed." As these parallels
27:16),and therefore fit for the royal court (1 Chr suggest, the force of bosh is somewhat in con-
15:27;cf. Est 1:6, Mordecai went to the Persian trast to the primary meaning ofthe English "tobe
king draped with a mantle of this cloth, 8: 15). The ashamed," in that the English stresses the inner
veil in Solomon's temple was made of bü.)'(II Chr attitude, the state of mind, while the Hebrew
3:14) as were the garments of the priests (II Chr means "to come to shame" and stresses the
5:12). Scripture does not exclude appreciation of sense of public disgrace, a physical state.
finery. Likewise, in Akkadian the G-stem of this root
Bibliography: Lambdin, Thomas O., .. Egyp- means "to come to shame" and the D-stem "to
tian Loan Words in the Old Testament," JAOS put to shame."
73: 145-55. bosh and its derivatives are used in five some-
E.A.M. what distinct ways. First, it is used idiomatically
to express long delay or cessation. In Jud 3 :25; II
220 :,1::i (bwq). Assumed root of the Kgs 2:17; 8:11 it is used to express the sense of
following (a by-form of :,:,::i). confusion which either the waiter or the waited
220a Mi?1:D(büqa) emptiness (Nah 2:11). upon feel when a delay becomes excessively
220b Mi?1::l'? ( m 'buqa) emptiness (Nah long. The two occurrences of the Polei form are
2:11). also used to express this idiom, e.g. Ex 32:11
where the people of Israel say that Moses was
,v.ill (boqer). See no. 274b. "ashamed" (Asv and RSV "delayed") to come
down from the mountain.
While the idiomatic use of bosh to express
221 ,1:11 (bur) declare (?) explain, prove. cessation may be related to the above, it is more
Possibly a by-form of bü'ar. In Eccl 9:1, the likely that it represents an interchange in meaning
Qal infinitive construct of bür is used as a finite with yübesh "to dry up." Four of the five occur-
verb (see Bauer-Leander, p. 435; GKC sec. 113, rences of this usage are in Joel 1: 10-17 where
no. 4a). In the Mishnah, "to make clear," "to Hiphil forms indistinguishable from those of

97
yäbesh are used. (Cf. Gesenius-Kautzsch- those who bring disgrace upon their parents or
Cowley, 2d ed., p. 220.) spouses (Prov 10:5; 12:4; 14:35, etc.).
The second usage of bosh expresses that sense The final use of bosh is the one which coin-
of confusion, embarrassment, and dismay when cides most closely with the common English
matters turn out contrary to one 's expectations. connotation: a feeling of guilt from having done
Thus, Job speaks of the shame of the caravaneers what is wrong. Jeremiah (6: I 5) is horrified that
when they do not find water in the expected place the people are not ashamed having committed
(6:20). So also, Israel will be shamed when God abomination (idolatry). Similarly, Ezekiel (16:63)
cuts off the rain (Jer 14:3). In a more profound indicates that God's grace, manifested in the res-
sense, Israel and the nations will be shamed by toration, will not allay, but increase Judah's
their idols when they fail them (lsa 42:17; Jer sense of shame. Not until then will she see what a
22:22; Hos 10:6). terrible thing it was to trust idols instead of the
The third usage and the one that is most com- living God. Ezra, discovering the situation in
mon carries the above thought further expressing Jerusalem, cries out that he is ashamed because
the disgrace which is the result of defeat at the "our iniquities are higher than our heads."
hands of an enemy, either in battle or in some Evidently this sense of horror over idolatry ac-
other manner. In particular, the awful shame of counts for the transmutation of the names of
being paraded as captives is thought of (Mic 1:11; Saul's sons lshbaal (man of Baal) and Mephibaal
cf. also Jer 2:26). Involved here are all the (utterance of Baal) into lsh-bosheth (man of
nuances of confusion, disillusionment, humilia- shame) and Mephibosheth (utterance of shame,
tion, and brokenness which the word connotes. II Sam 2:8; 9:6, etc.). This substituion of
The prophets normally use the word with this "shame" for "baal" has a further development
sense, promising Israel that unless she repents in the substitution of the vowels of boshet in
and turns from her idolatrous ways, she will cer- other words. Thus, it is probable that molech is
tainly experience the shame of defeat and exile. the word for "king" melek (i.e. the divine king)
(Cf. lsa 1:29; 30:5; Jer 2:36; 9: 19 [H 18]; Ezr 9:6; with the substitution of other vowels. lndeed, it
Dan 9:7, etc.) may have been pronounced boshet. In the same
Intimately associated with this third use of the vein, sikkut and kiyun may be vocalized from
word is the question of trust. If Israel seeks to shiqqü$ "abomination" (Arnos 5:26).
insure her own glory by refusing to trust in God In the few occurrences ofthe cognate in Ugari-
but rather trusts in idols (lsa 1:29) or in foreign tic, it seems tobe used in the final sense. E.g.,
nations (lsa 20:5; 30:3 ,5), she will not get glory, Asherah rebukes Baal for killing Yam, saying,
but shame and disgrace. On the other band, if one '"Shame, shame." lt is then said that Baal is
will humbly submit to God, he will find bis true ashamed and goes out (68:28-31).
glory, for God will not let that person come to Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 50-59. THAT, I,
shame (lsa 29:22; Joel 2:26, 27; Zeph 3:19). lt is pp. 269-71.
this promise of which the Psalmist continually J.N.0.
reminds God (Ps 25:3; 31:17 [H 18]; 37:19;
119:46). ti (baz). See no. 225a.
Similarly, although Israel' s enemies may
triumph over her for a period, they must inevita- 223 HTZ (bäzä') divide, cut through (occurs
bly, because of their idolatry and their Jack of '~nly in lsa 18:2, 7).
trust in God, be brought to abject shame (lsa
41: II; Jer46:24; 5 I :47.) Again, it is the Psalmist's
fervent expectation that because he trusts in 224 M?J(bäzä) to despise, disdain, hold in con-
tempt. (Asv and RSV similar.)
God, those who are attempting to destroy him
must themselves be brought low in disgrace (Ps Derivative
6:10 [H 11]; 22:6; 40:14 [H 15]; 109:28).
Fourthly, shame results from imprudent or
224a ti•f; (bizzäyon) contempt.
immoral action. This use is found in I Sam 20:30. bäza appears with its derivatives forty-three
From Saul's perspective Jonathan made a fool of times in the oT. The basic meaning of the root is
himself not only by committing a grave injustice "to accord little worth to something.'' While this
against the reigning king, but also by jeapordizing action may or may not include overt feelings of
bis mother's position who would become part of contempt or scom·, the biblical usage indicates
David's barem. Likewise Joab accused David of that the very act of undervaluing something or
not thinking things through and thus acting someone implies contempt.
foolishly (II Sam 19:5 [H 6]). But this usage is The use of bäza shows that disobedience to the
largely restricted to Proverbs. All the occur- Lord is based on "contempt, despising" of him.
rences are Hiphil participles in references which Thus David's adultery with Bathsheba is equated
describe explicitly or implicitly the actions of with contempt for the Lord (II Sam 12:10) and his

98
 228 ,n, .. T
(bähe[)•

word (v. 19). Likewise to "despise an oath" is which was designated IJ,erem, devoted to God.
equated with breaking the Lord's covenant (Ezk By the same token, it is promised that in the latter
16:59; 17:16, 18). A person who despises the days she will once again despoil her enemies (lsa
Lord is devious in his ways (Prov 14:2). The op- 11: 14; Zeph 2:9; etc.). God will act so mightily on
posite of bäza is kabed "to honor" (I Sam 2:30), lsrael's behalf that even the lame will take spoil
yäre' '"to fear" (Prov 14:2), and shiimar "to (lsa33:23). However, this will not happen simply
keep" commandments (Prov 19:16). because Israel is Israel, but because she will then
The person who acts contrary to the commu- be obedient and because the fruit of her enemies ·
nity founded on the "fear of the Lord" must be arrogance will have come to its füll term (Ezk
cut off from it (Num 15:31); those who treat the 26:5; 36:4; Jer 30:16).
Lord with contempt will themselves be held con- In the meantime, however, a disobedient Israel
temptible by him (Mal 1:6-7, 12; 2:9) and will die and Judah were doomed tobe spoiled not only by
(Prov 19:16). Those who treated his messengers extemal enemies, but by one another (II Chr 28:8
with disrespect experienced his wrath (II Chr [cf. v. 5]; Jer 20:5; Ezk 23 :46; Arnos 3: 11). But at
36:16). the end of time Israel will despoil those who
The Lord also condemns to insignificance spoiled them (lsa 42:22, 24; Jer 30: 16; Ezk 39: 10).
those who despise what he chose: Esau for de- To refuse to trust God was to be left helpless
spising the birthright (Gen 25:34 ), worthless fel- before ravening wolves (Ezk 34:8).
lows for despising Saul's election (I Sam 10:27), In the truest sense, it was through his final and
Goliath for despising David's youth (1 Sam utter obedience that Christ was able to spoil the
17:42),and Michal for despising David's religious principalities and powers and lead them on a
enthusiasm (II Sam 6: 16). triumphal march through heaven·s gates (Col
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 6~5. 2:15).
B.K.W.
baz. Spoil, plunder, prey. This noun is used as
an object (cognate accusative) of bazaz six times
MJ; (bizzä). See no. 225b. (lit. "to spoil the spoil," cf. Ezk 29:19). lt also
appears in the name of lsaiah's son Maher-
shalal-hash-baz. "The spoil speeds, the prey
225 11; (biizaz) to spoü, prey upon, seiz.e, hastes," two times (lsa 8:1, 3). In general its
plunder. (ASVand RSV similar.) range of usages duplicates the verb.
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 66--08.
Derivatives J.N.O.
225a t1; (baz) spoil.
225b l"!J; (bizza) spoil, plunder, prey. ,;,J; (bizzäyon) See no. 224a.
The word and its derivatives occur seventy-
seventimes in the Hebrew Bible, ofwhich occur- 226 ;,1:i ( bzq) Assumed root of the following.
rences seventeen are in Ezk, twelve in Isa, and 226a i'!:P (biiziiq) lightning jlash ( Ezk
twelve in the other prophetic books. lt is always 1:14). Meaning uncertain.
associated with warfare and violence, indicating
the taking of goods or persons by force, usually
as a concomitant of military victory. 227 iy:p (biizar) scatter.
This root is used in two ways. The first group
of occurrences is found largely in the narrative ~~n; (balJ,Cm). See no 230c.
literature. These usages simply report an event iin; (balJ,on). See no. 230d.
of plundering without indicating a necessary ,~n:!l(bahur). See no. 23 la.
theologicalrelationship. Such a usage appears in c•iini (b'hurim). See no. 231b.
Gen34:27, 29 where Jacob' s sons are reported to i•~:p· (biilJ,f;), See no. 23 lc.
have plundered Shechem. (Cf. also Est 3: 13; 1
Sam 14:36, etc.) 228 ,t,; (bälJ,el) I, to feel loathing. (RSV "de-
The second group of usages is much larger than
test. ")
the first. In these occurrences plundering or
beingplundered is very closely connected to This word occurs once, in Zech 11:8. There it
obedienceto God. lf Israel were obedient to God expresses the reaction of the flock, Israel, to the
she would triumph over her enemies and would Good Shepherd. The use ofthe cognate in Syriac,
despoilthem. This had been her experience dur- "to be nauseated by," suggests the real force of
ing the latter part of the wildemess period and the usage. lsrael's abhorrence of her Covenant-
duringthe conquest of Canaan (Num 31 :9, 32, 53; Lord is expressed elsewhere in the OT through the
Josh 8:2, 27; etc.). God was pleased to give the use of such words as gii'al and bäzä (q.v.).
spoil to them, only reserving to himself that J.N.0.

99
229 *',ti, (bäl}el)

229 *',t,; (bäf_ie/) II. Occurs only in the Pual, tress, tower," etc. Thus, this word would mean
in Prov. 20:21, naf_iti/a m'böf_ielet an "in- "strong, secure," etc.
heritance gotten by greed." Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 69-72. THAT, I,
pp. 269-71.
230 il'.l; (bäf_ian) to examine, try, prove. (ASV J.N.O.
similar. RSVoften translates "test. ")
Derivatives 23 i "11'.li(bäf_iar) to choose, elect, decide for.
230a 111'.l
::l (böf_ian) testing. (Asv and RSVsimilar.)
230b il'.li (baf_ian) watchtower.
230c ,~n; (baf_iün) occurs only with suf- Derivatives
fix, baf_ifmiiyw, their siege towers. 231a t-i~n; (bäf_iür) young man.
230d iin; (bäf_ion) assayer. 23 1b tc•-i~n~ ( b e f_iürim) youth.
231c t-i•n::i (bähir) chosen.
This root and its derivatives occur thirty-two
231d t-ir:i':;i'~ ( mibf_iär) choicest, best.
times in the oT, chiefly in Job, Ps, and Jer. lt 231e t-iin 1~ (mibf_ior) choice.
often appears in parallel with näsii (:i9J) and
!färap (11jJ), its meaning falling about midway be- The root and its derivations occur 198 times
tween the two. näsii means "to put to the lest, with this meaning. The root idea is evidently "to
tempt" (in the archaic sense), while !färap means take a keen look at" (KB), thus accounting for
"to smelt, refine." bä/Jan partakes of both of the connotation of "testing or examining" found
these in that it denotes examining to determine in Isa 48: 10 and in the usage of the Niphal stem in
essential qualities, especially integrity. [Whereas Proverbs (e.g. 10:20 "choice silver"). lt has also
bä!Jan usually has God as its subject, näsii oc- been suggested that the root is related to the
curs almost equally with man as its subject. Arabic baf_iara "to cleave, till the ground, (in sci-
!iiirap when used in the religious sense has only ence) to penetrate," thus yielding some such
God as subject and man as object. But bäf_ian in meaning as "to distinguish." But the Akkadian
contrast to the other two, is used almost exclu- herum "to choose" and much rarer "to lest" is
sively in the spiritual or religious realm. Fur- the most important Semitic parallel.
thermore, whereas !färap and näsii denote attain- bäf_iar is used only in a few instances without
ing knowledge through testing, bäf_ian seems to specific theological overtones. A typical example
denote attaining knowledge intellectually or intui- would be Gen 13:11, "Lot chose the plain." (Cf.
tively. i:hus it seems to have the most spiritual also Ex 18:25; Deut 23:16 [H 17); etc.). lt is im-
connotations of these three synonyms. e.K.w.] portant to note, however, that it always involves
In only five of the occurrences is bäf_ian used a careful, weil thought-out choice (cf. I Sam
without explicit theological reference. These are 17:40; I Kgs 18:25; lsa 1:29; 40:20).
found in Gen 42:15-16; Ezk 21:13 [H 18]; Job Apart from these exceptions, the word is used
12:11;34:3. to express that choosing which has ultimate and
All of the remaining occurrences (twenty-two eternal significance. On the one band God
times), except three, refer to God's examination chooses a people (Ps 135:4), certain tribes (Ps
of bis people. In the exceptions, it is God who is 78:68), specific individuals (I Kgs 8:16; I Chr
tested. lt is evident that this is abnormal proce- 28:5; I Sam 10:24; II Sam 6:21), and a place for
dure. In Ps 95:9 the people are reminded of the bis name (Deut 12:5; etc.). In all of these cases
folly of testing God at Meribah. In Malachi, it is serviceability rather than simple arbitrariness is
only because of the people's apathy that God at the heart of the choosing. Thus Yahweh chose
calls them to test him (3: 10, 15). Israel to be holy and thereby to serve as bis wit-
As is indicated in Hebrews (12:5-8), part ofthe ness among the nations (Deut 14:6). But her elec-
privilege of being God's people is that of being tion is not based on her own greatness but on the
tested (Jer 20:12; Ps 11:5; 139:23). Unlike the greatness of the Lord's love (Deut 7:7f.). The
Egyptian doctrine where the heart is weighed choice of Israel is confirmed by the exile and res-
after death, Yahweh continually assays the toration, for in a new way Israel now bears wit-
hearts of bis people that in the end they may ness of the Lord to the nations (lsa 41 :8f.; 43: 10;
come forth as gold (Zech 13:9; Job 23:10). 48: 10). The scriptural doctrine of divine capacity
böltan. Testing. Appears only in Isa 28: 16 for choice demonstrates that purpose and per-
sonality, not blind mechanism, are at the heart of
where it is used adjectivally with 'eben "stone."
the universe. Since God carefully chooses certain
In the NT (1 Pet 2:4~; Rom 9:33) this stone is
ones for a specific task, he can also reject them if
interpreted as being Christ, the foundation stone
they deviate from that purpose (I Sam 2:27ff.).
ofGod's kingdom. Some writers believe that the
word has nothing to do with "testing" being de- bält11r I. Young man. (Asv and RSVsimilar.)
rived from a homonymous root meaning "for- and its derivative b' /Jurim may both be
bäf_iür

100
 233 n~; (bä{a/J)
understood to be derivatives of bä!Jar "to 232 M~~ (bä(ii), M~; (bä(ä') speak rashly,
choose," in that the picked or chosen men in a thoughtlessly.
militarycontext are usually the young men. But
while bä/Jur "young man," may sometimes be Derivative
confusedwith bä/Jur "chosen one" (cf. Ps 78:31 232a M~~Q (mib(ä') rash utterance. Oc-
marg.), its meaning is generally quite distinct, curs only in Num 30:7, 9.
especially when it is used antonymically with
zäqen "old man," or paralleled with b' tulii 233 n;~ (bäfa/J) I, trust in, feel safe, be con-
"virgin." As a result, most lexicographers see fulent, careless. (Asv similar. RSV usually
two different root meanings. similar but occasionally "rely on. ")
In the majority of its occurrences, this word is
used in the context of God's judgment upon Is- Derivatives
rael. The point is made that even the young man, 233a tn~~ (be(a/J) safety.
symbolof vigor, strength, and indeed, the con- 233b t:,n~:ll (bit'hii) trust.
tinuedexistence of the nation, will be destroyed.
233c "hin~:? (b!Uii/Jon) confulence.
bä!JQr II. Elected, chosen. A Qal passive par- 233d tr,in~; (ba((ü/Jot) security.
ticipleused almost entirely in military parlance, 233e tM~~~ (mib(a/J) trust.
e.g. Jud 20: 15-16, "Seven hundred thousand This is one of two words used in the OT to
chosen men." lt is used fifteen times thus, all but express trust or reliance upon, the other being
two in conjunction with enumeration. häsii (q. v .). There is no clear cognate in the other
Semitic languages although KB sees a connection
b•~urim. Youth (petiod of). An abstract plural with Arabic bafa/Ja "to be stretched out, taut"
noun(cf. Ges § 124d), appeating once in the mas- (cf. especially the VII stem). Tue basic idea
culine(Num 11:28, KJV and ASV "young men," would then have to do with firmness or solidity.
ASVmarg. and RSV "youth") and twice in the Be that as it may, in Hebrew, bäfah expresses
feminine, b' !Juror (Eccl 11:9; 12:1, all versions that sense of well-being and security which re-
"youth"). sults from having something or someone in whom
bä!iir. Chosen, elect. This derivative is used to place confidence. lt is significant that the LXX
exclusivelyto indicate the relationship of the sub- never translates this word with mcrt€u0> "believe
ject to God. lt commonly occurs in a direct quo- in" but with EAmtw "to hope," in the positive
tationofGod, having the first singular possessive sense "to rely on God" or l'tELcpoµm"tobe per-
pronounsuffixed to it. Thus, God himself attests suaded," for the negative notion for relying on
that this person or nation is his own personal what turns out to be deceptive. This would seem
choice.(Cf. Isa 42:1; Ps 89:3 [H 4]; etc.) to indicate that bätahdoes not connote that full-
orbed intellectual and volitional response to reve-
mlb~är. Chosen, choice. This word usually lation which is involved in "faith," rather stres-
appears in construct with a following noun. As sing the feeling of being safe or secure. Likewise,
suchit is often translated as a superlative (GKC § all the derivatives have the same meaning "to
133g).Cf. Gen 23 :6, "In the choicest of our feel secure," "be unconcemed."
sepulchres." The idea seems tobe that which has [The word bäfa/J has an ambivalent connota-
beenexamined and found to be best or most ser- tion when used of human relationships. The folk
viceable. "living at ease" with their neighbors suffered for
their credulity and gullibility, while those taking
mlbMr. Chosen, choice. Occurs twice. lts advantage of their careless posture are censured:
usageis similar to mib/Jär. cf. the false security of the Shechemites vs. the
Bibliography: Altmann, Peter, Erwählun~s- cruelty of Levi and Simeon (Gen 34:25), of Israel
theologieund Universalismus im AT, Berlin: To- vs. Gog (Ezk 38: 10-11). Proverbs 3:29 explicitly
pelmann, 1964. Berkouwer, G. C., Divine Elec- wams against taking advantage of a trusting
tion, Eerdmans, 1960. Clements, R. E., neighbor. B.K.w.]
"Deuteronomy and the Jerusalem Cult Tradi- In general, the oT contrasts the validity of that
tion," VT 15: 300-312. Palache, J. L., Semantic sense of confidence which comes from reliance
Notes on the Hebrew Lexicon,. Brill, 1959. upon God with the folly of any other kind of secu-
Ri~hardson, TWB, p. 43. Rowley, H. H., The rity. lt is made plain that all such trust will end in
Bib/ical Doctrine of Election, London: Lutter- disgrace and shame (Ps 31:14 [H 15], see bosh),
worth, 1950. Wtight, G. E., The Old Testament whereas those whose hope is in God alone will be
Against Its Environment, SCM, 1950, pp. 46-54. delivered from their enemies (Ps 22:4 [H 5]); their
TDNT, IV, pp. 145-72. TDOT, II, pp. 73~7. prayers will be answered (I Chr 5:20); they will
THAT,I, pp. 275-99. walk in straight paths (Prov 3 :5); will be given joy
J.N.O. and gladness (Ps 16:9; 33:21); will know inner

101
peace and absence offear (Ps 4:8 [H 9]; Isa 26:3); never having evaluated the flimsy basis for such
etc. Hence, the repeated admonition to trust in complacency (lsa 32:9-11; Ezk 30:9; Arnos 6: 1).
the Lord (Prov 16:20; lsa 30:15; Jer 17:7). Perhaps the place where the central issues re-
The Psalms, which show the largest number of volving around bä(al;i are seen most clearly in a
occurrences (50 out of a total of 181), are most brief compass is II Kgs 18 and 19 where the Assy-
consistently expressive of the values of trust in rian Rabshakeh challenges the worth of
God. They also make the point that the cause for Hezekiah's trust in God and where that trust is
hope is not in one·s merit with God or in some fully vindicated. The word occurs 20 times here
sort of "tit-for-tat" arrangement, but only be- and in the parallel passages (lsa 36-37; II Chr 32).
cause of God's l;iesed (q. v .), his unswerving loy- In human relations, only one area of trust is
alty, his gracious kindness. Ezekiel 33: 13 makes commended: a husbaod in a wife ofnoble charac-
it plain that no one dare hope for life on the basis ter (Prov 31: 11, NIV).
of his own righteousness and Jer 7:4, 8, 14 show beia'1. Safety, security, carelessness. Used al-
the folly of trusting in sacred formulas and struc-
most exclusively in adverbial constructions.
tures. In this sense the OT foreshadows the NT in Used frequently with yäshab "to dwell," e.g. Jer
its proclamation that there is hope for those who 23:6, where it is promised that God will deliver
accept God's gift of etemal life through Jesus
Israel in the future and make her dwell securely.
Christ.
In general, the word is used in two ways: the
This hope in God is not a sort of querulous
promise that those who are rightly related to God
wishing, but a confident expectation. Unlike the
will dwell securely (Lev 25:18; Ps 16:9); andin-
pagan religions where unremitted anxiety was the
dication of the transitory nature of any security
rule, the Hebrew religion knew a God whose
other than God's (Jud 18:7; lsa 47:8; Ezk 30:9).
chief characteristic was faithfulness and trust-
worthiness (Deut 33:28; I Sam 12:11; Ps 27:3). bii'1a. Trust. Appears only in lsa 30: 15,
This contrast between anxiety and confidence where it is used in a context which expresses
becomes all the more striking when one recalls resignation and cessation of one's own efforts.
that the pagan was never left without
baiiuhot. Security. Job 12:6 where Job in sar-
mechanisms whereby he feit he had some control
casm says that those who provoke God are se-
over his destiny, while the devout Hebrew knew
cure.
himself to be utterly without personal resources.
But better to be utterly dependent on a gracious mibiä'1. Trust, con/ulence. Used in the same
and dependable God, than left to one's own de- two ways as the previous. Appears only in poetic
vices in a sea of fickle gods, vengeful demons, passages.
and inscrutable magical forces. In view of these Bibliography: Eichrodt, W., Theology of the
facts God's sovereign control of man's destiny Old Testament, II, pp. 268-90. Kohler, L.,
and God' s total dependability, putting one' s con- "Hebräische Vokabeln," VT 55: 172-73. Rabin,
fidence in anything but God is seen to be utterly Chaim, ''Three Hebrew Terms from the Realm of
groundless. However, trust in God is not an au- Social Psychology," Supp VT 16: 219-30.
tomatic guarantee of protection from any and all TDNT, II, pp. 521-29; VI, pp. 191-92, 194-202.
harm. Nor is refusal to trust God necessarily the TDOT, II, pp. 88-93. THAT, I, pp. 300-304.
road to poverty and deprivation. In the face ofhis J.N.O.
comforters' bland assurances, Job points out
these apparent contradictions in some biting sar- 234 Ml:l:l (btl;i) II. Assumed root ofthe followlng.
casms (12:6; 24:23). Yet, even Job in his anguish 234a c•r:n~;~(' aba,ril;iim) watermelons
must admit that any other source of security is (only in Num 11:5).
ultimately valueless (31:24; cf. 39: 11; cf. also Isa
50:10). ,;n,; (bi((äl;ion). See no. 233c.
The OT considers these sources of false secu-
rity in some detail in order to show by contrast
the excellence of hope in God. The list includes
235 ,=;
12:3.
(bä(a/) cease. Occurs only in Eccl
man (Ps 118:8; 146:3; Prov 25: 19; Jer 17:5); wick-
edness (lsa 47:10); violence and oppression (Ps
236 11:1:l (b(n) l. Assumed root of the following.
55:23 [H 24]; 62:10 [H 11]; Isa 30:12); riches (Ps
236a ti;~ (beten) womb, belly, body. (ASV
49:6 [H 7]; 52:7 [H 9]; Prov 11:28); idols (Ps 31 :6
and RSV similar' but both tend to
[H 7]; 115:8; Isa42:17; Hab 2:18); military power
translate "body" or utilize some peri-
(Deut 28:52; Ps 44:6 [H 7]; lsa31 :l; Jer 5:17; Hos
phrastic construction where KJV trans-
10:13); religion (Jer7:4, 8, 14); one's own righte-
lates "belly. ")
ousness (Ezk 33: 13; Hos 10:13); foreign alliances
(lsa 36:4ff; Ezk 29: 16). In particular the Bible The basic meaning of this word according to
heaps scorn upon those who live in complacency, the Semitic cognates is "interior"; in Hebrew it

102
 denotes the "lower abdomen" and has the same Therc are seventeen other renderings in addi-
meaning in the Amama tablets. As such it can tion. (Asv almost the same; Rsv varies thc
refer to a woman's womb, or to the stomach, or readings for the two most numerous, "under-
be used in a figurative sense to express man's stand" and "consider" by interchanging "per-
physical nature. lt has a considerably broader ceive," "observe," "discem," et al.).
range of meaning than re!Jem "womb," with
which it occasionally occurs in parallel. The ref- Derivatives
erence to Ehud's plunging the sword into the 239a -rr::i (ben) between.
be(en of Eglon, king of Moab, suggests a touch of 239b t:i;•::i ( bina) understanding.
poetic justice, because this well-sated ruler, this 239c t:i;i::i1;1 (t' buna) understanding.
"very fat man" lived off the spoils ofhis victims.
The prostration of one 's be(en on the ground The verband its derivatives are used 247 times.
expressed humiliation (cf. Ps 44 :25 [H 26], Egyp- lts main English usage is "understanding" or
tian reliefs and the Amama tablets). "insight." The background idea of the verb is to
The phrases "from the womb" and "fruit of "discem," and this lies behind the derivative
the be(en" are idiomatic, expressing "from nouns and the close relation derived from the
birth" on the one band and "issue from the substantive bayin (see below) from which comes
body" or "children" on the other. the preposition ben "between." The combina-
be(en is used several times in the wisdom liter- tion ofthese words, ·•discem between" is used in
ature to express the deepest recesses of the per- I Kgs 3 :9, · 'That I may discem between good and
son, and/or the seat of the desires (cf. Job 15:35; evil." bin includes the concept of distinguish-
20:20; Prov 18:8; 18:20; etc.). lt is also used in ment that lcads to understanding.
parallelwith nepesh "soul" to express the total- The verb refers to knowledge which is superior
ity of the human person. ··Body" is a rather to the mere gathering of data. lt is necessary to
colorless translation for the visceral quality of know how to use knowledge one possesses
be(en in these references (Ps 31 :9 [H 10]; 44:25 (Pirke Abot 3:12). The verb yäda' (q.v.) can also
[H 26]; Mic 6:7). mean "understanding" in the sense of ability
The references to God in connection with (e.g. Esau as a skilful hunter). lt can also mean
beten indicate that he is the one who shapes and "to be perceptive," (Ps 73:22). However, yäda'
forms the fetus (Job 3:3-11; 31:18; Ps 139:13; Jer generally describes the process whereby one
1:5;cf. Ps 51:15 [H 7]), who brings the child forth gains knowledgc through experience with objects
from the womb (Ps 22:9 [H 10]; lsa 46:3) and and circumstances. bin is a power of judgment
superintends its life from the earliest moments and perccptive insight and is demonstrated in the
(Ps 71:6; lsa 49:1). The fruit of the womb is his use of knowledge.
reward (Ps 127:3; cf. Deut 7:13; 28: 4. 11; 30:9). A person can perceive pertinent data with his
The wicked, however, go astray "from the womb senses: with his eyes he can discem (Prov 7 :73,
meräl:,em and speak lies" from birth mibbe(en with his ears he can understand words (Prov
(Ps 58: 3 [H 4]). And God curses the womb of the 29: 19). U nderstanding can also be said to feel (Ps
adulteress (N um 5 :21). 58: 10) and discemment can even be sensed
Probably as a polemic against the Babylonian through taste (Job 6:30).
notion that their gods called their kings from the lt is possible to hear without perceiving. Daniel
womb,lsaiah proclaims that it was the Lord who did not understand what he had heard (Dan 12:8).
formed the Servant and callcd him from the lt is said in a derogatory sense that the wicked
womb (lsa 44:2, 24; 49:5). cannot understand the knowledge he knows
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Hebrew- (Prov 29:7). Other instanccs emphasize an atten-
Ugaritic Lexicography," Bib 44: 301. Pederson, tive observation or consideration: Moses accus-
J., Israel, lts Life and Culture, London: Oxford, ingly asked the people to consider diligently the
1946,pp. 170-73. TDOT, II, pp. 94-98. years of experience of all generations (Deut 32:7),
J.N.O. and David perceived the destination of the
wicked (Ps 73:17).
237 1i=::i (b(n) II. Assumedroot ofthe following. The Hiphil stem especially emphasizes ability
237a Cl'l=; (bo(nim) pistachio (Gen to understand. Ezra read the word of God in the
43: 11). presence of men, women, and those able to
understand, i.e. old enough (Neh 8:3). God can
238 ":II (bäyay), •; (bay) entreat. make a person und erstand his ways (Ps II 9:34,
23.Sa ':II ( bi) excuse me, please. Particle 73). His angel came to give understanding to
of entreaty. Daniel (Dan 10: 14). The participial form refers to
a teacher, i.e. one who gives discemment to his
239 1•:ii (bfn) understand, consider, perceive, students (Ezra 8:16).
prudent, regard. From a number of instances, insight or moral

103
239 ,,:p(bin)
understanding is a gift from God (Dan 2:21) and is not to Jean on his own understanding (Prov 3:5).
not the fruit of empiricism. lt is ethical discern- A person should desist from his own understand-
ment. A person prays for it (Ps 119:34) and since ing, thus trying to attain great wealth (Prov 23:4).
this insight is uniquely God's, he can reveal or People who have been involved in sin and in-
conceal it (lsa 29: 14). The seat of insight is the iquity are those of no understanding (lsa 27:11).
heart and it is the heart which discerns (or fails to People are encouraged diligently to seek this fa-
discern) the works of the Lord (Ps 28:5), the fear culty of understanding (Prov 4:5, 7).
of the Lord (Prov 2:5), righteousness and justice binfi is also used as theobject of knowledge.
(Prov 2:9), and his will as his word is obeyed (Ps Job inquired conceming the place of understand-
111:10). ing (Job 28: 12, 20) and then partially answered
While understanding is a gift of God, it does the question that to depart from evil is under-
not come automatically. The possession of it re- standing (Job 28:28 where wisdom l)okmfi [q.v.]
quires a persistent diligence. lt is more than IQ; it and bina are close synonyms). Wisdom advises
connotes character. One is at fault if he doesn't that a person should go in the way of understand-
have it and in fact, not to pursue it will incur ing (Prov 9:6) and that the knowledge ofthe Holy
God's punishment (Prov 2: lf; Ruth 1:2lf.). When One is understanding (Prov 9: 10).
one acts on the objective presentations of God's Understanding and wisdom (l)okmfi) are per-
revelation, he will attain the ideal of the signifi- sonified (Prov 2:3; 7:4 but primarily in Prov 8: 14f.
cance of understanding. where there are important implications). This
personification also appears in Ecclesiasticus
ben. Between, among, et al. From bayin, a
24:9, 23, where the function ofGod's spirit medi-
substantive that expresses the notion "interval,"
ated between God as wholly other, and the world
"space between." lt appears many times (BDB
(it would appear). The question has been asked as
selects only twenty-four entries), andin a number
to whether wisdom is some aspect of a hypostasis
of situations of doubling where the second usage
with God, or if it is an abstract principle which
of bin in separating a pair is not translated into
has been made personal in the use of poetry.
English.
There is a mysterious objectifying of God's
lt is used as a preposition, "in the interval,"
word-concept in wisdom by which the world
"between," e.g. between the pieces (Gen 15:7),
exists as weil as by whom we receive wisdom and
between your eyes (Ex 13:9), between the two
power.
walls (Isa 22: 11), et al. In one unusual instance it
is used with a singular between the Ulai, i.e. on t•buna. Understanding. (Asv is similar but Rsv
its banks (Dan 8: 16). To indicate the space uses "intelligence" in a few instances for
separating two objects, ben is repeated: in the "understanding. ")
interval of Bethel and in the interval of Ai (Gen Synonymous with binfi, it is used in the same
13:3). Sometimes this result is accomplished by variety of ways, although in different passages.
using ben followed by the preposition l indicating By the act of understanding God shattered Rahab
an interval with respect to the object, e.g. be- (Job 26: 12). The faculty is such that a man of
tween you and between your God (lsa 59:2). understanding walks in a path of uprightness
ben is also used of a temporal notion, during (Prov 15:21). Then again, understanding can refer
the interval of ten days (Neh 5: 18), as weil as with to the object of knowledge as when one gains
a number of other prepositions, in between, in understanding (Prov 3:13). t'bunfi is also per-
among (Ezk 31: 10), amongst (lsa 44:4), with pre- sonified as a woman lifting up her voice (Prov
position min (Gen 49: 10, et al). There is also the 8: 1). Here understanding is parallel with wisdom
plural benöt between the wheels (Ezk 10:2) and and thus is seen as the teacher. In only one pas-
the dual benayim, the man from the intervening sage do bina and t' bünfi appear in synonymous
space between two armies, Goliath, i.e. a cham- parallelism: as one cries for discemment one
pion (1 Sam 17:4). must lift up his voice for understanding (Prov
ben is also used with verbs of judging, know- 2:3); the nouns refer to the object of knowledge.
ing, teaching, etc., involving the notion of distin- Bibliography: Girdlestone, R., Synonyms of
guishing, e.g. disceming between good and evil (1 the Old Testament, Eerdmans, 1897, p. 74.
Kgs 3:9), judging between the nations (lsa 2:4). Kidner, Derek, Proverbs, Inter-Varsity, 1964.
Harris, R. L., "Proverbs," WBC, pp. 553-54. Or-
binä. Understanding. This noun is used in a
linsky, Harry M., "The Biblical Prepositions Ta-
variety of ways. lt refers to understanding, as in
hat, Ben, Ba'ad, and Pronouns 'Ano (or 'Ano),
the prediction that Israel will never again be ex-
Zo'täh," HUCA 17: 267-92. TDOT, II, pp. 99-
posed to a foreign language difficult to un-
106. THAT, I, pp. 305-307.
derstand (lsa 33: 19), or in the statement that
L.G.
Daniel had understanding of every subject which
Nebuchadnezzar asked (Dan 1:20). bina also re-
fers to the very faculty of understanding. One is :,;,:; ( be$fi). See no. 218a.

104
 24 I r,~i (bayit)
240 :i,•i (birä) palace. time of the monarchy with the first story enclosed
on three sides and the second story supported on
BDBsuggests that it is a loan word from Akka-
the fourth side by four pillars (Archaeolo,?y of
dian. The cognate appears in Biblical Aramaic Palestine, Penguin, 1960, p. 141). A house with
(Ezr 6:2). lt is used of the temple in Jerusalem (1 seven pillars would be rich indeed (Prov 9: 1; cf.
Chr 29:1, 19). In Neh 2:8, "palace" (KJV)is ren- NIV).Some of the better houses were built on the
dered "castle" (Asv) and "fortress" (Rsv), while
walls of a city (Josh 2:15) and also had roofs
at Neh 7:2 the ASVand RSVuse "castle." In Neh where people could relax (II Sam 11: 12). The
1:1and Est 1:2, 5; 2:3, 5, 8, et al., in Shushan the word "house" is also used to designate the tem-
"palace," the ASVrenders "palace" while.the Rsv ple and king's house in Jerusalem (I Kgs 5:3;
uses "capital." The wording of the latter, 7:51) as well as Ezekiel's temple (Ezk 40f.).
b' shushän habbirä, suggests "in a fortress in the
bayit can be used in the construct to denote
city" (BOB). The form biränit is identified as a distinct buildings or parts of a !arge building.
pluralform in GB. Thus it can be used of the king's house (l Kgs
L.G. 10:12), a prison (Jer 37: 15), a treasury (lsa 39:2),
but most significantly of a temple: the house of a
241 ri•; (bayit) house, household, home, place, deity.
temple, inward, famüy, et al. (Asv and RSV
Many Canaanite place names stem from the
similar generally, except that Rsv renders
temple of the deity located in it; e.g. Beth-
house (hold) instead of family .) Shemesh = Temple of the Sun-god, Shemesh,
Derivatives Beth-horon, Beth-shan. Israel by contrast named
sites after persons: Hinnom, etc.
241a t~Mr,,z (het'el) Bethel.
The most important house in Israel, of course,
241b tc~, ri·~;;;
(bet le/Jem) Bethlehem. was the Lord's house, first mentioned in extra-
241c ~~•~ (bitän) house, palace. biblical literature in the Arad ostraca. (See Y.
The word is common to Aramaic, Arabic, Ak- Aharoni, BA, 31: 16f.) Because the Lord was
kadian,and Ugaritic. By contrast 'ohel is "tent," uniquely present here, the Psalmist celebrated
me'ärä "cave," birä "palace, castle,'" hekäl Zion and longed to appear before him in worship
"palace, temple," IJäser "settlement," möshäb (Ps 26:8; 122:1). But when Israel made it a den of
"dwelling," mä'{m "refuge," miqdäsh robbers, God threatened to destroy it, even as he
"sanctuary," and mishkän "tabernacle." had destroyed his residence at Shiloh (Jer 7).
lt is used as a dwelling or habitation. Ar- Rooms of a !arge house can be called a bayit.
cheologists have uncovered some impressive Thus the word is used in construct to designate
houses with thick walls dating from the early the drinking hall of Ahasuerus (Est 7:8), his
Bronze Age (3000-2100 B.c.). At Debir were dis- barem (Est 2:3). and the winter house, a particu-
covered thick walls of a house believed to be of lar quarter of the palace in Jerusalem (Jer 36:22).
the Middle Bronze period (2100-1500 B.c.). Lot's House is applied to places, e.g. place of my
house at Sodom, also of the Middle Bronze Age, father's tombs (Neh 2:3), or Bethel as the king's
had weil constructed walls which stopped the house (Arnos 7: 13). bayit is used peculiarly as
mob's assault. Other houses, not so weil con- "place" (KJV),holders or receptacles, holders for
structed, would not have lasted. For earlier the staves (rings, Ex 25:27), perfume boxes (Isa
house construction cf. Kenyon, K. M., Archae- 3:20).
ology in the Holy Land, Praeger, 1961, pi. 58 Importantly, house is applied to a household or
and Mellaart, J., The Neolithic of the Near East, family: Jacob's household (Gen 35:2), family of
Scribners, 1975, esp. pp. 35-49. descendants as a corporate group, also Ab-
The word is used of ordinary houses (Ex 12:7, raham's house (Gen 18:19) and David's house (II
et al.), dwelling houses (Lev 25:29), houses of Sam 7: 11), the Hebrew people as house of Jacob
solidmaterials with doorposts (Deut 11:20), walls (Gen 46:27) and house of Israel (Ex 16:31), the
(Lev 14:37) of stones, wood, and mortar (Lev father's house in sense of a clan or family (Num
14:45).Possibly the walls were rectangular with a I :2). In the OT there is a solidarity between a man
courtyard in front. For the door there was proba- and his house (Josh 2: 12; 6:22: 7: 1-5; I Kgs 7: 15).
bly a wood beam as the lintel and two upright So Joshua informs the lsraelites that he and his
doorposts as jambs. There was also a room for house will serve the Lord (Josh 24:15).
domestic animals and a sleeping room. Cooking By metonymy the word can denote what is in
was usually done outside. Windows were proba- the house. This is the force of the tenth com-
bly open with a latticework covering while ceil- mandment prohibiting the coveting of a
ings might have consisted of beams plastered neighbor's house (Ex 20: 17; cf. Gen 30:30; Num
with clay. Steps led to the roof. Larger houses or 22: 18; 24: 13, etc.).
official buildings were supported by pillars (Jud Bibliography: Ahlstrom, G. E., "Der Prophet
l6:26f.). Albright shows a patrician house of the Nathan und der Tempelbau," VT 11: 113-27.

105
241 %'\~~(bayft)

Dickie, A. C., "House," in ISBE, III, pp. 1434-- sanctuary at Bethel remained central as late as
38. Hyatt, J. Philip, "The Deity Bethel and the Old the time of Arnos (3:14: 4:4: Hos 4:15). The
Testament," JAOS 59: 81-98. Landsberger, northern revolt was thorough in every way, poli-
Franz, "The House of the People," HUCA 22: tically, etc., and especially in the synthesis of
149-55. Pope, Marvin H., "EI in the Ugaritic Yahweh worship and other cultic practices from
Texts," Supp VT 2: 1-116, esp. p. 59f. Rainey, Egypt, Canaan, and other middle eastern coun-
Anson F., "Family Relationship in Ugarit," Or tries. God condemned the action, first in a warn-
34: 10-22. Seilers, 0., "House," in IDB, p. 657. ing by a man of God who pronounced doom upon
Stigers, Harold G., ''House," in ZPBD, pp. Jeroboam (I Kgs 13) and by Arnos and Hosea
217-21. Ward, William A., "'Egyptian Titles in later who mocked Bethel as het 'awen (house of
Genesis 39-50," BS 114: 40-59. TDOT, II, pp. iniquity).
107-15. THAT, I, pp. 308-12. Apparently Bethel was spared when Samaria
feil to Assyria (no archeological evidence
bet 'el. House of God. lndicates the city and suggests Assyrian destruction). lt seems that
sanctuary whose name is read in English as one priests still taught there after Samaria was de-
word, "Bethel." lt is mentioned sixty-five times, stroyed (II Kgs 17:28). Josiah captured it, de-
more than any other city except Jerusalem. molished the altar, and defiled the site (II Kgs
Bethel was a Canaanite and lsraelite town, lo- 23: 15), while the Babylonians destroyed the city
cated ten to eleven miles north of Jerusalem, at in their second invasion (587-576 B.c.).
the intersection of the north-south road along the In the Persian period Bethel was included in
crest of the hill line and the east-west road to the the territory of Judah (Ezr 2:28; Neh 7:32). Dur-
plains of Jericho and the coastal plain. lt was on ing the period of Hasmonean guerilla warfare, it
the north boundary of Benjamin (southern boun- was fortified by the Seleucids (1 Macc 9:50;
dary of Ephraim). Josephus, Antiquities, 13.1.3 ). Vespasian cap-
The settlement at Bethel appears to have been tured it as he approached Jerusalem (Josephus,
established at the turn of the third millennium Wars of the Jews, 4.9.9).
e.c. In the early patriarchal ;-eriod the town was Bethel is also associated with both sanctuary
called Luz (Gen 28: 19). When Jacob stopped and deity. For the Canaanites h,;1-·el was a city
there, he was at "the place" (Gen 28:11), possi- sanctuary dedicated to the deity 'e/ (q.v.). 'el
bly where Abraham had sacrificed (Gen 18:8) and was a general name for God in the ancient near
where he had viewed the Jordan valley (Gen east, but the lsraelites identified 'el with Jacob 's
13:9f.), east of the town. Four nearby springs experiences (Gen 28: 10-22: 35). Babylonian
made settlement inevitable. When Jacob awoke documents by Nebuchadnezzar use the word in
from his sleep, he set up a pillar of stones on personal names, while some Jewish people at
which he had slept, poured oil on them, and Elephantine (Elephantine Papyri) had names in
called the place het- ·el, emphasizing God's reve- combination with hh-'el. indicating various at-
lation of himself there. Jacob revisited the area tributes of God.
when he was returning from Paddan-Aram to There is also a place by the same name not far
meet with God (Gen 35:2-3,7). lt was there that from Beersheba (1 Sam 30:27) in the territory of
Rebekah's nurse, Deborah, died and was buried Simeon (which was an enclave in Judah), al-
under "the oak" nearby (Gen 35:8). though there is probably a textual error since this
There is a Jot of history associated with Bethel. appears as h''tül (Josh 19:4) and h'"t{fe/ (1 Chr
lt was a Canaanite royal city (Josh 12:16), was 4:30). The site of the city is still unknown.
captured by Joshua (8:7), and allotted to Benja- Bibliography: Albright, W. F., ArcheoloRy
min (18:22). Bethel was probably recaptured by and the ReliRion of Israel, Johns Hopkins, 1942,
the Canaanites early in the period of the Judges, pp. 168-74. Albright, W. F. and J. L. Kelso,
but taken again by the house of Joseph (Jud "The Excavation of Bethel," AASOR, 39:
1:22f.) to remain Ephraimite territory (1 Chr Fauer, Jose, "Idolatry," and Gershon Bacon,
7:28). "The View of Kaufmann," in Encyclopedia
Later the ark was located in Bethel (Jud 20: 18) Judaica, pp. 1227-33. Kelso, "The Second Cam-
and it became an important center of worship (1 paign at Bethel," and "The Third Campaign at
Sam 10:3). lt was on Samuel's circuit when he Bethel," BASOR, 137, 151. Rowley, H. H.,
judged Israel (1 Sam 7: 16). While remaining pros- From Joseph to Joshua, Oxford, 1950, pp. 19,
perous, it temporarily lost prominence when 111,138. Avi-Yonah, Michael, "Bethel," in En-
Saul's Gibeah and David's and Solomon's cyclopedia Judaica, IV, pp. 728-30.
Jerusalem were in the fore. When the kingdom
divided, Jeroboam I designated Bethel as the bet-le'1em. House of bread. In English 1t 1s
northern kingdom's main sanctuary, challenging read as one word, "Bethlehem," designating the
the temple in Jerusalem and weaning the people city. lt appears forty-three times; four times, as
away (1 Kgs 12:26-33). The golden calfritual and bet-hallal}mi "Bethlehemite," designating one

106
 243 ~;; (bäka)

belongingto Bethlehem. This name can refer to insignificant that when the land was distributed it
the place (house) of fighting (since the root l}Jm was not even mentioned among the forty-six
refers also to fighting or to the place (house) of cities of Judah (Josh 15:20-63; Mic 5:2). In 325
the god la}Jamu (probably from the Amama let- Helena, mother of Constantine, had a church
ters, where a complaint is registered that bit erected over the cave. lt was destroyed in 529
la~amuwas in the hands of the invaders), but all A.D. in the Samaritan uprising against the Byzan-
this etymology is uncertain. tines. Justinian (527--05)rebuilt it, and the Church
The area is first mentioned in Scripture when of the Nativity today reflects the Justinian pat-
Rache!was buried by Jacob on the way to Eph- tem. At the beginning of the 400s A.D., Jerome
rath, specifically at Bethlehem (Gen 35: 19). lt is settled in Bethlehem and lived in a cave near the
located about five miles south of Jerusalem in nativity cave. While in Bethlehem,, Jewish schol-
Judean territory. ars taught Hebrew to Jerome. His work in that
Tue city with the surrounding area was the cave, of translating the OTfrom Hebrew to Latin,
center of the tribe of Judah. A well-known fam- became the basis of the Vulgate, in addition to his
ily, descendants of Perez, settled there andin the work of NT translation.
Judges period some of the family included Boaz Bethlehem of Judah is not to be confused with
the ancestor of, and Jesse the father of David. a city of the same name in Zebulun (Josh 19:15).
This area produced the godly family of Ruth and This is located about seven miles northwest of
Boaz. Nazareth.
Bethlehem unfortunately was the abode of the Bibliography: Crowfoot, J. W., Early
Levite who became the priest of Micah in Eph- Churches in Palestine, Oxford, 1941, pp. 22-40.
raim and later ofthe Danites (Jud 17; 18). Jewish Masterman, E. W., "Bethlehem," in ISBE, I,
people to this day despise this one for while he pp. 449-50. Omi, Ephraim, "Bethlehem," in En-
was a grandson of Moses, he became a shame. cyclopedia Judaica, IV, pp. 739-45. Van Beek,
Therefore, in order to conceal his genealogy, the G., "Bethlehem," in IDB, I, pp. 394-95.
biblicaltext reads Manasseh (with an n above the L.G.
line) instead of Moses (Jud 18:30). The Levite of
Ephraim had a concubine from Bethlehem, and it
was her death at .the hand of the Levite that 242 M,ll (biikii') balsam tree (II Sam 5:23-24
caused the civil war between Israel and Benjamin . ~ I Chr 14:14-15; Ps 84:7).
(Jud 19).
Bethlehem's prominence in the oT was in its 243 :i;,; (biikii) to weep, cry, shed tears. (ASV
association with David. lt was his home (1 Sam
and RSV similar.)
17:12; 20:6) and there Samuel anointed him king
(1 Sam 16:1, 13). Possibly Bethlehem was one of Derivatives
the worship centers on Samuel's circuit. Some of 243a t:i;,;ii (bekeh) a weeping.
David's kinsmen who were his personal warriors,
243b t,:;i; (b''ki) weeping.
sons of Zeruiah, were bom there also. Near the 243c tr,~::,; (biiküt) weeping.
end of Saul's reign the Philistines were quartered 243d r,,:;,:;i ( b'' kit) weeping.
there (II Sam 23:14-16). lt was the burial place of
Asahel, brother of Joab (II Sam 2:32). This root occurs in all the major languages, in-
The succeeding history can be brief. Re- cluding Arabic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic. lt is
hoboam fortified it (II Chr 11:16). Some of used with approximately the same range of mean-
Gedaliah's murderers stopped at Bethlehem on ing. In Hebrew it means "to weep by reason of
their way to Egypt (Jer 41: 16-17). Ezra 2:21 and joy or sorrow, the lauer including lament, com-
Neh 7:26 record more than one hundred Beth- plaint, remorse or repentance." The root is
lehemite emigrants, some of the leading citizens. commonly paralleled with diima" "to shed
Jews continued to live in Bethlehem in NT and tears" and with siipad "to moum." But,
post NTtimes and Lam Rabbah 1: 15 records that whereas tears are associated with the eyes, weep-
a Roman garrison was quartered there to destroy ing is associated with the voice; Semites do not
any remnant of Bar Kokhba's army. Today no weep quietly, but aloud. These parallelisms occur
Jews live in Bethlehem. frequently in Ugaritic (Fisher). However, in
Because of the messianic passage (Mic 5:2 Ugaritic, as in Akkadian and Arabic, the stress
[H 1]), early Jewish believers who recognized upon repentance which is seen in the conjunction
Jesus as Messiah, emphasized Bethlehem as his of biikii with $Üm "to fast" is absent. Another
birthplace (Mt 2:1, 5: Lk 2:4, 15; Jn 7:42). Justin synonym is 'aha/ which emphasizes the formal
Martyr mentioned that the birthplace of Jesus mouming for the dead.
was in a cave. Throughout the OT weeping is the natural and
Thus the Son ofGod humbled himselfto be bom spontaneous expression of strong emotion. bakii
in a cave housing animals in a town so small and is especially prominent in the narrative literature

107
244 *,;; (bäkar)

although it also occurs frequently in the poetic answer to his riddle (Jud 14:16) and the crying of
and prophetic books. The total number of occur- the Israelites for meat (Num 11:4-20).
rences is 141. The final usage of "weeping" is unique to the
The root is used in five different ways. Al- oT. lt is the weeping of repentance. In other cul-
though weeping is usually associated with dis- tures of the ancient near east weeping out of re-
tress or sorrow, it is also a sign of joy. Interest- morse or sorrow for punishment is known, but
ingly enough, all occurrences ofthis usage appear never sheer sorrow over having offended the de-
in the Jacob narrative. Jacob wept for joy when ity. Both of these occur in the 0T. An example of
he met Rachel after his journey from Canaan the former would be found in Jud 21:2 where the
(Gen 29: 11). So did Jacob and Esau when they Israelites weep because of their folly in decimat-
met a~in after the long separation (Gen 33:4). ing Benjamin. On the other hand is the weeping
Joseph and Jacob wept with each other when of Josiah at the reading of the Law (II Kgs 22: 19),
they met in Egypt (Gen 46:29), etc. or the weeping of Israel when she returns to her
A much more frequent usage is crying in dis- God (Jer 31:9; 50:4). When the Law was read to
tress. Thus the baby Moses began to cry in the the returned exiles and they saw how far short
Pharaoh's daughter's presence (Ex 2:6). Simi- they had fallen, they had to be reminded that a
larly Esau wept in bitterness and frustration at holy day was not for mourning (Neh 8:9; cf. also
the discovery of Jacob's fraud (Gen 27:38). Job Ezr 10:1; Hos 12:4 [H 51). Such weeping was that
says that he deserves punishment if he has com- of Peter when he realized how he had denied his
mitted any of a number of sins, among which is Lord (Mt 26:75). lt may be said that there is no
causing the "furrows of the land" to weep genuine repentance apart from a bitter sense of
through abuse (Job 31:38). Israel wept because of sorrow over one's sins, a sorrow so deep that it
the threat of the enemy (I Sam 11:4; 30:4; etc.); may quite properly issue in weeping. In the es-
they wept in the exile (Ps 137:1; cf. Jer 31: 15); chaton God will make an end to all weeping (Isa
and the Psalmist wept for those who despised 65:19; cf. 25:8).
God's law (Ps 119:136). The distress need not be
bekeh. Weeping. At Ezr 10:I where the people
one's own, for weeping may be a sympathetic
wept greatly (lit. "multiplied weeping").
reaction at the distress of another (cf. Job 2: 12;
30:25; Isa 16:9; Jer 48:5; Ezk 27:31). b•ki. Weeping. Occurs thirty times, five of
A specific form of distress is that which is on which are cognate accusatives (cf. Jud 21:2).
account of death. The form of the lament is seen
bäkut. Weeping. Name of the oak where Re-
clearly in I Sam 1 where David weeps for the
bekah's nurse was buried (Gen 35:8).
slain Saul and Jonathon. The magnanimity of
Bibliography: Collins, T., "The Physiology of
David which is shown in his weeping for Saul is
Tears in the OT," CBQ 33: 18-38, 185-97. De-
seen again when he weeps for Abner, the enemy
general (I Sam 3:32). lt is evident at several Ward, Eileen F., "Mourning Customs in 1, 2
Samuel," JJS 23: 1-27, 145-66. Fisher, L. R.,
points that the time of lament was carefully pre-
scribed (Gen 50:4; Deut 34:8; etc.). Professional Ras Shamra Para/leis, vol. 1, Pontifical Biblical
Institute, 1972, pp. 142-44. Hvidberg, F. F.,
mourners were called to weep at times of death
(II Sam 1:24; Jer 49:3; Ps 78:64; Job 27: 15). This
WeepinR and LauRhter in the O/d Testament,
Brill, 1962. Westermann, C., "Struktur und Ges-
served the twofold purpose of insuring that the
chichte der Klage im AT," ZA W 25: 44-80.
dead person was mourned properly and also that
TDOT, II, pp. 116-20. THAT, I, pp. 313-15.
the mouming did not continue interminably.
J.N.O.
This lamentation for the dead formed a specific
part of the fertility cult, wherein the dead vegeta-
tion god was mourned in the fall of the year. Nu- '"li:,; (b'kbr). See no. 244a.
merous references to this rite are found in the c•;~ll; (bikkürfm). See no. 244e.
Ugaritic literature (e.g. texts 62; 67:VI, and cf. I m:,, (bäkiit). See no. 243c.
Kgs 18:26-29 where a similar ritual was evidently •:,;' (h'kf). See no. 243b.
performed). Ezekiel was horrified when he dis- :,.,,:,, (b'kfrii). See no. 244d.
covered that such practices were being carried on l'l~:,:p'(hekft). See no. 243d.
within the temple itself (8: 14).
Another type of weeping would be that which
is associated with pleading or complaint. Hannah 244 *'"I;,;, (bäkar) to be born first.(Asv and Rsv
wept with bitter tears as she pleaded with God for similar.)
a son (I Sam 1:7-10). So also, Esther wept before
the Persian emperor begging for her people's life Derivatives
(Est 8:3). Cf. also Hezekiah (II Kgs 20:3). This 244a t'"li:,; ( be kor) firstborn.
type of weeping can quickly become whining, as 244b :i-,~:, ( bikrii) young camel.
witness Samson's wife importuning him for the 244c t:i;· :,~ (b' körii) birthright.

108
 244 *,;,; (bäkar)

244d t:,i•~z (b•kira) firstborn (of women). Many of the occurrences of b' kor simply de-
244e tCl;':\1Z:P
(bikkurim) firstfruits. lineate a particular son as the firstborn, indicating
244f :i,1,; (bikkura) firstfruits. the importance attached to this position (esp. in I
Of the 158 occurrences of this root and its de- Chr, but frequently elsewhere). Among other
rivatives, only four are in verbal form and these rights, the firstbom was entitled to a double por-
are all in derived stems. This suggests that the tion of the inheritance (Deut 21:17), to the
basic idea in Hebrew is the nominal „the father's blessing (Gen 27; cf. also 48:17-19), and
firstborn" and that the verb forms are derivative. to preferential treatment (Gen 43:33). If there
In the Arabic, the root bakara means ··to arise, were two sons, the firstbom would receive two-
tobe first, to come early" and this is probably the thirds of the inheritance, if three, two-fourths,
root idea from which the Hebrew connotation has etc. The firstbom could seil this inheritance (as in
sprung. Nuzi law--cf. Gen 25:31-34). This concept is
transferred to the prophetic gift in the case of
b0 kör. Firstborn,firstling, eldest (son). Arabic, Elisha to show his superiority over the other
Ethiopia, Aramaic, and probably Akkadian pos- prophets (II Kgs 2:3ff.). Israel is called the
sess a nominal equivalent to Hebrew b • kor for Lord's firstborn (Ex 4:22; cf. Jer 31:9) to show
""firstborn" indicating that this is the original that though it was the youngest of the nations, it
meaning of the noun. This noun form accounts occupied the position of leadership and privilege
for 118 of the total occurrences of the root. In the over them.
singular and the plural constructions, masculine At the same time, however, the Israelites seem
forms are used. However, in the four places to have held the belief, in common with the rest
where an absolute plural form is used it is always of the ancient near east, that the deity, as lord of
in the feminine rii,::iz: Deut 12:6; 14:23; Neh the manor, was entitled not only to the best but to
10:37 [twice]. the first share of all produce. This meant that the
firstfruits of plant, animal and man were bis.
bikkiirim. Firstfruits, f,rstripe. Only appears Commonly this meant that these could only be
in masculine plural and refers especially to the used in the practices of and support of the deity's
first products of grain and fruit, (bread, Ex 23: 16; temple. At any rate, they were forfeited to the
grapes, Num 13:20; figs, Nah 3:12), a portion of deity. This is the basic meaning of the Lord' s
which were to be given to the Lord as a thank smiting the firstbom of Egypt. lt is not Pharaoh,
offeringand for the support of the priesthood (cf. or the Egyptian gods who have the right to
Lev 2: 14; Num 18: 12-13). Egypt's firstborn. lt is the Lord. He is the true
b"korä. Birthright, primogenture. Appears owner of Egypt. This Egyptian experience be-
only in feminine singular and always with this came fundamental for the Hebrew concept of the
special meaning. Involves especially the legal firstborn (cf. Ex 11:5; Num 8:17; etc.).
claims of the firstbom to a double portion of the lt is with regard to the firstbom, however, that
inheritance and to such other rights as might be Hebrew practice differs sharply from the pagan.
his by virtue of bis position as first bom. Both treat the first plants and animals as tabu and
thus only available for sacrifice. The pagans car-
b"kirä. Firstborn daughter. The feminine ried this logic further, commonly sacrificing the
counterpart of b • kor. Appears only six times, eldest son as well. Although the Hebrews fell
five of which are in Gen. Öf these, four are found back into this custom during the divided
in Gen 19 (vv. 31, 33, 34, 37) where Lot's monarchy (e.g. II Kgs 16:3) and perhaps may
firstbom daughter provokes her sister to join her have even so interpreted the Lord's command-
in sexual relations with their father. ment to dedicate the firstborn (Ex 11:5; Ezk
In Israel, as in much of the rest of the ancient 20:26), the Old Testament exhibits a special
near east, the firstbom son, Reuben, enjoyed a loathing for child sacrifice (see the discussion
position of honor and favor. He is called "the under töpet). Wherever it is reported, it is with
first of the (procreative) strength" of the father horror (cf. Josh 6:26; II Kgs 3:27; Jer 32:35; Mic
(Gen 49:3). So noteworthy were departures from 6:7). Rather, the paradigm for treatment of the
this rule, that they became, in C. H. Gordon's firstbom is found in the account of Abraham's
words, "worthy of saga." As such these depar- near sacrifice of Isaac. lt is redemption by means
tures constitute a literary theme in the Bible (Gen of substitution. As such, .it foreshadows the sub-
25:23; etc.) and elsewhere (cf. Ug. Text 128: stitutionary atonement of Christ. By rights, this
III: 16). The Lord's choice of Abel over Cain, of child's life is forfeited to God. But God does not
Jacob over Esau, of Joseph and Judah over Reu- want to take the child's life, so he makes a way of
ben, of Ephraim over Manasseh, of Moses over escape. The chief means of substitution after
Aaron, of David over bis brothers, of Solomon Sinai was via the Levites. The Levitical family
over Adonijah, show that he is the Lord of sacred was consecrated to God in place of the firstborn
history and that he transcends cultural norms. (Num 3:1-45). The extra firstborn sons beyond

109
245 ~,; (bälag)
the number of the Levites were redeemed at five 13:28; Ps 32:3; Lam 3:4). In the grave, the bodily
shekels a head (Num 3:46-51). Apparently Num form wastes away (Ps 49: 15). Wicked men or an
18:15-16 refers to this transaction. Thereafter attacking enemy can wear out or exhaust the
only the firstborn of animals was demanded righteous (1 Chr 17:9; cf. II Sam 7: 10; Dan 7:25,
(Deut 15: 19). Aramaic).
Bibliography: Al, pp. 441-46; pp. 490-93. Finally, bälä can mean "to wear out by use"
Gaster, T. H., "Sacrifices," in IDB, IV, p. 148. or "to use to the full," as in Isa 65:22 or Job
Kooy, V. H., "Firstborn," in IDB, II, pp. 270- 21: 13.
72. Mendlesohn, 1., "On the Preferential Status
of the Eldest Son," BASOR 156: 38-40. bäleh. Worn out. This adjective is used only
Michaelis, W., "1tQW't6-t0xo~,J'tQW'tOtoxEia,"in twice, in Josh 9:4-5 and Ezk 23:43. The context
TDNT, VI, pp. 872-76. Pedersen, J ., Israel, Its in Joshua is the ruse employed by the Gibeonites.
Life and Culture III-IV, London: Oxford, 1940, They showed Joshua their worn out sacks and
pp. 300-22. Richardson, TWB, p. 83. TDOT, II, wineskins (v. 4), and sandals and garments (v. 5).
pp. 121-27. In Ezk 23:43, baleh is used figuratively. The
J.N.O. adulteress (Judah) is worn out by her adulteries.
The RSV finds the Hebrew obscure here and Eich-
rodt calls it untranslatable, but it is possible to
',:zi (bal). See no. 246d.
translate it as "old in adulteries."
',~ ( bei). See no. 262c.
tablit. Destruction. A noun found only once,
245 J';>~ (bälaR) gleam, smile. in Isa 10:25. Six MSS read taklftäm "con-
sumption," but are probably confusing it with a
Derivative
more familiar term. Shortly the indignation ofthe
245a r,•J•7:;ir,(mablfRit) smiling, Lord would end against Israel and be turned to-
cheerfulness (Jer 8: 18). ward (ca/) the destruction of the invading Assy-
rians. The axe had forgotten that the Lord was
246 :i7; (biilii) become old, worn out, swinging it (lsa 10:15).
Derivatives bal. Not. An adverb appearing sixty-nine times.
246a t:,',z ( bäleh) worn out. Both Phoenician and Ugaritic attest this negative.
246b N~~!? (b'/o') worn out things, rags. lt is used mainly in poetry instead of lo', which
246c tri•?;!'! (tablft) destruction. normally appears in prose.
246Ö t',; · ( bal) not. In lsa 40:24, bat may gather the meaning
246e t•7~ (b 'li) wearing out. "scarcely" or "hardly." Some argue, however
246f t:ir,,•',; (b' limii) nothingness. for a "neither, nor" construction (Hahn, Koenig)
246g t',~•',: ( b' /fya 'a/) worthlessness. or the negative may simply be used in a hyper-
246h ''.'.IP?;(bi/'ade) apart from, e:ccept, bolic structure.
without. Some have argued that bal has a positive
246i tri'!; (be/et) not, e:ccept. meaning as in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 466, "I shall
surely put," or II Aqht 1:21, "He surely has no
bäla appears sixteen times and is attested in son"). Also cf. Dahood AB on Ps IO:15: perhaps
the Ugaritic text by bly (Ut 19: no. 474, blym 15b could be rendered: "Search out his wick-
alpm, "The oxen are worn out," i.e. unfit for edness-surely you will find it."
plowing).
lts basic meaning is used of the lsraelites' gar- b"li. Wearing out. There are fifty-seven exam-
ments which did not wear out (Deut 8:4; 29:4; ples of this form. The only example of a substan-
Neh 9:21) in the wilderness. The Gibeonites tive is found in Isa 38: 17, "The pit of destruc-
claimed the reverse concerning their garments in tion, .. which refers to Sheol.
Josh 9:13. Usually it functions as an adverb of negation
The same idea is used in a figurative expression with adjectives or participles (II Sam 1:21; Ps
relating to the heavens and the earth (lsa 50:9; 19:4; Hos 7:8). lt is frequently joined to a sub-
51:6; Ps 102:27). While other Scriptures teach the stantive in the sense of "without" (Job 8: 11;
perpetuity of the heavens and earth, this one re- 24: IO; 3 1:19, et al.). Rarely is it found with a finite
fers to their worn-out condition. The new verb (Gen 31:20; lsa 14:6).
heavens and new earth will consist of the old When used with the preposition min it ex-
ones renewed; similarly, our resurrected bodies presses the idea of causation and is rendered
will have many features of continuity with our "from want of," "from lack of," or "because
present bodies. not." This combination occurs twenty times (e.g.
Men and women are said to waste away Deut 9:28; Ex 14: 11).
through age, cares, or sickness (Gen 18:12; Job With the preposition b'' it means "without''

110
 248 ,,; (biilal)

(Deut 4:42; 19:4). The preposition / 1• makes it ••in belet. Not, except. lt is used as an adverb, con-
a state of'" or "without, regardless," (lsa 5: 14; junction, and with prepositions to express pur-
Job41:25). Finally, with •·ad it means "until" or pose 110 times. In the meaning "failure," it does
"in that not" (Ps 72:7; Gen 31:20: Mal 3:10). not appear in the OT.
These prepositional phrases account for over half lt appears as the adverb ··not" with an adjec-
of the uses and every context has its own nuance tive in I Sam 20:26, with a substantive in Isa 14:6,
of meaning. and with a finite verb in Ezk 13:3.
b0 1imä. Nothingness. From b'lii and mä: "not-
When it follows a negative, it takes on the
meaning of "except" (Gen 2 I :26; Ex 22: 19; Josh
aught." Found only in Job 26:7. The Lord · 'hangs
the earth upon nothing" (Rsv),a remarkable vision 11:19; Hos 13:4).
of the earth being supported ins pace by the power The form hilti likewise follows 11,nexpressed or
of God. an implied negative. In Num 11:6, Isa 10:4, and
Dan 11:18 it is used in the sense of "except to, ..
b•Hya'al. Worthlessness. Belial from b'li and i.e. "there is nothing but to," hence nothing left.
va'al: "not, without'" and "tobe of use, worth, Note also Arnos 3:3-4 "unless ...
·or profit." Cf. Ugaritic bl-mt, "not-death" = The form also appears following infinitives
"immortality" or bl-mlk "not-king'' = "com- with three different prepositions: negation of /'
moner... Others derive the name from b/', "to "so as not, in order not" (Gen 4:15); negation of
swallow," hence the "swallower." (Cf. F. Cross, min "on account of not, because not,"" (Num
D. N. Freedman, JBL 22 (1953) and D. Winton 14:16; Ezk 16:28); and ''ad "until not" (Josh
Thomas in Biblical and Patristic Studies, eds. 8:22).
J. N. Birdsall and R. W. Thomson, Freiburg, Bibliography: Cooper, Jacob, "The End of
1963, pp. 11-19). See however the discussion the Material Universe," Reformed Church Re-
below on Ps 18:5. view 7: 536-67. Dahood, M., Proverbs and
The term appears twenty-seven times. The KJV Northwest Semitic Philolol(y, Rome, 1963, p. 31.
and Vulgate treated it as a proper name in sixteen Goetze, A., "Ugaritic Negations," in Studia
and eight instances respectively. The 1.xxrenders Orienta/ia loanni Pedersen, 1953, p. 123, n. 26.
it according to the context by the terms para- Hogg, J. E., "Belial in the OT," AJSL, 44:
nomos, anomia. and aphrön, i.e. "lawless, law- 56-58. Labuschagne, C. J., "Ugaritic BLT and
lessness, witless." BILTI in Isa X.4," VT 14: 97-99. O'Callaghan,
Usually it occurs in such expressions as Roger T., "Echoes of Canaanite Literature in the
"son(s) of Belial" (Deut 13:14; Jud 19:22; I Sam Psalms," VT 4: 164-76. Smith, Wilbur, "New
2: 12; II Chr 13:7), a "daughter of Belial" (l Sam Heavens and New Earth," in Biblica/ Doctrine
1:16), "man or men of' (1 Sam 25:25; II Sam of Heaven, Moody, 1968, pp. 223-36.
16:7; I Kgs 21:13; Prov 16:27), or a "worthless W.C.K.
witness" (Prov 19:28). lt appears alone in II Sam
23:6 and Job 34: 18. 247 *1'17:P(hälah) trouble. Occurs only in the
In Prov 6: 12, the "worthless man" is equated Piel (Ez 4:4).
with the "wicked man," 'i.l"h 'iiwen. He is a plot-
ter of evil (Prov 16:27) as well as a "counsellor of Derivative
villainy"' (Nah 1:11) and a mocker of justice 247a l"l1'?:P
(ballähä) terror, destruction.
(Prov 19:28). In Psalms, b'liya'al is used for tor-
rents of perdition or destruction which over- Mi',:D (b•/c)'). See no. 246b.
whelmed the Psalmist (Ps 18:5; cf. II Sam 22:5), ,r,:D° (b'/i). See no. 246e.
for the "deadly" thing (Ps 41:9), or for anything ',•7:11 (h''/i/). See no. 248a.
base (101:3). Many connect David's reference in :,~,~:!! (h'/imä). See no. 246f.
Ps 18:5 to the mythological motifofthe Canaanite ',p~?~(b'liya'al). See no. 246g.
god of death, Mot with his open mouth, the
"swallower" in the netherworld. If this is a
proper connection it is only the verbiage which is 248 ',';>; (bälal) mix, mingle, confuse, confound.
borrowed in the context and not the ideology. Derivatives
The 1.xx more realistically understands the r,,i;,; (b'lil) fodder.
248a
metaphor of "streams" or "waves" in Ps 18:5 to
248b ',7:p'(häla/) give provender. De-
be another of the frequent scriptural references to
nominative verb from b' lil.
enemies rushing in like torrents.
248c ',~',:11w(shabb'lu/) snail.
This concept of Belial became a proper name
248d t',;;~ - (tehel) confusion.
for the prince of evil, Satan, in the pseudepi-
graphal literature, the Zadokite Document, and
248e t',~;r;, (t" ballül) obscurity.
the War Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. See also A ritualistic term used of mixing oil into the
II Cor 6:15 and II Thess 2:3. flour or meal of the cereal offering until every

111
249 c';,; (bälam)
particle of flour was mingled or anointed with oil destruction and ruin: Lam 2:2, 5, 8; lsa 3:12;
(hälul hashshemen; Ex 29:2, 40; Lev 2:4-5; and 49:19, etc.
chap 7; and often in Num chaps 7, 15, 28, and 29).
bela'. Swallowing, devouring. This noun oc-
An unusual form, expressing an extension of
curs only twice in the OT. In Ps 52:6, David uses it
this idea, is found in Ps 92: 11. The Psalmist
to refer with disgust to Doeg's "words that de-
exclaims, "I am anointed with fresh oil." While vour" (Rsv Lit. "words of devouring"). In Jer
the verbis different, this idea is similar to the one
51 :44, the Lord says that he will take from the
in Ps 23:6.
mouth of the idol Bel "what he has swallowed"
A Hithpael form is found in Hos 7:8. There
(RSV).
Ephraim "mixes himself among the peoples."
The only witness for the meaning of confound- bil'am. Balaam. Mentioned fifty-one times in
ing is in the Tower of Babel narrative where the Num 22-24; also in Num 31:8, 16; Deut 23:5,6;
Lord said, "Let us go down and there confuse Josh 13:22; 24:9-10; Mic 6:5; Neh 13:2; II Pet
their language" (Gen 11:7). This incident pro- 2: 15; Jude 11: Rev 2: 14.
vides the basis for a wordplay involving asso- The older Gesenius lexicon analyzes the name
nance (Gen 11:9). The place is named Babel be- as bal and 'am "not-people" meaning "for-
cause the Lord confused ( hälal) the language of eigner," i.e. (he who belongs) "not (to the)
all the earth there. Babel itself does not mean people." But this is impossible. To be preferred
"confuse"; it sounds enough like hälal for the is the view of Simonis and Hengstenberg: be/a'
paranomasia. and 'äm "destruction of people" which accords
Probably the single example of the Hiphil in Isa with his reputation as a charmer and conjurer.
64:5 should be derived from the root nähal "fade (Some have suggested that Nikolaos "con-
away" rather than hälal. queror of the people" in Rev 2:6,15 is a transla-
The form in Judg 19:21 is a denominative of tion of this name.) However, Albright sees the
h' lil "fodder"; hence ··to give provender." name as Amorite Yabil'ammu, "the (divine)
uncle brings" (AJSL 44:3 lff.; JBL 63: 232,
tebel. Confusion. This word is only used n.142).
twice in the OT. Both instances apply to a reversal
While Balaam was the source of authentic
of the divinely intended order of things in the
revelation of God (Num 22-24), he was not
sexual realm. Leviticus 18:23 calls bestiality a
thereby approved in all he did or said, as is shown
perversion (Rsv) and Lev 20: 12 uses this same
by the devious advice which he gave to the king
term to apply to any sex relations with one's
of Moab and Midian (Num 31:16; cf. Num 25:
daughter-in-law, i.e. incest (Rsv).
1-3; Ps 106:28-29). Balaam was a heathen di-
t"balhil. Obscurity. Only found in Lev 21:20. viner. Balaak, according to ancient custom and
The NAB renders it "wall-eyed" while the NASB belief, would not fight Israel without a propitious
says "one who has a defect" (margin "slit") in his omen. Such omens were often cast again and
eye. The precise meaning remains unknown. again to get the right time to attack. By overpow-
W.C.K. ering Balaam the Lord prevented Balak's attack.
bäla', II. Confound, confuse. The Psalmist
249 c';,; (hälam) curb,holdin (Ps32:9,only). prays in Ps 55:10, "Confuse, 0 Lord, divide their
speech," all ofwhich is reminiscent of hälal (Gen
250 c,; (hälas) gather jigs, tend sycamore 11:7, 9) at the tower of Babel. Also cf. Ps 107:27;
trees (Arnos 7: 14, only). lsa 9:15; 19:3; and 28:7.
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "The Oracles
251 i,,; (bäla') I, swallow down, swallow up. of Balaam," JBL 63: 207-33. Hengstenberg, E.
W., "The History of Balaam and His
Derivatives Prophecies," in Dissertations of the Genuine-
251a ti,,;;i (hela') swallowing. ness of Daniel and the lntef(rity of Daniel, Edin-
251b cv7; (bil'äm) Balaam. burgh: Clark, 1847, pp. 337-56. TDOT, II, pp.
251c ti,,; (häla') II, confuse, confound. 136-38.
W.C.K.
Used of men (Isa 28:4), fish (Jon 2: 1), serpents
(Ex 7:12), and animals (Gen 41:7, 24).
On two different occasions, the Lord caused ''.:11.'?Z
(hi/'ade). See no. 246h.
the earth to open and swallow alive groups of ctf; (bil'iim). See no. 251b.
men as ajudgment: at the Red Sea (Ex 15:12) and
at the Korah, Dathan, and Abiram rebellion 252 *;,,; (halaq) waste, lay waste. Does not
(Num 16:30, 32, 34; 26: 10; Deut 11:6; and Ps occur in the Qal.
106:17).
Frequently the word is used as a symbol of l'\,::i (helet). See no. 246i.

112
 254 ,~ (ben)

253 :,~; (bäma) ridge or height, high place, ences to häma are pejorative, for building hamii
bamah (technical name for cultic plat- represents Israel's sinful involvement in pagan
form). worship. There is only one exception, during the
upset days of Manasseh (II Chr 33: 17). God's
A cognate is found in Akkadian and Ugaritic. basic stance, already indicated in Lev 26:30, is
bäma, which in eighty of the one hundred times one of "being against" hämii. ··1 will destroy
refers to a worship area (or perhaps structure), your bämä" (Ezk 6:3; cf. I Kgs 13:2). Prior to
has a basic meaning of "back," "ridge," or their entry into the land, Israel was commanded
"height." So KB. In Ugaritic it means "back" of to destroy pagan high places (Num 33:52; cf. II
aperson or animal (UT 19: no. 480). Where bäma Kgs 17:11). The reason for God'sjudgment is that
refers to a worship area, ASV and Rsv use "high a hämii represents competing allegiances. In in-
place." The idiom of "treading on the heights" stances Israel substituted pagan deities for the
conveys the notion of possessing key terrain and worship of YHWH, but at other times, as in
thus signifies "being in firm control." To tread Samaria following the northern captivity, an at-
bäma is a promise given to Israel (Deut 33:29; cf. tempt was made to worship both YHWH and
lsa 58: 14); it is descriptive also of God (Mic 1:3). other gods simultaneously (II Kgs 17:29). God's
A recent study relying heavily on Ugaritic and action against hämii, first threatened and then
archeology, quite convincingly argues that the executed, stands as prime witness to the signifi-
basic meaning is not "height" but ·•rib cage," cance of the first command, "You shall have no
"flank" with derived meanings of ""hillsides," other gods before me" (Ex 20:3).
"cultic platform" (built offield stones), and by ex- God's displeasure with the bämii is cited at the
tension "altar" and even "sanctuary" (Vaughn). first mention of the construction of a hamii in the
[Schrunk proposes as its primary meaning "cultic nation of Israel. Solomon built high places for the
high place" or "cultic place" (see TDOT in bib- gods Chemosh of Moab and Molech of the Am-
liography). monites in order to please his wives (1 Kgs 11:7).
The pagan cultic places were usually located Only in Josiah's time, three hundred years later,
on natural heights (1 Sam 9: l 3ff.; 10:5; I Kgs 11:7; were these destroyed (II Kgs 23, a key chapter
II Kgs 17:9, 29; 23:5, 8). They were supplied with for information about bamii). The unnamed man
idols (II Chr 33:19), an 'asherii, a wooden pole ofGod protested Jeroboam's institution of häma
symbolizing the goddess of fertility and a ma$· (1 Kgs 13:2). The lengthy explanation in II Kgs 17
$eba, one or more stone pillars symbolizing the for the northern tri bes' exile notes that the people
male deity (II Kgs 3:2). The altar (II Kgs 21 :3; II built for themselves hama "at all their towns" (II
Chr 14:3 [H 2]) built of stones, was either sepa- Kgs 17:9). Though the prophet Isaiah is silent
rate from the hämii or part of it. The bämii con- about cultic hämii, likely because under Heze-
tained a tent or room where the cultic vessels kiah they had been removed (II Kgs 18:4),
were stored and where the sacrificial meals were Jeremiah in two prophetic judgment speeches
eaten (1 Kgs 12:31; 13:32; II Kgs 17:29; announces that the bämii, which in his day was
23:19). e.K.w.J All told, six activities may be the place for human sacrifice, constituted part of
traced: the burning of incense, sacrificing, the the reason for the coming catastrophe (Jer 19:5;
eating of sacrificial meals, praying, prostitution, 32:35).
and child sacrifice (cf. bämii in the valley, Jer In fact worship at the high places seems tobe a
7:31). decisive or climaxing action of evil. At the time of
Aside from the usage for a "height" or "'lofty Rehoboam, Judah initiated high places, thereby
spot" bama is essentially a place ofworship. But committing more sin than their fathers (1 Kgs
what kind ofworship? Critical thought in the past 14:22-23). Jeroboam's large enthusiasm for high
has argued that Israel normally worshipped in places and his practice of placing priests there,
these local shrines until Josiah's reform cen- "became a sin to the house of Jeroboam, so as to
tralized the worship in Jerusalem. All high places cut it off" (1 Kgs 13:34).
were legitimate and normal. The pejorative refer- Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "The High
ences to them are said to be due to post Josianic Place in Ancient Palestine," Supp VT 4: 242-58.
super-orthodox editors. lwry, Samuel, "Massebah and Bamah in IQ
Prior to the monarchy during the time when the Isaiah A613 ," JBL 76: 225-32. McCown, C. C.,
tabernacle of Shiloh was in ruins and prior to "Hebrew High Places and Cult Remains," JBL
worship at the Jerusalem temple, worship was 69: 205-19. TDOT, 11, pp. 139-44.
practiced at the bämii, chief of which was Gi- E.A.M.
beon, where God communicated with Solomon
through a dream (1 Kgs 3:2ff). Before him,
Samuel frequented high places, officiating there i~!!) (b"mo ). See no. 153.
(1 Sam 9: 12ff.).
After the building of Solomon's temple, refer- 254 ~; (ben) son, grandson, member of a group.

113
254 i; (ben)

Derivatives ··You are my son, today I have begotten you··

254a tr~;):l (hi11yämi11) Benjamin.
(Ps 2:7; see mäshii/:z). Clearly in these contexts
254b tr,; · (hat) daughter. hc'n specifies an intimate relationship (cf. Ps
103: 13). This functions to show the distance be-
Occurring almost five thousand times, hen is tween Yahweh and his "son, ·• the subordinate
basically but not exclusively a reference to the position of the ··son, .. and his right to share
male offspring of human parents. lt is also used God's authority.
idiomatically for children generally, for descen- A further motif is that of blessing/curse upon
dants, i.e. grandsons, formale offspring ofbeasts. the son. The patriarchs such as Isaac and Jacob
for age designation (e.g. ··son of eight days.·· Gen speak blessings upon their sons (Gen 27:28-29;
17:12) and for people or items belonging in a cate- 48: 14ff.). but so does Moses bless Israel prior to
gory or group (e.g. ··sons of prophets"'). A syn- his death (Deut 33:1). Punishment, on the other
onym is ye/ed ··child."' hand, is destined for sons of the third and fourth
Along with other literature from the ancient generation ofparents who do evil (Ex 20:5; 34:7;
near east, such as the Ugaritic epic of Keret. the cf. Jer 6:21)'.
OT places great value upon having a son. The orig- An important motif is that of setting apart the
inal life from God and the image of God is passed firstborn male child (cf. h''kor) for the Lord. Of
on in the son (Gen 5:3; 9:6). A man achieves so- course children were not to be sacrificed as were
cial continuance through his son (Deut 25:6; II the firstborn of animals, but children were to be
Sam 18:8). lt is against this value that the pain of redeemed (pädii, q.v.) for a redemption price of
the loss of an only son must be understood (Gen five shekels (Ex 13:13; 34:20; Num 18:16). Fur-
22:2: Zech 12: 10). The woman finds a great mea- thermore, the naming of children by the prophets
sure of fulfillment in childbearing (Gen 30: 1: I to convey a message should be noted (e.g.
Sam 1: Ps 113:9). A recurring motiffrom Genesis "Not-My-People" Hos 1:9: cf. Hos 1:3; Jsa 7:3;
into the NT is the promise to childless parents, of 8:3).
a son (hen). Features of such narratives include One characteristic formula with the term ben is
the appearance of a messenger. usually an angel, "sons of Israel," a phrase that occurs 630 times
the promise, including either a description of the and is rendered as "children of Israel" by ASV
son·s activities or his name, a response of sur- and as ··people of Israel'" or "Israelites" by RSV
prise or even disbelief, and a report of the con- and Niv. lt is comparable in idiom to "sons of
ception and birth (e.g. Gen 12:2: 17:6: Jud 13:7; II Ammon," i.e. Ammonites. Another important
Kgs 4:16; Lk 1:13). Most striking is the promise formularic combination is "son ofman" which is
to Jsaiah: "Be hold a young woman shall conceive equivalent to ··man" as the poetic parallelism
and bear a son (hen)" (7:14), see 'a/ma which makes clear (Num 23:19; Ps 8:4 [H 51: Job 25:6:
some hold had immediate fulfillment, but which 35:8). ben-iidiim ("son of man") occurs as a title
was unquestionably fulfilled eventually in the for the prophet in Ezk (93 times), where the
coming of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:23: cf. Jsa 9:6 iH 5]). phrase designates simply ··man" or ••indi-
Godly parents are fully rewarded in a wise son vidual,"" but emphasizes the finiteness of the
(Gen 27:46: Prov 10: 1). Great emphasis is placed prophet vis-a-vis God's transcendence. Christ's
on the parents · responsibility to instruct the son appropriation of the title "Son of man" reaches
in the Law (Ex 13:14: 20:10: Deut 11:19: Josh back to its Aramaic usage in Dan 7: 13 in which
4:6). On their part, sons are to honor their par- case (though interpretations vary) it underscores
ents. In this connection it is important to note his identification with mankind and combines fea-
that the verb "honor·· elsewhere in the OT takes tures of both suffering and glory. The ··sons of
as its object a person or that which has a sacral God" ('c'!löhim) mentioned in Gen 6 are either
character. angelic beings, or rulers, i.e. kings (cf. Ps 82:6),
Another motif involving hen is the adoption or more likely the godly line of Seth. In contrast
procedure (cf. Gen 15:2ff.), which was especially to other religions, "sons of God' · occurs seldom
common in Nuzi law. Moses was taken into in the OT-this identical phrase only three other
Pharoah's daughter's house and "he became her times-and generally signifies heavenly creatures
son·· (Ex 2: 10). Certain statements which God (Ps 29:1 'elim [with a parallel in 96:7]; Job 1:6
directed both to people and to individuals are 'elöhim; 38:7 'elöhim) or Israel (e.g. Deut 14:1;
best appreciated in a figurative context as- 32:19; also 32:8; cf. DSS).
sociated with adoption or legitimation based on
covenant promises, e.g. ··Jsrael is my firstborn binyämin. Benjamin. literally, · · son of the
son·· (Ex 4:22). Of David's descendant God de- right band," or ··son of the south.""
clares ... He shall be my son · · (II Sam 7: 14) and of Benjamin, the youngest son of Jacob and
Israel it is to be said ··sons of the living Goct·· Rache!, is important in the story of his elder
(Hos 1: 10 [H 2: 1]). Similarly of a king tobe coro- brother Joseph (Gen 42-45). The Benjamin tribe
nated, though with ultimate reference to Christ, settled in central Palestine (Josh 18:21-28) be-

114
 254 ;; (ben)

tween Ephraim and Judah, but did not totally 298-18). The love of a father for an only daughter
drive out the Canaanites (e.g. Jerusalem, Jud is illustrated by Jephthah·s sorrow at the loss of
1:21). his daughter (Jud 11:34-40; cf. II Sam 12:3). If
The story of the brutal and shameful treatment there were no sons, a man's daughters inherited
given by the Benjamite city of Gibeah to the his property, provided they married within the
travelling Levite and his concubine, while illus- same tribe (Num 27: 1-11; 36: 1-12).
trative of social conditions, retlects negatively on The birth of a daughter brought about a
the Benjamites (Jud 19-21). Confronted with mother's uncleanness twice the duration of un-
their evil, the Benjamites threw their support be- cleanness in the birth of a son. The daughters of
hind Gibeah. When clan or family loyalty blinds the Canaanite culture brought about Israel's ruin
men from moral indignation the situation be- (Num 25: !ff.; Deut 7:3; Jud 3:6; 1 Kgs 11: 1, etc.),
comes vicious and the resulting civil war almost but the Aramean daughters of Abraham 's family
annihilated Benjamin. embraced the faith of their husbands (Gen 21 :6;
The size of Benjamin receives occasional men- 24:58; 27:46; 29:32), though in the case of Jacob's
tion in Scripture. Though renowned for its valiant wives it was less than perfect (Gen 31:lff.; 35:2).
soldiers (Jud 20: 15; cf. I Chr 8:40; Gen 49:27), its Lot's daughters tled from Sodom with him leav-
population was never large nor was its territory ing their husbands behind (Gen 19: 14-16), though
impressive in size (cf. Ps 68:27, NIV). Israel's first later they had incestuous relations with him
king protests his appointment noting that he is ( 19:30ff. ). Daughters accompanied their parents
from the least of the tribes of Israel (1 Sam 9:21; at religious festivities, and in the promised age
cf. Ps 68:27 [H 28]). Yet God's choice of Saul they will share equally with sons in the Spirit's
illustrates the principle that he not infrequently gifts (Joel 2:28 [H 3:11). The prophets through
bypasses those of high station and reaches for personification make three theological affirma-
those esteemed as insignificant (cf. Deut 33:12). tions. The first relates to the expression "daugh-
lt should not go unnoticed that Samuel's minis- ter (of) Zion," understood not as a daughter be-
try was mostly in the Benjamite region and that to longing to Zion but as the daughter who is Zion,
the Benjamites belong not only Saul, but also or as the aggregate of the city's inhabitants.
Jeremiah (Jer 1: 1), Esther (Est 2:5), and the apos- While the expression appears in historical mate-
tle Paul (Rom 11: 1). rial (II Kgs 19:21) and hymnic poetry (Ps 9:14 [H
The name Benjamin occurs in the Mari letters 15]), among the prophets it is Isaiah who uses it
of the eighteenth century designating a particular most frequently in connection with what is
tribe which appears to be somewhat nomadic. known as Zion theology. Zion, a portion of
There it doubtless means. "sons of the south." Jerusalem, is a poetic way of referring to
Jacob chose the name for his son because of the Jerusalem as a whole, and in some passages is a
other meaning. symbol for the whole land of Israel. Zion was
God's choice. His presence, blessing, and protec-
bat. Daughter. As in most Semitic languages, tion is upon Zion, and, while thought therefore by
the primary meaning in the 587 occurrences of the people to be inviolable, the prophets pro-
bat is that of female child in the household. He- nounced judgment on Zion. Yet they also declare
brew may use the compound bänim ubänot "sons that her "salvation comes" (Isa 62: 11). E. J.
and daughters" to express "children" (approxi- Young holds that the expression "daughter of
mately 110 times). As with son (ben), bat in the Zion" is also intended to be one of tendemess.
plural may refer to membership in a group, as (/saiah, vol. I, p. 55)
in "daughters of the Philistines," i.e. Philistine Jeremiah speaks of the "daughter of my
women. In expressions such as "Heshbon and people," an expression found in his book and in
her daughters,'' the reference is to satellite towns Lam thirteen times but seldom elsewhere, and
and villages (Num 21 :25). Personified, bat speci- mostly in the context of approaching or realized
fies land or city as in, "O virgin daughter of calamity. Jeremiah notes the wound which his
Babylon" (lsa 47: 1). people sustained (Jer 8:19, 21). and describes his
Although less emphasis is placed on daughters sorrow at the destruction of "the daughter of my
then sons (c. 585 references to 4850 respectively), people" (Jer 14:17; cf. Lam 2:11; 3:48). John
they were greatly valued. The continuation of life Bright renders "My Daughter-My People" ex-
depended on daughters-Eve is the "mother of plaining that the nouns are in apposition and
all the living," and a daughter was valuable for comments, "The term is a poetic, and endearing,
her labor (Gen 24: 15; 29:9; Ex 20: 10). At mar- personification of the people, and is a favorite
riage a bride price was paid to the daughter's with Jeremiah" Ueremiah, 1965. p. 32). R. K.
father, but he normally restored it to her as a Harrison says, "This unusual term expresses
dowry (Gen 31:15). The dowry may even have Jeremiah's sense of God's kinship with Israel"
been higher than the price (cf. W. Plautz, "Die Ueremiah, p. 71 ).
Form der Eheschliessung im AT," ZA W 76: Ezekiel develops an elaborate analogy on the

115
 daughter motif by referring to Jerusalem as 255c i"W?~(mibneh) structure.
daughter of a Hittite (Ezk 16:45). This figure of 255d tr,•J=i)!:l ( tabnit) pattern, plan.
speech enables the prophet to discourse on the
upbringing of the daughter, to capitalize on the btinii as construction refers to houses, cities,
proverb, "Like mother, like daughter·• (Ezk towers, altars, etc. and idiomatically to bring
16:44), to stress the increasing degradation of about increase in offspring (Gen 16:2). btinii oc-
playing the harlot and finally to compare the sis- curs 376 times in Qal and Niphal stems.
ters, Samaria and Sodom, who when compared Synonyms are kun "establish" (II Sam 7: 13;
to Jerusalem seem righteous. Ps 89:4 (H 5]) and 'äsii •·make." An antonym is
Bibliography: Andersen, H. G., "Benjamin," htiras "break down" (Jer 1:10; Ps 28:5).
in ZPEB I, 521-2. Berney, Leroy, "An Exegeti- The theological significance of the verb hänii
cal Study of Gen 6: 1-4," JETS 13: 43-52. Bess, can be exposed by considering the use ofthe verb
S. Herbert, "The Term 'Son ofGod' in the Light first with God and then with man as its subject.
of Old Testament Idiom," Grace Journal 6: I. God as Builder. YHWH is presented in
16-23. Bright, J ., History of Israel, Westminster, Scripture as the master builder of both the
1949, p. 70. Colerom, J. E., "The Sons ofGod in created and historical order. The word is used
Genesis 6, 2," TS 2: 488-509. Cooke, Gerald, metaphorically of his final creative act for man's
"The Israelite King as Son of God," ZA W 73: good when he "built" the rib which he had taken
202-25. __ , "The Sons of (the) Goddess," from Adam into a woman (Gen 2:22). Elsewhere
ZAW 76: 22-47. Delekat, C., "Zum Hebraischen the biblical poets describe the ordered universe
Wörterbuch," VT 14: 7--66. DeBoer, P. A. H., as a building which YHWH designed and built
"The Son of God in the Old Testament," OTS (Arnos 9:6; cf. Ps 104:2-3).
18: 188-207. Emerton, J. A., "The Origin of the YHWH, the wise, powerful and good architect
Son of Man Imagery," JTS 9: 225-42. Fenshain, of the created order is also the sovereign and
F. Charles, "The Son of a Handmaid in North- moral master builder of temporal history. His
west Semitic," VT 19: 312-22. Kline, Meredith sovereignty over history is seen in Joshua's pre-
G., "Divine Kingship and Genesis 6:1-4," WTJ diction that it would cost a man his first born son
24: 187-204. Longenecker, Richard N., "Son of to rebuild Jericho (Josh 7:26); Hie! the Bethelite
Man Imagery: Some Implications for Theology fulfilled this grim prediction eight hundred years
and Discipleship," JETS 13: 43-52. McKenzie, later (I Kgs 16:34). As the designer of history he
John L., "Divine Sonship and Individual Reli- tears down the edifices of the wicked while he
gion," CBQ 7: 32-47. --, "The Divine Son- builds his own kingdom·. Concerning his sover-
ship ,of Man in the Old Testament," CBQ 7: eignty in tearing down the works of the ungodly,
326-39. --, "The Divine Sonship of Israel Job proclaimed: "With him are wisdom and
and the Covenant," CBQ 8: 320-31. --, might; to him belong counsel and understanding.
"The Divine Sonship of the Angels," CBQ 5: Behold, he tears down, and it cannot be rebuilt"
293-300. Mendelsohn, 1., "A Ugaritic Parallel to (Job 12:13-14a). Because of his righteous perfec-
the Adoption of Ephraim and Manasseh, · · Israel tion the Psalmist foresaw: "Because they [the
Exploration Journal 9: 180-83. ___ , "The wicked) do not regard the works of the Lord nor
Family in the Ancient Near East," BA 11: 24-40. the deeds of his hands, he will tear them down
Muilenberg, James, "The Son of Man in Daniel and not build them up" (Ps 28:5). At the time of
and the Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch," JBL 79: his judgment he will destroy the cities of the god-
197-209. Rainey, Anson F., "Family Relation- less so that they will never be rebuilt. This was
ships in Ugarit," Or 34: 10-22. Richardson, the fate of the Canaanites (Deut 13:16 [H 17]),
TWB, p. 230. Williams, James G., "The Pro- and of Tyre (Ezk 26: 14). In a doxology lsaiah
phetie 'Father'," JBL 85: 344-48. Winter, P., exclaimed: "O LORD,you are my God; I will
"Der Begriff 'Sohne Gottes' im Moselied Dt 32, exalt you, I will give thanks to your name ... ; a
1-43," ZAW 67: 40-48. TDOT, II, pp. 148-58. palace of strangers is a city no more; it will never
THAT, I, pp. 316-24. be rebuilt" (lsa 25: 1-2). In a word, that which is
E.A.M. built through unrighteousness is unstable and will
fall. Even Jerusalem will become a ruin because
her leaders built Zion with bloodshed and
255 M;; (bänii) build, rebuild. (ASVand RSV Jerusalem with violence and injustice (Mic 3: 10),
usually identical, but "rebuild" in the RSVis and Jehoiakim will be buried like a stubborn don-
sometimes used where ASVuses "build," key because he built himself a spacious house
e.g. Ezk 36:36). through unrighteousness and injustice (Jer
22: 13-19; cf. Hab 2: 12). YHWH subjected his
Derivatives chosen city to the same fate he inflicted on the
255a l"I;~; (binyä) structure, building. Canaanites by giving its new houses to the enemy
255b ~;~; (binyän) structure. before Israel had ever used them (Deut 28:30;

116
 255 :iJ; (bäna)
Zeph 1: 13). Though nations, such as Edom, may profit apart from him (Ezk 17:17; cf. 21:22 [H
resolve to build in opposition to him his decrees, 27]). David appropriately depended on God to
they will not succeed (Mal 1:4). build the walls of Jerusalem (Ps 51:18 [H 20)).
Other texts, however, atfirm his sovereignty 2. Man as Builder. Structures built by man are
according to his righteous purposes in building up judged by God as either good or bad according as
his kingdom through his elect. He also promised they conform to his character and purpose. Thus
to build Jeroboam I an enduring house if he kept he accepted the altars built by Noah (Gen 8:20);
YHWH's statutes (1 Kgs 11:38). Unlike David, the Patriarchs ( 12:7--8; I 3:8; 18; 22:9; 26:25;
however, Jeroboam I failed to behave as a true 35:7); Moses (Ex 17: 15; 24:4); Joshua (Josh 8:30).
servant of YHWH. In contrast, he rejected the high places and altars
In addition to building the houses of his faithful to foreign gods built by. Aaron (Ex 32:5); Sol-
priests and kings, he is also the master builder of omon (1 Kgs 11:7); Rehoboam (1 Kgs 14:23); etc.
Zion and the temple. Even as in the days of Cities, the most frequent object of banii, must
Moses he gave instructions as to how his altars also be evaluated by the same criteria. Thus he
should be built (Ex 20:25; Deut 27:5). In the gol- delights in the songs about Zion (Ps 122:3), but he
den age of lsrael's united kingdom, he chose the found no delight in the city built by Cain (Gen
time, the place and the person to build his house 4: 17) or in Assur's Nineveh (Gen 10: 11). Though
(1 Kgs 8: 16-20). David promised Solomon that Tyre was famous for its beauty brought about by
through YHWH's blessing, he would secure the its expert craftsmen (Ezk 27:3ff), it was de-
necessary materials and craftsmen for its con- stroyed because of its sin (27:26ff). The same fate
struction (1 Chr 22: 11; II Chr 2:7ff [H 6 ]). Thus he befell Samaria though it contained houses of
fulfilled his promise at the time he founded the dressed stone (Arnos 5: 1; cf. lsa 9: 10 [H 9]) and
nation to choose a place to put his name (Deut decorated with ivory (1 Kgs 22:39; Arnos 3: 15).
12:5). A striking amount of detailed instruction is Building activity is frequently associated with
given about the building of these structures in God's saving activity. Under God's blessing,
which YHWH delights (cf. I Kgs 6; Ezk 40; Solomon not only built up Zion but also built
Neh 3). store cities and fortified others (II Chr 8:5).
Moreover, though he chastens the house of Ezekiel anticipates the day when Israel will again
David and Zion by tearing them down for a time, build houses (Ezk 28:26; 36:10, 33, 36), and the
yet his purpose to bring salvation cannot be Psalmist calls upon heaven and earth to praise
thwarted forever. God because his servants will once again build
Jeremiah's use of the combination "build and the cities of Judah (Ps 69:35 [H 36)). The reader
plant," since it follows God's destructive act of rejoices with the singers ofNehemiah's time who
judgment, illustrates that God in grace "builds built for themselves villages around Jerusalem
again" (Jer 1:10; 18:7-10; 42:10). Impressive is (Neh 12:29).
YHWH's promise to the people destined for Houses became important in Israel's history
exile, .. Again I will build you and you shall be when they became sedentary. The first notice
built, 0 virgin Israel" (Jer 3 I :4; cf. 24:6; 33:7). In that Jacob built a house and booths for bis cattle
the metaphorical usages of this word pair it is occurs after he returned from Padan Aram and
always YHWH who is subject; and in Jeremiah, separated himself from Esau (Gen 37: 18). An-
the object, when it is given, is always a group of ticipating their settlement in the land, Moses in-
people, primarily Israel. The word pair is linked structed the people to make a parapet for their
with salvation history and emphasizes YHWH's tlat roofs lest someone might fall off (Deut 22:8);
initiative as weil as his solicitude. Thus, he sent he excused a man from military service (20:5)
Cyrus to rebuild the temple (II Chr 36:23; Ezr who bad not dedicated his new house.
I :2-4) and promised to rebuild the house of David The word is also used for women who build a
(Arnos 9: 11). (Perhaps as an indication of his in- family by bearing children. Rachel and Leah are
tention to use Israel to bring universal salvation, mentioned in marriage blessing as having built
he used the Phoenicians in building the first tem- the house of Israel (Ruth 4: 11). Levirate marriage
ple, and the uncircumcised Cyrus in building the was instituted so a "house" or family would be
second temple.) built (Deut 25:9).
Because God is sovereign over all, it is folly to
build without his blessing. "Unless the LORD tabnit. Pattern, plan, form, image, likeness. (ASV
builds the house, they labor in vain who build it" and RSV often vary: e.g. ASV "pattern," Rsv
(Ps 127: 1). All houses and cities are at his dis- "plan," I Chr 28: 11, 12, 18, 19; Asv "likeness"
posal as he displayed when he promised to give to RSV "image" Ps 106:20). tabnit occurs twenty
his elect cities and houses they did not build times.
(Deut 6: !Of; Josh 24: 13) and threatened to de- Synonyms for tabnit are not easily dif-
stroy the cities of apostates ( Deut 13: 16 [H 17)). ferentiated from each other. t''münii from the
Siege equipment and fortifications are without root min "kind" suggests "resemblance," "rep-

117
256 !OJ~ ( bnr)
resentation'" (Num 12:8). d''müt, from the root M'lZ (hinl'ti). See no. 255a.
diimii "like," is used in the sense of "copy,'" 1•16~,z
(hinviimin). See no. 254a.
"likeness," or "'image." ra'ar refers to "attrac- 1:~::1·
(hinydn). See no. 255b.
tive form'" (Gen 29:17; Jer 11:16). Wherever tah-
nit refers to structures it is best understood as 257 "\C::l ( hsr). Assumed root of the following.
"plan," e.g. David supplied Solomon with tahnit 257a "\!;)·z ( höser) unripe or sour grapes.
("specifications," "blueprints") for temple items
(1 Chr 28: 11, 19). In other contexts tahnit is bet-
258 "11.'::l(h'd). Assumed root of the following.
ter rendered "likeness" and is not essentially dif- 258a Mp~ (ha'ad) behind, through, round
ferent from t''münä (Deut 4:16-18; cf. Ex 20:4). about, in behalf of.
The tabernacle and its furnishings were to be
made according to the tahnit (plan) God had Used primarily as a preposition, ha'ad is sig-
shown Moses in the Mount (Ex 25:9, 40). Specifi- nificant theologically. First ha ·ad occurs in con-
cations for the tabernacle. the ark of the coven- junction with petition "in behalf of" (ha'ad)
ant, the table for the bread of the presence, etc. someone. Persons request a spiritual leader to
included dimensions, material, design, and even pray (usually Hithpael of pälal) in their behalf,
color (Ex 26: I) though not always were e.g. Pharaoh to Moses (Ex 8:28 [H 241); people to
measurements indicated (cf. lampstand, Ex Samuel (1 Sam 12: 19); Hezekiah to lsaiah (II Kgs
25:31). 19:4); representatives to Jeremiah (Jer 21:2;
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 166-80. THAT, 42:2). Or, assertions are made of spiritual leaders
I, pp. 325-26. that they have or will intercede, e.g. Abraham
B.K.W. (Gen 29:7) and Moses (Num 21:7; Deut 9:20).
Jeremiah is commanded not to pray for (ba'ad)
the people (Jer 7: 16; 11: 14). The preposition
256 ~l::l (hn!). Assumed root of the following.
throughout underscores the mediating function of
256a itl~::l~ ( 'ahne!) girdle. (KJV, ASV,
leaders, including prophets, in intercession.
RSV render alike, "girdle(s). ")
lnstructions given to priests include the ex-
The word denotes the girdle of the high priest, pression "make atonement for (ha'ad)." Aaron
the ordinary priests, and high officials. There are is instructed to make atonement (kiipar, q.v.) for
nine occurrences of this term in the or: all but himself and his house (Lev 9:7). In the temple
one (lsa 22:21) are found in Exodus and which Ezekiel describes, sin offerings are to be
Leviticus. The 'ahne( was a ceremonial sash observed "to make atonement for·· (ba'ad) the
worn by the high priest and his assistants. lt was people (Ezk 45:17, 22). Descriptions ofthe ritual
made of embroidered linen in colors of blue, pur- for the Day of Atonement repeated the same ex-
ple, and scarlet (Ex 28:4. 39-40). lt was worn by pression (Lev 16:6, II. 17, 24). lt is perhaps pre-
high officials as weil (lsa 22:21 ). 'ahne( is one of sumptuous to argue merely from ha'ad that sac-
five OT words translated "girdle." Only one other rifice is to be understood as substitutionary. The
refers to priestly apparel. Josephus affords some whole ritual must be considered. Prayer is also
details of the girdle as used in his day. lt was spoken of as "making atonement for" (Ex 32:30).
wrapped around the ehest and after a number of Yet there can be no doubt that sacrifice, su-
twinings it was tied, hanging freely to the ankles. premely Christ's sacrifice, is "for the benefit of'
Such was the girdle which the high priest wore and "in behalf of' others.
while performing no service. While he was offer- Non-theological usages include: away from,
ing sacrifices, in order to allow greater freedom behind, out from or out through in various appro-
of movement, he threw the sash to the left and priate situations.
wore it over his shoulder (Josephus, Ant 3.7.2). E.A.M.
Some OT scholars think of the girdle as a loosely
woven scarf. Although Deut 22: 11 expressly for- C'l'\W:;I (bi'ütfm). See no. 265b.
bids mixing wool and linen in a garment, it was
permitted in this case, at least in the embroidery 259 :i~; (bä'a) seek out, swell.
wool, although Ex 39:2a calls it a girdle of linen.
The girdle was a usual part of the garments of the bä'a suggests a search for what is covered or
priests. The "girdle of the ephod" l/Jesheh sealed (lsa 21:12: Ob 6). And it may suggest a
hii'epöd) was specially embroidered and worn by swelling up as of boiling water (lsa 64:2) or the
the high priest. bulging of a wall (Isa 30: I 3). It has the same t wo
Bibliography: Levin, Moshe, Melekhet meanings in Arabic.
Hammiskkan (in Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1968. E.A.M.
Wright, G. E., "lsraelite Daily Life, .. BA 18:
50-79. 260 11.'::l( h ·z). Assumed root of the following.
C.L.F. 260a tip·z (bö'az) I, Boaz.

118
 262 ',t,; ( bä 'al)

A wealthy landowner from Bethlehem who fig- territory (cf. I Chr 4:22). A man may take (/äqa/:i)
ures prominently in the book of Ruth (Ruth 2: 1- a wife and marry (ha'al) her (Deut 24:1).
3). Through his considerate action for the A focus on the verb ha'al from the theological
widowed Ruth, Boaz exemplifiesjustice ofwhich standpoint leads to a consideration of marriage
the Bible so often speaks (e.g. Deut 27: 19). Since terminology employed by God in defining his re-
Boaz functions as a kinsman redeemer (i;:ö'el, lationship to his people. "For your Maker is your
q. v.) his action has been regarded as pointing to husband (ha'a/), the Lord of hosts is his name"
Christ, the redeemer of mankind. As the great- (Isa 54:5ff.). In Jer the existing marriage relation-
grandfather of David, Boaz receives mention in ship becomes a motivation for repentance: ·· For I
geneaologies (1 Chr 2: 12) including those of am a husband unto you" (Jer 3: 14, Asv; Rsv ren-
Christ (Mt 1:5; Lk 3:32). ders "I am your master"). In the justly famous
Boaz was also the name of one of the two !arge new covenant passage the former covenant is de-
pillars flanking the entrance to Solomon ·s tem- scribed as a broken covenant, a situation which is
ple. Boaz stood to the north; the other pillar (ya- the more sobering and shocking because "I was a
kin) stood to the south (1 Kgs 7:15-21). The husband (ha'a/) to them, says Jehovah" (Jer
majority of scholars believe that they had a 31:32, Asv: Rsv similar; cf. Mal 2:11).
purely decorative and symbolic function. But The future delights which God will have with
W. F. Albright suggested they were giant incense his redeemed people are stressed in lsa where the
stands (Archaeolo,:y and the Reli,:ion <~lIsrael, land is said tobe married (hä'al, Niphal), appar-
1949, pp. 138-48). Others hold that they sym- ently to YHWH. The name of the land, Beulah
bolized God's presence or that the pillars, to- (passive participle of ha'a/), signifies both the in-
gether with the laver, symbolized Yahweh's lord- timacy and the joy of YHWH in conjunction with
ship over the natural elements (land and water). the land ('ere.~. q.v.; Jsa 62:4). The background
R. B. Y. Scott appropriately notes that since the which such Janguage gives to the NT concept of
king "stood by the pillar" at important occasions Christ as the bridegroom or husband of his
(II Kgs 11: 14; 23:3) the inscriptions may have people, the church, should be obvious (cf. Eph
dynastic significance. Boaz may recall: "In the 5:2lff.). In any case one must not miss the close
strength (h'''öz) of Yahweh shall the king re- covenantal tie which this metaphor suggests, not
joice" (Ps 21: 1 [H 2]; JBL 58: l43ff.). Jean Ouel- only of love but of loyalty between God and his
lette, however, has recently argued that they people.
were not freestanding but had a functional value
("The Basic Structure of Solomon's Temple and ba'al. Owner, possessor, husband, Baal. Uga-
Archaeological Research,.. in The Temple of ritic also has the double use of master and the
Solomon. ed. by Joseph Gutmann, Scholars name of a deity. The root in most semitic lan-
Press, 1976). See also D. Ussishkin, "King Sol- guages means either "lord" or, when followed by
omon·s Palaces," BA 36: 84--88. See Busink, T. a genitive, "owner ...
A., Der Tempel von Jerusalem (Leiden, 1970), In addition to ha'al as owner of things, the
pp. 3l2ff. for a convenient survey of the exten- noun in the plural is used for citizens (ba'a/im) of
sive scholarly literature on the subject. a city (Josh 24: 11). In Jud 9 where the noun oc-
E.A.M. curs sixteen times, Asv consistently translates
"'men," but Rsv in addition to "men" employs
"citizens" (Jud 9:2) and "people" (Jud 9:46).
261 =lJ; (ba'a() kick.
ha'al can refer to partner or ally (Gen 14:13).
ldiomatically ha ·al as master of something
i•v:p (h'"ir). See no. 264a. characterizes the person (e.g. ha'a/ of wrath,
Prov 22:24; of appetite, Prov 23:2: of dreams,
Gen 37: 19) or identifies occupation (e.g. officer,
262 '?!!; (ba'a/) possess, own, rule ofer, marry.
ha'a/ of the guard, Jer 37:13).
(Asv and RSVusually similar, though RSV
In addition to its appearance in compound
prefers "rule" to ASV "have dominion"
names of people and places (e.g. Jerubbaal, Jud
[e.g. Isa 26:13]).
9:16; Baalzephon, Ex 14:2). ha'a/ is the name of
Derivatives a great active god in the Canaanite pantheon and
has other religious connotations.
262a t',l); ( ha'al) owner, husband, Baal.
The god Baal met in the oT is the West Semitic
262b t:,7i,~ (ha'alä) female owner. storm god, h'I (sing.) and h'lm (pi.), encountered
262c +',;:l· ( bei) Bel.
in Egyptian texts (from fourteenth century B.c.
The verb with its derivatives, not counting its on), Tell Amarna Letters (fourteenth century
usage in compounds or as proper names, occurs s.c.), Alalakh Tablets (fifteenth century B.c.),
more than one hundred times. One may own Ugaritic texts (fourteenth century B.c.), Amorite
(ha'a/) a hause (Ex 22:7), or rule over (hii'al) proper names from Mari, Tell al-Rimah, and

119
262 ',t,; (bä'al)

Chagar Bazar, and later in Phoenician and Punic state religion of the northem kingdom (1 Kgs
texts. Both within the Bible and outside it the 16:31). Leah Bronner has presented convincing
name appears either absolutely or in construct argument that Israel's miracles by Elijah and
with place names; e.g. Baal-peor (Num 25:3, 5), Elisha served as a polemic for God against the
Baal-berith (Jud 9:40), Baal-zebub (II Kgs 1:2). very powers attributed to this pagan nature deity,
(Baal-zebub, "lord of flies," is a parody on his namely, fire (1 Kgs 18:17ff.; II Kgs 1:9-16), rain (I
name found elsewhere, h'/ zh/, "Prince Baal.") Kgs 17:1; 18:41-46), food (1 Kgs 17:1-6, 8-16; II
These names do not denote various gods with the Kgs 4: lff.); children (II Kgs 4: 14-17); revivifica-
epithet · 'lord," but local venerations of the same tion (I Kgs 17:17-23; II Kgs 4:18-37; 13:20-22,
West Semitic storm and fertility deity called sim- The Stories of E{ijah and Elisha as Polemics
ply Baal, "Lord.'' ARainst Baal Worship, Leiden, 1%8.) But their
Scholars used to think that the plural form with miracles did not rid the land of this degraded cult
the article, "the Baalim" denoted different local and it brought about the captivity of the northem
numina, but the plural form of the name occurs kingdom (Hosea).
outside the Bible and the mention of "lovers" lt also infiltrated the southem kingdom (II Kgs
and "strangers" (Jer 2:25) suggest another use of 11:18; 21:2ff.), andin spite of Josiah's reform
the plural than that of a numerical plural. The (II Kgs 23:4ff.), brought the nation into exile (Ezk
article occurs frequently in Hebrew with proper 16; 23, etc.).
names whose meaning is transparent. The Hosea discourse describes how Israel,
Since the biblical writers did not intend to who received gifts of grain and oil from YHWH,
teach the Canaanite religion, we know more used these for the worship of Baal (Hos 2:8 [H
about Baal's roles, consorts, and cult from the 10]). The chapter fairly tums on the term ha'al,
extra-biblical literature than from the oT; but the not only in the mention of the Canaanite god(s)
picture of Baal presented in the 0T comports weil (e.g. Hos 2:8 [H 10]; 2: 13 [H 15]; and 2: 17 [H 19)),
with the extra-biblical sources. but in the imagery throughout of God as Israel's
He was also called Haddu (=Hadad). He is husband. Israel will call the Lord her husband
above all the storm god who gives the sweet rain ( 'ish, Hos 2: 16 [H 18]; cf. 2:2 [H 4]; 2:7 [H 91)and
that revives vegetation. Dry years were attrib- no longer call him, apparently along with the list
uted to his temporary captivity or even death. of other gods, my Baal (ba'a/).
But at his revivification fields, flocks, and God's supremacy over Baal is constantly af-
families became productive. In addition, he is a firmed. However man's preoccupation from then
war god and fertility deity who consorts with and until this day is rather with sex and technol-
Anat (is later equated with Astarte). Both by re- ogy, than with devotion to the almighty God of
citing the myth of his role in reviving life at the history, who is also the covenant God.
autumn new year festival and by magical ritual of B.K.W.
sacred marriage represented in the cult by the ba'lllä. Female owner. Used infrequently,
king, the queen and a priestess, the West Semites
ha'a/a signifies owner of something (e.g. a house,
hoped to ensure the earth's fertility. [This ritual is
I Kgs 17:17). Or like ha'al, it is used to charac-
witnessed to in Babylon but not clearly in Ca-
terize a person (e.g. enchantress, lit. "possessor
naan (cf. H. Frankfort Kingship and the Gods,
ofcharms," Nah 3:4; cf. I Sam 28:7). In contrast
also Kitchen, K. A., Ancient Orient and the 0. T.,
to ha'a/, ha'alit is not used in the OT of a god-
lnter-Varsity, 1%6, p. 104). lt should be noted
dess except as the feminine form appears in
that the identification of Baal as an annually
names of localities (e.g. Josh 15:9).
dying and rising god with the Babylonian Tam-
muz has lately suffered. New Sumerian tablets bei. Bel. The name of an earlier Babylonian
published by S. Kramer show that Tammuz died god of heaven, parallel perhaps to the Sumerian
once for all and C. H. Gordon has argued that Enlil, who at a later date was merged with Mar-
Baal too had no annual death and resurrection. duk. Bel ("lord," cf. Hebrew ba'a/) was then
See the whole discussion with refs. in E. M. added as title to Marduk. Bel, Babylon's patron
Yamauchi, "Tammuz and the Bible" JBL 84: deity, is incorporated in names like Belshazzar
283-90. R.L.H.] Archaeological cultic objects (Dan 5: 1). The Babylonian form of the name is
with exaggerated sexual features, as weit as the due to the loss of laryngeals in the Akkadian lan-
myths themselves, support the oT notices about guage.
the degraded moral features associated with the Bel, the Babylonian form, is mentioned only
cult. three times in two prophets. Despite repeated
Throughout the period of the judges, Israel statements that no gods beside YHWH exist, the
succumbed to this infectious cult (Jud 2: l lff.; oT mentions pagan deities in order to contrast
6:25) and had tobe rescued from its tragic conse- certain aspects of Yahweh (cf I Cor 8:5-6).
quences by Yahweh's judges. During the period lsaiah, strongly polemical concerning pagan
of the Omrides, Baal worship became the otTicial gods and idols generally (cf. lsa 40: 18f.; 41 :20ff.;

120
 264 i11; (bä'ar)
45:20), names Bel and Nebo, both Babylonian trigue, etc. /Jära is confined almost totally to
deities, and describes them as unable to save usage with anger, while hä'ar stresses the con-
their own statues in the hour of disaster. suming and contagious qualities of fire especially
In a passage that distinguishes most clearly be- in the religious context.
tween a god and the representation of him by an In the derived stems (Pie!, Pual, and Hiphil) the
image, the writer contrasts the gods whose root is normally used literally. As might be ex-
statues must he carried, with God who carries pected from the nature ofthe stems, the emphasis
his people (lsa 46: 1ft). Discussion of pagan is upon "causing to burn," or setting afire (e.g.
deities emphasizes the contrast with YHWH. Ex 22:6 [H 51). Almost all of these, however, are
The statement about the defeat of Bel opens special cases and have to do with ceremonial
Jeremiah's oracle (Jer 50:2; cf. 51:44) and under- burning. So the priests are commanded to burn
scores another theme concerning pagan deities. wood on the altar continually (Lev 6:12 [H 5];
Here and elsewhere the oT insists that no pagan Neh 10:35); the lamps in the sanctuary are tobe
deities are a match for YHWH; that YHWH is burning at all times (II Chr 4:20; 13:11). The pro-
supreme and fully God. totypes of these are the theophanies in which the
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "The North- Lord's appearances are associated with the con-
Canaanite Poems of Al 'eyan Ba'al and the 'Gra- tinuously burning bush (Ex 3:2-3) and the burn-
cious Gods'," JPOS 14: 101-40. __ ·_, Yahweh ing on Mt. Sinai (Deut 4:11; 5:23; 9:15), both of
and the Gods of Canaan, Doubleday, 1968. Ap- which seem to represent the very character of the
Thomas, D. R., "Elijah on Mount Carmel," PEQ righteous and purifying God (II Sam 22:9; Isa
92: 146-55. Bronner, Leah, The Stories of Elijah 10:17; Ezk 1:13; cf. also lsa 33:14; Heb 12:29).
and Elisha as Polemics ARainst Baal Worship, Thus hä'ar is used with "fire" when it is God's
Leiden, 1968. Cassuto, U., "Ba'al and Mot in the instrument to consume the wicked (Num 11:1;
Texts of Ugarit," BJPES 9: 45-51. --, "Baal lsa 1:31; 9: 18 [H 171).To be of an alien nature to
and Mot in the Ugaritic Texts," Israel Explora- God is to be as dry tinder before a flame (lsa
tion Journal 12: 77-86. ---, "The Death of 10:17). This, the prophets promised, was to be
Ba'al: Table I *AB from Ras-Shamra," Tarbiz rebellious Israel's experience before a Holy God
12: 169-80. Dussand, R., ··Le vrai nom de (lsa 30:27; Jer 7: 20; Ps 83:14 [H 15); etc.).
Ba'al," Rev Hist Re! 113: 5-20. Eissfeldt, 0., The word is also used to describe intense emo-
"Ba'alshamen u. Jahwe," ZA W 16: 1-31. Men- tions (Ps 39:3 [H 4J Jer 20:9).
delsohn, 1., "The Family in the Ancient Near b•'era. Fire. Appears once in Ex 22:6 [H 5)
East," BA 11: 24-40. Morgenstern, Julian, "The
where it is used as a cognate accusative with
Book of the Covenant, II," HUCA 7: 19-258.
hä'ar, "the one who kindled the fire."
---, "Beena Marriage (Matriarchate) in An-
cient Israel and its Historical Implications," 264 ,p;, (bä'ar) II, be brutish. Denominative
ZAW 47: 91-110. Oldenburg, Ulf, The Conjlict
verb.
Between EI and Baal in Canaanite Reli{!ion,
Brill, 1969. Pfeiffer, C. F., Ras Shamra and the Parent Noun
Bible, Baker, 1962. Rainey, Anson F., "Family 264a t,•v; · (b' 'ir) beasts, cattle.
Relationships in Ugarit," Or 34: l0-22. 264b t,p;· (ha'ar) brutish person.
Richardson, TWB, pp. 138-40. Worden, T.,
"The Literary Influence of the Ugaritic Fertility The verbal forms of this root may weil be de-
Myth on the Old Testament," VT 3: 273-97. nominative from the noun form "beast." In turn,
Yamauchi, E. M., "Tammuz and the Bible" JBL it is tempting to see a connection between that
84: 283-90. Yaron, Reuven, ··Aramaic Marriage word and the Pie! form of bä'ar "to graze."
Contracts from Elephantine," JSS 3: 1-39. However, such a connection must remain highly
TDOT, II, pp. 181-200. THAT, I, pp. 325-27. tenuous. The root seems to contrast man·s ability
E.A.M. to reason and understand with the beast's in-
ability to do so (Prov 30:2).
263 ,p; (bä'ar) I, to burn, consume, be kindled.
(Asv and RSV similar.) b•'ir. Beasts, cattle. Does not seem to stress
the brutish aspect of beasts, but is simply a
Derivative synonym for be hema or miqneh.
263a m,P.~(b''erä) fire. ba'ar. A brutish person. Occurs five times in
Of the several Hebrew words which are trans- Psalms and Proverbs. Such a person is one who
lated "to bum" two are most often used figura- stubbornly refuses to accept God's grace (Ps
tively. These are bä'ar and /Jära. The others, such 73:22). The use of the figure in Prov 30:2 shows
as särap, yaqad, and yä~at all have to do primar- Agur's humility.
ily with literal burning, whereas these two are Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 201-204.
commonly used to describe anger, passion, in- J.N.0.

121
264.1 *-i~; (bä'ar)
264.1 *i:.,; (bä'ar) III, to pul away, take away, that God not intimidate (bä'at) him with his
feed on, waste. (Asv similar. RSVtranslates power and dread (Job 9:34; 13:21). The wicked
"purge" in Deut, elsewhere with a variety have every reason to be terrified because they
of words including "consume, destroy, ex- stretch forth their hand against God (Job 15:24f.).
terminate, devour. ") bä'at is the reaction of both saint and sinner
This root occurs twenty-seven times, twice in who experience Yahweh. ba'at underlines the
greatness and overpowering aspect of God. Be-
the Hiphil and the rest in the Piel stem. Other
fore such a God reverence and awe at the least
lexicographers (cf. KB, GB, BDB) assumed that
are demanded.
it was a derivative idea from the root meaning E.A.M.
··to burn." Such a derivation would be easily
understood, especially since bä'ar "to burn··
l'~ (bö.)"). See no. 268a.
seems to stress the consuming aspect of fire.
However, most recent studies assume a separate
:i;; (bi,Hä). See no. 268b.
i•;;i ( bä.fir). See no. 270f.
root, especially since bä'ar "to burn·· has a Piel
form meaning "to kindle, set afire."
The most common usage of the word has to do
266 ,i::: (h.)"l). Assumed root of the following.
with removing evil or evil influence from the land
266a t,;;i onion (Num 11:5).
(hä.)"iil)
(20 times, 10 of which are in Deut). If a person
267 i;;; (bä.)"a') to cut off, get, gain, be covet-
has committed some flagrant sin (idolatry, murder,
ous, greedy, finish (Pie)).
fornication, prostitution, adultery, intranational
slavery) not only must he himselfbe removed, but Derivative
through his execution the evil which he has sei
267a +lli;l1 ( he.ya') projit.
in train must be removed (Deut 13:1-5 [H 2-6]:
II Sam 4: 11; I Kgs 14:10 etc.). The necessity for bä.)"a·and its derivative occur thirty-nine times
this latter is seen in the provision made for purg- in the OT. Dalman has argued that it is a technical
ing the evil when a body is found and the murderer term used by weavers to design.ate the action of
is not known (Deut 21: 1-9). Evil cannot be ex- cutting a piece of cloth free from the loom after it
plained away nor wished away. lt must be dealt has been woven (cf. also KB). lsaiah 38: 12 bears
with and that in terms of life and death. this out when it has Hezekiah contemplating the
J.N.O. end of his life in such terms. Job (6:9) also asks
that God would cut off his life. This explains the
265 *JW; (ba'at) tobe overtaken by sudden ter- Piel meaning "to complete, finish." However,
ror, to terrify. (Niphal and Pie! only .) the more common connotation of the root is
based on a slightly different aspect of "cut off."
Derivatives That is to cut off what is not one's own, or in the
265a :it,v; (b''äta) terror, dismay. slang of our day, to take a "rip-off,'" thus to be
265b c:i•r,11::i ( bi' utim) terrors, a/arms oc- greedy, covetous.
casioned by God. The derived uses in the cognate Semitic lan-
guages suggest that "to cut," "cut off," was the
Half of the occurrences (of fifteen) are in
original meaning.
poetry. Two synonyms are pä/Jad "to tremble,"
and !Jatat "to be filled with terror." ba 'at is bei,a'. Profu, unjust gain, covetousness. Per-
closest to /Jätat, though Rsv more consistently sonal advantage derived from some activity.
and appropriately renders hä'at with the stronger Used largely in the negative sense, as in the case
term "terrify." ASV occasionally uses „ make of the racketeer who takes his "cut" from the
afraid" (cf. Est 7:6; Job 13:11; 15:24). profits of an otherwise legitimate business. In
Though men may be the occasion of terror (e.g. seven occurrences (out of a total of 23) the neg-
Est 7:6; cf. Job 13:11), it is primarily Yahweh that ative connotation is less apparent. E.g., Judah
strikes terror. David is terrified ( ba 'at) when queries bis brothers as to the "profit" in killing
confronted with the sword-carrying angel (1 Chr Joseph (Gen 37:26) and Job's comforters argue
21:30). Saul was terrorized (bä'at) by an evil that it is no 1<ainto God even if Job were blame-
spirit from Yahweh (1 Sam 16:14). Visions, re- less (Job 22:3), etc. But the predominance ofthe
garded as from God, bring terror, as shown in the negative usages iridicates that it is very easy for
account of Eliphaz (Job 4:14ff.) and Job's com- the acquisition of personal gain to become the
ment (Job 7:14). ruling motive of one's life, obscuring duty, hon-
The coming ofGod, even via the angel Gabriel, esty and the rights of others.
strikes terror into the heart of Daniel and this The contexts in which bä.ra· and be.ra· occur
devout servant falls to his face (Dan 8:17). This emphasize two points concerning the Just for per-
experience is helpful in understanding the back- sonal gain. First, it is a special temptation to
ground against which Job makes his request, viz., leaders, and those showing any predilection in

122
 271 lJ;:;,;(bäqa')
that direction should be disqualified (Ex 18:21). "test, assay." as per Ugaritic 2067:3 (UT 19: no.
The leader who succumbs to this temptation to 500; cf. Jer 6:27).
use his position for his own ends will certainly Of the seventy-three occurrences of hä.~ar and
play his people false (Ezk 22:27). Again and again its derivatives, all but eight have to do with for-
in the oT. it was the desire of the leaders for per- tification (or inaccessibility). Of these eight.
sonal gain which led Israel into disaster (cf. 1 Sam seven have to do with the grape harvest. In Jer
8:3; Isa 56:11; Jer 8:10; 22:17, etc.). 6:9; 49:9 and Ob 5 it is indicated that when God in
Secondly. lust for personal gain is in direct op- judgment gathers the harvest from Israel his
position to unselfish devotion to God (Ps 10:3; vineyard, there will not even be gleanings left
119:36; lsa 33: 15) and must inevitably destroy the (contra Deut 24:21).
person who succumbs to it ( Prov 1:19; 15:27; Hab For the most part. the term "fortified (or
2:9). Perhaps its most disastrous result is its ten- fenced) city" is utilized as a term of designation,
dency to dull the hearing of God's word (Ezk indicating the largest and most important habita-
33:31 ). tion sites (et. II Kgs 17:9). Such cities were very
Bibliography: Dalman, G. H., Arbeit und important strategically since they were almost
Sitte im Palästina, V, p. l 23f. Oelling, G., impregnable until the perfection of siege tech-
":rcAEOVEKtTJ~," in TDNT, VI, p. 269f. TDOT, II, niques by the Assyrians (Jer 5: 17). This fact was
pp. 205-208. of special significance to the lsraelite conquest
J.N.0. (cf. Josh 10:20, etc.).
Since fortified cities were so strong, it was a
268 r'll:l (h.y.y). Assumed root ofthe following. great temptation for the lsraelites to put their
268a r·i (hii.f) mire (Jer 38:22). trust in them instead of in their God. Thus the
268b l"ll:ll (hi.)'.)'{I) swamp (Job 8:11; Ezk prophets are at pains to show the folly of such
47: 11). trust (lsa 17:3; Lam 2:5; Hos 10: 13-14, etc.). God
alone is mankind's stronghold (cf. Ps 27: l,
269 ;,;; (bä,$aq) to swe/1 (of feet) (ASV, RSV
ma'oz).
Bibliography: Dahood, M., U1:aritic-Hehrew
translate similarly.)
Phi/0/010', Bihlia et Orientalia,XVII, Pontifical
Derivative Biblical Institute, 1965, p. 53.
J.N.O.
269a ;,;;: (hä$eq) dough.
bä!faq occurs twice (Deut 8:4; Neh 9:21) in par- iiip (bi.Hiiron ). See no. 270c.
allel passages where God's care of the lsraelites ;,;!),?~ (baqbüq): See no. 273a.
during the wildemess period is recounted. Despite ir;,~ (h"qia'). See no. 271c.
all their walking, wandering from place to place,
their feet did not even swell nor did their clothes
271 11~; (biiqa') to cleave, divide, break through,
or sandals wear out (Deut 29:5 IH 4]).
break up, rip up, tear. (ASVand RSVsimilar.)
J.N.0.
Derivatives
270 i:r; (bii!far)to gather, restrain, cut off, 271a ti,~; (heqa') half shekel.
fence, fortify. (Asv similar. Rsv translates 271b :,~~; (biq'ii) va/ley, plain.
"fortified" where Asv and KJV read 271c p•;,~ (h'qfa'), 11~;,; (bäkia') fis-
"fenced, walled," etc.) sure, breach.
Derivatives This root with its derivatives appears seventy-
three times in the or. Cognates are found in
270a "ll?. (hNer) precious ore. Ugaritic (bq'), Arabic (faqa'a) and Ethiopic. The
270b l"l';I;; (ho!frii) enclosure. basic idea seems to be "a strenuous cleaving of
270c ,;.,~i (hi!f,$äron) stronghold. recalcitrant materials" (Greenfeld, HUCA). As a
270d l~
l'l'.".1 ( ba.)-.~iiret) dearth.
result of the cleaving, the contents may "burst
270e l"l':11~(ha.Härii) dearth, destilution.
forth" (cf. lsa 58:8, etc.). but it is clear that this
270f ,•:r;i (hä$ir) vintage. meaning is secondary and not primary as with
270g ip~ (mib!fär) fortification.
such roots as n;~ (pä!iah), or Tj~ (pära!f).
KB holds that at least three separate but bäqa' is used in five situations, all of which
homophonous roots are involved here, one mean- express the forcefulness ofthe splitting action. Of
ing "to gather," another meaning "to reduce" or these, only the first sees the splitting action as
"humble" (only Ps 76: 12 [H 13]; KJV "to cut coming from wittJin, as in the hatching of eggs
off"), and yet another having only Niphal and (lsa 34: 15; 59:5), the splitting of wineskins (Josh
Pie] forms, meaning "inaccessible," "impossi- 9:4, 13), the dawn rending the heavens (lsa 58:8;
ble." There may be yet a fourth root, meaning cf. Mesha Insc. 1.15), etc.

123
272 i't?; (bäqaq)
The second usage expresses the splitting ac- mel range on the south and the highlands of
tions encountered in daily life as the splitting of Galilee on the north near the pass of Megiddo
wood (Gen 22:3; I Sam 6: 14) or of stones (Ps through the Carmel range. As such the word is to
141:7). be distinguished from ·emeq which means simply
Thirdly, the word is used with reference to the "low place." Of the twenty occurrences, eleven
splitting of the earth. In all cases but I Kgs 1:40, are used to designate places (as above). The re-
where the splitting is attributed to the noise of mainder are often paralleled with "mountains,"
jubilation over Solomon's coronation, this is the by which contrast, the entirety of the land is indi-
work of the Lord (Num 16:31, etc.). Two refer- cated (cf. Isa 40:4).
ences here are of special importance, for they J.N.O.
indicate that the earth will be split upon the re-
turn of the Lord (Micah 1:4; Zech 14:4). The cre- 272 i'i;l;l (hiiqaq) I, be luxuriant (Hos 10:1).
ation will not be able to stand when the Creator
returns in his glory. 273 i'it;l ( häqaq) II, empty.
Fourth, biiqa' is associated with warfare and
violence. lt is used several times to express the Derivative
action of troops in breaking into a city, camp or 273a i'~,?i ( baqbüq) flask.
territory (II Kgs 25:4; II Chr 21: 17; Ezk 30:16).
The results of such a conquest were often horrify- 274 *'ii;i;l (baqar) Seek, inquire (only in the
ing. Captives and young children were frequently Piel stem). (Asv and RSVgenerally similar
thrown from high places so that they were "split except Prov 20:25 where Rsv renders "re-
open" (KJV "dashed to pieces") on the rocks flect. ")
below (11 Kgs 8:12; II Chr 25:12). Pregnant
women were all too commonly "ripped up" (II Derivatives
Kgs 15:16; Arnos 1:13, etc.). 274a t,i?;i (bäqiir) cattle, herd, ox.
The final usage is associated with water pro- 274b "lt,i:!l (bbqer) herdsman.
duction and behind that lies creation. These crea-
tive activities were directly paralleled by God's
274c t,~·,( böqer)
274d t:i,i?i (baqqärii)
morning.
a care, concern.
redemptive actions on behalf of Israel. The One 274e tr,::,·/l':!l (biqqöret) compensation.
who first cleaved open brooks and springs (Ps
bäqar is found seven times. Much more fre-
74: 15) was able to do it again in the wilderness of quent are synonyms bäqash "seek," "secure,"
Sinai (Ps 78:13; lsa 48:21). The One by whose and därash "seek," "study," "seek (i.e. pray
knowledge the great deeps were first split up
to) a deity."
(Prov 3:20) (and again in Noah's day [Gen 7: 11])
bäqar, it is suggested, from the Arabic cog-
could once again exercise his mastery over the
nate, originally meant "split," "divide" and
waters by dividing the waters of the Red Sea for
hence "discem." lts biblical use is largely in
his people (Ex 14:16; Isa 63: 12, etc.). In the Ak-
worship contexts, e.g. "checking" for ritual pur-
kadian creation epic, Marduk is said to have split
ity (Lev 13:36; cf. Lev 27:33) or "inquiry," in the
the body of Tiamat, the Great Deep, as the basis
sense of meditation, possibly self-searching (Ps
for creation. Whether some relation exists be-
27:4; cf. II Kgs 16:15). Only in Ezk does bäqar
tween the biblical and Akkadian material is dif-
refer to search of animals ( Ezk 34: 11-12).
ficult to ascertain (cf. Ps 74:12-17; lsa 51:9-11).
In the Aramaic, b e qar. found only in Ezr, re-
In any case God's creation was pictured as ex
fers to "investigation," chiefly of records.
nihilo and not as the result of some warfare of the
gods. However, the burden of these passages is bäqär. Cattle, herd, ox. (ASVand RSVsimilar.)
not simply that God is possessed of such terrible bäqär (180 times), often used collectively, is
power as to split rocks and waters, etc., but that doubtfully to be linked with bäqar (see above)
the possessor of such power is able to redeem a "to split," more particularly "to plow." lt is
lost creation. Of this the Akkadian knows noth- used in the Mari letters, in Phoenician, Aramaic,
ing. See the discussion under t'hom. no. 2495a. and Arabic. Though bäqär refers to draught ani-
mals such as oxen, the term is used for domestic
beqa'. Half-shekel. A "cloven" shekel. Ap-
cattle, including bulls, cows, heifers, and calves.
pears only in Gen 24:22 and Ex 38:26. lt is also to bäqiir is distinguished from "flock" (.~ö'n) which
be understood in the weight of Solomon's gold
denotes small cattle such as sheep and goats.
shields (II Chr 9: 16) which according to II Kgs
.yö'n and häqiir often denote all domesticated
10:17 weighed three minas each (150 shekels, 300
beqas. animals. b' hemii also refers to livestock gener-
ally including sheep and goats.
biq'a. Valley, plain. Originally a cleft in the For the peoples of the ancient near middle east,
mountains. Thus the plain of Megiddo (Zech including the Hebrews, cattle were a form of
12:11) is that valley which lies between the Car- wealth. lndeed for the semi-nomadic patriarchs,

124
 274 *-i~; (bäqar)
wealth was measured in cattle. Hamor and settled farmer(I Sam 11:5; I Kgs 19:19; Job 1:14)
Shechem of the hill country had cattle (Gen and as a source of meat and sour milk (Deut
34:28) and so did the patriarchs such as Abraham 32: 14; lsa 22: L3) in all economies in Palestine as
who were rieb in cattle (Gen 13:2-7). Isaac was early as the late Stone Age (F. S. Bodenheimer,
envied by the Philistines for his cattle (Gen Anima/ and Man in Bible Lands, 1960, p. 36f.).
26: 12-14). Nathan's parable described the rich As clean animals (Deut 14:4), they were used for
man as one who owned bäqär (II Sam 12:2; cf. food on special occasions (Gen 18:7; I Kgs 1:9) at
Eccl 2:7). Herds of cattle were a prize in war the royal court (I Kgs 4:23 [H 5:3]) andin general
(Num 31:33; I Sam 27:9). In patriarchal times at as a vital food supply (Joel 1:18). lt is of some
least, cattle were given at the time of covenant interest that the !arger cattle were evidently more
making (Gen 21:27-31). bäqär are tobe restored used in ancient Palestine than now. Cattle require
fivefold when stolen (Ex 22: 1). Fertility among more pasture and feed than do sheep.
cattle was obviously important and the Canaanite Note should be taken, in keeping with the
gods, worshiped as fertility bringers, held an ap- theology of ecology, of God's concern for ani-
peal to the Hebrews for that reason. But the mals. The book of Jonah cites God's pity not only
Scriptures insist that increase of cattle is due to for human beings but also for livestock (Jon
the Lord's blessing (Gen 24:35; Job 42:12). 4: 11). bäqär and flocks at Nineveh were involved
As wealth, bäqär could be given as gifts (Gen in the fast proclaimed by the king (Jon 3:7). The
21:27). As a gesture of generosity Abraham pre- coming age of bliss is depicted as one in which
pared a calffor the angelic messenger (Gen 18:7). there will be a change also in the habits of the
Joseph exchanged bread for cattle (Gen 47: 17). animals, for "the lion will eat straw like an ox"
David had royal herds (1 Chr 27:29). baqar were (bäqär, lsa 11:7; cf. 65:25).
important in stewardship. A tithe of the herd
(bäqär) was holy to the Lord (Lev 27:32). Of böqer. Morning, dawn. (Asv and RSVsimilar.)
interest are the tallies recorded in Num 7: 12ff. Linked with the root bäqar, böqer (c. 200 times)
For Israel the tithe could hardly be an exclusively denotes the breaking through of the daylight and
private affair about which the community was un- thus dawn or more usually morning. This noun is
informed. The revival in Hezekiah's time brought peculiar to Hebrew though the assumed root is
a sense of stewardship and the voluntary gifts of not.
bäqär (II Chr 31:6). Frequent in narrative portions of the OT, böqer
The existence of a family usually depended on denotes a time marker as in the expression,
its sheep and cattle. Thus Pharaoh feit secure in "Joshua rose early in the moming" (Josh 3:1).
letting Israel go if they left their livestock behind böqer, when combined with evening ('ereb) may
(Ex 10:24). As part of the household, they par- refer either to a füll day (Gen 1:5), or in phrases
ticipated in Nineveh's repentance (Jon 3:7) and "from evening to moming" designate night time
the servants who tended them are mentioned (Lev 24:3), or "from morning to evening" (day-
after the animals (Gen 12:16; 26: 14). time; Ex 18:13). Occasionally böqer refers to
bäqär were given in sacrifice by the non- "the morrow."
Israelite, Balak (Num 22:40). baqär are desig- In poetry, böqer is more often mentioned than
nated by God as appropriate for sacrifice primar- evening ('ereb). The voice of the worshiper will
ily no doubt because of the principle that the life be heard in the morning, in praise (Ps 59: 16 [H
of the flesh is in the blood (Lev 17:11), but 17]) or in petition (Ps 88:13 [H 14)). The righteous
perhaps also because bäqär represent a man's are attentive to God in the morning through
choice possession. Generally offerings were tobe prayer and offerings (Ps 5:3 [H 41); by contrast
from the herd (bäqär), or flock (Lev 1:2; cf. Num the wicked are also active but with evil schemes
15), and for the most part, the animals were tobe (Mic 2:1; cf. lsa 5:11).
male, though not always (I Sam 16:2). Some- böqer may denote "early" or "promptly" as
times, as at the dedications, both a young bull in "God will help her right early" (lit. "at the
from the herd (bäqär) and a ram from the flock turning of morning," Ps 46:5 [H 6); cf. Ps 90: 14;
were required (Ex 29:1; Lev 16:3). Burnt offer- 101:8), etc. but the case can not be proved. On
ings for vows and free will offerings (Lev 22: 17- the other band in some of these passages böqer
19) but also sin offerings (Lev 4:3), required a may have a latent meaning, "the suitable time of
male animal. The abundance of Solomon's sac- salvation."
rifice of bäqär at the temple dedication is a trib- baqqärä. Care, concern. A verbal form em-
ute both to his wealth and his piety (I Kgs 8:5, ployed to compare God's care in his search for
63). The !arger share of such offerings were eaten his flock with that of a shepherd (Ezk 34:12). ·
by the worshipers. The great numbers of sac-
rifices were commensurate with the crowds of biqqöret. Compensation, scourging(?) (ASV
people. "punishment"; Rsv "inquiry. ") If one may
The bäqär were used as work animals for the judge from an Akkadian root baqäru instead of

125
276 *tvt?;(baqash)
hiiqar, compensation is to be paid in a case in- 7:26), and his word (Arnos 8: 12), was in vain
volving a man and a betrothed, though unmar- since they did not seek him with pure hand (Ps
ried, slave girl (Lev 19:20; the only occurrence of 77:2 [H 3], n1.tr) and a clean heart (Ps 24:6). Ac-
the term-see M. Noth, Leviticus). cording to his grace God sought his people in
Bibliography: Delekat, L., "Zum Hebräis- their exile (judgment) reminding them of the an-
chen Wörterbuch," VT 14: 7-66. TDOT, II, pp. cient promise (Isa 45: 19) and awakening them to
209-28. repentance and restitution (Isa 51: 1; 65: 1). The
E.A.M. NT attests the füllest sense of the preceeding
(Rom 9:30; 10:20) when he not only appeared
276 *t:ii?; (biiqash) to seek, require, desire unexpectedly/suddenly in his temple ( Mal 3: 1; Jn
(Pie! and Pual only.) 2:13ff.; Heb 12:22-24; 9:1-28), but resurrected
the Gentiles to true life (Zech 8:21-22; Jer
ASVand RSVthe same, except at I Sam 20:16
31:3 lff.). [Some will also hold that these spiritual
(Rsv inferior); Est 2:21 (Rsv superior); Dan 1:8 (no
fulfilments of the OTpromises will be matched by
preference). Both are inadequate at Zeph 1:6
literal fulfilments to Israel as weil (Rom 11:26).
("have not sought Jehovah, indeed have not
R.LH.]
sought him"; cf. Deut 4:29).
lt is noteworthy that Moses, who fled Egypt to
Derivative escape those who were "justly" seeking to kill
him (Ex 3: 15; 4: 19), had a confrontation with God
276a t:,~i?~ (baqqiishii) petition.
whereby he sought his life (Ex 4:24). So, cove-
Our root basically connotes a person's eamest nantal disobedience (Moses had not circumcised
seeking of something or someone which exists or his son) deserved the death penalty, and the
is thought to exist. lts intention is that its object teaching also is (probably) that to exclude one's
be found (mii~ii') or acquired (Ex 4:19). The ob- children from the covenant is tantamount to mur-
ject of this pursuit can be either specified or un- der (cf. Gen 9:5). The idea of God "seeking"
derstood, either concrete or abstract. The spe- (requiring) one 's life because of covenantal viola-
cific meaning of biiqash is determined by its ob- tion applies both to covenants God makes with
ject in a given context. Unlike diirash (q. v .) its man (e.g. creational covenant oflife, Gen 9:5; the
nearest synonym the activity of baqash is seldom Mosaic covenant, Ezk 3: 18, 20), and covenants
cognitive (but see Jud 6:29). Other words that are sanctioned by God (I Sam 20: 16; II Sam 4: 11).
parallel (and hence, synonymous) are riidap "to
baqqäshä. Petition, request. (ASV,RSVsimilar.)
pursue," sha'a/ "to ask," piiqad "to visit," Our noun, modelled on a Pael infinitive
bähar "to choose," etc. Cf. Ugaritic bqt, UT 19: (Aramaic), is a technical term (frequently
no. 505. Phoenician bqsh, KAI, p. 5.
synonymously parallel to sh' 'e/ii) denoting a
The first significant theological theme of
petition or request by a subject to a king that he
bäqash is rooted in the concept expressed in
grant a specific desire. lt occurs seven times.
Deut 4:29 (cf. Deut 6:6; Mt 22:37; darash)
Bibliography: Seilers, 0. R., "Seeking Good
whereby God binds his people to love and serve
in the Old Testament," JBR 21: 234-37. TDOT,
him as the first principle of their living. Pharoah II, pp. 229-41. THAT, I, pp. 333-35.
was unable (or unwilling) to see the relationship
L.J.C.
between Moses· (Aaron's) request and the fact
that its conditions were divinely stipulated (Ex 277 'iJ (bar) I, son. (ASVand RSVsimilar.)
10:11). Hence, he was willing to let the men go
"worship" their God, but considered the rest of The common Aramaic noun meaning "son"
their request tobe an unwarranted ploy to escape (Ezr 5: 1; Dan 3:25; etc.). Occurs only three times
slavery. God's covenants, however, require his without question in the Hebrew oT, the more
people to seek him where and how he stipulates common word being ben (q.v.). Three ofthe oc-
(Ex 33:7; cf. lsa 1: 12). This "seeking" ultimately currences are in one verse, Prov 31:2, which
finds its object in the Lord (Ps 24:6; Zeph 1:6) and forms the introduction to the instruction of
immediately in his covenantal provisions (Arnos Lemuel. Typical of such literature, the instruc-
8:12; Ps 34:14 [H 15]), promises (Ezk 7:26) and tion is addressed from a father to a son (cf. Prov
requirements (Zeph 2:3; Mic 6:8). Since false 1:8; 2: 1, etc.).
prophets direct "seekers" away from God (Lev The final occurrence is much more problema-
19:31) depriving them of true life, they are tic. lt is found in Ps 2: 12, "'kiss the son lest hebe
marked for capital punishment (Deut 13:10 [H angry." This has been taken to be a reference to
11]; cf. Gen 9:5). Israel eventually gave them- Christ since earliest Christian times. However,
selves to such false leaders but were repeatedly with the exception of Syriac, none of the ancient
challenged to seek God wholeheartedly (Jer versions contain the reading (e.g. LXX "accept
29: 13; 50:4; Deut 30: 1-10). Their feigned pursuit correction"). Yet there is little agreement among
of God (Ezk 7:25; Hos 5:6), his counsel (Ezk the versions on the basis of which to reconstruct

126
 278 K?i (bärä')
a Hebrew text, nor have any variants come to with the basic meaning "separate,'" "divide."
light at Qumran. This would explain the usages of the Piel, but, as
Secondly, it has been argued that since hen is often the case, is not decisive for the nuance of
appears in verse 7, har in verse 12 must be a the meaning "create" in the Qal. And, since the
corruption. This assumes however that ben and word is used in such a distinctive sense in the Qal
har were never contemporary, one always having it is best to consider the meaning of the root sol-
been used to the exclusion of the other. This as- ely on the basis of usage.
sumes too much, given numerous uncertainties in The word is used in the Qal only ofGod's activ-
our knowledge of the spread and usage of ity and is thus a purely theological term. This
Aramaic. distinctive use of the word is especially appro-
The reading remains problematic, but until priate to the concept of creation by divine fiat.
solid textual evidence comes to light, emendation The root hiira' denotes the concept of "initiat-
is an unwarranted expedient. lf the reading is ac- ing something new" in a number of passages. In
cepted, the action involved probably is kissing lsa 41 :20 it is used of the changes that will take
the feet of the son, an act of homage well-attested place in the Restoration when God effects that
in Babylonian and Egyptian sources. which is new and different. lt is used of the crea-
Bibliography: Bames, W. E., "The Psalms," tion ofnew things (/J.adiishot) in lsa48:6-7 and the
I, in Westminster Commentaries, ed. W. Lock creation of the new heavens and the new earth
and D. C. Simpson, London: Methuen, 1931, p. (lsa 65: 17). Marvels never seen before are de-
11f. Bertholet, A., "Eine Crux Interpretum," scribed by this word (Ex 34: 10), and Jeremiah
ZAW 28: 58-59 (cf. also p. 193). Briggs, C. A., uses the term of a fundamental change that will
"Psalms," I, in ICC, p. 23f. Dahood, M., take place in the natural order (Jer 31 :22). The
"Psalms, 1-50," in AB, p. 13f. TDNT, VIII, pp. Psalmist prayed that God would create in him a
340-62. TDOT, II, pp. 308-12. clean heart (Psa 51:10 [H 121)and coupled this
J.N.O. with the petition that God would put a new spirit
within him (See also Num 16:30; lsa 4:5; 65:18).
The word also possesses the meaning of
,; (bar) II, III. See nos. 288a,b. "bringing into existence" in several passages (lsa
i:» (bör) I, II. See no. 288c,d. 43:1; Ezk 21: 30 [H 351: 28:13, 15).
,; (här). See no. 288f. lt is not surprising that this word with its dis-
tinctive emphases is used most frequently to de-
scribe the creation ofthe universe and the natural
278 ic,; (biirii') 1, create, make, Creator (Qal);
phenomena (Gen 1:1, 21, 27; 2:3, etc.). The us-
choose, cut down, dispatch, (Pie!); be
ages of the term in this sense present a clearly
created, be done (Niphal; RSV ··yet un-
defined theology. The magnitude ofGod's power
bom" in Ps I02:18 [H 19]; "clear ground"
is exemplified in creation. This has implications
in Josh 17:15, 18; Rsv and ASV"mark" in
for the weak (Isa 40:26; cf. vv. 27-31) and for the
Ezk 21:19 [H 24)).
unfolding ofGod's purposes in history (lsa 42:5;
Derivative 45: 12). Creation displays the majesty (Arnos
4: 13), orderliness (Isa 45: 18), and sovereignty (Ps
278a t:,~,,~ (b" ri' a) new thing.
89:12 [H 13]) of God. Anthropologically, the
The root hiirii' has the basic meaning "to common creation of man forms a plea for unity in
create." lt differs from ya~ar "to fashion" in that Mal 2: 10. And man is seen as created for vanity in
the latter primarily emphasizes the shaping of an Ps 89:47 [H 48].
object while hiirii' emphasizes the initiation of THOT argues that this word is used only in the
the object. P document and other late literature. Of course
The question of the meaning of the root bara' this view can only be sustained by dividing and
is complicated by its connotation in the Piel of post-dating the documents.
"cut down".(Josh 17:15, 18; Ezk 23:47). This The limitation of this word to divine activity
meaning may also obtain in the use ofthe word in indicates that the area of meaning delineated by
Ezk 21: 19 [H 24] where it need not connote carv- the root falls outside the sphere of human ability.
ing a signpost, but simply the act of cutting down Since the word never occurs with the object of
a branch or sapling as a marker). lf this meaning the material, and since the primary emphasis of
attests to the conci-ete form of the Qal, the word the word is on the newness of the created object,
may have meant "to form," "to fashion" in the the word lends itself weil to the concept of crea-
sense of carving or cutting out. But it is possible tion ex nihilo, although that concept is not neces-
that the Pie! form may represent an entirely dif- sarily inherent within the meaning of the word.
ferent root. KB (2d ed.) posits a second root used
in the Piel meaning "to cut down." THOT (in b0 ri'ä. New thing (Rsv ··something new"). The
loc.) follows KB (3d ed.) that there is one root word connotes something new or extraordinary

127
279 ac,;(biirii')
(Num 16:30). lt thus reflects a basic connotation 281 :i-,; (bära) I, to eat.
of the root härä' (Ex 34: 10; Isa 48:6; Jer 31:22).
Derivatives
Bibliography: Anderson, Bernhard W., "The
Earth is the Lord's," Interp 9: 3-20. Arbez, Ed- 281a :,,.,,(birya) food (II Sam 13:5, 7,
ward P. and Weisengoff, John P., "Exegetical . 10;Ezk 34:20).
Notes on Genesis 1:1-2," CBQ 10: 140-50. Han- 281b .n1,; (bärut) food (Ps 69:22).
son, Howard E., "Num. XVI 30 and the Meaning
of Bara' ," VT 22: 353- 9. Knight, Harold, "The 282 M'l:I ( brh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
Old Testament Conception of Miracle," SJT 5: ing.
355-61. Lane, William R., "The Initiation of 282a t.n•-:,~(b e rit) covenanl ( ASV and
Creation," VT 13: 63-73. Stuhmueller, Carroll, RSv); between nations: a treaty, al-
"The Theology of Creation in Second Isaias," liance of friendship; between indi-
CBQ 21: 429-67. Unger, Merrill F., "The Old viduals: a pledge or agreement; with
Testament Revelation of the Creation of Angels obligation between a monarch and
and the Earth," BS 114: 206-12. TDNT, III, pp. subjects: a constitution; between
1005-28. TDOT, II, pp. 242-48. THAT, I, pp. God and man: a covenant accom-
336-38. panied by signs, sacrifices, and a
T.E.M. solemn oath that sealed the relation-
ship with promises of blessing for
keeping the covenant and curses for
279 M".1;(härä') ll,be/al. breaking it.
The etymology of the word is uncertain. lt may
Derivative
be related to the Akkadian word burru which
279a tM•-:,; (bärF') /al, /alter, fed, firm, means "to establish a legal situation by testimony
plenteous, rank. with an oath" (CAD baru, p. 125); but some (0.
This word occurs with its basic connotation Loretz, VT 16: 239-41) tie it to the Akkadian
"fat" in Jud 3: 17. While always retaining this word birtu "a fetter" which is a derivative ofthe
original connotation it occurs with various word meaning "between." L. Köhler claims the
nuances. lt is used to describe healthy human word was related to the root brh which has to do
beings (Dan 1:15), animals (Gen 41:2), and vege- with the food and eating involved in the covenant
tation (Gen 41:5). lt is used of the best portion of meal (JSS 1: 4-7). The root is nowhere used as a
edible meats (Ezk 34:3) and also bears the secon- verb in the oT nor is any other derivative of this
dary connotation of prosperity (Ps 73:4; Hab root used, but the action involving covenant mak-
1:16). ing employs the idiom "to cut a covenant" (Gen
T.E.M. 15:18, etc.), that is making a bloody sacrifice as
part of the covenant ritual. Köhler then would
have the animal eaten in the covenant meal.
1:1•,~-:,i
(barbürim). See no. 288g. The covenant as a treaty or agreement between
nations or individuals should be understood on
the basis of whether the parties are equal or one
280 ,,; (bärad) to hail. Probably a denomi- is superior to the other. In Gen 14:13 Abraham
native verb. and the Amorites were equal parties to a treaty
but this is not true of Israel (under Joshua) and
Parent Noun the Gibeonites (Josh 9). Here the oath aspect of
280a . ti-,; (bäräd) hail. the covenant is shown to be most important.
Even though the Gibeonite vassals were subject
Derivative to a curse for having lied (9:22-23), Joshua and
280b ,- ,; ( bäröd) spotted, marked. Israel were still obligated to provide protection
bärad is used as a verb in the Qal once (lsa
for them. Much later when Saul failed in this
32:19). swom covenant obligation, his family suffered
punishment (II Sam 21).
bäräd. Hail. Occurs twenty-nine times, of lt was common practice to set up a stela (stone)
which twenty-two are in connection with the as a sign that a treaty had been established be-
sixth plague in Egypt (Ex 9:18-33; Ps 18:13-14, tween two households or nations (cf. Jacob and
etc.). Elsewhere, it is used either figuratively to Laban, Gen 31:44-47). On both sides appeal is
describe destructive force, especially that coming made to the deity as a witness showing that the
upon disobedient Israel (lsa 28:2), or literally as a covenant is unalterable. Moreover, as in the case
manifestation of God's power and glory (Ps at Sinai, Jacob and Laban offered a sacrifice in
148:8). the mountain and shared a common meal (Gen
J.N.0. 31:54-55). Other signs which sealed such a treaty

128
 282 n,, (brh)

were used, such as a marriage between two royal The notion that a covenant between God and
houses (1 Kgs 9:16). But the greatest tool for man did not exist in the formative stages oflsrael-
covenant making came to be the written docu- ite history as presented in Genesis and Exodus
ment on which the words of the covenant, its cannot be taken seriously any longer. Yahweh as
tenns in the form of promises and stipulations a tribal deity in early Israel bound to his people
were spelled out, witnessed to, signed and sealed. by natural but not ethical ties, as a covenant rela-
Such covenant documents abound (cf. D. R. tionship implies, is also a fading viewpoint.
Hillers, Covenant: The History of a Biblicät D. J. McCarthy warns that the covenant con-
ldea, Baltimore, 1969). Behm concludes: "There cept in the OT presents a very rich and complex
is no firmer guarantee of legal security peace or tradition and that the covenant is not primarily
personal Ioyalty than the covenant" (TDNT, II, legalistic or moralistic but cultic, that is, tied to
p. 115; cf. Arnos 1:9). religious practice. He sees other analogies be-
Apart from blood ties the covenant was the sides the treaty form as important, especially the
way people of the ancient world formed wider family analogy-the father and son relationship
relationships with each other (Treaty and Coven- in the Davidic Covenant (II Sam 7) and the hus-
ant, D. J. McCarthy, Rome, 1963, p, 175), The band and wife relationship as in Hosea. Covenant
accounts of the relationship between David and theology which puts all biblical revelation in the
Jonathan are the only unequivocal mention of a covenant framework now has the support of OT
compact between two individuals in the oT (I Sam specialists like W. Eichrodt who make the cove-
18:3; 20:8; 23: 18). lt is spoken of as "a covenant nant concept the central and unifying theme of
of the Lord" because the Lord witnessed the the OT(Theo/of!y of the Old Testament, London,
transaction and protected the legal order. 1967, cf. also J. Barton Payne, The Theolof!y of
In lsrael's monarchy the covenant relationship the Older Testament). Eichrodt finds that the co-
between the people and the king provided a kind venant concept proves lsrael's religion was his-
of limited constitutional monarchy which was torical, that is, not the imagination of later gener-
unique in the world in that early age (II Sam 3:21; ations. lt also gave Israel great assurance of a
5:3; 1 Chr 11:3). beneficent God at a time when the deities were
All of this covenant procedure provides the considered arbitrary originators of evil. Some
cultural setting in which God's relationship with scholars hold that the h' rft was sometimes
his people is formulated. Modem studies on the monergistic, that is a one-sided unconditional
meaning and the form of "covenant" in biblical promise. This view is opposed by Eichrodt and
theology have been vigorous since the appear- Kline, although espoused by J. Begrich, ZA W 60:
ance ofGeorge Mendenhall's Law and Covenant 1-11 and Murray, The Covenant of Grace, Lon-
in Israel and the Ancient Near East (Pittsburgh, don, 1954. Kline maintains that all divine-human
1955; see also BA 17: 27-46, 49--76 and Old Tes- covenants in the oT involve sanction-sealed
tament Covenant: A Survey of Current Opinions, commitment to obey. The law and promise as-
D. J. McCarthy, Richmond, 1972). McCarthy in- pects of God's covenant relationship with his
cludes an excellent bibliography of covenant people do not violate each other. Deuteronomy
studies, pp. 90-108. For an evangelical theologi- 29: 13-14 shows the Sinaitic Covenant was an ex-
cal treatment of this subject based on the source tension of the Abrahamic Covenant, both of
materials see the volumes entitled Treaty of the which are called here "a sworn covenant." The
Great Kinf! (Grand Rapids, 1963) and By Oath Sinai renewal merely stressed man's responsibil-
ConsiRned (Grand Rapids, 1967) by M. G. Kline. ity where the Abrahamic Covenant emphasized
Here Kline shows the suzerainty treaty found in God's promise. Many agree with Hillers (Cove-
the ancient near east is the key to understanding nant, pp. 129-31) that the covenant (treaty) tradi-
the form of God's covenant with ancient Israel. tion is carried into the writings of the prophets in
He maintains the Ten Commandments and the the so-called lawsuit (rfh) pattern. The prophets
entire book of Deuteronomy and such sections as indict the people as covenant breakers, some-
Joshua 24 are all based on a covenant pattern times relating this to the covenant pattern by call-
which has: 1. A preamble in which the suzerain is ing heaven and earth to witness (cf. lsa 1:2-3,
identified, 2. An historical prologue describing 10-20; Jer 2:4-12; Mic 6:1-8; Ps 50).
previous relations between the parties, 3. Stipula- The Priestly Covenant of Num 25:12-13, the
tions and demands ofthe suzerain, 4. Swearing of Davidic Covenant of II Sam 7 and the New
allegiance with curses and blessings, that is Covenant of Jer 31:31 are all administrative as-
Covenant Ratification, 5. Witnesses and direc- pects of the same covenant, God's Covenant of
tions for carrying out the treaty (see Treaty of the Grace. This covenant reaches its climax at the
Great Kinf!, pp. 14, 28). In addition to the stipula- lncamation where Christ representing his people
tions there may be a clause providing for the fulfilled all the stipulations of the covenant and
preservation and regular re-reading of the cove- bore the curse they deserved for breaking it (cf.
nant. F. C. Fensham, "Covenant, Promise and Expec-

129
283 Ti::l (brz)
tation in the Bible," Theolo1:ische Zeitschrift Structure of the Covenantal Formulations," VT
23:305-22). 9: 374-07. Rand, James Freeman. "Old Testa-
Biblwgraphy: Albright, W. F., ""The Hebrew ment Fellowship with God," BS 108: 227-36,
Expression for · Making a Covenant' in Pre- 323-33; 109: 47-54, 151-03, 226-38. Robinson, T.
lsraelite Documents," BASOR 121:21-22. Beg- H., .. 'Covenant' in the O.T.," Exp T 53: 298-99.
rich, J., "Berith. Ein Beitrag zur Erfassung einer Rogers, Cleon L. Jr., "The Covenant with Ab-
alt. Denkform," ZAW 60: 1-11. Braulik. Georg, raham and its Historical Setting," BS 127: 241-
·•Die Ausdrücke für ·Gesetz' im Buch 56. Rowley, H. H., "Moses and the Decalogue,"
Deuteronomium," Bib 51: 39-06. Brown, P. E., BJRL 34: 81-118. Silving, Helen, "The State
'"The Basis of Hope," Interp 9: 35-40. Buis, Contract in the Old Testament," JR 24: 17-32.
Pierre, ··Les Formulaires D"Alliance," VT 16: Theil, Wilfried, ··Sefer Berit," VT 20: 214-29.
396-411. Campbell, K. M. ··Rahab's Covenant," Thompson, J. A., The Significance of the Ancient
VT 22: 243-44. Dekor, M., '"Les Attaches Lit- Near Eastern Treaty Pattern," Tyndale House
teraires, l'Origine et la Signification de )'Expres- Bulletin 13: 1-o. Tsevat, M., "The Neo-Assyrian
sion Biblique "Prendre a Temoin le Ciel et Ja and Neo-Babylonian Vassal Oaths and the Pro-
Terre' ," VT 16: 8-25. Coppens, J., "La Nouvelle phet Ezekiel," JBL 78: 199-204. Tucker, Gene
Alliance en J er 3 1, 31-34," CBQ 25: 12-21. Eich- M., "Covenant Formsand Contract Forms," VT
rodt, Walther, ··covenant and Law," Interp 20: 15: 487-503. Van der Ploeg, J., "Studies in He-
302-21. Fensham, F. Charles, ··cJauses of Pro- brew Law," CBQ 12: 248-59. Weinfeld, M.,
tection in Hittite Vassal-Treaties and the Old ··covenant Terminology in the Ancient Near
Testament," VT 13: 133-43. --, "'The Cove- East and its Influence on the West, JAOS 93:
nant as Giving Expression to the Relationship 190-99. ---, '"The Covenant of Grant in the
Between Old and New Testament,·· Tyndale Bul- Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East,"
letin 22: 82-94. ___ , "'Did a Treaty Between JAOS 90: 184-203. __ , ··Traces of Assyrian
the lsraelites and the Kenites Exist?" BASOR Treaty Formulae in Deuteronomy," Bib 56:
175: 51-54. ---, '"The Treaty Between Israel 417-27. Whiteley, C. F., "Covenant and Com-
and the Gibeonites," BA 27: 96-100. __ , mandment in Israel," JNES 22: 37-48. Wide-
"'The Treaty Between the lsraelites and the Ty- ngren, George, "King and Covenant," JSS 2:
rians," Supp VT 17: 70--87. Freedman, David 1-32. TDNT, II, 106-24, 126-29. TDOT II, pp.
Noel, "Divine Commitment and Human Obliga- 253-78. THAT, L pp. 339-52.
tion," Interp 18: 419-31. Frankana, R., "The E.B.S.
Vassal-Treaties of Esarhaddon and the Dating of
Deuteronomy," OTS 14: 122-54. Gerstenberger, ~i,i (b'rbsh). See no. 289a.
Erhard, "Covenant and Commandment," JBL r,1,;, (härfit). See no. 281b.
84: 38-51. Hillers, Delbert R., ··A Note on Some
Treaty Teminology in the Old Testament,"
283 1,~ ( hrz). Assumed root of the following.
BASOR 176: 46-47. Kevan, E. F., "The Cove-
283a t',!;~ (harze/) iron.
nants and the Interpretation of the Old Testa-
ment," EQ 26: 19-28. Kitchen, K. A. The Bihle A loan word from Sumerian BAR.Z/L via Ak-
in its World, Patermoster, 1977, esp. '"The Co- kadian parzillum or possibly from Hittite. The
venant at Sinai andin Moab," pp. 79--85. Kline, use of terrestrial iron (as opposed to meteorite
Meredith G., "Dynastie Covenant," WJT 23: iron which has a different nicke! content) has now
1-15. Kutsch, Emest, ··Gesetz und Gnade," been attested in the third and fifth millennia B.c.
ZAW 79: 18-35. L'Hour, Jean, ·•L'Alliance de Thus it appears legitimately in Gen 4:22. The
Sichern," RB 69: 5-36, 161--84,350-08. Lang, G. wide use of iron, the Early lron Age, in Palestine
H., ··God's Covenants are Conditional," EQ 30: evidently coincided with the coming of the Philis-
86-97. Lincoln, C. F., '"The Development of the tines about 1200 B.c. Their military successes
Covenant Theory," BS 100: 134-03. --, were doubtless due in part to "the Philistine iron
''The Biblical Covenants," BS 100: 309-23, monopoly" (Albright, W. F., Archaeolu1:y of
442-49, 565-73. McCarthy, Dennis J., · · Berit and Palestine, Penguin, 1960, p. I 10). This apparently
Covenant in the Deuteronomistic History, · · Supp was due to their use of iron tempering which they
VT 23: 65--85. --, "Covenant in the Old Tes- kept as a military secret from the Hebrews (1 Sam
tament: The Present State of Inquiry," CBQ 27: 13:19). In twenty of the seventy-five occurrences
217-40. --, ··Hosea XII 2: Covenant by of iron it is used in a figurative sense, usually in
Oil," VT 14: 214-21. __ , "Three Covenants construct with other nouns to denote affiiction
in Genesis," CBQ 26: 179--89. Mendenhall, G. (Deut 4:20; I Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4), slavery (Deut
E., "Covenant Forms in lsraelite Tradition," BA 28:48; Jer 28: 14), barrenness (Deut 28:23), and
17: 50-76. Mitchell, John J., "Abram's Under- obstinacy (lsa 48:4).
standing of the Lord's Covenant," WTJ 32: Bibliography: Mellaart, J., Anatolian Studies
24-48. Muilenburg, James, "The Form and 14: III, 114. Kaiser, W. C., "The Literary Form

130
 284 Mj; (bäraf))
of Genesis 1-XI," in New Perspectives on the "fugitive" NAB;and "twisting" NEB. But in lsa
OT, ed. J. Barton Payne, Word, 1970, p. 55, nn. 27, KJVtranslates bäriafJ "piercing" and 'iiqallä-
30---33.Wright, G. E., "Iran in Israel," BA 1:5-4!. ton as "crooked," while others translate bäriafJ
W.C.K. here as "fleeing" or "twisting."
!The passage in lsa 27: 1 has a close parallel in
Ugaritic (67 I: 1-2) where it is applied to a "flee-
284 M':li (bärafJ) jlee, run away, chase, drive
ing: serpent ltn (see discussion under liw'yatan).
away, pul to jlight, reach, shoot (extend),
Gordon (UT 19: no. 595) holds that there is a
hurry away.
barafJ II meaning "be evil," because of an Arabic
Derivatives root, but others question this, pointing out that
the context of the Ugaritic reference is also un-
284a tr,•i; (häriafJ) jleeing. clear (L. Fisher, Ras Shamra Paral/els, 1, p. 36).
284b tr,•iz (h e riafJ) bar. The biblical authors use the name Rahab as a
284c Mj;~ ( mibrafJ) / ugitive.
symbol for Egypt (Job 26: 12 RSV;Ps 87:4; lsa
Basically härafJ means to go or pass through, 30:7, Ntv), Leviathan may sometimes be so used.
and to tlee or hurry. lt occurs mostly in narra- lt seems tobe the same as ltn with different vow-
tives, referring to flight from an enemy. els. lt was some kind of serpent and obviously
!In Phoenician-Punic. Donner and Röllig inter- evil. Either adjective "fleeing" or "evil" would
pret a root hrfJ to mean "to flee" or "to lose," be applicable, but the meaning "fleeing" in Job
while Cyrus Gordon proposes ··10 control, rule 26: 13 and lsa 27: 1 seems satisfactory.
over." For Ugaritic and Hebrew, Gordon'UT 19: In Job 26:13 Gameroni (TDOT, II, p. 252)
nos. 514-516 proposes three homophonous roots: thinks it means a constellation presumably be-
hrfJ 1, "to flee," hrfJ II "evil" ( = häriafJ in lsa cause of the parallel and a root brlJ in Akkadian
27: 1; cf. Arabic barfJ "evil"), and hrfJ lil "shaft, meaning "to shine, tobe radiant" and sometimes
bar" ( = hiiriafJ in Jon 2:7). Although Gordon 's used with the determinative for star (CAD, II.
analysis is contested, as seen below, it is obvious 101). His suggestion, however is difficult to fit
that more than one' Semitic root may be behind into the immediate clause. B.K.w.]
the verbal, adjectival and nominal forms dis-
b•ria!t, Bar, something thrust through. Refers
cussed in this entry. B.K.w.]
to the bars which hold together the upright
Almost all sixty-six uses of the verb refer to
boards forming the walls of the tabernacle ( Ex
fleeing from an enemy. enemies, or a place. The 26:26,27,28,29; 35:11; 36:31,32,33,34; 39:33;
first exodus is described as a "flight" from Egypt
40: 18; Num 3:36; 4:31), and the bars to
(Ex 24:5). Perhaps lsaiah's command to the
strengthen and lock city gates. The bars for the
exiles "to flee" Babylon (48:20) was a rhetorical
boards of the tabernacle were live on each side,
device to arouse the exiles to the new miraculous set in gold rings and overlaid with gold.
opportunity to go home and rebuild Jerusalem. In
The bars for the city gates were doubtless
some instances the flight is to a person or place
mostly timbers, though some are mentioned as
(e.g. I Sam 22:20).
bronze and others as iron. They invariably refer
The verb has its basic meaning of "going
to cities as strongly defended or enclosed or lack-
through" in El( 26:28; 36:33 where the middlebar
ing such defense if they are absent. When
holding together the boards of the walls of the
Jerusalem is destroyed her bars are broken (Lam
tabernacle extend through the boards the length
2:9) and when restored her gates are rebuilt with
of the wall. bars (Ps 147:13; Neh 3:3, 6, 13, 14, 15).
The causative form of the verb describes driv-
The bars of city gates are used figuratively for
ing the residents of Gath out of their city (l Chr
the stability of the earth (Job 38: 10; Jon 2:7) or
8: 13), the people of southern Palestine out of
stubbornness (Prov 18:19). In Isa 15:5 some
their valleys (1 Chr 12:16), Nehemiah's driving
grammarians and commentators translate h" riafJ
away a son-in-law of Sanballat (Neh 13:28), levi-
either as fugitives or in lsa 15:5; Arnos 1:5 NEBas
athan who cannot be driven away by arrows, and
nobles or great men.
a shameful son driving away his mother (Prov
19:26). mibra!t. A masculine noun meaning "flight" or
bärafJ is used synonymously with hälak "go" "fugitive" (Ezk 17:21) and so in KJV, but from
(Ps 139:7), mäla{ "escape" (1 Sam 19: 12, 18) and contextual notions, NABhas "crack."
nus "tlee" (Jud 9:21). Bibliography: Rabin, C., "Bari•h," JTS 47:
häriafJ. Possibly an adjective meaning "fleeing," 38-41. TDOT, II, pp. 249-52.
"crooked" or "piercing ... In lsa 43: 14 as a sub- E.S.K.
stantive it has been variously translated: nobles,
KJV; the bars, RSV,NAB;prison bars, JB; and as N''1Z ( häri'). See no. 279a.
they flee, NEB.lt is used to describe a serpent in :"!N~,z(h'' ri'a). See no. 278a.
Job 26:13 as "crooked" KJV; "fleeing" RSV,JB; :if,;· (birya). See no. 281a.

131
285 '!!j; ( bärak)

:,•-,:;i (härial:r). See no. 284a. dressed was evidently possessed of this power
::i•i;i (b'ria/J). See nos. 294a,b. for abundant and effective living (Gen 14:19; I
l'l'"l::I ( h' rit). See no. 282a. Sam 26:25, etc.). This address becomes a for-
n•,S ( hörit). See no. 288d. malized means of expressing thanks and praise to
this person because he has given out of the abun-
285 ij; (bärak) to kneel, bless, praise, salute, dance of his life. Very commonly, the Lord is
curse (used euphemistically). (Asv and RSV addressed in this way. lt is significant that /Jesed
similar.) "kindness" and ·emet "faithfulness" are very
frequently those attributes for which God is
Derivatives praised (e.g. Ps 31:21 [H 22]; 106:48). lt is clear
285a ti'.');1 (herek) knee. that for the oT the abundant life rests directly
285b t.i;,~; (b ,.räkii) blessing. upon the loving and faithful nature of God.
285c :,~'.')~ (h''reka) pool, pond. Whatever may have been the ancient near
eastern conception of the source of blessing, the
This root and its derivatives occur 415 times.
The majority are in the Piel stem (214) which is OTsees God as the only source. As such he con-
trols blessing and cursing (Num 22f.). His pres-
translated "to bless." The Qal passive participle
ence confers blessing (II Sam 6: 11-20), and it is
"blessed" occurs sixty-one times. The meaning
only in his name that others can confer blessing
"to kneel" appears only three times, twice in the
Qal (II Chr6:13; Ps 95:6) and once in Hiphil (Gen (Deut 10:8, etc.). Indeed, God's name, the man-
ifestation of his personal, redemptive,
24: 11). On this basis some argue that hiirak "to
kneel" is a denominative verb from berek covenant-keeping nature, is at the heart of all
blessing.
""knee" and is unrelated to härak "to bless."
As a result, those who are wrongly related to
However, there may have been a feit association
God can neither bless (Mal 2:2) nor be blessed
between kneeling and the receiving of a blessing
(Deut 28) and no efficacious word can alter this.
(cf. II Chr 6: 13, also Arabic haraka, which shows
Those who are blessed manifest God's /Jesed and
the same range of meaning). To bless in the OT
'emet (Deut 15:14; I Sam 23:21; I Kgs 10:9; etc.).
means "to endue with power for success, pros-
To rely upon the existence of the covenant be-
perity, fecundity, longevity, etc." lt is frequently
tween oneself and God without manifesting his
contrasted with qälal "to esteem lightly, curse"
(cf. Deut 30: 1, 19). nature is to bless oneself and to court disaster
(Deut 29: 18f.).
berek. Knee. Used in relation to submission The transposition of blessing and cursing with
and obedience (lsa 45:23), fear and weakness life and death in Deut 30: 19 and elsewhere
(Nah 2: 10 [H 11]), prayer (1 Kgs 8:54), motherly reaches the heart of the OT concept of blessing.
care (the lap) (II Kgs 4:20), etc. From Adam mankind has been under the curse of
The great formula of blessing, the Aaronic death, in all his works, in all bis relationships.
benediction still used on some occasions in The power to beget life was understood by even
churches today, was primarily a prayer for the the pagan to be a supematural blessing (cf. Ug.
Lord's presence, grace, and keeping power. lt 128:III: 17; II Aq 1:35; etc.). God demonstrates
was summed up in the expression "they shall put from Gen 12 onward that he alone has power to
my name upon the children of Israel," i.e. God bestow this blessing. In the patriarchal narra-
himself would be their God (Num 6:23-27). tives, blessing is linked very specifically to re-
In general, the blessing is transmitted from the productive powers. The lesson is clear. God
greater to the lesser. This might involve father to gives life. Neither god, nor man, nor rite can do
son (Gen 49), brothers to sister (Gen 24:60), king so. Nor does God have tobe cajoled to give his
to subjects (1 Kgs 8: 14). The blessing might be blessing. He wishes to give it to all who will trust
conveyed at departures on special occasions (II him (Gen 12:3). From this base the understanding
Chr 6:3) or upon introduction (Gen 47:7, 10). lts of God as the lifegiver is expanded to its ultimate
major function seems to have been to confer expression in Jn 3: 16f.; 10:10; etc.
abundant and effective life upon something (Gen
2:3; I Sam 9: 13; Isa 66:3) or someone (Gen b'räkä. Blessing. Either the verbal endue-
27:27f.; Gen 49). (In this respect, notice that ment with good things or a collective expression
Michal, despising her husband's blessing, was for the good things themselves (Ezk 34:26; Mal
afllicted with barrenness, II Sam 6:20-23). lt 3:10, etc.). Sixty-seven occurrences.
could, however, become merely a form. This was Bibliography: Eichrodt, W., TheoloRY of the
especially true of the greeting (1 Sam 13:10; O/d Testament, II, tr. J. A. Baker, Westminster,
25: 14; Ps 118:26). 1%7, pp. 349-51, etc. Guillet, J., "Le language
The verbal blessing, as just discussed, was spontane de Ja benediction dans l' Ancien Testa-
normally futuristic. However, it could be descrip- ment," Recherches de science reli{?ieuse 57:
tive, an acknowledgement that the person ad- 163-204. Hempel, J ., "Die israelitische

132
 287 i'ji (bäraq)

Anschauungen von Segen und Fluch im Lichte al- 331), of a spear (Nah 3:3), of the meta! tip of an
torientalischer Parallelen,'' Zeitschrift der arrow (Job 20:25) and of a chariot (Nah 2:4 [H 5]).
Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, lts fourteen occurrences to denote "lightning"
79:20-110. Mowinckel, S. Psalmenstu- are theologically significant because in all of
dien, V, Amsterdam: Schippers, 1961. these instances lightning is associated with the
The Psalms in lsrael's Worship, 11, LORD. This awe-inspiring phenomenon in the
tr. D. R. Ap-Thomas, Oxford: Blackwell, heavens reveals God's greatness and separation
1962, pp. 44-51. Murtonen, A., "The Use and from mortal man and accompanies him in his
Meaning of the Words l'bärek and b'räkäh in the theophanies.
Old Testament," VT 9: 158-177. Pedersen, J., To humble the intrepid fault-finder, Job, the
LoRD challenged him with the question: "Can
Israel, its Life and Culture, 1-11, London: Ox- you send forth lightnings?" (Job 38:35). Daniel
ford, 1926. Richardson, TWB, p. 33 Schar- was left without strength when the LoRD ap-
bert, J., " 'Fluchen' und 'Segnen' im Alten peared to him in a vision as a man whose face had
Testament," Biblica 39: 1-26. "Die Geschichte the appearance of lightning (Dan J0:6ff.).
der bäruk Formel," Biblisches Zeitschrift 17: 1- Lightning accompanied the LORD when he
28. Towner, W. S., " 'Blessed be Yahweh' and gave his righteous law to his people at Sinai (Ex
'Blessed Art Thou, Yahweh'-The Modulation of 19:16). Elsewhere it is associated with his coming
a Biblical Formula," CBQ 30: 386-99. Wester- in judgment against his wicked enemies. In
mann, C., Das Segnen in der Bibel und im Han- Ezekiel's famous vision, the lightning flashing
deln der Kirche, Münich: Kaiser, 1968. TDNT, forth from among the living creatures spoke of
II, pp. 755-61.TDOT, II, pp. 279-307. THAT, I, the LoRD's righteous judgment on the earth
pp. 353-75. (Ezk 1:13). Likewise lsraers poets describe the
J.N.O. LoRD of Hosts' epiphanies when he judges his
286 c,:i (hrm). Assumed root of the following. enemies as being accompanied by lightning.
286a c•~·,:;i ( b'' romim) variegated cloth Probably with reference to the LoRD's numer-
(Ezk 27:24). ous victories over his enemies by which he dis-
played his universal reign, the Psalmist cele-
287 ;,j; (biiraq) cast forth (lightning). brates the lightning that accompanied these
victories (Ps 97:4; cf. Ps 135:7). More specifically
Derivatives his victory over Egypt at the Exodus (Ps 77:18
287a t:,j; (biiriiq) I, lightning. [H 191), through David over his foes (II Sam
287b t:,-:i; (biiriiq) II, Barak. 22:15 = Ps 18:14 [H 15]),andoflsraeloverGreece
287c tr,~'.1; (bareqet) a gem. (Zech 9: 14) are all heightened by being described
287d tri~~; ( biir" qat) a gem. as having occurred with lightning.
287e c•~~,; (barqiinim) briers. The association of lightning with the LORD
also serves as a polemic against Baal, the princi-
In MT biiraq occurs only once (Ps 144:6), but
pal Canaanite nature deity. The Ugaritic texts
BOB and others suggest that the Hebrew text
and artifacts portray Baal as the god of lightning,
followed by LXX had häraq also in II Sam 22: 15
fire and rain. Thus one text reads: "Baal flashed
and Ps 18:14 [H 15] (KB also in Ezk 21:33). KJV
his thunderbolts" ( 'nt, IV, 70), and another says:
seems to follow LXX in Ps 18:14 by translating "he
"He flashed lightning to the earth" (Text 51,
shot out lightnings." Rsv translates by "flash
V, 71). In a stele he is pictured as brandishing
forth."
a club in one hand, and holding a stylized thun-
The verbal form of the root hrq in Akkadian,
derbolt ending in a spearhead in the other (C. F.
Arabic and Ethiopic means "it lightens"; the
Egyptian cognate denotes "glitter (ofwater)." lts A. Schaeffer, The Cuneiform Texts of Ras
Shamra-URarit (1936), plate XXXII, fig. 2). The
Ugaritic and Hebrew nominal forms mean
stete indicates that Baal had power over the fire
"lightning." Indeed, the Arabic verb baraqa
and lightning. lt is against this background that
may mean "to emit bolts of lightning (from a
cloud)." one must read Jeremiah's warning: "Do not learn
the ways of the nations, and do not be dismayed
bäräq. Lightning, glittering, bright. The noun at the signs in the heavens .... But the LORDis
form is used much more widely than the verb. In the true God; he is the living God, an everlasting
the KJV it is fourteen times as "lightning," and, in King; at his wrath the earth trembles .... The gods
a figure of speech, as "glittering" or "glitter" six that have not made the heavens and the earth,
times, and once as "bright." these shall perish from the earth, and from under
Regarding the noun biiräq, BOB rightly distin- the heavens .... When the LoRDutters his voice
guish its literal use to denote "lightning" from its there is a tumult of waters in the heavens ... ; he
metaphorical use to denote the "glitter" of a makes lightnings for the rain, and bringeth forth
weapon: ofa sword (Ezk 21:10, 15, 28 [H 15, 20, the wind out of his treasuries" (Jer 10:2-13; cf.

133
288 ,:,; (bärar)
51: 16). Indeed Baal has perished from the earth, by Gordon to two other roots, brr l and hrr 11,
but the LORD, the Creator-Redeemer continues meaning "metal" and "be free" respectively but
to be worshiped as King, he suggests that all the meanings may be derived
from the one root (UT 19: no. 526). In Old South
baraq. Barak. The name of the son of Abinoam,
Arabic hrr (causative) means "to purify." The
a military commander from Kedesh in Naphtali
Medieval Hebrew and Aramaic cognates mean-
who was summoned by the prophetess Deborah
ing "to separate, select" are probably a second-
to form an army of northern lsraelites to wage war
ary development, a meaning attested both in the
against the Canaanites.
OT and at Qumran. There is another Arabic root
The man Barak mentioned ten times in Jud 4
bwr "be uncultivated," possibly the root of the
and three times in chapter 5 called out ten
noun biir "field." Although the situation is
thousand men from the northern tribes of Zebu-
obscure, we may present the derivatives under
lun and Naphtali and with this army routed and
destroyed the Canaanite armies of Jabin under one root as does BDB.
"Purge" or "purify" is found in Ezk 20:38
the command of Sisera. Though Barak has suf-
fered in comparison with Deborah and Jael, two where the Lord God says he will purge the rebel-
lious transgressors out of scattered Israel. In Dan
notable women of that time, his prowess and
11:35; 12:10 it is said that many people in the
victory is extolled in the Song of Deborah and
future will purify themselves. Zephaniah speaks
Barak, and in the New Testament book of He-
of a pure language (3:9). But in Job 33:3, while
brews where he is listed in the roster of men of
KJV translates Elihu as saying that his lips know
faith, doubtless as one who "conquered king-
doms" (Heb 11:32). that they speak clearly, Rsv and later translators
render bärar as "sincerely." In David's Song of
bäreqet. A gem, carbuncle? This noun occurs Deliverance barar occurs twice, with a fine word
twice (Ex 28: 17; 39: 10) to designate the third gern play juxtaposing the Niphal and Hithpael "with
in the first row of precious stones in the the pure thou wilt show thyself pure" (·im nabar
breastplate of the high priest. titbiirii.r) (II Sam 22:27; Ps 18:26 IH 271), and in
bär"qat. A gem, carbuncle. Doubtless the his statement that the Lord had rewarded him
according to the cleanness of his hands and re-
same noun as the one above with alternate vocal-
ization. lt is a gern in the covering of the prince compensed him according to his cleanness in
of Tyre (Ezk 28: 13). KJV translates these words God's eyes (II Sam 22:21, 25; Ps 18:20 [H 21]. 24
[H 25]).
as carbuncle but most moderns consider them to
The chronicler and Nehemiah use participial
be emerald.
forms to indicate "'choice" or "chosen·· men or
B.K.W.
sheep (I Chr 7:40; 9:22; 16:41).
Isaiah uses bii.rar to depict the servant as the
tl'~i?':IJ(barqäni'm). See no. 287e.
"polished" shaft of an arrow (49:2), a figure that
Jeremiah also uses in 51: 11. Here GB and Holla-
288 '1j;i (bärar) purge, purify, choose, cleanse
day CHL cite these passages under brr II "to
or make bright, lest or prove.
sharpen" possibly related to the Arabic bary
Derivatives sharpen (a pen, etc.). The ministry of the servant
would then be likened to a sharp arrow-equally
288a ti; (bar) II, pure, clean.
288b t-,; (bar) III, grain. fitting. Isaiah 52: 11 declares that those who bear
288c ,:.i (hör) I, lye, potash, alkali used
in refining metals.
the vessels of the Lord should be "clean." An
enigmatic command not to cleanse is found in
288d t,:.i (hör) II, cleanness, pureness.
Jer 4:11.
While KJV translates biirar as "manifest" in
288e r,•-:,ll (borit) lye, alkali, potash,
Eccl 3:18, Asv and modern versions speak ofGod
soap, used in washing.
288f ,; (biir) fu!ld. proving or testing men so that they can see that
they are like beasts.
288g r::i•,~,;(barbürim) birdsfaJtenedfor
table of Solomon.
bar. (Noun or adjective) kerne/, grain of wheat;
Whereas BDB relate our verb to the Arabic or clean, pure. The noun bar is fourteen times
barra "to be reverent, dutiful, devoted; to be in various places a ''kerne!" or a "grain ofwheat."
kind, charitable, benevolent, virtuous, good," In Ps 65:13 [H 14); 72:16 it refers to grain stand-
GB think that this Arabic word in turn goes back ing in the field.
to the Arabic barira, "to be free, clear (with The psalmists use the adjective to describe
'from' esp. of guilt or blame)." The Akkadian those with a single mind toward God as "the pure
verb bararu means "to glitter" and its adjective in heart" (Ps 24:4; 73:1), and to praise the
barru means "pure" (of metal). The Ugaritic LoRo's commands as pure (Ps 19:8). Zophar re-
cognate means "tobe pure, clean·• and is related proves Job for his claim that his ethical behavior

134
 291 ,~; (bäsar)

is pure (free from moral fault) (Job 11:4-here it sweet calamus (Rsv "sweet-smelling" cinnamon
is parallel to zkk "to be bright, pure, clean"). and "aromatic" cane; NEB"fragrant" cinnamon
Whereas in all these three passages the adjective and "scented" cane). GB identifies the qinn''-
denotes a quality of moral purity, the disputed mon he.frm and the q'' neh besem as fragrant pure
bar in Prov 14:4 is translated by the NIV as cinnamon and ca/amus odoratus of the Greeks
.. empty" with reference to a manger. and Romans respectively.
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 308-12. lsaiah prophesies (3:24, KJV) that Zion will
E.S.K. have instead of a "sweet smell," a stink (Rsv,
NEB, NAB"perfume"). Where KJVsays that the
289 w,::i( brsh). girls of King Ahasuerus are purified six months
Assumed root of the following.
with sweet odors (Est 2: 12), NAB,NEBhave "per-
289a twii; (b'rösh) fir, cypress, juniper,
fumes"; Rsv, rn "spices."
pine. b"röt is an Aramaic form of
Moses' request for materials for the taberna-
the same.
cle, its furnishings and its service included spices
An evergreen anciently common in Palestine (especially for the anointing oil, Ex 25:6).
and Lebanon. KJVconsistently translated "fir." Spices were a significant part ofthe luxury and
Modem translators give fir, juniper, cypress and riches of the time. The Queen of Sheba gave Sol-
pine, but are not consistent. The word is attested omon an abundance of spices as a royal gift (1
also in Akkadian. The Aleppo Pine because of Kgs 10:2, 10; II Chr 9: 1,9,24), and Solomon re-
usefulness and size best fits the biblical data, ceived spices annually as tribute (1 Kgs 10:25).
though KB prefers Phoenician Juniper. Hezekiah showed his riches including spices to
Hiram the Tyrian king sent b 'rö.vh and cedar the envoys from Babylon as a token of his wealth
to Solomon for temple construction. lt was used (II Kgs 20: 13), and spices are part of the mer-
for flooring the temple (1 Kgs 6: 15) and for the chandise coming to Tyre (Ezk 27:22). Levites re-
double doors of the entrance (6:34). The main turning from Babylon are made overseers of
temple was ceiled with b' rösh overlaid with gold stores of spices.
(II Chr 3:5). Asa was laid in death on a bed of spices (II Chr
The pines of Hermon were used for ships at 16:14).
Tyre (Ezk 27:5) and for making musical instru- Spices are often mentioned as alluring in the
ments (II Sam 6:5). Song of Solomon (Song 4: 10-16; 5: 13; 6:2; 8: 14).
These trees are mentioned as the house of the BDB, G-B, KB and Holladay HCHL all identify
stork in Ps 104:17. Isaiah says that Sennacherib häsäm in Song 5: 1 with the balsam shrub Bal-
destroyed the choice pine trees of Lebanon (II samodendrium Opolhasamun. Some ofthese lex-
Kgs 19:23; lsa 37:24), that the pine trees will re- icons also think balsam is in view in 5: 13; 6:2; and
joice over Babylon's fall, andin a time ofrestitu- 8:14 (cf. Immanuel Löw, Die Flora der Juden,
tion the pine trees, among others, will be set in 1,p. 299ff.).
the desert (41: 19) and will come up instead of the E.S.K.
thorn (55: 13).
When Israel returns to the LORD, Ephraim 291 iw; (bäsar) publish, bear (good) tidings,
will say, "I am like a luxuriant pine tree" (Hos
preach, show forth. (ASVand RSVsimilar.)
14:8), but in Zechariah there is howling because
"the pine is fallen" (11:2). Derivatives
In Nah 2:4 b' rbsh evidently refers to a spear
291a ti~; ( bäsar) flesh.
shaft, though recent translators, following LXX,
read päräshim "horsemen."
291b :i,w; (h'söra) tidings.
E.S.K. This root and its derivative occur thirty times
in the or. Sixteen of these are in Samuel-Kings
and seven are in lsaiah. The root is a common
290 CIW::l(bsm). Assumed root of the following.
one in Semitic, being found in Akkadian, Arabic,
290a t1:1ivz(bösem), oiv:i: (besem), oiv:i:
\bäsam) spiee, ;;;,eet, sweet smell;
Ugaritic, Ethiopic, etc. The root meaning is "to
bring news, especially pertaining to military en-
sweet odor. lts cognates in Aramaic
and Akkadian mean "be sweet," counters." Normally this is good news, but (con-
"be pleasant" respectively. KB de- tra Friedrich, TDNT, II, p. 707) it need not
necessarily be so (1 Sam 4: 17; II Sam 18:20 where
rive Greek balsamon from the Arabic
root bshm. töh is specifically appended). The Akkadian
bears this out, for the word is largely neutral
bösem usually means „spiee" but when used there.
with a particular spiee is "sweet" (KJV). In Ex In the historical literature, the occurrences of
30:23,25 where the ingredients ofthe holy anoint- basar duster around two events: the death of
ing oil are given, KJVhas sweet cinnamon, and Saul (1 Sam 31 :9; II Sam 1:20; 4: 10), and the de-

135
292 ,;;; (bäshal)
feat and death of Absalom (II Sam 18:19f.) man and woman become one flesh in the sexual
Although David received them differently, both embrace (Gen 2:24) is to say more than that they
were feit by the messenger to be good news. are united bodily.
This concept of the messenger fresh from the If "body" can refer to man, it can also refer to
field of battle is at the heart of the more theologi- mankind (Isa 66: 16, 24, etc.) and even further to
cally pregnant usages in lsaiah and the Psalms. all living things (Gen6:19, etc.). lt is in this sense
Here it is the Lord who is victorious over his that "tlesh" is seen in contrast to the spirit (ruah)
enemies. By virtue ofthis success, he now comes ofGod (Gen 6:3; Ps 56:4 [H 5]; Isa 31:3; 40:6; Jer
to deliver the captives (Ps 68: 11 [H 12]; Isa 61: 1). 17:5). Flesh is transitory, weak, mortal. How
The watchman waits eagerly for the messenger then shall those who are fleshly exalt themselves
(lsa 52:7; cf. II Sam 18:25f.) who will bring this against God? This does not mean that the oT uses
good news. At first, only Zion knows the truth "tlesh" as the symbol of man's rebellion, how-
(lsa 40:9; 41:27), but eventually all nations will ever. The problem is not with man's tlesh, it is
teil the story (lsa 60:6). The reality of this con- with bis "heart" (Ezk 11:19; 44:7), a will to rebel
cept is only finally met in Christ (Lk 4: 16-21; I which forgets that it is only tlesh (Eccl 5:5). Tobe
Cor 15:54-56; Col 1:5, 6; 2:13-15). sure, the basis for Paul's NT usage of "flesh" is
present in the OT in the sense that the spiritual
bäsär. Flesh (rarely skin, kin, body). (Asv and God is contrasted with tleshly man. However,
Rsv similar.) This word occurs 273 times in the the idea that the principle of sin is somehow resi-
oT. One hundred fifty-three of these are found in dent in the flesh is an intertestamental idea.
the Pentateuch. lt seems to be a West Semitic Bibliography: Brueggemann, Walter, "Of the
root, no clear cognate existing in Akkadian (con- Same Flesh and Bone (Gen 2, 23a)," CBQ 32:
tra BDB and TDNT, cf. Chicago Assyrian Dic- 532-42. Burton, E. G., Spirit, Soul and Flesh,
tionary B 270a). In Arabic basara means "skin" University of Chicago, 1918. Johnson, A., The
and there is a corresponding verb meaning "to Vitality of the Individual in the Thouf?ht of An-
peel off," etc. The Ugaritic cognate ( bsr) occurs cient Israel, Cardiff: University of Wales, 1949,
only four times, but it shows a range of meaning pp. 39-41. Lys, D., La Chair dans l'Ancien Tes-
quite similar to that of the Hebrew. In Hebrew tament, Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1967.
the word refers basically to animal musculature, Murphy, R. E., "Bsr in Qumran Literature and
but by extension it can mean the human body, Sarks in the Epistle to the Romans," Sacra
blood relations, mankind, living things, life itself PaRina 2: 60-67. North, Robert, '"Flesh, Cover-
and created life as opposed to divine life. ing and Response, Ex xxi 10," VT 5: 204-206.
basar occurs with its basic meaning very fre- Pedersen, J ., Israel: Its Life and Culture, 1-11,
quently, especially in the Pentateuch, in litera- London, Oxford, 1926, pp. 170-81. Richardson,
ture concerning sacrificial practices (e.g. Lev TWB, p. 83. Sander, 0., "Lieb-Seele-Dualismus
7: 17), but also in the prescriptions for dealing im AT?" ZAW 77: 29-32. Scharbert, J ., Fleisch,
with skin diseases (Lev 13, etc.) The common Geist und Seele im Pentateuch, Stuttgart Biblical
paralleling with 'e$em "bone" to convey the idea Series: 19, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk,
of "body" denotes the central meaning of the 1967. TDOT, II, pp. 313-31. THAT, I, pp. 376-
word clearly (cf. Job 2:5, etc.). 78.
But basar can be extended to mean "body" J.N.O.
even without any reference to bones (Num 8:7; II
Kgs 4:34; Eccl 2:3, etc.). As such it refers simply
to the external form of a person. This is seen as 292 ,~; (bashal) seethe, bake, boü, roast, and
grow ripe. KJV translates bashal, when it
one of the components of the human being, the
others being especially leb "heart" and nepesh means boil, as seethe, sod, sodden or boil.
"soul" (Ps 16:9; etc.). However, it would be in- A cognate verb in Akkadian, Ethiopic and
Arabic (IV stem) means "cooked" and in
appropriate to think that the Hebrews conceived
Syriac and Akkadian means "ripe."
of a living soul inhabiting an otherwise dead
body. Rat her they saw the human reality as per- Derivatives
meating all the components with the totality
being the person.
292a t,W; (bashel) cooked, boüed.
Thus "soul" and "body" are directly paral- 292b rii,!f;7?(m' bashsh' lot) cooking
leled in several places, notably in the Psalms (cf. places.
84:2 [H 3], "My soul longs, yea faints for the In the more than a dozen places where bashal
courts ofthe Lord, my heart and my tlesh cry out is used to describe the preparation of cakes or
for the living God"). In this way, to refer to animals in the sacrificial system, it can describe
someone as being of one' s own "tlesh and bone" any kind of cooking procedure: "baking" (Num
(Gen 2:23) was to say more than that they shared 11:8), "roasting" (Deut 16:7; II Chr 35: 13) or
the same bodily heritage. Again, to say that a "boiling" (Lev 8:31; Ezk 46:20, 24). This does

136
 295 ',r,~ (btl)

not mean that the word is used indiscriminately. 294 c~; (bashas ). Occurs only in Arnos 5: 11,
The passover must be roasted (bäshal) with fire boshas'kem "your trampling."
(II Chr 35: 13), but the holy offerings should be
boiled (bashal) in pots. Even clearer distinction
is made in Ex 12:9 where boiling in water (bä- :iwz (böshet). See no. 222c.
shal) is contrasted with roasting with fire (.~äla), mi (bat) I, II. See nos. 254b, 298a.
which is required for the passover. :i.1;1;(batta), :,7; (bätil). See nos. 298
The sons of Eli broke the law by demanding b, c ..
raw flesh as their part of certain sacrifices rather :,7,ri:p(b'tüla). See no. 295a.
than accepting the boiled meat (I Sam 2:13, 15). 1:1•7,r,:p (b'tülfm). See no. 295b.
Some women arranged to boil and eat their chil-
dren during the Syrian siege of Samaria (II Kgs
295 1m:::i (bt/). Assumed root of the following.
6:29) and in the final siege of Jerusalem the same
kind of gruesome event took place (Lam 4: 10).
295a t:,7,r,:p (b' tülii) virgin.
Where bäshal relates to a ripe stage (Gen
295b tc•7,r,:p(b"tülfm) virginity.
40:10; Joel 3:13 [H 4:13]), the reference seems to b•tula. Virgin, maul, maulen; probably from
be to the harvest or grapes being ready for use, an unused verb bätal "to separate." Although
just as cooking makes the meat ready tobe eaten. Hebrew lexicons and modern translations gener-
ally translate b"tülii as ·•virgin," G. J. Wenham
bäshel. Boüed. This adjectival form, occurs
("B•tüläh 'A Girl of Marriageable Age,' VT 22:
only twice in the sense of boiled (Ex 12:9; Num
326-48) and Tsevat (TDOT II, p. 338-43) contest
6:19).
this as the general meaning but prefer "a young
E.S.K.
(marriageable) maiden." But whereas Wenham
does not concede the meaning "virgin" in any
text, Tsevat allows this meaning in three out of its
293 itd:::i (bshn) Assumed root of the following. fifty-one occurrences (Lev 21:13f; Deut 22:19;
293a ti~; (bäshiin) smooth, fertile, Bashan. Ezk 44:22). In any case, a strong case can be
Sixty occurrences.
presented that b' tülii is not a technical term for
The fertile country bounded by the Jabbok vir{?o intacta in the OT, a conclusion that has im-
River on the south, the Sea of Galilee on the portant bearing on the meaning of 'almii in Isa
west, a line from Mount Hermon eastward on the 7: 14.
north and the Hauran range on the east. This was The Cognate Langua{?es. A study of the word
the country of Og before capture by Israel under in the cognate language sustains C. H. Gordon's
Moses. lt became the territory for the half-tribe contention that b"tüla in the near eastem lan-
of Manasseh or Machir (Josh 13:30; 21:6). Golan guages by itself does not mean virROintacta (JBR
was a city of refuge for that area (Josh 20:8). 21: 240-41).
Levitical cities were also there (J osh 21:6). The Egyptian word especially parallel to our
Though controlled by David and Solomon, it later Hebrew word is l:zwn.t. While the word may de-
was subject to changing rulership under the note "girl," "virgin," it can also denote a young
northem kingdom and Syria. Jeremiah marriageable woman, or a young woman who has
prophesies that Israel will feed again in Carmel had sexual relations. Thus the word is used in the
and Bashan (Jer 50:19). Pyramid Texts of the king's protectress who is
Range animals and oak trees are subjects of explicitly called his mother, and of Isis, of whom
figurative expressions. In the Song of MQses it is said in a sarcophagus oracle that she is mys-
(Deut 32: 14) reference is made to "rams of the teriously pregnant. Tsevat concluded: "lt can be
breed of Bashan" and in Ps 22: 12 "the strong stated that l:zwn.t is not used to denote biological
bulls of Bashan," are a figure of the vicious virginity, but rather youthful vigor and potential
enemies of the Messiah. Ezekiel prophesies that motherhood" (P. 339).
in the overthrow of Gog and Magog the flesh and The Akkadian cognate, batultu. denptes
blood of people and animals "as the fatlings of "primarily an age group: only in specific con-
Bashan" shall be devoured by birds and beasts texts ... does it assume the connotation 'virgin'"
(Ezk 39: 18). (CAD II: 174). J. J. Finkelstein ("Sex Offences in
Tyre made oars from "the oaks of Bashan" Sumerian Laws," JAOS 86: 355:72) and B.
(Ezk 27:6). Isaiah 2: 13 says the proud like the Landsberger "Jungfräulichkeit: Ein Beitrag zum
oaks of Bashan will be "brought low" in the day Thema 'Beilager und Eheschliessung'" in Sym-
of the Lord. bolae juridicae ... M. David ... edid. J. A. An-
E.S.K. kum ... , II (Leiden, 1968, pp. 41-105) have un-
derscored in independent studies that the word is
normally best understood as "young (unmarried)
:i;ir:ii (böshna). See no. 222b. girl." In fact, there is no one word for "virgin" in

137
295 ',.n:l (btl)

Sumerian or Akkadian; that concept is expressed sumed to be a virgin. If this interpretation of h'·
negatively by "who is not detlowered." tu/im is correct then this would further sustain
In Ugaritic btlt is a frequent epithet for Anat, the thesis that b•tulii is a "girl of marriageable
Baal's wife, who repeatedly has sexual intercourse age," since the onset of menstruation would
(cf. A. van Seims, Marriage and Family Life in be the clearest sign that she had attained that
Ugaritic Literature, London, 1954, pp. 69, 109). age.
In a Shiite tradition, Fatima, though the Since Wenham has presented a strong case that
mother of Hasan and Hussein along with other the interpretation test is not one of virginity but
children, bears the title hatül (C. Virolleaud, Le chastity, one must concede that h' tu/im or b'·
Thetitre Persan, Paris, 1950, p. 37). And in an tülä does not clearly speak of virginity in this
Aramaic text from Nippur, Montgomery inter- disputed text.
prets the phrase, btwlt "travailing and not bear- In eight places our word b'tulii is contrasted to
ing," to denote a hapless wife suffering from mis- or combined with the Hebrew word for young
carriages and other female complaints (Aramaic man (Deut 32:25; II Chr 36:17; Ps 148:12; Isa
lncantation Texts from Nippur, Philadelphia, 62:5: Jer 51:22; Lam 1:18; 2:21; Zech 9:17). In
1913, p. 131). these places the phrases signify no more than
Tsevat concluded that the word "does not young men and women. In Ezk 9:6 it (in plural)
mean 'virgin' in any language exclusively refers to girls together with little children and
(Aram.), mainly (Heb.), or generally (Akk. [and women who will be killed because of Israel's
Ugar. ?])" (p. 340). wickedness.
OT usage. Whether b'tulti is used in a gen- But in Joel 1:8, where the h' tüla is called upon
eral sense, ··young woman" or a more particular to lament the death of her ba'a/ "husband," it
sense "virgin" cannot be decided for Ex 22:16f. probably does not mean "virgin" for elsewhere
[H 15f.J; Deut 22:28-29; Lev 21:2-3; etc. But in ha'al is the regular word for "husband" and its
Lev 21: 13-14 and Ezk 44:22 where b'' tula is con- usual translation by "bridegroom" in the ver-
trasted with various classes of women who have sions is otherwise unattested. Likewise in Est
had sexual experience, it seems probable that the 2: 17 the b' tulöt who spent a night with King
concept of "virgin" is in view. Ahasuerus are not virgins, unless it is a „ short-
Wenham's argument that qualifying clauses of hand" for "those who had been virgins." In a
h'tiila, such as "that has had no husband" (Lev parable Ezekiel speaks of Oholah and Oholibah
21:2-3) or "whom no man had known" (Gen playing the harlot and their h'' tulfm breasts being
24: 16; Jud 21: 12), are pointless if the word means handled (23:3). Here too the notion of virginity
"virgin" is less than convincing, for it cannot be would be inaccurate. Finally in Job 31: 1 even the
decided whether these are non-restrictive or re- NEB translated our word by "girl" because it
strictive clauses, cf. II Sam 14:5 for a somewhat would not be sinful for Job to look on a virgin.
similar repetition. Unless it is an epithet for a Canaanite goddess it
But Wenham does call into question the con- probably designates a young married woman (cf.
clusion that our word must mean "virgin" in vv. 8f0.
Deut 22: 13-21 because he offers a plausible in- Like Greek parthenos, Latin virgo and Ger-
terpretation assuming the general meaning of man Jungfrau, b''tula originally meant "young
"nubile adolescence." In the first place, b' tu/im marriageable wo man·· but since she was nor-
"tokens of virginity" (vv. 14, 15, 17, 18) is mally a virgin it was not difficult for this meaning
morphologically the regular form for abstract to become attached to the word. This more tech-
nouns in biblical Hebrew designating age groups nical meaning is a later development in Hebrew
(cf. n'' ·urim "youth" z' qunim "old age"). and Aramaic and is clearly its meaning by the
Moreover, according to him, the "tokens of Christian era. When the change took place is not
virginity" called for by the elders are not the clear.
sheets of the wedding night but garments stained What is clear is that one cannot argue that if
by blood during her last period, and by producing Isaiah (7: 14) in his famous oracle to Ahaz had
these the girl' s parents could refute the jealous intended a virgin he could have used b' tülii as a
husband's complaint that his wife was with child more precise term than 'almii.
by another man while she was still in her father's b'tulii is used in a number of figurative ex-
house, Finally, he argued that this interpretation pressions referring to cities or countries as young
admirably suits the sentence that if such tokens women: Zion (Isa 37:22); Babylon (lsa 47: 1); Is-
could not be produced she should be stoned to rael (Jer 18:13) etc. Cf. the frequent expression
death "because she wrought folly in Israel by "'the daughter of Zion."
playing the harlot in her father"s house" (Deut Bibliography: Beegle, Dewey, M., "Virgin or
22:21). Thus the "tokens" served as a test, prov- Young Woman?" Asbury Seminarian 8: 20-34.
ing that she was not pregnant when she was Gordon, C. H. ·· 'Almah in lsaiah 7:14," JBR 21:
married. If she was not pregnant, she was pre- 106. Knight, G. A. F., "The Virgin and the Old

138
 298 lili~ (btt)

Testament," RTR 12: 1-13. Young, Edwin J., Derivative

"The Immanuel Prophecy," WTJ 15: 97-124; 16: 297a ,r,:.i (heter) part, piece.
23-50. TDNT, V, pp. 831-34. TDOT, 11, pp.
338-43. 298 1"11"1:l( btt) Assumed root of the following.
B.K.W. 298a l"I;, (bat) a liquid measure, about
twenty-two liters. See ZPEB, V, p. 916.
296 *i'l"l:.I (bätaq) cut, cut off, cut down. Oc- 298b :i1;1; (battii) precipice, steep (Isa
~~rs only in the Pie!, in Ezk 16:40. 7:19).
298c :ir,;, (bätii) end, destruction (Isa
297 •,J'.'l;l (hätar) cut in two (Gen 15: 10). 5:6).

139
 M~ (ge'). See no. 299a. cem two applications of this. First would be
those verses that speak of the land of Israel in
terms of excellency, Ps 47:4 [H 5]; Ezk 24:21;
299 :ii;c~ (gä' a) rise up, grow up, be exalted in
Deut 33:29; Nah 2:3; Isa 4:2. In each of these
triumph. (Rsv and ASV are similar.)
cases the land's significance becomes such only
Derivatives because of her relationship to Yahweh. This is
not an indigenous characteristic.
In the second place we could !ist those verses
299a tM~ (ge') proud.
that speak of God's "pride/majesty/excellency":
299b t:,l'.t~ (ge'eh) proud.
Ex 15:7;1sa2:10, 19,21;24:14;Mic5:3;Job37:4;
299c t:ii;c~ (ge'a) pride.
40:10 (gä'ön); Deut 33:26; Ps 68:35 (ga'awa); Ps
299d t:i,~11 (ga'awa) majesty, pride.
93: 1; lsa 12:5; 26: 10 (ge' ut). In most of these pas-
299e tiiM~ (ga'ön) exaltation.
sages the particular Hebrew word is translated in
299f tmM~ (f:e'ut) majesty.
the LXX by doxa or an equivalent and not by hub-
299g tii•~jl ( ga 'aybn) proud.
ris. Finally we may note the name of the spy sent
299h :i,i (gewa) pride.
out by Moses from the tribe ofGad, Geuel (Num
The primary meaning of this root is "to rise." 13:15), "EI is majestic."
lt occurs seven times in the oT. In two of these Preponderantly, however, it is in the negative
passages (Ezk 47:5; Job 8: 11) the traditional ren- sense that the oT uses this concept. The sections
dition is preserved. The root also appears four of the Bible that employ the term most frequently
times in the "Song at the Sea, .. i.e. Ex 15:1; in a condemnatory context are (1) the prophets,
15:21. In this case we encounter a familiar phe- Isa, Jer, and Ezk, and (2) Ps, Prov, and Job.
nomenon of the Hebrew language in which for There are fifty-three examples of this in these six
emphasis the finite form of the verb is preceded books. The charge is laid often against noncove-
by the infinitive absolute. Thus most of our ver- nant peoples such as: Moab (lsa 16:6): Egypt
sions translate the two verbal forms together as (Ezk 30:6); the Philistines (Zech. 9:6); Assyria
"triumphed gloriously." The sense is that God (Zech 10:11) and so forth.
has "risen up (like a wave)" over his enemies. lt is Israel, however, that comes under
The seventh usage of this root is Job 10:16. The heaviest judgment. The attitude is as old as
exact translation is problematical. Literally the Sodom (Ezk 16:49 and cf. Ps 10:2). The precise
passage reads, ••If he lifts himself up, you (God) charge is arrogance, cynical insensitivity to the
hunt me as a lion." needs of others, and presumption. lt is both a
The basic idea of rising or growing is reflected disposition and a type of conduct (both of which
in the following passages: (1) Isa 9: 17 refers to an are inextricably connected). Pride inevitably
ascending "column" (ge'ut) of smoke, a leads to destruction (Prov 15:25; 16:18; Jer 13:9;
metaphor of the effects caused by sin on anything Isa 13:11, et al).
it touches; (2) Ps 46:3 [H 4) refers to the "raging" Thus we can observe that pride is not intrinsi-
or "tumult" (ga'awa) ofmountains in a scene of cally wrong. lt describes apart of God's charac-
cataclysmic disturbance; (3) Ps 89:9 [H 10] talks ter. lt is to become a part of the life style of the
of the "raging" (ge'ut) of the sea, a territory believer (Job 40: 10; Deut 33:29). Sin enters the
ruled by the Lord. Job 38: 11, part of God's picture when there is a shift of ultimate confi-
speech to Job, refers to "proud" (ga'ön) waves. dence from God as object and source to oneself
In connection with these references to frothing as object and source.
waters, one may also compare the phrase the
ge'ä. Pride. This word is found only in Prov
"swelling jungle (ga'/m) of the Jordan," in Jer
8:13.
12:5; 49: 19; 50:44; and Zech 11:3. The latter is a
description of the area of rich and thick vegeta- ge'eh. Proud. The adjective is descriptive of
tion on both sides of the southem sections of the the presumptuous man.
Jordan valley. (Cf. N. Glueck, The River Jordan,
ge'. Proud. This word is found only in Isa 16:6
p. 63.) The jungle may be so called because of
and is obviously to be related to ge' eh as the
high growth or high water in flood. The Arabic exact parallel in Jer 48:29 will indicate.
name is the Zor.
The word "pride" (or its synonyms) can be ga'ayön. Proud. Only in Ps 123:4.
used either positively or negatively in the Old Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "· Another Little
Testament. In the positive category one can dis- Drink· in lsaiah 28: 1-22," in Words and Mean-

143
300 ',t_e~(gä 'a/)

ings, eds. P. Ackroyd and B. Lindars, Cam- The idea was that a man could give an equivalent
bridge: The University Press, 1968, pp. 48-50. to the Lord in exchange, but the redemption price
On the use ofthe root g'h in Ugaritic, 2 Aqht VI, was to be a bit extra to avoid dishonest ex-
42-45, cf. S. Loffreda, "Raffronto fra un testo changes. In these cases, the redeemer was not a
ugaritico (2 Aqht VI, 42-45) e Giobbe 40, 9-12," relative, but the owner of the property. Thirdly,
Bibliotheca Orientalis 8: 103-16. TDNT, VIII, the root is used to refer to the next of kin who is
pp. 299-305. TDOT, II, pp. 344-49. THAT, I, pp. the "avenger of blood" (Rsv "revenger") for a
379--82. TWNT, VIII, pp. 299-302. M. Har-EI, murdered man. The full phrase "avenger of
"The Pride of the Jordan," BA 41 :68-69. blood" is almost always used (cf. Num. 35:
V.P.H. 12ff.). Apparently the idea is that the next of kin
must effect the payment of life for life. As a house
is repurchased or a slave redeemed by payment,
l"lj~~ (ga'i!wa). See no. 299d. so the lost life of the relative must be paid for by
•';,~H~(g''ulay). See no. 300a. the equivalent life of the murderer. The kinsman
liHf (gä'on). See no. 299e. is the avenger of blood. This system of execution
l"l~HP.(f?e'ul). See no. 299f. must be distinguished from blood feuds for the
ii•~, (ga'i!yon). See no. 299g. Rö'el was a guiltless executioner and not to be
murdered in turn.
Finally, there is the very common usage prom-
300 ,~~ (ga'al) I, redeem, avenge, revenge, ran-
inent in the Psalms and prophets that God is Is-
som, do the part of a kinsman. (Asv and
rael's Redeemer who will stand up for his people
Rsv similar, except that they translate "av-
and vindicate them. There may be a hint of the
enger of blood" instead of "revenger of
blood. ") Father's near kinship or ownership in the use of
this word. A redemption price is not usually
Derivatives cited, though the idea of judgment on Israel's op-
300a •';,~H~(R' 'ulay) redemption (lsa pressors as a ransom is included in Isa 43:1-3.
63:4 only). God, as it were, redeems his sons from a bondage
worse than slavery.
300b :,7~~(R''ülla) redemption, right of
Perhaps the best known instance ofredemption
redemption, price of redemption,
kindred.
of the poor is in the book of Ruth which is the
300c ,tc·~ (gö' el) I, redeemer. most extensive OT witness for the law of levirate
marriage. According to Deut 25:5-10, a widow
The participial form of the Qal stem of the verb without issue should be taken by her husband's
has practically become a noun in its own right brother to perpetuate seed and thus insure the
though it may properly be considered as merely a succession of the land which was bound to the
form of the verb. male descendants. The near relative here is called
The primary meaning of this root is to do the a yabam. The root Rii'al is not used. In the situa-
part of a kinsman and thus to redeem his kin from tion in Ruth two things are mentioned, the field
difficulty or danger. lt is used with its derivatives and the levirate marriage. The near kin was will-
118 times. One difference between this root and ing to buy the field, but not to marry Ruth.
the very similar root pada "redeem," is that The point is that when Naomi in her poverty
there is usually an emphasis in Rii' al on the re- had to sei! the field the next of kin was obligated
demption being the privilege or duty of a near to buy it back for her. This he was willing to do
relative. The participial form of the Qal stem has for his brother's widow without issue. The land
indeed been translated by some as "kinsman- would presumably revert to him anyway at last.
redeemer" or as in KJV merely "kinsman." The When he leamed that he must marry Ruth and
root is tobe distinguished from Rii'al II, "defile" raise children who would maintain their inher-
(which see). itance, he refused and Boaz stepped in. But the
The root is used in four basic situations cover: two things, kinsman redemption and levirate
ing the things a good and true man would do for marriage, are tobe distinguished. The word Rö' el
his kinsman. First, it is used in the Pentateuchal "redeemer," does not refer to the latter institu-
legislation to refer to the repurchase of a field tion.
which was sold in time of need (Lev 25:25 ff.), or In the famous verse Job 19:25 the word gö'el is
the freeing of an lsraelite slave who sold himself translated "redeemer" in the Av and some have
in time of poverty (Lev 25:48ff.). Such purchase taken it to refer to the coming of Christ in his
and restitution was the duty of the next of kin. work of atonement. This would be expressed
Secondly, but associated with this usage was the more characteristically by the Hebrew word
"redemption" of property or non-sacrificial ani- padil (which sec). This word in Job 19:25 is now
mals dedicated to the Lord, or the redemption of more accurately referred to the work of God who
the firstbom of unclean animals (Lev 27: llff.). as friend and kinsman through faith will ulti-

144
 305 fl;l~ (gäbah)
mately redeem Job from the dust of death. The The substantive is used thirteen times in the
enigmatic "after my skin" of v. 26 could weil be OT. Seven ofthese are in Ezk (1:18; 10:12: 16:24,
read with different vowels "after I awake" (see 31, 39; 43: 13). The word may be either masculine
NIVfootnote and Job 14:12-14 where Job's ques- or feminine in gender. Thus, Ezk 1:18 reads: "As
tion about resurrection is climaxed by his hope for their rings/rims (gahbl;hem) ... and their
that God will have regard for him at last and that rings/rims (gabbötäm) were ...... In the singular
Job like a tree will have a second growth- it is always masculine. In the plural it is mas-
~alipa, v. 14, which answers to the ~älap ofv. 7). culine six times but feminine twice (Ezk 1: 18 and
In any case Job expects with his own eyes to see Lev 14:9).
God his go'e/ at last. Although the meaning given above for gah was
Bibliography: A. R. Johnson, "The Primary "back" this translation appears only in Ps 129:3.
Meaning of the Root g'/, ·• Supp VT 1: 67-77. AI, The poet, speaking for Israel, complains of the
11-12, 21-23. Leggett, Donald A., The Levirate roughshod treatment to which she has been sub-
Goe/ lnstitutions in the OT, Presbyterian & Re- jected by her enemies: "They have plowed upon
formed Press. TDOT, II, pp. 350-55. my 'back·." Similar sentiment and phraseology
R.L.H. are used in lsa 51:23 but there the word for
"back/body" is gaw. a synonym for gah.
301 ',tc~ (gä'a/) II, defde, pollute. (ASV, RSV The basic meaning seems to be something like
"curved" or "rounded." Job 15:26 mentions
similar.)
God's thicked-bossed shield (gahhe mäginniill')
Derivative and the futility of Job's attempt to run headlong
into it. In the visions of Ezekiel this word de-
301a '!C~ (gö'el) defüing, used only in
scribes the rims (KJv-"rings") on the wheels of
Neh 13:29, the "defiling of the the chariot drawn by the four living creatures:
priesthood" by the faithless priests.
Ezk 1:18; I0:12;andcf. 1Kgs7:33.
This root doubtless is to be distinguished from Three times in Ezk (16:24,31,39), Judah is con-
gä'a/ 1, "to redeem." lt appears that this root is a demned for building for herself, in the fashion of
secondary formation from the similar root gä'a/ a harlot, a "vaulted chamber" (KJV "eminent
found also in Aramaic, meaning "abhor," place") and a lofty place (räma). This may be a
"loathe." lt is used twelve times. reference to an artificially constructed hill on
The pollution specified by the verb is due to the which illegal cultic acts were performed (perhaps
blood of murder (Isa 59:3; Lam 4:14), the blood a word play between räma and bäma). Thus the
of vengeance (Isa 63:3), or by sin in general (Zeph 1,xx translates gab here as oikema pornikon
3:1; Neh 13:29). The word is used ofthe ceremo- "brothels."
nial pollution of imperfect sacrifices (Mal 1:7, gab appears in Job 13: 12, "Your 'defenses'
12), of the pagan king's diet (Dan 1:8), and of the (KJV"strongholds") are 'defenses' of clay." In
uncertain lineage of the priests after the exile the context Job is refuting the idea that there is
(Ezr 2:62; Neh 7:64). Thus the pollution specified any substantiality to his critics· diagnoses and so-
is from any breach of moral or ceremonial law. lutions.
The classification of Job 3:5 is uncertain. AV Bibliography: Cohen, A., "Studies in Hebrew
translates it "stain," taking it as gii'a/ II. ASVand Lexicography," AJSL 40: 153-85, esp. 165--<>6.
RSVtranslate it "claim," taking it as gä'a/ I. The connects gab in Job 13:12 with the rabbinic root
context perhaps favors the latter translation. The gbb, "to rake leaves," and translates Job 13:12h
dark day of his birth is, according to Job's curse, as "like useless bits of clay is your array of argu-
tobe "purchased" by darkness and dwelt in by ments." Guillaume, A., "The Arabic Back-
the shadow of death. ground of the Book of Job," in Promise and Ful-
R.L.H. fillment, Edinburgh: Clark, 1%3, pp. 106-27,
esp. p. 112, translates Job 13:12b as "your re-
plies are dusty answers."
:i~ (gab). See no. 303a. V.P.H.
:i# (geb) I. See no. 304a.
:i# (geb) II, III. See nos. 323a,b.
304 :"!!:)J (gbh). Assumed root of the following.
304a !:lP, (geb) I, /ocust (lsa 33:4 only).
302 M!:lJ (gb'). Assumed root of the following. 304b :ii~ (gbb) locusts (Nah3:17,only).
302a M;l~ (gebe') cistern, pool (lsa 304c •;il (göbay), •;iJ (gobiiy) lo-
°30:14; Ezk 47:11). custs (Arnos 7:1; Nah 3:17).

303 !:l!:lJ ( gbb). Assumed root of the following.

303a t:i~ (gab) back. 305 :,i;~ (gäbah) be high, exalted.

145
306 n~l (gb!J)
Derivatives 32: 25-26); the prince of Tyre (Ezk 28:2, 17).
305a ::i:i; (Rähöah) high, exalted. Conversely, Isaiah speaks of the suffering ser-
305b :ii) (f.{öhah) -height, exaltation.
vant who will be exalted (rüm), lifted up (näfo')
305c r,1:i;, (f.{ahhüt) haughtiness (lsa and be very high (gähah) (52: 13).
2:11, 17, only). In the Lxx the word is translated as hupsos or
hupselos, but never as hubris.
The root f.{ähah and its derivatives are used Bibliography: TDOT, II. pp. 356--60. THAT,
ninety-four times in the OT. The verb appears in 1, pp. 394-97.
the Qal twenty-four times, meaning basically "to V.P.H.
be high or lofty" and in the Hiphil ten times,
meaning "to make high, to exalt." Rähöah ap- 306 n:i, (xh/J). Assumed root of the following.
pears forty-one times, the noun Röhah seventeen 306a lj:l~ (f.?iheal:,) having a bald
times, and the noun gahhüt twice. The root is forehead (Lev 13:41, only).
used only three times in the Pentateuch (Gen 306b l"llj;~ (gabbal:,at) bald forehead
7:19; Deut 3:5; 28:52), but by contrast in the (Lev 13, only).
prophets cf. lsa, fourteen times; Jer, seven times;
Ezk, twenty-two times. m:i;, (f.?ahhüt). See no. 305c.
As the root is used in its basic sense it de- ,,:i~(g'bü/), :,71:if (g"bülb.). See nos.
scribes the height of persons, objects, places, and 307a,b.
natural phenomena. Thus, the verb f.{ähah sig- "li:.!) (gibbor). See no. 310b.
nifies the growing of a tree (Ezk 17:24; 31 :5, 10, :i:,1:i~ (f.?''hürb.). See no: 310c.
14); the stem ofa vine (Ezk 19: 11); the heavens in •_;~ (göbay). See no. 304c.
respect to the earth (Ps 103:11; Job 35:5). Saul is :it:;if (g'bfnb.). See no. 308b.
described as being · · taller· · than any of his people ll':;l) (ge bfa · ). See no. 309b.
(1 Sam 10:23). lt describes the high wall Manas- :i:,';lf (g''hfrli). See no. 310d.
seh built around Jerusalem (II Chr 33: 14). lt may tu•;; (Riibish). See no. 311a.
mean "to fly high" as an eagle (Jer 49: 16; Ob 4).
Similarly the adjective Riihöah describes a high 307 ',;; (gäba/) to border. Denominative verb.
mountain(s) (Gen 7: 19; lsa 30:25; 40:9; 57:7; Jer
3:6; Ezk 17:22; 40:2; Ps 104:18); high hills (1 Kgs Parent Noun
14:23; II Kgs 17:10; Jer 2:20; 17:2); the high gates 307a t',1:iJ ( g'' hül) border.
of Babylon (Jer 51:58); high battlements (Zeph 307b t:,71~f (g' hüla) border.
1:16); high towers (lsa 2: 15); the high gallows in- 307c ri',;~ ( f.{ahlüt) twisting.
tended for Mordecai (Est 5: 14; 7:9); the horns in 307d ri~~~~ (migbalöt) the twisted, i.e.
Daniel's vision (Dan 8:3). Similar documentation cords.
could be made for the use of the noun göbah.
The verb appears only five times: Deut 19:14;
In several places the word is used in a very
Josh 18:20; Zech 9:2, Qal; Ex 19:12,23, Hiphil
positive sense both with respect to man as a qual-
"to set bounds."
ity of life worthy of possession and as descriptive
The root gbl is found in the place name Gebal
of God himself. In the former category compare
or Byblos, the Phoenician maritime city on the
God's word to Job, "Deck yourself with majesty
(ga'on) and dignity <xöbah) (40:10; cf. 36:7) and
coast of the Mediterranen, probably in the sense
of Arabic Jebel "mountain"-mountains making
II Chr 17:6, "Jehoshaphat's heart was lifted up
("encouraged") in the ways of the Lord." Sec- a natural boundary.
ondly, God's position is said tobe "on high" (Ps g0 bul. Border, boundary, territory. Very fre-
113:5; Job 22: 12) and his ways are "higher" than quently used in the books of the Old Testament in
those of mankind (lsa 55:9). which a significant amount of attention and detail
The usual nuance behind the words under dis- is devoted to geographical divisions such as the
cussion is pride or haughtiness. Of interest is the last half of Joshua.
negative usage of this word in connection with This substantive appears 216 times in the OT. lt
some part of the human body. For example, pride is found most frequently in Josh (66 times); Ezk
is linked with the heart in: Ezk 28:2, 5, 17; Ps (39 times, and preponderantly in 40-48); and
131:1; Prov 18: 12; II Chr 26: 16; 32:25 (all with the Num (25 times). The noun is used to designate
verb); Prov 16:5; II Chr 32:26 (with adjective and either a geographical boundary or the territory as
noun). lsaiah 2:11; 5:15 and Ps 101:5 connect a whole. On a few occasions it is used in a figura-
pride wilh the eyes. Proverbs 16:18 and Eccl 7:8 tive sense.
tie pride with man's spirit, and Ps 10:4 with man's There are three major usages of g'' hül.
"nose"/countenance. On a few occasions indi- I. g'bül indicates a boundary at one of the
viduals are said tobe guilty specifically of this sin four major points on the compass: "south" Num
of pride: Uzziah (II Chr 26: 16); Hezekiah (II Chr 34:3; Josh 15:2,4; "north" Num 34:7; Josh 15:5;

146
 309 :s7~l (gb ')
"east" Num 34: 10; Ezk 45:7; "west'' Num 34:6; Sam 13:18, "The mountain which looks over
Josh 15:4, 12. Zeboim," and Ps 75:54. "So he brought them to
2. A boundary formed by a body of water: His holy mount, the mountain which his right
Num 22:36. the Amon; Josh 15:5. the sea. hand had created."
3. A boundary of a land belonging to a nation
g"bulä. Border, boundary, landmark. With the
or to a subdivision within that nation. Here it may
exception of Isa 28:25 all usages of this word are
take on the meaning of "border" as in the case of
in the plural.
Egypt (1 Kgs 4:21 IH 5:11); Edom (Josh 15:1);
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Hebrew-
Moab (Num 21:13); Ammon (Num 21:24).
Ugaritic Lexicography II, .. Bib 45: 383-412, esp.
The noun may also be translated by "terri-
p. 396. Elon, M .. "hassagat gevul, .. in Encyclo-
tory·· asinGen47:21 (Egypt);Jud ll:18(Moab);
pedia Judaica, VII, pp. 1460--06. Rabin, C., The
Jud 1:36 ( Amorite). We may also note the refer-
Zadukite Documents, Oxford, Clarendon. 1954,
ences to the expression "in (all) the g''bül of
pp. 4, 20, 42. Ross, J. F., "Landmark," in IDB,
Israel: (Jud 19:29; I Sam 11:3,7; 27:1 inter alia)
III. pp. 66--07. TDOT. II, pp. 361--06.
which are always to be translated „ in (all) the
V:P.H.
territory of Israel, .. except for II Kgs 14:25.
Hence the phrase is synonymous with the ex-
308 1:::lJ /?hn). Assumed root of the following.
pression · · the land (' eres) of Israel."
308a 1:ll ( Rihen) humpbacked (Lev 21 :20,
4. The word can designate the boundary or
only).
farthest extension of possessions of individuals
308b :it:::ll (R'' hinii) curd (cheese, Job
or groups of individuals: "area of your land"
10: 10, only).
(Deut 19:3); "the boundary of their inheritance"
(Josh 16:5), "the territory of their lot" (Josh
308c ,-,:::i~
(f<ah11,1n) peak, rounded sum-
18:11), "the bounds ofhis city ofrefuge" (Num
mit (Ps 68:16, only).
35:26).
,,~~ (gahnon ). See no. 308c.
5. Whenever R'' hül is used with a city name it
is tobe translated as "territory": Ashdod: I Sam
309 l,':::)J (gh'J. Assumed root of the following.
5:6; Tiphsah: II Kgs 15: 16; Gaza: II Kgs 18:8;
inter alia.
309a t:,~~~ (,zih' ii) hi/1.
309b ~•:::i~ ( giihia ·) cup, bowl.
6. Figuratively the word is used to describe
309c tr,ilJ:p~~ ( mighti' 61) turban.
"the territory of darkness" (Job 38:20); "the ter-
309d ',lJ~~ (gih'öl) bud.
ritory of wickedness," (Mal 1:4); "the territory
of God's holiness" (Ps 78:54). gib'ä. Hili. The noun, used sixty times in the
In the ancient near east there was, at least on OT. may refer to a natural eminence smaller than
paper, a great respect for another's boundaries a mountain but most often, as we shall see, it
whether these were national boundaries or indi- becomes a place of illicit worship. The same
vidual and private boundaries. To violate them is spelling is also used for the place name Gibeah,
to violate something God has ordained. He has the Benjamite city and birthplace of Saul.
established the boundaries of all peoples (Deut Of the sixty uses of gih'ä in biblical Hebrew
32:8). He has arranged the borders of the whole the heaviest clusters are to be found in the
earth (Ps 74: 17; 104:9). He has placed the sands prophets (lsa thirteen times, Jer nine times; Ezk
as a boundary to the sea (Jer 5:22). eight times). Particuiarly interesting here is the
lt is little wonder then that the Bible prohibits use of the phrase "on every high hill (gib'a) and
the moving of a neighbor's ancient landmark under every green tree," or its variants, as a ref-
(g''bül) (Deut 19:14). Whoever does this is tobe erence to the location of fertility cult practices in
"cursed" (Deut 27:17). The offense, of course, Israel and Judah.
was not violation of tradition, but stealing of real This phrase occurs sixteen times in the OT.
estate-and unalienable real estate at that. Noth- Some of these passages are: Deut 12:2; I Kgs
ing less than a biblical imprecation leveled 14:23; II Kgs 16:4; 17: 10; Jer2:20; 17:2; Ezk 6: 13;
against the violator is strong enough. Cf. also Hos 4:13; II Chr 28:4. Each ofthese verses con-
Hos 5: 10; Job 24:2-4; Prov 22:28; 23: 10. In such demns a pagan Canaanite practice which has
crimes the perpetrators are the strong and the been adopted by the Hebrews.
wealthy and the victims the weak, the orphans If this unorthodox practice is to be equated
and the widow. From the various scrolls found at with similar practices in which the Israelites en-
the Dead Sea we have learned that those who gaged in connection with the "high place(s)"
defected from the Qumran sect were known_ as (htimä). then the reason for the prophetic denun-
"removers of the landmark . ., ciation becomes clear. There is nothing inher-
In light of the U garitic root t<hl and the Arabic ently wrong with worshiping God on "hills." The
cognate several instances of Hebrew R "hül may people's experience in the wildemess would sub-
be more accurately translated as „ mountain .. : I stantiate that ! But in this case it appears that the

147
310 ,;~ (gäbar)

lsraelites adopted immoral cultic rites, popular were causes for delight and storytelling. Such an
among agricultural groups who pinned their faith exploit was that of David's three mighty men as
to the Baal(s), the god offertility and the giver of they broke through the Philistine lines to bring
rain and crops, and to Asherah, the goddess of him water from Bethlehem (1 Chr 11:15-19). I
fertility. Why such indulgences were viewed by Samuel I is a lament for the fallen heroes, Saul
the prophets with abomination and horror is not and Jonathan, extolling their valiant deeds. Simi-
difficult to surmise. larly II Sam 23 records the glories of various
mighty men. I and II Chronicles contain many
migbä'ot. Turban, head gear, is used only four
references to the mighty men of Israel, com-
times: Ex 28:40; 29:9; 39:28; Lev 8: 13, convex in
monly employing the phrase ,:ihhbr !Jayil
shape perhaps, translated by the RSVas "cap." lt
"mighty man of valor" to describe them. Al-
is worn by the ordinary priests and is to be dif-
though Chr generally uses the term to express
ferentiated from the turban worn by the high
"warrior" or "soldier," there are indications
priest (mi:jnepet).
that originally this was a technical term for men
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "The High
of a certain social class, "nobles" who had the
Place in Ancient Palestine, .. Supp VT 4: 242-58.
privilege of bearing arms for their king (cf. Ruth
Hamlin, E. John, "The Meaning of 'Mountains
2:1; I Sam 9:1; II Kgs 15:20, etc. where "war-
and Hills' in lsa. 41:14-16," JNES 13: 185-90.
rior" is too narrow a translation).
Holladay, W. L., "On Every High Hili and
lt is not surprising that in such a society God
Under Every Green Tree," VT 11: 170-76.
was often depicted as a warrior. God is the true
McCown, C. C., "Hebrew High Places and Cult
prototype of the mighty man, and if an earthly
Remains," JBL 69: 205-19.
warrior's deeds are recounted, how much more
V.P.H.
should God's be. Thus the psalmists recount
God's mighty acts (106:8; 145:4,11,12; etc.) and
,·11~~
(gih'öl). See no. 309d.
in various places those attributes which a
warrior-king might be expected to possess-wis-
dom, might, counsel and understanding-are
attributed par excellence to God (Job 12: 13; Prov
310 ,;~ (gähar) prevail, be mighty, have strength,
8: 14). lsaiah (9:6; cf. 10:21) indicates that these
be great. (Asv and Rsv similar.)
will be the attributes of the Coming King, whose
Derivatives name is the Mighty God as weil as the Prince of
Peace, but he also makes it plain that justice and
3 JOa t,~; (!,?eher) man.
righteousness will accompany his might (cf. Ps
310b t"\bJ (f,?ihbbr) mighty man.
89: 13-14 [H 14-15]).
3 1Oe t:i,1:i~ ( R'"hCmi) might.
God's might draws the limits to man's might,
310d :i,~:i~ (R'hira) Lady, queen (masc.
for man's prowess is tobe gloried in just so long
lord, Gen 27:29,37).
as it does not overstep itself. When man sees his
310e ?'lj;:p (f.?'heret) Lady, queen. might as all he needs for successful living, he is
This root and its derivatives occur 328 times in deluded (Ps 33: 16; 90: 10; Eccl 9: II). When he, in
the or, of which the verb accounts for but 26. The the arrogance of his strength, pits himself against
cognate is weil attested in the semitic languages, the Warrior-God, he will be destroyed (Ps 52; Jer
appearing in Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic, 9:22; 46:5; etc.). Rather might must be tempered
Phoenician, and Moabite. At present it is only with wisdom (1 Sam 2:9; Prov 16:32; 21 :22) and
known in a proper noun in Ugaritic. In general the greatest wisdom of all is to trust God. Thus it
the same meaning is shared throughout. In is said that he is a !,?eher (a male at the height of
Arabic the basic meaning of the root is "to rise. his powers) who trusts God (Ps 40:4 [H 5]). The
raise, restore," with the idea of being strong, or man possessed of might who yet distrusts his own
prevailing over coming only in the derived stems. powers and instead trusts those of God is most
That the Hebrew may share a similar range of truly entitled to the appellation "man" (Job 38:3;
meaning is seen in the Hithpael where the idea is Jer 17:7; Mic 3:8). This is the "new man" of Paul,
not so much to make oneself prevail over God, as for he will have discovered that although trans-
it is to raise oneself up in arrogance and stand in gressions have prevailed over him (Ps 65:3 [H 41),
his face (Job 15:25; 36:9; lsa 42: 13). The Hebrew the Lord's mercy will prevail over them (Ps
root is commonly associated with warfare and 103: 11) and that the Lord is indeed "mighty to
has to do with the strength and vitality of the save" (Ps 80:3).
successful warrior.
In the first analysis, might and mighty men geber. Man. As distinct from such more gen-
were causes for celebration in the or. During eral words for man as 'iidiim, 'ish, 'enbsh, etc.,
much of the biblical period Israel was in a heroic this word specifically relates to a male at the
age. Thus the feats and exploits of her champions height of his powers. As such it depicts humanity

148
 313 ij~ (gädad)

at its most competent and capable level. Sixty-six and discomfort (in Hebrew, pinnat gtig "a corner
occurrences. of the housetop") than to put up with a nagging
(NIV: quarrelsome) wife. This might weil mean it
gibbör. Mighty, strong, valiant, mighty
man. (Rsv often translates "warrior. ") The is better, in such a situation, tobe perched pre-
heroes or champions among the armed forces. cariously on the corner of a roof (cf. the 1xx
hupaithrou "in the open air"). Or it may be a
Occurs 156 times.
reference to a cramped attic such as a guest might
g"bura. Might. Refers especially to royal use in an emergency (cf. I Kgs 17:19; II Kgs 4: 10
power. As such it is commonly ascribed to God. though the root RiiR is not used here).
Sixty-three occurrences. The roof is a place where idolatry is invoked:
Bibliography: Fredriksson, H., Jahwe als Isa 15:3; 22:1; Jer 19:13; 32:29; 48:38. Three
Krieger, Lund: Gleerup, 1945. Kosmala, Hans, times (Ps 129:6; II Kgs 19:26; Isa 37:27) in the
Hebraer-Essener-Christen, Brill, 1959, pp. 208- form of a curse, appears the formula "!et them be
39. --, "The Term geber in the Old Testa- like the grass on the 'housetops' :· The analogy is
ment andin the Scrolls," Supp VT 17: 159--69. to grass which springs up quickly on die tlat roof
Kraeling, E. G., "The Significance and Orjgin of of homes which are covered with packed earth.
Gen 6; 1-4," JNES 6: 193-208. Miller, Patrick Having no depth of soil to take strong root in, the
D., "The Divine Council and the Prophetie Call grass withers and dies (cf. Jesus· parable of the
to War," VT 18: 100-107. ---, "God the sower in Mt 13:3f.).
Warrior," lnterp 19: 39-46. Palache, J., Seman- Bibliography: On the use of the root RR in
tic Note.1· on the Hebrew Lexicon, Leiden: Brill, Ugaritic, see Gordon, UT, 19: no. 556. Koehler,
1959, p. 18. Van der Ploeg, J ., "Lesens de gibbor L., "Hebräischen Etymologien," JBL 59: 35-40,
hail," RB 50: 120-25. Wright, G., The O/d Tes- esp. pp. 37-38 derives both Hebrew and Ugaritic
tament and Theology, Harper, 1969, pp. 121-50. RR from Egyptian o3o3 "head, roof."
TDOT, II, pp. 367-SI. THAT, I, pp. 398-401. V.P.H.
J.N.0.

311 tv:J (gbsh). Assumed root ofthe following. ,~ (gad) I, II. See nos. 313c,d.
31 la tv•:;i~(gäbish) crystal (Job 28:18, ,, (giid). See no. 3 13e.
only).

312 JJ (gägi roof, housetop. 313 ijJ (gädad) cut, invade.

This word appears thirty times in the OT and it Derivatives
usually signifies the highest point of an edifice,
313a ti1,~ (g''düd) /, marauding band.
except for Ezk 30:3; 37:26 (the 'top' ofthe altar of
incense) and Ezk 40: 13 (the measuring of the
313b t,1,~ (g'düd) II, :i,,,~
(g'düdii)
furrow, cutting.
outer court's east gate from the 'back' of one side
313c ,~ (gad) J, coriander.
to the 'back' of the other).
313d ti~ (gad) II, fortune.
The roof that is referred to is tlat, not peaked.
This is obvious from several passages. The re- 313e t,~ (giid) Gad.
turned exiles erected booths and observed the This verbis used eleven times in the OT. Seven
feast of tabemacles o the roofs of their houses of these are in the Hithpoel stem, and with two
(Neh 8: 16). Saul slept on the roof when, as a exceptions, they all refer to an act of self-
young lad. he visited Samuel (1 Sam 9:25-26). lt laceration in an act of worship or to a custom of
was from this vantage point that David spied mourning. The most familiar passage will be the
Bathsheba bathing, and Just was spawned in his dramatic episode on Mount Carmel between
imagination (II Sam 11:2). Uriah's house was Elijah and the prophets of Baal. In an attempt to
built most likely around a central courtyard invoke the power of Baal the prophets cried
which was left open to the sky. David's palace, aloud and "cut themselves" after their custom
the highest building of the complex, would com- with swords and lances (1 Kgs 18:28). What
mand a view of the houses below. In the case of exactly was the praxis behind these self-intlicted
Samson (Jud 16:27) the roof was !arge enough to wounds is not sure. Everything has been
support 3,000 people. Rahab hid the spies among suggested from the idea that this act was a substi-
the stalks of tlax on her roof (Josh 2:6,8). Proba- tute for human sacrifice to the idea that the effu-
bly she had laid out the tlax to be retted by the sion of blood established a covenant bond be-
dew. tween the deity and the worshiper. More likely,
Perhaps the Hebrew word means more than since blood was so vital, the self-laceration was
the roof itself. Proverbs 21 :9 and 25:24 suggest an act of imitative magic, and as the worshipers
(or affirm!) that it is better to accept solitariness have relinquished a part of their essential seif, so

149
314 :i,~(gdh)
the deity will be prompted to unleash his power in seif was once like a king among his "troops" (Job
whatever fashion it is called for at the moment (in 29:25).
this case, fire).
gad II. Fortune. This word appears only
Since the Bible rejects the pagan idea that God
can be coerced, it will also forbid such practices twice in the OT. In Gen 30: 11 it is a word play on
as are described in I Kgs 18:28. Thus, cf. Deut the name of Gad. And Leah said, "Good for-
14:1, "You shall not cut yourself." Three times tune!", or as the KJV has it, "a troop comes"
there is a reference to this behavior in Jeremiah: dividing the MT baiad into something like bä ·I
gad. Speiser's translation in the Anchor Bible is
16:6; 41 :5; 47:5, in the latter case with reference
to the Philistines. "how propitious!" lt seems preferable to trans-
Two times in the Hithpoel stem the verb has late it as an appellative and to connect it with
such proper names as Gaddiel (Num 13: 10), "EI
nothing to do with the idea of cutting oneself.
is my fortune"; Gaddi (Num 13:11), "my for-
These are: (1) Jer 5:7, "And they 'trooped' to the
tune"; Gadi (II Kgs 15:14-17); and the prophet
houses of harlots," and (2) Mic 5:1 [H 4:14],
Gad (1 Sam 22:5).
"Now gather yourself in troops, 0 daughter of
troops (R"dud)." (For the NIV footnote here, The only other place where this word is used is
Isa 65:11, "You who forsake the Lord ... who
„ Strengthen your walls, 0 walled city," cf. the
Aram. J?uddä' "wall"-Heb root iada?) set up a table for Gad (Rsv "Fortune"), and fill
This reference from Micah is the usual nuance cups of mixed wine for Meni (Rsv, "Destiny")."
of Radad when it is used in the Qal: cf. Mic 6, Ps Gad here seems to be a reference to a deity of
94:21. Both times it is the invaded who speaks of fortune equivalent in meaning to the Greek
the invader in a situation of uncertainty. Finally, Tyche. The rite described here is lectisterium,
i.e. one in which food was spread before an image
we may note the use of the verb iädad in Gen
49: 19 in connection with the "blessing of Jacob" of the deity.
upon Gad. The text reads: "'As for Gad (Rdd), a gäd. Gad. The name of the first child bom
troop (f?''dud), shall raid him (y'·iudennu), but to Jacob by Zilpah, the maidservant of Leah
he shall raid (ydgüd) at the rear ('äqeb)." Obvi- and subsequently, one of the tri bes to settle in the
ously, this verse is füll of puns as is illustrated by Transjordan area. His name is to be connected
the deliberate alliteration. with tsädadli'düd. We have already discussed
Gen 49: 19 which points to Gad's capabilities in
g•dud. A marauding band, troop. This noun the area of military exploits. Deuteronomy 33:20
appears thirty-two times in the oT excluding Ps compares Gad to a crouching lion, ready to tear
65: 10 [H 11] where g' dud is to be translated as his victim to pieces. According to I Chr 5: 18, Gad
"ridge," and is parallel to t'lameyha, "its fur- is "expert in war." Gad's leonine appearance is
rows," and Jer 48:37, i'' düdöt "cuttings." also stressed in I Chr 12:8. They were also as
The word usually refers to those who take part beautiful and swift as a gazelle.
in a military raid, but occasionally it may refer to V.P.H.
the raid itself: II Sam 3:22. More often than not,
the noun refers not to Israel's own troops but to
those of her enemies: 1 Sam 30:8,15,23; I Kgs
11:24; II Kgs 5:2; 6:23; 24:2. In certain situations
God may allow these unbelievers to inflict dam-
314a :i,~
(
314 :,-rJ (Rdh). Assumed root of the following.
iäda) bank of river.
314b 1°'"1~ (R'di) kid.
314c :,~~~ (g'diya) kids, only plural.
age on his own people for chastisement (Jer
18:22). g"di. Kid, a young goat. The etymology of
A g'dud could operate officially under royal the word is uncertain. In the husbandry of Israel
sponsorship: II Sam 3:22 (David); II Sam 4:2 a young male kid was the most expendable of the
(Ishbosheth); II Chr 22: 1 (Ahaziah); II Chr 25 :9- animals, less valuable than, say, a young lamb.
10 (Amaziah); II Chr 26: 11 (Uzziah). The func- The young males were used for meat; the females
tion of such troops, perhaps mercenaries, was kept for breeding. Thus, a kid served admirably
not to acquire land, but rather to pul pressure for as a meat dish: Gen 27:9, 16; Jud 6: 19; 13:15; 15:1;
conformity on peoples already reduced to vassal- I Sam 10:3; 16:20 (and cf. Lk 15:29, although as
age. In some cases these bands became primarily far as delicacy goes, not in the same dass as a
looters. This is the case of the "band" of the "fatted calf'). The kid could also serve as apre-
Amalekites mentioned in I Sam 30:8,15,23. There sent as in the case of what Judah gave to his
are a few references in the Bible to ts''dud who daughter-in-law Tarnar (Gen 38: 17,20,23). When
operate independently; thus, "troop of robbers" lsaiah gives us a glimpse of the eschatological age
in Hos 6:9; 7: 1. he says that "the wolfwill lie down with the lamb
Two times the book of Job refers to God's (kebes) and the leopard shall lie down with the
R"dud: 19:12; 25:3, analogous to Yahweh $'ba'- kid (R'di, Isa 11:6).
bt, "Lord ofhosts/armies." Job says that he him- Of special interest is the thrice repeated injunc-

150
 ··316 l)'j~ (gäda')

tion against boiling „a kid in its mother's milk" sounds, feelings or authority. lt overlaps in mean-
(Ex 23:19; 34:26; Deut 14:21). Until recently the ing with räbab and räba but unlike these roots it
reason for this prohibition was enigmatic. This never refers to being numerous, only to being
law is the basis for the Jewish Kashrut prohibi- great in size, importance etc. lt is combined with
tion against preparing or consuming any food in the divine name to form personal names, the
which meat or milk or certain derivatives of the most frequent form being Gedaliah meaning "the
two are mixed. LoRDis great" (II Kgs 25:22-25). In I Sam 26:24
Kids could be used for sacrifice as Num the word means to set a high value on one ·s life.
15:1ltf. indicates. But they could not be boiled in In Job 2: 13 it is used for expressing intense grief
milk. The answer comes from the Canaanite while in I Kgs 10:23 it refers to the importance
Ugaritic texts, especially the story now popularly (greatness) of a king. lt often speaks of God's
known as „The Birth of the Gods" or "The Story greatness (II Sam 7:22) and Messiah is described
of Shahar ('dawn') and Shalim ('dusk')," in as one who "will be great unto the ends of the
Gordon UT, 19: no 52. Lines 15, 16 of this story earth" (Mic 5:4 [H 3]).
are: The meaning "cause to grow" or "rear" chil-
15: '/ · 'ist · Jb'd · izrm · (b(h · g)d · bf)lb · dren, plants etc. is limited to the Piel stem. In
'nnh · hhm't • both Piel and Hiphil stems, however, it bears the
15: Over the fire seven times the sacrificers meaning "to magnify" or "consider great." This
cook a kid in milk, a lamb/mint (?) in butter. is how the psalmists frequently use the word,
The context indicates that a kid is cooked in calling on the worshiper to ascribe greatness to
milk at certain pagan sacrifices, possibly of first the Lord and to his name (Ps 35:27; 40: 16 [H 171;
fruits, as part of a sacrificial meal to ensure good 70:4 [H 51).
crops for the ensuing years. The Bible will re- In Ezk 38:23 the verb is used reflexively to
pudiate this orientation to fertility cult practices. show how God magnifies himself by means of his
The blessing of fertile soil is from God, not acts in nature and in history, to show t he nations
magic. that he is the Lord. But in Isa 10:15 the same
Bibliography: Daube, D., "A Note on a form is employed to show how evil man attempts
Jewish Dietary Law," JTS 37: 289-91. Radin, to magnify himself against the Lord and in Dan
M., "The Kid and lts Mother's Milk," AJSL 40: 11:36-37 this is precisely the word used to de-
209-18. TDOT, 11, pp. 382--89. TWBAT, I, pp. scribe what the Antichrist will do at the end ofthe
922-26. age as he seeks to show himself omnipotent.
V.P.H. gädel. Becoming great, rich (Gen 26: 13), grow-
ing up (1 Sam 2:26).
,1,~ (g" dud). I,II. See nos. 313a,b.
gödel. Greatness of a king or a tree (Ezk 31:2,-
,;,~ (gädol). See no. 315d.
:,71,~ (g''düla). See no. 315e. 7, 18), the arm of God (Ps 79: 11), the mercy of
:,~1,~ (R''düpa). See no. 317a. God (Num 14:19), and ofGod himself(Deut 3:24;
Q•C)1-i.;i(R"düpim). See no. 317b. 5:21 [H 24]; 9:26; 11:2; 32:3; Ps 150:2). lsaiah
•i~ (R''di). See no. 314b. uses the word for the pride (insolence) of the
:,~;,~ (R''diya). See no. 314c. human heart (lsa 9:8; 10:12).
w•,~ (Rädish). See nos. 319a, 320a. gädol. Great, an adjective with somewhat the
same range of meanings as the verb (above)
315 ?j$ (gädal) grow up, become great or im- meaning ··many'' in number and other intensified
portant, promote, make powerful, praise, concepts like "loudness," in sound, being old in
(magnify), do great things. (Asvand RSVsimi- years, great in importance.
lar.)
g•dulh\. Greatness, especially as an attribute
Derivatives ofGod.
315a t',j~ (gäde/) becoming great, growing mlgdiil, Tower, probably deriving from early
up. times when the tower was the largest (greatest)
315b t,1· ~ (gödel) greatness. structure in a town.
315c
315d
o•,,~ (g"dilim)
t',i~~, (gäd6/) great.
twisted threads. Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 390-415. THAT,
I, PP. 402-408.
315e
315f
315g
t,,~~
t:,11,.;i (g'' dülla) greatness.
(migdäl) tower.
?i"I~~ ( migdo/) tower. 316 1/j~ (gada')
E.B.S.
hew down, cut off, cut in two,
shave off.
The root is used for physical growth of people
and other living things as weil as for the increase Derivative
of things tangible and intangible whether objects, 316a tlill,~ <!Jid'on) Gideon.

151
3 I 7 e'l':t~
(gädap)

The verb ,::iida' frequently refers to the hewing This latter verse contains the very words Paul
down of idols (Ezk 6:6; Deut 7:5; 12:3; II Chr quoted in Rom 8:36 when he presents the ulti-
14:2; 3 I: 1; 34:4, 7). In Deut 7:5 and II Chr 14:2; mate spirit of Christian triumph over the world,
31: 1 the objects that are to be hewn down are the the flesh and the devil, saying, "Nay in all these
Asherah poles, cult objects in honor of this things we are more than conquerors through him
Canaanite fertility goddess. lsaiah uses the verb that loved us" (v. 37).
to describe the cutting down of the king of Baby- The root gädap also means "to blaspheme,"
lon who makes himself a god (lsa 14:12). The that is revile God. The classic illustration of this
wicked treasurer Shebna is likened by lsaiah to a is in the parallel passages in II Kgs 19:22 and lsa
securely fastened peg that will be hewn down. On 37:23. There the servants of the king of Assyria
the other hand lsaiah predicts that the iron bars stood outside the walls of Jerusalem and
of cities will be cut in two so Cyrus can conquer preached a whole sermon of blasphemy in the
them (lsa 45:2). In other places the verb simply Hebrew language against the God of Israel. The
means to cut down trees (Isa 9:9; 10:33). Isaiah LoRn's oral response came through his prophet
also uses it to mean shave off the beard as a sign in lsa 37:22-36 (II Kgs 19:21-34). His historical
of mourning (lsa 15:2). response came through his angel that destroyed
gid'ön. Gideon, the judge (Jud 6--8). Several the army of Sennacherib.
other proper names are derived from this root: g"dupä. Taunt. Compare Ezk 5: 15 where of
Gideoni from the tribe of Benjamin (Num 1:11; Jerusalem the prophet says, "She shall be a re-
2:22; 7:60, 65) and Gidom, a place in the territory proach and a taunt ... to the nations round
of Benjamin (Jud 20:45). about. ... "
We may safely assume that Gideon's name
giddupim. Reviling words. God warns through
came from the fact that he was a gibbor /Jayil
which is rendered "a mighty man of valor" in the prophet lsaiah that he will allow Israel to be
KJV. This term could also be rendered "a hero of
abused with reviling words (Isa 43:28). But God
the army." His name, Gideon, is connected with also comforts the nation when it becomes the ob-
this occupation, that is, he was a "hacker" or ject of such abuse (Isa 51:7). He even promises to
"one who hewed down" the enemy. He was cer- punish those nations that do it. Through Zepha-
tainly not living up to his name at first when the niah he says, "l have heard ... the revilings of
angel of the LORD appeared to him in Jud 6: 11, Ammon ... they shall become as Gomorrah"
12. But Gideon's breaking down the altar of Baal (Zeph 2:8).
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 416-18.
was much in keeping with his name. But then as a
taunt to the followers of Baal his name was E.B.S.
changed to Jerubbaal ("let Baal plead"). He be-
came one of the major judges or rulers of Israel 318 "\j~ (gädar) wall up or off.
after his long-remembered victory over Midian Derivatives
(lsa 10:26; Ps 83: 11).
318a "\j~ (gäder) wall.
E.B.S.
318b :i,j;i (g"derii), 1'1'.'.m(g''deret)
wall.
7i1,!';1 (gid'bn) See no. 316a.
319 iuiJ (gdsh) I. Assumed root of the follow-
317 1'1':r~(gädap) revile men, blaspheme God.
ing.
Derivatives 319a tt.i•i~ (gädish) heap, stack (Ex
22:5; Jud 15:5; Job 5:26).
317a t:,~,,;i(g''dupii) taunt.
317b tc•Q,i~ (giddupim) reviling words. 320 t:1iJ (gdsh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
The verb appears to derive from a root which ing.
means to cut or to wound. 320a tt.i•if (gädish) tomb (Job 21:32,
Psalm 44 teils us what the believer's attitude only).
should be when God allows him to become an
object of "scoffing and derision" (v. 13 [H 14]) 321 :,:;~ (gähii) be cured, healed. Based on
from "the voice of him who reproaches and re- Aramaic usage the root means "to be set
viles" (v. 16 [H 17]). "While all this happened to free from guilt, pain or disease" (cf. Hos
us," the Psalmist says to the Lord, "We did not 5: 13).
forget you, nor were we untrue to your covenant.
Our hearts did not turn aside, nor did our steps Derivative
leave your way ... No, for your sake we are kil- 321a :,:;~ (gehii) acure,healing. This
led all day long and considered as sheep to be noun is used in Prov 17:22. "The
slaughtered" (vv. 17 [H 18], 18 [H 19], 22 [H 23]). happy heart brings about a good

152
 326 rm (gwh)

eure," or "A happy mind is good Magog. Magog. lt is used in Ezk 32:2; 39:6
medicine" (Beck). and Rev 20:8 in this eschatological sense. How-
ever, in the table of nations in Gen 10 (paralleled
by I Chr 1:5) Magog is the name of a nation that
322 ,::ig (giihar) bend, crouch (I Kgs 18:42;
descended from Japheth (v. 2). Here Magog has
II Kgs 4:34-35).
some connection with others related to Japheth,
such as Gomer (Cimmerians?), Madai (Medes?),
323 :m (güh) dig (II Kgs 25:12). Javan (lonians), Tuba), Meshech, and Tiras,
some of whom are also mentioned in Ezk 38
Derivatives and 39. They are all people who lived north of
323a ::)~ (geh) II, pit, ditch, trench (e.g. Israel, more or less, and _whoare of non-semitic
Jer 14:3; II Kgs 3:16). origin.
323b ::)~ (geb) III, beam, rafter (1 Kgs Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 419-25.
6:9, only). Meaning uncertain. E.B.S.

::ii~ (gab). See no. 304b.

325 •m (güd) invade, attack (e.g. Gen 49: 19;
Hab 3:16).

324 JiJ (gbg) Gog is the ruler of the land of ,~ (gaw). See no. 326a.
Magog and prince of Rosh, Meshech and ,~ (gew). See no. 326b.
Tuba) (Ezk 38 and 39). Gog is also the name
of a Reubenite in I Chr 5:4. 326 :-m (gwh). Assumed root of the following.
324a tJüc (miigag) Magog, the name of 326a ,~ (.l;'aw) back.
326b ,~ (gew) back, midst.
the land mied by Gog (q.v.).
326c :i,P, (gewa) back.
Ezekiel envisions this prince as the leader of a 326d +:,~,~ (g''wiya) body, corpse.
vast horde of armed troops that includes people 326e t•i~ · (gay) nation, people.
from Persia, Cush, Put, Gomer, and Beth-
g"wiyä. Body, carcass, corpse, dead body. The
togarmah. They will march against Israel at a
term refers to a body as an object, whether dead
time when the people of God have returned to
(as in the case ofthe lion's body, Jud 14:8-9, and
their land and live in peace completely unde-
Saul's corpse, I Sam 31:I0,12), or eise as alive
fended. But this will all be allowed by the Lord
(Egyptians so speak of themselves in Gen 47: 18).
that he might display his holiness among them.
Living bodies of creatures (Ezk 1:11, 23) and the
The people of God will not have to fight, for God
angelic "man" (Dan l0:6) appear in visions; thus
himself will destroy the armies of Gog (Ezk
38:19-23). Revelation 20:7-9 places this event the objectivity of a vision is supported.
after "the thousand years are over," when "Sa- göy. Gentile, heathen, nation, people. ASVand
tan will be released ... and deceive all the RSVdiffer and agree in various instances, e.g. Gen
nations ... Gog and Magog, and mobilize them 10:5; goy appears twice. Both translate "na-
for war." tions" in one instance, but Rsv has "peoples" in
All attempts to trace the origin of the name Gog the other. lt is difficult to ascertain the exact def-
must be held to be tentative. Some see the name inition of the term. However, if one takes the
in Gyges of Lydia who drove away the Cimme- various usages into consideration, as weil as
rians (Gomer). Others see it in a name mentioned some seemingly related terms, gaw, gew, gewä,
in Assyrian records, Gägu, the chief of a the back part of the body; gew, Aramaic for
mountain tribe north of Assyria (cf. BDB). lt is midst; and g•· wiya, living body or corpse (see
not important theologically that we be able to below), one must conclude that the basic idea is
trace the name linguistically or identify it histori- that of a defined body or group of people, or
cally. Most Christians intrepret these passages some specific )arge segment of a given body. The
eschatologically. Precise interpretations differ. context will generally indicate the specific quality
Some see the passage as highly symbolic of the or characteristic which is to be understood.
final struggle between the Church and the forces [The synonym 'am is used largely for a group
of evil. Others taking it quite literally say the na- of people or for people in general. However
tion Israel will be attacked after the millenium sometimes, especially in poetic parallel with
when Satan is released only to be finally de- g6yim. it may refer to a nation, whether a foreign
stroyed by being cast into the lake offire. Others nation or Israel. gayim on the other hand more
consider the references in Rev 20:7-9 to be allu- usually refers to nations, especially the surround-
sions, not decisive as to the time offulfilment and ing pagan nations. /'' 'öm is mainly used as a poe-
they identify the time offulfilment as the battle of tic synonym of either of the above words in either
Armageddon before the millennium. of their usages. R.L.H.]

153
327 m (güz)

The term gvy is used especially to refer to spe- The surrounding nations exhibit their heathen
cifically defined political, ethnic or territorial character by their wickedness (Deut 9:4-5), their
groups of people without intending to ascribe a abominations (Deut 18:9; II Chr 33:2), and the
specific religious or moral connotation. Thus, in making of their own gods (II Kgs 17:29). These
Gen 10:5 the writer speaks of defined groups of nations are said to rise up against God and op-
people according to their territories. When God press his covenant people, yet the Lord holds
speaks to Abraham about Egypt as a strong na- them in derision (Ps 59:8 [H 9]) and causes them
tion the term gvy is used. Elisha prayed that in- to perish (Ps 10:16). Moses, and the prophets par-
vading Syria, this göy, might be blinded (II Kgs ticularly, warned Israel that if they lived and
6:18). In this general ethnic sense the term may worshiped as the göyim. they would share in the
even be used of Abraham·s seed. Thus God said judgment due the heathen (Deut 32:28; Isa 1:4;
to Abraham, "l will make ofyou a great nation," Mal 3:9).
i.e. a political, territorial, identified people (Gen lt must not be concluded from the fact that the
12:2; 17:20; 21:18). In Ex 33:13 Moses, referring surrounding nations, the goyim, although re-
to Israel, a distinct body of people, says, "This ferred to as gentiles and heathen, are to be con-
gay (i.e., nation) is thy people ('am)." In Deut sidered per se as helplessly lost, without God and
4:6-7, Moses speaks of the Israelite nation as a hope. Rather, they are eventually to participate
political, ethnic body (göy) which is a wise and in all the blessings God promises to give to Ab-
understanding people ( 'am), existing as, and rec- raham and his progeny upon condition of faith.
ognized by other nations as, a specific national The covenant people of Israel are God's people,
identity (Ps 83:4 [H 5]). lt is necessary to stress but through them the göyim are destined to be
that the Scriptures speak of Israel's existing as a blessed of God in future days (Gen 12:1-3). In the
distinct nation in Moses· time because of the meantime God will use the nations to punish his
widespread misapprehension that Israel became unfaithful covenant people (Jer 4:7; Hab l:5ff.);
a nation only after entering Canaan. Israel was a on the other hand they will some day contribute
nation in Moses· time, just as it was in Joshua·s to the glory of Israel (lsa 60: !Off.; Hag 2:6ff.).
time (Josh 3:17; 4:1; 5:6). So also in Jeremiah's They too are invited to seek the Messiah that he
time and thereafter, in spite of the exile (Jer may be a light to them (lsa 11:10; 42:6). lndeed,
31:36). the göyim are to join in the great procession to
The term (goyim) is used in a number of spe- Mount Zion (Isa 2:2ff.) and of their children it is
cific ways. When a number of specific nations are said that this one and that one were born in her
referred to, it is this plural form that is used and (Ps 87:4 [H 51). Thus there will be basically just
the translators have rendered it as ""nations" one people of God, made up of believers from
(Gen 10:31; Jud 2:23; lsa 61:11) or as ··people" every tribe, tongue, people and nation; however,
(Zech 12:3, KJV). The plural form is employed in OT times, it was through the covenant people,
also to refer to the people dwelling in and around the 'am, that the blessings ofGod were revealed
Canaan; these were definite ethnic, political, ter- to and bestowed upon the goyim.
ritorial groups, whom Israel as a nation was to Bibliography: Cody, Aelred, ··when ls the
dispossess (Deut 4:38; Josh 23: 13) or among Chosen People Called a Goy?" VT 16: l--0.
whom, for testing and judgment, Israel was to Girdlestone, R. B., Synonyms of the 0/d Testa-
live (Jud 2:21, 23). But the plural form is also ment, Eerdmans, 1951. Moran, William L., .. "A
used occasionally to refer to the various national Kingdom of Priests'," in The Bible in Catholic
entities that were to proceed from Abraham (Gen Thought, Herder and Herder, 1962, pp. 7-20.
17:4--0). Sarah also was tobe a mother of nations Rost, L., ""Die Bezeichnungen fur Land und
(Gen 17:16). Volk im Alten Testamentum," in Festschrift
Once the descendants of Abraham had become Otto Procksch, Leipzig, 1934. Speiser, E. A.,
a distinct, recognized, political, and ethnic group .. 'People' and 'Nation' of Israel," JBL 79: 157-
of people who were in a specific covenant rela- 63. Watts, John D., "The People ofGod," Exp T
tionship with Yahweh, the term gay and goyim 67: 232-37. TDNT, II, pp. 364--09. TDOT. II, pp.
increasingly takes the meaning of ""gentiles" or 426-37.
"heathen,.. in reference to the non-covenant. G.V.G.
non-believing peoples considered as national
groups. However, Israel is still repeatedly spo- ~)P (gewii). See nos. 299h, 326c.
ken of as gay also, e.g. when Israel is spoken of
as taking possession of territory (Josh 3: 17) or 327 m (guz) bring, cut off. (Asv and Rsv
when foreigners speak of her (Deut 4:6). Israel is similar.)
spoken of as an holy nation (göy ,) because of her
covenant status, her redemption and circumci- guz conveys the idea (in various Semitic lan-
sion (Josh 5:8). However, the rule is that the un- guages, such as Arabic ,Mza) "to pass." The life
circumcised are the goyim (Jer 9:25). of aged people passes away (Ps 90: IO). A wind

154
 330 -i~.ll(gCtr)
made the quail pass over (Num 11:3 !). In the oT 330d :i,rn~ (m'"gura) storehouse,
this verb refers to an acting source other than granary.
man. 330e riii~rp~ (mamm''güröt) storehouse,
G.V.G. granary.
The root means to live among people who are
'!Ü (gözäl). See no. 337c. ~ot bl?o_dr~latives; thus, rat her than enjoying na-
ljU (gita/J). See no. 345. tive c1v1l nghts, the ger was dependent on the
:i:p (.i;"'wiya). See no. 326d. hospitality that played an important role in the
,;, (gay). See no. 326e. ancient near east. When the people of Israel lived
:i7ü (go/a). See no. 350a. with their neighbors they were usually treated as
protected citizens; foreigners in Israel were
328 !.'1~ ~gäwa') be dead, die, give up the ghost, largely regarded as proselytes.
pensh, yield up the ghost, ready to die. . Often because of famine the people of Israel
lt is often used in connection with mitt (Gen
hved as protected citizens outside the promised
25:8,17; 35:29; cf. 49:33; Num 20:29; Job 3:11, land: Abraham in Egypt (Gen 12:10); Israel in
14:10; Lam 1:19). In Num 17:12f. [H 17:27f.] it is Egypt (47:4); Isaac with Abimelech of Gerar
parallel to 'äbad. (26:3). In the case of the Patriarchs, however,
Abraham was "weil on in years," i.e. facing they became "protected" citizens in the prom-
death, when he sent Eliezer to Padan-Aram to ised land through the call of God (Gen 17:8; 20: I;
find a wife for Isaac (Gen 24: I; 25:8). Isaac 23_:4). Hebrews I 1:9, 13 describes them as pil-
'"knew not the day of his death'' when he at- gnms and strangers, evidence that they did not
tempted to bless Esau (Gen 27:2). Speiser regard themselves as members of the sinful
suggests that Isaac did not necessarily consider world. Many passages illustrate this meaning.
that his end was near, but was in effect making a Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob only sojourned in
will using legal terminology paralleled in Nuzi. Canaan (Ex 6:4), although Isaac and Jacob were
However, he had death in prospect. Jacob ex- born there. The land had not been given to them
pired after setting out certain prospects for his because the iniquity of the Amorites was not yet
sons (Gen 49:1,33). füll (Gen I 5: I 6). The Israelites are called
sojourners (gerim) in Egypt (Deut 10:17-19; Ex
Job was prepared to die if anyone could bring
charges against him (Job 13:19) and promised his 2~:20); being outsiders at the beginning and
v1rtual slaves at the end of their stay.
false friends that he was ready to maintain his Jacob describes his stay with Laban as a
integrity until he died (Job 27:5). God's affiic-
sojourn, for he expected to return to Canaan. Lot
tions, when resisted, end in death, a fate Israel at
dwelled in Sodom, but when he quarrelled with
first feared after the Lord had vindicated Moses
and Aaron against their complaint (Num 17:12-13 th~ men o~ Sodom he was scomfully called a
soJourner, 1.e. a foreigner, one without voice in
[H 27:27-28]), but a fate they later longed for
community affairs (Gen 19:9).
when the water failed at Zin (Num 20:3). Achan
died because of his iniquity (Josh 22:20), and all Israel in exile in Mesopotamia was said to
sojourn there (Ezr I :4) because exiled from their
life is dependent upon God (Ps 104:29).
covenant home. wthe Canaanites became gerim
Bibliography: TDOT, II, p. 438. Speiser, E.
after the conquest (Ex 20:10; 22:20; 23:9), be-
A., "I Know Not the Day ofMy Death," Orien-
cause their sin had voided any privileges con-
tal and Biblical Studies, Univ. of Penn., 1967, pp.
ferred upon them under the common grace of
89-96.
God. Even Israel is termed a sojourner in the
H.G.S.
sense that their tenure in the land was effective
only as long as they honored the Covenant.
329 *tm (gitp) shut, close. This verb occurs
In the age to come the wolf will be the pro-
only once, in the Hiphil (Neb 7:3).
tected citizen of the lamb (lsa II :6). Evil never
Derivative enjoys that status with God (Ps 5:4 [H 5]); but the
329a :,~,, (gitpa) body, corpse.
Psalmist regards himself as such before the Lord
(Ps 39:1-13; I Chr 29:15). Indeed, even after the
Conquest Israel is still a sojourner in the land, for
330 .,,, (gür) l, abide, be gathered, be a
the land belongs to the Lord (Lev 25:23).
stranger, dwe/1 (in/with), gather together, re-
main, so;ourn, inhabit, surely, continuing. ger. Alien, so;ourner, stranger, referring to
someone who did not enjoy the rights usually
Derivatives possessed by the resident. The clearest sense of
330a t"I~ (Rer) so;ourner. the noun fser is seen when used of Israel in their
330b r,i"IJ (gerut) /odging (p/ace). sojourn in Egypt (Ex 23:9; Gen 15:13). Moses
330c t"liJ9 (mägor) l, so;ourning p/ace. named his son Gershom in memory of his stay in

155
331 ·m (gur)
Midian (Ex 18:3), for he had been exiled from point seems to be that wherever man lives, his
both Egypt and Canaan. Abraham, Isaac and existence is essentially transient, and dependent
Jacob lived as strangers in Canaan (Ex 6:4) mean- on the grace of God. But when he lives in obed-
ing that they had no property rights there. ience to the divine will, his life is full of expec-
The Rer in Israel was largely regarded as a tancy and assurance of that eternal life to come
proselyte. He was to be present for the solemn (cf. Heb 11:9-10, 13-14, 16).
reading of the Law (Deut 31: 12) showing that he Bibliography: TDNT, V, pp, 8-28, 842-51;
was exposed to its demands. The law concerning VI, pp, 728-42. TDOT, II, pp. 439-49. THAT, 1,
"unleavened bread" applied to him as weil as the pp. 409-12. Levison, Nahum, "The Proselyte in
native (Ex 12:19), and a circumcised {?er could Biblical and Early Post-Biblical Times," SJT 10:
keep Passover (Ex 12:48f.; N um 9: 14). He was 45-56. Marmorstein, Emile, "The Origins of Ag-
also included in the festival of the Great Day of ricultural Feudalism in the Holy Land," PEQ 85:
Atonement (Lev 16:29) and was expected to cel- 118-23. Neufeld, Edward, "The Prohibitions
ebrate the Feast of Booths (Deut 16:14). With the against Loans at Interest in Ancient Hebrew
native he was threatened with the death penalty if Laws," HUCA 26: 355-412. North, Robert,
he offered a sacrifice to a foreign god (Lev 17:8f.) "Biblical Jubilee and Social Reform," Scripture
and was forbidden to eat blood (17:10,12,13). 4: 323-35.
Though in contrast to the native he was allowed H,G.S.
to eat what had died or was torn (Deut 14:21), like
the native Israelite he underwent special cleans- 331 ,1~ (gur) II. (The RSV variously trans-
ing (Lev 17:15f.). He was also included in the lates seven occurrences ofthis root as band
rites of cleansing with the ashes of the red heifer selves together, gather together, gash, stir
(Num 19: 10). The laws of sexual chastity applied up wars, stir up strife.)
to him as weil as the native (Lev 18:26) along with Derivatives
the Sabbath laws (Ex 20:10; 23:12). In a word he
was to show the same fidelity to the Lord (Lev 33 la ,;, (,?ör) whelp.
20:2). 331b ,1, (Rür) whelp, young.
He also enjoyed many of the same rights as the In Arabic this root means "to act wrongfully
native and was noc tobe oppressed (Ex 22:21 [H against.' · lt is probably a subordinate form of
201; Lev 19:3; Jer 7:6; 22:3). He is mentioned in gära "to attack."
connection with.the poor (Lev 19:10; cf. 23:22) The root means to stir up trouble or difficulties
and with orphans and widows (Deut 14:29; 16:11, for someone or among people.
14; 24: 17; 26: 13; 27: 19). With them he shared the In lsa 54: 15 the infinitive absolute with the im-
sheaf left in the field (24: 19) and the gleanings in perfect occurs, but is indistinguishable in form
the olive trees and in the vineyards (24:20-21) from RÜr l (q.v.), so that it could be translated
along with the tithe every three years (14:27; either "gather together" or "stir up strife." The
26: 12). He was tobe treated righteously in judg- "crowd together" of KD favors the former. But
ment ( 1:16; 24: 17; 27: 19) and the six asylum cities cf. NIV"attack."
were also cities of refuge for him (Num 35: 15). In The RSVtranslation of "band together" in Ps
a word the LORD loves the ger (Deut 10:18). 56:6 [H 7]; 59:3 [H 4] would be more expressively
Israel should not oppress him because they them- translated as „ stir up strife," along with "they
selves were oppressed and know his soul (Ex have waited for my life." Cf. the Arabic expres-
22:21; [H 20]; Deut 10:19). They were to love him sion tar 'a[ "to act wrongfully against" with Ps
as themselves (Lev 19:34). 59:3 RÜr.
David employed them as stonecutters (1 Chr In Ps 140:2 [H 3J the Rsv "stirup strife" agrees
22:2) and they served in the army (II Sam 1:13). weil with the other half of the parallelism, "plan
Solomon made them stonecutters and burden- evil things in their heart."
bearers (II Chr 2: 17f. [H 16f.J). In the curse for- In Hos 7: 14, the Rsv translates yitgoräru as
mulae of Deut 27 it is predicted that the social "gash" as though from ,?äda, which is based on
order would be reversed and the ,?er become the reading daleth for resh.
head, the Israel the tail. H.G.S.

mägör. Dwelling, pilgrimage, where they so;ourn. 332 ,,, (gur) III, be afraid,fear, stand in awe.
wherein one is a stranger. lt occurs only in the lt is probably a by-form of ygr "to be
plural, m''Rürim. This is used of the places afraid." The Rsv translates in addition "be
where Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob dwelled in in great dread, tremble."
their pilgrimage (Gen 36:7). Job's figure of an
empty house as ajudgment (Job 18:19) indicates Derivatives
it has become a place of pilgrimage, a temporary 332a +,;~~ (mä,?ör) 11.fear, terror.
abode, Psalm 119:54 shows a similar usage. The 332b t:i,i;i~ (m ,.gbra) fear, terror.

156
 337 ~!~ (gäzal)
This root means to be intimidated before a graven and ornamental altar might become the
stronger or superior being or thing. lt is used of object of worship instead of the Lord of the altar.
fear toward men, animals and God. The Moabites A similar idea is present in I Kgs 6:7 where the
feared the lsraelites when the Moabites appeared shaping of the stones of the temple was to be
on the horizon, because of their great numbers done before they were brought to the site. ··So
(Num 22:3). that there was neither hammer nor axe nor any
Judges are instructed not to fear "the face of tool of iron heard in the house, while it was being
men, .. i.e. not to Jet the social position of any built." Such stones were used in Solomon's
adversary in litigation intimidate them nor sway palace (1 Kgs 7:9, 11) as in all !arge buildings of oT
them in judgment (Deut 1:17). times (Arnos 5: 11; Isa 9: 10). The only reference
The threats of a false prophet were not to turn to hewn stone in Ezekiel's visionary temple is in
the people from God (Deut 18:22). 40:42 where four tabtes of hewn stone were pre-
Although David was only a stripling, the gifts scribed for preparing the burnt offering.
bestowed on him impressed and then frightened E.B.S.
Saul (1 Sam 18:15).
Job rejects the implied charge of secret sin, :i1~ (gizza). See no. 336b.
avowing his innocency and claiming that he
would see God in the flesh; therefore his slander- 336 Tl~ (gäzaz) shear (a sheep), mow (grass),
ers should fear judgment (Job 19:29). cut off (hair or a nation).
Leviathan strikes fear in even the mighty men
of the earth (Job 41 :25 [H 171). Derivatives
The Lord is pictured as fearing the boasters of 336a tT~ (gez) shearing.
the heathen if they chasten Israel (Deut 32:27). 336b t:i1~ (gizza) fleece.
But Samaria is to fear the consequences of the
idols in Bethel (Hos 10:5). gez. shearing or mowing. Arnos 7: 1 may refer
to either but Ps 72:6 clearly refers to mowing.
miigör,m•görä. Fear, terror. This noun, "hor-
ror," in KB, occurs less frequently than yäre' gizzä. jleece. Used only of Gideon's fleece in
or pä/:lad. magor has the more extreme sense of Jud 6:37-40.
terror, in contrast to yäre' which is more re- Job tore bis garments and cut off his hair as a
strained (Ps 31:13, [H 14]: cf. Ps 111:10 and 19:9 symbol of mourning when he received word of
[H 10]; Jer 20:4; cf. Prov 14:26. Deliverance from the violent death of his children. Likewise Micah
the terror of human caprice rests in God (Ps 34:4 (1: 16) calls on the nation, and Jeremiah (7:29)
[H 5]; cf. v. 1 [H]; cf. also the familiar phrase in calls on Jerusalem to cut off the hair and be bald
Jeremiah, mäf.!Or missäbib, terror on every side, in mourning over pending destruction. Nahum
6:25, etc.). uses the verb gäzaz to describe the cutting off
H.G.S. (destruction) of Assyria. Isaiah uses the term to
illustrate the meekness with which the Suffering
,-,ü (goräl). See no. 381a. Servant receives punishment in behalf of those
who have gone astray into sin. "Like a ewe that
l'7;~J (güma~). See no. 362a.
is dumb before those who shear her so he does
333 tuiJ (gwsh). Assumed root ofthe following. not open his mouth" (lsa 53:7).
333a ~~J (güsh) clod, lump (Job 7:5, E.B.S.
only).
l"l'T~ (!,!iizit). See no. 335a.
T,i! (gez). See no. 336a.
337 ':!!~ (giiza/) seize, tear off, pull off, take
334 i;p (gizbär) treasurer (Ezr 1:8, only). away by force, rob.
Derivatives
335 :,!~ (Räza) cut, cut off, sever.
337a ',1~ (gaze/) robbery (Lev 5:21; Ps
Derivative 62: 11; Isa 61 :8), something plundered
335a tl"I•,~ (gäzit) a cutting, hewing (Ezk 22:29).
337b :,71~ (g'ze/a) robbery (Ezk 18:7),
The word is used especially of hewn stones. stolen goods (Ezk 33:15; lsa 3:14;
This kind of stone was forbidden on the original Lev 5:23).
altar prescribed in Ex 20:25. Lifting up a tool to 337c '!il (gozäl) young (of birds). Deri-
shape the stones of the altar was polluting it. The
vation uncertain.
reason was not that iron was a tabu metal as some
have suggested on the basis of Deut 27:5 (note In Jud 9:25 the picture is one of people who lie
that Ex does not mention iron), but simply that a in wait and rob those who come along the road.

157
338 CT.,(gzm)

This root has in its meaning the violence that goes of Ephraim. Like its synonym kärat, this root has
beyond mere stealing or taking another·s belong- the basic meaning "to sever."
ings but includes robbing by force, tearing off. The verb describes the division of an object
One of the most violent horrors of the ancient into parts (1 Kgs 3:25; II Kgs 6:4) and even the
world was the practice of tlaying people, that is, chewing offood (lsa 9: 19). When followed by the
literally skinning them alive. lt was one of the preposition min (from) it connotes a violent
atrocities committed by the armies of Assyria. severance from a former way of life. The cutting
Although using the verb somewhat figuratively off might be from the fold (Hab 3: 17), worship ( II
the prophet Micah has such tlaying in mind when Chr 26:21), the protective care of God (Ps 88:5
he uses this verb in Mic 3:2, "You who hate good [H 61), or life itself (lsa 53:8). The Niphal without
and love evil, who tear the skin from off the preposition refers more generally to death or
them ... and who tlay their skin." destruction (Ezk 37: 11; Lam 3:54). In Est 2: 1 and
ln other contexts the verb refers to deeds of Job 22:28 the verb has the connotation common
similar horror. For example, tearing a fatherless in Aramaic, of making a pronouncement; cf. our
child from the breast (Job 24:9), seizing by vio- English word "decide" from the Latin, "to cut
lence wells of water (Gen 21:25), houses (Job off from."
20: 19), and fields (Mic 2:2). As noted above, Eccl
gezer. Part, piece, in sunder. Used only in the
uses the root to speak of political violence, the
plural of the halves of animals (Gen 15:17) and
tearing away of justice and righteousness in a
the divided portions ofthe Red Sea (Ps 136:13).
country (5:8). Proverbs 4: 16 describes the truly
wicked people as "those who are robbed of their g"zerä. Separation, not inhabited. Used in Lev
sleep unless they do evil and cause someone to 16:22 of the "land of separation" (Asv and Rsv
fall." "solitary land") into which a live goat was taken
Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 456--60. and abandoned on the day of atonement.
E.B.S. lt was so called because the area was cut off
from water (KB) or from habitation. Later Jewish
338 1:m (gzm). Assumed root ofthe following. teachers interpreted g' zera to mean a precipice
338a tor~ (gazäm) locust. from which the goat was to be hurled down.
J.E.S.
A name derived from the verb gäzam "to cut
off." lt occurs in but three passages: Joel 1:4;
2:25; Arnos 4:9. The KJV translates it as the 1in~ (gä/Jon). See no. 342a.
"palmerworm," i.e. a processional caterpillar
341 ',nJ (g/J/). Assumed root of the following.
like a "palmer" or a pilgrim with a palm branch. 341a tr,'m~ (ga/Je/et) coal, burning coal,
The LXX translates the term as kampe "caterpil-
·coals of fire, hot coals. ( ASVand RSV
lar."
similar except once "hot embers"
The gäzäm may be an immature locust in a
and once "glowing coals. ")
certain stage of development. Ordinarily locusts
do not attack olive leaves until everything eise Wood coals (as opposed to pe/Jem, black
has been consumed. Thus Arnos 4:9 describes a coals, charcoal) were used for cooking (lsa 44: 19),
situation of complete devastation. heating (lsa 47: 14), and burning incense (Lev
E.M.Y. 16:12). Burning coals are figurative of lightning
(Ps 18:9), a single heir of a dying house (II Sam
339 im (gz'). Assumed root of the following. 14:7), strife (Prov 26:21), shame (Prov 25:22), and
339a lJP (geza') stock, stem (lsa 11:1; divine judgment (Ps 120:4; 140:10 [H 11]).
40:24; Job 14:8). Bibliography: TDOT, II, pp. 461~5.
J.E.S.
340 "I!~ (gäzar) cut down, cut off, cut in two,
divide, snatch, decree. (Asv and RSVsimi- 342 1MJ (g/Jn). Assumed root of the following.
lar.) 342a 1in~ (f.?ä/Jon) belly,ofreptiles (Gen
3: 14; Lev II :42).
Derivatives
340a tiq (gezer) part. 343 N~~ (gay') valley.
340b t:i,q (g''zera) separation.
340c rr')T~ ( gizra) cutting, separation.
Several Hebrew words are used to designate
the various kinds of valleys which are part of the
340d :i:ii~r,,(magzera) cutting instrument, topography of Canaan. The larger plains are
ax.
called biq'a and 'emeq. na/Ja/ suggests a valley
The root with its derivatives occurs forty-one which has a gully. gay' seems tobe restricted to
times, sixteen of which are represented by the elongated and tlat-bottom depressions.
proper noun Gezer, a Levitical city on the border Perhaps the most famous valley in the OT is the

158
 347 ,~.:i (gyr)

Valley of Hinnom just south of Jerusalem. Here 79. Simon, J., Jerusalem in the Old Testament,
Moloch was worshiped with immolations of chil- Brill, 1952. Speiser, E. A., "The Rivers of
dren (II Chr 28:3; 33:6). After Josiah abolished Paradise:· in Oriental and Biblical Studies, Uni-
this practice and desecrated the valley (II Kgs versity of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 23-34. TDOT,
23: 10), it came tobe associated with thejudgment II, pp. 466--68.
of sinners (Jer 7:32; 19:6). Later the place was J.E.S.
made a garbage dump. The NT writers transliter-
ated f?ay' hinnöm (via Aramaic) into Greek and iin•~ (gilJ_{)n). See no. 345a.
applied the term Reenna to the place of etemal
punishment. 346 ?•~ (gi/) rejoice, be glad.
f?ay' is used figuratively of an obstacle which
must be overcome (lsa 40:4) and of a grave Derivatives
danger which one might experience (Ps 23:4). In 346a ti;,•~ (Ri/) I, rejoicing.
OT eschatology the --valley of passengers .. (Rsv 346b ?'~ (f?i/) II, circle, age.
"travelers") east ofthe Dead Sea is designated as 346c t:,7•~(gilii) rejoicing.
the burial site for the hostile armies of Gog (Ezk
39: 11, 15). A valley-like escape route is provided Root meaning is "to circle around" from which
for the people of God at the Second Coming of such ideas as "to circle in joy" are readily de-
Christ (Zech 14:4-5). rived. The root meaning is more applicable to
J.E.S. vigorous, enthusiastic expressions of joy; but, in
the or, it and its derivatives serve as poetic and
344 "l'J (1:yd). Assumed root of the following. prophetic terms for various kinds of joy.
344a "!•~ (gid) sinew (e.g. Gen 32:33; gil most often refers to rejoicing at God"s
Isa 48:8). works or attributes. Typical examples are rejoic-
ing at God's work in general (Ps 118:24), his res-
345 r::r•~(gia}J.), r::ru(güa}J.) burst forth. toration of his people (Isa 49: 13), his delivering
Derivative from enemies (Ps 9: 14 [H 15]) and protection
from enemies (Ps 31 :7-8), God's glory and judg-
345a tiin•~ (Ri/J.on) Gihon.A proper ment (Ps 97:8), and God's rule (I Chr 16:31).
noun derived from a root signifying Other occasions for such rejoicing are a wise son
"to hurst forth or draw for:th" (Prov 23:25), a beautiful bride (Song 1:4), divid-
(BOB), and hence has the meaning ing the spoils (Isa 9:3 [H 21), and the enemy's
'"the Gusher" or "the Bubbler." misfortune (Ps 13:4 [H 5]). The wicked rejoice in
Gihon is used once of a river and five times of a evil (Prov 2: 14).
spring of water. The second-named of the four "Rejoice with trembling" (Ps 2: 11. Asv) may
tributaries which joined to form the river of Eden allude to the physical movement associated with
is called Gihon (Gen 2: 13). lt is said in the KJVto the term's root meaning.
compass the whole land of Ethiopia (ASVand RSV gil. Joy, rejoicing, gladness (in the preposi-
Cush). While küsh in the OT usually refers to tional phrase, "for joy," it may be translated
Ethiopia, the reference here is to the land of the "greatly" or "exceedingly," Prov 23:24). This
Kassites located east of the Tigris. The verb term expresses a wide range of joys ranging from
stibab rendered "compass .. (KJV,ASV)or "tlow the exuberant joy of an oriental wedding proces-
around" (Rsv) is better rendered „to wind sion (Ps 45: 15 [H 161) to the quieter joy of the
through or meander." The primeval Gihon river discouraged whose woes are ended by death (Job
must have been one of the several rivers which 3:22). Other joys expressed by this term are those
descend from the eastem mountains to join the of the satisfied father (Prov 23:24), the worshiper
Tigris river in the Mesopotamian plain. Most of God (Ps 43:4), and God-given prosperity (Ps
likely the Gihon is to be identified with either the 65: 12 [H 131). lt also expresses the joy removed
Diyala or the Kerkha river. by judgment (Isa 16:10; Joel 1:16).
By the spring Gihon, on the eastern side of gil. Age (from "to circle"; KJV"sort"). Refers
Jerusalem, Solomon was proclaimed king (1 Kgs to Daniel's circle of contemporaries (Dan 1:10).
l:33ff.). From earliest times this spring was a
prominent part of the waterworks of Jerusalem. gila. Joy, rejoicing. Feminine of Ril above.
Hezekiah constructed a rock hewn tunnel which Twice refers to the joys to come when God re-
carried the water of Gihon into the fortifications stores his people (Isa 35:2; 65: 18).
of the city (II Chr 32:30). Gihon is usually iden- J.P.L.
tified with the Spring of Steps which gushes in-
termittently throughout the day. 347 .,.J
(gyr). Assumed root of the following.
Bibliography: Harris, R. L., "The Mist, the 347a .,~ (f?ir) chalk, lime (Isa 27:9,
Canopy and the Rivers of Eden," JETS 4: 177- only).

159
348 ~',;i (gib)

',~ ( ga/). See no. 353a. he reveals himself directly (cf. lsa 22: 14) and to
',~ (gel). See no. 353b. David he sometimes mediated his revelation
through the prophet Nathan. To ordinary folk he
348 :,.i (gib). Assumed root ofthe following. reveals himself in dreams or visions (Job 33: 16)
348a :7~ (galläb) barher (Ezk 5: 1). andin trying experiences (Job 36:10).
Arnos used gäla with söd "secret'' as its ob-
',~7~ (galgal). See no. 353i. ject in this classic statement about God's revela-
',J~~ (gi/gä/). See nos. 353j,k. tion to his prophets: "Surely the LoRD God
l"l?i,;i (gülgölet). See no. 3531. will do nothing but he revealeth his secret unto
his servants the prophets" (Arnos 3:7). (The verb
349 ,,., (g/d). Assumed root of the following. also has söd as its object in Prov 20: 19.)
349a i7~ (geled) skin (of man, Job When God revealed himself to Balaam it is said
. 16:15). that Balaam's eyes were "uncovered,"
"opened" (Num 24:4,6). lt appears that in this
manner Balaam saw something which he oth-
350 :,7~ (gäla) uncover, remove.
erwise could not see.
Derivatives In addition to these private disclosures, the Qal
of gälii is used for widespread communication.
350a t:,7iJ (gola) captivily.
During the intrigue and contest between Haman
350b +m,J (gätun captivity.
and Mordecai the letters of the king were pub-
350c 1i•7~ (gilläyön) tahle, tahlet.
lished to all the people ofthe provinces proclaim-
Hebrew gälii in its transitive meaning "to un- ing what both Haman (Est 3: 14) and Mordecai
cover" has its closest connections with North- (8: 13) had written. The Qal passive participle is
west Semitic (cf. Phoenician in the Ahiram In- used in Jer 32:11, 14, to denote an "open" docu-
scription, " ... and uncovered this sar- ment in contrast to a sealed one.
cophagus, ·· and Imperial Aramaic in the Word of In the Niphal the action happens to the subject
Ahiqar, "Do not reveal your secrets to your itself in either a passive or reflexive way. Thus in
friends") and with Arabic galä "to make/become a passive sense it means "tobe uncovered": of
clear. .. nakedness (Ex 20:26; Isa 47:3), of skirts (Jer
In its intransitive meaning "to remove, go into 13:22), and of foundations (II Sam 22:16 = Ps
exile" it is remotely related to the Ugaritic verb 18:16) where it is parallel to the Niphal of rä'a
of motion gly "to leave" (Gordon) or "to arrive "to be visible." Thus it also means "to be
at" (Aistleitner), as well as to the Arabic galä known" (lsa 23:1) and "tobe revealed"-of a
"to emigrate." lt occurs as a loan word with this word from God to Daniel (Dan 10:1).
meaning in late Aramaic and Akkadian. In the reflexive sense it means "to expose one-
The meaning "to uncover" occurs in the Qal, self' (three times of David in II Sam 6:20) or "to
Niphal, Piel, Pual and Hithpael stems, and the show/reveal oneself," of Jonathan to the Philis-
meaning "to depart, to go into exile" occurs in tines (1 Sam 14:8), of the gates to death to Job
the Qal, Hiphil and Hophal stems. (Job 38:17) and of God. With God it is used to
In the light of this evidence it must remain at designate his theophany to Jacob (Gen 35:7; cf.
this point an open question whether we are deal- Gen 28). The word is also used of God"s revela-
ing with one or two roots. In any case, we will tion three times in the stories of Samuel's child-
discuss the verb under these two main meanings: hood: of his revelation to Eli's fathers (1 Sam
"to uncover," and "to depart, to go into exile." 2:27), to Samuel (1 Sam 3:21; cf. I Sam 3:7).
"To uncover ... In the Qal the verbis used fre- Here, as in the idiom "to uncover the ear" andin
quently with the organs of sense as the object: the Arnos· classic statement it denotes the revelation
ear (I Sam 9: 15, passim) and the eye (N um 24 :4). of God to a prophet.
The idiom "to uncover the ear" means simply The Niphal participle with a passive notion is
"to show, to reveal" and occurs with either man used in Deut 29:28 to denote God's open threats
or God as its subject. With man as its subject it and promises revealed to Israel in that book. Ac-
occurs in connection with Saul to Jonathan (l cording to lsa 40:5 the glory of the LoRD--his
Sam 20:2), of Jonathan to David (I Sam 20:12- triumphant victory on earth through his rule in
13), of aides to Saul (I Sam 22:8), of priests to Israel-will be revealed to all flesh. lt has the
Saul (I Sam 22: 17); of Boaz to the nearer kinsman same meaning in Isa 56: 1. lt is used in Isa 53: 1 for
(Ruth 4:4). With God as its subject: to Samuel the revelation to mankind of God' s work through
(1 Sam 9: 15); to David (II Sam 7:27 = I Chr the Suffering Servant.
17:25) to ordinary humans (in the Elihu Thus, though not a technical term for divine
speech-Job 33: 16; 36: 10). Since it is used of men revelation, the verb gäla frequently conveys this
as well as of God, it must not be thought of as a meaning.
technical term for God's revelation. To Samuel Likewise in the Piel it always denotes "to un-

160
 351 M7f (giilafz)

cover·· something which otherwise is normally other people in II Kgs 17:11). Usually, however,
concealed. Thus it means "to open" the eyes-to Israel (Judah) or its glory is the subject of the
see an angel (Num 22:31) or wonderful things in verb.
the law (Ps 119:18); "to make known, revealed, The LoRD's judgmenl of leading Israel out of
manifest": of Jeremiah in his complaint to the the land into captivity functions as an appropriate
LORD(Jer 11:20; 20: 12), of the LORD in his re- contrast to his carrying out his promise to give
velation of peace and truth to Israel (Jer 33:6) and them the land as a gift at the beginning of their
his righteousness to them (Ps 98:2); "to betray": history. Likewise, his repeated promises to the
of fugitives (lsa 16:3), of secrets (Prov 11:13; fathers to give them the land stand out sharply
25:9); "to uncover, expose": of Esau's hiding against his repeated warnings through the
place (Jer 49: 10), the mysteries of darkness (Job prophets to lead them out of the land. In II Kgs
12:22),foundations (Mic 1:6), sin (Job 20:27; Lam 17:II Israel's expulsion from the land is explicitly
2: 14; 4:22), and feet (Ruth 3:4,7). paralleled with the fate of the Canaanites whom
But it is used most frequently in this stem for he expelled in favor of Israel when they entered
designating proscribed sexual activity. lt occurs the land.
lwenty-four times in Lev 18 and 20 in the expres- lt is instructive to note that the verb never oc-
sion "to uncover the shame" which denotes sex- curs in Deuteronomy. In this book the threat of
ual intercourse in proscribed situations, usually eviction from the land is expressed by other ex-
incest, also Deut 22:30 IH 23:IJ; 27:20. lt is also pressions such as „ to perish quickly ( 'bd) from
used of uncovering or removing that which cov- upon the land" (Deut 4:26; I 1:I 7), and pü~
ers: the woman's skirt (lsa 47:3; Nah 3:5), of (Hiphil) "to scatter." If the putative Mosaic ad-
Judah's protective covering (lsa 22:8), and dresses contained in Deuteronomy are in fact of
Leviathan's outer armor (Job 41:13 [H 5]). In late origin, as is commonly alleged, it seems
many passages, then, it has the connotation "to strange that gäla, the common term for eviction
shame." from the land in the ninth to seventh century
Alongside of Lev 18 and 20 it occurs in the prophets, does not occur.
prophetic complaint that Israel has "uncovered
gölä. Captivity, captive, those carried away, or
her nakedness, .. a metaphor denoting that she
removing. This feminine noun referring to any-
threw off her loyalty to the LoRD. Against this,
one carried away captive or to captivity itself oc-
the LoRDor her former lovers will "expose the
curs forty-one times scattered throughout the
nakedness'' = ··to shame · · of the faithless nation
prophets and Kgs, Chr, Ezr, Neh, and Est. The
(Hos 2:12; Ezk 16:36); cf. the threat against
reference for the most part is to the Babylonian
Nineveh (Nah 3:5) and against Babylon (Isa
captivity of the kingdom of Judah, which was the
47:3).
result of their sinful disobedience to God.
"To remove, go into exile." The basic meaning
ofthe intransitive gäla appears in Ezk 12:3 where gäh1t. Captivity, captive, or carried away captive.
the prophet receives the commandment "go In the fifteen occurrences of the feminine noun
forth" and in the lament of Phineas's travailing gälüt, reference is made to a group of captives
wife: "The glory of Israel is departed." A similar (Isa 20:4; 45: 13; Jer 24:5; 28:4; 29:22; 40: 1; Arnos
meaning is found in Isaiah's lament: "The mirth I :6,9; Ob 20) or a period of captivity variously
of the land is gone" (lsa 24: I 1) and in this de- specified as the captivity of Jehoiachin (II Kgs
scription by Zophar of the fate of the wicked: 25:27; Jer 51:31; Ezk 1:2) or our captivity (Ezk
"The increase of his house shall depart" (Job 33:21; 40: I ), almost all of which refer to the cap-
20:28). lt also has this simple meaning "to de- tivity of Judah in Babylon.
part" in Prov 27:25 and Hos l0:5. Bibliography: TDOT, ll. pp. 476-88. THAT,
In the remaining twenty passages in the Qal it I, pp. 415-17.
has the more precise meaning "tobe led into cap- B.K.W.
tivity." In addition it occurs thirty nine times in
:,~: (gülla). See no. 353c.
the Hiphil with the meaning "to carry away into
exile" and seven times in the passive Hophal ,;s·~ (gi/lü/). See no. 353h.
with a similar meaning as in Qal. The verb figures ci',~ (g"/om). See no. 354c.
prominently in the announcement of judgment by r,~i,~ (gälüt). See no. 350b.
Arnos (1:5; 5:5,27; 6:7; 7:11,17) and Jeremiah
(13:19; 20:4; 22:12; 27:20; cf. Lam 1:3; see also
351 M7~(gäla}J) pol/, shave, shave off.
Isa 5: 13). (Asv and Rsv similar, except "cut" replaces
In several passages the LORDis designated as "poll. ") The rool seems to mean "to be bare,
the subject who leads Israel into captivity (Jer smooth, naked." lt is broader in meaning than
29:4,7,14; Ezk 39:28; Arnos 5:27; Lam 4:22; I Chr qära}J which refers to baldness of the head. The
5:41-the only place where the human agent verb occurs twenty-two times in the intensive
[Nebuchadnezzar] is explicitly mentioned; cf. of stems.

161
352 ',',;i (g/1)

Among Semites shaving otT hair or the beard This figure is used for rolling oneself on the Lord
was a sign of lamentation and distress (Jer 41 :5; and so to trust the Lord (Ps 22:8 [H 91) or to
cf. Arnos 8: 10). lsraelite priests, however, were commit one's behavior or life to the Lord (Ps
forbidden to follow these mourning customs (Lev 37:5; Prov 16:3) or remove such non-material
21:5; Ezk 44:20). Sometimes shaving symbolized things as reproach and contempt (Ps 119:22).
purification, as in the case of a person cured of a The physical act of the rolling of something or
skinailment(Lev 13:33; 14:8)oracaptivewoman someone (gäla/) appears in only four episodes
who was about to marry an lsraelite (Deut 21: 12). and possibly two or three observations. The first
At the time of his consecration, a Levite was to is in the story of Jacob meeting Rache! at the weil
"cause a razor (he'ebir ra·ar) to pass over his in Paran, mentioning the necessity of rolling the
whole body" (Num 8:7). Opinions differ as to stone from the weil and of Jacob doing this (Gen
whether he was to merely trim his hair or shave it 29:3,8, 10).
otT completely. When a Nazirite terminated his When Joshua caught the five Amorite kings in
vow, the hair of his head was shaved otT and a cave during the Gibeonite battle, he ordered his
burned in the fire of the altar (N um 6: 18-19). men to roll great stones on the mouth of the cave
Under other circumstances, shaving of the to incarcerate them until the battle's end (Josh
beard was considered a great indignity (II Sam 10:18).
10:4). A different custom, however, prevailed in Saul, knowing his hungry people were eating
Egypt (Gen 41: 14). lt is not altogether clear why meat with blood still in it, directed his men to roll
Absalom shaved his head periodically (II Sam a great stone to him upon which the animals
14:26). could be slaughtered (1 Sam 14:33).
Used figuratively. shaving referred to the com- After Joab had thrust his sword treacherously
plete Stripping of a land by the enemy (lsa 7:20). through Amasa, Amasa wallowed in his blood in
Bibliography: Fensham, F. Charles, "The the road (II Sam 20:12).
Shaving of Samson: A Note on Judges 16:19," Jeremiah in a figure likens Babylon to a
EQ: 97-98. mountain when he says of her, "I will roll thee
J.E.S. down from the rocks" (30:14). Surely the wise
man writes metaphorically, "He that rolleth a
ii•7~ (gilläyön). See no. 350c. stone, it will return upon him" (Prov 26:27).
'7•'?~(gälil) I, II. See nos. 353e,f. When Isaiah employs the verb in two effective
:,7•~f (g"li/ii). See no. 353g. figures: the heavens shall be "rolled together like
a scroll" (34:4) and "garments rolled in blood"
352 '7J (g//) I. Assumed root of the following. (9:5), depicting warfare in contrast to the reign of
352a ,7, (gälä/) account. Occurs only the prince of peace.
Joshua used gä/al symbolically when he said,
lnthe construct state with the prepo- after the circumcision of the lsraelites, "This day
sition h". biglal "on account of,"
"for the sake of." have I rolled away the reproach of Egypt" (Josh
5: 19) and the place was named Gilgal-a word
play on gälal.
353 ,,~ (gä/a/) II, commit, remove, trust, run
Close to the meaning of rolling an object is
down, seek occasion, wallow, roll, and roll Amos·s metaphor, "But let judgment run down
down, away or together. as waters and righteousness as a mighty stream"
Derivatives (Arnos 5:24).
Other uses of gälal are more remote from rol-
353a ti;,~ (gal) heap, wave. ling an object. Among the indignities that Job suf-
353b ,~ (gel) dung.
fers is the action of young men who rolled them-
353c t:,7~ (gül/a) basin, bowl. selves upon him-probably as an army breaking
353d ',7~ (gäläl) dung. through defenses (Job 30: 14). Joseph· s brothers
353e t',•',~ (gälil) /, turning, folding.
fear that Joseph is seeking occasion (gälal)
353f ',•';', (gälil) II, cylinder, rod, circuit. against them to enslave them (Gen 43:8).
353g :,7•7~(g'lila) circuit, boundary, ter- gälal becomes trust, commit or remove in four
353h
353i
t,~,,
ritory.
(gillü/) idols.
t',~'7~ (galgäl) wheel, whirl, whirlwind.
places. The thought is to "roll one's trouble"
upon someone or away from oneself (cf. KB).
Those who stigmatize the victim of Ps 22 says,
353j 7~7~(gilgäl) /, wheel. "He trusted on the Lord that he would deliver
353k t',~'7~ (gilgäl) II, Gilgal. him, let him deliver him" (v. 8 [H 91) while in Ps
3531 tri',i';>~ (gülgöleri skull, head.
37:5 and Prov 16:3 we are urged to commit our
353m m7Jf (m"gilla) roll.
works and way unto the Lord. In Ps 119:22 the
ga/a/ means to roll some object on, upon, Psalmist requests, "Remove from me reproach
away, in, against, from, together, unto, or down. and contempt: for I have kept thy testimonies."

162
 353 ,,~ (gäla/)

gal. Heap, wave, billow and spring. A mas- were your idols." In Deut Moses speaks in this
culine noun apparently coming from the idea of vein when he renews the covenant and refers to
rolling, piling or heaping one thing upon another. the idols (gilliilim) of Egypt, and those of wood,
lt is used of a heap of stones as the wreckage of a stone, silver and gold which they saw on their
city (II Kgs 19:25) or as a memorial (Gen 31:46- journey (29:17).
52). In the same fashion water pushed up into Asa, a grandson of David, removed out of the
waves or billows (Ps 42:7 [H 8]; lsa 48:18; Jer land all the idols that his father Abijam had made
5:22; Jon 2:3) and the bubbling up of a spring can (1 Kgs 15:12). To the contrary Ahab did very
be indicated by !,?al (Song 4: 12). abominable things at the instigation of Jezebel in
The parting place of Laban and Jacob was a following idols as the Amorites did (1 Kgs 21:26).
heap of stones which Jacob's men piled up as a The northern kingdom is indicted for serving
witness to the covenant between Laban and him- idols, specifically disobeying the Lord's com-
self. Jacob called the place Galeed "the heap of mand not to do so (II Kgs 17:12). Later, Manas-
witness" (Gen 31:46-52). Laban·s name for it seh was more wicked than the Amorites in mak-
means the same thing in Aramaic. A great heap of ing Judah sin with his idols, and Amon his son did
stones was placed over the remains of Achan and the same (II Kgs 21:11, 21). Josiah, however, in
his family (Josh 7:26). The king of Ai received the obedience to the Lord put away these idols after
same treatment after his capture (Josh 8:29) and he had read the book which Hilkiah found in the
so did Absalom after he was killed (II Sam 18:17). temple (II Kgs 23:24).
The Lord sent a message through Isaiah and Jeremiah says that Babylon's images (Rilliilim)
Hezekiah to Sennacherib telling him that the would be destroyed. Here Rilliilim translated im-
Lord used him to make "fenced cities into ruin- ages (only place in KJV)is parallel with ·a~abbim
ous heaps" (II Kgs 19:25; lsa 37:26). translated idols or images and cognate with a
lsaiah praises the Lord because it was he who verb meaning to grieve or cause sorrow.
"made of a city an heap" (25:2), and Jeremiah Ezekiel who has thirty-eight of the forty-seven
says both Jerusalem and Babylon will become occurrences of Rilliilim denounces idolatry as in-
heaps (51:37) while Hosea declares that Gilgal's fidelity and prostitution (16:36; 37:23). Good Is-
"altars are as heaps in the furrows of the field" raelites have not "lifted up their eyes to idols,"
(12: 11). while the wicked have done so (18:6, 12,15).
güllä. Springs, bowls or pommels. Rolling Ezekiel reminds the people that God told them
water in Josh 15:19; Jud 1:15 describes springs or not to defile themselves "with the idols of
pools (or possibly so called from being round Egypt." Nevertheless "their heart went after"
pools). them (20:7,8, 16,18,24). They were not to "pollute
At the top of the pillars in front of the temple themselves" with idols (20:31). In dramatic irony
bowl-like capitals or mouldings were placed the prophet says: "Go ye, serve ye everyone his
(bowls I Kgs 7:41, but pommels II Chr4:12,I3); idols" (20:39). Again he declares that Israel
cf. bowl on Menorah (Zech 4:2.3). In Eccl 12:6 works against herself by idolatry and defiles her-
"the golden bowl be broken" describes death in seif (22:3 ,4; 23:7). They are polluted with idols of
old age. Babylonia and Assyria (23:30) and have followed
heathen idolatry to the extent of killingtheir chil-
gälil. Folding or rings. An adjective describ- dren in sacrifice to idols and so they will "bear
ing the leaves of the doors of the temple in the sins of their idols" (23:39, 49), but the Lord
Jerusalem (KJV "folding," but variously trans- will destroy the idols of Egypt (30: 13).
lated in modern versions) (I Kgs 6:34). When Ezekiel hears that Jerusalem is de-
A masculine noun translated "rings;· to which stroyed, he says that the people do not p0ssess
decorative hangings were fastened (Est 1:6). In the land because of their idolatry (33:25; 36: 18,
Song 5:14 the bridegroom's hands are gold 25). Only twice more does Ezekiel refer to idols
"rings" (KJv; KB,BDBcylinder or rod). and in quite a different vein. He predicts that
gillul. Idols, images. One of about ten basic Judah and Israel will be united in their land and
words for idol in the oT. The word means logs. will not defile themselves any more with idols
blocks, shapeless things (BDB). Thus it is used as (37:23). In the restoration the priests and Levites
a polemic against pagan religion. This masculine who went astray will be punished by a lowering
plural form occurs sparingly (nine times) outside of rank and given a less important activity in the
of Ezk (thirty-eight times). new sanctuary. Only the Zadokite priests who
In Lev 26 KJVMoses at Sinai warns the lsrael- remained true to the Lord will serve in the high
ites about turning from the Lord and worshiping office of priest (44: 10,12). [There is not any one
idols, saying if this ,happens, the Lord will throw word for "idol" in the OT. The idols are named
their carcasses on the carcasses of their idols variously by the prophets depending on the
(26:30). The NEBfreely translates, "I will pile characteristization they feit would be most effec-
your rolling carcasses on the rolling logs that tive at the time. Five words are mainly used: 1)

163
353 ',';,~(gälal)
Rillü/ ··Jogs, blocks'· (though KB suggests that it Jordan. lt was east of Jericho (Josh 4: 19), but its
is a pejorative word calling the idols dung pel- exact location is still uncertain. Muilenburg pro-
lets); it is used the most often, but mainly in Ezk. posed Khirbet el-Mefjir on the basis of the oT, the
2) pese/, .. carved image. ·· 3) massekil ··cast im- onomastica in Josephus and Eusebius and the ar-
age ... 4) maHehil „standing stone image.,. 5) chaeological remains (BASOR 140: 11-27). Here
'ä.yäb „thing of grief."' lt is of interest that the a pile of twelve stones from the Jordan
first four are characterizations arising from the memorialized their crossing. Here also that gen-
physical nature of the image, especially referring eration was circumcised and „rolled away the re-
to how it was made. The prophets scorned the proach of Egypt," the first Passover in the new
idols as things made by the hand of men. lndeed, land was celebrated and the manna ceased (5:9-
that phrase is sometimes used as a substitute for 12). The Gibeonites came to Joshua·s headquar-
the word idol (e.g. lsa 2:8). They did not admit ters here and later Joshua divided part of the
that the idol was a mere representation of the country by lot in Gilgal (Josh 9:6; 10:6,7,9,15,43;
god. They declared that the material object itself 14:6).
was the pagan·s god-and with the prevailing In Jud 2: 1 the angel of the Lord goes up from
animism, they were doubtless correct. In this Gilgal to Bochim to prophesy against the lsrael-
vein, lsaiah pours scorn on the idolater who uses ites. Gilgal is on Samuel's circuit (l Sam 7: 16;
half a log for firewood and the other half to make 10:8) and remains an important center during the
a god (lsa 44:9-20). time of Saul (l Sam 11:14,15; 13:4.7,8,12,15;
Other words for idols are: $eiern „image," 15:12,21,33) and David (II Sam 19:15,40).
which emphasizes its representational character Hosea and Arnos refer disparagingly to the sin-
(used seven times); semel ofuncertain etymology ful and wicked worship at Gilgal in their day (Hos
(used five times); t'' räpim, apparently meaning a 4:15; 9:15; 12:12; Arnos 4:4; 5:5).
„thing of shame" used for Laban's household [In harmonizing the accounts of the conquest
gods Stolen by Rache!; mipp" le$et „thing of hor- found in Joshua with the ensuing settlement of
ror"; · elil „empty or meaningless thing"; and the land presented in Judges, Y. Kaufmann
'äiven „sinful thing·· BOB (KB suggests, a makes the salient point that Joshua's wars aim to
"thing of mystery~· from a possible etymology, destroy and exterminate the enemy and not to
but BOB is better on the basis of the usage of occupy the land. He wrote: "Joshua separates
'äwen). Also tobe mentioned are the 'äsherii, the wars entirely from the occupation of the ter-
which are indeed cult objects, perhaps sacred ritory. He keeps the people in camp [for some
pol es, but are more symbols of the goddess ·ash- time at Gilgal] for the whole duration of the war.
erii rather than idols in the normal sense. R.L.H.] No matter where the army fights, it always re-
turns to the camp .... He is compelled to prevent
galgal. Wheel. Nine times in KJV, but lsa 17: 13
the people from occupying its portions until the
is „a rolling thing" and Ps 77: 18 [H 19) in the
end of the war, because he cannot be sure that he
heavens. Modem translations in Ps 77: 18 [H 191
will be able to muster them for the general war if
generally, use whirlwind (NEB has „thistle down"
they are engaged in claiming land" (The Biblical
in Ps 83: 13 [14)); NIV has tumbleweed).
Account of the Conquest of Palestine, 1953, p.
Various wheels are: those for war chariots (lsa
92). B.K.W.]
5:28; Jer 47:3; Ezk 23:24; 26:10), for drawing
water (Eccl 12:6) and wheels of Ezekiel's vision gülgölet. Skull, head or person. The Akkadian
of departure of God's glory (Ezk 10:2,6,13) cognate, i.e. gulgul/u and gu/gulliiti. In KJV every
though more often Ezekiel uses another word for man, poll, skull, or head. Usually used for count-
these wheels of his vision (see 'opän). ing people (Ex 16:16; 38:26; Num 1:2, 18; 3:47; I
Chr 23:3, 24). But it also refers to the breaking of
gilgäl II. Gilgal (a circle of stones?). There
Abimelech's skull (Jud 9:53), Jezebel's skull (II
seem to be five places called Gilgal.
Kgs 9:35), and Saul's head when it was fastened
Deuteronomy 11:30 locates Ebal and Gerizim
to the wall of the temple of Dagon (l Chr 10: 10).
„over against Gilgal" which appears to be near
Cf. the Aramaic Golgotha in the Gospels (Mt
Shechem.
27:33; Mk 15:22; Jn 19:17).
The Gilgal of Elijah and Elisha is near Bethel
(II Kgs 2: 1; 4:38). Here Elisha purifies the "death m"gillä. Volume, roll (KJV), scroll. m''Rillii
in the pot" food for the sons of the prophets. occurs with seper „book,., the scroll of the book
The king of the nations of Gilgal is thought to (Jer 36:2,4: Ezk 2:9, Ps 40:7 [H 81).
have lived on the border of the plain of Sharon. Jehoiakim cut and burned Jeremiah's scroll
A border city of Judah mentioned in Josh 15: 17 (Jer 36). Ezekiel sees a scroll at his call (2:9;
is on the road from Jericho to Jerusalem (Josh 3: 1-3) and Zechariah a flying scroll containing
18: 17). Goct·s curse against wickedness (5: 1.2). Ezra
The Gilgal most often referred to was the first mentions the scroll recording Cyrus·s decree to
camping place after the Israelites crossed the rebuild the temple (6:2).

164
 356 ,~7~(gil'äd)
Egyptian scrolls and probably many of those (Jud 11:1.2; 10:8-18, 11:5-29). Jephthah, success-
used in Palestine were made of papyrus (note ful in defeating the Ammonites, incurred the op-
how easily Jeremiah's scroll burned). The Dead position of the Ephraimites in the process, so the
Sea Scrolls were made of skins stitched together. Ephraimites fought him. During this fray the
The book (codex) came into use in the first and Gileadites identified the Ephraimites by their in-
second centuries after Christ. The Scroll was ability to pronounce shibboleth properly (Jud
written "within" (recto) and, when necessary, 12:4,5,7 see E. A. Speiser, "The Shibboleth In-
"without" (verso) (cf. Ezk 2: 10). cident," Oriental and Bihlical Studies, Univ. of
E.S.K. Penna., 1967, pp. 143-50).
The men of Gilead served in the war against
354 07~ (gälam) to wrap up, foul, foul together Benjamin (Jud 20: 1). However, because no men
(II Kgs 2:8; only). from Jabesh-gilead fought in those battles, the
lsraelites killed all its citizens except four hun-
Derivatives dred young unmarried women, to provide wives
354a ci',~ (g'/om) wrapping, garment for some Benjamites who survived the war (Jud
· (Ezk 27:24, only). 21:8-14).
354b 0",~ (golem) embryo (Ps 139:16, Gilead was ruled by lshbosheth during David's
·only). reign in Hebron (II Sam 2:9). but David took ref-
354c ,,~';,J (ga/mud) hard, barren (i.e. uge there during Absalom's rebellion and the bat-
Isa 49:21; Job 15:34). tles leading to Absalom's death were fought in
Gilead (II Sam 17:26). Gilead was among the
places in which David"s sinful census was taken.
,,~7~(galmud). See no. 354c. Jabesh-gilead had cause to favor Saul because
he broke an Ammonite siege and saved the men
355 *117~ (gäla') to expose, lay bare. Occurs and the city from debasing humiliation and agony
only in the Hithpael (e.g. Prov 17:14; 18:!). (1 Sam 11:1,9). Themen of Jabesh-gilead, in turn,
rescued the bodies of Saul and his sons from the
wall of Beth-shan (1 Sam 31: 11; II Sam 2:4, 5; I
356 i117~(gil' äd) Gilead.
Chr 10:11). Later David brought the bones of
Derivative Saul and Jonathan up from Jabesh-gilead and
buried them in the sepulchre of Saul's father.
356a t'".11/7~Util'ädi) Gileadite.
Ramoth-gilead was prominent in the wars with
Gilead sometimes refers to the area in Trans- the Syrians and Ahab was killed near there (1 Kgs
jordan between the Amon and Jabbok rivers, 4: 13; 22:3-29; II Chr 18:2-28). Ahab's son Joram
sometimes to that between the Jabbok and the was wounded at Ramoth-gilead (II Kgs 8:28; II
Yarmuk and sometimes to the whole area. Chr 22:5). A young prophet is sent by Elisha to
Laban overtook Jacob as Jacob returned to Ramoth-gilead to anoint Jehu king (II Kgs 9: 1, 4,
Canaan at Mount Gilead (Gen 31 :21, 23, 25), and 14; I Chr 6:80). Later Jehu loses Gilead to Hazael
Ishmaelites from Gilead bought Joseph and took (II Kgs 10:33) and still later Tiglath-pileser cap-
him to Egypt (Gen 37:25). tures Gilead from Pekah (II Kgs 15:29).
Because Gilead was good pasture land, Gad Jeremiah cries out, .. Is there no balm in
and Reuben got the southern part (Num 32: 1, 26, Gilead?" to emphasize the availability of the
29). Moses gave northern Gilead to Machir, son Loru·s healing (8:22). Gilead's balm itself, how-
of Manasseh (Num 32:39,40). This allocation is ever, will not heal the people (46: 11). In any case
corroborated in Deut 3:13,15.16; 4:43. its balsam was proverbial. Rich woodlands cov-
Sihon, King of the Amorites, ruled over half ered its hills and served as a symbol of luxury
Gilead (Josh 12:2) and Og, King of Bashan, over along with Lebanon and Carmel (Jer 22:6; 50: 19;
the other half (12:5). Joshua 13:25 says that Zech 10:IO). Its goats also were famous (Song
Moses gave Gilead to Gad, but verse 31 says half 4: 1; 5:5).
was given to Machir. Arnos curses the Ammonites for ripping up the
The song of Deborah and Barak makes a dis- pregnant women of Gilead ( 1:13), and the people
paraging reference to the men of Gilead for their of Damascus because they threshed Gilead with
failure to join in the battle against Jabin King of iron threshing instruments. Hosea says that
Hazor (Jud 5: 17). Gilead is a wicked city (6:8).
Jair, a Gileadite, judged Israel for twenty-two When Israel returns from captivity Gilead will
years (Jud 10:4). be possessed again (Ob 19; Zech 10:10) and they
Themen ofGilead, seeking a man to lead them will feed in Gilead (Mic 7:14) and be satisfied
against the Ammonites, appealed to Jephthah there (Jer 50: 19). In Ezekiel's vision of recon-
whose father was Gilead and whose half-brother struction, Gilead is on the eastern border.
had thrust him out of the country years before Mention is made of Gilead the Gadite (I Chr

165
357 tu'.c~
(gälash)

5: 14) and Gilead son of Machir son of Manasseh Rämal in the Qal may also mean to bear ripe
(Num 26:29,30; 27:1; 36:1; Josh 17:1,3). almonds (Num 17:8 [H 23]) or to ripen, ofgrapes
(Isa 18:5).
gil'ädi. Gileadite. The patronymic occurs
eleven times (Num 26:29; Jud 10:3; 11:1,40; 2:7; Räma/ occurs in the Niphal three times, twice
II Sam 17:27; 19:31; I Kgs 2:7; II Kgs 15:25; Ezr of the weaning of Isaac (Gen 21 :8) and once of
2:61; Neh 7:63). Samuel (1 Sam 1:22).
Biblwgraphy: Kraus, Hans-Joachim, "Gil- g'mtil. Recompense, reward, benefit, dealing.
gal," VT 1:181-99. Mauchline, John, "Gilead This noun occurs eighteen times. lt is the recom-
and Gilgal: Some Reflections on the Israelite Oc- pense given by God (Isa 3:11; 35:4; 59:18; 66:6;
cupation of Palestine," VT 6: 19-33. Muilenburg, Jer 51:6; Lam 3:64; Ob 15; Joel 3:7 [H 4:7]) and
J., "The Site of Ancient Gilgal," BASOR 140: by man (Joel 3:4 [H 4:41; Ps 137:8); the benefits
11-27. Baly, Denis, The Geowaphy of Palestine God has given (Ps 103:2; II Chr 32:25), and the
Harper, 1957, pp. 225-31. deeds one does (Jud 9:16; Prov 12:14; Isa 3:11).
E.S.K. The Psalmist invokes God, the God of recom-
pense (Jer 51 :56; cf. Deut 28), to give the wicked
357 ~,~ (Riilash) to sit, sit up, possibly to re- his due (Ps 28:4; 94:2).
cline. Occurs only in Song 4: 1; 6:5.
g'mtilä. Dealing, recompense. This feminine
=~(Ram). See no. 361a.
noun is used of the reward which David otfered
to Barzillai in return for a favor which he showed
to David when he was fleeing from Absalom (II
358 *Mt;~ (Riima') swallow (liquids). Occurs
in the Pie! (Job 39:24) and Hiphil (Gen Sam 19:37). A plural form in the prophets de-
24: 17). scribes God's retribution to his adversaries (lsa
59: 18), in particular to Babylon, for the Lord is a
Derivative God of recompense (Jer 51 :56).
358a M~ l (göme') rush, reed, papy- tagmtil. Benefit. This is an abstract masculine
rus (e.g. Isa 18:2; Job 8:11). noun (GKC 85r) from the root gamal. lt occurs
in the plural with an Aramaic suffix, taRmiilohf
359 ,0~ (f?md). Assumed root of the following. (GKC 91 /; Ps 116: 12). The ASVrenders "bene-
359a .,~ J (Rümed) cubit (Jud 3: 16, fits, .. and the Rsv, "bounty." Having recovered
only). from an illness, overwhelmed with God's good-
359b c•,tp~ (Rammadfm) valorous men ness toward him, the Psalmist asks what he
(Ezk 27: 11). should return for such benefits. He answered
with self-dedication, sacrifice, and payment of
'?~0~ (g'' mül). See no. 360a. vows.
gämäl. Camel. LXX, kamelos. A beast of bur-
360 ',~~ (giimal) to deal, to recompense, to ripen den mentioned throughout the oT, from the pa-
(Asv: do, deal, requite, reward; Rsv: deal,
triarchal accounts to the postexilic age. Used
requite, deal bountifully .) primarily for riding (Gen 24:61,63; 31:17; I Sam
Derivatives 30:17; lsa 21:7) and carrying loads, camels were
also milked (Gen 32: 15-16). Camel flesh is con-
360a t',~Qf (R'' mu/) recompense.
sidered edible by Arabs. But Israel's dietary laws
360b tl"'l7~0f (g'mula) recompense.
prohibited it, since the camel chews the cud, but
360c t',10~1:1 (tagmul) benefit.
has no parted hoof (Lev 11:4; Deut 14:7).
360d t',~~ (Riimal) camel.
The camel's ability to go long periods without
This verb occurs in the Qal and Niphal stems. water suited him for the spiee Irade (II Chr 9: 1),
In the Qal it signifies to render either good or evil carrying food some distances, transporting prod-
to someone. In some passages the two are con- ucts of Gilead to Egypt (Gen 37:25), transporting
trasted (Prov 31: 12; I Sam 24: 17 [H 18]); in others tribute (II Kgs 8:9f.; I Chr 12:41, and transporting
evil is done (Gen 50: 15, 17; Prov 3:30); in still oth- gifts to the Lord (lsa 60:6). Caravans were of
ers good is done (lsa 63:7). At times the idea is to various sizes (Gen 24: 10). Making the camels
deal bountifully with (Ps 13:6; 116:7, etc.), or to kneel (Gen 24: 11), unloading them, and providing
deal out reward (II Sam 19:36 [H 371). At times food for them (Gen 24:32) was a regular part of
there is a recompense or a requital in a bad sense the trip. Drawing water for camels at a weil at a
(Ps 7:4 [H 51); Deut 32:6; Ps 137:8). stopping place was a big task; Rachel's willing-
The Qal form may mean to wean a child (1 Sam ness to do it showed her character and answered
1:23-24; I Kgs 11:20; Hos 1:8) so that one reads Eliezer's prayer (Gen 24: 10, 19, 20, 44, 46).
of the weaned child (f?ämul; Ps 131:2) or the child Raiders rode camels (Jud 6:5; 7: 12; 8:21,26)
weaned from milk (R'' mule me}Jäläb). and often seized the camels of their enemies (Job

166
 363 "11;~(gämar)

1:17;Jer49:29, 32; 1 Sam 15:3; 27:9; II Cr 14:15 comprehensive particle (Jud 9:49; Prov 17:15). (3)
[H 14]); lsa 30:6). One episode lists a booty of Like the connective particle waw, ,:tarn may
fifty thousand camels (1 Chr 5:21). Sennacherib function conjunctively to join two nouns (Joel
lists camels among the booty he took from Judah. 1:12) or two verbs (Ps 137:1) or two clauses (Jud
Camels were a means of rapid escape (1 Sam 5:4). (4) Like 'ap, garn may serve as an intensive
30:17). Rabbah of Ammon is threatened with be- particle at the beginning of an emphatic statement
coming a pasture of camels (Ezk 25:5). (Prov 17:26; Joel 2:29 [H 3:21). (5) As an emphatic
The wealth of men like Abraham (Gen 12:16; particle gam is used to stress a particular word
24:35), Jacob (Gen 30:43), and Job was counted within the sentence, especially pronouns and
(along with other livestock) in the number of their nouns with pronominal suffixes (Gen 4:26; 10:21;
camels. Job bad three thousand before his affiic- 27:34).
tion, bi.Jtsix thousand afterward (Job 1:3; 42:12). (6) In addition garn has a correlative use which
David had a special overseer of camels (1 Chr indicates correspondence between two actions
27:30). Like other livestock, camels were victims (Gen 20:6). (7) Sometimes garn has a consequen-
of the plague in Egypt (Ex 9:3; cf. Zech 14:15). tial force and is used to introduce an action which
Those who returned from exile are said to have is a logical consequence of some antecedent ac-
had 435 camels (Ezr 2:67; cf. Neh 7:68). tion. garn is frequently used to introduce the just
Albright has argued that the camel was not ex- and appropriate response of God to transgression
tensively domesticated until the lron Age (about (Jud 2:21; Jer 4: 12) or repentance (II Sam 12:13),
1200). He holds that the patriarchal references In the same sense ,:tarn is used to indicate man's
are somewhat anachronistic and that the common reasonable response to God's grace (Josh 24: 18; 1
nomad ofthat day depended on the ass (SAC, p. Sam 1:28). (8) gam also has an adversative use in
164-65). He does, however, allow that "partial which it introduces contrariety or antithesis (Ezk
and sporadic domestication may go back several 16:28; Ps 129:2). (9) In its confirmatory use garn
centuries earlier." J. P. Free gathered evidence serves to underscore or confirm a direct state-
of earlier use of domesticated camels, though his ment or an impression which has just been made
proof need not be pressed to say that ass (Gen 29:30; Hos 9: 12). (10) garn is also used to
nomadism was not the more common (J. P. Free, indicate a climax (Gen 27:33; Deut 23:3-4). [An
JNES 3: 187-93.) K. Kitchen since then has interesting use of garn apparently for emphasis is
brought out additional evidence to demonstrate in the series ofuses of ,:tarn hü' in I Sam 19:19-
that the camel was domesticated already in the 24. Saul had sent messengers to Ramah three
Early Bronze Age (see Andre Parrot, Syria 32: times to arrest David. Each time the messengers
323). saw Samuel and the others prophesying they also
Bibliography: Free, Joseph P., "Abraham's prophesied, or, better, even they prophesied.
Camels," JNES 3: 187-93. lsserlin, B. S., "On Finally, Saul "also he" went and "also he"
Some Possible Occurrences of the Camel in prophesied and "also he" lay down naked all
Palestine," PEQ :50-53. Lambert, W. G .. "The night. But the use of gam hü' does not necessar-
Domesticated Camel in the Second Millennium: ily mean that the others also stripped themselves
Evidence from Alalakh and Ugarit," BASOR when they prophesied. nor that such behavior is
160: 42-43. THAT, 1, pp. 426-28. inherent in prophesying. The phrase may be used
J.P.L. here for emphasis and mean that even Saul
prophesied and even Saul stripped himself. Prob-
361 CIOJ ( v~1rn). Assumed root of the following. ably KJV is too extreme in saying that he lay down
361a tc~ (garn) again, alike. naked. He had thrown off his royal robes and
361b :-irpJ~ (rn''garnrna). Meaning uncer- especially his sword and armor thus allowing
tain, perhaps "hordes" (Hab 1:9). David to get away with a twelve hour start! Saul's
action was a special case for a special purpose
gam. Agai11, alike, as, but, even, likewise, in like and the garn merely emphasizes this fact. R.LH.]
manner, so much as, then, though, with, yea. A J,E.S.
particle occurring over 750 times. garn denotes
addition. lt is often repeated in a sentence, in
which case the most frequent translations are 362 TOJ (gmJ), Assumed root of the following.
both .. , and; either, .. or; nay ... neither; 362a r~,~ (gürnä~·) pit (Eccl 10:8; Prov
so ... and. Sometimes in English translations 26:27).
gam is completely ignored.
garn has at least ten distinctive vsages in the
oT, ( 1) Sometimes gam simply serves as a parti- 363 "lt.'il (gärnar) cease, come to an end, fail,
cle of addition or accumulation (Gen 7:3). (2) perfect, perform. (ASV similar; RSV renders
When two or more persons or objects are viewed "fulfill" instead of "perfect" or "per-
as functioning together. garn may serve as a form. ")

167
364 :,~~ (gänab)

Derivative exact amount he had hoped to gain. The penalties

363a .,~-~ (gömer) Gomer,apropername. were doubled and more if the thief slaughtered or
sold a stolen animal. Only in the case of kidnap-
gämar occurs only five times (all in the book of ping (Ex 21: 16) or theft of "devoted things" (Josh
Psalms), and has the basic meaning "to complete 7: 11, 25) was a thief executed.
or finish." lt is similar in meaning to 'äpes, pä.rn.1· gänab is used figuratively to describe wind
II, and shabat. Negatively, the verb refers to the sweeping something away unexpectedly (Job
abrupt and seemingly permanent termination of 21: 18; 27:20). In the Hithpael the word is used to
that which previously existed. depict the thief-like movements of military de-
The Psalmist is concerned that godly men have serters (II Sam 19:4). "To steal the heart" is an
ceased tobe in the land (Ps 12:1 (H 21). He prays idiom which means "to deceive." lt is correctly_
that God will terminate wickedness (Ps 7:9 rendered by the RSVin Gen 31:20 ("outwit") but
[H 10]) and wonders if the promise made to Ab- missed by both Rsv and ASVin Gen 31:26--27and
raham has been permanently canceled. Posi- II Sam 15:6.
tively. gämar refers to how the Lord finishes or J.E.S.
accomplishes in the life of his saints all that he
undertakes (Ps 57:2 (H 3]; 138:8). :ig~ (gannii). See no. 367b.
Gomer was the name of Hosca·s unfaithful
wife (Hos 1:3). His relationship to her was sym- 365 Tl: (gnz). Assumed root of the following.
bolic of God's relationship to wayward Israel. 365a c•m (g'näzi'm) chests (meaning
Japheth's eldest son also bore the name Gomer uncertain, Ezk 27:24); treasury (Est
doubtless from a non-semitic original (Gen 10:2- 3:9; 4:7).
3). His descendants are usually identified as the
Cimmerians who moved onto the stage of history 366 '!Im(ganzak) treasury (1 Chr 28: 11). Per-
from the area north of the Black Sea in the eighth sian loan word.
century s.c. Gomer is named as one of the con-
federates of Gog in the eschatological battle 367 m (gänan) defend. (ASVand RSValso
against the people of God (Ezk 38:6). render "put a shield about," and "pro-
Bibliography: Dahood, Mitchell, "The Root tect."
GMR in the Psalms," TS 14: 595-97.
J.E.S. Derivatives
367a tT~ (gan) enclosure, garden.
l~ (gan). See no. 367a. 367b Mfl (gannii) garden.
367c tpr; (mägen) shield.
367d t:,~~~ (m'ginnii) covering.
364 !:l~~ (gänab) carry away, steal, steal away.
367e *tl~1i' (mägan) deliver up. Denomi-
(Asvand RSVsimilar except the latter renders
native from mägen. Occurs only in
once •·outwit" and twice "cheat. ")
the Piel.
Derivatives The verb and its derivatives occur about 130
364a :i;,;~ (g'' nebii) theft, thing stolen. times. The basic idea of the verb is to cover over
364b !:li~· (gannäh) thief and thus shield from danger.
gänan is used only in reference to the protec-
Basically the verb means "to take that which
belongs to another without his consent or knowl- tive guardianship of God. Of its eight occur-
rences, six have to do with the Assyrian crisis in
edge." lt is restricted to acts of theft done se-
the days of Hezekiah. Isaiah assured the king that
cretly. The related verbs Räwl and 'äshaq em-
God would care for Jerusalem like a mother bird
phasize the violent aspect of seizing the property
hovering with wings spread over her young in the
of another. 1,?änahand its derivatives occur some
nest (Isa 31:5). God would protect Jerusalem in
sixty times.
this crisis for his own sake and for the sake of
The eighth commandment condemns stealing
David (lsa 37:35). The deliverance of Jerusalem
(Ex 20: 15: Deut 5: 17)including burglary (Ex 22:2)
would demonstrate to the world that God was
and kidnapping (Ex 21: 16). Thievery was re-
faithful to his promises and mighty to deliver his
garded with the utmost disdain in Israel (Lev
people from their oppressors. Zechariah twice
19:11: Jer 2:26; cf. Prov 6:30). In one case alone
uses the same verb to describe the divine protec-
is gänab commended (II Kgs 11:2).
tion ofGod's people in their wars against the sons
Punishment for theft in Israel was not as severe
of Greece (9: 15) and of Jerusalem in the last days
as that of some neighboring nations, where the
(12:8).
death penalty was intlicted. The Law required
the thief to return to his victim twice the amount gan, gannä. Garden. A garden (gan, gannii) is
he had stolen (Ex 22:7). Thus the thief lost the a plot of ground protected by a wall or a hedge.

168
 369 ',p~ (gä'al)

These areas were often irrigated (Isa 58: 11) and as protectors ofthe realm (Ps 89:18 [H 19]: 47:9
were used to cultivate flowers, fruits, and veget- [H 10]: Hos 4:18).
ables (Song 5: 1; 6:2). During· the hot summer Though not specifically Iisted in the vocabulary
months such gardens provided a refuge from the of Gordon (UT 19) or Aistleitner (AisWUS),
stifling heat (Song 5:2; 8:13). The king's resi- miigen may also mean "suzerain." Dahood has
dence probably included an elaborate garden or argued the case convincingly in AB, Ps I (p. 17
private park (II Kgs 25:4). Frequently gardens and elsewhere, see indices). He argues from the
were used as burial places (II Kgs 21:18, 26). meaning of miiRan "bestow a gift" amply wit-
Isaiah condemned the people of his day for turn- nessed in Punic and Ugaritic (UT and AisWUS in
ing their gardens into centers- for pagan worship loc.), that the noun refers to the giver of gifts, the
(lsa 1:29; 65:3; 66:17). An enclosed and fruitful suzerain, the benefactor (from the suzerain' s
garden became the figure of a chaste woman viewpoint!). He remarks that the Carthaginian
(Song 4: 12) and of national prosperity (Num 24:6; generals were called miiRön, translated into
Jer 29:5; Arnos 9: 14). The destruction of such Latin by imperator. There are indeed places
gardens typified desolation (Arnos 4:9). especially in the Pss, where the translation
The primeval garden of Gen 2-3 is perhaps the "suzerain" fits very well, though it is difficult to
most famous garden in the OT. This garden was be sure, for a suzerain claims tobe both a bene-
located in an area called Eden (q.v.; Gen 2:8, 10) factor and a protector. So a passage like Ps 89: 18
and consequently came to be known as the gar- could be "shield" used figuratively of a prince,
den of Eden (Gen 2: 15; 3:23-24). A careful study or could be translated directly as „ suzerain."
of the geographical details of Gen 2 suggests that
m"ginnä. Sorrow. Occurs only once in the ex-
the garden was located near the mouth of the pression „ sorrow of heart," a figure for obsti-
Persian Gulf. lt is not unlikely that the original nacy or blindness of heart (Lam 3:65). The ASV
site lies under the waters of the gulf. In later translates it „ hardness of heart" and the Rsv
times this garden, known also as the "garden of .. dullness of heart."
the LORD,"came to be used as a symbol of land
that was covered with lush vegetation (Gen mägan. Deliver, deliver up. (Rsv "bestow, ..
13:10; lsa 51:3; Ezk 36:35; Joel 2:3). In one pas- "hand over": ASV "cast off"'). A denominative
sage the „ garden of God" represents the created from miiRi'n used only three times, all in the Piel,
world and the trees of the garden, the kings of the or, according to Dahood, a separate verb. The
earth (Ezk 31:8-18). A primeval garden appears idea is that a person is so hemmed in that there is
in Ezk 28:12-19. This passage is notoriously dif- no way of escape from the particular danger en-
ficult. lt is probably best regarded as a mocking visioned. This verb is synonymous with the Piel
allusion to a corrupt Canaanite version of the of sii,:ar.
Eden story. J.E.S.

mägen. Shield, buckler, defense, ruler, armed, 368 :,~il (Rii'ii) low (of cattle, Job 6:5: I Sam
scales, now also suzerain is suggested. The noun 6: 12).
miigen refers to an object which provides cover-
ing and protection to the body during warfare. Of 369 ,~~ (ga'al) abhor, loathe, be vüely cast away,
the six Hebrew words rendered in KJV as
fall.
"shield" or "buckler" only miigen, .~inna, and
possibly shele( refer to what may properly be Derivative
called shields. lt is obvious that mii[(en and ~·inna 369a ,~-~ (Rö'a/) loathing.
refer to different types of shields, but English
versions have not consistently maintained the This root indicates an intense aversion which is
distinction, rendering both words indiscrimi- expressed often in punitive or adverse action.
nately as "shield" or "buckler." mägen refers to lf Israel kept the Lord's law, the Lord would
the smaller and more common type of round not abhor them but continue to dwell among them
shield carried by light infantry and officers. ~innii (Lev 26: 11), but if they abhorred the divine stat-
is the rectangular shield which covered the whole utes, then God would bring judgments on the
front of the body. people (26:15). The attitude which the Lord
In view of the fact that God is always the one would hold toward those on whom he would visit
who protects ([(iinan) his people, it is no surprise judgment is expressed by this root (26:30), indi-
that he is so often called the shield ( mii[(en) of cating a rejection of those persons. The divine
Israel. He is the shield about his servants (Gen abhorrence is paralleled on the part of the people
15:1), the house of Aaron (Ps 115: 10), the nation by their abhorrence and their contempt for the
oflsrael (Deut 33:29) and all those who walk up- Lord's statutes and ordinances (26:43). But the
rightly and put their trust in him (Prov 2:7; 30:5). Lord's abhorrence of them would not extend to
The word mägen is also used figuratively ofprinces their destruction in the land of their exile or to

169
370 "lt,~ (gä'ar)
forgetting them (26:44). The judgment predicted eration of Hebrew ,ia," VT 19: 471-79. THAT,
in Lev 26 finds its fulfillment in the time of I, pp. 429-30.
Jeremiah who used this. word to describe the H.G.S.
Lord's attitude toward Israel when he affiicted
them in accordance with the cursing formulae of 371 !VI,'~ (!(ä'ash) shake, quake (e.g. Ps 18:8;
the covenant. The abhorrence of the sanctity of II Sam 22:8).
marriage obligations is the root from which arises
progressively deeper transgressions illustrated by I:'\~ (gap). See no. 373c.
the worsening spiritual state of the „ daughters"
Sodom and Jerusalem in comparison with their 372 1CIJ (gpn). Assumed root of the following.
"father," the Hittite and their "mother," the 372a 1~!! (gepen) vine, vine tree.
Amorite (Ezk 16:45). David implies that the vile
death of Saul and Jonathan is inconsistent with lt has the same meaning in Ugaritic. In Akka-
their status (II Sam 1:21), except that rejection of dian it denotes a „ shrub, plant with tendrils."
God may result in that kind of death. This root designates the grape vine of whatever
B.K.W. species (cf. Job 15:33; Jer 8: 13).
Noah was the first after the flood to grow
grapes, though this word is not used in that con-
370 ip~ (gä'ar) corrupt, rebuke, reprove. nection. The vine was cultivated in predynastic
Derivatives Egypt, and pictures of grape vines were shown
laden with grapes.
370a rn,~;i (g"'ära) rebuke. The planting and care of a vineyard (kerem
370b tri,~~~ (mig'eret) rebuke. q. v .) is described in lsa 5: 1-{i,which indicates the
This root indicates a check applied to a person grapes could be good (sweet) or wild (sour).
or peoples through strong admonitions or ac- Ground was prepared by gathering out the
tions. stones, the !arger ones used to make up the en-
Jacob rebukes Joseph v:hen he relates the circling walls. Sometimes the vineyard was the
dream of sun, moon, and eleven stars bowing to only source of income, which would explain Na-
him (Gen 37: 10). Aggressive nations flee before both's refusal to seil to Ahab (1 Kgs 21:1-4).
God when he checks their deed against his people The Lord's favor is expressed in the gift of
(lsa 17:13). God rebukes Satan's attempt to hin- vines and vineyards (Hos 2: 15 [H 14, 17)). The
der worship in Jerusalem (Zech 3:2). vine figures in visions (Gen 40:9-10) and parables
Ruth is not prevented from gleaning in Boaz's (Jud 9:12), indicating its prominence; it is figura-
fields even though she is from Moab (Ruth 2: 16). tive for a fruitful wife (Ps 128:3). Vineyards could
God prevents the normal action of water and be rented. (These are not gepen). The grapes
wave when he rolls back the Red Sea (Ps 106:9). were preserved as raisins as well as being made
into wine.
g"'ärä. Rebuke, rebuking. The seas cannot Behm notes that the metaphor of the vine is
prevent the revelation of secrets buried in their common in Israelite and Judaic literature. "lt is
depths, for God's rebuke can roll them back to used," he writes, "for the people oflsrael in Hos
expose all that is there (II Sam 22: 16). g' 'ära 10:1; Jer 2:21, Ez 15:lff.; 19:I0ff; Ps 80:9ff.... ;
describes the rejection of wise counsel by the for the messiah which is like a vine''; for wisdom
scoffer (Prov 13:1). lt likewise describes the in Sir. 24:17; for the wife in Ps. 128:3'" (TDNT,
power in the command of God to dry up the sea I, p. 342). lt is against the failure of Israel to
(lsa 50:2), to make the heavens tremble (Job produce the fruit that the Lord was looking for,
26: 11), to overthrow the warrior (Ps 76:6 [H 7]), namely, justice and righteousness (lsa 5: )-{,),
and to destroy morale which results in flight be- that Jesus' proclamation that he is the true vine
fore the enemy (lsa 30: 17). Wise rebuke is effec- must be interpreted (John 15:lff.).
tive in the hearts of those who accept it (Prov Bibliography: Brown, J. P., "The Mediterra-
17:10; Eccl 7:5), but the scoffer rejects wise nean Vocabulary of the Vine," VT 19: 146-70.
counsel. In contrast to the rich man who may Forbes, R. J ., Studies in Ancient Technology 3:
have to ransom his life, the poor man does not 70-78.
even hear a threat (Prov 13:8). H.G.S.
mig'eret. Rebuke (Rsv frustration). This
noun is used once in parallelism with the words 373 l:'\CIJ (gpp). Assumed root of the following.
cursing and vexation (hamm'era and ham- 373a I:'\~ (gap) body, seif (Ex 21:3-4);
m'hüma, Deut 28:20), indicating the fruitless height, elevation (Prov 9:3).
conclusion of the activities of a people which
tums away from God. 374 l"!Q~ (goper) with TV. ('e.)') gopher wood.
Bibliography: Macintosh, A. A., "A Consid- · Meaning unknown.

170
 381 ,.,., (grl)

The only use of this word in the OT occurs in (Deut 2:5, 19). However, Israel was prohibited
Gen 6: 14. Because it is similar to käpar "to cover from involving himself in battle with Edom,
over," some have believed that the R is mis- Moab and Ammon because they were blood rela-
written for k, and that therefore f?Öper should be tives. Involvement in war is also the purpose of
translated resinous wood, like fir or pine (cf. Amaziah of Judah in his challenge to Jehoash of
BOB; A. Heide!, Gilf?amesh Epic and O.T. Israel, that Amaziah (per Johoash) might increase
Para/leis, Univ of Chicago Press, p. 233). lf the his territory (II Kgs 14:9-10). Likewise the uses
word were derived from Akkadian f?ipäru, it in Dan 11 clearly point to warfare: in this case
might be a Sumerian loan word (Heide!, ibid.), between Egypt and Syria (vv. 10, 25).
but the equivalent in Hebrew would be f?ipiir. The word is used apart from war to denote the
Hebrew f?Öper presumes an Akkadian form opposition ofGod's people to those who forsake
güpru (analogues: küpru: koper, Gen 6: 14). God's law (Prov 28:4). A characteristic of the
güpru has been found in two or three passages proud (Prov 28:25) or angry (15:18) is to stir up
(Heide!, p. 234) but with the meaning "tables"; strife. Blinded by her strife against God, Babylon
and once in the Old Babylonian version of the is caught unawares in a snare (Jer 50:24).
Gilgamesh Epic, Tab 11,col 2, line 33 (ibid, p. 28; Psalm 39:10 [H III has the only use of tiRra,
Orientalische Literaturzeitunf.? 24: col 269). The descriptive of the blow of God's hand levelled
use ofthe wood in Noah's ark (q.v.) may be ex- against David.
plained as follows: the word "nests" (KJV B.K.W.
"rooms") should perhaps be translated "reeds"
since other uses of the root for this word are in :i,J (gera) l, II. See nos. 386a,b.
the singular, and since construction in general is 1ii~ (gäron). See no. 378a.
under consideration. lf „ reeds" were accepted, it :i~,,f (R'' rüsha). See no. 388b.
would follow that gopher wood was the frame-
work with reed interlacing. Actually the brief bi- 379 *Tj~ (f?äraz) cut, cut off. Occurs only
blical account can hardly be used to give the de- once, in the Niphal (Ps 31:23).
tails of construction. (cf. Ullendorf, E. "The
Construction of Noah's Ark," VT 4: 95-96). Derivative
H.G.S. 379a 1,1':,~(f?arzen) axe (e.g. Deut 19:5;
. ·1 Kgs 6:7).
375 r,•,~~(f?oprit) brimstone (e.g. Gen 19:24;
Ps 11:6; NJV, sulfur). 380 ,~,, (!,?r(I). Assumed root of the following.
ti~ (ger). See no. 330a. 380a ,~,~~ ( 'agar(äl) basin, basket (Ezr
il (gir). See no. 347a. 1:9; II Kgs 10:7).

376 ::i,,(f?rh). Assumed root of the following.

376a ::i,~
(f?äräh) itch, scab
22:22; Deut 28:27).
(Lev 21:20;
381 ,,,
381a t,,ü
(Rf/). Assumed root of the following.
(goräl) lot, portion.
Occurs seventy-seven times (without Prov
,~,~ (R0rf.?ar). See no. 386c. 19:19 Kethiv; Qere Rdl) and is always translated
riiin~ (f?arg'rot). See no. 386d. "lot" or "lots" (KJV). Probably the noun is re-
lated to Arabic /?ani-al "pebble" (KB) and by
metonomy came to be used for ··tot" because
377 *ij~ (Rärad) scrape, scratch. Occurs little stones were used in lasting lots. BOB call
only once, in the Hithpael (Job 2:8).
attention here to Greek psephos = "pebble,"
378 :i,~ (gära) stir up, be stirred up, contend,
meddle, strive.
"vote," and kuamos = "bean," "lot." lt refers
then to some article like a sto11e which was
thrown or allowed to fall in a way io determine a
Derivatives choice. In some cases not only the lot itself but
what was chosen is called Jot (Jud 1:3), and one·s
378a li"'\~ (f?ärön) neck, throat.
circumstances or even life as a whole is one·s lot
378b :i,~ri (tiRrii) contention, strife.
(Ps 16:5). Recompense or reward may be one·s
The root is often used in connection with war- lot (Isa 17:14; Dan 12:13).
fare. Thus Israel was commanded to involve him- While the Hebrew OT uses six verbs meaning
self in battle with Sihon, the Amorite. so that the throw, give or fall describing the method of de-
Amorites should be dispossessed and his land termining choice by lot, KJV translates each of
taken by the Israelites (Deut 2:24). Warfare is them as casting lots (Lev 16:8; Josh 18:6, 8; Prov
also explicitly in view in Israel's relation with 16:33; Isa 34: 17; Joel 4:3 ). The lot is said to come
Moab at the time of the Conquest (Deut 2:9), and up, out, upon, or for a person or thing.
implied in its relation with Edom and Ammon Nowhere does the or explain either what a lot

171
382 c:,~ (giiram)
is or how casting lots was accomplished. Prov (Neh 11:1) and of those to supply wood for the
16:33 mentions that "'the lot is cast into the lap" altar fire (Neh l0:34 [H 35)). In addition, it was
and Micah speaks of casting "a cord by lot" used to discover God's will for the detection of a
(2:5); but these observations provide no real guilty person: of Achan (Jos 7: 14) (?) and of
clues to the nature of the lot nor to the method of Jonah (Jon 1:7). Rooted in the awareness that
casting lots. Quite possibly we ought to assume God controlled Israel's history and the individu-
differing techniques for various places, times and al's portion, the lot served to settle disputes
occasions. lts exact connection with Urim and (Prov 18:18).
Thummim is not known. The casting of the lot to decide governmental
The use of the lot to determine the mind and or judicial matters was practiced by other ancient
the will ofGod continues throughout the oT and is peoples, as by Haman in the time of Esther. lt
explicitly declared to be in his control in Prov was by a decision called casting Pur (lot, goriil)
16:33: "The lot is cast into the lap; but the whole that Haman, the enemy of the Jews, determined a
disposing thereof is of the LORD." proper time for their massacre, whereupon he
One of the most important uses of the Jot oc- sent word throughout the provinces ruled by
curred in the division of the land of Palestine Ahasuerus that the Jews should be destroyed
among the lsraelites after the conquests of Moses (Est 3:7; 9:24). But because Mordecai with the
and Joshua. Under Moses direction, Reuben, help of Esther was able to frustrate this attempt
Gad, and a half-tribe of Manasseh received land of Haman, the day of Purim became a time of
east of the Jordan. Under Joshua the land west of rejoicing rather than one of sadness. Throughout
the Dead Sea, the Jordan and the Sea of Galilee the book the providential timing of events deci-
was distributed by Jot to the remaining tribes. sively favors the Jews against Haman.
This casting of lots was done partly at Gilgal Bibliography: J. Lindlom, .. Lot-casting in the
(Josh 14-17) and partly at Shiloh (Josh 18, 19). OT." VT: 12: 164-66.
The Levites were granted cities for themselves in E.S.K.
various tribal areas. These cities also were appor-
tioned by Jot (Josh 21).
The retention of family patrimonies is illus- 382 Cl':,~ (giiram) lay aside, leave, save. Oc-
trated in the case of Zelophehad's daughters who curs only in Zeph 3:3.
were not to marry outside their tribe so that their Derivatives
inheritance would not be taken from the lot of
their father's tribe (Num 36: 1-2). By metonymy 382a Cl'.')~ (gerem) hone (Prov 17:22),
the word is used for the portion of land assigned strength, (Gen 49: 14), seif (II
to a tribe or family and therefore becomes an Kgs 9:13).
equivalent for na/:,a/a "inheritance," J:,eleq 382b *Cl':,f (giiram) break bones. This
"'portion," y'"rüshsha "possession," 'a~züzza denominative verb occurs only m
"possession," etc. From this the noun comes to the Piel (Num 24:8; Ezk 23:34).
denote in general "'portion, fate, destiny" (cf. lsa
17:14; 34:17; 57:6; Jer 13:25; Ps 16:5). At the end
383 l"lJ (grn). Assumed root of the following.
of the days the resurrected man will stand in his
lot (Dan 12:3). 383a ,:-,·~ (gören) barn, barnfloor, corn,
·floor, thre shingfloor, thre shing place,
On the day of atonement the destiny of two
void place. This word signifies the
goats was determined by lot (Lev 16:8-IO)--one
place where grain was threshed from
lot for the LORD and the other Jot for the
the stalk and chaff.
scapegoat. The goat on which the LORD's Jot feil
was offered on the altar, while the sins of the The threshing floor when füll was at once the
Israelites were confessed over the other goat and symbol of plenty and wealth and the target of
the goat was sent away into the wilderness. This raiders (1 Sam 23: 1). lt was vulnerable to attack,
act indicated that the sins were taken away- because it had to be open to breezes which facili-
removed from the Israelites. After this fashion tated winnowing the grain. The threshing place of
atonement and removal oftheir sins was effected. Arauna, which David bought and where Solomon
Victors cast lots in dividing the spoils of the later built the temple, was such a place. lf near
booty in general, of Jerusalem (Ob 11), of the the town, the gören was a communal thing and
honorable men taken in Thebes (Nah 3: 10), ofthe therefore near the gate (1 Kgs 22:10, a "void
ravaged people of Israel (Joel 3:3 [H 4:3)) and of place"). Ruth finds Boaz on the threshing floor,
the Messiah's clothing (Ps 22: 18 [H 19); cf. Jn presumably guarding the newly harvested
19:24). Lots were also cast for assignment to ser- sheaves or threshed grain.
vice: of the men to fight against Gibeah (Jud The blessing of God is symbolized by the füll
20:9), of the priests to serve in the temple (I threshing floor (Joel 2:24). From it was taken the
Chron 24:5), of the people to dwell in Jerusalem heave offering to the Lord (Num 15:20) and the

172
 388 !Vj~ (gärash)
tithe of the increase (over what was planted 385 ~:i;i (gärap) sweep (Jud 5:21, only).
18:30).
The sheaves were spread out on the hard sur- Derivatives
face and either trampled by animals or by a 385a ~-,;itt ('egröp) fist (Ex 21:18; lsa
sledge or roller machine to separate the kernels 58:4).
from the stalks, the whole being turned over a 385b :i~,;i~ ( meväpil) shovel (Joel
sufficient number of times to effect the separa- 1:17, only).
tion.
Bibliography: Ahlstrom, G. W., "Der Pro- 386 "l':lf (gärar) drag, drag away (e.g. Hab
phet Nathan und der Tempelbau,,. VT 11: 113- 1:15; Prov 21:7).
27. Gray, John, "Tell EI Fara by Nablus: A
'Mother' in Ancient Israel," PEQ 84: 110-13. Derivatives
--, "The Goren at the City Gate: Justice and 386a :i,~ (geril) /, cud (e.g. Lev 11;
the Royal Office in the Ugaritic Text · AQHT," Deut 14).
PEQ 85: 118-23. Lambert, W. G., "Two Akka- 386b :i,~ (geril) II, gerah, a weight, a
dian Cognates,'' JJS 5: 40--41. Marget, Arthur twentieth part of a sheke/ (e.g. Ex
W., "?,:.,J i"lJ in II Sam 6,6," JBL 39: 70-76. 39:13; Lev 27:25).
Smith, Sidney, "The Threshing Floor at the City 386c "l~"l~ (gargar) berry (lsa 17:6,
Gate," PEQ 78: 5-14. Wright, G. E., Biblical only).
Archaeology, 1957, p. 182. 386d rii"l~".'I~ ( garg •·röt) neck (e .g. Prov
H.G.S. 1:9; 3:22).
386e :i,~~ (m'gerii) saw (1 Kgs 7:9; II
Sam 12:31).
Cj~ (gäras). See no. 387.
387 W"l~ (gära.O be crushed (Ps 119:20; Lam
384 IJj~ (gära') clip, diminish, restrain, take -3:16 there spelled with samekh).
from, withdraw, abate, do away, keep back.
Derivative
Derivative 387a w:,~(geres) a crushing (Lev 2: 14,
384a :ir;i;i~ (migrä'il) recess. 16).
This root signifies a reduction of quantity of
things or of social or religious activities. 388 Wj~ (gärash) cast up, drive out/away, di-
The lsraelites, during their bondage in Egypt, vorce, expel, put away, thrust out, trouble.
were not permitted to lower their production of Derivatives
bricks, even when they were forced to gather
388a ttv:,~ (geresh) thing pul forth.
their own straw (Ex 5:7-8). The inevitable re-
388b t:,~~"lf (g'rushii) act of expulsion.
duced count was attributed to idleness on their
388c ttv";t;i~ (migräsh) suburb.
part (5:17).
Women were not allowed to marry outside The root denotes an effective separation be-
their tri bes if they were heirs to property, in order tween persons or groups, expulsion. Ugaritic at-
to avoid diminishing the tribe ·s economic stand- tests the meaning "to drive out."
ing (Num 36: 1-7). A person who had become un- Adam and Eve were driven from the garden of
clean from contact with a corpse was not prohib- Eden and prevented from returning by the angel
ited from eating the Passover, but was to do so a with the flaming sword (Gen 3:24). Cain was ex-
month later (Num 9:7). The ordinances of God pelled from God's presence and forced to become
must not be diminished or added to in their small- a defenseless wanderer among men (Gen 4: 14),
est parts that Israel might have the larger blessing the penalty of his fratricide. Israel was to dispos-
(Deut 4:2; cf. Rev 22:18-19). The many progeny ses the Canaanites from the promised land and
promised to the faithful would be cut down ifthey eject them (Ex 23:31). Balak hoped to expel the
turned away from God (Ezk 5: 11). Israelites (Num 22: 11) by force. David used the
Whereas Eliphaz accuses Job of repressing word to describe his flight from Saul (1 Sam
meditation before God and limiting wisdom to 26: 19) because it was affected by violent means
himself, Job learns that God does not forsake (hence the word gärash, forcible or violent ex-
(withdraw from) the righteous, which widens his pulsion). The men who petitioned Pharoah to re-
perspective. (Job 36:7). lease the Israelites were driven from his presence
In the marriage relationship the rights of a sec- (Ex 10:11), probably whipped away by the royal
ondary wife to food, clothing or conjugal rela- bodyguard and his officers. lt would appear that
tions may not be diminished (Ex 21:10). although the context must supply the method, the
H.G.S. word does include some idea of the use of physi-

173
389 *CW~(gäsham)
ca! means. An illustration of the means used is Parent Noun
seen in Josh 24: 12, where the hornet is the means
(figuratively) of spurring on the exodus of the
389a CIW~(geshem) rain, shower (e.g.
Gen 7: 12; Arnos 4:7).
Canaanites from before Israel. Of course the
word of authority of king or judge was sufficient 390 111/l (göshen) Goshen. A district in Egypt.
to effect expulsion from office. I Kings 2:27
states Solomon expelled Abiathar from the lt is s ynonymous with the "land of Ramesses"
priesthood because of machinations against (Gen 47:6, 11). The location of the district de-
David. Deuteronomy 24: 1-4 deals with the bill of pends on the location of the city of A varis (also
divorcernent which separated husband and wife. called Tanis), capital of the Hyksos dynasty.
gärash expresses the execution of divine wrath Later known as Pi-Ramesses, Avaris was the seat
in respect to the Canaanites' expulsion frorn the of the pharoahs during the time of Joseph. There-
land (Ex 23:31) and later on, Israel's (Hos 9:15). fore, the district of Goshen must have been near
Envy is the cause of the expulsion of Jephthah by Pi-Ramesses, which some have located in the
his brothers (Jud 11:7). Fear and consternation ruins of Khata·naQantir on the Bubastite Nile.
led Pharoah at last to expel the lsraelites (Ex The city Tanis on Lake Menzaleh is not a likely
11:1; 12:31). candidate since it was not founded until the
gärash is applied figuratively to the wicked in Twenty-first Dynasty (1065 e.c. and Iater). The
lsa 57:20. They will not always be hidden, but as direct land connection to Asiatic areas of the cap-
the sea casts up flotsarn and jetsam on the beach, ital city implied in the Joseph narrative would not
so will the wicked be exposed. Paul (Gai 4:29-30) be true of the latter Tanis.
refers to the expulsion of Hagar (Gen 21: 10) al- lt has been shown that the name "Goshen" is
legorically, describing the basic difference be- found in the name Phacusa (modern Faqus). This
tween those who work for salvation and those name, read by sorne from the Egyptian asssmt, is
who believe God's prornises, inferring that in the actually tobe read gsmt, Hebrew goshem, Greek
same way the former will be ejected from the gesem. According to the narrative of Abbess As-
kingdorn of God. theria, Gaqus is only four miles from Pi-
geresh. Thing put jorth, produced. A poetic
Ramesses (thus Iocating it), which places Goshen
close to the Egyptian seat of government.
terrn, used of produce arriving in its season, as if
Bibliography: Uphill, E. P., "Pithom and
produced by the sun or moon (Deut 33: 14).
Raamsees: Their Location and Significance,"
g"rusha. Act of expulsion, a violence. Used of JNES 27: 291-316; 28: 15-39. Stigers, H. G.,
oppressive actions against peoples (Ezk 45:9). Genesis, Moody, 1975. Van Seters, John, The
migräsh. Suburb, cast out. Descriptive of a
Hyksos: A New lnvestigation. Yale, 1966.
Kitchen, K. A., "Raarnses," in ZPEB, V, p. 14.
principle city or town and used of the subordinate
---, The Bihle in its World. Paternoster, 1977,
villages as separate entities around a principle
pp. 76-78.
city. Perhaps derived from giirash "drive," then
H.G.S.
the pasture land to which the flocks were driven.
The relation to the root is unclear.
391 *ll.'W~(!;iishash) feel with the hand,
H.G.S.
stroke. This verb occurs only once, in the
389 *CIW~(giisham). This denominative verb Piel (lsa 59: 10).
occurs in the Pual "be rained upon" (Ezk
22:24), and in the Hiphil ··cause or send r,; (gat). See no. 841a.
rain" (Jer 14:22). M'N (gittit). See no. 841b.

174
392 :iit, (dä'eh) become faint, languish (Jer
, 396 :;, (diihah) move gently, glide, glide over.
31:13. 25; Ps 88:10).
392a :i;i:i, (d'"äbii) faintness, dismay Derivatives
(Job 41: 14). 396a bi (döb) bear.
392b ii:ia:i, (d'"cihf>n) faintness, languish- 396b t:i;, (dibbii) defaming, evil report.
ing (Deut 28:65).
döb. Bear, Ursinus Syriacus (the Syrian bear).
When deprived of its cubs this animal is a
ii:a:i, (d"'äb<in). See no. 392b. dangerous creature (II Sam 17:8; cf. Prov 17:12);
at times it roars out in frustration (lsa 59: 11). On
393 :tc, (dä'ag) be afraid, careful.
occasion they attacked people (cf. Arnos 5: 19);
Derivative once they attacked in fulfillment of Elijah"s curse
on people who were insolent toward God (II Kgs
393a t:i~i:i, (d'" ägii) care, anxiety.
2:24).
The root dii 'ag signifies anxiety, with a shading The bear is used as a metaphor for the activity
toward the meaning of fear in some cases. ofboth the wicked and ofGod. In the former use
Saul left off searching for his father·s asses be- it denotes the wicked as essentially bestial-
cause he feared that his father would feel anxiety, cruel, insensitive, self-seeking, and without a
arising out of the time spent in the search (1 Sam spiritual consciousness (Prov 28: 15; cf. other
9:5; 10:2).Jeremiah portrays the attitude of a man passages where the wicked are described as bes-
who trusts in God in the midst of invasion as tial: Ps 22: 12ff.; Dan 7: 1-8). In the lauer usage it
untroubled (non-anxious) by such events (17:8, denotes the ferocity of God's wrath unleashed
paraphrasing Ps 1), for he draws nourishment and against sinful Israel (Lam 3: 10; Hos 13:8).
strength from divine resources.
dibbä. Defaming, evil report, infamy, slander.
Zedekiah refuses to surrender to the Babylo-
This word refers to defamation, perhaps whis-
nians (Jer 38: 19) because he is concemed about
pered slander, if the connection is with the root
the Jews who have gone over to the Babylonians.
fearing that they will harm him. diibab "to move gently. ·· lt is used for a report of
evil character (Gen 37:2). The fainthearted spies
lsaiah asks the harlot, Israel, who it was that
give a bad report on Canaan (Num 13:32). The
brought such fear and worry on her that she
turned to idolatry without thinking of the Lord utterance of dibbii marks the fool (Prov 10:18).
(Isa 57:11). Israel is a dihbii, a public scandal, and will be
judged by God (Ezk 36:3).
d„ägä. Care, carefulness, fear, sorrow, heavi- The root in Akkadian means "to speak,
ness. The tribes which settled east of the Jor- charge, plot"; in an Aramaic compound "to
dan expressed a proper anxiety that their children slander"; in Egyptian „ lawsuit."
would forget God. Therefore they set up an altar. H.G.S.
not for sacrifice, but rather to remind future gen-
erations of their duty to serve the Lord together
:,:,i (dibbii). See no. 396b.
with the tribes living west of the Jordan.
:,;~:,, (d'horii). See no. 399f.
H.G.S.
,;:;ii (d'"bir). See no. 399g.
394 :itc, (d<i'<i) fly swiftly, dart through the
air (e.g. Deut 28:49; Ps 18:11). 397 i,:,, (dbl). Assumed root of the following.
397a :,7;, (d"belii) lump of pressed figs
Derivatives (e.g. 1 Sam 39: 12; 1 Chr 12:40).
394a :ii:i, (dä'<i) birdofprey (Levll:14;
Deut 14:13). 398 :,;, ( diibaq) cleave, cling, stick to, stick
394b :"!~:! (dayyii) bird of prey (lsa
with, follow closely, catch, keep close to, join
34:15).
to, overtake.
:, (döb). See no. 396b. Derivative

395 K:ii ( dh · ). Assumed root of the following.

398a +:,;:r'!(deheq) joints, soldering.
395a K;fi (döhe') rest (Deut 33:25). dähaq is used quite often in the OT of physical
·Meaning uncertain. things sticking to each other, especially parts of

177
399 i:n (dabar)

the body. Job says that his bone cleaves to his skin the toes ofthe image in Dan 2 will not stick to (KJV
(19:20) and that formerly the tongue of leading "cleave") each other (v. 43).
men cleaved to the roof of their mouths when he
debeq. Joints, soldering. Occurs only three
was present (29: 10). This figure of the tongue
times; twice as the joints of the protective armor
cleaving to the roof of the mouth in silence occurs
worn by Ahab when attempting to thwart God's
also in Ps 137:6 and Ezk 3 :26. In another place Job prophecy of his death (1 Kgs 22:34; II Chr 18:33)
asserts his innocence by saying that nothing which BDB translates attachment of appendage
cleaved to his hands Job 31 :7-a figure well- between armor plates, and as soldering in Jsa 41 :7
known in the modern world. describing the construction of idols. Reference is
In God's description of leviathan, he mentions
obviously to one thing attached to another.
that „ the tlakes of his tlesh are joined together" Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 421-32.
(Job 41:23 !H 9]). referring to tre plates of a E.S.K
crocodile's skin or the scales of a snake('l).
Elsewhere it is said of an unfortunate situation:
399 "l;l;I (däbar) to speak, declare, converse,
"My bones cleave to my skin" (Ps 102:5 IH 61)and command, promise, warn, threaten, sing, etc.
"The tongue of the sucking child cleaveth to the
roof of his mouth for thirst" (Lam 4:4), a figure Derivatives
also employed in Ps 22: 15 for the suffering Mes- 399a t"l:::ii (däbär) word, speaking, speech,
siah in his thirst (cf. Lk 23:36). 't'hing, etc.
Parts of the body are said to stick to various
399b t"l::l'1 (deher) pestilence.
objects. Psalm 44:25 says "our belly cleaveth unto
399c "i::l"l (daher) pasture.
the earth" and Ps 119:25, "My soul cleaveth unto
the dust. · · Of one of David's mighty men it is said
that he slew Philistines until '"his hand clave unto
399e
399f
t~,~,
399d rii"l:::i, (döhröt) jloats, rafts.
(dibrii) cause, reason, manner.
~"li:::i, (d''hora) bee.
the sword" (II Sam 23: 10). 399g "l~:;i,' (d'bir) I, oracle.
diihaq also carries the sense of clinging to 399h t"l•:::i~ (d''hir) II, Debir, a city in
someone in affection and loyalty. Man is to cleave
Judah.
to his wife (Gen 2:24). Ruth clave to Naomi (Ruth 399i t,;, (dibber) speaker, word.
1: 14). Themen of Judah clave to David their king
399j tr,'.'1;':I (dabberet) words.
during Sheba's rebellion (II Sam 20:2). Shechem
399k "l:Zi~(midhar) /, mouth.
loved Dinah and clave to her (Gen 34:3) and Sol-
omon clave in love to his wives (1 Kgs 11:2).
3991 t"l~".f~ (midbar) II, wilderness.
Most importantly. the Jsraelites are to cleave to Some lexicographers distinguish two roots for the
the Lord in affection and loyalty (Deut 10:20; Hebrew dhr: I. "tobe behind, to turn back" re-
11:22; 13:4 IH 5J; 30:20: Josh 22:5; 23:8) if his lated to Arabic duh [u]r with the same meaning and
blessing is tobe theirs. In Jer 13: 11 it is said that Akkadian dahäru "to push back." Derivatives of
the Lord caused the Jsraelites to cleave to him. this root include J•·bir "back chamber," döher
and Hezekiah is approved because he clave to the "(remote place) pasture, .. doberöt "raft ldragged
Lord. In these verses parallel words and phrases behind the ship]." and midhiir "steppe." II.
that describe this proper attitude to the Lord are: "word, .. mostly found in the noun diibiir "word,
fear, serve. love. obey, swear by his name. walk in thing" and the verb in Pie! "to speak, address ...
his ways, and keep his commandments. Etymologically related to dhr II are dibrii
diihaq also means w keep close to someone. "thing," and dihher a rare nominal form of the
and doubtless this sense is included in references verb, and midbiir "mouth" with instrumental
admonishing God's people to cleave to him. But mem. Although Seeligman (VT, 14: 80) derives
God is never the subject of the verb. dahberet "word" from root I, it appears more
Boaz counsels Ruth to keep "fast by my plausible to see it as a derivative of root II. While
maidens" (2:8. 21) and so she did (v. 23). In the BDB and GB do not differentiale dbr as occurring
causative form. diihaq means to pursue or even as a verb in two different roots, KB assigns dhr to
overtake someone, usually in a hostile sense. root I in the Pie! for Job 19: 18; II Chr 22: 10 andin
Laban overtakes Jacob in Gilead (Gen 31 :23). and Hiphil for Ps 18:47 IH 48] and 47:3 141. We will
Micah overtakes the children of Dan (Jud 18:22). limit our discussion ofthe verb tothe putative root
but the I sraelite~ .. pursued hard" after a group of II.
the Benjamites (Jud 20:45) and later. after the No convincing etymology for dbr has been of-
Philistines (1 Sam 14:22). Also, the Philistines fered to this time. Akkadian possesses the vocable
"followed harct·· upon Saul (1 Sam 31:2: I Chr dahäbu-noun and verb--with meanings strik-
10:2). ingly similar to those of Hebrew. As a substantive
Sickness or pestilence or evil, too, is said to it means "speech," or "legal matter" and as a
overtake or adhere to people (Gen 19:19; Deut verb "tospeak" (CAD. D.2-14). But Hebrewalso
28:21, 60; II Kgs 5:27). But the iron and the clay of has a root dbb attested in the noun dibhä ··whis-

178
 399 i:n (däbar)

pering, slander. .. lt is questionable whether the of speech for the speech. The rest of the words in
similarity between Akkadian dhb and Hebrew dhr Girdlestone's list, edict, statute, command, etc.
is due to chance or to a true etymological connec- are variant expressions for the authoritative word
tion. indicated by däbiir (or 'ömer or 'imra) in some
The root occurs in the Lachish ostraca and in contexts.
the Siloam Tunnel Inscription. Outside ofHebrew iAlthough 'mr "to say" is the closest synonym
it occurs in Phoenician-Punic with the same mean- to dbr, its basic meaning stands out clearly against
ing as Hebrew and in Biblical Aramaic in a nomi- dbr (Pie)). In the case of 'mr the focus is on the
nal dibrii „matter ... content of what is spoken, but in the case of
diibar is probably a denominate verb from dbr primary attention is given to the activity
diibiir, as it is used almost exclusively in the Piel, of speaking, the producing of words and clauses.
Pual, Hithpael, and Qal participle. Ugaritic evi- While 'mr cannot be used absolutely (without
dence shows no use of diihar "to speak" (nor of giving the content of what is said), dibber can
'iimar "to say"), but does have instance ofthe use be so used (cf. Gen 24: 14: Job 1: 16: 16:4, 6).
of midbar II, wilderness. Moreover, while 'mr can have a diversity of sub-
In any language the words which represent the jects by personification (land, animals, trees,
basic verb for speaking and the noun for "word" night, fire, works, etc.), dhr almost always has
cannot but be of supreme importance. The verb personal subjects or designations of their organs
diihar and the noun diihiir have these important of speech (mouth, lips, tongue. etc.). They are
spots in the Hebrew Bible. Procksch in TWNT also distinguished with respect to the one ad-
states that the noun is the basic form and the verb dressed. While in the case of 'mr it is sufficient to
stems from it. use the weaker preposition /'', dbr normally de-
These two words occur more than 2500 times in mands the stronger preposition 'e/ (about ten
the OT, the noun more than 1400times and the verb times more frequently than /"). These differences,
more than 1100. The source ofthe words is unclear however, do not detract from the importance of
though they are common in Semitic languages. what is said as the object of dhr which includes
Some words cover much territory, spreading most matters pertaining to moral and ideal values.
into many areas of thought and in the process As in some other verbs used mainly in the Pie!, the
compounding problems for communicators- Qal occurrences are almost exclusively in the ac-
especially for those who try to translate ideas into tive participle and designate mostly one who
other languages. In the KJVdiihar is translated by speaks something as a commandment or on ac-
about thirty different words and dähiir by more count of an inner compulsion. Thus it is used with:
than eighty. Some of these are synonyms but truth (Ps 15:2), lies/falsehood (Jer40: 16; Ps 5:6 [H
many are not. All, however, have some sense of 7]; 58:3 [H 4]; 63: 11 [H 12]; 101:7), right (Isa 33: 15;
thought processes, of communication. or of sub- 45: 19; Prov 16: 13), well-being (Est 10:3), folly (lsa
jects or means of communication. The noun däbär 9: 17 [H 16]), insolence (Ps 31: 18 [H 19]). lt is also
stretches all the way from anything that can be used of angels who bear God's message (Gen
covered by the word thing or matter to the most 16: 13; Zech 1:9, 13, 19 IH 2:2, etc.) and of speech of
sublime and dynamic notion of the word of God. abiding relevance (Num 27:7: 36:5). B.K.w.]
Many synonyms are found in Ps 119 where the In the KJVsome of the less common translations
message from God is eulogized. Doubtless the of the däbar include: "answered" (II Chr 10: 14)
most important synonyms are 'iimar "to say" and as parallel to 'iinä "answer" in v. 13 (where Re-
the masculine .and feminine 'emer and 'imrii hoboam answers his critics): "uses entreaties"
which are almost always translated "word." In (Prov 18:23); "give sentence" or"givejudgment"
his discussion on synonyms for the word of God, in Jer 4: 12 and 39:5 (with mishpii(im): "publish"
Girdlestone mentions 'iimar "to say,·· millii (Est 1:22) and "be spoken for" (Song 8:8). The KJV
"word," nä'am "utter," peh "mouth," törä has "subdues" in Ps 18:47 where some such no-
"law," dät "edict," /Jöq "statute," Iiiwii tion is necessary to parallel „ avenge „ in the first
"command," piqqüdim "charge," 'orah "way," part of the sentence. This psalm occurs also in II
derek "path," mishpa( "judgment," and 'öd Sam 22 and there (v. 48) the Hebrew word for
"testimony ... "bring down" is used in the place of diibar. This
In this !ist of synonyms, the first four refer to the corroborates the rare meaning of "subdue „ for
ordinary use of the root dähär. The word 'ämar diibar in Ps 18:47 and Ps 47:3. Modern translations
"to say" is very like diihar but is usually followed also give this meaning in these passages.
by the thing said. millii "word" was long called a A most important declaration, which is reiter-
late Aramaizing synonym, but now is recognized ated over and over again (about 400 times), in the
as simply a poetic and less common expression for OT use of diihar, is that God "spoke." The Pen-
WORD.nä'am is mostly restricted to the nominal tateuch is loaded with such statements as "The
form n'' 'üm meaning aprophetic oracle. The word LoRD said," "The LORD promised" and "The
peh "mouth" is a mere figurative use of the organ LoRD commanded," all translations of däbar.

179
399 i:n (däbar)

God·s spokesmen are often challenged as Moses much more frequently than the singular construc-
was challenged by Miriam and Aaron saying. tion after verbs of speaking ngd [Hiphill (Ex
.. Hath the LORDindeed spoken only by Moses? .. 4:28); spr !Pie(] "to recount" (Ex 24:3); dhr !Pie!]
(Num 12:2). But the LORDalways supports his "to teil" (Num 11:24; Jer 43: 1; Ezk 11:25); 'mr
word and his spokesman. "to say„ (1 Sam 8: 10), qr' "to cry out" (Jer 36:6,
8; THAT, 1:439). In seven passages the d''har
däbär. Word, speaking, speech, thing, anything, YHWH has a juristic character (Num 15:31; Deut
everything (with kii/), nothing (with negatives), 5:5; II Sam 12:9; I Chr 15: 15; II Chr 30: 12; 34:21;
commandment, matter, act, event, history, account, 35:6). B.K.W.j
business, cause, reason, and in construction with Certain characteristics of the word of the Lord
prepositions: on account of, because that. This are enunciated in Ps. Among them are: · 'The word
noun is translated in eighty-five different ways in of the Lord is right" (33:4), "settled in heaven"
the KJv!This is due to the necessity of rendering ( 119:89), "a lamp unto my feet and a light unto my
such a fertile word by the sense it has in vary- path .. (119:105) and "true" (119:160).
ing contexts. As "word" däbär basically means The efficaciousness of the word of the Lord is
what God said or says. often cited by certain phrases like "according to
The decalogue, "the ten words"' (Ex 34:28; the word of the Lord"' (1 Kgs 13:26), or ") will
Deut 4: 13; 10:4), are ten declarations or state- perform my word" (1 Kgs 6: 12).
ments, as in Deut 10:4, the ten words (d'bärim) The chronicler says that the Lord stirred up
which the Lord spoke (dibber). The ten words are Cyrus "that the word of the LoRD spoken by the
commandments because ofthe syntactical form of mouth of Jeremiah might be accomplished"
their utterance. The ten words are what God said; (36:22). Through lsaiah the LORDsays !hat his
they are ten commandments because of how God word will be like the rain and the snow making the
said them. land productive. "lt shallnot return unto me void,
The dähär is sometimes what is done and some- but it shall accomplish that which I please, and it
times a report of what is done. So, often in Chr, shall prosper in the thing whereto I sent it" (lsa
one reads of the acts ( dibre) of a king which are 55: 11). Jeremiah also promises that the Lord's
written in a certain book ( dihre). "Now the acts of Spirit and word shall never depart from his people
David the king ... are wrillen in the book of and is "like a fire„ and "a hammer that breaketh
Samuel the seer, and in the book of Nathan the the rock in pieces" (Jer 23:29).
prophet, and, in the book ofGad the seer. ·· In the [In addition, the word of the Lord is per-
KJVofll Chr 33: 18 acts. words, spake and book are sonified in such passages as: "The LORD sends
all some form of dähar!dähär. And in the next his message against Jacob, and it falls on Israel"
verse. sayings is added to this list! The Hebrew (lsa 9:8 [H 71); "He sent his word and healed
name for Chronicles is ··the book of the words them" (Ps 107:20); "He sends his command to
(acts) of the times .. (seper dihri! hayyämim ). Here the earth" (Ps 147:15). Admittedly, because of
"words (acts) of the times" is equal to the figure it appears as if the word of God had a
.. history "-"annals. · · divine existence apart from God, but Gerleman
The revelatory work of God is often expressed rightly calls into question the almost universal
by '"the word of the Lord came" to or upon a interpretation that sees the word in these pas-
person (l Chr 17:3 and often in the prophets). sages as a Hypostasis, a kind of mythologizing.
Jehoshaphat says of Elisha that ··the word of the Gerleman suggests that this usage is nothing
Lord is with him" (II Kgs 3:12). When prophecy more than the normal tendency to enliven and
was stilled as in Samuel"s childhood, "The Word personify abstractions. Thus human emotions
of the LoRDwas precious" (K1v;RSV"rare .. ). But and attributes are also treated as having an inde-
Moses says that Israel has the word very near, pendent existence: wickedness, perversity, anx-
because he refers to the book ofthe law which had iety, hope, anger, goodness and truth (Ps 85: 1lf.:
recently been given to them, as the immediately 107:42; Job 5: 16: 11: 14: 19:10) (THAT, l. p. 442).
preceding context shows. In II Sam 16:23 the B.K.W.j
counsel of Ahithophel is said tobe like the counsel
of an oracle (KJV,RSV).Here dähär is "oracle,·· deber. Pestilence, murrain, and plague. This
though ma.uä', KJV"burden, .. is often used for masculine noun is commonly mentioned together
oracle in modern translations. with such words as famine, evil, blood, judg-
[Gerleman not es that the singular construct ment, sword, and noisome beast (KJV;RSV"evil
chain d'bar YHWH "the word of the LORD„oc- beast"). Jeremiah in his predictions of dire
curs 242 times and almost always (225 times) the events quite often combines sword, famine, and
expression appears as a technical form for the pro- pestilence (14: 12;2 I :7,9; 24: 10; 27:8, 13; 29: 17-18;
phetic revelation (THAT, I, p.439). He also notes 32:24,36; 34:17; 38:2; 42:17,22; 44:13).
that the plural construct chain dihri: YHWH "the Any kind of pestilence which results in death is
words of the LORD" occurs seventeen times and meant. Aside from about five instances, all uses

180
 400 tu:l""I( dbsh)

of deber relate to pestilence as sent by God as The wildemess of Judah has at least a half-dozen
punishment. Solomon in his prayer at the temple cities in it. The wilderness of Jordan (the alluvial
dedication speaks of the possibility of pestilence plain) contains cities, and the wilderness of Sinai
as a basis for prayer (1 Kgs 8:37; II Chr 6:28). has within it a number of oases. midbär is also
However, God in his response says, "If I send used figuratively (Hos 2:5; Jer 2:31).
pestilence" (1 Chr 7: 13). Jehoshaphat speaks like The largest tracts called midbär are Sinai, the
Solomon but he puts the statement on the possi- N egeb, the Jordan Valley, and the Arabian des-
bility of pestilence as a basis for prayer towards ert.
the temple in the mouth of the people (II Chr . Specific wilderness areas are: Beer-sheba (Gen
20:9). Psalm 91:3, 6 refers to God saving from evil 21:14), Paran (Gen21:21; Num 10:12; 12:16; 13:3,
pestilence. All other references are statements of 26; I Sam 25:1), Sin (Ex 16:1; 17:1; Num 33:11-
historical occurrences, or threats or prophecies 12), Sinai (Num 1:19, etc; Ex 19:1-2; Lev 7:38);
of punishment from the Lord. Zin (Num 13:21 etc.; Deut 32:51; Josh 15:1),
Beth-aven (Josh 18:12), Judah (Jud 1:16; Ps 63
dibrä. Cause, sake, intent, order, estate, end, re- title), Ziph (1 Sam 23: 14, 14; 26:2), Maon (1 Sam
gard. dibra occurs seven times (Job 5:8; Ps 23:24-25), Gibeon (II Sam 2:24), Damascus
110:4; Eccl 3: 18; 7: 14; 8:2; Dan 2:30; 4: 17). In Ps (I Kgs 19:15), Edom (II Kgs 3:8), Jerud (II Chr
110:4 dibra is usually translated "order of Mel- 20:16) Shur (Ex 15:22; 16:1; Num 1:19 etc.),
chisedek" but in NEB "succession." Etham (Num 33:8), Kedemoth (Deut 2:26),
For the compound 'al dibrat see M. Dahood Tekoa (II Chr 20:20), Kadesh (Ps 29:8; Ps 63 ti-
Bib 33: 47f. tle), and Egypt (Ezk 20:35).
dibber. Speaking or one who speaks (?). A The wilderness is often described negatively as
form in Jer 5: 13 which is uniformly translated as without grapes, fountains, pools of water, rivers,
dabär "The word is not in them." pleasant places-or as in a notable statement:
"Can God furnish a table in the wilderness?" (Ps
dabberet. Words. A feminine singular noun; 78:19).
cognate of däbär found only in Deut 33:3. Proba- Bibliography: Braulik, Georg, "Die Aus-
bly a poetic collective for all Moses said. drücke für 'Gesetz' im Buch Deuteronomium,"
d'bir. Oracle, sanctuary, Debir. As a proper Bib 51: 39-66. McKenzie, John L., "The Word of
noun Debir is: (1) the name ofa king of Eglon who God in the Old Testament," TS 21: 183-206.
joined the southem coalition against the Gibeon- Milik, J. T., "Deux Documents Inedits du Desest
ites and the Israelites under Joshua, (2) the name de Juda," Bib 38: 245-68. Mowinckel, S., "The
of a prominent Canaanite city, formerly called 'Spirit' and the 'Word' in the Pre-exilic Reform-
Kirjath-sepher (Josh 15:15, 49; Jud 1:11), (3) a ing Prophets," JBL 53: 199-227. --, "The
city ofthe Gadites east of Jordan (Josh 13:26) and Decalogue of the Holiness Code," HUCA 26:
(4) another city on the northem border of Judah 1-27. ---, "A Postscript to the Paper 'The
(Josh 15:7). Spirit and the Word in the Pre-exilic Reform
d' bir also refers to the holy of holies and is Prophets'," JBL 56: 261-65. O'Connell,
translated sixteen times in KJV and ASV as "ora- Matthew J ., "The Concept of Commandment in
cle," but Rsv and modern versions translate as the Old Testament," TS 21: 351-403. Ouelette,
sanctuary, inner sanctuary, inner temple, inner Jean, "The Solomonic D'bir according to the
room and other such terms. lt is not used of the Hebrew Text of I Kings 6," JBL 89: 338-43.
holy of holies of the wildnemess tabemacle. Plossman, Thomas, "Notes on the Stern d-b-r,"
Debir (Kirjath-sepher) was a prominent city in CBQ 4: 119-32. Richardson, TWB, pp. 232,
the Judean hills near Hebron. Joshua totally de- 283-85. THAT, I, pp. 433-42.
stroyed Debir in the southern campaign (Josh E.S.K.
10:38-39; 11:21; 12:13) but either the city was
rebuilt and retaken by Othniel or eise the destruc- 400 iu::i, (dbsh). Assumed root ofthe following.
tion by Joshua is a general statement and Othniel 400a ttti,"l (d'bash) honey.
actually took the town. Judges 1:11 says that 400b r'IW~:.! (dabbeshet) hump (of
Caleb gave Achsah his daughter to Othniel as ·camel).
wife because he conquered Debir in battle. Debir
was later given to the sons of Aaron (Josh 21: 15). d'bash. Honey. Of the fifty-three occurrences
of d' bash, seventeen are in "the land flowing
midbär. Wüderness or desert. midbär is used wih milk and honey" and are anticipatory of the
to describe three types of country in general: pas- land God was to give to Israel, or reminiscent of
tureland (Josh 2:22; Ps 65:12 [H 13]; Jer 23:10), that anticipation.
uninhabited land (Deut 32: 10; Job 38:26; Prov Si-nuhe, an Egyptian official of the Middle
21:19; Jer9:I), and large areas ofland in which Kingdom who went into voluntary exile in Syria-
oases or cities and towns exist here and there. Palestine, gives this description of the land in the

181
401 :in (däga)
Patriarchal period: "lt was a good land, named Fish without fins and scales were unclean for
Yad. Figs were in it and grapes. lt had more wine Israel. Albright has suggested that this law pro-
than water. Plentiful wa~ its honey, abundant its tected Israel from the parasites and diseases car-
olives. Barley was there, and emmer. There was ried by mudburrowing fish, clams, snails, etc.
no limit to any (kind of) cattle" (ANET, p. 19). (Albright, YGC, p. 178; Harris, R. L., Man-
Honey was among the products Jacob sent to God's Eterna/ Creation, Moody, p. 140).
Egypt for grain (Gen 43: 11). lt was even more A graven image in the likeness of any fish is
prized then than today because, since they had prohibited (Deut 4:18). God's wrath will extend
no sugar, it was their chief sweetener. to fish (Ezk 38:20; Hos 4:3; Zeph 1:3), but in the
Manna tasted "like wafers made with honey" new age waters from the temple will heal the
(Ex 16:31). Dead Sea so it will have many fish of many kinds
No honey was to accompany meat offerings; it (Ezk 47:9, 10).
was not to be burned on the altar (Lev 2: 11), but The Lord prepared a great fish to teach Jonah
it was included in the tithes and firstfruits (II Chr the impossibility of fleeing from him (Jon 1:17;
31:5). 2: 1, 11). The identity or biological classification
Moses' song says that God made Israel to of this great water monster is unknown, as Jonah
"suck honey out of the rock" (Deut 32: 13; cf. Ps does not give us details about the miracle. See
81:16 [H 17]). Honey was part ofSamson's riddle ZPEB, V, p. 925.
which his:wife enticed him to teil her and reported E.S.K.
to her people (Jud 14:8-9, 18).
Jonathan's taste of honey brought Saul face to 1iJ' (dägon). See no. 403b.
face with defiance from his army and consequent
frustration of his vow (1 Sam 14:25-29, 43).
The wicked shall not see "brooks of honey and
402 ,n (däga/) look, behold (Song 5: 10,
only).
butter," says Zophar. Pleasant words and love
are as honey and the honeycomb (Prov 16:24; Derivatives
24:13; 25:16, 27; Song 4:11; 5:1). In Ps 19:10 [H 402a 7~'.'1(dege/) standard, banner (e.g.
II) and 119:103 God's words are sweeter than · Num 1:52; 2:3, etc.).
honey and the honeycomb, and Ezekiel found
that the scroll God gave him was in his mouth "as
402b ,n (dägal) carry, sei up a Stan-
dard (Ps 20:6; Song 6:4, 10).
honey for sweetness" (Ezk 3:3).
The child Immanuel will have butter and honey
to eat (lsa 7:15) and in a happier day to come 403 1Ji (dgn). Assumed root of the following.
everyone left in the land will have the same 403a n;i, (dägän) grain.
(7:22). 403b t1iJ, (dägon) Dagon.
E.S.K. dägän. Grain, translated "corn" in the KJV in
all forty occurrences except Num 18:12 and Jer
J' (diig). See no. 401a. 31:12 where it is translated "wheat." "Corn" is
old English for cereal grain.
dägän does not specify what grain is meant,
401 MJ"l (diiga) multiply, increase.
40ii tJ, (diig) fish. but it was a desirable and valuable crop. In de-
401b trin (däga) fish. scriptions of the productivity of the land, grain
(KJV "com"), wine (tirosh, q.v.), oil and live-
401c J""l (dig) fish for, catch. Denomi-
native verb. stock are usually mentioned, but "grain, new
401d Ji':1 (dawwiig), J~j (dayyiig) jish- wine and oil (NIV)," or just com and wine occur
erman. as the fresh products ofthe field. Grain as weil as
other products was to be tithed and the tithes
401e ri;i~, (düga) jishing, jishery.
given to the priests and Levites (Num 18:12; Deut
däg, dägä. Fish. The masculine diig and the 18:4) who were to make a heave offering of the
feminine däga appear in the or with no apparent tithes (Num 18:27). Tithes of grain were not tobe
difference in meaning. Fish are referred to as eaten in their homes but only "before the LoRo"
creatures low in intelligence or in control of their (Deut 12:17; 14:23).
destiny (Gen 9:2; I Kgs 4:33; Job 12:8; Eccl 9:12; The increase of grain, wine, oil and livestock
Hab 1:14; Gen 1:26, 28; Ex 7:18, 21), or as food came as blessing from God consequent upon the
(Num 11:5, 22; Neh 13: 16). The word was used people's obedience (Deut 7:13; 11:14). A de-
for a gate in Jerusalem, the fish gate (II Chr 33: 14; crease or cessation of such productivity was
Neh 3:3; 12:39; Zeph 1:10). In biblical times they punishment for disobedience (Deut 28:51; Lam
were caught by spears (Job 41:7), hooks (cf. Job 2:12; Hos 2:11; Joel 1:10, 17; Hag 1:11).
41:1, 2; Isa 9:8) and nets (Hab 1:15; Eccl 9:12). After his reform Hezekiah built storehouses to
See pictures in ANEP, p. 34. hold the abundance of grain, wine, and oil (II Chr

182
 404 'in (diigar)
31:5; 32:28). The prophets predict that grain, response to a revelation from Dagan enabling him
wine, oil and livestock will be abundant in the age to defeat the Benjaminites. Shamsi Adad I
ofblessing (Jer 31:12; Ezk 36:29; Joel 2:19; Zech (1748-1716), king of Assyria, built a temple to
9:17). Dagan at the site sixty km north of Mari. More-
E.S.K. over, his name is frequently invoked by the Assy-
däf(on. Dagon. The name of the god of the rian kings in the later Assyro-Babylonian inscrip-
Philistines referred to only twice aside from the tions (900-640).
eleven occurrences in I Sam 5 where the story of In the West, Dagan is mentioned among the
the capture of the ark of the covenant is told. gods at Ebla (2400-2250 B.C.). We may mention
Scholars debate whether Dagon is etymologi- here "Dagan of Tuttul," "Dagan of Sivad,"
cally related to Heb. da{( ••fish" and was thus a "Dagan of Canaan" exactly like "Dagan of the
fish-god, or to Heb. däf(än "grain" and thus a Philistines." Note also the mention of Canaan at
vegetation deity, or to Arabic dagga, dr:igä, this early period (Giovanni Pettinato, "The Royal
dagana, "to be cloudy" "rainy" and thus a Archives of Tell Mardikh-Ebla," BA 39: 48).
storm-god. No modern scholar since the turn of Paolo Matthiae lists Dagan as one of the great
the century follows Jerome and Kimchi who gods at Ebla ("Ebla in the Late Early Syrian
suggested on the basis of popular etymologizing Period," BA 39: I 10). At Ugarit on the north Sy-
that he was a fish-god. Many moderns follow rian coast archaeologists have uncovered two
Philo Byblios and W. F. Albright who view him commemorative stelae bearing his name, and in
as a grain-god, but Albright thinks that the Heb. their texts Baal is called "Dagan's son" twelve
word for grain was derived from the name of the times; four times his name appears alone.
god and not vice-versa (Archaeolof(y and the Re- In Palestine he was the principal deity of the
ligion of Israel, 1953, pp. 77, 22). Philistines during the biblical period. He was
F. J. Montalbano, however, though recogniz- worshipped by them at Gaza (Jud 16:21-23),
ing the weakness of the Arabic evidence, brings Ashdod (I Sam 5:2-3; I Macc 10:83-85) and at
together strong evidence, at least for Meso- Beth-shan (1 Sam 3 I: 10; I Chr 10: 10). According
potamia, that Dagon was a storm-god. "Canaan- to Sanchuniathon he played a prominent place in
ite Dagon: Origin, Nature," CBQ 13: 381-97). the Phoenician pantheon. Other shrines belong-
His evidence includes: 1.) An Akkadian text from ing to him are indicated by their place names.
the time of Hammurabi says: "Dagan is Enlil" There was a Beth-Dagan in Judah (Josh 10:41),
(the Sumerian storm-god). 2.) At Larsa he is men- another in Asher (Josh 19:27). The name appears
tioned alongside of Enlil and called one of the in the !ist of towns conquered by Rameses III
great gods, a title not given to fertility deities in (1197-1167), although this may be copied from an
Mesopotamia 3.) On a seal from the Neo- earlier one of Rameses II (1301-1234). This Byt-
Sumerian period (2070-1%0) his name appears dgn is probably the same as the one spoken ofby
before that of his wife Sha-/a-ash possibly the Sennacherib (7~81) as bit-daganna located in
same as Sha-/a, wife of Adad, the weather-god. the plain of Sharon. Mazar unearthed a Philistine
4.) Gelb had earlier concluded that Dagan of the temple at Tel Qasile whose artifactual remains,
Hurrians is none other than the Hurrian including two pillars separated by a space the
weather-god Teshup. But Montalbano thinks that length of a very large man 's arm span and in front
the West Semites assumed him into their pan- of the altar, comports most favorably with the
theon as a god of grain, even though at Ugarit he literary description of Dagan's temple at Gaza
was identified as the father of Hadad, the cele- (Jud 16:23-31) (IEJ 24: 77-88).
brated storm-god in the Levant. The evidence for Thus Dagan's cult was prominent in Assyria,
this thesis is the fact that in one of the Ugaritic Babylonia, Syria and Palestine from at least 2400
texts, the name of the god is synonymous with e.c. on through the pre-exilic period. Against this
the word for grain. The association of a weather- history the LoRo's victories over Dagan through
god with grain is obvious. Joshua (Josh 19:27), Samson (Jud 16) and above
We first encounter Dagon in our literary all through his ark containing his moral law (II
sources from Mesopotamia in an important his- Sam 5) becomes the more glorious and significant
torical inscription of Sargon in which he teils us in his history of establishing his rule on the earth
that he stopped at Tutuli (on the Upper Eu- through Israel.
phrates) to worship Dagan. Naram-Sin, grandson Bibliography: Dekor, M., "Jahweh et Da-
of Sargon, attributes his conquest from the Eu- gon," VT 14: 13~54. Montalbano, F. J.,
phrates to the coast of Syria to Dagan. From this "Canaanite Dagon: Origin, Nature [with com-
point on throughout the history of Mesopotamia plete BibliographyJ," CBQ 13:381-97.
we find proper names compounded with the ele- B.K.W.
ment Dagan. Hammurabi (1728-1530) calls him-
self: "The warrior of Dagan, his creator ... , " 404 in (däf(ar) gathertogetherasabrood (Jer
and at Mari, Zimri-Lim offers him rich gifts in 17:11; lsa 34:15).

183
405 i:1 (dad)

405 ,:1 ( dad) breast, teat, nippte (e.g. Prov däwid. David, dawid David son of Jesse, king
5: 19; Ezk 23:3, 21). of Israel. The name is conjectured to come from
död "beloved" but the etymology is uncertain. lt
406 *:i,;1 (dddii) move slowly. Occurs in the has been compared with the Mari term dawidum
Piel (Ps 42:5) and Hithpael (lsa 38: 15; Ps "leader," but this too is unsure JNES 17: 130.
42:5). Most of the more than a thousand occurrences
of the name appear in the historical books which
:i,, (dödii). See no. 410b. teil of his life and reign: Sam, Chr, and Kgs. Be-
cause of his prominence, the ideal nature of his
407 *Cicl;I(diiham) astonish, astound. Occurs person and reign, and the messianic covenant
only once, in the Niphal (Jer 14:9). made with him, references to him occur also in
Ps, Prov, Eccl, Song, lsa, Jer, Ezk, Hos, Arnos,
408 , 0;1 (diihar) rush, dash (Nah 3:2, only). and Zech.
His name is mentioned in the superscriptions
Derivatives of seventy-five psalms and also thirteen times in
408a :i-,0:1 (dahllrii) rushing, dashing the body of individual psalms. References in the
(Jud 5:22, only). superscriptions indicate Davidic authorship or to
408b ,:,,l'l(tidhär) elm (lsa 41: 19). the inclusion of certain psalms in an earlier
Davidic collection.
409 ::i1, (düh) pass away (Lev 26:16; I Sam The name of David first occurs in I Sam 16:13
2:33). in the narrative of Samuel's semi-private anoint-
ing of him to be king. His life can be divided into
J,, (dawwiig). See no. 401d. the early years which include his anointing by
Samuel, his service to Saul (soothing Saul's spirit
:,~1, (düRii). See no. 401e.
by his music), and his defeat ofGoliath; the years
410 ,,, of his exile while being pursued by Saul, during
( dwd). Assumed root of the following.
which he gathers a private army to himself and
410a t'ii"I (död) beloved, uncle.
410b :i,-,
(dödä) aunt.
solidifies his control over a (arge part of Judah;
the seven years of his rule over Judah as king
410c t,,;1 (däwid), .,,,, (däwid) David.
with Hebron as his capital, and of growing influ-
410d ':!1"1 ( düday) mandrake.
410e ,1, (
düd) pot, jar. ence over the north; and then the thirty-three
years of his rule over all Israel, with its successful
död. Beloved, love, uncle. Offifty-eight occur- wars, extension of Israel's boundaries, religious
rences in KJV thirty-eight are "beloved'" (all in and administrative centralization in Jerusalem,
Song except Isa 5: 1), eight are "love" and seven- and growing intluence and aflluence in the world
teen "uncle." död is used by the Shulamite for of that day.
her lover, or by those who speak of him. He calls The theological impact of David's life is of ut-
her ra'yii "companion" or "love" (lover). most importance. Though he is obviously a man
lsaiah refers to the Lord as "beloved" in his of his time in the brutality of warfare and the
Song of the Vineyard (5: 1). arrogance of authority, he is, nevertheless, the
död as "love" itself is extolled or described by epitome of devotion to his Lord and to the ideals
"thy love is better than wine" (Song 1:2), "We of the revealed word of God. This is shown not
will remember thy love more than wine" (1:4), only in the Psalms but also in the narratives ofthe
"How fair is thy love" and „ How much better is historical books. lt is David who brings the ark
thy love than wine" (4: 10) and "There will I give into Jerusalem and makes every attempt to estab-
thee my love" (7:12). lish the religious life revealed through Moses. lt
Ezekiel speaks of the Lord's kindness toward is David who leads the people devotionally by his
Israel when "thy time was the time of love" Psalms constantly directed to faith and obedience
(16:8). But the Babylonians "came to her into the to the Lord. lt is David who makes preparation
bed oflove," and defiled her (23:17). for the construction and service of the temple,
In Prov 7:18 the harlot says to the foolish even though the actual construction is denied
young man, "Come, let us take our fill of love him.
until the morning." · However, the greatest theological significance
död is "uncle" in Lev 20:20 where lying with of David rests in his recognition of the relation-
one's aunt is prohibited (see Riilä). This uncovers ship of the anointed king to the Lord. Out of this
his "uncle's nakedness." Among those who understanding comes the doctrine of the messiah
should redeem a man sold to another because of (from mäsha/J "to anoint"). David was a perfect
poverty are "his uncle or his uncle's sons" (Lev recipient of the covenant which promised not
25:49). Other references to "uncle" are simple only an eternal dynasty, but a son who would
identifications. also be "son of God" ruling forever over the

184
 415 c,,(dwm)
kingdom ofGod (II Sam 7:11-16; I Chr 17:10-14). dawway. Faint, indicating a temporary weak-
Specific references to David as prefiguring the ness of body or soul. The meaning of faint for
Messiah are: Ezk 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Hos 3:5; dauway (lsa 1:5) is appropriate, since Israel has
Jer 30:9. There are in addition figurative ex- poured out her strength in idolatry. The doom
pressions for great David's greater Son, the facing Israel makes Jeremiah faint (Jer 8:18) be-
"stem „ or „ branch · · or „ root of Jesse „ (Isa 11:1, cause he can see no relief for his people.
10). The „righteous Branch" of David (Jer 23:5;
d"way. Languishing, so"owful. Job, who is
33:15), the tabernacle (sukkä) of David (Arnos
9: 11) and the tabemacle ( 'öhel) of David (lsa counselled to accept his affiictions as proper re-
tribution for secret sin, rejects the counsel as
16:5).
loathsome (d"ll'ay, 6:7), seeing no reason for
The name of David is used in these descriptive
these afflictions.
phrases: city of David (II Sam 5:7, 9), house of
David (II Sam 3: 1, 6), throne of David (II Sam madweh. Disease. Ugaritic mdw "illness ... In
3:10; I Kgs 1:37), sepulchre ofDavid (Neh 3:16; Deut 7: 15 and 28:60 madweh accents the Ioath-
II Chr 32:33), tower of David (Song 4:4), musical some character ofthe diseases of Egypt: elephan-
instruments of David (Neh 12:36), God of David tiasis, dysentery, and opthalmia (Kline, Treaty of
(II Kgs 20:5), and mercies of David (II Chr 6:42; the Great KinR, p. 69).
lsa 55:3). H.G.S.
Bibliography: Ap-Thomas, D. R., .. Saul's
'Uncle'," VT 11: 240-45. Stamm, J. J., "Der 412 r:ni (düa/J) cast out, purge, wash.
Name des königs David," Supp VT 7: 165-83.
E.S.K. The root signifies cleansing through washing.
The sacrificial ritual in Solomon's temple, un-
like that of the tabemacle, provided separate
'j1"T (düday). See no. 4 I0d. facilities for cleansing offerings. There were five
lavers on the north and five on the south in which
411 :," (däwa) infirmity.
Derivatives
the burnt offerings ( 'o/a) were washed before
being placed on the altar (II Chr 4:6). The legs
and internal organs of the burnt offering were
41 la t•j, (d''ll'a)') languishing. washed in order to remove contamination from
41 lb :i,, ( diiweh) faint. contact with the feces in slaughter and dismem-
41 lc t:,_;.,~(madweh) disease. berment.
411d t•j~ (dawway) faint. Isaiah (4:4) picks up "this image in describing
41 le i•, (d'' yb) ink. the future cleansing of Israel. God will wash
Ugaritic dll' and Arabic dawiya mean "to be away their sins, transgression and idolatry when
sick." through affiiction and judgment they repent and
In Lev 12:2 the discharge after the birth of a turn to him.
baby is said to render a woman unclean. Contact Nebuchadrezzar's destruction of Judah and
with a corpse also rendered unclean. The latter Jerusalem is called a purging in Jer 51:34.
required purification through sprinkling with The picture of washing is repeated in the NT,
water mixed with the ashes of a red heifer (Num becoming the central thought in the phrase
19:14-19). The avoidance of contamination by "washing of regeneration" (Tit 3:5) through
menstrual discharge was part of the general which the old man of sin is cleansed away.
avoidance of discharges from the body, many of H.G.S.
which are dangerous as the results of infection.
This general avoidance of contamination contrib- 'l' (d'way). See no. 41a.
uted to the public health of Israel. At the same 'j:I (dawway). See no. 411d.
time, it received religious sanction being adminis- .,,,, ( däwid). See no. 4 I0c.
tered by the priests. All uncleanness became a
type of sin which had to be cleansed by redemp- 413 'l!1"T (dük) pound, beat (in mortar, Num
tion. Watchfulness against contamination is in- 11:8).
culcated by the law conceming menstruation Derivative
(Lev 15). As the context shows, the danger en-
visioned in the law is the unnatural discharge due 413a :,;,·,~ (m'döka) mortar.
to sickness. Those who demanded sexual inter-
course at that time were liable to punishment 414 r,~•;,1, (dükfpat) unclean bird, perhaps
(Lev 20: 18). But the details of the law are not hoopoe (Lev 11:19; Deut 14:18).
clear-whether it refers to relations within mar-
riage (it does not say "his wife") or to a particu- 415 c,, (dll'm ). Assumed root of the following.
lar case of rape or adultery. 415a t:i,;1, (duma) silence.

185
416 r~,(du~)

415b t:,•~,, (dümivii), :i;~'.'T (dümiyii) found in any biblical text, is to move in a circle,
•;ilence, repo;e. surround. Since ashes, grain, meal, etc., when
415c tc~,, (dümiim) silent. heaped up forma circle on the floor, ancient Se-
dumä. Silence. In Ugaritic it means „to keep mites used this word for „to heap up" or "to pile
silence"; in Arabic „to last," ··tobe motionless" something"'-thinking graphically ofthe shape of
(of water); and in Ethiopic „to be stupified." the heap at its base, rather than as we, of the
The word connotes the „silence of death." The height or outline of the elevation created. Also,
Psalmist praises the Lord for his narrow escape since houses were usually a group of rooms sur-
from the land of silence (Ps 94: 17) and notes that rounding a central court, and perhaps since some
the Lord·s glory is not enhanced by those whose very early houses were circular, the word was
praise is silenced in death (115:17). employed with the meaning, to dwell. This
analysis is provided strong support by the fact
dumiyä. Silence, repose. Sometimes it is good that dür, a noun appearing only twice, and
to keep silence. but at other times it is bad. The likewise from dür (verb) must be translated a ball
Messiah laments that sirke God apparently fails (lsa 22:18), round about (lsa 29:3) and pile (Ezk
to answer his prayer, he finds no rest or relief 24:5). In this manner an original meaning of „go
from his situation (Ps 22: 12). David found that in a circle" (as attested by its appearance in cog-
when he kept silent out of fear of his enemies, his nate Arabic and Assyrian, and inferred by a
distress grew worse (Ps 39:2). lt would be wrong posteriori reasoning for a common link between
to keep silence when praise is due, so praise the ideas of pile and dwell), though apparently
awaits God in Zion (Ps 65:1). On the other hand, out of use in OT times, provide the basis for a
it is good to wait on God in silence (Ps 62: 1). word of important theological meaning.
However, the form here may be taken from
diimii „to be like" (so KJV). Perhaps, .. Praise dör, dör. Generation. By a thoroughly under-
awaits you O God in Zion" (Nrv, footnote „be- standable figure, a man's lifetime beginning
fits"). with the womb of earth and returning thereto
(Gen 3: 19) is a dör; lik.ewise from the conception
dumäm. Dumb, silent. Used to describe dumb
and birth of a man to the conception and birth of
idols (Hab 2: I 9). Sometimes silence is brought
his offspring is a dar. A period of extended time
about by judgment, but at other times it is the
and several other related meanings would be in-
fruit of faith. Thus Babylon must henceforth be
evitable in a language prone to metaphors.
silent because God has ended her glory (lsa 47:5).
Thus the following analysis of the actual use of
But an attitude of non-complaint should charac-
dor in the OT unfolds quite naturally.
terize those who trust in God (Lam 3 :26).
1. The circle of a man's lifetime, from birth to
death. This is the apparent meaning at Gen 15: 16,
:i;~,, (dümiyii). See no. 415b.
where four generations cover an epoch of 400
c~,, (dümiim). See no. 415e.
years (cf. Gen 15:13). This conforms to the long
J;i, (danag). See no. 444a.
length of life among the Hebrew patriarchs (Keil,
Commentary p. 216). "In the times of the pat-
416 r,, (du~) spring, leap, dance (Job 41:14,
riarchs it was reckoned at a hundred years ....
only).
So among the Romans the word seculum origi-
nally signified an age or generation of men and
417 ;,,, (dwq). Assumed root of the following.
was later transferred to denote a century" (Ge-
417a ;,~, (däyeq) bulwark, sulewall (e.g.
senius Lexicon, trans. Edw Robinson, 26th ed.,
II Kgs 25:I; Ezk 4:2).
1891). This idea is present in the passages which
418 ,,, (dür) heap up, pile, dwell. speak of a generation as passing away, rather
than as being succeeded by another (Deut 1:35;
Derivatives 2: 14).
2. More frequently, of the circle of a man's life
418a ,,, (dür) circle, ball.
from his conception and birth until the concep-
418b t,;, (dar), i"I (dör) generation.
418c :i,i,~ (m''dürii) pile (of wood,
tion and birth of his offspring. Familiar examples
are in the recurring phrase, .. Even to the tenth
etc.).
generation" (Deut 23:2 [H 3]; 3 [H 41) and '"the
Occasionally there is a Hebrew word wherein children of the third generation" (Deut 23:8 [H
etymology, as a route to discovery of ancient 91). Extended uses listed below rest on this.
thought patterns, is all-important in discovering 3. A period or age of time. dör is used in vari-
the true life-situation in which the word must be ous combinations to express this: darat
understood. Such is the case here. Authorities all sh' lämim (ls 51 :9); dar wädar (Deut 32:7); [''dör
agree that dör, the noun, is derived from dür, the dör (Ex 3:15), b"kol dör wädör (Ps 45:18); 'ad
verb. The simple primitive sense, not expressly dör wädör (Psa 100:5); b'dör dörim (Ps 102:25).

186
 420 :ir,-,(da/Ja)
There are others. In some dör indicates an age or Derivatives
period of past time (Isa 51:9), future time (Ex
3:15), past and future (Ps !02:24). Many occur- 419a W'':1(dayish) threshing.
rences are employed to indicate endless time, i.e.
419b :iw,~(m''düshii) that which is
·,,,;eshed.
eternity, often paralled with other concrete terms
as 'öläm "forever" (Ps 89: 1 [H 2]) or 'im shemesh 419c i w•, (dishön) a clean animal.
and w'lipne yäreaf;, literally, "with the sun and Aramaic is the same, and in Akkadian it is "to
before the moon." tread on" (ofthreshing oxen). This root basically
4. One group-as opposed to a single per- means "to thresh." Only two references to actual
son-as related to another by natural descent threshing occur (I Chr 21 :20; Isa 28:27-28).
(Jud 2: IO). This is a group of posterity, as in the Hosea ( IO:11) uses düsh to indicate an attitude.
case of "four generations" of Job's offspring (Job Isaiah 28:27 mentions that different methods
42: 16) and in references such as "throughout were used for different size grains, threshing for
their generations'' (Gen 17:7, 9) and · · throughout !arger sizes, and the rod for tapping out the cum-
your generations" (Gen 17:12; see also Ex 12:14, min.
l7,42etal.). The instruments of threshing are seldom men-
5. A special use ofthe fourth sense above is to tioned, although Isaiah speaks of the cart wheel
mean simply "contemporaries," viz. "and of his (28:28) and the threshing sledge with teeth
generation, who considered"? (Isa 53:8); cf. Gen (41: 15). Grain was separated from chaff by win-
6:9 dörötiiyw "in his own generation and those nowing, when the wind was favorable. The fan
immediately contiguous" (BDB). (30:24) or the whisk broom was used to sweep
6. By a natural transition this word is used away the dust as it settled out or blew away.
widely with a metaphorical sense to indicate a Finally the grain was passed through a sieve to
dass of men distinguished by a certain moral or separate the dirt (cf. Arnos 9:9; lsa 30:28; Lk
spiritual character. Thus God is "in the genera- 22:31).
tion of the righteous" (Ps 14:5) and those whose düsh is also used figuratively. The breaking ac-
"hands': and "heart" are clean are "the genera- tion of threshing speaks of the defeat of the ad-
tion ofthem" that seek God's face (Ps 24:6). The versaries of Hazael of Damascus (II Kgs 13:7).
wicked "fathers" oflsrael were "a stubbom and düsh is used in Gideon's threat against the elders
rebellious generation; a generation that set not of Succoth (Jud 8:7), and of the subjugation of
their heart aright" (Ps 79: 13). This usage is fre- Gilead by Syria (Arnos 1:3). lt is also used of
quently employed (see Prov 30:11, 12, 13, 14;Jer Israers victory over her enemies (Mic 4:13: Isa
2:31; 7:29). 41:15). On the latter verse, see E. J. Hamlin.
This usage via LXX becomes, in the word JNES 13: 185-90. Hamlin argues that in Isa
Renea, a Hebraism of frequent striking occur- 41 : 15ff. the mountains and hills are mentioned
rence in the mouth of Jesus in the Greek NT (e.g. because they were the sites of pagan worship.
Mt 11:16; 12:29,45; 16:4; 17:17, etc.). John the H.G.S.
Baptist and Jesus employed Kennema, Renema
similarly (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33; Lk 3:7). 420 :ii,, (daf;ii) chase, overflow, thrust, totter,
In the LXX dör is most frequently rendered sore, drive away/out, be outcast, cast down.
Renea. rarely Renesis; never Rennema Kenema
(Hatch and Redpath, Concordance to the LXX). Derivatives
In the or, the chronological use is predomi-
420a 'M"T (d''/Ji) falling.
nant, (number three above) though the metaphor- 420b :ir,,~ (midf;eh) ruin.
ical (number five) is the most significant theologi-
cally. This root connotes "to pursue and cast down··
lt ought to be noted that this word in the with the intent to harm. Twice it occurs as an
chronological sense is only one ofthe many bibli- intensive infinitive absolute. In Arabic it means
cal terms for time demonstrating that revelation "to drive."
presents time as a durative, measurable phenom- The Psalmist pictures Israel as one who was
enon. Duration may not be excluded from the being pushed hard by his foes in order to bring
biblical idea of time. about his downfall (Ps 118:13). On one occasion
Bibliography: Ackroyd, P. R., "The Meaning David likens himself to a tottering wall as he is
of Hebrew ,,, Considered," JSS 13: 3-10. Neu- being assaulted by the wicked (Ps 62:3 [H 4 ]). On
berg, Frank J., "An U nrecognized Meaning of another occasion he complains that the wicked
Hebrew DÖR," JNES 9: 215-17. THAT, I, pp. are attempting to trip his feet, i.e. to bring about
443-44. his downfall (Ps 140:4 [H 5]). But elsewhere he
R.D.C. praises God for keeping his feet from falling (Ps
56:13 [H 14]; cf. 116:8). Jeremiah predicts that
419 w~, (düsh), w•i (dfsh) tread, thresh. the pursuit of wickedness by the wicked prophets

187
421 *ntt,(däf:zaf:z)
and priests will lead finally to slippery paths in was identified or associated with the root shäpa/.
darkness where they will be driven and fall (Jer The verb also occurs in Ugaritic and in parallel
23:12), and the sage avers that whereas the right- with lPf (the cognate of shäpa() (Fisher, RSP,
eous find a refuge at the time of death, the wicked vol. 1, p. 166). Likewise a similar-nearly identi-
are brought down to final ruin at the time of their cal as far as it goes-list of terms is associated
calamity (Prov 14:32). He also concludes that a with dfn, demonstrating the near identity of
tlattering tongue works havoc (Prov 26:28). meaning: with meshiirim "uprightness,"
David prays that the angel of God will pursue the "equity" (Ps 96:10; cf. Ps 75:2); and with ,-:äsha"
wicked and bring them to destruction (Ps 35:5). (Ps 54:1 [H 3]; cf. Ps 72:4). As with shäpaf it
lsaiah envisions the day when the outcasts of Is- represents God's government as both among his
rael will be gathered together from the Diaspora people [Israel] and among all peoples (Ps 135:14
(lsa 11:12; 56:8). "people"; Ps 7:8 [H 9] "peoples" cf Ps 72:2; Ps
H.G.S. 9:8 [H 9]). As far as the small number of occur-
rences allows a test, the range of meanings is
421 *Mrt';I (dähah) to be thrust down. Occurs exactly the same: to govem, in the whole range of
only once, in the Niphal (Jer 23: 12). activities of government: legislative, executive,
judicial or otherwise. See the discussion of
shäpaf and mishpii[. The difference between the
'M';I(d'"hil- See no. 420a.
terms is simply that din is poetic, probably also
an archaic and more elegant term. Of the twenty-
422 in, (dhn). Assumed root of the following. three occurrences, only one is outside the Protes-
422a 1tl, (döhan) millet (Ezr 4:9, tant grouping of poetical and poetical-prophetic
only). literature. The exception is the single passive
form-a Niphal participle (II Sam 19:9 [H 101).
423 "lrt';I (dähap) drive, hasten (e.g. Est 3:15; The chief theological significance of this word
6: 12). is that apparently like shäpaf it embodies the idea
Derivative of govemment, in whatever realm, in all its as-
pects.
423a ~~li'.'!~(madhepa) thrust (Ps Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., "YDWN, Gen
140:12, only). 6 3 ," JBL 75: 126-29. THAT. I, pp. 448-50.
R.D.C.
424 i'rt;I (dähaq) thrust, crowd, oppress (Joel
2:8: Jud 2:18).
i''';I (däyeq). See no. 417a.
425 '"! (day) sufficiency, enough, combined with tv•i (dish). See no. 419.
prepositions: '':lf, '"!~. etc. IV'"! (dayish). See no. 419a.
1iw•.,(dishon). See no. 419c.
'!!"! (dak). Seeno.429a.
~,, (diR). See no. 401c.
,~,, (dayyäf?). See no. 401d.
~~"! (day_wi). See no. 394b. 427 *t-t;,;1 (däkä') be crushed, contrite, broken.
i•i (d"yo). See no. 41 le.
Derivatives
426 ,,, (din) judge, contend, plead. 427a ttot;,"I (dakkä')/, contrite, crushed.
427b t-t:ii II, dust (that which is
(dakkä')
Derivatives •~rushed). According to Ps 90:3,
426a ,-, (din) judgment. God turns man back into dust.
426b 1:"I (dayyiin) judge.
däkä' is used in the Pie! and Pual, and twice in
426c 1ii7t ( miidön) strife, contention.
the Hithpael (Job 5:4; 34:25). This verb is used
426d ~;•,~ (m"dina) province.
only in poetry. (Cf. däkak, däka, and Akkadian
This word, with its derived noun din is nearly dakäku.)
identical in meaning with shäpaf (q.v.) and its däkä' and its derivatives are applied only to
derived noun mishpäf (q.v.). lt appears only people except for Ps 89: 10 [H 111, which men-
twenty-three times, a fraction of the times tions the crushing of Rahab, probably a reference
shtipha{ and mishpäf appear. Of the twenty-three to God's victory over Egypt. God is frequently
appearances, five are in parallel with shäpaf (Jer the subject of the verb. He is the one who crushes
5:28; 22: 16; Prov 31 :8; Ps 7:8 [H 9]: 9:8 [H 91) and the oppressor (Ps 72:4) and the wicked (Job
twice more it is associated in the text with mish- 34:25), but he does not crush the prisoner under-
pä/ (Ps 72:2: Jer2l:l2). Thus nearly a third ofits foot (Lam 3:34). Job requests God to crush him
occurrences show how closely the idea of din and put an end to his misery (6:9). According to

188
 431 :,7,(däla)
Jsa 53:10, God did crush his servant. Verse 5 in- 429 ,:i, (dkk). Assumed root of the following.
dicates that he "'was crushed for our iniquities." 429a '\'!:! (dak) crushed, oppressed (e.g.
This emphasizes the emotional and spiritual suf- Ps 74:21; Prov 26:28).
fering ofthe Savior as he became sin for us (cf. Ps 429b :i;:, (dakk<i) crushing (Deut 23:2,
51:8 [H 10]). only).
Several times it is the wicked or the enemies
who are crushing the righteous (Ps 94:5; 143:3). ,, (däl), '?:r (da/). See nos. 431a, 433a.
Even the Jeaders of Israel were guilty of crushing
their people (Isa 3: 15). The poor and needy were 430 J7' (dälaR) leap (e.g. Zeph 1:9: I Sam
sometimes crushed in court (Prov 22:22; cf. Job 5:5).
5:4).
Man's frailty is seen in the brevity oflife, as he
returns to the dust (Ps 90:3). Job 4: 19 contrasts
431 :,7, (däla) draw (water).
431a ',i (dä/) door.
man with the angels and notes that he is crushed
more easily than a moth.
431b :iS, (
däla) door.
431c •~, (d' /i) bucket.
dakka' I. Contrite, crushed. "Crushed" can 431d rii'?:I (däliyot) branch, bough.
also have the positive nuances of "humble, con- 43le tri?.] (de/et) door.
trite." God is close to those who are
delet. Door, gate, leaf (of a door). This noun is
brokenhearted and contrite (lsa 57:15; Ps 34:18
used eighty-six times in the OT and in all but one
(H 19]). He condemns Israel for her failure to
passage it refers to the door on a house, a room of
humble herself even after Jerusalem's collapse
(Jer 44: 10). the house, a temple, or the gates of a city. Some-
times it is used metaphorically (Song 8:9: Job
H.W.
3: 10: 38:8: 41: 14 [H 6]; Ps 78:23). In one passage,
Jer 36:23, it seems to describe some kind of tablet
on which Baruch took dictation from Jeremiah.
428 :i;, (däkii) be crushed, broken, contrite.
This· latter meaning of de/et is now confirmed by
Derivative evidtnce from Ugaritic and Phoenician in which
dlt Ä1aymean both "door" and ··tablet. ·· Also in
428a ,:,, (doki) crushing, dashing (Ps
the·.·Lachish letters (in Hebrew, sixth century
· 93:3, only).
~.G.), letterno. 4, line 3, is the phrase l..thty ·thdlt
This verb is a by-form of the verb dk ', which also ··1 have written upon the tablet.'' One can also
means ··to crush," and of dtik "to pound, beat." corrip~re the Greek word de/tos "writing tablet."
lt is used only in Ps, twice in the Niphal (38:8 [H Doors in biblical times wen: made of strips or
9]; 51:17 [H 19]) and twice in the Pie! (44:19 [H planks of wood bounded by meta) strips, usually
201; 51:8 [H 10]). The form in Ps 10:IO is dis- bronze or iron. Actually thc door was an as-
puted, though it is possibly a use ofthe Qal. Most semblage including beside the door itself the fol-
versions render it "he crouches" (KJV, ASV), al- lowing: two doorposts (m''ztiza) which are the
though "he is crushed" is also plausible. door's vertical sides; a !intel (mashqvp), the
The verb appears only in Iaments and is consis- door's upper horizontal side; and a sill or a
tently used of one who is physically anll emotion- threshold ( .rnp), the door's lower horizontal side.
ally crushed because of sin or the onslaught of an Wider doorways such as those used in city gates
enemy. In Ps 51 :8 [H l01 and probably 38:8 [H 9J, or !arge buildings had a third vertical column on
the psalmist speaks of his bones being broken which two doorleaves, one attached to each of
because of involvement in sin. Psalm 51 refers to the doorposts, converged when shut. This is im-
David's adultery with Bathsheba and the sub- plied by the number of times de/et is used in the
sequent conviction of sin that he experienced. In dual in the Bible. The door, which usually opened
verse 17 IH 191 he notes with some consolation inward, did not have hinges like ours. The butt
that God does not despise a broken and contrite edge of the door consisted of an upright post
("crushed") heart. The same parallel (using dk') which swung in sockets. The lower socket was
occurs in Ps 34:18 [H 19]. In Ps 74:21 "op- usually a hollowed stone. The upper socket con-
pressed" is parallel to "the afflicted" and sisted of a metal frame or a hollow made in the
"needy." Iintel.
In Ps 44: 19 [H 201 the situation seems to refer de/et is tobe differentiated from other words of
to a military defeat in which the nation has been approximately the same meaning. In relation to
"crushed." No sin is mentioned in the entire sha'ar "gate, .. de/et represents only the swing-
psalm, and yet the land has been humiliated, and ing door, while sha'ar denotes the entire struc-
overrun withjackals (cf. Jer9: 11). Proverbs 26:28 ture of the gate (Neh 3: 1,6, 13-15). In relation to
notes that a liar hates the people he crushes. peta/:1 "door, entrance." peta/:1 is the entrance to
H.W. the house. de/et is a device for closing and open-

189
432 n,, (däla/:z)
ing the entrance. Also, de/et is used only in con- as referring to one of the lower classes in Israel
nection with a built house. Thus compare God's (cf. II Kgs 24:14; 25:12). In däl the idea ofphysi-
word to Cain, "Sin is crouching at the door cal (material) deprivation predominates. Com-
(petal:z," Gen 4:7) ... And the Lord appeared to pare, also, dalla denoting the opposite of fatness
Abraham ... as he sat by the door (peta/:l) of his (Gen41:l9), and the poorest and lowest oflsrael
tent" (Gen 18:1). whom the Babylonians left behind (II Kgs 24:14).
One will recall that God told his people, just Gideon cites the weakness (da/) of his clan when
before the exodus from Egypt, to smear the he questioned God's call to him to deliver Israel
doorposts (m 'züza) and the )intel ( mashqbp ), but (Jud 6:15, cf. II Sam 3:1). da/ describes the ap-
not the door itself, with blood (Ex 12:7). The pearance of Amnon as he pined for Tarnar (II
death angel would pass over those houses in Sam 13:4).
which such steps had been taken. da/ denotes the lack of material wealth (Prov
In Deut 6:4ff. and 11:20 there is a reference to 10:15) and social strength (Arnos 2:7). Such
the ancient and still prevailing custom of hanging people are contrasted with the rich (Ex 30:15;
the m' züzii to the doorpost. In contemporary Ruth 3:10) and the great (Lev 19:5). God enjoins
Judaism the m"züza refers not to the doorpost their protection (Ex 23:3; Lev 14:21; lsa 10:2),
itself but to the parchment scroll which is affixed and promises to them justice (lsa 11:4). Only in-
to the doorpost. On one side of the scroll is the frequently is da/ used of spiritual poverty (cf. Jer
appropriate words from Deut. On the back of the 5:4 ), and in most cases such usages parallel
parchment is the Hebrew word shadday, which 'ebycin, needy (lsa 14:30).
is not only a name for God, .. Almighty," but is L.J.C.
also an acronym for shbmer daltöt yi.fra'el
"Guardian of the doors of Israel." How 434 t'\7:1 (dalap) drop, drip (Job 16:20: Ps
appropriate it is then in the NTfor Jesus to say. · · 1 119:28; Eccl 10:18).
am the door of the sheep" (Jn 10:7). Derivative
V.P.H.
434a t'\1{'.''I ( delep) a dropping (Prov
M?:! (da/lii). See nos. 433b,c. . i9:13; 27:15).

432 n,;1 (diilal:z) make turbid (Ezk 32:2). 435 ;,'7;1 (dälaq) hotly pursue (e.g. Gen 31:36;
Ob 18).
•',i (d'/i). See no. 431c. Derivative
l'li~'7';1
(daliyot). See no. 43 ld.
435a r'\i:l~:! ( dalleqet) injlammation (Deut
433 ,,, (däla/) to be low, hang down. The 28:22).
Rsv and ASV translate the same except when
rendering the verbal form. l'I,~ (de/et). See no. 431e.

Derivatives 436 Cl;! (däm) blood.

433a t',:1 (da/) one who is low. This important word appears 360 times in the
433b M7:! (dallii) I, thrum. oT, most often in Lev (88 times) and Ezk (55
433c M7:! (dallii) II, poorest, lowest. times), followed by Ex (29 times), Deut (23 times),
This root connotes lowness as a state or a goal. and Ps (21 times). These occurrences can be di-
lt occurs sixty-two times. Used metaphorically, vided roughly in a two-to-one ratio, into two gen-
the verb describes a state of deprivation which in eral categories: (1) the shedding ofblood through
its extremity issues in a cry to God. lt sometimes violence and havoc resulting usually in death, as in
refers to physical distress (Jud 6:6). The noun war or murder; (2) the shedding of blood, always
dallii I describes hair (Song 7:5 [H 6]) and thread
resulting in death, in a sacrifice to God.
hanging from a loom (lsa 38: 12). dälal is appar- The theological debate today centers around the
ently applied to miners suspended by ropes (Job significance of what is symbolized by the biblical
28:4) and the legs of the lame (Prov 26:7) which word, "blood" in a context of sacrifice. Briefly,
"hang down (and nothing more)." lt also de- two suggestions have been made. One is that
blood symbolizes life. The blood of the victim is
scribes dried up streams (Isa 19:6).
the life that has passed through death. Thus, to say
dal. One who is low. This root occurs most that one is saved by "the blood of Christ" means
frequently in the adjectival form. Unlike 'äni, da/ that we are saved by Christ's life, by participating
does not emphasize pain or ·oppression; unlike in bis life. Much emphasis is placed here on sev-
'ehyon, it does not primarily emphasize need, eral OTverses which all say substantially the same
and unlike räsh, it represents those who lack thing: "The life of the flesh is in the blood" (Gen
rather than the destitute. We might consider däl 9:f; Lev 17:ll,14; Deut 12:23).

190
 437 :,~, (däma)

The second interpretation and the one adhered bolism ofBlood and Sacrifice," JBL 92: 205-10.
to in this article, emphasizes that blood in the oT Morris, L .. "The Biblical Use of the Term
denotes not life, but death, or more accurately, life 'Blood'," JTS 3: 216-27. __ , JTS 6: 77-S2.
that is offered up in death. Having said this, it Reventlow, H., "Sein Blut Komme über sein
shouldbe pointed out that there is absolutely noth- Haupt," VT 10: 311-27. Richardson, TWB, p. 33.
ingin the oTakin to the morbid preoccupation with Steinmuller, J ., "Sacrificial Blood in the Bible,"
the sinister deities of the netherworld such as one Bib 40: 556-67. Stibbs, A., The MeaninR of the
finds in the blood rituals of Israel' s neighbors Word 'Blood' in Scripture, 3d ed., London: Tyn-
where the emphasis is also on "blood-death." dale, 1962. Wood, Bryant, G., "'In the Blood is
The three passages quoted above should pre- Life'-A Common Belief in Ancient Times,."
sent no problem. Rather than saying that blood is Bib/e and Spade 2: 105-14. TDNT, I, pp. 172-77.
lifethey simply say that blood is the source oflife, THAT, I, pp. 448-50.
the means by which life is perpetuated. To remove V.P.H.
the blood is to terminale life. Hence, in the OTa
threefold prohibition emerges from this: (1) the 437 :,~'!' (diima) I, be like, resemble.
sanctity of life; a man may not shed the blood of
another man. In such cases of homicide it is the Derivatives
responsibility of one of the kinsmen to act as a 437a tri,~"! ( d'' müt) likeness.
"blood redeemer" (!(o'e/ hä-'ädiim) for the de- 437b i"~"I (dimyön) likeness.
ceased by killing the slayer (Num 35:19; Deut This verb appears thirty times in Biblical He-
19:12). In such cases where God is the avenger of brew and twice in Biblical Aramaic (Dan 3:25;
blood the verb used is never Rä'a/ but näqam- 7:5). In the Qal stem the verb is used mostly in
take vengeance (Deut 32:43); or diirash-seek, reference to man and by man, either in the form of
require (Gen 9:5). Related to this are those in- adirect statement (Ps 144:4; 102:6 [H 7]; Isa 1:9) or
stances where an individual has committed an in-
in the form of a rhetorical question (Ezk 31 :2, 18;
fraction of the moral law that necessitates the
cf. v. 8, in connection with the Egyptian Pharaoh).
death penalty. The expression used in the Bible to A similarly structured question is found in Isa46:5
describe such a person is, "His blood is upon with God expressing his own incomparability. The
him" (Lev 20:9,11-13,16,27) or "his blood shall
verbis also an ideal one for the author of the Song
be upon his head" (Josh 2:19; I Kgs 2:37).
of Solomon where the respective lovers search for
(2) The second principle that emerges from the
appropriate figures of speech to convey their
relationship between blood and life is that before a depth of love for each other: 2 :9, I 7; 7 :8; 8: 14; 1:9
sacrifice of an animal could be offered to God, all (Piel).
ofits blood must be drained and disposed of either In the Piel stem the verb assumes the meaning
on the altar, the ground, or elsewhere (Lev 1:5; "to compare, imagine, think, intend." Of special
4:6; Deut 12:24; Ex 12:7). (3) Eating blood is pro-
interest here are those references in the latter
hibited (Lev 3:17; 17:10-13; I Sam 14:31-35; Ezk
chapters of Isaiah where the Lord says of himself
33:25). The reason is simple enough. Atonement
that there is nothing or nobody to whom he can be
for sins was made by the sacrifice of the life of compared (lsa 40:18,25; 46:5; cf. Ps 50:21 where
animals as a substitution for one's own life; and God chides the people for attempting to make him
the shedding of blood was the most important in man's image). The corollary of this theme in
element in the expiation of sin. Hence, the prohi- Isaiah would be something like, "I am the Lord,
bition on human imbibing. lt was too sacred for and besides me there is no savior" (lsa43: 11). The
ordinary man to handle. point of these verses in Isaiah is not that God says
There can be no doubt that theologically the no one is comparable to him in appearance or
primary teaching of the oT about the blood is its being, but that no one is comparable to him in
role in the forgiveness of sins. God promises ministry and function.
atonement for sin and cleansing by the blood of a
guiltless substitute. How logical it will be then for d•mut. Likeness. Although this substantive is
the NT to take this concept to its füllest fulfillment used only twenty-six times in the OT, it is a very
and extension. We are reconciled to God by the important word. lt appears in the theophanic
death ofhis Son, and we shall be saved by his life section of Ezekiel (1:5,10,13,16,22,26,28;
(Rom 5:10). 10:1, 10,21,22), and quite often in juxtaposition
Bibliography: Dewar, L., '"The Biblical Use with k'' mare "like the appearance of." Ezekiel is
ofthe Term 'Blood' ," JTS 4: 204-208. Koch, M., very careful never to say that he saw God, 'Nöhim
"Der Spruch 'Sein Blut bleibe auf seinem Haupt' (as did lsaiah in his prophecy, lsa 6: 1, the object or
und die israelitischen Aüffassung vom vergosse- content of Isaiah' s vision is 'adönäy), but only
nen Blut," VT 12: 396-416. McCarthy, D., "The that he saw the likeness of God or the likeness of
Symbolism of Blood and Sacrifice," JBL 88: the entourage that surrounds God. In such prac-
166-76. --, "Further Notes on the Sym- tice he is comparable to Daniel (Dan 10:16) and

191
438 :i,?, (däma)
John in the Apocalypse (Rev 1:13), and perhaps Bibliography: Ausselin, David Tobin, "The
Heb 7:3 (the introduction of Melchizedek). All of Notion of Dominion in Genesis 1-3," CBQ 16:
the above references in Ezekiel refer to visual 277-94. Barr, J., "The Image ofGod in the Book
similarities, but lsa 13:4 shows that J•·mut can be of Genesis-A Study ofTerminology,'' BJRL 51:
used also for audible similarities, and structural I 1-126. Clines, D.J.A., "The Image of God in
similarities in the sense ofbeing a pattern or model Man." Tyndale Bulletin 19: 53-103. Humbert, P.,
(II Kgs 16: 10, parallel with tahnit). Etude.1· sur Je recit du paradis et de la chute dans la
Finally we note two important passages in Genese, Neuchatei: Secretariate de l'Universite,
which man is said tobe created in "(the image and) 1940. Jenni, E., in THAT, pp. 451-56. Labus-
likeness ofGod" (Gen 1:26; 5: 1), and one passage chagne, C. J ., The lncomparability ,~{ Yahweh in
where Adam fathered a son, Seth, "in his like- the 0. T., Leiden: Brill, 1966. Miller, J. M., "In the
ness" (Gen 5:3). ·Image· and 'Likeness· ofGod," JBL91: 289-304.
Our purpose here is not to examine per se the Piper, J ., "The Image ofGod: An Approach from
doctrine of imt1RO Dei. The studies on this have Biblical and Systematic Theology," Studio Bib-
been legion. Specifically, we shall attempt to as- lica et Theoloiica I: 15-32 (arguing for the on-
certain the relationship between .yelem ("image," tological, substantialistic interpretation of the
q.v.) and d 1"111ü1("likeness") in Gen. Nowhere "image ofGod" doctrine). Schmidt, W. H., Die
eise in the OT do these two nouns appear in paral- Schöpfunvieschichte der Priesterschrift,
lelism or in connection with each other. The fol- Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1964.
lowing suggestions have been made. (1) Roman Wynkoop, M. B., A Theoloiy of Love, Beacon
Catholic theology has maintained that "image" Hili Press, 1972, esp. chaps. 6-7 (arguing against
refers to man's structural likeness to God, a the ontological interpretation of the '· image of
natural image, which survived the Fall and "like- God" doctrine). Buswell, J. 0., A Systemarie
ness· · refers to man's moral image with which he Theology, vol. I, pp. 232-42. Richardson, TWB,
is supernaturally endowed; and it is this likeness p. 226.
that was destroyed in the Fall. (2) The more impor- V.P.H.
tant word of the two is "image" but to avoid the
implication that man is a precise copy of God, 438 :,~, (dämä) II, cease, cut off, destroy, per-
albeit in miniature. the less specific and more .i~h.
abstract ,/" 111ü1was added. d'' mut then defines
and limits the meaning of .)-elem(Humbert, Barr). Derivative
(3) No distinction is to be sought between these 438a t•~, (dömi) rest, silence.
two words. They are totally interchangeable. In
The root under consideration is used almost
Gen 1:26. which is God's resolution to create,
exclusively in prophetical books or context. Thus,
both words are used. But in v. 27, the actual act of
the verbis found outside this genre only in II Sam
creation. only .ycle111is used. not d''mut. The two
21 :5 and Ps49: 12,20 [H 13, 21 ]. The verb means to
words are so intertwined that nothing is lost in the
come to an end, but it is always a violent end that is
meaning by the omission of d''mtit. Also, the 1xx
indicated: Isa 15: I; Jer 47:5; Hos 4:5-6; 10: 15.
translates d'' 1111i1in Gen 5: I not by the usual
In a different context, however, this verb is
ho111oiosis but by C'iko11,the Greek counterpart for
used by Jeremiah in his aspiration that his tears
Hebrew .yelc111(Schmidt). (4) lt is not .~elnn which
shed for his people not "cease" (Jer 14:17; cf.
but the other way
is defined and limited by d'' 1111i1
Lam 3:49). Isaiah also uses the verb (in the Niphal
around. Two things are important here: (a) the
perfect) in his familiar, "Woe is me for I am ·un-
similarity between J•·mut and the Hebrew word
done'" (6:5).
for ··bJood'" dä111;(b) in Mesopotamian tradition
däma is used seventeen times in the oT and
thc gods in fact created man from divine blood.
twelve of these are in the Niphal stem.
Genesis then represents a conscious rejection of
and polemic against pagan teaching by asserting dömi. Rest, silence, occurs four times: Isa
that .yclem specifies the divine similarity to which 62:6-7; Ps 83:1 [H 21; Isa 38:10. The latter refer-
d'' mtit refers, viz .. man·s corporeal appearance ence presents some problem in translation as evi-
and has nothing to do with the blood that flows in denced by the KJV "cutting off' and the Rsv
his veins (Miller). (5) The word "likeness" rather "noontide·· plus the lack of unity among the an-
than diminishing the word ••image" actually cient versions. lt may be that the origin of dömi
amplifies it and specifies its meaning. Man is not here is not dämä II, but rather dämam ll, "to
just an image but a likeness-image. He is not sim- mourn, wail"; so, "I said in my sorrow I have."
ply representative but representational. Man is Bibliography: On the use of dömi in lsa 38: 10
the visible, corporeal representative of the in- cf. Dahood, M., ··Textual Problems in Isaiah,"
visible, bodiless God. d'' mit, guarantees that man CBQ 22: 400-409, esp. p. 401. On the relation of
is an adequate and faithful representative of God the roots dum!dämaldämam, all meaning basi-
on earth (Clines). cally ··cease, be silent," cf. G. R. Driver, "A

192
 443 ;,W~,(dammeseq)
Confused Hebrew Root (c,,,:,r.i,cr.i) in Sepher 441b :,;~,,; (111adm1'11<i) dung pit (lsa
N.H. Tur-Sinai, Publicationes Societatis Invest. 25:10, only).
Script. VIII, 1960.
V.P.H. 442 IJl';"I (düma') weep (Jer 13:17, only).

:,rp;1 (dümma). See no. 439b. Derivatives

r,ir., (d'' mül). See no. 437a. 442a IJl';"l (dema') juice (Ex 22:28.
•~, · (dömi). See no. 438a. only).
,,~"! (dimyön). See no. 437b. 442b t:,~r., (dim'ä) tears (e.g. Ps 80:6:
Eccl 4:1).
439 Cl~"!(dämam) l, be silent, still; wait.
dim'ä. Tears. Occurs twenty-three times.
Derivatives mostly in poetry in Jeremiah and Psalms. Cog-
439a :,~~., ( d" mämä) whisper, (l Kgs nate to Ugaritic dm't and Akkadian dimtu. lt is a
19.:12; Job4:16; Ps !07:29). collective noun, but the plural d''mä'öt is found
439b :,~, (dümmti) one silenced, de- in Ps 80:5 [H 61 and Lam 2: 11.
·;troyed (Ezk 27:32, only). "'Tears" usually occurs in a context of mourn-
ing and lamenting. Jeremiah wept profusely be-
dämam is cognate to the Ugaritic dmm "be cause of the crushing of Judah (Jer 14: 17) and the
silent." lt occurs twenty-nine times in the Qal, ensuing captivity ( l3: 17). His eyes became a
and five times in the Niphal. lt is found primarily "fountain of tears" (Jer 9:1 iH 8:231) and a
in poetry. "river" (Lam 2:18) as he wept over his slain
damam is often found in a context of catas- countrymen. lsaiah drenched the land of Moab
trophe and mourning. Aaron and Ezekiel had to with tears as he mourned their judgment ( 16:9).
keep quiet in spite ofthe death ofloved ones (Lev but Ezekiel was not allowed to weep even when
10:3; Ezk 24:17). The elders of Judah sit silently his wife died (24: 16). The Psalmist wept because
with dust on their heads (Lam 2:10). Sometimes ofhis enemies (6:6 [H 7[; 56:8 IH 91) but rejoiced
the notion of stress is absent, however, as in Job when God rescued him from death (116:8 ).
29:21. Several times tears are associated with prayer
Judgment upon nations brings the meaning (Ps 39: 12 [H 131: Lam 2: 18). God answered
close to "destroy." The cities of Moab (Jer 48:2) Hezekiah's tearful prayer and healed him of a
and the island fortress of Tyre ( Ezk 27 :32) are fatal illness (II Kgs 20:5 = lsa 38:5). In Jer 31: 16
silenced, and men ofwar are brought to the silence the promise of lsrael's return from captivity
of death. Jeremiah applies this to the troops of brings an end to their tears (cf. Ps 126:5), and
Damascus (49:26) and Babylon (50:30; cf. lsa lsaiah looks forward to that blessed day when
23:2). The only Hiphil use of the verb refers to the God will "wipe away tears from all faces" (25:8).
Lord dooming Israel (Jer8: 14). The wicked (I Sam Twice, tears are regarded as food and drink (Ps
2:9; Ps31:17 [H 18]) and the Egyptians at the Red 42:3 [H 4]; 80:5 JH 61), and the concept of
Sea (Ex 15:16) are also silenced in death. measuring the amount oftears (80:5) is found also
In I Sam 14:9 the concept of "waiting" or in Ugaritic: "His tears drop like shekels to the
"standing still" appears. This seems to be the ground" (Keret 1:28).
meaning when Joshua asks the Lord to make the H.W.
sun "stand still" and the moon "stop" so he could
pursue the Amorites (Josh 10: 12-13 ). Those inter- 443 i'Wl?"'l
(dammeseq) Damascus.
preters who explain this miracle in terms of the
silencing of the sun·s heat have a more difficult In Arnos 3: 12 the Hebrew text reads d'mesheq.
time, especially in view ofthe parallelism with the which the ancient versions translated as "Damas-
moon. cus" but modern commentators generally trans-
Several times in the Psalms this verb is used of late by piece, part, corner, etc. In Chronicles and
being still before the Lord in quiet meditation (4:4 in Aramaic, Damascus is spelled darmeseq. The
[H 5]; 131:2). We are to rest in the Lord and wai~ name in Egyptian is tymshqw and in Akkadian
patiently for him (Psa 37:7). Yet God's rescue dimashqi.
from trouble did lead the Psalmist to end his si- Damascus, a very ancient city, is recognized in
lence and sing praises to the Lord (Ps 30:12). the Bible from the time of Abraham who pursued
[H 13]). a Mesopotamian raiding party to Hobah near
Damascus where he rescued Lot (Gen 14:15).
440 Cl~"!(dämam) Jl, wail (lsa 23:2). Abraham's steward was Eliezer of Damascus
(Gen 15:2).
441 ,~, (dmn). Assumed root of the following. The city was situated in an oasis on the plain
441a ,~-., (dömen) dung (e.g. Jer 8:2; east of Mount Hermon and wate red by the Abana
·Ps83:II). and Pharpar rivers.

193
444 ~,, (dng)

Damascus is not mentioned again in the OT Comments on the Text ofGenesis 15:2, 3," JBL
until David extends his kingdom northward and 72:49-50.
conquers Syria and the Syrians of Damascus (II E.S.K.
Sam 8:5,6: I Chr 18:5.6). From David's time until
Damascus is overcome by Assyria, tension be- 444 JJi (dnR), Assumed root of the following.
tween Syria (often referred to by its capital city, 444a J~i"I (danaR) wax (e.g.Micl:4;Ps
Damascus) and Israel results in sporadic warfare 22: 15).
with victory sometimes on one side and some-
times on the other. P'.'I (dea'). See no. 848a.
Rezon, a leader among the Syrians of Zobah. :i~'I (de'a). See no. 848b.
tled with his followers to Damascus, became king
there and was a problem to Solomon during Sol- 445 '!IP;! (dä'ak) go out, be extinguished (e.g.
omon ·s reign (1 Kgs 11:24). However, Ahab later Isa 43:17; Prov 20:20).
dominates that area sufficiently to effect a treaty
which gave him control of certain areas of l'lP".t (da'af). See no. 848c.
Damascus (1 Kgs 20:34 ). About this time
Naaman, captain of the Syrian army is healed by 446 :ic, (dph). Assumed root of the following.
Elisha (II Kgs 5:12ff.). 446a •ci (döpi) blemish,fault (Ps 50:20,
Elisha goes. to Damascus, as the Lord in- . ~nly).
structed him (l Kgs 19:15), and informs Hazael
that Ben-hadad the king would die and that 447 i'~;! (däpaq) beat, knock (Gen 33:13;
Hazael would become king in his place and rav- Song 5:2; Jud 19:22).
age Israel (II Kgs 8:7ff.).
Later J eroboam II regains control of Damascus
448 i'i?;! (diiqaq) crush, grind, break in pieces.
(II Kgs 14:28).
When Ahaz is king of Judah, Syria and Israel Derivatives
unite in warfare against Judah. This occasions
448a ti'".t (daq) thin, fine, gaunt.
Isaiah · s famous prophecy of a virgin conceiving a 448b ;,, (doq) veil, cunain. Occurs only
son whose name would be Immanuel which was a in lsa 40:22, where the heavens are
sign that the Lord would be with Judah and the
likened to a thin veil.
coalition of Israel and Syria would be destroyed
by Assyria. Ahaz, however. does not accept the diiqaq occurs mostly in the Qal and Hiphil. lt
sign and sends the silver and gold in the temple at is used both literally and figuratively (contrast
Jerusalem and the treasures of his palace (cf. dk', dkh). Three times it is used alongside the
II Chr 16:2; 24:23) to Tiglath-pileser of Assyria word '"threshing" (Isa 28:28; 41:15; Mic 4:13).
who then conquered Damascus and took its The verb and the adjective daq refer one time
people captive to Kir (II Kgs 16:8, 9). Ahaz on a each to food. In lsa 28:28 there is a description of
visit to Tiglath-pileser in Damascus became at- grinding grain to make bread. In Ex 16:14 manna
tracted to an altar and set up one like it in the is called "thin" or "fine tlakes" that looked like
temple at Jerusalem and sacrificed to the gods of frost. Two passages refer to the fragrant incense
Damascus (II Chr 28:23). used by the priests. A special blend of spices and
lsaiah prophesied that Jerusalem would be de- frankincense was ground into powder and placed
stroyed Iike Damascus (7:8; 8:4; 10:9; 17:1-3). in front of the "testimony" (Ex 30:36). On the
Arnos too prophesies against Damascus ( I :3, Day of Atonement, Aaron was to take burning
5), and declared that Israel would go into captiv- coals and two handfuls of finely ground incense
ity beyond Damascus (5:27). into the holy of holies (Lev 16:12).
In the closing years of the kingdom of Judah, The adjective occurs six times in Gen 41,
Jeremiah prophesies that judgment would fall on which relates the dream of Pharaoh interpreted
Damascus (49:23, 24, 27). by Joseph. Pharaoh was perplexed by the seven
In the last oT references, Ezekiel and Zecha- ugly and "gaunt" ("leantleshed," KJv)cows (vv.
riah mention Damascus in describing the borders 3, 4) and by the seven "thin" heads of grain
of the land after the return from captivity (Ezk scorched by the east wind (vv. 6, 7, 23, 24). Phys-
47:16.17,18; 48:I; Zech 9:1). Ezekiel also men- ical appearance is also the point of Lev 21 :20,
tions Damascus as a merchant in his description where dwarfs are· disqualified from the priest-
of the glory of Tyre (27: I8) and in the description hood (cf. Lev 13:30).
of the bride in the Song of Songs it is said, "Thy A number of passages refer to grinding to pow-
nose is as the tower of Lebanon which Iooketh der idols and images. The most famous is the
toward Damascus" (7:4). incident of the golden calf, in which an angry
Bibliography: Reider, J., "i'W~i in Arnos 3, Moses put the powder into water and made the
12," JBL 67: 245-48. Unger. Merrill F., "Some people drink it (Ex 32:20; Deut 9:21). This be-

194
 452 ;i,,(drg)

came the pattern for King Asa of Judah, who cut with the connotation of disgrace. In 12:10 it refers
up an Asherah pole, crushed it and had it burned to the nation of Israel finally turning to Christ,
in the Kidron Valley (II Chr 15: 16). Josiah fol- "the one they have pierced," at the second com-
lowed suit, grinding up Asherah poles in ing. The next chapter predicts that in that day no
Jerusalem (II Kgs 23:6) and Bethel (II Kgs 23: 15). false prophet will be allowed to live, for his own
He did the same with the pagan altars and images parents will pierce him through (13:3).
throughout the country, scattering the powder on Four times däqar is used in connection with
the graves of their devotees (II Chr 34:4, 7). the armies of Babylon. The Chaldean forces will
Metaphorically, the Scriptures speak of tram- be successful against Judah (Jer 37: 10; Lam 4:9),
pling the enemy, grinding them as fine as dust. but they too will fall before the invading armies of
With the Lord's help, Israel will be able to crush the Medes and Persians (lsa 13:15: Jer 51:4).
many nations in battle (lsa 29:5: 40: 15: Mic 4: 13), H.W.
just as David was able to pound his enemies into
submission (II Sam 22:43 ). lsaiah underscores ,"! (dor), ,, (dar). See nos. 418b, 454a.
the insignificance of the nations compared with
an almighty God by calling them mere „dust on 450 M.,., (dr'). Assumed root of the following.
the scales" (40:15, NASB). 450a iiMi"l (dl•rä'ön) aversion, abhor•
daq. Thin, fine, gaunt. Occurs mostly in the r~nce (lsa 66:24; Dan 12:2).
Pentateuch (eleven out offourteen uses) and, like
the verb, often has a negative sense. Can be iiM?':f (derä'ön). See no. 450a.
applied to people, animals, and things.
In I Kgs 19: 12 daq refers to the „gentle 451 :i,., (drh). Assumed root of the following.
whisper" through which God spoke to Elijah 451a ,;,, (dorban) goad (1 Sam 13:21,
after the prophet had fled to Mount Sinai. only).
H.W. 451b :it,,, (dorbona) goad (Eccl 12:11,
only).
449 ,:,, (däqar) pierce, pierce through, thrust
through. ,;,, (dorhän). See no. 451a.

Derivative 452 Ji'i (drf?}. Assumed root of the following.

449a :"!?i?':!~(modqärä) piercing, 452a :ir,'i~ ( madreRa) steep place, steep
stab (Prov 12:18, only). (Song 2:14; Ezk 38:20).
daqar is used six times in the Qal, once in the ,-:,,-:, (dardar). See no. 454e.
Niphal, and three times in the Pual-all three par- cii;t (däröm ). See no. 454d.
ticipial forms in the writings of Jeremiah (37: 10: ,;.,, (d"ror) I, II. See nos. 454b,c.
51:4; Lam 4:9). Normally the piercing results in
death. But in Jer 37: 10 the term refers to men
who are seriously wounded. The weapon as-
452.1 ~.);'':! (daryawesh) Darius.
sociated with daqar is usually the sword, though Darius was the name of three kings of Persia
a spear is the instrument in Num 25:8. mentioned in the or and of Darius the Mede men-
Several times däqar refers to a disgraceful tioned in Dan 5:30; chap. 6; and 11: 1, whose iden-
death. In its only occurrence in the Pentateuch tity is in dispute.
the term is used of the blow, inflicted by the Darius I, the Great, son of Hystaspes, was king
priest Phinehas, that killed an lsraelite man and a from 521 to 486 B.c. During his time the second
Midianite woman (Num 25:8). lt was this drastic temple was finished (516 B.c.). The work on the
action that stopped the plague against the lsrael- temple began under Cyrus the Great (559-530) in
ites resulting from idolatry and immorality con- about 539 B.c. The work was halted by the oppo-
nected with the worship of the Baal of Peor. In sition and stopped also during the reign of Cam-
two instances Israelite rulers asked their servants byses (530-532). But Darius was a new ruler, not
to pierce them through to avoid dying in disgrace. Cambyses's son and the work was begun again
Abimelech wanted to avoid the charge that a under the urging of Haggaiand Zechariah and the
woman killed him (Jud 9:54), and Saul feared leadership of Zerubbabel the governor and
abuse at the hands of the Philistines (1 Sam 31 :4 Joshua the high priest. lt was finished in 516
= I Chr 10:4). The alleged contradiction as to the under the patronage of Darius who ruled in 521-
death of Saul in II Sam 1:9 is probably due to the 486. This is the one mentioned in Ezr 4:5, 24 and
Amalekite' s stretching the truth so as to get in Haggai and Zechariah. After the reigns of
credit for Saul's death and to obtain a reward. He Xerxes (Ahasuerus of Esther, 486--465) and Ar-
got more than he asked for! taxerxes I (464-424) of the times of Ezra and
The term appears twice in Zechariah, again Nehemiah came Darius II (Ochus, 424-404). This

195
453 '!lj' ( därak)

was the Darius of Neh 12:22. In Neh 12 a line of 5:21 also. Psalm 91: 13 refers to treading or tram-
Levites is given from the returnee Jeshua as: pling the lion and the cobra.
Joiakim, Eliashib, Joiada, Jonathan, Jaddua. A frequent idiom is "treading upon the high
These span the period 539-404 e.c., a not unlikely places of the earth," indicating control of the
situation. There is no need to call this Darius of enemy (Deut 33:29; cf. Hab 3:15) or, when used
Neh 12 the king Darius III, Codomannus (335- of God. his sovereignty as Creator of heaven and
331 e.c.). Josephus indeed says that Jaddua was earth (Arnos 4:13; cf. Job 9:8). In Mic 1:3 God
high priest in the days of Darius III. But there comes down from heaven to judge his sinful
could have been two Jadduas, as we know there people. Some interpreters feel that in these pas-
were two Sanballats (Wonder, A.W., "Sanbal- sages the "high places" refer to the mountain-
lat" in WBE, II, p. 1517). Or Josephus, who was tops, as the Lord sweeps across the face of the
a much later author, might have confused the two earth.
kings Darius II and III. Another standard idiom is to "tread" or
Darius the Mede of Dan 5:30, chap. 6; 11:1 "bend" the bow (därak qeshel); that is, one
remains a problem of identification. Daniel says steps on the bow in order to bend it and string it.
he took the kingdom of Babylon after Belshaz- An army that is equipped and ready for action has
zar's faJj, but history says Cyrus the Great con- drawn swords. sharp arrows, and bent bows (lsa
quered Babylon. Many find herein Dan a mistake 5:28; 21: 15). Babylon is the target of archers be-
confusing Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great. cause of her sinfulness (Jer 50: 14), and in Zech
lt would be an odd mistake for a book so accurate 9: 13 the Lord bends Judah as his bow in order to
in other ways. There are two suggested solutions. attack Greece. Because of Israers sin, howeve;,
J. C. Whitcomb in his book Darius the Mede the Lord bent his bow against His people (Lam
(Eerdmans, 1963), argues in considerable detail 2:4), and even Jeremiah feit as if he were God's
that the description of this Darius fits Gubaru a target (Lam 3:12).
sub-king of Babylon under Cyrus. D. J. Wiseman The righteous and the afflicted often find that
suggests on the basis of a tablet of that period the wicked bend their bows and aim at them (Ps
referring to Cyrus (evidently) as king of the 11:2; 37: 14). Sometimes the bow of the wicked is
Medes, that Darius the Mede was just a second compared to their tongue (Jer 9:3 IH 2]), which
name that Cyrus used for his Median subjects. lets fly "bitter speech" as their arrows against
There is nothing improbable in this, but more the godly (Ps 64:3 IH 4]; cf. Ps 58:7 IH 8]).
evidence is needed to render a decision. See Eight times in the prophetic books reference is
Wiseman, D. J., et al .. Notes on Some Problems made to "treading grapes" or "treading the
in the Book of Daniel, 1965, pp. 9-16. winepresses," for the normal method of gaining
R.L.H. juice from the grapes was to trample them with
one's bare feet. Treading grapes is sometimes
453 '!!'.:\' (darak) tread, bend; Lead (Hiphil). associated with joy and gladness, anticipating the
drinking of the fruit of the vine (Arnos 9:13, Jud
Derivatives 9:27). Joyful shouting accompanied the treading
453a t,-,.,,(derek) way, road. of grapes (lsa 16:10; Jer48:33). Apparently olives
were crushed in similar fashion on occasion (Mic
453b ,;;~ (midrak) treading or stepping
place (Deut 2:5). 6:15; Job 24:11). The prophets more often con-
453c tii1?:i:i".1:r
(dark'mon) unit of measure, nect the crushing of the grapes with judgment,
p~rhaps drachma. and in this imagery, the grape-juice symbolizes
the blood of those who are being trampled (lsa
Primarily used in the Qal stem, though several 63:2-3; Lam 1:15). The shouting of those who
examples of the Hiphil also occur. Normally ap- tread the grapes becomes a war cry against the
pears in poetic materials, often in the prophetic enemy (Jer 25:30).
books and in Psalms. God is frequently the sub- When the verb occurs in the Hiphil stem, it
ject of this verb, especially when used in a consistently refers to God as he leads the righ-
metaphorical sense. teous in straight paths. This can mean the road
The basic concept behind därak has to do with from the wilderness or from Babylon (Ps I07:7;
setting foot on territory or objects, sometimes Isa42:16; cf. Isa 11:15) or, more commonly, the
with the sense of trampling them. In Deu- metaphorical path of uprightness or truth (Prov
teronomy and Joshua the verb is used of taking 4: 11, Ps 25:5, 9). The best path is to follow God's
possession of the promised land. Israel will re- commandments (Ps 119:35).
ceive as an inheritance all the land that the sole of
her foot will tread (Deut 1:36; 11:24; Josh 1:3; derek. Way, road, journey, manner, work. Re-
14:9). Once, it is the Assyrian army that invades lated to the verb därak "to tread, trample";
Israel and tramples its citadels (Mic 5:5 IH 41). hence, it refers first to a path worn by constant
This concept of "marching" is likely seen in Jud walking. Genesis 3:24 mentions the "way to the

196
 454 .,.,, (drr)

tree of life,' · blocked after the fall of man. Hagar works of God." The identical idiom (re'shit-
was on the road to Shur when an angel met her derek) in Prov 8:22 may refer to personified wis-
(Gen 16:7). This could also be translated "on dom as the first ofGod's works also. In Job 26: 14
the way" to Shur (cf. Gen 38:21; Ex 4:24 ). Some- the evidence of God's power in creation and in
times derek can refer to a major highway, such as history is called "the fringes of His ways" (NASB)
the king's highway (derek hammelek) running or "the outer fringe of his works" (NIV).
north and south in Transjordan (Num 20:17; "Ways" has the unusual sense of ··sexual fa-
21:22). The "way ofthe sea" (lsa9:11He8:23]), vors" in Jer 3: 13 and Prov 31 :3.
known later as the Via Maris, extended from The cognate noun in Ug, drkt, is clearly used
Gaza to Damascus. Exodus 13: l 7 mentions the to mean "dominion, thrones of dominion" (Ais
road along the coast from Egypt through Philis- WUS no. 792; UT 19: no. 702 "rule, dominion").
tine country. The relation between the meaning "road" and
derek can also mean · 'journey,'' usually one of "dominion" is not clear, but it may be seen in the
several days' duration. Joseph prepared supplies meaning cited by Gordon (UT id.) "to march."
for his father's journey to Egypt (Gen 45:23), and The idea of "tread" could extend to tread down
the Gibeonites tricked Joshua by claiming to have in authority or to tread upön a road or way. In
completed "a very long journey" (Josh 9:13). any case there are oT passages which seem to be
Elijah mocked the prophets of Baal as he elucidated by the translation "dominion, power,
suggested their god might be "on a journey" (1 force, authority." Pope finds two in Job: 17:9 and
Kgs 18:27). In Gen 24:21 Abraham·s servant 26:14 ("Job" AB, in loc.); Dahood argues for
thanks God for making his journey (or "mis- such a meaning in a number of places in the
sion") to Mesopotamia successful. Psalms and elsewhere (Bib 38: 306-20). The
More numerous are the metaphorical uses of places he suggests in his "Psalms" AB include:
derek. lt often refers to the actions and behavior Ps 1:1, 6; 67:2 [H 31; 77:13 [H 141; 90:16; 101:2;
of men, who either follow the way of the righ- 102:23 IH 241; 119:37; 138:5 and 146:9. Some of
teous or the way ofthe wicked (Ps 1:6). The way these are convincing; some are not. The meaning
ofthe righteous is closely linked with "the way of is allowed in HCHL and should doubtless be
the Lord." Parents are to command their chil- adopted in a few OT contexts.
dren "to keep the way of the Lord" (Gen 18: 19; dark•mön. Drachma, dram (KJV), daric (Rsv).
cf. Prov 22:6), which is found in the statutes and This word is used only in Ezr 2:69 and Neh
commands ofGod's law (1 Kgs 2:3). God's ways 7:69-71 with reference to gold contributed either
are much higher than man's ways, and the to rebuilding the temple (Ezr 2:69) or Jerusalem.
wicked is urged to forsake his sinful way (lsa The heads of families gave sixty-one thousand of
55:7-9). these coins to Zerubbabel, while the governor,
God sent the flood because men "had cor- heads of families, and the rest of the people con-
rupted their ways" (Gen 6:12) and even after the tributed a total of forty-one thousand to the work
giving of the law, Israel quickly deviated from the under Nehemiah.
way of the Lord (Deut 9:16) though they were lf "drachma" is the correct translation, one
assured that their ways would not be successful can compare the Greek gemt1ve plural
(Deut 28:29). During the divided kingdom, the drachmön. Greek drachmas dating from the Per-
rulers of Israel consistently walked in the way of sian period have been uncovered at Beth-zur (cf.
Jeroboam and ignored God (1 Kgs 16:26). They J. P. Free, Archaeo/ogy and Bible History, p.
took a path that seemed right, but in the end it led 253). There is no doubt that the Greeks were in-
to death (Prov 14: 12). volved in trading in the fifth century (Albright,
In Prov 30: 19 the behavior of a man courting a W. F., Archaeology of Palestine; p. 143). The
maiden is compared with the uncanny movement drachma was a silver coin, however, whereas the
of an eagle in the sky, a snake on a rock, and a term in question refers only to gold. This factor
ship in the sea. has led some to identify dark' mönim with 'adar-
Occasionally derek means "manner" or "cus- könim, the Persian "daric" mentioned in I Chr
tom . ., Lot's daughters committed incest with 29:7 and Ezr 8:27. The daric was a gold coin
their father because they thought that, after the named for King Darius. Whatever the correct
destruction of Sodom, the normal "custom" of etymology may be, the coin probably weighed
marriage was impossible (Gen 19:31). Later in about eight and one-half grams. See no. 28.1.
Genesis, Rache] excused herself from rising in Bibliography: Archer, G. L., "Coins," in
her father's presence because "the manner of ZPEB, I, p. 903.
women (her menstrual period) is upon me" H.W.
(31:35).
Twice in Job and once in Proverbs derek refers 454 .,.,, (drr). Assumed root of the föllowing.
to God's work in a creation context. In Job 40: 19 454a '"1:1(dar) pearl or mother of
the mighty Behemoth is called "the first of the pearl (Est 1:6). Meaning uncertain.

197
455 !Uj' (därash)

454b t"'\i"'\i (d'rbr) /, release,freedom. the Rsv superior at several places, e.g. lsa
454c "'\i"'\~ (d'rbr) II, swallow (Ps 84:4; 8:19; 19:3; Ps 9:12 [H 13]; Ezr 7:10, etc.,
P~ov 26:2). and inferior at Deut 17:9; Ps 10:4; II Chr
454d tCli"'\i (därom) south. 25:15. Both are inadequate atZeph 1:6.
454e "'\".li".!(dardar) thistles (Hos 8:10,
only). Derivative
d•rör. Release, freedom. Cognate to Akkadian 455a tiu"~ (midräsh) record.
anduräru ••freedom, liberty." A technical ex-
Our word is distinguished from its frequent
pression referring to the release ofHebrew slaves
parallel and equivalent bäqash (q.v.) (därash-
and of property every 50 years in the year of
häqash, Ps 38:12 [H 13]; Ezk 34:6; bäqash-
Jubilee (Lev 25:10-the verse inscribed on the
därash, Jud 6:29; Deut 4:29) inasmuch as it 1.
Liberty Bell). Slaves were allowed to return to
their families, and land that had been leased due means "to seek with care" (I Sam 28:7), 2. is
often cognitive (its end is "to know"), and 3.
to poverty was restored to its original owners.
seldom governs an infinitive. For other
The only reference to this release in Israelite his-
synonyms see bäqash. Cf. Ugaritic drsh (UT 19:
tory occurred during the reign of Zedekiah when
no. 709). Our verb occurs 164 times.
Jerusalem was under Babylonian siege (about 587
The meaning "to seek with care" (cognitive)
B.c.). Zedekiah made a covenant with the people
occurs in Lev 10:16, where Moses seeks to find
and "proclaimed freedom" to the slaves (Jer
out in detail what happened to the sin-offering,
34:8). When the siege was temporarily lifted,
and in II Sam 11:3 where David seeks to find out
however, the people changed their minds and
who Bathsheba was (cf. Deut 23:6 [H 7]; Jer
took back their slaves (34: 11). Because of their
29:7). Israel is told to seek carefully the place
hypocrisy, the prophet Jeremiah announced that
God would choose (Deut 12:5) and justice (Isa
the people would be "set free "-to the sword,
pestilence, and famine (vv. 15-17). 1:17; cf. 16:5!). In the eschaton Jerusalem, the
place no one seeks (Jer 30:17), will be the place
lsaiah uses the term once (61: 1) in announcing
··sought out" (Isa 62:12; or ··cared for," Deut
good news to the affiicted, including a proclama-
11:I2). Furthermore, it is the Gentiles who would
tion of liberty to captives. This text, portraying
seek out the messianic king (lsa 11:10). His place
the reversal of Jerusalem's material and spiritual
fortunes, was quoted by Christ in the synagogue of rest (Num 10:33; Deut 12:9) is glorious.
Closely related to the above is the meaning "to
in Nazareth with reference to his own ministry.
care for." The Psalmist retorts "no man cares for
But the townspeople refused to believe his claim.
my soul" (Ps 142:4 [H 5]). Israel is told to seek
The last occurrence of d" ror is in Ezk 46:7,
the welfare of the city of their exile (Jer 29:7).
where the future prince is allowed to give a gift of
property to his servants until the year of release. Perhaps I Chr 15:13; II Chr 1:5 refer to "care"
for the ark and the brazen altar.
däröm. South. Used sparingly and mostly in Another theological theme develops from Deut
poetry, except for a duster of references in Ezk 4:29 (cf. bäqash) where Israelis warned offuture
40---42,which describe the future temple in detail. defection and admonished to wholehearted wor-
A number of gates, rooms, or doorways faced ship (Deut 6:6; Mt 22:37). The Chronicler
south or were on the south side (40:24, 27, 44; evaluates the history of Israel in terms of their
41:11; 42:12-13). In Ezk 20:46 [H 21:2] därom "seeking'" God (1 Chr 22:19; 28:9; II Chr 31:21,
appears along with two other synonyms for etc.) or idols (II Chr 25: 15). lsaiah reports Israel's
"south," temän and negeh. as the Lord com- refusal to seek God in spite of divine chastening
mands the prophet to preach against this section (lsa 9:13 [H 12]; cf. Jer 10:21). God reminds them
of the land of Israel. of the ancient promise (lsa 55 :6; J er 29: 13, Hos
The word occurs only once in the Pentateuch, 10:12). He reproves them for "seeking" him
in the blessing of Moses in Deut 33 :23. There, the while continuing in their transgressions (lsa 58:2)
inheritance ofthe tribe ofNaphtali is described as but promises blessings in the eschaton for those
"the sea and the south" (NASB)or "southward to who seek him in truth (lsa 65: 10). Interestingly,
the lake" (N1v).In Eccl I: 16 and Job 37: 17 därom even those who do not seek shall find God (lsa
refers to the wind, which blows in turn to the 65: I: lsa 11:10; Rom 10:20).
south and north. Job notes that the south wind To seek God also connotes an inquiry after
can bring uncomfortably hot conditions. Eccle- knowledge, advice, insight, into a particular
siastes 11:3 also deals with rain and winds that problem (Gen 25 :22). Such inquiry could be made
may feil a tree either to the south or the north. through a prophet, i.e. a divine spokesman (Ex
H.W. 7:1; Ex 18:15ff.; I Sam 9:9; Jer 21:2, etc.), or
through a priest using "lots" (shä'al; Deut 17:9).
455 tuj' (därash) to seek with care, inquire, Seeking the word of a false deity often involved
require. ASVand RSVusually the same with complex rituals (Deut 12:30; II Chr 25:15 (?); II

198
 458 r,'(dät)
Sam 11:3: Ezk 21:21 [H 26)). Closely related to 37:'Y7). In Ps 37:2 the godly are told not to envy
this is the "legal" use of our verb, viz., to seek wicked men. because they fade quickly like the
divine judication (Ex 18:15; Deut 17:4, 9; cf. Mt grass (cf. Isa 15:6).
18:5-20; I Cor 6: I Tim 3) by consulting divinely H.W.
authorized "judges."
Finally, our root is used of divine vengeance on 457 7W' (däshen) be(come) fat, prosperous; to
those who take a life. God will diligently seek anoint.
restitution of a life for a life (Gen 9:5; cf. bäqash).
In at least one instance this stipulation is evoked Derivatives
and divinely executed (II Chr 24:22, 24; Ps 9:12 457a 7W"T(deshen) fatness, fat ashes (e.g.
[H 13]; I0:4). To fail in declaring God's work puts · Lev 1:16: Ps 63:6).
a "shepherd" (a minister) under this divine sen- 457b 7W' (diishen) fat (lsa 30:23: Ps
tence (Ezk 33:6). All pronouncements from di- 92:15: 22:30).
vine messengers (prophets) require human accep-
The verb däshen is used only in poetry except
tance and obedience whether miraculously at-
tested or not (Deut 13:lff.) if they are consistent for the Pentateuch, once in the Qal stem (Deut
with previous revelation even if they add thereto 31 :20), usually in the Piel or Pual. Refers to the
"fatty ashes" left after the burning of sacrificial
(Deut 18:22: Jn 7:40; Acts 3:22f.). Ultimately,
animals (Ex 27:3; Num 4: 13). God'sjudgment on
God requires justice, lovingkindness, and a hum-
Edom is compared to a great sacrifice as both
ble walk (Mic 6:8; cf. Ezk 20:40).
God's sword and the ground are covered with
midräsh. Record. ASV and RSV only differ at II "faf' (lsa 34:6-7).
Chr 13:22. Our word represents a written histori- Since fat animals were considered the health-
cal record (a place to "search out something"). lt iest and the fat was regarded as the best part of
is used in later Jewish study to refer to fanciful or sacrificial animals (cf. Ps 20:3 1H 41), the
recondite exegesis. lt occurs twice. metaphorical usage of "prosperous" or "rich" is
Bibliography: Lust, J., "On Wizards and easily understood. The righteous man is de-
Prophets," Supp VT 22: 133-42. Seilers, 0. R., scribed as a fruitful tree. "füll of sap" in his old
"Seeking God in the Old Testament," JBR 21: age (Ps 92:14 [H 15]). In Proverbs, the generous
234-37. THAT, I, pp. 460-66. man, the diligent man, and the one who trusts in
L.J.C. the Lord are all called "fat'" or "prosperous"

456 M~, (däsha') sprout, shoot, grow green

(Joel 2:22; Gen 1:11; Jer 50: 11).
(11:25; 13:4; 28:25). Good news "gives health to
the bones" (Prov 15:30). Psalm 23:5 refers to the
head "anointed (made fat) with oil" as a descrip-
tion of the blessing of God.
Derivative In Deut 31 :20 comes the warning that when
456a tMW'I (deshe') young, new grass, God's people are "satisfied and prosperous (fat)"
tireen herb, vegetation. Cognate to they will forsake him and worship other gods.
Akkadian dishu "spri_ng grass, new H.W.
pasture" (CAD, p. 163).
458 r'l;I ( däl) decree, law, edict, regulation.
Used as a cognate accusative in Gen 1:11,
where the earth sprouts "vegetation" or "grass" This loanword from the Persian däta is found
on the third day of creation. God makes the grass twenty times in Est, once in Ezr (8:36), and sev-
grow as food for animals (Jer 14:5; Job 6:5; eral times in the Aramaic sections of Ezr and
38:27),and this tender, green grass grows charac- Dan. lt is spelled the same in Hebrew and
teristically after the rains have come (Deut 32:2: Aramaic. Since all three books deal with kings of
II Sam 23:4). In time of drought the grass dies out Persia, the use of this foreign term is readily ex-
(lsa 15:6). plained. lt overlaps the use of tiirä, mishpä(, and
Metaphorically, the growth of this tender grass höq in Hebrew. The relationship between "de-
is compared with the rule of ajust king in II Sam cree" and "Jaw" was very close, and "the laws
23:4. The bones of a happy man are said to of the Medes and Persians" could not be changed
"flourish like the new grass" (lsa 66: 14). In Ps (Est 8:8: cf. Dan 6:12 [H 13]).
23:2 the Lord has his sheep lie down in green Essentially. the law was what the king wanted.
pastures and enjoy an ideal resting place. Perhaps His wishes quickly became law, as illustrated by
the rest follows a time of feeding on the tender the fact that the ··word of the king" is connected
grass. with the law four times in Est (2:8: 4:3: 8: 17; 9: 1).
When it is linked with yereq „ green plants," This is illustrated in the episode involving Queen
deshe' refers to grass that easily withers and is Vashti, who refused to display her beauty to the
gone. The enemies of Assyria are short of king's guests. An edict was issued ending Vash-
strength, like the green herb (II Kgs 19:26 = Isa ti's reign as queen, and this immediately became

199
458 ri, (dät)

part of the "laws of the Medes and Persians" ble with those of the Persians (3:8). "Laws" in
(1: 19). Such edicts were written down and sent this sense comes close to the meaning of "cus-
throughout the kingdom for all to know ( 1:20; toms" and "religious practices." Daniel' s
3: 14). enemies attempted to bring about his downfall by
A second and more important edict was pre- driving a similar wedge between "the law of his
pared by Haman to the effect that all Jews could God" and the law of King Darius (Dan 6:5, 8 [H
be killed on the thirteenth day of Adar (3: 14). 6, 91).
This dire threat moved Mordecai and Esther to Another less technical use of "law" occurs in
plead for the lives of their people. Haman's mur- Est 2: 12, where a twelve-month period of purifi-
derous intentions were nullified by a counter 1de- cation was prescribed before a woman was taken
cree authored by Mordecai that gave the Jews the to the king. Like all other "laws," these regu-
right to defend themselves (8: 13-14). At Esther's lations were strictly followed.
request, this edict was extended an extra day to The meaning of "law" in 1:8 is more difficult,
give the Jews more time to destroy their enemies. since the point seems to be that each person
Esther's courage in approaching King could drink as much as he wished. Apparently
Ahasuerus without invitation illustrated the sev- "law" could be understood as the king's order
erity of Persian law. She knew that, according to giving this individual freedom to his banquet
the law, if the king did not extend the scepter to guests.
her, she would die (4: 11, 16). Vashti's experience In the only occurrence of dii.t in Hebrew out-
was just the opposite. By refusing to come when side the book of Esther, it refers to the decrees
summoned, she left herself open to the condem- given by Artaxerxes supporting Ezra's efforts to
nation of the law (1: 13, 15, 19). strengthen the returned exiles in Jerusalem (Ezr
Actually, Haman charged the Jews with prac- 8:36; cf. 7:12-24).
ticing different Jaws-laws allegedly incompati- H.W.

200
f
459 ::, (ha) the. according to normal usage. The construct is defi-
nite or indefinite according to the definiteness of
All West Semitic languages since the first mil- indefiniteness of the absolute. Thus, the phrase
lenium s.c. (Hebrew/ Aramaic/Phoenician) plus '"(the) horse of the king·· would be written süs
Arabic have in their language a morpheme that ham-melek, never has-süs ham-melek.
functions as a definite article. In none of these Conversely, there are a number of places
languages is the definite article a separate word. where the Hebrew adds the article but smooth
as in English, but rather it is prefixed to the word English translation demands its exclusion. An il-
it determines, except in Aramaic where it is af- lustration of this would be the or references to
fixed (i.e. postpositive). The definite article is not Satan. Preponderantly when the OT is referring to
differentiated according to gender (like the Satan as a superhuman adversary of both God
French lella or the Greek ho/helto) nor according and man he is referred to as "the satan ... This is
to number (/e//es). The one form, ha, covers true of the fourteen times he is mentioned in Job 1
masculine and feminine, singular and plural. Nor and 2, and also in Zech 3:1-2 (twice). Thus, Job
is there in Biblical Hebrew any word for the in- 1:7 reads literally, · 'The Lord said to the satan. ·'
definite article „a/an. ·· Occasionally the latter The thrust of the article in these passages is to
may be expressed by the numeral „one .. ·e~äd: I show that "sätän" is not a name, but only a title.
Sam6:7, .. a new cart." The only passage that refers to „Satan, .. a name,
Most Iikely the definite article was originally a is I Chr 21: 1 (i.e. without the appended article),
demonstrative pronoun, with an early form of and one must compare this verse in Chr with its
something like hal- or han- although the article parallel in II Sam 24:1 (cf. GKC 126,e). On the
itself cannot be traced back morphologically to other side of the coin scholars have used this rule
such an earlier form. In Biblical Hebrew. then, of proper names being definite sui ,teneris to
the "I" or „n„ of hal!han assimilates to the first argue that the Hebrew word t'höm "deep" in
consonant producing doubling (gemination) of Gen 1:2 is really a veiled reference to the Babylo-
that consonant, so, hal/n-shemesh "the sun," nian Tiamat or is at least the philological equiva-
becomes hashshemesh. When a guttural is the lent. She is the female dragonesque personi-
first consonant of the determined word the vowel fication of the primordial saltwater ocean in
of the article will change, involving either com- Babylonian traditions about creation ofthe world.
pensatory lengthening or dissimilation. t"höm (q.v.) is, indeed, never used in the Bible
The article is added not only to substantives with the definite article, something characteristic
but also to adjectives if the latter are used attribu- of proper names in the Bible. Yet, at all points,
tively and not predicatively, for example: the this hardly seems adequate proof to make an
couplet hii'ish ha/-/<ib equals "the good man·." equation. Dahood comes to the conclusion that
but the couplet hii'ish /<ih equals "the man (is) "Biblical ,,. h<im equals Ug thm. and does not
good." The article may also be added to, strange derive directly from Babylonian sources, as
as it seems, verbs. In such instances it appears to urged by earlier generations of scholars" (AB,
assume the force of a relative. er.·I Chr 26:28, Psalms III, p. 36).
"All that Samuel had dedicated (hahiqdish)": lt may be added that the article is rare in bibli-
Josh 10:24. "The chiefs of the men of war who cal poetry-a usage akin to Ugaritic which has no
went with him ( heh{7/"kü' ). ·· The article may also clear article at all.
be appended to a preposition as in "the thigh and Bibliography: Most of the standard Hebrew
that which was upon it (w''he'iilehii, I Sam 9:24). grammars supply information on the morphology
There are several instances where the Hebrew and syntax of the definite article, but cf. espe-
avoids the definite article but smooth English cially Gesenius· Hehrea· Grammar, Oxford:
translation demands its inclusion. To express a Clarendon Press, par. 126. Honeyman, A. M.,
genitival relationship the Hebrew, wher~ nouns "Ugaritic and Semitic Usage, .. JAOS 75: 121-22,
(or adjectives) are involved. places the tirst word who contends that Ugaritic hn is the ancestor of
(the nomen reRens) in the construct case in rela- the Canaanite definite article. Lambdin, T.. "The
tion to the second word, the absolute one (the Junctural Origin of the West Semitic Definite Ar-
nomen rectum ). The grammatical rule is that the ticle ... in Near Eastern Studie.1· in Honor of
word in the construct case never has the definite William Fo.n,·l'il Alhri,tht, ed. H. Goedicke, Bal-
article except for a few anomalous occurrences. timore: Johns Hopkins, 1971, pp. 315-33.
The absolute noun, if it is definite, has the article V.P.H.

203
460 ~ (hii)
460 ::r (ha ). Interrogative particle. :::r:;i::r(hahhah). See no. 849b.
hti is prefixed to the first word of a sentence or
a clause. mostly involving direct questions. De-
463 ,;,:;, (hiibal) act emptily, become vain. De-
pending on the first consonant. and the vowel of
nominative verb.
the word to which this particle is appended, the
interrogative hii may become ha!he!ha with a fol- Parent Noun
lowing da>?eshJorte.
463a t',::ir, (hehel) vapor, breath.
As a rule the simple question in Hebrew is in-
troduced by the interrogative lui. Sometimes, The denominative verb appears five times in
however, this particle is not present and yet the the 01, four times in the Qal and once in the
interrogative sentence is quite obvious. For Hiphil (Jer 23: 16). Of particular interest here are
example. ·'Shall Saul reign over us'!" (1 Sam the parallel verses Jer 2:5 and II Kgs 17: 15: They
11: 12) lacks any interrogative indicator. went after vanities and "became vain." (N1v:
When lui appears in a question that question is "They followed worthless idols and became
not asking primarily for information but rather is worthless themselves. ") Two inexorable princi-
a rhetorical question to which usually a negative ples are illustrated here: ( 1) every man takes on
answer is expected ("'Am I my brother·s to some degree the character and nature of the
keeper'!" Gen 4:9) and occasionally a positive God he worships; (2) the characteristic of all false
answer. gods is that they destroy their worshippers.
This becomes most clear in prophetic litera-
hebel. Vapor, breath, vanity. This substantive
ture. and we shall use as an example Jeremiah. In
is translated almost exclusively by the KJV as
many instances the particle is used parallel with
··vanity. ·· Except for the passages in Eccl, where
'im. Jeremiah 18:14 reads, ··Does the snow of
the RSVconcurs with the KJV, the Rsv generally
Lebanon leave (hii)? Do the mountain waters run
leans to the translation "breath" or "worthless."
dry ('im)'!'· These two questions obviously re-
The noun appears seventy-one times in the 01.
quire ~egative answers. Yet the prophet con-
Thirty-six times it is used in Eccl, where it occurs
tmues m v. 15 to say that God's people have for-
at least once in each of the twelve chapters ex-
gotten him. Thus, two rhetorical questions are
cept chapter ten.
used to int'ensify the severity of God's wrath on
The proper name, Abel, the second son of
this unnatural cleavage between himself and his
Adam. is also written hehel. Whether or not
people. Jeremiah may use the double rhetorical
there is a connection between this and the sub-
question (/ui ... "im) to rephrase a generally ac-
stantive under discussion is another matter. Most
cepted presupposition and then challenge it
of the Hebrew lexions have connected „ Abel"
(2:14.31: 3:5: 8:4), or to express traditional reli-
gious dogma (8:19.22; 14:19.22). ~ith .•.he col!:nate Akkadian . word ahlu/aplu
son. One will note that Abel 1s named in Gen 4
Of special interest is Jeremiah's use of the for-
without any explanation, a fact that can hardly be
mula hti-"im-maddri'. Cf. 2: 14, ··Is Israel a
without significance since almost all the proper
slave ( hä )? Is he a homeborn servant (·im)'! Why
names in Genesis are explained by assonances.
( nwddti ·) has he become a prey?" And for the
The basic meaning of hehel is "wind" or
same formula in Jeremiah cf. 2:31: 8:4-5: 8:19:
"breath." This is illustrated best in Isa 57: 13,
8_:22;22 :28: _49:1. In each case the first two ques-
"The wind (rüalJ) will carry them off, a breath
uons estabhsh the presuppositions of his sermon
and an agreement with his audience but the third (hehe/) will take them away." and Prov 21:6,
question draws the implications of the agreement "The getting of treasures by a lying tongue is a
just cstablished. Like Job. Jeremiah is a man of fleeting vapor (hehel niddcip)." The verb nädap,
dispute. meaning "to drive." is most often used in con-
Bibliography: GKC. par. 100 k-n Cfor nection with the wind as the driving force (e.g. Ps
morphology): par. 150 a-i (for syntax). On the use 1:4:68:2 [H31).
of questions in Jeremiah, Brueggcmann. W. M.. There are three basic categories or contexts in
··Jeremiah's Use of Rhetorical Questions, "JBL ~hich hehel is used. First, it is used as a designa-
92: 358-74. Holladay. W. L., ··The So-Called t1on for false gods worshiped by the people of
·oeuteronomic Gloss· in Jer. VIII: 19b." VT 12: God and hence is usually translated in this con-
text by the RSVas "idots··: Deut 32:21; I Kgs
494-98.
V.P.H. 16:13, 26: II Kgs 17:15; Jer 2:5; 8:19 (parallel to
pe.l"e/); 10:8, 15:5l:18:Jon2:9:Ps31:6 [H7].
461 M::, (/1e") lo! behold! (Gen 47:23: Ezk Secondly, the term represents the individual
16:43). and sometimes exasperating sentiments of indi-
viduals: lsa 49:4 where the servant Israel says. "I
462 l"l~;::l (he'ii(1) aha! (e.g. Ps 35:21. 25: Ezk have labored in vain (riq), 1 have spent my
25:3). strength for nothing (löhti) and vanity (hehel)."

204
 468 ~~:, (häga)

Job complains about the brevity and uncertainty Derivatives

ofhis life (7:16). Cf. the similar idea in the Psal-
467a :,~:, (he!(eh) a rumbling, growling,
ter: Ps 39:5,6, 11 [H 6,7, 12]; 62:9 IH 10]; 78:33 (in
moaning (Job 37:2: Ezk 2:10: Ps
which hebe/ is parallel to behiilii. from the root 90:9).
bähal "to hasten"): 94:11: 144:4 (hebe/ parallel 467b r,iJ:, (hii!(Ü/) meditation, utterance
to $el). Hence, hebe/ seems to mean here (Ps 49:3 [H 4 J, only).
··short-lived."
467 c t7i•;i:i ( hiRRiiybn) meditation.
Third is the duster of references found in Eccl
(thirty-six). These may be grouped into several hägii occurs primarily in poetry, especially in
subdivisions. First are those passages in which Ps and Isa. lt is used in the Qal, except for lsa
the author states his inability to find fulfillment in 8: 18 (Hiphil).
work, both in his failure to be creative and in his The basic meaning of häRli and its cognates is a
Jack of control over the privilege of free disposi- low sound, characteristic of the moaning of a
tion of his possessions; this is "vanity": 2:11, 19, dove (Isa 38: 14: 59: 11) or the growling of a lion
21, 23; 4:4, 8; 6:2. Second are those verses in over its prey (Isa 31 :4). lt is sometimes used in
which the author struggles with the idea that the mourning contexts. such as the moaning over the
connection between sin and judgment, righteous- judgment upon Moab (lsa 16:7; Jer 48 :3 I) or the
ness and final deliverance is not always direct or whispering of the enemy after the collapse of
obvious. This is an anomaly about life and it is Jerusalem (Lam 3 :62). Wizards are known to
"vanity": 2:15, 6:7-9; 8:10-14. The meaning of whisper and mutter in their occult practices (lsa
hebe/ here would be "senseless." Thirdly are 8: 19). In distress the psalmist sighs and cries out
those verses in which the author laments the t.o God for help (5:1 IH 21).
shortness of life; this is "vanity": 3:19; 6:12; Often the term refers to the plots originäting in
11:8, IO. Life, in its quality, is "empty" or "vac- the heart of wicked men or nations which then
uous" (and thus unsubstantial), and in its quan- are given expression in lying and deceitful words
tity is ··transitory." (Ps 2: I; Prov 24 :2 ). The wicked words uttered are
Rather than the above observations being final described as coming both from the heart (lsa
conclusions about life by the author of Eccl, 59: 13) and from the tongue (Isa 59:3 ). The righte-
perhaps they reveal something of his method and ous can also "devise" or "ponder" a proper an-
his concealed premise. He may be attempting to swer (Prov 15:28) and then talk about wisdom (Ps
demonstrate man·s inability to find meaning to 37:30) or God's righteousness (Ps 35:28; 71:24).
life unaided by divine revelation and interruption. In Ps 19:14 [H 15] "the meditation of my heart"
This solo quest will always end in futility. is parallel to "the words of my mouth," as the
Bibliography: Gordis, R., Koheleth: The Man psalmist compares his own speech with what God
and His World, 3d ed., Schocken, 1968. Guil- communicates in nature and in Scripture.
laume, A., "Paranomasia in the Old Testament," Another positive use relates to meditating upon
JSS 9: 282-90, esp. pp. 282~3 for a proposed the Word of God, which, like the plots of the
Arabic etymology for the proper name Abel. Kin- wicked (Ps 38:12 [H 131), goes on day and night
law, D. F., "Ecclesiastes" in The Wesleyan (Josh 1:8; Ps 1:2). Perhaps the Scripture was read
Bible Commentary, II, Eerdmans, 1968. Meek, half out loud in the process of meditation. The
T. J ., "Translating the Hebrew Bible," JBL 79: psalmist also speaks about meditating upon God
328-35, esp. pp. 330-31. Staples, W. E., "The (63:6 [H 7]) and his works (77:12 [H 131: 143:5).
'Vanity' of Ecclesiastes," JNES 2:95-104.
higgäyön. Meditation, whispering, melody. The
THAT. I, pp. 467-69.
noun hi1u:a_,·11nrefers to the music of a harp in
V.P.H.
Ps 92:3 [H 41. Possibly a musical notation is meant
by the „Higgaion" in Ps 9:16 [H 17], but "medi-
464 •~~tl (hobni) ebony (Ezk27:15,only). tation" is an alternate interpretation. For other
such terms see selä.
H.W.
465 ,;;:i (häbar) divide (lsa 47:13, only).
468 :,iltl (häga) II, remove, drive out.
466 JJ:, (hgg). Assumed root ofthe following.
This verb occurs only three or four times. de-
466a J'Jtl (hägig) murmuring, whisper,
pending on one·s handling of II Sam 20: 13. Prov-
musing (Ps 5:2; Ps 39:4). From the
erbs 25:4-5 uses the infinitive absolute häg<i to
hypothetical root h,n:. but closely
begin successive verses. A comparison is made
related to hägä. between the beneficial effects of removing dross
from silver and removing the wicked from the
467 :,~:, (hägä) /, uner, mutter, moan (mourn, king's presence. The results will be a purer vessel
KJV ), meditate, devise, plot. and a more righteous govemment. lsaiah also

205
469 i.:i:, (hgn)

uses the Qal stem to describe the way God to Egypt) which she had traveled before (Gen
"drove" Judah out of her land (27:8). The "fierce 16:7). lt will be remembered that she was an
blast" is compared with the hol east wind that Egyptian. According to the Hebrew ofGen 21: 14,
blows in from the desert. In all three of these she apparently lost her way (tü'ti "err," cf. Ps
examples the removal is difficult to effect but 119:176 "like a lost sheep·· and Isa 53:6). The
nonetheless necessary to produce purity. penalty for getting lost in the desert is severe.
The form höRli in II Sam 20: 13 is treated as a Her deliverance came supematurally. Abraham ·s
Hiphil of yäf?a by BOB, but KB feels that the action in sending Hagar away seems harsh, but
root is properly häf?a. lt refers to the removal of was actually in accord with common Mesopota-
the dead body of Amasa from the road after Joab mian law (particularly the Code of Hammurabi).
had treacherously murdered the man David had Hagar's child was legally Sarah's. Nuzi Iaw
appointed to replace him. specifies that in such a situation the natural son of
H.W. the legal wife would be given the right of the
firstbom. But it seems that Hagar was not satis-
fied with all this. So vicious animosity arose. In
rm:, (hiigut). See no. 467b. this case Abraham's reliance on common law in-
.:i•~:,(hiiRif?). See no. 466a. stead ofGod's promise bore bitter fruit. R.L.H.]
ii•~:, (hiRRiiy{m). See no. 467c. Paul (Gai 4) used the relationship of Sarah and
r.:i:, (hliRin). See no. 469a. Hagar in an allegory, Hagar representing the
bondage of children bom after the tlesh and self-
469 i.l:'1 ( htm ). Assumed root of the following. effort, and Sarah, the free wife of Abraham, rep-
469a i'~1:1 (hägin) appropriate, suitable resenting the believers of the new covenant of
(Ezk 42:12). Meaning uncertain. promise and grace.
Bibliography: TDNT, I, pp. 55-56.
470 -:.:i:, (hv). Assumed root of the follow- C.P.W.
ing. This root, meaning ··t1ee" is found in
the Arabic name for Mohammed's famous 471 ,,:, ( hdd). Assumed root of the following.
tlight. the Hegira. 471a i:i•:i (hediid) shout, shouting, cheer.
470a ti~:, (hiiRiir) Hagar. (Asv and RSV 471b i:, (hed) shout. Occurs only m
the same.) phrase hed härim "shout on
mountains" (Ezk 7:7).
Hagar is the name of Sarah's Egyptian maid,
471c t,,:i (hädad) Hadad. (Asv, Rsv the
the mother of lshmael by Abraham. The name is
• ~ame.)
Semitic, not Egyptian.
The information about Hagar is recorded in hlldäd. Hadad. The name of several royal
Gen 16 and 21. Sarah, childless at age 75, offered Edomites, including two kings who are listed
Hagar to Abraham to bear a child for her. This among the kings of Edom: A son of Bedad who
was customary as we Ieam from tablets from an- defeated Midian (Gen 36:35-36; I Chr 1:46-47),
cient Nuzi (cf. "New Kirkuk Documents Relat- and a Iater king (I Chr 1:50-51 ; and the variant
ing to Family Laws," The Annua/ of the Ameri- spelling, hädar, Gen 36:39).
can Schools of Oriental Research, X, 1930, p. Hadad was the name of an adversary of Sol-
32). Rache( and Leah also gave their maids to omon, possibly the same as the second king men-
Jacob to bear children for them (Gen 30: 1-13). tioned above (I Kgs 11:14-21, 25; with variant
After Hagar conceived, she feit superior to spelling 'ädad, 11:17). When Joab, David's gen-
Sarah, who then mistreated her, causing her to eral, slaughtered the Edomites, Hadad, a young
tlee. During her flight an angel promised her Edomite of royal stock, was taken by his father's
posterity. and told her to return to the household. servants to Egypt. Here he married the sister of
lshmael was fourteen when Sarah bore Isaac. Pharoah's wife. He remained in Egypt, nurtured
Soon afterwards Hagar and lshmael were sent by Pharoah, until David and Joab died. He then
away for good. When Hagar feared that they retumed to Edom to stir up trouble for Solomon.
would die of thirst, God promised her that he The name Hadad is the name of an ancient
would make of Ishmael a great nation, and then Semitic storm god. The Edomite name "Hadad"
showed her a weil of water. They lived in Paran, mentioned above . may be an abbreviation of
and Hagar obtained a wife for lshmael from names compounded with Hadad. lt is used as one
Egypt. component of several compound names: Ben-
[lt may be noted that the dangerous condition hadad, king of Syria (1 Kgs 15:18), Hadedezer,
in which Hagar found herself in the desert near king ofZobah (II Sam 8:3) and Hadadrimmon, a
Beersheba (Gen 21: 14-21) was quite possibly due compound divine name, but perhaps a place in
to accident. Abraham sent her away and she went Megiddo (Zech 12: 11). Hadad may be the same as
south, presumably on the way to Shur (the road the Ugaritic hd, an altemate name for Baal (see

206
 477 ,,:, (hadar)
UT 19: no. 749), and the Babylonian Adad, for MT hädürim IQisa 8 has härärim) and three
Addu. times in Biblical Aramaic.
Bibllography: On Ben-hadad King of Syria, The verb is used mostly in describing man's
see A. Malamat, "The Arameans," in Peoples of relationship to man. The youthful are to honor
OT Times, ed. Wiseman, D. J ., Oxford, 1973, p. the elderly (stated positively in Lev 19:32 and
152,note 24. negatively in Lam 5:12). Hence, behind the word
C.P.W. lies the idea "to show respect." Other ideas in-
volved include showing ··partiality" (to the poor,
472 :i,:;i (hiidii) streich out (hand). who is caught up in a legal crisis, simply because
of his poverty, not because of his innocence: Ex
473 '!tj:;t (hiidak) tread down. 23:3). On the other band there are prohibitions
regarding fawning over the wealthy, courting
474 c,:, (hdm). Assumed root of the following. their attention, or excusing their actions when-
474a Cl"!M (hädöm) stool, footstool. Al- ever they are reprehensible; Lev 19:15: Prov
ways refers to the footstool of the 25:6. In just one passage (Isa 63:1) the verb is
Lord (Ps 110:1; Isa 66:1, etc.). used (in its passive participial form) in connection
with a description of God's appearance which is
475 l:ljt, (hädas) myrtle (tree), e.g. Isa 41: 19; "glorious."
Neh 8: 15, Zech 1:8). In the Aramaic passages the verb always
means "to honor/glorify (God)." In Dan 4:34 IH
476 111,:i (hiidap) cast away (out), drive, expel, 31 ], it is parallel with the verbs h'' rak, sh'' hafJ; in
-,hrust (away). (Asv similar, Rsv also stab, Dan 4:37 IH 34] with rum. sh''hafJ; in Dan 5:23
thwart.) with sh'' bafJ.
The basic meaning is to ··push," ··push
hädär. Ornament, splendor, honor. This sub-
away." lt is used eleven times in the OT, always
stantive appears twenty-nine times in the OT of
negatively. The object is usually a person or per-
which sixteen are in the Psalms.
sons, often an enemy. The noun hiidiir is associated with: (1) the
The enemy may be a national power, as Is-
glory of nature as it reflects the goodness of God
rael's enemies which the Lord would drive from (Lev 23:40; Ps 111:3, Isa 35:2): (2) man (lsa 53:2,
the land (Deut 6:19; 9:4; Josh 23:5), arid Egypt
the suffering servant, "comeliness"); man as he
which the Lord would drive before her enemies
is created by God (Ps 8:6); the elderly man's gray
(Jer46:15). Whether the Egyptian army, its lead- hair (Prov 20:29); the ideal wife (Prov 31 :25). (3)
ership, or the bull god Apis (Rsv following the
lt is applied to cities: Jerusalem (lsa 5:14); Zion
LXX) is the object here, a military defeat of Egypt
(Lam 1:6); and the areas of Persia, Lud. and Put
is to be understood.
(Ezk 27:10); (4) to the Joseph tribes (Deut 33:17)
The object may also be an individual, as God
and perhaps to all of Palestine (Dan 11:20,
promises to thrust the steward, Shebna, out of
heder). Several of these passages deal with the
office(Isa 22:19), or as Gehazi attempts to push a
departure of this glory from God's people. Th_e
woman away from Elisha (II Kgs 4:27). Bildad
children of God have no indigenous glory of their
pictures the wicked man as being thrust from
own. lf God departs the glory departs. Hence,
light into darkness (Job 18:18). The word aiplies
this is a gift from God but it is still revocable.
to the action of a manslayer (hence Rsv" stab,"
Most frequently the substantive is applied to
Num 35:20,22).
either (a) the king and his royal majesty or (b)
The word, used figuratively of people, refers to
God himself. In the former category we may note
fat sheep pushing the weak ones (Ezk 34:21). Ac-
the following passages: Ps 21 :5 IH 6J: 45:3-4
cording to Prov 10:3 the Lord pushes aside (Rsv
[H 4-51); Prov 14:28 (hädärä). lt is not only an
'"thwarts") the desire (KJV "substance") of the
endowment for royalty, but it is also an activity
wicked.
worthy of royalty, as illustrated by Nebuchad- ·
C.P.W.
nezzar (Dan 4:34 !Aram 31 J and 4:37 [Aram 341)
and Belshazzar (Dan 5:23).
477 ,j:;t (hiidar) honor, adorn, glorify.
In the following passages the term is descrip-
Derivatives tive of God: Ps 29:4; 90: 16; 96:6 ( = l Chr
(oc- 16:27); 104:1; 111:3; 145:5, 12. Of special interest
477a .,,:, (heder) splendor, glory
...curs only in Dan 11:20). here is the parallel connection between the
phrases ··the glory of his (God's) majesty, ..
477b t,,:i (hiidiir) ornament. hädar !!'' 'öno. and "the fear/terror (pafJad) ofthe
477c :i:,:ir,r
(hädiirii) adornment, glory.
Lord" (lsa 2:IO, 19, 21). The prophet warns the
The verb occurs seven times in Biblical He- Judeans to "hide" from both. This entreaty fol-
brew (with one dubious reading in Isa45:2 where lows on the heels of a devastating list of sins

207
478 :i::,(hah)

which must be judged. Ohviously lsaiah does not This is the third person singular, independent
counsel the people to hide in hopes that they nominative pronoun, "he," "she," "it."
might escape the searchlight of God. What he For the most part Hebrew does not (as does En-
does say is that the people are so reprobate and glish) require the use of an independent pronoun
backslidden that they cannot possibly fellowship to precede a finite verb when the noun-subject
with a God of pure light and majesty. Thus. this is is omitted. When it does appear it is usually for
not advice; it is an imprecation. emphasis or in another type of construction.
The phrase hadrat ,,,,dl'sh merits special One such construction is a nominal sentence or
comment. lt appears four times in the OT: Ps 29:2: clause, that is a sentence which has no finite
%:9; I Chr 16:29; II Chr 20:21. plus the related verb, but a noun or an adjective (including the
phrase in Ps 110:3. hadre q{)dl'sh. Each time the participle as a verbal adjective) acts as the predi-
RSV translates this couplet "holy array" with the cate. (The English must include a form of the
exception of Ps 110:3 where it opts for the trans- verb "tobe." In this construction the pronoun is
lation "holy mountains" (reading a different necessary if the noun subject is omitted: with a
text). So. "worship the Lord in holy array." (e.g. noun predicate, "it (is) my master" (Gen 24:65),
Ps 9:2). A parallel to "holy array" would be with an adjective predicate, "he was faint" (Gen
higde q(,dl'sh. "holy garments," in Lev 16:4. 25:29), with a participial predicate, "he (was) sit-
Also in several instances the verb hädar (Isa ting at the door of the tent" (Gen 18:1).
63: 1) and the substantive hädtlr (Ps 104: 1, Job When such a nominal sentence or phrase is
40: 10; Prov 31:35) are connected with the verb connected with preceding material it may be
lähash ("to clothe"), and Ezk 16:14 with the verb translated as if the pronoun were a relative:
siun Wm. perhaps a reference to some kind of an "Bela, which is Zoar," (Gen 14:2), "Esau, who
investiture ceremony. is Edom" (Gen 36:1). Occasionally the pronoun
On the other hand. the KJV consistently trans- follows the predicate: thus, "unclean it," tobe
lates the couplet. "the beauty ofholiness." Now, translated "it is unclean" (Num 19:15), "twenty
in the light of Ugaritic evidence, a third option gerahs it," "it is twenty gerahs" (Num 18:16).
presents itself. In the Kret epic A: lines 154. 155 This is especially true in dependent clauses such
we read: as those introduced by kf, meaning "that,"
Krt vht · 11·hlrn "for," "because": "for unclean he," that is "he
'hd · f(. 11-hd~1 is unclean" (Lev 13: 11), "because many they
Krt looked and it was a dream (were)" (Num 22:3). This is also common with
the servant of EI and it was a 'asher, meaning "which," "that": "from the
(divine) appearance beast which not clean it (is)" (Gen 7:2), "which
In our biblical passages then, the major em- not from your seed he (is)" (Gen 17:12), often
phasis is on the Lord and his appearance. not on called the resumptive pronoun.
the worshipper except as the realization of God's Sometimes in a nominal sentence the pronoun
actual presence evokes awe. A third translation stands between the subject and the nominal pred-
could be: "prostrate yourselves before the Lord icate where the English would have a form of the
when he appears in holiness." verb "tobe": "And Joseph, he (was) the ruler"
Bibliography: On the phrase hadrat q{/Jesh. (Gen 42:6), "you (are) he, God" (II Sam 7:28).
cf. Ackroyd. P. R., "Some Notes on the The pronoun, which is redundant in English, is
Psalms." JTS 17: 392-99, esp. pp. 393-96. Cross, not in this case, a substitute for the verb "tobe"
F. M., "Notes on a Canaanite Psalm in the Old but is used to indicate emphasis, ·attii hu ·: lt is
Testament," BASOR 117: 19-21, esp. p. 21. you that. Also after an interrogative the pronoun
Caquot, A .. "In splendoribus sanctorum," Syria may be added for emphasis, "who (is he that) will
33: 36-41. Dahood. M., Psalms, AB, vol. 3: 116. condemn me?" (lsa 50:9).
Donner, H., "Ugaritismen in der Psalmen- The pronoun may be used before a finite verb
forschung," ZAW 79: 322-50, esp. pp. 331-33. when a phrase separates the subject from the
Gordon. UT: no. 752. Vogt, E .. "Der Aufbau verb: "The woman whom thou gavest to be with
von PS 29," Bib41: 17-24, esp. p. 24. THAT, I, me, she gave me" (Gen 3: 12), and "one that shall
pp. 469-72. come ... he shall inherit (from) you" (Gen 15:4).
V.P.H. Unless there is reason for emphasis this use is
redundant in English and not generally trans-
478 :i::, (häh) alas! (Ezk 30:2). lated.
The pronoun is also used to tie in an additional
479 i:, (/ui) ah! (Arnos 5:16). subject added after the predicate, "And Joseph
returned to Egypt, he, and his brethren, and all"
480 i,c1:, (hü' ). i,c•:, ( hi') he, she, it, himself, (Gen 50:14).
herself, the same, which (is), that (is), who, et With the article, the pronoun may function as
al. (Asv and Rsv similar.) the demonstrative adjective, "that" (correspond-

208
 483 :,4::,(hawa)

ing to zeh "this"). "that place .. (Gen 21 :31 ). "in here with the music of the spheres: Ps 148:13,
that day· · meaning · "the same day" (Gen 15: 18). Goct·s glory is above the earth and heaven: Hab
hü' may be used simply for emphasis: "I know 3:3, "God's glory covers the heaven."" When the
that he can speak"" (Ex 4:14), or "the Lord. he biblical writers look at the work ofGod's hand in
(is) God" (Ps 100:3). The emphasis may be ex- the universe they can do nothing but speak of
pressed in English by "himself,"" ··1he Lord him- Goct·s glory: Ps 145:4. This glory is part ofGod"s
self will require it"' (Josh 22:23). When it is used wardrobe (Ps 104:1). lt can be heard (isa 30:30;
to reinforce a preceding suffix pronoun. it is dif- Ps 8:2). God bequeaths this to the man who Jives
ficult to translate in writing, because the English in fellowship with him: Ps 21 :6: I Chr 29:25 ( Sol-
equivalent is to put stress on that pronoun, "what omon). This attribute is applied finally to the
he saith, · · that is. what Hushai says in contrast to Messiah who shall build the temple and bear
what Ahithophel has said (literally, "what is in royal honor (Zech 6:13).
his mouth,"" II Sam 17:5). In addition to the parallel with hädär noted
The 11· and y are not merely vowel letters as above we may note the following: in I Chr 29: 11
shown by the Ugaritic pronouns hu\\'a "he" and hod is grouped with the following Hebrew words.
hiya "she·· ('111' and hy). all descriptive of Goct·s nature: R'' dul/ä (great-
Unexplained is the usage in the Pentateuch and ness); R''bimi (power): tip'eret (glory): ne.~a/J
a few other places where hll' means either "he"
0
(victory). In Job 40: 10 besides hädär. h<id is used
(vocalized hü') or "she·· (vocalized with aper- in conjunction with the words Rä'ön 11'äR<ihah
petual qere hi' ). In the past this has led some to (majesty and excellency). In Hab 3:3-4 h<1d is
feel that the original pronoun for both genders used along with t''hillii (praise); m,,:ah (bright-
was hw' but Ugaritic denies this conclusion. Ap- ness) and 'öz (power).
parently the situation is due to some dialect or Finally we may note the use of the höd in such
vagary of a scribal school. proper names as Hodiah (Neh 8:7), "Yahweh is
Bibliography: Montgomery, J. A., "The He- my splendor": Hodevah (Neh 7:43 ). "Yahweh
brew Divine Name and the Personal Pronoun is majesty"; Abihud (1 Chr 8:3), "my father is
hü',"" JBL 63: 161-63. majesty": Ammihud (1 Chr 9:4 ). ··my kinsman is
C.P.W. majesty, · · and perhaps the Benjamite judge
Ehud.
481 N)~ (häll'ä') fall (Job 37:6, only). Bibliography: Although the root h<id has not
appeared in any Semitic languages other than
Hebrew there are. nevertheless, words in these
482 ,,:, (hwd). Assumed root of the following.
languages that mean ··awe-inspiring splendor."
482a t,;:, (hbd)splendor, majesty, vigor,
Compare. for example, in Bai,ylonian, Op-
glory, honor.
penheim. A. L., · · Akkadian pul(u)h(t)u and
The noun is used twenty-four times in the 01, melammu," JAOS 63: 31-34. Cassin~ E., La
appearing most frequently in the Psalter (eight splendeur divi11e. lntroduction a l'etude de la
times). Quite often it is found in juxtaposition mentalite mesopotamienne, Paris: La Haye,
with the related word, hädär, also meaning Mouton & Co, 1968. Mendenhall, G. E., The
"majesty·· or "honor." always in the order hbd Tenth Ge11eratio11, Baltimore: John Hopkins,
II'' hiidär: Ps 21 :6: 45:3 IH 4196:6 ( = I Chr 16:26): 1973, Chapter 2. · 'The Mask of Yahweh."
104:1: 111:3: Job 40: 10 (seven times). The LXX THAT, 1. pp. 472-74.
translates höd by doxa (nine times). by V.P.H.
exomolo!{esis (four times). plus sundry other
words. So far no related root in other Semitic 483 :ii:, (häwa) /, fall. (Asv, Rsv. So KJV, by
languages has been found for höd. lt is uniquely a
confusion with häll'ä II see below, renders
Hebrew word.
the verb as "be. ")
This substantive is used as a characteristic or
attribute of: (a) man: Num 27:20. Moses and Derivatives
Joshua: Prov 5:9. the wise son; Dan 10:8, Daniel
483a t:i)ti (hml'll'{i) calamiJy.
(translated by the KJV as "comeliness·· and by the
483 b t:,::::i ( hayyä) calamity.
RSV as "radiant appearance"): Hos 14:7, the
483c t:i)':"l (h1J11'(i) disaster.
northern lsraelites after their repentance andres-
toration to divine blessing; Jehoiakim (Jer 22: 18): The single OT occurrence of häll'ä l (Job 37:6)
(b) animals, specifically the horse: Job 39:20: is an imperative, describing physical falling. lts
Zech 10:3: (c) plants, the olive: Hos 14:7. form. he\\'e·, has been called "an Arabizing us-
Preponderantly the substantive is connected age·· (BOB, p. 217); but more likely the aleph is
with God. His majesty can be seen in the crea- to differentiale it from häwii II (KB, p. 227).
tion: Ps 8:2, "God"s glory is chanted above the The verb h<ill'ä l depicts the literal fall of rain
heavens, ·· or "by·· the heavens if we are dealing and snow (Job 37:6). But its derived nouns speak

209
484 :i,:,(häwii)
metaphorically of a fall in fortune. So hayyä iden- yäh. A contracted form of Yahweh. Occurs fifty
tifies the calamities that descend on Job (Job 6:2: times (rendered in English as above, except KJV,
30: 13); and höwä, those to fall suddenly upon Jah, in Ps 68:4 IH 5], where the name is particu-
Babylon (lsa 47:11) or upon Judah, "disaster larly stressed).
upon disaster" (Ezk 7:26). The commonest noun, Also numerous proper nouns compounded
hawwii, advances from an identifying of the fact with shortened forms of the divine name
of troubles (Ps 57: 1), such as those brought upon "Yahweh," e.g.: y''hbnätan, Jehonathan,
parents by an unwise son (Prov 19:13). to the "Yahweh has given"; abbreviated ybniitan
cause for troubles, i.e. moral failure. Psalm 5:9 "Jonathan," a substitute name for the same per-
[H IOJ may therefore be rendered either, "Their son (compare I Sam 13:2-3 with 14:6, 8; II Sam
heart is destruction" (Rsv) or "wickedness" (KJV, 17:17, 20 with I Kgs 1:42-43); and
Asv). Other psalms describe a throne of "in- y'hbshäpa/, Jehoshaphat, "Yahweh hasjudged";
iquity" (Ps 94:20) and "wickedness" which rul- altematively ybshiipa(, .. Joshaphat," applied
ers devise (Ps 52:2 IH 4J evidently Saul himself only to two subordinates of David (I Chr 11:43:
was the "mighty man" of v. 1 [H 2 J, not the 15:24).
underling Doeg, cf. J. A. Alexander, The Psalms, The theological importance of häwa II stems
II, p. 13). But a good man can perceive these from its derived nouns, which identify the per-
"perverse things" (Job 6:30). In Scripture all sonal name of deity, Yahweh, or its contractions.
such lapses are subject to God·s sovereign con- The tetragrammaton YHWH is not ordinarily
trol and can be overcome by sincere faith (Ps written with its appropriate Hebrew vowels. But
38:12-13; 94:19-20). that the original pronunciation was YaHWeH
hawwä. Calamity, wickedness, evil desire, ASV,
seems probable, both from the corresponding
Rsv, also craving, Just; KJV"mischievous desire, verbal form, the imperfect of häwii, anciently
yahweh, and from laterrepresentation ofYHWH
naughtiness," Prov 10:3; 11:6; Mic 7:3. Derives
from 'iiwä "to desire" (q.v.). KB, p. 228. in Greek iaoue or iabe. An apocopated form of
häwii in the imperfect, that occurs in Eccl 11:3, is
hayyä. Calamity. A Kethib variant on hawwä y'hü' (otiose aleph, GKC, p.211). This in turn
in Job. may account for the shorter name YHW in the
höwä. Disaster. KJV, ASV, "mischief," in its fifth century B.c. Elephantine papyri and the ini-
tial elements yeho-, yb-, and ye- (KB, p. 369) in
archaic sense of calamity.
such names as Jehozadak, "Yahweh (is) righte-
J.B.P.
ous," or Joel, "Yahweh (is) God."
[An alternative possibility for the original pro-
484 M):;t (hiiwii) II, the older form and rare nunciation of the Tetragrammaton should be
synonym of hiiyii (q.v.), be, become. (ASV mentioned. Actually, there is a problem with the
and Rsv similar, but Rsv, lie, Eccl 11:3 .) pronunciation "Yahweh." lt is a strange combi-
nation of old and late elements. The first extra-
Derivatives Biblical occurrence of the name is in the Moabite
484a t:,,:,• (yhwh) Yahweh. Stone of about 850 B.c. At that time vowel letters
484b tl'!~ (yiih) Yahweh. were just beginning to be used in Hebrew. lf
YHWH represents a spelling earlier than 900 B.c.
The root signifies either existence, e.g. of a
(as would seem likely), the final "h" should have
tree trunk, being at rest where it falls (Eccl 11:3),
been pronounced. The pronunciation Yahweh
or development, e.g. of Nehemiah's alleged
assumes the ending of a lamed-he verb, but these
scheme to become king of Judah (Neh 6:6). Only
verbs in Moses' day ended in a "y" (cf. for bänii
three other instances of häwii II are preserved in
the Ug. impf. ybny). So the ending "eh" is a late
the Hebrew oT (Gen 27:29; Eccl 2:22; lsa 16:4),
form. But in Hebrew in late times a "w" that
though häwä' remains as the standard form ofthe
began a word or syllable changed to ·•y" (as in
verb "tobe" in biblical Aramaic.
the pe-waw verbs and the verb häyii itself). So
Yahweh. The Tetragrammaton YHWH, the the · · w' · of Yahweh represents a pre-mosaic pro-
LORD,or Yahweh, the personal name ofGod and nunciation but the final "eh" represents proba-
his most frequent designation in Scripture, occur- bly a post-davidic form.
ring 5321 times (TDNT, III, p. 1067) in the OT(KJV In view of these problems it may bebest simply
and ASV,the LORD,or, in those contexts where to say that YHWH does not come from the verb
the actual title "Lord" also occurs, GOD, except häwii (presumably hawaya in its early form) at
KJv, Jehovah, in seven passages where the name all. There are many places in the oT where it is
is particularly stressed (Ex 6:3; Ps 83:18 IH 19]; now recognized that the parallel of a name and its
Isa 12:2; 26:4 J or combined with other elements, meaning is not necessarily etymological. For in-
such as Jehovah Jireh [Gen 22:14; cf. Ex 17:15; stance, I Sam 1:20 probably does not mean that
Jud 6:24; ASV,consistently Jehovahl). the name Samuel is derived from the verb

210
 484 MJv(häwa)
shäma' "to hear." Genesis 11:9 does not mean 20:26), this title seems to identify a spot beside
that Babel comes from the verb bälal ··confu- Jerusalem (Joel 3:17 [H 4:17]), traditionally the
sion" but only that the two words sound some- Kidron, below Olivet (Zech 14:4). lt may be less
what alike. Likewise Jacob is said to mean both a place name than prophecy's description of the
"heel" (Gen 25:26) and "supplanter" (Gen event of y hoshäpiif '' Yahweh has judged.''
27:36). There are many other examples of this y" hoshua·-yeshuii' designates ten Hebrew
device which is to be taken as a paranomasia, a leaders (ISBE, III, pp. 1622, 1743) from Moses'
play on words, rat her than as an etymology. successor Joshua (KJV, Jehoshua in Num 13:16; I
Therefore we may weil hold that YHWH does Chr 7:27) to the post-exilic high priest Jeshua
not come from the verb häwii which is cited in (Ezra 3:2; Neh 12:10). The former's name was
the first person ·ehyeh "I will be," but is an old changed from the Hiphil infinitive, Hoshea, "sal-
word of unknown origin which sounded some- vation,'' to Joshua, with its deeper spiritual con-
thing like what the verb hüwii sounded in Moses· notation of "Yahweh (is) salvation" (Num 13:8,
day. In this case we do not know what the pro- 16). Both men are called "Jesus" in Greek (Acts
nunciation was; we can only speculate. How- 7:45; I Esd 5:48), i.e., yeshua' is our Lord's He-
ever, if the word were spelled with four letters in brew name, "for he will save his people from
Moses· day, we would expect it to have had more their sins" (Mt 1:21). This may be a shortened
than two syllables, for at that period there were form with the divine element omitted, meaning
no vowel letters. All the letters were sounded. "he will save."
At the end of the OT period the Elephantine The shortened independent form of the divine
papyri write the word YHW to be read either name, Yah, occurs primarily in poetry andin the
yähu (as in names like Shemayahu) or yäh6 (as in exclamation, Hallelu-yah, praise Yahweh. lt
names like Jehozadek). The pronunciation yähö serves also as a terminal element in proper nouns
would be favored by the later Greek form iao like Elijah: 'e/iyii (or 'eliyähu), "God (is)
found in Qumran Greek fragments (2d or Ist cen- Yahweh."
turies e.c.) and in Gnostic materials of the first In the post-biblical period, reverence for the
Christian centuries. Theodoret in the fourth cen- ineffable name "Yahweh" caused it to be
tury A.D. states that the Samaritans pronounced it supplanted in synagogue reading (but not in writ-
iabe. Clement of Alexandria (early 3d century ing) with the noun 'iidönüy, "my master," or
A.D.) vocalized it as iaoue. These are quite late Lord. Next, when medieval Jewish scholars
witnesses and seem to contradict the much ear- began to insert vowels to accompany the conso-
lier Jewish witness of Elephantine and the name nantal OT text, they added to YHWH the Masore-
elements, none of which end in ··eh." tic vowel points for 'iidönäy; and the actual writ-
As to the meaning of the name, we are safer if ing became an impossible YiiHöWäH, the ASV
we find the character of God from his works and "Jehovah."
from the descriptions of him in the Scripture God's name identifies his nature, so that a re-
rather than to depend on a questionable etymol- quest for his "name" is equivalent to asking
ogy of his name. See further the writer's remarks about his character (Ex 3:13; Hos 12:5 [H 6]).
in "The Pronunciation of the Tetragram" in The Critical speculation about the origin and meaning
Law and the Prophets, J. H. Skilton, ed., Pres- of "Yahweh'" seems endless (cf. L. Köhler, OT
byterian & Reformed, 1974, pp. 215-24. R.L.H.J TheoloRY, pp. 42-46; IDB, II, pp. 409-11); but
Among the commonest names with this ele- the Bible's own explanation in Ex 3:14 is that it
ment are y'' hönütün "Jonathan," the name of represents the simple (Qal) imperfect of häwii
seventeen different OT characters (ISBE, III, pp. "to be," I am [is] what I am. The precise name
1580, 1730). These include Moses' treacherous Yahweh results when others speak of him in the
(great)grandson Jonathan (Jud 18:30, ASV), third person, yahweh "He is." Albright, it is
David's faithful friend Jonathan, the son of Saul true, has championed a causative rendering, "I
(I Sam 18:1), and David's young courier Jonathan cause to be, I create" (From the Stone ARe to
the son of Abiathar (II Sam 15:27; I Kgs 1:42). Christianity, 2d ed., 1946, p. 198; D. N. Freed-
y' höshäpät "Jehoshaphat,' · identifies six indi- man, JBL, 79: 151-56); but this is rightly criti-
viduals (ISBE, III, pp. 1581-1582, 1743), includ- cized as "conjuring up a nonexistent Hiphil form"
ing Israel's recorder under David and Solomon (N. Walker, JBL, 79: 277).
(II Sam 8:16; I Kgs 4:3) and Judah's fourth king Some have gone on to suggest that the Qal
after the division, 872-848 e.c. The name reap- meaning of Yahweh must be God's unchange-
pears in Joel's prediction of the Valley of ableness toward his people (Ex 3:15: G. Vos,
Jehoshaphat (Joel 3:2, 12 [H 4:2, 12]), where God Biblical TheoloRy, p. 134). But, as Moses himself
will overcome the nations gathered to oppose his indicated (Ex 3: 13), the fact that he was the an-
advent in glory. But rather than designating the cient God of the fathers was insufficient to an-
site of King Jehoshaphat's ancient victory <Be- swer Israel's need at that time; and, in any event,
racah between Hebron and Bethlehem, II Chr the OT has little to say concerning abstractions

211
485 ,;:, (hoy)

such as "the changelessness of deity" (though in led in the "covenant of peace," when the God
the NT Jesus did use Ex 3: 14 to introduce the who has been present from the first will be fully
thought of his etemal divine existence, Jn 8:58). present at the last (lsa 41 :4); cf. Ezekiel's stress
God's immediately preceding promise to Moses upon God's "sanctuary in the midst of them
had been, "Certainly I will be with you" (Ex forevermore" (Ezk 37:26) and his eschatological
3: 12). So his assertion inverse 14 would seem to city's being named YHWH shämmti "Yahweh is
be saying, "I am present is what I am." Indeed, there."
the fundamental promise of his testament is, "I Bibliography: Abba, R., "The Divine Name
will be their God, and they will be my people" Yahweh," JBL 80:320-28. Albright, W. F.,
(Ex 6:7, etc.; contrast Hos 1:9); thus "Yahweh," Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, pp. 168-72.
"faithful presence," is God's testamentary na- Freedman, D. N., "The Name of the God of
ture, or name (Ex 6:2,4; Deut 7:9; Isa 26:4). Moses," JBL 79: 151-56. Harris, R. L., "The
The use ofYahweh as a divine name goes back Pronunciation of the Tetragram,-· in The Law
to earliest times (Gen 4: I ,26; 9:26), although the and the Prophets, ed. J. H. Skilton, Presbyterian
documentation for its employment among other and Reformed, 1974, pp. 215-24. Jacob, E.,
early cultures appears questionable (IDB, II, p. Theoloiy of the OT, Harper, 1958, pp. 48-54.
409). In Ex 6:3 the Lord explains to Moses that Motyer, A. J., The Revelation of the Divine
by his name Yahweh he had not been "known" Name, London: Tyndale, 1959. Payne, J. B.,
to the patriarchs, meaning "know" (see yada') in Theoloiy of the O/der Testament, Zondervan,
its füllest sense: the name was in use (Gen 12:8; 1962, pp. 147-54. TDNT, III, pp. 1058~1.
15:2, 7, 8) but was not appreciated in the redemp- J.B.P.
tive significance that it acquired under Moses (J.
A. Motyer, The Revelation ofthe Divine Name). 485 •i:, (hoy) ah! alas! ho! O! woe! (Asv and
For even the so-called P document, which critics RSVsimilar.)
have hypothesized as contradicting the Bible's
claims to the earlier use of Yahweh (ibid., pp. An interjection, usually of lamentation. lt oc-
3--6), utilizes it in premosaic proper nouns curs fifty times in the prophets and once else-
(Jochebed, Ex 6:20; Num 26:59). where. Six usages refer to mouming for the dead
Commencing with the later judges (1 Sam 1:3), (as I Kgs 13:30), and forty involve negative wam-
the name Yahweh is often combined with .r'- ings or threats of God's physical chastisement.
ba'öt, "hosts'' (armies, q.v.). The Tetragramma- But in lsa 55: 1 it introduces a positive invitation
ton occurs in every OT book except Eccl and Est. to come and buy good things without money or
lt appears in the ninth century Moabite inscrip- price (cf. Zech 2:6-7).
tion of Mesha (line 18). From the eighth century Bibliography: Clifford, R. J., "The Use of
onward the element "Yau-" is employed in höy in the Prophets," CBQ 28: 458---64.Gersten-
Aramaic names and in Mesopotamian references berger, Erhard, "The Woe-Oracles of the
to Hebrew rulers. Only in pre-NT times was Prophets," JBL 81: 249---63. Wanke, Gunther,
God's personal name replaced with the less inti- '"öy and höy," ZAW 78: 215-18. THAT, I, pp.
mate title 'iidonay (Gr., kurios) "Lord." 474-76.
Scripture speaks of the Tetragrammaton as C.P.W.
"this glorious and fearful name" (Deut 28:58) or
simply " t he name' · (Lev 24: 11). B ut it connotes :i77i:, (höle/a). See no. 501a.
God"s neamess, his concem for man, and the re- m',7i:, (hölelüt). See no. 501b.
velation of his redemptive covenant. In Genesis
1-2:3, the general term 'elöhim (q.v.) "deity," 486 ci:, (hüm) be moved, ring again, make a
is appropriate for God transcendent in creation; (great) noise. (lnstead of destroy, ASVdis-
but in 2:4-25 it is Yahweh, the God who is imma- comfit, Rsv throw into confusion; for make
nent in Eden's revelations. In 9:26--27, Elohim a noise, RSVbe distraught; for ring again,
enlarges Japheth, but Yahweh is the God of RSVbe in an uproar. Otherwise ASVand RSV
Shem; the latter is especially used in references similar.)
to the God of Israel. In Ps 19 the heavens declare
the glory ofEI (vv. 1---6);bµt the law ofYahweh is Derivative
perfect, and Yahweh is "my strength and my re- 486a :,~1:,~ (m''hüma) destruction, dis-
deemer" (vv. 7-14 [H 8-15]; cf. G. T. Manley, 0comf11ure,trouble, tumult, vexed, Vex-
The Book ofthe Law, p. 41). Yet the distinction is ation. (The ASVand RSVare similar
not pervasive: Psalms 14 and 53 are practically but do not use destruction or vexed.
identical except for the divine names employed; The Rsv also uses panic, confusion,
book I of the Psalter (Ps 1--41) simply prefers disturbance.) The meaning of this
Yahweh, and book II (42-72), Elohim. Ultimately noun is "confusion," "distur-
the connotations of the name Yahweh are fulfil- bance, .... turmoil."

212
 491 :-r::,
(hiiya)
The basic meaning of this root seems to be a In Ps 44: 12 [H 13 J the translation "for naught"
severe disturbance, i.e. "to disturb greatly," or "for a trifte" (Rsv) is from b'' lö' hbn "without
"stir, ·· "discomfit." riches ... God has sold his people without even
The verbis used six times, once in the Qal (Deut asking a price for them. The translation
7:23). Here, used with the cognate accusative, "enough" in Prov 30: 15-16 is necessary from the
it refers to God as greatly disturbing (affiicting) context. The idea may be that of "sufficiency"
the enemies until they are destroyed. In the Niphal but in this case not of wealth.
the verb refers to the excitement of a city that is The attitude of the 01 toward h<in is ambigu-
"stirred up" (Ruth 1: 19; I Kgs 1:45), or of a camp ous. There is a good and a bad kind of wealth.
(1Sam 4:5). The subject is the earth (or land) which The robber Iooks for wealth (Prov 1:13), but the
"is shaken" or "resounds „ from the shouting of good man honors the Lord with his wealth (Prov
excited people. The Hiphil may be translated 3:9). Riches do not deliver in the day of wrath
"stir," "make adisturbance" (Ps 55:2 [H 3]: Mic (Prov 11:4) but knowledge brings precious and
2: 12), but opinion on how to translate these pas- pleasant riches (Prov 24:4). The riches of Tyre
sages, is divided. are condemned ( Ezk 27: 12) but in Ps 112:3 riches
In ten of twelve of its occurrences the noun are the reward of the godly man (see •äshar).
depicts the action ofthe Lord against Jsrael's ene- C.P.W.
mies (Deut 7:23), or against Israel herself (Deut
28:20). 488 *m:, (hul) shout at. Occurs only once, in
The root hum is doubtless a by-form of hämam the Poel (Ps 62 :4).
and possibly of häma (q.v.).
C.P.W. 489 :ir:;, (häzii) sleep. (ASVand RSV,dream.)
This word is used only in lsa 56: IO. lt is used of
487 *Wi (hun) be ready. (Asv be forward, Rsv sleeping dogs which represent the false leaders of
think it easy.) Israel. The most probable meaning is "dream ...
Derivative Some assume the form to be a scribal error for
487a t1i:, (hon) enough, riches, substance, /:lözeh "seer" and some Mss so read, but the 1.xx
wealth. (Asv and RSVsimilar.) supports the MT.
C.P.W.
The verbis used only once (in the Hiphil, Deut
I :41). Here it means to "consider it easy," 490 •:, (hi) lamentation, wailing (Ezk 2:10.
"think lightly of," possibly to "dare." lt is used only).
to characterize the Israelites· attempt to conquer
Canaan after God had told them that they must M•:, ( hf'). See no. 480.
wait. P. C. Craigie comments here: "There was a ,,,:, (hMäJ). See no. 471.
fine balance in the nature of the covenant that ri,i~t:t(hüy"döt). See no. 847a.
they constantly failed to grasp. First, they could
not really trust in the Lord, who would fight for 491 :i;:;,(häya) tobe, become, exist, happen.
them and protect them. Then, when they rose to
This verb appears 3,540 times in Biblical He-
shallow confidence in the Lord, they forgot the
brew, and all of these are in the Qal stem except
seriousness of their task" ( The Book of
for twenty-one uses of the Niphal. The verb is
Deuteronomy, Eerdmans, 1976, p. 106).
related to another Hebrew word meaning "tobe-
hön. Enough, riches, substance, wealth. The come, .. hawä (only five times: Gen 27:29; lsa
noun means "wealth." but its use is poetic. lt is 16:4; Eccl 2:22; 11:3; Neh6:6). and the same verb
used twenty-six times, in Prov (nineteen times) in Biblical Aramaic, ha11·a (71 times). In Akka-
and in Ezk, Ps, and Song. dian its phonetic equivalent. e1ni. means "to turn
The basic meaning of the noun is "goods" or oneself into, to become like ... To express being
"substance" in sufficient quantity to be consid- or existence Akkadian uses not e11·ubut bashii
ered "riches" or "wealth" (Prov 3:9, etc.). lf, as (much Iike Ugaritic and Phoenician Um).
is assumed, this noun is actually derived from the Very seldom in the 01 is h11yä used to denote
verb above, the meaning of "goods" or "wealth" either simple existence or the identification of a
may have developed from the idea of that which thing or person. This can be illustrated by a quick
is usually considered necessary to make Iife glance at almost any page of the KJVon which one
"easy." The word is used opposed to da/ will find numerous examples of words such as
"poor," "weak," "helpless" (Prov 19:4; 28:8). "is, are, was. were. ·· in italics, indicating that
H<in is used in conjunction with 'ösher, the these are additions by the translators for the sake
common word for "riches" (Ps I 12:3; Prov 8: 18). of smoothness, but not in the Hebrew itself. In
The usual word for "property" or "goods ... r''• such cases the Hebrew employs what is known
küsh, is mostly limited to prose passages. grammatically as a nominal sentence, which we

213
492 ,~::, (hek)

may define most simply as a sentence Iacking a terpretation is that it necessitates a correction in
verb or a copula, for example: I (am) the Lord the reading of the key text in Ex 3:14: "I am that I
your God; the Lord (is) a sun and shield; the land am." Most likely the name should be translated
(is) good; andin the NT, blessed (are) the poor. something like "I am he who is," or "I am he
This almost total Jack of htiyii as a copula or exis- who exists" as retlected by the Lxx's ego eimi ho
tential particle has led some to use this phenome- öv. The echo of this is found surely in the NT, Rev
non as confirming evidence that "static" thought 1:8. More than anything perhaps, the "is-ness"
was alien to the Hebrews, the )alter thinking only ofGod is expressive both of his presence and his
in "dynamic" categories (see Boman in the bib- existence. Neither concept can be said to be
liography below). more important than the other.
An alternative way in Hebrew to express exis- Bibliography: Barr, James, The Semantics of
tence besides the nominal sentence is by the par- Bihlical Language, Oxford University Press,
ticles yesh (positive) and 'ayin (negative), really 1961, esp. pp. 58-72, in opposition to Boman's
another type of nominal sentence "perhaps emphasis on the "dynamic" versus "existential"
'there are • fifty righteous in the city"; .. 'there is· character of häyii. Boman, T., Hebrew Thought
no God.'' Both ofthese words are more substan- Compared With Greek, trans. J. L. Moreau,
tival in nature than they are verbal, and in func- London: SCM, 1960, esp. pp. 38-49. DeVaux R.,
tion they resemble the French i/ y a and the Ger- "The Revelation of the Divine Name YHWH,"
man es gibt. in Proclamation and Presence, eds. J. 1. Durham
There are instances, however, where häyii is and J. R. Porter, London: SCM, 1970, pp. 48-75,
used with a predicate adjective: (a) in the descrip- with citation of the appropriate bibliography of
tion of a past situation which no longer exists, studies on the meaning of the Tetragrammaton.
"The earth was (hay'tii) formless and void" Preuss, H. D., "Ich will mit dir sein," ZAW 80:
(Gen 1:2); (b) in historical narration, "The ser- 139-73. Schild, E., "On Exodus iii 14: 'I am that
pent was (häyii) more subtil than any beast of the I am'," VT4: 296-302. THAT, I, pp. 477-85.
field' · (Gen 3: 1); (c) in the expression of a gnomic V.P.H.
truth, "lt is not good that man should be (h~yot)
alone" (Gen 2:18). Notice thejuxtaposition of the :,~:, (hayyii). See no. 483b.
verbal sentence, with hayii and a nominal sen-
tence without it: "You shall be (tihyCt) holy for I 492 '!!'t'.I (hek) how. (Asv and Rsv'the same.)
(am) holy (qtidosh 'äni, Lev 19:2). Boman would
This secondary spelling of 'ek also introduces a
account for the absence of a copula in the !alter question showing indignation or astonishment
part of this phrase by stating that the predicate
(GKC 148). The former is evidenced in I Chr
(holy) is inherent in the subject (God) and hence
13:12 in David's seif indignation, and the !alter in
the copula is unnecessary. He would also add Dan 10:17. The Ugaritic cognate is 'k (UT 19: no.
that the first "be" really means "become." To 147). Our word occurs twice.
jump from this observation, however, to the con- L.J.C.
clusion that the basic meaning of "tobe" in the
Bible is "to become" seems tobe unwarranted. 493 ,;,•r.i (hekäl) pal.ace,temple, nave, sanctuary.
Of special import is the use of the verb hayii in
covenant formulae: I will be your God and you ASV and Rsv similar with improvements by the
will be my people (Jer 7:23; 11:4; 24:7; 31:33, )alter in I Kgs 6:3; II Chr 36:7, but inconsisten-
etc.), and in the context of God's promises of cies in II Kgs 23:4, etc. As in extra-biblical litera-
blessings and judgements: and I will make of you ture this Ioanword from Sumerian/ Akkadian
a great nation ... and you shall be a blessing (Gen (E.GAL/ekallu; Ugaritic hkl, UT 19: no. 763) es-
12:2). A frequent, although perhaps misleading, sentially represents a king's dwelling quarters,
translation of häyii is, as we have noted above, i.e. a palace. In the Bible it is not necessarily of
"to come." This can be seen in connection with stone (Ps 18:6 [H 71), nor of gigantic proportions
God's spirit "coming" upon an individual (Jud (1 Kgs 6:3). Our word has a rich variety of
11:29; I Sam 19:20), and in those places where synonyms: 'armon (harmon, Arnos 4:3; 'almön,
God's word "came" to someone (Gen 15:1; I lsa 13:22), a !arge luxurious dwelling place,
Sam 15:10; II Sam 7:4; Jer 36: 1). which, however, are not used of the house of
A final and brief word may be said about the God; birii, perhaps a Persian loanword for
meaning and interpretation of Jehovah/Yahweh. "palace, citadel"; m' $äd, stronghold, fort, etc.
lt seems beyond doubt that the name contains the Other words for God's dwelling place are: bet
verb häyci "tobe" (but also see article YHWH). (Gen 33: 17 where a booth sukköt is called a bet),
The question is whether or not it is the verb ··10 also called an 'öhel (I Sam 2:22), miqdash (any
be" in the Qal, "He is," or the Hiphil, "He place sanctified by God from the land of Pales-
causes to be,' · a view championed by W. F. Al- tine, Ex 15:17, to the sanctuary itself, Lev 16: 33;
bright. The strongest objection to this !alter in- see qödesh); bämot, hilltops or mountain tops (II

214
 495 ,;,:, (häkar)

Sam 1:19; Deut 32:13) which often served as the Later, the enemies of Nehemiah sought to trick
locations for worship, whether legitimate (I Sam him into entering. Had he done so, they would
9:12; I Kgs 3:4) or illegitimate (Lev 26:30). Espe- have been able to discredit him (Neh 6: !Off).
cially note the mythological use (e.g. Arnos 4: 13); Finally, God's true temple and throne are in
finally see mishkän (dwelling place in general) heaven (Ps 11:4; Mic 1:2; Hab 2:20; Jon 2:4 [H 5 J,
and mäqom (God's chosen place; see qüm). Our 7 [H 8]). In lsaiah's vision (Isa 6:lff.), the
word occurs eighty times. heavenly sanctuary bad no separation between
Extra-Palestinian applications of hekäl refer the throne ofGod (ark, i.e. holiest place) and the
solely to the domicile of a king (II Kgs 20: 18, altar upon which coals bumed (the holy place).
hence, Rsv in Arnos 8:3; Hos 8:14; II Chr 36:7). Truly this bespeaks the perfect state wherein
Within Israel it refers to the dwelling place of the there is no mediator except God.
great king, God (Ezr 3 :6). Akkadian (CAD,E,I, p. Fora different view, see K. D. Schunck, "Zen-
52) ekal/u represents the royal palace, royal tralheiligtum, Grenzheiligtum, und Höhenheilig-
property, or the main room (reception hall?) of a tum in Israel," Numen 18: 132--40.
private house. Interestingly, the oT exhibits simi- Bibliography: Kapelrud, Arvid S., "Temple
lar connotations. Let us especially note that our Building, a Task for Gods and Kings," Or 32:
word does not occur in the oT until I Sam, the 56-62. Richardson, TWB, pp. 173, 209. Us-
document appearing after the kingship was estab- sishkim, D., "King Solomon's Palaces," BA 36:
lished in Israel. This meaning (God's palace) oc- 78-106. Wright, G. R., "Shechem and the
curs in the psalmists' prayers when they describe League Shrines," VT 21: 572-603. Wright, G. E.,
the life of blessedness (Ps 65:4 [H 5]). Figura- "Solomon's Temple Resurrected," BA 4: 17-30.
tively, David prays that he, too, may dwell in ---, "The Significance of the Temple in the
God's house/temple (Ps 27:4). He surely does not Ancient Near East," BA 7: 41-S8. Zeitlin, Sol-
ask for a change in God's law whereby he, a omon, "The Temple and Worship," JQR 51:
non-priest, could enter (indeed, dwell in) the 209--41.
temple. So it is a state of blessedness for which L.J .c.
he prays, that he might always be in God's favor.
No doubt, it is God's earthly palace/temple to- ':>';>•:,(he/i!l). See no. 499a.
ward which David directs bis prayer, although it
is God himself whom he addresses (Ps 5:7 [H 8]; 494 1'l'.'I (hin) hin. (Asv and Rsv the same.)
138:2).God is not limited spatially to the temple
(I Kgs 8:27). However, God's chosen place is his Perhaps borrowed from Egyptian hl )nlw) or
temple and it is to be respected in proportion to hn(n)w, a liquid measure of approximately one
the respect due to the Creator (Jer 7:4). Disparag- pint, which is however one-eighth of a hin. A
ing it will bring divine judgment (Jer 50:285. God "hin" is a unit of liquid measure. Post-biblical
himself will raise up a servant to restore his tem- sources make it one-sixth of a bath or twelve
ple (Cyrus, Isa 44:28), foreshadowing the found- logs. The bath is a liquid measure equal to the
ing of God's perfect temple by a man named ephah (q.v.) which is used for dry measure. The
"branch" (Zech 6: 12; cf. lsa 11: 1; Jer23:5; 33: 15; bath probably was about twenty-two liters,
for the church as this temple, compare Mal twenty-three and one-fourth liquid quarts, about
3:1/Mt 3:10-12; I Cor 3:3-15, II Cor 6:16). Paul six gallons.
uses the word naos, which can refer to the entire The word is used twenty-two times in the OT. lt
building (Arndt, p. 535). is used twenty times to measure the oil and wine
lt is to be noted that the term hi!kal is applied (once "strong drink") used for sacrifices (Num
to God·s house while it was still a tent (I Sam 1:9; 15, 28, et al.). Fractional parts, one-half, one-
3:3). In Ps 27, the temporary structure where third, and one-fourth, as weil as a full hin are
David placed the ark is called a house (bi!t), a used, but never more than one. As an object les-
temple (hi!käl), a booth (sukka), and a tent son. Ezekiel was allowed to drink only one-sixth
('öhel). of a hin (about two-thirds of a quart) of water
Our word is also applied to the entire property each day to represent conditions in Jerusalem
of God. Hence, David states that everything in under a long siege (Ezk 4: 11). The Mosaic law
God's temple says, "glory" (Ps 29:9). called for the use of a "just hin" (Lev 19:36), as it
hekäl also refers to the main room of the tem- demanded just measures and weights of every
ple as such. First, God's divine reception hall (I kind.
Kgs 6:3; 7 :50; II Chr 4 :7) was where Samuel slept Bibliography: AI, pp. 195-209. Huey, F. B.,
as a lad (I Sam 3:3). Since only priests were to "Weights and Measures." in ZPEB.
enter this area, perhaps the lad was not as young C.P.W.
as commonly thought (Num 4:3). Godless kings
placed idols therein (II Chr 29:16). lt was this 495 ,~:, (häkar) Occurs only in Job 19:3, in
holy place that Uzziah profaned (II Chr 26: 16). -phrase lö'-ti!böshü tahk' ru-li. Meaning

215
496 *H7:;'.I
(hälä')

dubious, perhaps "shamelessly you attack ships (Gen 7:18), the "flowing" of water (Gen
me" (NIV). 2:14), the "llaying" of trumpets (Ex 19:19), the
"walking" of men (Ex 14:29), etc. In another
:i,;,::i (hakkärii). See no. J368e. special use this verb signifies the end of, e.g. rain
(Song 2: 11), dew (Hos 6:4), wind (Ps 78:39), grief
496 *M',:, (hälä ·) removed far off. This de- (Job 16:6), human life (Gen 15:2; Josh 23:14), etc.
~~minative verb occurs only once, in the This verb can be applied both tosupposed gods
Niphal (Mic 4:7). (Ps 115:7) and to the Lord God. Although other
verbs are generally used in theophanic accounts
Parent Noun (Frank Schnutenhaus, "Das Kommen und
496a :iM',:, (/tii/'ä) out there, onwards, Erscheinen im Alten Testament," ZA W 76: 1-22)
furlher (e.g. Gen 19:9: Jer 22:19). there is at least one clear use of hälak in such a
context (Gen 18:33). Perhaps Gen 3:8 is also a
',1',:-, ( hillii/). See no. 500a. theophanic context, although the participle may
go with qol rather than with "Lord God," in
497 T?::t (halläz) :i;7::i (hal/azeh) 1T"(;:t(hallezü) which case the translation would be "the voice of
this (one) there, yonder. the Lord God which was going through the gar-
This secondary rare demonstrative pronoun in- den on the wind of the day." Conceived an-
tensifies the designation. The shortened form can thropomorphically, God walks on the clouds (Ps
be either masculine (Jud 6:20) or feminine (II Kgs 104:3) or in the heavens (Job 22:14). More fre-
4:25). while the form hal/ezü is feminine (GKC quently, and more importantly hälak is applied to
34f). These forms might have been developed Yahweh's coming to his people in judgment or
from the regular zeh plus the definite article plus blessing (II Sam 7:23; Ps 80:2 [H 31), especially
the emphatic lamed (Nötscher, VT 3: 372-SO). during the wilderness wanderings (e.g. Ex 33:14;
L.J.C. 13:21). In this latter context, note the new
Exodus (lsa 45:2). As the people followed the ark
'!1'71'(ha/fk). See no. 498b. of God through the desert so they followed it in
ritual (infrequently expressed by hälak; cf. Josh
498 i';:, (hälak) go, walk. ASV and RSV simi- 3:6; Num 10:32-36).
lar with the latter sometimes improving on Apostasy is described as their "going after"
the former. other/false gods (Ex 32:1; Jer 5:23), pursuing
one' s own evil counsel (Jer 7 :24; Ps 1: 1), or heart
Derivatives (Jer 11:8), or walking in darkness (lsa 9:2 [H 1]),
498a
498b
,,:-i(helek)
'!l;~::i ( hälik)
traveler.
step.
and meets with God's judgment (Lev 26:24). The
truly pious follow God's leading in all that they
498c t:,;•,1:1 (halikä) going, way, trave/ing do (i.e., they keep his commandments, I Kgs
company. 3:14; Ps 119:lff.). This idea can be expressed by
498d '!17 hälak alone (without 'al;are plus words such as
01; (mahalak) walk, journey.
498e t:,;i,1:1~ (tahälüka) procession. -~•'däqöt (lsa 33:15), etc. The Hithpael is used in
this connection to emphasize the continuity of
Our word denotes movement in general, al- the action. Striking examples of men who so Iived
though usually of people. Hence, it can be before God are Enoch, Noah, Abraham, etc.
applied with various connotations (including Josh (Gen 5:22; 6:9: 17:1).
17:7), and in various contexts. Especially, we
hälikä. Goings, doings, procession, travelers. ASV
ought to notice the imperative ejaculatory use
(Gen 37:13, 20: Gen 19:32: 31:44), the use ofthe and RSV translate variously with the latter giving
infinitive to extend the action of another verb superior renderings. This noun (GKC84•1) con-
(Gen 8:3, 5: see GKC,113u), and the use of the cretizes various connotations ofthe verb whether
finite to concretize the action of another verb conceived as the process of going (Ps 68:24 [H
(Gen27:14;50:18: II Kgs3:7: lsa2:3). Synonyms 25 j; Nah 2:5 IH 6 J; Hab 3 :6; Ugaritic hlk. khkbm;
are: rü.r ··run," hö "come, enter," yä.yä· "go Albright, BASOR 82: 49), or the process of life
out:· ·a/ä "ascend, .. and shiih --return . ., lts an- (Prov 31 :27), or the thing that goes (Job 6: 19). For
tonyms are: yüshah „sit," and 'ämad ··stand." cognates see Akkadian a/aktu (CAD A.I.. pp.
Our root occurs 1562 timcs. lt is a common Semi- 297-300). Our word occurs six times.
tic root (Akkadian aläku, CAD. A.I, pp. 300-28; tahälukä. Procession. ASV and RSV the same.
Ugaritic hlk. UT 19: no. 766). This hapax leRomenon (GKC 85r) concretizes
The specific application of this verb to various the formal ritualistic "going."
kinds of going may be translated variously: e.g .. Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., "'Some
the „creeping" of a snake (Gen 3:14), the Considerations Concerning Biblical Prayer,""
"prowling" of foxes (Lam 5: 18), the "sailing" of HUCA 32: 75-90. Speiser, E. A., "'The Durative

216
 500 *77y(hälal)
Hithpa'el: A Tan-Form," JAOS 75: 118-21. ble parallels to pagan mythology is actually in
THAT, I, pp. 486-92. forma quotation from a heathen king. lt is natural
L.J.C. for a heathen king to boast that he would exalt his
throne above the gods or above the mountain
where he believed the gods assembled. R.L.H.]
499 ',';,:;t (hä/a/) /, shine. (Asvand Rsv similar.)
helel. Helel. This proper name is a hapax
Derivative
le!(omenon describing the King of Babylon (lsa
499a t',7•ri ( helel) Hefe/. 14:12).
Our root represents the giving off of light by L.J.C.
celestial bodies. Perhaps the Ugaritic phrase bnt. 500 *',';,:, (hälal) II, praise, boast (only in Piel,
h/1(daughter of Helel?) as a name for k{rt (UT 19:
Pual and Hithpael). (Asv and Rsv usually
no. 769) exhibits a similar meaning. The root oc-
the same.)
curs five (maybe six, KD Job 25:5) times.
The verb is used by Job in highly poetic pas- Derivatives
sages to describe the shining of the sun (29:3;
500a t',1\;,:, ( hillu/) rejoicing, praise.
31:26). In both instances the parallels make the
500b t',',:,~ ( mahäläl) praise.
meaning clear. Also, Isa 13:10 contrasts this as-
500c t:,~~~ (t" hiIIa) praise.
pect of heavenly bodies and the darkening of the
sun and moon. These heavenly bodies are This root connotes being sincerely and deeply
symbolically/figuratively darkened as a sign of thankful for and/or satisfied in lauding a superior
blessing (Isa 60:19; Joel 2:31 [H 3:41) and/or quality(ies) or great, great act(s) of the object.
judgment whether historical (lsa 13: 13; Ezk 32:7) Synonyms are: yäda (Hi phil) "to praise," "give
or eschatalogical (Joel 2:10). All the uses of our thanks"; ränan "to sing or shoutjoyfully"; shir
verb appear in contexts with mythological con- "to sing (praises)"; härak (Piel) "to praise,"
nections. This is not to say that biblical writers "bless"; Kiidal (Piel), "to magnify"; rum (Polei),
assumed the validity of pagan myth. Indeed, as ··10 exalt"; ziimar (Piel), "to sing, play,
Job(41:l8 [H 10]) seeks to make clear,God alone praise"-all of which see. For cognates see Ak-
exists as deity! The pagan gods are creations of kadian alälu. 1. atlalu "to shout, brag, boast;
their own minds (lsa 2:8). Leviathan is a toy in 2. sululu "to hail, acclaim, utter a cry. to gener-
God's hands, i.e., he mocks the pagan religions. ally express joy" (CAD A.l., pp. 33lff.); and
Interestingly, inJob41:18 [H 10) the line parallel Ugaritic hll (UT 19: no. 769). Our root occurs 206
to that in which our verb appears alludes to times.
shahar (q.v.; cf. J. W. McKay, "Helel and the This root can be used of exalting human beauty
Dawn-Goddess," VT 20: 456ff.) which is proba- (Gen 12:15; II Sam 14:25) or human understand-
bly to be understood as the name of a goddess. ing (Prov 12:8). The noun ,,hilla is used of the
McKay (op. cit.) contends that in the allusion in renown of cities (Jer 48:2). Also hälal can be-
Isa 14:12-15 there is a Canaanite version of the speak the praise given to a good homemaker
Greek Phaethon myth as mediated and influenced (Prov 31:28, 31), a wise diplomat (1 Kgs 20:11).
by Phoenician culture during the "heroic age." which comes from a king (Ps 63:11 [H 121), etc.
The development of the Canaanite version is However, our root usually refers to praising de-
complex and has affinities with the Ugaritic myth ity, even false deities (Jud 16:24).
involving Athar, son of Athirat, who was unable The most frequent use of our root relates to
to occupy the throne of Baal. lt was Phaethon praising the God of Israel. Nearly a third of such
who attempted to scale the heights of heaven and passages occur in the Psalms. The largest number
as the dawn star was ever condemned to be cast of these are imperative summons to praise. The
down into Hades (sh''ol, q.v.). Even ifone does frequency and mood emphasizes the vital neces-
not accept McKay's argument, it is important to sity of this action. The centrality of the cultus to
note the following philological oddities: (1) har Israel' s national elan further confirms that
mö'ed (lsa 14: 13) and Ugaritic gr.11("The Mount necessity, as does the fact that psalmody in Is-
of Lala") where there assembled the phr. m'd, rael's religion was so strongly linked to David the
("The Assembled Body" ANET, p. 130__:_UT 16: idyllic king. The themes surrounding and in-
Text 137:20) and (2) the name $äpon (Isa 14:13) cluded in the verbal expressions of praise (the
which is weil known in Ugaritic as the mountain psalms) show that it is imperative that God in his
of the gods. The God of Israel is not enthroned on deity (Ps 102:21 [H 22]) be recognized and that
Saphon; he reigns from heaven itself (cf. hekäl). the fullness thereof be affirmed and stated. This
Any interpretation of Isa 14 which does not take is tobe offered in an attitude of delight and rejoic-
into account the mythological allusion does i jus- ing. Belief and joy are inextricably intertwined.
tice to what is said there. [lt may be helpful to Secondly, it is significant that most of these oc-
add that this much-discussed passage with possi- currences are plural (except Ps 146:1; Ps 147:12,

217
501 ',',y (hälal)

collective). This shows us, as does the use of the ness 92: 14-17). The füllest richness ofhuman life
psalms in the worship that praise of Jehovah was produces continual praise (Ps 84:4 [H 51).
especially, though by no means uniquely (Ps The profane connotation (in the sense of a
146: 1), congregational. This praise could involve laudable quality) is sometimes applied to God.
choirs and musical instruments, too. lt could be This is especially expressed in the Hithpael and
expressed in speaking (Jer 31 :7), singing (Ps 69:30 the noun t''/1illä. One·s only and continual boast
[H 31 )), and with dancing (Ps 149:3). Such praise (glorying) is tobe in God (Ps 105:3). lndeed, if
was an essential element of formal public wor- one is pious he will so glory in God (Ps 64: 10 [H
ship. lt is important to note the strong relation- 11J; note its parallel siima~1). God's praise (paral-
ship between praise and intellectual content. The leled by Md) fills the earth (Hab 3 :3). t" hillii is
entire creation both terrestrial (Ps 148:lff.) and also parallel to kähöd (lsa 42:8) and God declares
heavenly (Ps 148:2) are summoned to praise God. that he will not allow another to receive his due.
This does not, however, imply that such activity Yet, God"s praise is proclaimed (lsa 42:10), re-
was anything other than intelligent. Such per- counted (Ps 78:4 ). and ever increasing (Ps 71: 14).
sonifications (Rom 8 :20ff.) emphasize the re- His praise considered in this objective sense is
sponsibility of all creation to joyfully render to closely tied to his historical acts of deliverance in
God his due (Ps 150:6). Praise and cultus are con- behalf of his elect (Ex 15:11; Ps 78:4; 106:47)
stants in man's obligation and privilege before the showing God's covenantal interest in and work in
Creator and Savior (Ps 106: 1). Interestingly, dur- history. He is not simply abstract being-in-itself,
ing the Exile, public worship was sustained, but nor transcendent (Job 38-41 ).
apart from the temple. In order to emphasize The prophets declare Israel to be the "glory"
their diminished „joy" in worship the pious hung ( f" hillii) of God when she is in a divinely exalted
up their harps (Ps 137:2), and resumed playing in and blessed state (lsa 62:7: Jer 13: 11). The
worship upon their restoration (Ps 147:7). Fur- prophets also summon the elect, indeed the
thermore, the messianic age is to attest the sing- whole world ( Isa 61: 11) to praise and rejoice over
ing of a new song (lsa 42: 10; cf. Rev 5:9). The NT the promised salvation (lsa 43 :21 ). The foreseen
worshiping community came into the self- fulfillment (Isa 62:7) extends to the messianic
awareness that they were the temple of God (1 state (Joel 2:26).
Cor3:16; see hekä/). Temple worship is mostjoy-
ful and expressed both in old and new songs. hillul. Festal jubilation. ASVand Rsv the same
Our verb is also used in the voluntive sense in Jud 9:27, but Rsv is better in Lev 19:24. These
whereby the pious declares his intention to praise joyous festivals of praise among Jews and
God. These declarations are either at the begin- Canaanites apparently took place upon the fourth
ning (Ps 145:2) or end (Ps 22:22 [H 231) of a year's harvest. This firstfruits' rite sanctified the
psalm, although usually yiidä (Hiphil) is used in vineyard or field with a sacrificial meal (KD,
such psalms. Even the individual praise is in a Joshua, JudRes, Ruth, p. 366f.).
cultic context (Ps 22:22 [H 23 J; 35: 18). t'' hillii can
also be used in such psalms (145:1: 9:14 [H l5J; mahaläl. Praise. ASVand Rsv the same. This
109: 1). This individual affirmation exhibits accep- noun represents the degree of praise or Jack
tance of the imperative mood voiced in hiilal. thereof rendered to one by others (Prov 27 :21,
Here, too, the importance of that activity for life KD). lt is that by which a man is tried and is
is emphasized by its sustained verbal expression likened to the crucible in which silver or gold is
(Ps 63:5 [H 6J; 34:2 [H 3J). To so publicly exalt tried.
God"s person (Deut 10:21; Jer 17:14) and work
(Ps 106:2) is tantamount to an affirmation of life t"hillä. Praise, praiseworthy deeds. ASVand RSV
itself. The historical books (i.e. Chronicles) as- similar. This noun represents the results of hälal
sume such a resolution and especially note the as weil as divine acts which merit that activity.
arrangement and establishment ofthe cultic order This latter use occurs both in the singular (Ps
and ascribe the establishment of the musical wor- 196:47) and plural (Ex 15:11; Ps 78:4). Parallel
ship to David. words are kiibod "honor" (lsa 42:8), and shem
Another use of our root reflects on the nature „name" (Ps 48: 10 [H 11J: Isa 48:9). Our word
and content of praising God. He is the unique and occurs fifty-seven times.
sole object and the content of true praise (Ps 65: 1 Bibliography: TDNT. Vlll,493-98. THAT. I,
[H 2J; 147:1: cf. Jer 17:14). God is further and pp. 493-501 .
inseparably joined to praise (Ps 109: 1: Deut L.J .C.
10:21; Ps 22:3 [H 41). Moreover, human existence
and praising the true God are closely related (Ps
119:175). Upon death this cultic public praise, of 501 ',',:, (hä/a/) III, to be insane. ASVand RSV
course, ceases (Ps 115:17; cf. sh'"öl, and L. - ;imilar with the latter sometimes striking
Coppes "Sheol, What is lt'?" Covenanter Wit- closer to the root meaning.

218
 505 :,~:, (häma)
Derivatives Though not required preceding a finite verb, it
is used in nominal sentences or clauses, "they
501a :,77i:, (holelä) madness.
(are) crying out" (Ex 5:8), or with the pronoun
501b tm',7i:, (holelut) madness.
following the predicate, "entangled, they, in the
This root stresses the irrational aspect of insan- land", i.e. "they are entangled in the land" (Ex
ity whereas shäf?a' (q.v.) emphasizes the be- 14:3), and with ki. meaning "that," "for," "for
havioral aspect. Consequently, our root is paral- few they (are)" (Josh 7:3).
lel to siqlutlsiqlut "foolishness. folly." ke.fel The pronoun may be used before a finite verb
"folly," and is an antonym of !Jokmä "wisdom." when a phrase separates the subject from the
Our root occurs sixteen times. verb, "the priests ... that kept the charge of my
The basic meaning of the root emerges most sanctuary when ... , they shall come near" (Ezk
clearly in Eccl 2:12. Significant connotations are 44:15).
revealed in I Sam 21: 13 [H 14J and Jer 25: 16 (cf. The pronoun is used when adding an additional
51:7) where an insane man and a drunkard re- subject after the predicate, "the handmaids came
spectively are described. Furthermore, most in- near, they and their children" (Gen 33:6), and as
stances exhibit an application to irrational a resumptive pronoun in a relative clause.
thought processes (e.g., Eccl 1: 17). Our root, in- hem (seldom hemmil) is used with the article
terestingly, is applied to the wicked (räsha') in (bayyämfm hahem) as a demonstrative adjective.
the Psalms (5:5 [H 6J; 73:3; 75:4 [H 5]; cf. Eccl "in those days" (Deut 17:9). Unlike the singular,
7:25) describing the loud boisterous nonsensical the third person plural forms occasionally com-
behavior and mindset (KD on Ps 5:5 [H 6]). Sin bine with prepositions, "by them" (Hab 1:16,
(especially idolatry, Jer 50:38), therefore, is irra- etc.). henna is the feminine form.
tional in view of the nature of God, the creation, As in the singular, the plural is used for em-
and mankind (Eccl 10:13), and yet it fills the heart phasis and sometimes is translated "them-
of man (Eccl 9:3 ). The sovereign Jehovah dis- selves," "but every small matter they would do
penses the wine of wrath causing men to act even the judging themselves" (Ex 18:26).
more insanely (Jer 51 :7; 25: 16) than normally, as C.P.W.
do drunkards. He controls and frustrates false
prophets (lsa 44:25) and leaders (Job 12: 17). 505 :i~::i (häma) cry aloud, mourn, rage, roar,
sound; make noise, tumult; be clamorous,
holelöt, hölehit. Madness. This noun, con-
disquieted, loud, moved, troubled, in an up-
structed on the Qal participle form, signifies the
roar. (Rsv also growl, howl, be in turmoil,
state of being hälal. lt occurs five times and only
moan, thrill, yearn, beat wildly, thunder, et
in Eccl.
al.; ASVsimilar.)
L.J.C.
Derivatives
l"l1~7tl ( ha/mut). See no. 502a.
505a 11i~1:f(hämön) abundance, tumult.
502 c';,:, (hälam) hammer, strike down (e.g.
505b :i:~v (hemyii) Sound, music.
-Jud 5:22; lsa 16:8). This root, used thirty-four times, means "cry
out," "make a loud noise," or "be turbulent." lt
Derivatives is a strong word, emphasizing unrest, commo-
502a l"l1~?0 (halmut) hammer, mallet tion, strong feeling, or noise.
(Jud 5:26). This verb is difficult to translate uniformly and
502b c·,r,i~ (yaha/om) precious stone, the translation will vary from passage to passage
perhapsjasper (Ex 28:18; 39:11; Ezk and translator to translator. Thus in lsa 17:12 the
28: 13). KJVhas "make a noise," ASV"roar," Rsv "thun-
502c l"li~?ttl; ( mahlilümöt) strokes, blows der." Subjects include people (Ps 77 :3 [H 4 J).
(Prov 18:6: 19:29). waves (Jer 5:22), cities (I Kgs 1:41), the heart (Jer
4:19), and the bowels (Song 5:4, RSV"heart was
503 c·,tt (halöm) hither (e.g. Ex 3:5; Jud thrilled"; Jer 31 :20, RSV"heart yearns"). The
18:3). translation "concourse" (Prov 1:21) is inferred
from the commotion.
504 M,Ptt (hemmä), Cltt (hem), :i~tt (henna)
hiimön. Abundance, company, many, multitude,
they, these, the same, who, et al. (Asv, RSV noise, riches, rumbling, sounding, store,
similar.) tumult. (Asv similar, Rsv also troops, rushing,
This is the third person plural independent wealth, music, populous.) This noun, although
nominative pronoun, "they." lt is the plural form variously translated means "multitude'" or
of hu' (hi') which should be consulted for a more "host," with emphasis on unrest, turbulence, or
detailed treatment, as the usage is similar. noise.

219
506 ',~:, (hämal)

In sixty-four of eighty-four occurrences the Bibliography: THAT, 1. pp. 502-503.

„multitude'" is people, often troops. Sometimes C.P.W.
the emphasis is on the sound of a multitude,
hence "'noise'" (Isa 31 :4) ... tumult'" (II Sam 508 C~:"l ( hms ). Assumed root of the following.
18:29), or „rumbling'" (Jer47:3). The KJV"sound- 508a o~:, ( hemes) brushwood (lsa
ing of thy bowels · · ( Isa 63: 15) is better translated 64:1).
.. yearning of thy hearr· (Asv. Rsv). The Rsv "or-
gies" (Jer 3:23) assumes the purpose of mul- 509 '"!~:"'! ( hmr). Assumed root of the following.
titudes on the mountains (KJV "multitude of 509a :"l:,·~:,I.'(111ahärn11ni) flood (Ps
mountains"). The Valley of Hamon-gog (Ezk 140: 11, only).
39: 11. 15) means the Valley of the multitude of
Gog where the slain of God will be buried after 510 V'.! (Mn) behold, if, lo, though. (ASV and
their attack on Israel from the north. RSVsimilar.)
The root hänui may be related to luimam or
An interjection demanding attention, "look!"
htim whose meanings are similar.
··see 1'" and sometimes in context, "if ... lt is used
C.P.W.
one hundred times. lt is, at least in some uses. a
short form of hinl1l'h (q.v.). lt or hinnc'h or both
1i~:, (hiimon). See no. 505a.
are in Ugaritic reflected in the h11of similar mean-
:"'l;I?:,
(hemyii). See no. 505b.
ing.
hen is mainly used to emphasize the informa-
506 ':>l.';:t(/uima/). Assumed root of the follow-
tion which follows it, .. hehold, I have bought
ing. you .. (Gen 47 :23 ). although sometimes the em-
506a :i7r,,:,(hiimü/lii). :,7~~::i(hamti/liJ) phasis is on a person, .. behold my servant" (lsa
rainstorm, roanng or rushing
42:1). The information may be only an assump-
sound (Jer 11:16: Ezk 1:24).
tion, "Behold, they will not believe me" (Ex
4: 1). When the assumption is a condition it is
507 l:11.':,(hämam) break, consume, crush, de-
translated "if, .. e.g. "if I shut up heaven ... , or
stroy, discomflt, trouble, vex. (ASV similar
if I command the locusts" (II Chr 7:13). In this
except scatter for break. Rsv does not use
passage hen is parallel to "im. meaning "ifl send
break. consume or vex. but adds throw into
pestilence." The KJVuses "though „ to introduce
confusion or panic, rout.)
a condition in Job 13: 15. "though he slay me „
The basic meaning of this word seems tobe · · to (but ASV and RSV. "behold, he will slay me ").
give attention to" in the negative sense, that is. „Jf' is also used in the sense of"whether," "and
"harass ... "trouble ... often wich the purpose of see ifthere besuch a thing" (Jer2:I0). This usage
creating panic. for „if' may bc not the equivalent of "behold"
hut derived from the Aramaic hen which means
This verbis used thirteen times. Ten times God
„if' exclusively. The Ugaritic hn apparently is
is the subject. Of these. five times the object is
not uscd for "if ...
Israel's enemy whom God strikes with panic for
Over half of the instances of this word are in
their sake. (See I Sam 7:10: Ex 14:24: Ex 23:27:
lsa and Job. with the others mainly confined to
Josh 10:10: Jud 4:15: and also II Chr 15:6 with a
the Pentateuch. This is in contrast to the use of
more general subject.) Thus it denotes an impor-
hinneh which is evenly distributed throughout the
tant aspect of holy war.
OT.
The verbis used parallel to "scatter" in II Sam
5 !Oa ;-:,~:, ( hinnc0 h) behold, lo, see. (ASV
22:15, Ps 18:14 [H 15]. and Ps 144:6 (parallel pas-
and Rsv „if. '") An interjection de-
sages). God uses arrows and lightnings to trouble
manding attentioo. "look !'" "see !"
his enemies. (Some would translate hämam as
lt occurs over a thousand times. See
"set in motion'" referring to the arrows and light-
also the shortcr form, hen.
ning.) The word is also used to indicate the effect
510b m:, (hinneh) hither. When used in
of a cart wheel on grain (lsa 28:28). But some
pairs, "here and there ... Derivation
make wheel the object and translate "sei in mo-
tion." uncertain.
The word describes God's treatment of thc Is- hinneh is sometimes used as a predicator of
raelites over forty until they died in the wilder- existence according to T. 0. Lambdin: "lt differs
ness. He made sure of their death (Deut 2:15). from yesh in that it emphasizes the immediacy,
Other subjccts of this verb arc: Nebuchadnezzar. the here-and-now-ness, of the situation Untro-
against Jerusalem (Jer 51 :34), and Ha man against duction to Bihlical Hehrcll'. Scribner"s Sons,
the Jews (Est 9:24 ). 1971. p. 168).
The root hämam is related to the verb htim of hinll('h may be used to point out things (pillar
similar meaning. and heap, Gen 31 :51: covenant, Gen 17:4 ), but

220
 512 i~:, (hiipak)
more often it is used to point out people, "behold This root together with its derivatives appears
my maid" (Gen 30:3). Often pronouns are at- 118 times in the OT. The verb accounts for the
tached as suffixes, especially the first person sin- majority of these, being used ninety-four times
gular: ··see me standing" (i.e. "behold I stood," (Qal, fifty-five times: Niphal thirty-four times:
Gen 41: 17), or for emphasis the pronoun is re- Hophal, once: Hithpael, four times).
peated, .. And I, behold I am bringing" (Gen The root häpak figures prominently in con-
6:17), and often the idiom, "Behold me!" (i.e., nection with three themes ofScripture. First, it is
"here I am, .. I Sam 3 :4f.). found in association with the expression ofGod's
Then too. according to Lambdin, "Most hin- anger and wrath upon unrepentant Sodom and
neh clauses occur in direct speech ... and serve Gomorrah: Gen 19:21, 25. 29: Deut 29:23 iH 221:
to introduce a fact upon which a following state- lsa 13:19: Jer 20:16: 49:18: 50:40: Arnos 4:11;
ment or command is based" (ibid., p. 169). Thus, Lam 4:6. Perhaps the use of this verb will shed
"Behold your handmaid is in your charge; do to light on the exact nature of the catastrophe. That
her" is equivalent to "since your handmaid is" it was a volcanic eruption seems unlikely. On the
(Gen 16:6). With the first person suffix followed other hand, to translate häpak in these instances
by a particle it is used often in the prophets as a as "annihilate" would suggest the disastrous ef-
Statement of what God will do, "Behold, I am fects of an earthquake, accompanied by lightning
going to proclaim liberty ... to the sword" (Jer which ignited the natural gases of the Jordan
34:17). Especially with the participle it may point Valley area, producing the terrible inferno (and
out what is just on the verge of happening (Ex cf. Job 28:5).
4:23, 7:17 etc.). By extension, God promises the same treat-
In a few instances hinneh is used to emphasize ment to Jerusalem (II Kgs 21: 13): Nineveh (Jonah
one specific possibility and may be translated 3:4); the unbelieving nations (Hag 2:22, parallel
"if," "and if ... the disease is checked'' (Lev with shtimad) and generally "the wicked" (Prov
13:5, RSV), 12:7). Man is also capable of "overthrowing"
An important fact or action may follow intro- (i.e. reducing to vassalage) another city () Chr
ductory words: "As for Ishmael ... , behold I 19:3: II Sam 10:3) or even mountains (Job 28:9,
have blessed him" (Gen 17:20), "In my dream something God does too, Job 9:5).
and behold I stood" (Gen 41 :17). The pronoun The second theme of Scripture in the develop-
may be omitted if understood, "Behold, between ment of which hapak appears frequently is the
Kadesh and Bered," i.e. "it," referring to a weil, miracles surrounding Israel's exodus from Egypt
was thus located (Gen 16:14). and her pilgrimage in the wilderness. Most often
Bibliography: Labuschagne, C. J., "The Par- the verb describes God's actions in turning the
ticles hen and hinneh," OTS 8: 1-14. Ward, Nile into blood (Ex 7: 17, 20: Ps 78:44; 105:29, and
William A., "Comparative Studies in Egyptian cf. the reference to the streams of Edom becom-
and Ugaritic," JNES 20: 31-40. ing pitch in lsa 34:9). The mind of Pharaoh and
C.P.W. his servants was "changed" upon hearing of the
escape of the Israelites (Ex 14:5}: God even
rm, (hennä). See no. 504. "turned" the hearts of the Egyptians to hate his
:iiri (hinneh). See nos. 5 I0a,b. people (Ps 105:25). To make lsrael's escape good
God "turned" the sea into dry land (Ps 66:6). The
511 CtT (has) be silent, hold peace, tongue, (keep) Lord "turned" a strong west wind which drove
silence, still. (ASV and RSV similar.) the locusts into the Red Sea (Ex 10:19). God had
An interjection with imperative force meaning "turned" the rod into a serpent (Ex 7: 15). He
"be silent," "hush." lt is used seven times: to "turned" the rock unto a pool of water (Ps
command people to refrain from speaking (Arnos 114:8). While passing through the territory of
6:10) or weeping (Neh 8: 11); to demand awesome Moab Israel was the intended recipient of a curse
or respectful silence before the Lord (Hab 2:20); from the hired professional seer Balaam, but God
in grief for the dead (Arnos 8:3). "turned" Balaam's curse into a blessing (Deut
C.P.W. 23:5 iH 6]; Neh 13:2).
The third theme is the biblical description of
512 '!'ICl:;T(häpak.) turn, overturn. the symptoms of leprosy as described in Lev 13.
In this one chapter the root htipak appears nine
Derivatives times (vv. 3, 4, 10, 13. 16, 17, 20, 25. 55), mostly
512a ti!;I;, (hepek) contrary. in connection with the hair turning white as a sign
512b t.i;,~;, (häpekii) overthrow. ofleprosy.
512c t'!'llil.::iQ:i(hiipakpak) crooked. Elsewhere it is of interest to note that hapak
512d t:,;,~:;i~ (mahpekii) overthrow. in the translation "to turn" is neutral in meaning,
512e 07; (mahpeket)
tl"\;;i!? stocks. as is one of its synonyms shüh. That is, it may
512f t.i;P,N'I(lahpüka) perversity. mean to turn (from) good to bad with either God

221
513 ~;:, (ho~en)
or man as the subject. "I will turn your feasts into 513 i;f:, (hö$en) weapon (Ezk 23:24). Mean-
mourning" (Arnos 8:10). "Against me he turns . ing and derivation uncertain.
his hand" (in judgment as opposed to blessing,
Lam 3 :3). With man as the subject cf. "you have .,::i(har). See no. 517a.
turned into a degenerate vine (Jer 2:21); "those
whom I love have turned against me (Job 19:19);
,~,::i(har'el). A form ofno. 159a (q.v.).
"you have turned justice into poison" (Arnos
514 J".1:;t(härag) destroy, kill, murder, slay, mur-
6: 12). lt may indicate a change in attitude from
derer, slayer, out of hand (Num 11:15).
joy to chagrin (with man, Lam 1:20; with God,
Hos 11:8). Used a total of 172 times, it is usually trans-
lated „ slay."
On the other hand, häpak may be used posi-
tively in the sense of turning the doleful into the Derivatives
joyful, the bad into the good. Cf. "I will turn their
514a J'.')t, ( heref!) slaughter.
mourning into joy" (Jer 31: 13 and also Ps 30: 11
IH 121). "He turned the curse of Balaam into a 514b :,~~!'.!(haref!a) slaughter.
blessing'" (Deut 23:5 [H 6] and Neh 13:2). "He The root includes the ideas of murder and judi-
(i.e. Saul) shall be changed into another man" (I cial execution, as weil as the killing of animals.
Sam 10:6). This root is used to describe the The first use of the word (Gen 4:8) reports
aboutface in the fortunes of the diasporic Jews Cain's crime, shedding Abel's blood which
living in Babylon in the days of Persian "cried to God," i.e. for vengeance. David or-
hegemony: Est 9: 1, 22. dered the execution of the murderers of lsh-
bosheth (II Sam 4: 11-12). The same word is used
hepek. Contrary, contrariness, perversity, a for both murder and judicial execution in agree-
substantive that occurs three times in the oT: Ezk ment with the command of Gen 9:6. The mur-
16:34 (twice) in a graphic description of Judah's derer is to be executed on the grounds that failure
life of harlotry; and in Isa 29: 16 "o your distor- to do so signifies consent to the crime and breaks
tions" (of Israel). the covenant with God. Furthermore it denies
God's image in man.
h:lpekä. Overthrow, a noun only in Gen 19:29 lf a householder killed a robber who broke into
in connection with Sodom and Gomorrah. his home during the night, he would not incur
mahpekä. Overthrow. Five of its six uses refer blood guilt, since the nocturnal housebreaker
to God's action on Sodom and Gomorrah, the would not stop at murder to accomplish his pur-
exception being lsa 1:7. pose.
Parallels to biblical laws on murder are few in
mahpeket. Stocks, Jer 20:2-3; 29:26; II Chr the literature of Mesopotamia. There loss of life
16:10. lt may not be clear what shape these an- could be compensated for through payment of a
cient stocks took. Probably they were quite dif- fine. Only in aggravated cases was the death pen-
ferent from those of colonial days, but the details alty imposed.
are not certain. There is much overlapping in the use of the
various words for "kill." This word is seldom
tahpükä. Perversity. Of its nine uses eight are used of killing animals. Usually it is used of kil-
in Proverbs (and cf. Deut 32:20). This substantive ling men and numerous times of violent killing in
is always translated by the KJV as "froward" or war or intrigue. lt is never used for the killing of
"frowardness" except Prov 23:33 and in the RSV sacrificial animals and very seldom for the killing
by "perverse, perverted, perverseness." lt is a of animals for food. The word is common in the
sin connected mostly with the mouth (Prov 2:12; histories of the judges and the monarchy as the
10:31-32; 16:30) and also with the heart (Prov thing represented was itself all too common.
6: 14); the eyes (Prov 16:30); and the mind (Prov Numbers of these instances refer to murder (for
23:33). which räsa!J is more characteristic, cf. Ex 20: 13),
Bibliography: On hiipak and the direct object but many refer to such items as Jezebel's killing
yd "hand" in Lam 3:3; I Kgs 22:34; II Kgs 9, 23; the prophets ofthe Lord (1 Kgs 18:13), Levi and
II Chr 18:33, see Fitzgerald, A., "Hebrew yd = Simeon's slaughter of the Shechemites (Gen
·Love' and 'Beloved'." CBQ 29: 368-74. On the 34:26), and Joab's killing of Abner (II Sam 3:30).
expression nhpk h in Job 19:19, see Penar, T., The word is used sometimes of God's judicial
"Job 19:19 in the Light ofBen Sira6, II," Bib judgments, e.g. the slaying of Egypt's firstbom
48: 293-95. On hapak in connection with the (Ex 13:15), but such uses are rare. In the angel's
Sodom and Gomorrah incident, see Sarna, N., slaughter of Sennacherib's army, the word näka
UnderstandinR Genesis, McGraw-Hill, 1967, is used. Usually häraR is used ofviolent killing of
esp. pp. 137--42. men by other men--sometimes withjustification,
V.P.H. often, alas not!

222
 Bibliography: Amran, D., "Retaliation and In the case of Jacob, it became a matter of
Compensation," JQR 2: 191-211. Daube, D., almost too many children. The story of the births
"Error and Accident in the Bible," Revue Inter- of his eleven sons in Padan-Aram is only
nationale des Droits de /'Antiquite 2: 393-416. sketched (Gen 29:32ff.). But the same principles
Pritchard, J. B., ed., ANET, pp. 161-97, for a hold. First, there is no doubt about the identity of
comparison of biblical and ancient near eastem the inheritors of the land of promise. Second, the
laws. Saalschutz, Das Mosaische Recht mit Be- people who carry the oracles of God are clearly
ruchsichtigung des späteren Judischen, II, 1848, defined. Third, it is clear that through the faith
pp. 437-592. delivered to Abraham the true people of God are
H.G.S. to be known in all time.
The creative power ofGod is finally manifested
515 :,i:, (härä) bear, be with child, conceive, in the birth of the Messiah, for he was to be be-
'i,rogenitor, be conceived, conceive. gotten of God the Spirit in the womb of the virgin
Derivatives (lsa 7:14), thus completing God's long work of
redemption. The birth ofthe virgin's son, in light
515a l'l".ltf(hära) pregnant. of the context, stands as a rebuke to the ideas of
515b l'l;".\tf(härfya) pregnant. Ahaz to secure safety for Israel, and the divine
515c 1i•,0 (heräy{m) conception, preg- character of the son proclaims that peace and
nancy. safety will come only as God himself rules the
Three words are used in relation to the birth earth.
process: hära "conceive," yälad "bear, give [lt is now alleged that the phraseology of lsa
birth" and !Jul "to labor in giving birth." 7: 14 is found in Ugaritic (UT 16: nos. 77, 11.5, 7),
Another word for conceive is yälJam, used more, and that it is only a formula announcing the arri-
however, of animals in heat (but cf. Ps 51 :7). The val of a royal heir tobe bom naturally. This is ·not
first describes the inception and the latter two the quite the case. In the Ugaritic passage the verb
termination of the process. hry "be pregnant'' is not used at all. The text
Generally hära is used to state the results of does speak of a virgin ( htlt) who will later bear a
sexual intercourse. In this respect there is often a child naturally. Interestingly, the Ugaritic line in
connection with some phase of the redemptive poetic parallelism uses the word for "virgin"
program of God. That is, the conceptions of cognate to the Hebrew 'almä (q.v.) of lsa 7:14.
which the OT speaks concern children who were The case is different in lsa 7: 14. There the proph-
to play an important part in redemptive history. et speaks of a pregnant virgin, using the participle
Although a secondary issue in the structure of (or adj.) of härä. The announcement is similar to
Genesis, the record of the conception of Ishmael Gen 16: 11 addressed to Hagar who had con-
(Gen 16:4-5) may be considered a memorial to ceived and was pregnant. As far as the grammar
the folly of using men's ways to achieve the pur- goes, this could refer to a pregnant virgin either
poses ofGod: "the promised seed is not of nature contemporary or in the future, but the reference
but of grace" (Dodds, The Book of Genesis. to virginity shows that the pregnancy is miracu-
London: 1896, p. 148). Sarah"s faith could not lous. R.1..H.]
stand the strain of delay. The birth of Samuel (1 Sam 1:20) also demon-
The successive births of Cain, Abel, and Seih, strates the redemptive power of God. Hannah"s
set out for us the hope of personal redemption. desire for children is used by God to provide a
Alldid not go in the way ofCain, and the message spiritual leader for his people in a time when a
of grace was preserved until and through Noah. dedicated priest and teacher of the law was
The selective, monergistic power of God is dem- needed. In a like manner, even in the face of
onstrated in the conception of Isaac (Gen 21 :2), Pharoah's edict, the birth of Moses, and his sur-
demonstrating that the power ofGod alone is able vival in the royal household. appears to be the
to bring about his redemptive purposes, for both almost ironic frustration of the royal will by the
Abraham and Sarah were too old to have chil- God of heaven, to further his redemptive pro-
dren. Men must trust solely in God's power, not gram.
in their own desperate attempts. A figurative use of the root is indicated in that
Rebekah was barren, and Isaac prayed for her the origin of lies is in the heart, the soul of men,
to conceive (25:21 ). Isaac presumably expected the first step in overt sin. The birth pangs of a
children early in his marriage, almost as a matter pregnant woman are used as a simile to describe
of course, for he lived under God's promise that the terroristic seizure of man's soul as the judg-
Abraham would become the father of many na- ment of God is poured out (lsa 26: 17).
tions (Gen 17:4). But only when he resorted to H.G.S.
God in prayer was Rebekah granted conception,
emphasizing again that the creation of the holy 1ii 0 (heran). See no. 515c.
line is in God's hands. l'!;~,tf(hiiriyii). See no. 515b.

223
516 C'j:;t(häras)
ii•,r.i (heräyon). See no. 515c. hArisä, hArisut. Overthrow, destruction. The
:,l?'".lr,t (harisa). See no. 516b. lauer word is the abstract form, "ruined."
rm:i•ir;i (harisut). See no. 516c. H.G.S.

516 0,:, (häras) beat down, break, break down,

517 ,,ri (hrr). Assumed root of the following.
517a ti:, ( har) hill (sixty-one times) hill
-break through, destroy, overthrow, pluck
· country (once) mount, mountain (486
down, pull down, throw down, ruined, destroy-
times). RSV uses mount where it is
er, utterly. appropriate.
Derivatives The antiquity, majesty, power and height of
516a tcir, (heres) overthrow, destruction. mountains reaching up to the heavens above the
516b t:,c~,:, (hiirisa) ruin. clouds naturally led people to associate
516c tr,;o~~'r,i (harisitt) overthrow, destruc- mountains with gods. The peoples of ancient
tion. Mesopotamia thought that on Kammer Duku, the
bright mountain in the east, the gods fixed de~-
This root means to destroy by tearing down,
tiny on New Year's Day, and that on Mashu m
e.g. city walls, houses, and fortresses.
the West, heaven and the underworld met, thus
Its first usage occurs in Ex 15:7, referring to
providing entrance to the realm of the de~d. In
the destruction of the Egyptian armies in the Red
Syria-Palestine the mountains wer~ worsh1p~ed
Sea. At Sinai Moses was instructed to erect bar-
and were the sites for pagan worsh1p. Accordmg
riers around the mountain to prevent the people
to the Ras Shamra texts, Zaphon, modern Mons
from breaking through and approaching too
Cassius north of Ras Shamra, was worshipped
closely (Ex 19:21, 24). A breakthrough would be
and regarded as the abode of Baal.
a destructive action against God' s sanctity.
The oT uses mountains with theological inten-
Gideon begins his work of deliverance by de-
tion in at least four ways. First, the Lord is
stroying his father's altar to Baal (Jud 6:25) when
greater than the mountains: he establishes them
his father called the people's attention to the im- (Ps 65:6 [H 7]; 90:2), weighs them (lsa 40:12),
potence ofsuch idols (vv. 28-35). In Elijah's day
breaks them in pieces (1 Kgs 19:11; Hab 3:6),
it was the people who tore down the altars of the
grinds and threshes them in pieces (lsa 41:15),.
Lord (I Kgs 19:10, 14) but in the following revival
sets them on fire (Deut 32:22; Ps 83:14 [H 15];
the Baal worship was destroyed in Israel at least
104:32), melts them (Mic 1:4; lsa 63: 19), andre-
for a time.
moves them (Job 9:5). Isaiah portrays the coming
As to the Canaanites, Israel was to destroy
of the Lord and the return of the exiles by the
them ( Ex 23 :24) and break up their idols, thus
levelling of hills (lsa 40:4; 45:2; 49: 11).
striking at thcir morale and defeating them.
Second, the mountains are a symbol of power:
Objccts of destruction included walls (Ezk Babylon is called a destroying mountain (Jer
13: 14), foundations (Ezk 30:4 ), barns (Joel 1:17), 51 :25); the opposition to Zerubbabel is likened to
cities (II Kgs 3:25; I Chr 20:1), either b~ God a mountain that will become a plain (Zech 4:7),
(Lam 2:2; Ex 15:7), or men (I Chr 20:1). The
and the kingdom that will endure for all eternity is
foolish woman pulled down her house by her sins
symbolically portrayed as a mountain that fills
(Prov 14:1) and the king who took a gift (which
the earth (Dan 2:44).
influenced his judgment) and destroyed the king-
Third the Lord gives his people a sense of his
dom he was born to uphold. lt was a policy of
nearnes~ by choosing mountains for his worship
warfare to destroy cities which did not surrender
and revelation. Moses and Elijah pray on a
when their walls had t>een breached (I Chr 20: 1; mountain (Ex 17:9; I Kgs 18:42); blessings and
cf. Deut 20:10-14). The wicked ideas sinners ad- curses are invoked from Mount Ebal and Gerizim
vance in the cities bring about their destruction (Deut 11:29; 27: 12f.; Josh 8:33 ), worship is of-
(Prov 11:11) by sapping morality and the will to
fered on various mountains (cf. Gen 22:2; Josh
resist the intruder. The slothful's neglect can 5:3; I Sam 9: J2ff; I Kgs 3:4) and the ark is set on a
bring about the deterioration of the garden walls
hill (1 Sam 7:1; II Sam 6:3).
which mark off property (Prov 24:31).
But above all the Lord chose Sinai and Zion as
Part of Jeremiah's work was to pull down so
the places where he reveals himself. On Mount
that the true work of God could be built in its
Sinai the Law was given and the national worship
place (Jer 1: 10).
established. lt was to Horeb that Elijah fled for
heres. Overthrow, destruction, the result of de- new supplies of strength and grace. On Zion he
structive activities (only in Isa 19:18) applied in a put his name and this became the final and central
word play to the Egyptian city On (Heliopolis place ofworship (Ex 15:17; Deut 12:1). Here the
city of the Sun-herl's), differing only in the shift tri bes assembled in worship (Ps 122; 133).
from h to h- There is in the OT more than a hint that the

224
 518 *1,t\y (hatal)

earthly Zion is but a symbol of what in the NT the pagan myth is used ironically in songs mock-
becomes explicitly the heavenly Jerusalem. The ing the downfall of pagan rulers." Elsewhere
Mountain ofGod in Ps 68 [H 16] is taken by both pagan mythology is deliberately pushed into the
BOB and Dahood (Psalms II, in AB) as general, background (TDNT, V, p. 483 ). Some under-
"a great mountain," but still the picture is of stand these kings tobe allusions to Satan and see
God's ascent on high and so the great heavenly the mountain in the north as a symbol of Heaven.
mountain (cf. Eph 4:8-10). In the last days Zion Bibliography: Hamlin, E. John, "The Mean-
willbe the exalted source ofGod's law and center ing of 'Mountains and Hills' in Isa 41:14-16,"
of his rule, the heavenly Jerusalem on earth (lsa JNES 13: 185-90. TDNT, V, pp. 479-83.
2:2-3: Mic 4:1-2). B.K.W.
Fourth, employing the imagery of its neigh-
bors, the OT denotes the divine abode by refer-
518 *'tltt (htital) deceive, mock. This verb
ence to the mountain in the extreme north (Ps occurs only once, in the Piel (1 Kgs 18:27).
48:2). In lsa 14:12ff. and Ezk 28:11-19 the pagan
kings of Babylon and Tyre respectively are de-
518a C'1?!"1t:t(hiitülim) mockery (Job
17:2, only).
scribed as seeking to become gods by ascending
the mythological divine mountain. But as Foers-
ter rightly notes: ··But the decisive pt. is that here Mt\y (htitat). See no. 488.

225
519 (wa) , (11"'), ~ (ü) and, so, then,
, cumstantial clause and is better translated
when, now, or, but, that, and many others. "when," "since," "with," etc., "Why is thy
(Asv and Rsv similar.) The vocalization va- countenance sad, and (i. e. "seeing," "since")
ries. thou art not sick?" (Neh 2:2). The prefix is often
tobe translated "then" as a consequent introduc-
This is an inseparable prefix which is used as a ing the second part of a conditional sentence,
conjunction or introductory particle which can "Buf if he wash not ... , then he shall bear his
usually be translated ··and." iniquity" (Lev 17:16)-the so-called waw of the
The fundamental use of the prefix is that of a apodosis.
simple conjunction "and," connecting words A common use of this prefix is with a short
("days and years," Gen 1:14), phrases ("and to form of the prefixed conjugation of the verb in a
divide" Gen 1: 18), and complete sentences (con- special construction with the letter following the
necting Gen 2:11 with verse 12). However it is prefix (usually) doubled. This form, generally
used more often and for a greater variety of con- called the "waw consecutive," usually denotes
structions than is the English connector "and." sequence in past narrative. But sometimes the
lt is often used at the beginning of sentences, action is not successive in a strict sense. lt may
for which reason the KJV begins many sentences denote logical sequence (cf. Gen 2: 1; 23:20; Deut
withan unexplained "and." This use may be ex- 3:8) or action that is actually prior to the preced-
plained as a mild introductory particle and is ing verb, i.e. it functions as a pluperfect (cf. Gen
often translated "now" as in Ex 1: 1 where it be- 19:27; Num 1:48; II Sam 12:27; 1 Kgs 12:13;
gins the book (KJV, Asv; the Rsv ignores it com- passim). W. Martin refers to this last usage as
pletely; cf. Gen 3: I, 4: 1). "dischronologized narrative ("Dischronologized
The item following the prefix is not always an Narrative in the Old Testament," Vetus Tes-
additional item, different from that which pre- tamentum, Congress Volume, Rome, 1968: 179-
ceded: "'Judah and Jerusalem" (Isa 1:1), pointing 86). This use explains the apparent contradiction
out Jerusalem especially as an important and rep- between Gen 1:24-26 and Gen 2:19. The latter
resentative part of Judah; "in Ramah, and in his passage means "and the Lord had formed."
own city" (1 Sam 28:3), the two being the same !The origin and even meaning of this waw con-
place, hence the translation "even" as expla- secutive has been much discussed. The treatment
natory. When the second word specifies the first in GKC is in accord with that in S. R. Driver,
the construction is called a "hendiadys," i.e., Use of the Tenses in Hebrew. In brief, it says that
two words with one meaning. For example, "a this form is found only in sequences and it takes
tent and a dwelling·· in II Sam 7:6 means "a its meaning from the lead verb. A lead verb in the
dwellingtent." perfect will be followed by this form which repre-
The prefix may mean "or" or the negative sents a continuation of that past action viewed as
"nor" (Ex 20:10), or, if it connects opposing incomplete from the standpoint of the past hori-
ideas, it may mean "but" (Gen 3:3; 4:2). lt may zon. Similarly for the sequence of an imperfect
add an additional subject in a way not acceptable verb continued by a waw consecutive with aper-
in English, "I will fast, and my maidens" (Est fect.
4: 16). The noun can also denote purpose as in An alternative view was presented by Zellig S.
English,e.g. "Divide and conquer." Used twice, Harris, The Development of the Canaanite
the meaning may be "both ... and" (Num 9: 14). Dialects (New Haven: American Oriental Soci-
For "a weight and a weight" (Deut 25:13) is ety, 1939), pp. 47-49. He argued that this waw
meant "different weights." lt is used to connect preserved an old Ugaritic past tense which by
two ideas in a proverb, "Cold waters to a thirsty accident is similar to the newly-developed imper-
soul, and good news from a far country" (Prov fect.
25:25), that is, they are alike. These usages are G. H. Gordon shows rather convincingly that
not really different meanings of the conjunction. the alleged old past tense in Ugaritic was identi-
They derive from the fact that Hebrew is more cal with a form like the Hebrew imperfect. But it
paratactic than English. We subordinate some is admitted by all, that this preformative tense in
clauses and specify relationships. Hebrew often Ugaritic had both a narrative past and an imper-
puts clauses and phrases side by side leaving the fect usage. R. Laird Harris (/ntroductory Hebrew
sense and juxtaposition to specify the precise re- Grammar, Eerdmans, 1950, pp. 33-34) would
lationship. modify Zellig S. Harris's view to hold that the
The prefix is often used to introduce a cir- waw consecutive is a preservation of the old

229
520 iJ (wäw)
U garitic narrative meaning of the imperfect tense JAOS 73: 95-98. Young, G. D., "The Origin of
which was used in a past sense with or without the wäw Conversive," JNES 12: 248-52.
the waw. In poetic Hebrew also the imperfect Wernberg Ml')ller P., .. 'Pleonastic' Waw in Clas-
shows this narrative past sense with or without sical Hebrew," J SS 3: 321-26.
the waw. Cf. the sequence of tenses in Ps 18:4- C.P.W.
12.
G. Douglas Y oung has argued that this waw is 520 ,, (wäw) hook. (Asv and RSVthe same.)
a reflection of Egyptian usage (' 'The Origin of the
Waw Consecutive," JNES 12: 248-52).
The basic meaning of the word is hook, peg. lt
is used thirteen times in the OT, but only in the
A waw with the usual pointing (simple shewa)
plural and only in Ex 26, 27, 36 and 38. lt is used
is used with the imperfect and called the waw
for the silver and gold hooks to which the cur-
conjunctive. The meaning of this form also is de-
tains in the tabernacle were fastened. Although
batable. lt does not seem usually to refer simply
not used in the OT as such, the word also refers to
to the future-that would call for a waw consecu-
waw, the sixth letter in the Hebrew alphabet,
tive with the perfect. Rather it normally throws
probably because of its shape.
the verb into the subjunctive and expresses re-
C.P.W.
sult, purpose, volition, etc. lt often has a cohorta-
tive "a" attached.
52 1 , Ti ( w zr). Assumed root of the following.
The same conjunction is used commonly in 521a t,n ( wäzär) Strange (ASV "laden
Ugaritic but apparently as a separate word, as it with guilt," Rsv "guilty").
is often separated from the following word by a
word divider. M. Dahood alleges also an em- The KJVtranslators read wä "and" with zar
phatic, an explicative and a vocative waw (participle of zur) "strange," but BDB, KB and
(Psalms III, in AB, pp. 400-402). R.L.H.) others translate "guilty" (Prov 21 :8 only). lt may
Bibliography: Blake, Frank R., "The Hebrew be related to an Arabic cognate meaning "to bear
Waw Conversive," JBL 63: 271-95. Meek, a burden" or to another meaning "to be guilty."
Theophile J., "Translating the Hebrew Bible," C.P.W.
JBL 79: 328-35. Pope, Marvin, "'Pleonastic'
Wäw before Nouns in Ugaritic and Hebrew," "171(wäläd). See no. 867a.

230
522 :!NT (z'b). Assumed root of the following.
T Derivatives
522a ::i~r(z'''eh) wolf (e.g. Gen 49:27:
jer 5:6). 525a tn,.\ (zeba}:l) sacrijice.
525b tr:i;:ij~ (mizbea}:l) altar.

l'1NT (zö't). See no. 528. The verb zäba}:l is mainly used of killing ani-
mals for sacrifices. Most often in Qal, though the
Piel occurs nineteen times in connection with
523 :!::IT (zbb). Assumed root ofthe following. idolatrous sacrifices on the high places (Hos 11:2;
523a t::i1::i1 (z"bub) flies. II Kgs 12:3). Three times the Piel refers to the
prolific and legitimate sacrifices of Solomon
Pound only six times in the 01, including four (1 Kgs 8:5; II Chr 5:6) or Hezekiah (II Chr30:22).
occurrences as part of the compound name
"Baal-zebub. · · Eccl 10:1 uses the word as part of zeba!t, Sacrifice. Generic noun often linked
a proverb: .. Dead flies make a perfumer's oil with offerings (Ps 40:6 [H 7]) or burnt offerings (1
stink." In Isa 7: 18 the tly (or "flies") is symbolic Sam 6:5; Ex 10:25). lt is frequently used in con-
of the troops of Egypt, which will descend upon nection with peace offerings (sh"lämim, cf. Lev
the land of Israel at the Lord's invitation and de- 3: 1; 17:5), but on occasion it is distinguished from
vastate the land. One of the plagues of Egypt will peace offerings (Num 15:8; Josh 22:27). Often
now strike the Hebrews. zeba}:l is a cognate accusative to zäba}:l, but sac-
In II Kgs 1, Ahaziah king of Israel sent mes- rifices can also be „made" (Num 6:17; I Kgs
sengers to inquire of the Philistine deity Baal- 12:27), "brought" (Arnos 4:4; Deut 12:6) or
zebub, the god of Ekron. Ahaziah had been in- "brought near" (Lev 7: 11).
jured in a fall and wanted to know if he would
mizbea!t, Altar. A place of sacrifice. Used 401
recover (1 :2). At God's command, Elijah con-
times, mainly in the Pentateuch and historical
fronted the messengers, rebuked them for con-
books. Altars of stone (Josh 8:31 ), of earth (Ex
sulting a foreign god and predicted the death of
20:24), of wood and bronze (Ex 38: 1), and of
Ahaziah (1:3, 6). Later Elijah personally told the
wood and gold (Ex 30:1-o) are found. Sometimes
king that his Jack of faith in the God of Israel
sealed his doom (1: 16). altars are given names, such as Jacob's altar at
Shechem ("EI the God of Israel," Gen 33:20),
Since Baal-zebub means „lord of flies," inter-
Moses' at Rephidim ("The Lord is my banner,"
preters believe that "flies" may involve a mock-
Ex 17:15), or Gideon's in Ophrah ("The Lord is
ing alteration of z"bul, "prince," .. high place,"
peace," Jud 6:24 ). There are many references to
or "dais." In Ugaritic literature, Baal is referred
illegitimate altars, often in connection with sac-
to as a prince. The change from "prince" to
red pillars ( Ex 34: 13) and high places (II Kgs
"flies" would parallel the use of "bosheth,"
23: 15).
"shame," in place of "Baal" in such names as
The importance of sacrifices is seen early in
lsh-bosheth and Mephibosheth. In the Nr "Beel-
Genesis. After the flood, Noah built an altar and
zebub" is called "the prince ofthe devils." Most
sacrificed "clean" animals and birds to the Lord.
Greek manuscripts have "Beelzeboul, .. though
Abram worshiped the Lord who had appeared to
the Syriac and similar manuscripts use ··seel-
zeboub." him by building an altar at Shechem when he ar-
rived in the promised land (Gen 12:7..g). Other
H.W. altars were built by the patriarchs Isaac and
Jacob at Beersheba and Bethel to commemorate
524 ,,! (Gen 30:20).bestow
(zäbad) upon, endow with God's blessing (Gen 26:25; 35:7). Isaac was laid
on an altar at Mount Moriah by his father Abra-
ham, but his place was taken by a ram in what
Derivative proved tobe the clearest 01 example of the mean-
524a i~T (zebed) endowment, gift (Gen ing of substitutionary sacrifice. The sacrifice of
'30:20). the Passover lamb and resultant sparing of all the
firstborn sons conveyed the same meaning (Ex
12:27).
::11::IT(z''büb). See no. 523a.
Genesis also records the sacrifice offered by
11,1:1 (z'bu/un). See no. 526b.
Jacob when he concluded a covenant with Laban
(31:54). The meal symbolized the friendship be-
525 "'! (zäba}:l) sacrijice, slaughter. tween the parties and their intention to keep their

233
525 n;! (ziibalJ,)
promises. When Israel entered a covenant with lived in Transjordan made a special "memorial"
the Lord, Moses built an altar at the foot of altar near the Jordan River, one "not for bumt
Mount Sinai and offered burnt offerings and offering or for sacrifice" (Josh 22:11, 26). David
peace offerings (Ex 24:4-5). Psalm 50:5 refers to set up an altar on Mount Moriah, the site of the
· 'those who made a covenant with me by sac- temple, when an angel appeared to him there
rifice.' · (II Sam 24:25). And Elijah took twelve stones-
At Mount Sinai Moses received instructions one for each tribe-and repaired the altar of the
about the altars and sacrifices connected with the Lord on Mount Carmel (1 Kgs 18:30-32).
Tabernacle. The altar designed for the animal The horns of the altar were considered a place
sacrifices was the bronze altar, or "altar of burnt of refuge, even for a murderer (Ex 21:14).
offering." lt was about seven and one-half feet Adonijah took hold of the horns of the altar and
square and four and one-halffeet high, with horns Solomon spared his life (I Kgs 1:50-51). But
on each corner, made "of one piece" with the when Joab did the same thing, Solomon ordered
altar. lt was made of acacia wood and overlaid his death (I Kgs 2:28).
with bronze (Ex 38:1-2). A bronze grating, poles The centrality of sacrifices in the worship of
and utensils were accessories of the altar (Ex Israel led to a perfunctory parade of animals to
30:28; 35: 16). The sacrifices were burned on the the altar, and God had to warn his people that the
altar, and the priests put some ofthe blood on the burning of fat and the outpouring of blood did not
horns, then poured out the rest at the base of the automatically win his favor. "To obey is better
altar (Lev 4:7, 25). This great altar was set in the than to sacrifice" (1 Sam 15:22) and God delights
courtyard, in front of the doorway of the taberna- "in loyalty rather than sacrifice" (Hos 6:6).
cle (Ex 40:7). lsaiah charges that God is "fed up" with all their
The other altar was called the "altar of in- hypocritical offerings (1: 11). Righteousness and
cense" or the "gold altar'' (Ex 39:38: 40:5). lt justice are more important than sacrifice (Prov
was about eighteen inches square and a yard 21 :3). Only when hearts are right with God are
high, with four horns and a gold molding. lt too ·sacrifices acceptable and the means of bringing
was made of acacia wood, but overlaid with gold great joy (Neh 12:43). In the Psalms, thanks-
(Ex 30: l---0). The blood of the guilt offering was giving and a broken spirit are regarded as sac-
placed on the horns of this altar (Lev 4:7). Be- rifices that honor God (Ps 50: 14, 23: 51: 17 [H
cause of its fragrant incense, this altar was placed 19}).
in the holy place, in front of the sacred curtain. U nfortunately, Israel was constantly tempted
The purification of the altar of burnt offering is to get involved in pagan sacrifices. God wamed
sometimes linked with the consecration of the en- them to tear down Canaanite altars and smash
tire tent of meeting (Ex 29:44). Blood was sprin- their sacred pillars (Ex 34: 13: Deut 7:5), but in-
kled on the altar to make atonement for it as weil stead the lsraelites tore down God's altars and
as for the most holy place on the Day of Atone- killed his prophets (I Kgs 19:10). On the verge of
ment (Lev 16:20, 33: cf. 8:15). There are also entering the promised land, Israel was invited to
several references to the dedication of the altar. sacrifice to the gods of Moab, and the resulting
Special offerings were presented (Num 7:10, 11, idolatry and immorality was one of the worst
84) and the altar was anointed with oil (Ex 40: 10). chapters in their history (Num 25:2ff.). In Pales-
When Aaron and his sons were consecrated, the tine the Israelites quickly feil prey to Baal wor-
anointing oil was sprinkled on the altar seven ship, building altars and even temples to this
times (Lev 8:11). Canaanite deity (Jud 6:30; Hos 11:2; I Kgs 16:32).
King Solomon built an altar of burnt offering Jehu led a massive attack on Baalism after the
thirty feet square and fifteen feet high (II Chr disastrous reign of Ahab (II Kgs 10:19), and
4: 1). Even this was not !arge enough for the offer- Josiah tore down the altars (including incense al-
ings at the dedication of the temple (1 Kgs 8:54 ), tars) of Baal in his great reform (II Chr 34:4, 7).
the "house of sacrifice" (II Chr 7: 12). Jeroboam I is renowned for the altar he built at
Solomon's successors sometimes neglected the Bethel and the sacrifices to the golden calves
altar, but good kings like Asa (II Chr 15:8) and (I Kgs 12:32). Not until the days of Josiah (c. 621
Hezekiah cleansed it (II Chr 29: 18). Ahaz re- s.c.) was this shrine dismantled (II Kgs 23:15).
placed the altar with a model pattemed after one Among other perversions, Ahaz sacrificed to the
he had seen in Damascus (II Kgs 16:14-15). Uz- gods of Damascus (II Chr 28:23) and Amon of-
ziah also sinned by usurping the place of a priest fered sacrifices to the carved images ofManasseh
and burning incense on the altar of incense (II Chr 33 :22).
(II Chr 26: 16). Frequently, the biblical writers condemn the
Several other significant altars are mentioned high places, where the people (I Kgs 22 :43 [H 44])
in Scripture. Joshua built one of uncut stones on and sometimes the kings (II Kgs 16:4) sacrificed
Mount Ebal as Israel renewed her covenant with and burned incense. Though these "hill shrines"
God (Josh 8:31). The two and a half tribes who could claim some legitimacy prior to the con-

234
 526 ',;l! (zäbal)

struction of the temple (cf. II Chr 1:3), the strong pression her z" hii/ is rendered "an house to dwell
tendency was to worship Baal or the golden in" (KJV)and "a magnificent temple" (Ntv)
calves. In two passages z'' hül is associated with
Pagan worship sometimes involved sacrifice to heaven. lsaiah 63:15 pleads with God to look
demons (Lev 17:7; Deut 32:17), including the of- down from his holy and glorious "habitation"
feringof their children to the idols of Canaan (Ps ("lofty throne," NIV)and intervene on behalf of
106:37-38). Such horrible rituals are cited by his exiled people. In Hab 3: 11 there is a reference
Ezekiel as one of the major reasons for God's to Joshua·s long day when the sun and moon
judgment on the nation (16:20--21). stood still "in the heavens" ("in their habita-
While the primary use of ziiba~ and z.eba~ tion" KJv; cf. Josh 10:12-13).
concerns the killing of animals for sacrifice, oc- The last occurrence is found in Ps 49: 14 [H 15j,
casionallythe idea of · 'slaughter'' occurs without a passage that bemoans the fate of fools. Even
any sacrificial context. The lsraelites were per- the wealthy ones are destined for the grave "far
mitted to slaughter animals and eat meat in their from their princely mansions" (N1v)or "so that
home towns (Deut 12:5, 21). Ahab slaughtered a they have no habitation" (NASB).
large number of sheep and oxen to provide a Each of these references has some link with
sumptuous meal for Jeho:;haphat and the people "splendor" or "majesty" and the basic meaning
with him (II Chr 18:2). When Elisha gave up of the word may be "eminence" (cf. Speiser,
farmingto become Elijah's associate, he killed a Genesis in AB, p. 231). One of the titles for Baal
pair of oxen and shared the food with the people in the Ugaritic corpus is zhl h'/ ar$ "Prince Lord
(1 Kgs 19:21). of Earth. · · The god of Ekron mentioned in II Kgs
The ideas of "slaughter" and "sacrifice·· are 1:2--0, Baal-zebub, "Lord of flies," may be an
powerfully combined in passages portraying di- intentional perversion of "Baal-zebul" (cf.
vine judgment. Josiah "slaughtered/sacrificed" z'hüh).
priests of the high places on the very altars they
served (II Kgs 23:20; cf. I Kgs 13:2). The day of z"bülün. Zebulun. The name of the sixth son
the Lord is described as a "sacrifice" as princes of Leah and the tenth son of Jacob. "Zebulun"
and armies are destroyed. A time of slaugher was may ·mean "honor" (cf. Gen 30: 19, 20) and has
in store for Israel (Zeph 1:7, 8), Egypt (Jer 46: 10) been related to Akkadian zuhullü, "bridegroom's
and Edom (lsa 34:6, see diishen). The flesh ofthe gift" by Speiser (Genesis, in AB, p. 231; also cf.
armiesofGog and Magog will be sacrificed on the z''bül).
mountains of Israel to provide a great feast for The tribe of Zebulun was the fourth largest
the birds and animals (Ezk 39:17-19). both at the start and the conclusion of the wilder-
Other futuristic passages present the nations in ness wanderings (Num 1:31; 26:26). In lists of the
a more favorable light. lsaiah 19:21 declares that twelve tribes, Zebulun normally followed ls-
one day the Egyptians will know the Lord and sachar (Num 1:9; 2:7), but in the blessing of
will bring sacrifices and offerings to him (cf. II Moses, Zebulun is named first (Deut 33:18).
Kgs 5: 17). In Israel the priests are promised a Zebulun joined the disgraced Reuben in pro-
perpetual role in presenting sacrifices on behalf nouncing the curses from Mount Ebal (Deut
ofthe people (Jer 33:18; Ezk 44:11). 27:13).
Bibliography: Kidner, F. Derek, Sacrijice in Zebulun's tribal allotment is given in Josh
the OT, London: Tyndale, 1951. Al, pp. 415-510. 19:10-16. Her territory lay on the northern edge
H.W. ofthe Jezreel Valley, north ofManasseh and ls-
sachar and south of Asher and Naphtali. Both
Gen 49:13 and Deut 33:19 link Zebulun with the
526 ,:;! (ziihal) exalt, honor. Used only in
seashore. Perhaps this refers primarily to the
Gen 30:20 in a word play on the name Zebu-
trade between the Mediterranean and the Sea of
lun.
Galilee which enriched Zebulun.
Derivatives Zebulun was one of the tribes which failed to
drive out the Canaanites (Jud 1:30) but her war-
526a t',;;i! (z' hül) habitation, height.
riors were highly praised for their courageous
526b t~1',1:i1 (z-hülün) Zebulun.
role in the victories over Sisera and the Canaan-
z'bül. Habilation, height, exalted abode. This ites (Jud 4:6, 10: 5: 14, 18) and later the Midianites
nounis found only five times. The vowel is invar- (Jud 6:35: cf. Ps 68:27 [H 281). When David be-
iablydefective. Probably cognate to Ugaratic zhl came king over all Israel, Zebulun sent him a
"prince (ship)" (cf. UT 19: no. 815). large contingent of 50,000 troops and abundant
The term z''hül first occurs in I Kgs 8: 13 supplies (1 Chr 12:33 [H 34], 40 IH 4]). During
(= II Chr 6:2) when, at the dedication of the Hezekiah's reign, some from Zebulun accepted
temple,Solomon addressed the Lord and said, "I his invitation to celebrate the Passover in
have built thee an exalted house" (Rsv). The ex- Jerusalem (II Chr 30: 10-19). The tribe is also

235
527 .m(zwg)
named with N aphtali as recipients of the honor to Sinai (cf. the rare Hebrew demonstrative and rel-
come upon Galilee at the advent of Christ (lsa 9: 1 ative zu).
[H 8:23]). The derogatory use of zeh is also seen inverses
H.W. where it may be translated "such." When Bildad
describes the calamities that strike the ungodly,
JJ (zäR ). See no. 527a. he says, "Surely such are the dwellings of the
i1 (zed). See no. 547a. wicked" (Job 18:21). Job himself laments the
iiiJ (zädon). See no. 547b. frailty of man and asks God, "Do you fix your
eye on such a one?" (Job 14:3).
zeh is also attached enclitically to a variety of
527 JiT ( ZWR), J'T ( ZYR). Assumed root of the interrogative pronouns in order to strengthen
following. them. The Lord emphatically asks, "Where ( ·e
527a JJ (ziiR). Name of some insignificant zeh) is the house you will build forme? (Isa 66: 1).
product of the vine, forbidden lo Nazi- An all-powerful God can hardly be contained in a
rites (Num 6:4 ). temple made by man. Often, this type of question
involves strong emotions. Compare Moses· cry
to God, "Why didst thou ever (/iimmä zeh) send
528 :"l! (zeh), .MMT (zö't) this, such.
me? (Ex 5:22), or the complaint of the Israelites
The regular demonstrative pronoun, some- to Moses, "Why did we ever leave Egypt? (Num
times used as a collective (Lev 11:4; Jud 20: 16). 11:20). In these examples, "ever" is an attempt
The singular form can be used with numerals, as to translate zeh.
in "these ten times" (Num 14:22; cf. "these zeh (or its feminine zö't) is also used in combi-
many years" in Zech 7:3). When it modifies a nation with prepositions. For example, htiz(i't
noun in the nomen rectum it normally follows the can mean "in spite of this" (Lev 26:27; Ps 27:3).
other adjectives. If it precedes an adjective, as in The form häzeh means "here" in Gen 38:21-22
Hag 2:9, hahhayit hazzeh ha'ahi'irbn, the final and Num 23: 1, probably elliptical for "in this
adjective, "the latter, .. most Iikely modifies the place."
nomen regens. Hence, the verse should probably H.W.
be translated "the latter glory of this house „
rather than "the glory of this latter house."
529 :::i:it (zhh). Assumed root of the following.
Rarely zeh is used with proper nouns, especially
529a t::i:,J (zähäh) gold.
in the phrase "this Jordan" (Gen 32: 10 IH 11];
Deut 3:27; Josh 1:2, 11). "This Lebanon" also This is the most basic of several Hebrew words
occurs (Josh 1:4). for gold, though it is modified by a number of
zeh is frequently used independently to mean adjectives that refer to different kinds of gold.
"this one" or "this man" in a way that directs Most references to gold relate to the tabernacle
pointed attention to the individual. In Gen 5 :29 or to Solomon·s temple and palace.
Noah is singled out as "this one·· who "shall give "Good" gold is mentioned in connection with
us rest, .. and in lsa 66:2 the Lord says, "To this the garden of Eden in Gen 2: 12. Pure gold ( {ahör)
one I will look, to him who is humble and contrite appears several times in Exodus. The ark of the
of spirit." Micah 5:5 [H 4 J emphatically declares, covenant was overlaid with pure gold. and a gold
"And this One IGod J will be our peace." molding was around it (Ex 25: 11). The lampstand
Several times the individual in question is re- was hammered (miqshä) out ofpure gold with its
ferred to in a sarcastic or contemptuous manner. base, shaft and branches (37: 17. 22). The
When Saul was anointed king, the skeptics said, cherubim were also hammered out of gold
"How shall this man save us?" (1 Sam 10:27). (25: 18). Gold thread was used for the high priest's
The Philistine Achish complained to his men that ephod (Ex 28:6).
he already had enough madmen, when "this In the Solomonic era pure gold is called stiglir.
one" (David) pretended to be insane to escape perhaps cognate to Akkadian sakru. lt may have
from the Philistines (1 Sam 21:15 [H 16]). David been gold hammered into thin foil for gilding. The
himself referred to stingy Nabal as "this fellow" holy of holies was overlaid with this pure gold
whose property David had apparently guarded in (1 Kgs 6:20) and the lampstands were made out of
vain (I Sam 25:21). the same gold (1 Kgs 7:49). The vessels Solomon
In Jud 5:5 and Ps 68:8 [H 9] God is spoken ofas used in the house of Lebanon were of pure gold
„ zeh Siniiy" "the One of Sinai, .. a usage similar also (1 Kgs 10:21 = II Chr 9:20). Solomon made
to Arabic 4u "the owner of" or "the one belong- shields out of beaten gold (~hal:,u{). alloyed with
ing to ... God had revealed himself to Israel in another meta) to make them harder (1 Kgs 10:16).
mighty power at Mount Sinai. so when he took His throne of ivory was overlaid with "refined
action again on behalf of his people, they thought gold" (mtipäz, I Kgs 10:18). Much gold was
of him in terms of his revelation par excellence at brought from the region of Ophir during Sol-

236
 535 m (zwz)
omon·s fabulous reign (1 Kgs 9:28; cf. Ps 45:9 533 it ( zil1') name of the second month, appar-
[H 10]). ently in the Canaanite system. For other
The Israelites were warned not to make idols of names of months, see no. 613b.
silver or gold, but the worship of the golden calf
was a constant problem (Ex 32:3-4; I Kgs 12:28). 1! (zfl), iT (zö). See no. 528.
When God plagued the Philistines for their pos-
session of the ark of the covenant, they made 5 534 :m (züb) flow, gush, issue, discharge. (ASV
golden hemorrhoids or ulcer models (cf. ·opel) and RSVsimilar, except that RSVuses "'dis-
and 5 golden mice as a guilt offering to the Lord charge" in place of "issue.")
(I Sam 6:4).
Derivative
In the Psalms the word of God is regarded as
more desirable than gold (Ps 19:10 [H 11]), and 534a ::liT (zöh) issue, discharge.
his law is better than thousands of pieces of gold The basic idea is a movement of liquid, flowing
and silver (119:72, 127). God himself is described from one location to another. The root is used
as coming "in golden splendor'" in Job 37:22. only in the Qal stem. lt occurs fifty-four times,
H.W. including both the verb and noun.
The word usually occurs in one of three con-
530 *Ct!J (ziiham) be foul, loathsome. Occurs texts. 1. The movement of water in a stream.
only in the Piel (Job 33 :20). Water is said to have "gushed" forth from the
rock struck by Moses in the wilderness (Ps 70:20;
531 *'1t!J (ziihar) I, shine, send out light. (Asv cf. Ps 105:41; lsa 48:21).
and Rsv similar.) 2. A characteristic description of Palestine: it is
Derivative said to be "flowing" with milk and honey. This
phrase occurs many times in the OT (e.g. Ex 3:8,
531a ,::,·1 (zöhar) shining, brightness. 17; 13:5; 33:3; Deut 6:3; 11:9, etc.).
Close parallels occur in Aramaic and Arabic. lt 3. A discharge, pathological or normal, from
is used only once in the OT (Hiphil stem) and is the genito-urinary tract. With three exceptions.
employed to say that wise people, who turn many Lev 22 :4; Num 5 :2; II Sam 3 :29. all usages appear
to righteousness, "shall shine'" like the bright- in Lev 15. lt is used inverses 2-15, 32-33 (verb
ness of heaven (Dan 12:3). eleven times, noun seven) to refer to a diseased
L.J.W. "discharge" from a man (possibly including
diarrhea); inverses 19-24 (verb once, noun once)
532 *'1::,J(ziihar) II, teach, warn, admonish. to the discharge of a woman's menstrual period:
(ASVand RSVsimilar.) andin verses 25-30 (verb once, noun five times)
to an unnatural discharge ofblood from a woman.
Both BOB and KB hold this to be a second L.J.W.
root, while older editions of Gesenius take the
meaning here represented as a secondary mean- i1t ( ztid). See no. 547.
ing of the same root, and related to the first mean-
ing. The root is used twenty-one times, all in the 534 ~n ( Zll'h ). Assumed root of the following.
Hiphil and Niphal stems, the latter being the pas- 534a li'1! corner (Ps
( z.äll'il) 144: 12:
sive of the former. Zech 9:15: Lev 1:5).
The meaning "teach"' is probably basic to the 534b n7t (mäzü) garner (Ps 144:13).
root, but is not used frequently. A clear example
occurs when Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, ad- 535 m (zwz) 1. Assumed root of the following.
vises Moses to limit himself to such a duty as to 535a t1•1 (ziz) moving things.
"teach" the people the laws (Ex 18:20). The most 535b t~J1!7;' (m''züzä) doorpost, gatepost.
frequent meaning is ··warn," which is used four-
ziz. Moving things, wild beasts. This noun is
teen times in two chapters alone, Ezk 3 and 33,
used three times, twice to mean "moving things"
the classic portions dealing with the responsibil-
(Av, ASV"wild beasts"; RSV"all that moves") of
ity of watchmen to warn people under their care
the field (Ps 50: 11; 80: 13 [H 14]). and derivation
(cf3: 17-21; 33 :3-9). The meaning "admonish'" is
from the above root is probable. The third occur-
illustrated in the proverbial statement that it is
rence, in lsa66:l1, means '"abundance·· (so KJV,
better tobe a poor. wise child than an old, foolish
ASV,and Rsv), and likely comes from another un-
king, who will no longer "be admonished'" (Eccl
used root (so BOB; although KB favors a dif-
4:13).
ferent unused root, yielding the translation.
The Zohar is the name of the influential mysti-
· 'breast' ').
cal commentary on the Pentateuch written by
Moses Leon in the 13th Century A.D. m"zuzä. Doorpost, gatepost, A noun used eigh-
L.J.W. teen times. lts relation to the above root is uncer-

237
536 m (zwz)
tain. The word is used once for the gateposts of z''wä'ä, za'awä. Horror (KJv "vexation, re-
Gaza, which Samson carried away together with moving"). A term used to describe God's
the gate (Jud 16:3). lt is used once for the people as a result of Goct·s judgment. The sever-
gateposts of the tabernacle court, beside which ity and extent ofGod'sjudgment is such that they
apparently was a customary seat for the aged Eli become a '"horror" to the observing nations
(1 Sam 1:9). lt is also used for the gateposts of the (Deut 28:25: Jer 15:4: 34:17). In other contexts
Temple, both those built by Solomon (1 Kgs 6:31. the extent of judgment and horror are amplified
33) and those described by Ezekiel (41 :21). by derision (II Chr 29:8) and being an object of
The lsraelites applied blood to the two plunder (Ezk 23:46).
m" zCIZimof their homes at the time of their de- A.B.
liverance from Egypt (Ex 12:7. 22-23 ). Thus they
saved their firstborn from death (Ex 12:29). 541 ,11 (;:ür) /, be a stranger. (ASV and RSV
Bibliography: Thornes, D. W .. "The meaning similar.)
of ziz in Ps 80: 13... Exp T 76: 385.
KB gives the basic meaning as "turn aside ...
L.J.W.
BOB cites the similar but apparently not related
root sur that has this meaning.
536 m (.c11·z) II. Assumed root ofthe following.
Apart from its participial use. the word appears
536a T'T (ziz) abundance, fulness (]sa
only four times in Qal, twice in Niphal, and once
66: 11, only).
in Hophal. Typical is Job 19: 13, where Job states
that his former friends have become "estranged"
r,•,r (zawfl). Sec no. 534a.
from him. The Niphals and Hophals are passive.
z.1ir is principally used in the participial form.
537 'm (zw/) 1. Assumed root of the following.
;:är. appearing sixty-nine times. lt carries the
537a t:,711 (zü/ä) a noun, probably from
force of a noun. and is so listed by KB. lt is used
thc unused root, ::,ül"remove," used
for some action strange to the law (Lev 10: 1), and
as a preposition and conjunction.
for one who is a stranger to another household
meaning "excepl, only, save that,"
(Deut 25:5). to another person (Prov 14: 10), and
stemming from the basic idea of
to another land (Hos 7:9). The basic thought is of
"removal. ..
non-acquaintance or non-relatedness. The femi-
lt occurs sixteen times. once as a conjunction nine form. "The Strange Woman," often in Prov
(Josh 11: 13) and often as a preposition (Deut is the adulteress.
1:36: Ps 18:31 [H 32]: lsa45:21, etc.). Bibliography: Sniders, L. A., "The Meaning
L.J.W. of z.r in the Old Testament," OTS 10: 1-154.
L.J.W.
538 ',11 (z.ü/) II, lavish (lsa 46:6. only).
542 i1T ( ;:ür) II, be loathsome.
539 *11! ( z.ün)feed. This verb occurs only
once, in the Hophal (Jer 5:8). Derivative
542a N':l ( ;:ärä·) loathesome thing.
Derivative
This verbis used only once (Job 19:17). but is
539a 1iT1; (mä;:.ön) food, sustenanc.e (Gen
taken by BOB, KB and some modern versions to
45:23: II Chr 11:23).
come from a root different from zür l "be a
stranger" because the Arabic cognate is spelled
540 l,'11 (via') lremble, quiver, be in lerror.
with d instead of z as is the case with the Arabic
(KJV "vex ").
cognate of z.ür 1.
Derivatives
543 ,11 (;:ür) III, press down and out. (ASV,
540a t:it:,r (z'wa'a), :,ll/! (za'äwa) horror. RSVsimilar.)
Contextual evidence does not permit the as-
signing of a dogmatic or precise meaning to this Derivatives
term and its derivatives: but ideas such as 543a ti_T ( a 0r) circlet, border.
"trembling" and "fear" are possible in all cases. 543b i•1i1 ( zar;:ir) girded, alert.
lt apparently l.iescribes the tremors of the jaw in 543c ii1r; ( mäz11r) wound.
old age (Eccl 12:3). lt refers to Mordecai's failure
The root appears only four times. all in Qal.
to "tremble" before Haman (Est 5:9) though
Gideon "thrust together" (pressed) the test
some less specific, courteous movements charac-
fleece. to see if it contained water (Jud 6:38).
teristic of near eastern manners may there be de-
noted. A causative form (Pilpell is translated as zer. Circlet, molding, crown. The basic idea
"making to tremble" (Hab 2:7). seems to be of.something around the edge of a

238
 547 ,,r (zid) ,n (zud)

central body, as though pressed out from it. The Holy One of Israel (Jer 50:29). Egyptians as-
word is used len times in the OT, each in reference sumed the same in subjecting the lsraelites to
lo the "crown" (Av, Asv) or "molding" (Rsv) bondage (Neh 9:10).
around the Ark (Ex 25: 11), the table of show- The second aspect is rebellion or disobedience.
bread (Ex 25:24-25 ), and the altar of incense (Ex Because the person is proud he asserts his own
30:3-4). II is not used for a king's crown. will to the point of rebelling against one in author-
L.J.W. ity over him. The Israelites so asserted them-
selves against God when they chose to fight the
544 *Mri) (zii!Ja!J) remove, displace. Occurs Canaanites, even though God told them not to do
only in the Niphal (Ex 28:28: 39:21). so ( Deut 1:43 ). The same thought is contained in
Neh 9:16, 29. Eliab, David's older brother, ac-
545 ?MT (ziiha/) 1, shrink back, crawl away cused him of having pride in coming to the Philis-
-(Deut 32:24: Mic 7:17). tine battle scene (1 Sam 17:28, where zädön is
used with the sense of hyhris).
546 ?tl! (zii!ial) II, fear, be afraid (Job 32:6, The third, closely related 10 the second. carries
only). the additional element of willful decision. If a
person so asserted himself and killed his
neighbor, his own life was required as punish-
547 'l'T (zid) in (ziid) boil, act proudly, pre-
ment. If the slaying was unintentional. however,
sumptously, rebelliously. (ASVand RSVsimi-
a place of refuge was available for him (Ex 21: 14).
lar.)
Indeed, if a person willfully disobeyed the priest,
Derivatives whether murder was involved or not, he had to
die (Deut 17: 12-13, where both zid and zäd,in
547a "h.T (zed) proud, arrogant.
appear). This seems to explain David's distinc-
547b t,iiJ ( zädön) pride, insolence.
tion between "hidden" (KJV "secret") and "pre-
547c t1ii•1 ( zedlin) proud, raging.
sumptuous" sins (Ps 19:12-13 IH 13-141). He
547d t-!•q (näzid) boiled food, pottage.
prays that he may be cleansed from the "hid-
Because the root form does not appear in the den, .. thus admitting his guilt in thal respect; but
01, ils spelling, whether with middle yod or waw, asks that he may be kept from the "presumptu-
is not certain. The verb appears only in the Qal ous.
and Hiphil stems, with no clear distinction in
zed. Proud, arrogant, presumptous. An adjec-
meaningbetween them. In the sphere of the phys-
tive, which refers twelve times to people and
ical, it means "to boil": in the sphere ofpersonal-
once to sins.
ity, "to act in a proud manner." With its deriva-
tives, the word appears a total of forty times in zädön. Pride, insolence. A noun used eleven
the 01. times. The adjective and noun forms of zid are
The verb is used only once in reference to boil- used in contexts having pride in view as opposed
ing (Gen 25 :27-34 ). The text states that Jacob to God, which is a major sin. Persons so charac-
"boiled" (KJV "sod") pottage (v. 29). terized are parallelled with those who "work
The verb form is used eight times in reference wickedness" and "tempt God" (Mal 3:15 IH
to the personality. and three of the derivatives 13]), and with "all who do wickedly ... As a re-
are used only in that connection. The basic idea is sult, they will be burned like stubble in the day of
pride, a sense of self-importance, which often is God's impending punishment (Mal 4:1 IH 3:191).
exaggerated to include defiance and even rebelli- Frequently, such people are depicted as opposing
ousness. For inslance, in Prov 11:2, the "proud" those who try to do the will of God (Ps 19: 14; Ps
person is sei over againsl the humble (cf. Prov 119:51, 69. 78. 122; Jer 43:2).
13:10).A similar use is found in Jer 49: 16; 50:31-
zedön. Proud, raging. The one instance of this
32; Ezk 7: 10, with the added implication that God
adjectival form refers figuratively to "proud"
is strongly opposed to such pride.
(RSV "raging") water. which represents over-
zid is frequently used to refer to three specific
whelming trouble (Ps 124:5). The thought seems
aspects of pride. One is presumption. Because a
to be of power asserted against a person which
person is proud he presumes loo much in his fa.
brings him to the point of death.
vor, especially in the sense of authority. For in-
stance, the false prophet was one who presumed näzid. Boiled food, pottage. A noun, used six
lo speak in the name of God, assuming authority times. All six usages refer to "pottage „ or boiled
to do so, without having been called (Deut 18:20; food (Gen 25:29, 34). Three are used of boiled
cf. v. 22 for use of the noun derivative). False food which, having become poisoned by poison-
gods, too, are spoken of as presuming authority ous ingredients mistakenly added, had to be
for themselves (Ex 18: 11); and Babylon is said to made edible by Elisha's miracle (II Kgs4:38-41).
have claimed too much for herself as against the The sixth employment is by Haggai (2:12). who

239
548 ?'l~i(zayit)
uses it to designate a kind of food, along with 'n! (zak). See no. 550a.
bread, wine, oil, and meat. l"l':;,i:;,y(z'kokit). See no. 550b.
L.J.W. ,~:,! ·(zakür). See no. 551f.

1ii•1 (zedon). See no. 547c. 549 :i;,! (ziikii) be clear, clean, pure.
T'T (ziz). See no. 535a, 536a. Cognate of zäkak and Akkadian zakü. Used
:,i?'T (ziqa). See no. 573. only in poetry and always in a moral sense. The
1i"l'_T (zerön). See no. 582d. Piel means "to make or keep clean, pure," the
Hithpael, "to make oneself clean" (only in Isa
1:16).
548 l"I'! (zayit) olive tree, olive (derivation un-
The term appears twice in Job (15:14; 25:4),
certain)
and both times Job's comforters are asking how a
The olive was and is a common and valuable man can be pure in the sight of God. In each
tree in the Near East, famous for its fruit, oil and verse ziika is parallel to .yiidaq "be righteous." A
wood. The oil especially was a staple, being used similar question appears in Prov 20:9 where the
in diet as shortening (Lev 2:4-6), in lamps for admission is made that no one has kept his heart
light (Ex 27:20) and in ritual for anointing (Ex pure and sinless. Those who walk in accord with
29:7). Kings and priests were anointed with olive God's word can live pure Jives, however (Ps
oil. Elijah anointed Elisha to succeed him as a 119:9). The psalmist also notes that at times the
prophet. Oil was used also medicinally and as a wicked appear to be happier and more prosper-
perfume (Ps 104:15; Ezk 16:9). The practice of ous than the one who keeps his heart pure
anointing kings is rarely attested outside of Is- (73:13), but in the end the wicked are ruined. In
rael, but deVaux cites it for Hittite kings (Al Isa 1:16 God warns the people of Judah that they
p. 104). Anointing of kings is rather clearly a must wash and make themselves clean or face
symbol of endowment with the Spirit of God (l severe judgment.
Sam 10:1, 10; 16:13). Such a symbol would also Twice the verbis used ofGod. In Ps51:4 !H6]
fit weil the anointing of priests (which deVaux David admits that God was "justified" when he
puts quite late because of his views on the P judged David for his sin with Bathsheba. The in-
document, "Everyone admits that all these texts terpretation of Mic 6: 11 is difficult. ls God asking
were edited after the Exile"' lid. p. I05J!). The if he should "justify wicked scales" (NASB) or
seven-branched lampstand with its oil-fed lamps "acquit a man" (Rsv, NIV) who uses dishonest
is also interpreted as symbolizing the Spirit of scales? The thought seems tobe that God will not
God (Zech 4:2-6). lt is possible that the sym- "declare pure" such a sinner.
bolism of oil for spirit was not difficult for the H.W.
ancient Hebrew because daily he observed the oil
of his lamps disappearing into the air of his room.
And the Hebrew word for "wind" and "spirit" is 550 i:;,! (ziikak) be bright clean, pure.
the same. lt is obvious that the NT word Derivatives
Messiah-Christ derives from the oT word for the
550a 'lll (zak) pure, clean. Used ofolive
anointed king, also messiah. But it should be
oil and incense in Ex and Lev, while
noted that the OT uses the word "messiah" for
in Job and Prov it is used metaphori-
the expected Figure quite sparingly. Instead, it
cally, only.
speaks of him usually as the Shoot of David, the
Son of David, the Tabernacle of David, the
550b l"l':;,i:ir(z''kökit) g/ass (Job 28:17).
Branch of David, the Branch, or just David (Ezk zakak is probably a by-form of ziikii, which
34:23: 37:24). This usage is reflected also in the sometimes occurs in close proximity to zakak
DSS in The Messianic King and the Florilegium (Job 15:14-15; 25:4-5). Both verbs are also used
(Gaster, T. H. The Dead Sea Scriptures, rev. ed. parallel with räha.i· "to wash" (cf. Job 9:30, lsa
Doubleday, 1964, pp. 334,338). But in Ps 2:2 and 1:16).
Dan 9:25, 26 and possibly in a few other Pss the The references in the Pentateuch deal with the
royal title becomes a title of great David's greater tabernacle. The olive oil for the lamps in the holy
Son which the NT and some other pre-Christian place had tobe pure, and these lamps were kept
literature pick up and use exlensively. See fur- burning continually, i.e. every night (Ex 27:20:
ther ma.l'hiah. 30:7-8, NIV, Lev 24:2). Exodus 30:34 mentions
Bibliography: Harris, R. L., "Messianic that pure frankincense was combined with fra-
Promises in !he OT," in Bus weil, J. 0., A Sys- grant spices to make a special blend of incense.
r,,matic TheoloRy of the Christian Religion, II, The same quality offrankincense was placed with
Zondervan, 1963, pp. 543-51. Al, pp. 102-106. each row of loaves on the table of showbread in
R.L.H. the holy place (Lev 24:7).

240
 551 i;,! (zakar)
Job's miserable comforters deny that he is pure they had been slaves (Deut 5:15). ··Remember-
and upright (Job 8:6), though Elihu reminds Job ing" is contrasted with "forgetting" (Ps 74:22-
that he seems to feel that he is "pure and without 23). "Meditating" or "thinking about" is likely
sin" (33:9). Twice, man·s status· is compared with the issue when Job "meditates" upon the well-
nature. According to Job 15: 15 and 25:5 not even being of the wicked (Job 21 :6-7) and when the
the heavens or the stars are pure in God's eyes, Psalmist "meditates" upon God (Ps 63:6 [H 71).
so how can man claim tobe flawless? Yet, Lam When God is challenged to "remember" the
4 :7 states that prior to the siege of Jerusalem her meaning is better taken as "pay attention to"
princes were "purer" (KJV,Rsv, NASB)or "bright- since nothing ever escapes God's omniscience
er" (NIV)than snow and "whiter than milk." The (Ps 89:47 [H 481). lt is frequently difficult to de-
description of their diseased and shriveled bodies cide which of the above meanings best fits a par-
in v. 8 may indicate that the "whiteness" and ticular passage.
"purity" related to strong and healthy bodies Numerous passages add to the above meanings
rather than to their mornl and spiritual condition. the additional implication of taking appropriate
Several passages in Prov relate purity to con- action. God's remembrance of his covenant re-
duct. A man may think that his ways are "inno- sults in delivering his people (Ex 2 :24) or in pre-
cent" (NIV)or "pure" (Rsv), but the Lord exam- serving them (Lev 26:44--45). Conversely, re-
ines the motives (16:2). In contrast to the deceit membering sin may be tantamount to withholding
ofthewicked, the behaviorofthe "pure" (Rsv) or favor (Hos 7: 1-2). Remembering Hezekiah's past
"innocent" (NIV)is right (21 :8). Even a child can faithfulness resulted in healing (II Kgs 20:3), and
demonstrate a godly character by conduct that is remembering Noah was to make the waters to
pure and right (20: 11). subside (Gen 8: 1). For God not to remember in-
In Job 11:4 Zophar questions Job's claim that iquity was to forgive and to withhold further
his "beliefs" or ··teachings" are pure or flawless, judgment (Ps 79:8-9).
making him pure in God's sight. Job protests his Formen also "remembering" results in action.
own innocence in in 16: 17, for he has not engaged "Remembering" may imply repentance (Ezk 6:9)
in violence and his prayer was pure. or observing the commandments (Num 15:40)
H.W. especially that of the Sabbath (Ex 20:8). For the
ends of the earth, remembrance is repentance (Ps
22:27 [H 28]). In political relations, not remem-
551 ,;! (zäkar) think (about), meditate (upon),
bering a treaty is to break it (Arnos 1:9). (See
pay attention (to); remember, recollect; men-
BDB for a nearly exhaustive list of such usages.)
tion, declare, recite, proclaim, invoke, com-
Some such cases are clear examples of distinct
memorate, accuse, confess.
causes and effects: but in some other cases the
Derivatives relation between the remembering and the con-
comitant action is so close that they are virtually
551a ti;;,1 ( zeker) remembrance.
identified in the mind of the writer. (Cf. the close
551b t1h;n (zikkarön) memorial.
relation between "to hear" and "to obey" in bib-
551c (z'karyähu) 1"l;;;T(z'karya)
ti:i;;;,1 lical Hebrew.)
Zechariah.
There are relatively few cases in which Qal
551d t:i,;rlil ('azkära) memorial portion.
forms clearly refer to audible speaking. Audible
551e ti;,! (ziikar) male.
speech is referred to in Nah 2:6 (Rsv "sum-
551f t,i,! (ziikür) male.
moned," KJV"recount''). A recitation of mighty
There are three groups of meanings: 1) for men comparable to the recitations of heroes
completely inward mental acts such as "remem- found in Homer is likely. The widow asked for an
bering" or "paying attention to, .. 2) for such in- audible invocation or oath from David for the
ward mental acts accompanied by appropriate protection of her remaining son (II Sam 14: 11).
extemal acts, and 3) for forms of audible speak- Jonah's "remembering" in the sea creature's
ing with such meanings as "recite" or "invoke." belly could well be taken as an audible "invok-
Cognate evidence indicates that the third group ing" in prayer (Jon 2:8). If the possibility of
ofmeanings is closest to the verb's root meaning. meanings such as "recite" or "invoke" is ac-
This range of meanings shows the same blending cepted, the "remembering" of God's wonderful
or overlapping between mental states and exter- works could be a public r:ecitation of those deeds
nal acts seen also in other Hebrew terms (e.g. (1 Chr 16:12: cf. v. 8: "make known his deeds":
Hebrew shama· "to hear"). see also Ps 105:5: RSV"remember") and perhaps
Most examples of the Qal of zakar refer to should be translated as "recite the wonderful
inner mental acts, either with or without refer- works .... "
ence to concomitant extemal acts. Examples of The category of psalms which recall God's
internal mental acts are the Jews' recollection of great deeds may provide examples of such recita-
Jerusalem (Ps 137: 1) and their remembrance that tions (Ps 104, 105, 106).

241
551 ,;,! (zäkar)

The Hiphil of zäkar is generally translated in tioned by name no mure"; Zech 13:2, Rsv "be
two ways: 1) to "'mention,"' "invoke," or "de- remembered .. ).
clare" and 2) "to cause to remember." i.e. the
zeker. Remembrance, commemoration, invoca-
causative of "to remerriber." For the first group tion, invocation, name (Rsv "memorial
of meanings, the Hiphil designates audible invok-
name .. ). The range of meanings of this noun in-
ing of God's name (Ex 23: 13; note "out of your
dicates that it is a general verbal noun for the
mouth "). lt refers to the ritual invoking of the
whole range of meanings of the verb zäkar. lt
names of false deities (Josh 23:7; note other
refers to the mental act of memory; the loss even
ritual" elemenls in the context: ··swear,"
of the memory of a group expresses the total de-
"serve, .. and „ bow down"). II expresses
struction of the group involved such as the
Joseph's desire that the chief butler mention him Amalekites (Ex 17: 14), the wicked (Job 18: 17), or
to Pharaoh (Gen 40: 14). In lsa 49: 1, the contex-
men in general (Eccl 9:5). lt may designate the
tual parallel. "'called,.. indicates that audible
observing of a commemorative feast (Est 9:28).
mentioning is related to "'named my name ... Au-
"Noticing" or "paying attention to" fits weil the
dible mention of the ark led to Eli's death (I Sam
permanent "remembrance" of the righteous (Ps
4: 18). Official proclaiming may be thus desig-
112:6; "He is not moved, the just is for iGod'sJ
nated; the RSVcorrectly translates this term as
attention eternally"-literal translation)
"'proclaim" in lsa 12:4. Psalm 20:7 IH 8] (Rsv
Other contexts deal with various forms of au-
"boast") refers to a public outcry, though its dible or public expression. lt refers to God's "in-
exact meaning is not clear. The Hiphil participle
vocation" by which God is lo be invoked (Ex
designates the office of the "Recorder" (II Chr
3:15; NASR "memorial name"). God's "invoca-
34:8); this could signify the man who "proc- tion" serves as a euphemism for the term "God"
laims" or "makes known" by written records
(Ps 30:4 IH 5]; 97:12; and perhaps Ps 102:12
rather than by audible statements. [H 13]; RSV"name" in all such cases). If the
However, for the second group of meanings,
translation "name" is insisted on. it should be
"to cause to remember, .. there are no indisputa-
understood as "invocation name" rather than
ble examples. The passages thus translated can
"memorial name." Two passages use this term to
be translated as examples of the group of mean-
refer to the "recitation" of God's great deeds,
ings discussed above. The act of remembering "They shall bubble forth the recitation of your
desired by Absalom (II Sam 18:18) could easily abundant goodness" (Ps 145:7: writer·s transla-
have been an audible ceremony of filial respect. tion; RSV„ pour forth the fame") and „ he has
The small group of passages involving bringing
made the recitation of his wonderful works" (Ps
sins to remembrance probably refers to public, 111:4; writer·s translation; RSV"caused his won-
legal accusation (1 Kgs 17: 18; possibly N um
derful works to be remembered").
5:15). God, elsewhere, challenges his people to
accuse him (lsa 43 :26; RSV"put me in remem- zikkärön. Memorial, reminder, token, record.
brance ") so that the case may be publicly argued. The zikkärim is an object or act which brings
For the chief butler, this term describes public something eise to mind or which represents
confession of personal fault (Gen 41 :9). "Pro- something eise. As such it may be a "memorial,"
claiming"' God's name fits the context of Ps 45: 17 a "reminder, .. a historical "record, .. or a physi-
(Rsv "cause to be celebrated"). Likewise, some cal "token" which calls to mind a deity. The
public statement (Rsv "extol") is proper for Song Passover feast was a memorial (Ex 12: 14) of a
1:4. (The exact meaning of the Hiphils in psalm great historical event. The Feast of Unleavened
headings-38, 70-remains unclear, though they Bread was like a reminder between the eyes (Ex
are usually taken as meaning "to invoke"; cf. 13:9). Korah's censers were a reminder of an im-
1 Chr 16:4 where, if the meaning is invoke, it portant truth (Num 17:5). The "hook of records"
probably refers to the liturgical practice of using (Est 6: 1; KJV) was a written reminder of
such psalms as 38 and 70.) On the basis of the Mordecai's deeds, and the maxims (Job 13:12,
above examples, the present writer concludes Rsv) of Job's friends, like all proverbs, were re-
that the meaning "to cause to remember" for the minders of the abstract truths which they ex-
Hiphil is dubious. pressed. In Isa 57:8, the "token" (Rsv "sym-
The Niphal provides the passive for both the bol"), which reminded the worshiper of his god,
Qal and the Hiphil. lt expresses "being remem- was probably an. idol image but the term em-
bered" (Job 24:20). "Being remembered" may phasizes its character as a reminder over its
be followed by the appropriate act of "being de- character as a representation. In Eccl 1: 11; 2: 16
livered" (Num 10:9). lt is possible that the harlot the point is that there are no records or objects to
sang in order "to be noticed" or "to have atten- serve as reminders (cf. Rsv "remembrance") of
tion paid to her" (Isa 23:16) as much as "tobe the wise man, the fool, things to come, or things
remembered." The passive idea "tobe invoked" past; the reference is not to the mental act of
occurs (Hos 2:17 IH 19] RSV,"They shall be men- remembering.

242
 553 ',':'!(zalal)
z'karyä, z•karyähu. Ya or Yahu (i.e. Yahweh) 12:48 etc.) and frequently connotes male persons
remembered. Zechariah. Over twenty people are of the lsraelite society who were counted in cen-
so named in the OT (see BDB for a complete list- suses (Num 1:2; 3:15; Ezra 8:3, etc.).
ing) of whom three will be discussed here. The word zäkär occurs in passages prohibiting
1) Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, sexual congress between males (Lev 18:22;
who rebuked the religious apostasy of Joash and 20: 13) and is used of the male partner in sexual
was consequently martyred in the court of the intercourse (Num 31:18. 35: Jud 21:12). Ezekiel
temple (II Chr 24:20; c. 800 B.c.). uses the term of male images with which the dis-
2) The teacher who exerted a favorable influ- obedient lsraelites committed idolatrous fornica-
ence on king Uzziah (II Chr 26:5; c. 750 B.c.). tion ( 16: 17). The word is also used of the male sex
3) Zechariah, the son of Berechiah, the son of as incapable of childbearing (Jer 30:6).
Iddo (Zech 1: 1, 7) whose ministry of arousing the Males were the object of slaughter (Gen 34 :25;
people to rebuild the temple (c. 520 s.c.) and of Num 31 :7) and the objects of vows to the Lord
commenting on the world scene of his day is re- (Lev 27 :3, 7). The word is used of male descen-
corded in the book carrying his name. lt is likely dants (Josh 17:2) as weil as male infants (Lev
that the phrase · · son of Iddo ·' is a clan designa- 12:2; Jer 20:15).
tion rather than a designation of relatively near lt also is used formale animals that were used
paternity. The clan of lddo is clearly singled out in the rite ofsacrifice (Ex 12:5; Lev 1:3, 10; Deut
in the restored community (Neh 12:12, 16; note 15: 19 etc.).
"father's house" = "clan"). lt has been conjec-
zäkur. Male, men children. This word which
tured that he was too young for the prophetic
occurs with suffixes in Hebrew, always refers to
office prior to 520 B.c. (NBD) and that he was
males as such. In three occurrences (Ex 23:17-
highpriest at that time (JewEnc); but neither con-
34:23; Deut 16:16) it refers to the participation of
jecture has firm support.
male lsraelites in the religious feasts and in one
By NT times, a man named Zechariah had be-
occurrence (Deut 20: 13) it is used of the male
come a well-known martyr Mt 23:35; Lk 11:51).
population of any city conquered by the Israel-
The designation "son of Berechiah" indicates
ites.
that Zechariah, the prophet, is referred to. How-
T.E.M.
ever, doubts as to the originality of this designa-
Bibliography: Blau, J., "Reste des
tion, and the place and manner of Zechariah's
!-Imperfekts von ZKR, Qal," VT 11: 81--436.
death indicate that the prominent martyr could be
Childe, Brevard, Memory and Tradition in Is-
the son of Jehoiada. Or, the NT martyr may be a
rael, SCM, 1962. Richardson, TWB, pp. 142-43.
man otherwise unknown.
THAT, I, pp. 507-17.
'azkärä. Memorial portion (KJV "memorial").
Technical term for that portion ofthe cereal offer-
1;,:,t (zikkärön). See no. 551b.
ing (minhti, q.v.) which was burned as God's
share (Lev 2:2, 9, 16). lts derivation indicates a
i:i;i~t (z''karyähü). See no. 551c.
meaning such as ··memorial" or "remembr-
ance." lt also refers to the "memorial" which 552 J'n (zlR), Assumed root of the following.
was burned from the shewbread (Lev 24:7). This 552a J',rr; (mazleR) the pronged fork, a
particular "memorial" refers to the frankincense sacrijicial instrument (I Sam 2: 13).
alone since the bread itself was eaten by the 552b :,~7i~ (mizläRö) sacrijicial imple-
priests rather than being burned (v. 9; see KB for ment belonging to altar in taberna-
other views). cle (Ex 27:3) and temple (1 Chr
A.B. 28:17).
zäkär. Male, man, man child, mankind (ASV
sirnilar; Rsv translates "man child" by "son" in '!7! (z.a/za/). See no. 553a.
Isa66:7, Jer20:15 and "mankind" by "male" in
Lev 18:22; 20: 13). The word zäkär denotes the
553 ','i'i (zälal) I, shake, quake. (ASVand RSV
male of humans or animals. lt is used in Gen I :27
use "quake,.. whereas KJV uses "flow
in its basic sense where it occurs with "female"
down," taking the word as coming from
(n' qebti) describing the creation of mankind. The
another root, näz.al ("to flow down") in the
word occurs frequently with nr qebii denoting the
three places where it appears.
sexes of humans (Gen 5 :2; Lev 12:7, etc.) as weil
as of animals (Gen 7:3, 9, 16, etc.). In short it is Derivative
used for the male sex when sexual distinctions
are in view.
553a '!7! (z.a/za/) (quivering) tendrils.
The word is used of males who are participants The three uses of the word refer to the quaking
in the rite of circumcision (Gen 17: IO; 34: 15; Ex of a mountain (Jud 5:5; Isa 64:1 [H 63:19; 64:21).

243
554 ''! (zälal)
BDB and KB agree that zälal is the root of the Outside of Zech 1:6 and 8: 14 and Job 42:2 the
word. KB classify the two roots za/al as one. references to both the verb and noun where God
L.J.W. is the subject occur in the writings of Jeremiah.
The passages are divided between God's purpose
554 '?1;,J (zälal) II, be light, worthless, make light in punishing Israel (Jer 4:28: 23:20; 30:24; Lam
of, squander, be a glutton, be vile. (ASV 2:17; Zech 1:6) and in judging Babylon (Jer
and Rsv translate similarly, except that "be 51:11-12), the instrument, ironically, he used to
a glutton · · is used more consistently.) punish Israel! For both nations, God's purpose
involved severe destruction. Zechariah 8: 14-15
Derivative
contrasts God's purpose to do harm with His new
554a tri7T (züllül) worthlessness. purpose to do good to Jerusalem. According to
The word is used twice intransitively, meaning Job 42 :2. no purpose of God can be thwarted.
"worthless, insignificant. .. As such it is con- When referring to men. both the verband noun
trasted with yäRär "precious," in Jer 15:19. lt is usually speak of evil plans and schemes. In Gen
used with a transitive meaning four times, to 11:6 the extent of human scheming is seen in the
mean "make light of' something, so that the ob- plan to build the tower of Babel. The only other
ject comes to be squandered. These times are occurrence in the Pentateuch is in Deut 19:19,
thought to refer to a gluttonous person (Deut where a false witness earns the punishment he
21:20; Prov 23:20-21; 28:7). Only in the second had intended another to receive. In Psalms and
passage is food mentioned. lt is possible that the Proverbs the wicked plot against the righteous
reference is not to the amount of food eaten (i.e. man, gnashing at him with their teeth (Ps 37: 12)
gluttony) but to the manner of banqueting (KJV or scheming to kill him (Ps 31: 13 [H 14]; cf. Prov
"riotous eaters of flesh"). The general condem- 30:32). Pride drives an evil man to persecute the
nation of gluttony as a sin rests largely upon the godly partly because in his thinking (m''zimmot)
interpretation of this word in these few places. lt there is no God (Ps 10:4). Job complains about
is probable that in Deut 21 :20 the capital crime the thoughts of the comforters who are ruining
referred to is a vileness beyond gluttony. If this is his reputation (Job 21 :27).
the root rather than ziil employed in Lam 1:8 (so Twice, the noun is linked with the verb "to
BDB). then it is used once in the Hiphil. meaning do" (Ps 37:7: Jer 11:15) implying that an "evil
"make light of' in the sense of "despise." deed" may be the meaning intended. Yet the idea
may be that the wicked are "carrying out" evil
züllüt. Worthlessness, vileness. This noun is schemes, thus preserving the basic mental frame
used once and means "vileness," that which is of reference behind zamam.
exalted among men when the wicked prowl about In Ps 17:3 occurs the one positive use of the
(Ps 12:8 [H 91). term. There the psalmist purposes that his mouth
L.J.W. will not involve him in sin.
The book of Proverbs contains the broadest
555 rl!)',T (z/'p). Assumed root of the following. range of meaning relative to this term. There is a
555a :"!PV'?!(zal'äpa) raging heat (e.g. sharp division between the negative concept of
Ps 119:53: Lam 5:10). "men who devise evil" and the positive notion of
"discretion. · · The former occurs only in conjunc-
M7.T (ziil/üt). See no. 554a. tion with the nouns "man" ( 'ish, Prov 12:2;
:irpT (zimmä). See no. 556b. 14:17) and "possessor" (ha'al, Prov 24:8), andin
:i,i~T (z"mora). See no. 559b. each case the plural m''zimmöt is used. A "man
.,;~!' (zämir). See nos. 558b. 559a.
of schemes" or "who devises evil" is readily
556 01';) (zamam) purpose, devise, consider.
condemned and hated (Prov 12:2; 14:17).
The singular form m''zimma, however, re-
Derivatives ceives the consistently positive meaning of "dis-
cretion" the five times it appears. This use oc-
556a 09! (zämäm) plan, device (bad
curs in Prov 1:4; 5 :2: 8: 12, where it is linked with
sense, Ps 140:9).
"knowledge" and "prudence." In Prov 2: 11;
556b :"!lpT (zimmä) plan, device, wicked-
3:21 "discretion, .. like her sisters. "understand-
ness. Used in a negative sense
ing" and "sound wisdom," guards one·s life
everywhere except Job 17: 11.
from harm. Hence, within Proverbs 1--8 "discre-
556c t:,rp19 (m''zimmä) purpose, plot.
tion" ranks as one of the key terms for wisdom
zämam is found only in the Qal stem. lt is used employed by the author.
mainly of the Lord carrying out his purposes in The verb occurs only twice, in Prov. once with
judgment against wicked nations or of wicked the normal meaning of "plot'' (Prov 30:32). and
men who devise schemes against God and the once in the sense of "consider" (31: 16). This lat-
righteous. ter meaning is found in the epilogue ofthe book, a

244
 560 i~T (zmr)
poem honoring the woman who exemplifies wis- another verb, zämar almost always comes last.
dom at its best. This excellent wife "considers a In Ps 98:5 the imperative zamm''rü and the cog-
field and buys it. ·· lnstead of spending her time nate zimrii begin and end the verse to forma kind
dreaming up wicked schemes, she makes plans of "inclusio."
that will bring great benefit to her family. Sometimes zämar is directly linked with a mu-
H.W. sical instrument, as is zimrä (see above). The lyre
(Ps 71:22), the ten-stringed lyre (Ps 33:2: 144:9),
557 ,~! (zäman) be fixed, appointed (of time, the harp (Ps 98:5) and the tambourine (Ps 149:3)
Ezra 10:14; Neh 10:35; 13:31). are all used to "make music" in praising the
Lord. The parallel line in Ps 149:3 speaks about
Derivative praising the Lord with dancing. In light of these
557a i7tT (z'män) appointed time, time. references, singing may not always be implied
(Neh 2:6: Eccl 3:1; Est 9:27). when zämar or its cognates occurs.
Two passages refer to songs in a negative
sense. In Isa 25:5 the Lord shows his faithfulness
558 *"I~! (zämar) 1, sing, sing praise, make
to the poor and needy by silencing "the song of
music.
the ruthless." In Arnos 5:23 the Lord refuses to
Derivatives listen to the songs and music of lsrael's festivals,
for the nation has abandoned justice and righte-
558a t.i"ICT (zimrii) sang, music.
ousness.
558b t"I'~! ( zämir) sang.
558c t"lic 1c ( mizmor) psalm. zimrä. Song, music. Three times out of seven
it is used in connection with either the harp or
zämar occurs only in the Pie!. lt is cognate to
tambourine (Ps 81:2 [H 3]; 98:5, Arnos 5:23). In
Akkadian zamäru "to sing, play an instrument."
the song of Moses occurs the well-known line,
lt is used only in poetry, almost exclusively in Ps.
"The Lord is my strength and song" (Ex 15:2).
The vast majority of occurrences of the verb
The whole verse is repeated in Isa 12:2 and Ps
and its derivatives focus upon praising the Lord.
118:14.
The people of Israel lift their voices and their
instruments to praise their God as long as they zämir. Song. Used in the plural except for lsa
live(Ps 104:33; 146:2). Several times this praise is 25:5. In II Sam 23:1 David is called "the sweet
directed toward the "name" of the Lord, for the psalmist of Israel" (KJV, Rsv) or "lsrael's singer
"name" stands for God himself (Ps 66:4; 18:49 of songs" (Nrv).
[H 50]; 135:3).
mizmör. Psalm. Appears in fifty-seven psalm
The song of praise first occurs in Ex 15:2,
headings, usually in conjunction with a name or a
where Moses celebrates the victory over the
title. In thirty-four psalms it follows /am''na$$eah,
Egyptians at the Red Sea. The verb is used in Jud
"for the director of music," and twenty-three of
5:3, the song of triumph written by Deborah to
the same headings also have /'däwid, "ofDavid."
commemorate the crushing defeat of Sisera and
Five times it is preceded by shir, "a song," and
his mighty chariots (cf. Ps 68:4 [H 5]; 32 [H 33]).
eight times shir follows (cf. Ps 65 and 66). In Psalm
Music rises from the faithful to praise God for
98: 1 mizmor stands alone in the title. For other
"what he has done" (Ps 9:11 [H 12]), for the
such musical terms see selii.
"glorious things" or "wonderful acts" he has ac-
H.W.
complished (lsa 12:5; Ps 105:2). The Lord's
"love and justice" evokes praise in Ps 101:1, and
according to Ps 119:54 God's "decrees are the 559 "17;! (zämar) II, trim, prune (Lev 25:3-4,
theme of my song" (Nrv). Qal: Isa 5:6, Niphal).
In Isa 24:16 the words of a song are "Glory to Derivatives
the Righteous One." Psalm 47:7 [H 8] notes that
since God is the King of all the earth, men are to 559a "l'~i (zämir) trimming, pruning.
singto him a · · maskil, · · a term of uncertain mean- (Song 2:12, only.)
ing also found in the heading to Ps 45. 559b rr:iic1 (z''m6ril) branch, twig,
A number of terms are found parallel to zmr. shoot (e.g. Num 13:23; Ezk 8:17).
including shir "to sing" (Jud 5:3: Ps 27:6; 101:1; 559c :i,~ 17; (mazmerii) pruning knife.
104L33) ränan, "to shout for joy" (Ps 71:23; (Isa 2:4: 18:5; Mic 4:3).
98:4), yäda, "to praise" (Ps 57:9 [H IO]; 33:2), 559d f'I'.'\~!~ (m'zammeret) snuffers (e.g.
and hälal, "to praise" (Ps 149:3). The close rela- Ü kgs 25:14; Jer 52:18).
tionship between zmr and "praise" is reflected in
the fact that the Hebrew name for the book of 560 "ICT (zmr) III. ~umed root ofthe foUowing.
Psalms (which translates the Hebrew mizmor) is 560a :i,~! (;:,imrii) choice products. (Gen
"Praises" (t' hillim). When it is parallel to 43: 11, only). Meaning dubious.

245
561 i! (zan)

560b ,~1 ( ::.emer) mountain sheep (Deut the harlot (Gen 34:31 ). Such persons received
i4:5. only). Meaning dubious. hire (Deut 23: 19), had identifying marks (Gen
38:15; Prov 7:10: Jer 3:3), had their own houses
561 1T (;;an) kind, sort (Ps 144:13: II Chr (Jer 5:7), and were to be shunned (Prov 23:27).
16: 14). Derivation uncertain. Rahab, who hid the spies sent by Joshua, is called
by this term. The contention that she was merely
562 :in (::änahl cut off. Denominative verb. an innkeeper is based on finding the root of this
participal in zün "to feed," rather than zänii; but
Parent noun for this little evidence exists.
562a t:i;i (::.änäh) tail. Certain distinctions exist between zanii and
the parallel root nä'ap "to commit adultery."
A noun, probably from the unused root. ;:.änah
nä 'ap commonly refers to men rather than women.
(meaning unknown). signifying "tail." lt is em-
na'ap connotes sexual intercourse between a
ployed ten times and in some well-known con-
married person and someone other than his/her
texts. For instance, Moses was told to take the
spouse (Lev 20: 10). The two words are sei in
serpent by the "tail" (Ex 4:4). Samson tied the
significant contrast in Hos 4:13-14, where
three hundred foxes in pairs by their "tails" (Jud
"daughters" are said to "commit whoredom"
15:4). lt is used figuratively for the idea ··1owest
(ASV and Rsv "play the harlot." zänä) and
in rank ... God warned Israel that, if they did not
"spouses" to "commit adultery" (nä'ap). A few
remain faithful to him the stranger would be the
times the woman. with whom the act is done, is
head and Israel only the "tail" (Deut 28:44). lt is
definitely identified as married (Lev 20:10; Jer
also used figuratively to mean "end, stump."
29:23 ). Ne ver is the person said tobe unmarried.
The two enemy kings besieging Jerusalem were
The words are sufficiently parallel, however, that
likened to the "tails" (ends, stumps) of fire-
they can be used for the same person (Hos 3: 1, 3,
brands (lsa 7:4). [The usage in Job40:17 presents
concerning Gomer; Ezk 16:32-36, conceming Is-
a problem if behemoth is a hippopotamus as is
rael as an unfaithful nation). A third distinction is
often supposed. ls it possible that here the ward
that nä 'ap is not used to designate the profes-
means appendage in general and may refer to the
sional prostitute. A similarity between the two
trunk of an elephant which more appropriately
roots is found in the fact that both are used in a
may be likened to a cedar? R.L.H.j
figurative as weil as a literal sense; and also that,
L.J.W.
in the figurative, they are employed for the same
basic concepts.
563 :i;r (za mi) commit f ornication, be a harlot,
zänä also refers figuratively to Israel as com-
play the harlot. (Asv and RSVsimilar.)
mitting national harlotry (Ezk 16:26-28). Tyre
Derivatives (lsa 23:17) and Nineveh (Nah 3:4) are also men-
563a tQ')1JT (::.•·minim) fornication.
tioned in this way. The thought seems to be of
having relations with these nations for the sake of
563 b trim · ( z.•·mit) fornication.
political and monetary benefit, although in the
563c trii)(l'i (la::.nül) fornication.
case of Nineveh the added element of alluring,
KB identify a second root using these conson- deceitful tactics leading on to oppressive domi-
ants, meaning "'be angry" (Jud 19:2). Evidence nance is implied.
for understanding this one usage to mean "be Still a third figurative meaning is found in lsa
angry," when "play the harlot' · is quite possible, 121, where the lsraelites· departure from God's
is lacking. Most authorities (BOB included) hold approved moral standards is called harlotry.
to one root only. The verb appears eighty-nine The three derivatives are used as almost exact
times in the Qal stem, once in the Pual, and nine synonyms, each being employed both literally
times in the Hiphil. Five of the Hiphil instances and figuratively. The third (taznüt) is unusual in
call for the causative meaning. The basic idea of that it is employed only by Ezekiel, and that in
the ward is "to commit illicit intercourse" (espe- only two chapters: 16 (nine times) and 23 (eleven
cially of women). times). Although Ezekiel uses also the other two
This verb is used in both literal and figurative derivatives (total offive times), his preference for
senses. Figuratively, the thought may concern taznüt is clear.
forbidden international intercourse, of one nation Bibliography: Brooks, Beatrice A., "'Fertility
(especially Israel) having dealings with other na- Cult Functionaries in the Old Testament," JBL
tions. lt may also refer to religious intercourse, of 60: 227-53. Gordis, Robert, "Hosea's Marriage
Israel worshiping false gods. and Message: A New Approach," HUCA 25:
The literal meaning is illicit heterosexual inter- 9-35. Rabinowitz, Jacob J., "The ·Great Sin' in
course. The ward regularly refers to women; it Ancient Egyptian Marriage Contracts," JNES
refers only twice to men (Ex 34: 16; Num 25: 1). 18:73. Richardson, TWB, p. 16. Rowley, H. H.,
The participial form is regularly used to designate "The Marriage of Hosea," BJRL 39: 200-33.

246
 569 t'll!'! (zä'ap)
Tushingham, Douglas A., .. A Reconsideration of The verb is used to indicate both the state of
Hosea, Chapters 1-3," JNES 12: 150---59.Wise- being indignant and the activity giving expression
man, D. J ., "Rahab of Jericho," Tyndale House to that state. lt is used in reference to man, but
Bulletin 14: 8-11. TDNT, VI, pp. 584-90. more often to God. lsaiah foretells a day when
L.J.W. God's "indignation" will be experienced by Is-
rael's enemies (Isa 66:14). In Num 23:7-S, zä'am
1:1•mr
(z"nunim). See no. 563a. is used in parallel with the verbs 'ärar, näqab,
!'113). (z•·nut). See no. 563b. and qäbab, each meaning "to curse," as first
Balak, king of Moab, bids Balaam, "Come, curse
564 Mi) (zäna!J) I, reject, spurn, cast off. (ASV ('ärar) me Jacob, and come, defy (zä'am) Is-
and Rsv similar, except that RSVprefers at rael." Then Balaam replies, "How shall I curse
times "spurn" or "reject. ") ( näqab) whom God hath not cursed ( qäbab )? Or
Related to an Arabic root meaning "be remote, how shall I defy ( zii ·am) whom the Lord hath not
repelled," zanalJ carries the basic meaning of defied (zä'am)'?"
strong dislike or disapproval. The word is used za'am. Anger, indignation. This noun is used
sixteen times in the Qal and three in the Hiphil, twenty-two times. lt is regularly translated "in-
with no clear distinction in meaning. The Qal is dignation," referring more often to God than to
used in Ps 43:2, as the Psalmist cries out to God, man. za'am is used in parallel with qtl$ap, as
"Why dost thou cast me off?" The RSVuses "re- Jeremiah states that the earth shall tremble at
jected" in Ps 60: 1 [H 3], as David states, "O God's wrath (qe$ep), and the nations shall not be
God, thou hast rejected (KJV"cast off') us." The able to bear his "indignation" (zä'am) (Jer 10: 10:
Hiphiluse is employed by David, as he instructs cf Ps 102:11).
Solomon that, if Solomon should forsake God, Bibliography: Brichto, Herbert C., The Prob-
then God would "cast (him) off forever" (I Chr lem of "Curse" in the Hehre\\' Bible, in Journal
28:9), of Biblical Literature Monograph Series, Vol. 13,
L.J.W. Society ofBiblical Literature and Exegesis, 1963,
pp. x. 232. Scharbert. Josef, "Fluchen und Seg-
565 Ml! (zänah) II, stink, emit stench. (Asv nen im Alten Testament," Bib 39: 1-26.
··and Rsv have "become foul"; whereas KJV L.J.W.
uses "turn far away," after root 1.)
Both BOB and KB understand this as a second 569 'II.'? (za'ap) fret, be sad, be wroth.
root. lt is used only once, in the Hiphil, describ-
Derivative
ing the Nile River as made to "stink" in a future
day of judgment at the hand of God (Isa 19:6). 569a ti,py (za'ap) storming, indignation.
Bibliography: Yaron, Reuven, "The Meaning 569b l'lV! (zä'ep) out of humor, vexed.
ofZANAH'," VT 13: 237-39. The root of this verb, according to the Aramaic
L.J.W. cognate z•··ap "to storm, rage against," means to
storm, blow, or breathe hard. lt is so used in Jon
566 *1'i! (zänaq) leap. This verb occurs only 1:15 of the raging sea. KB suggests "be embit-
once, in the Piel (Deut 33:22). tered against," "be dejected," BOB adds "be
enraged."
M~.T (ze'a). See no. 857b. A person who storms within himself is en-
MW! (za'äwa). See no. 540a. raged. One with an inner storm can be sad, trou-
i•111 (z"'er). See no. 571a. bled in appearance (Dan 1: 10).
The baker and butler had reason tobe troubled
567 •iin (zä'ak) extinguish. Occurs only in
in heart: their dreams were real but uninter-
Job 17:1 (Niphal).
preted. Uncertainty caused unrest: they fretted
and were crestfallen (Gen 40:6). The wise man of
568 CIPT (zä'am) be indignant, express indigna-
Prov, however, points to a far more tragic storm
tion, denounce. (Asv and RSVsimilar.)
in a man's heart: it is of the fool whose folly
Derivative brings him into well-deserved ruin resulting in an
unreasonable rage in his heart against God (Prov
568a tCIP! ( za ·am) anger, indignation.
19:3). The Chronicler(Il Chr26:19) teils ofKing
The basic idea is experiencing or expressing Uzziah's strength and pride which led him to
intense anger. The word is parallel to qä$ap. ex- desecrate the temple and the altar of incense.
cept that its expression takes a more specific When rebuked, Uzziah was wroth and when he
form,especially of denunciation. The word ap- expressed this rage of his heart in the temple
pears eleven times in the Qal stem and once in the sanctuary he was immediately stricken with lep-
Niphal. rosy (II Chr 26:19).

247
570 ;,~! (za'aq)
The biblical testimony is that there is no peace, of assembling people together. They are thus
health, or happiness for the man with a storm in considered tobe "called ones" (Josh 8:16).
his heart. The Hiphil stem occurs seven times, but only
once with the causative meaning (Jon 3:7). Four
za'ap. The noun is used to describe the state
times it carries the idea of assembly, thus corre-
king Asa was in when he was rebuked by the
sponding to the Niphal meaning, but in the active
prophet Hanani (II Chr 16:10). Because Asa had
mood (II Sam 20:4-5). Once it is used to express
relied upon neighboring kings and not upon the
an outcry of alarm, much like one of the uses of
Lord, the prophet, sent of the Lord, told him he the Qal, and once simply to get another·s atten-
had done foolishly. To have folly pointed out was
tion in order to convey a message (Zech 6:8).
to cause a storm in the king's heart. This inner
The distinction between za'aq and $ii'aq
rage led Asa to commit atrocities. He remained
seems to be that $ii'aq was used earlier. This is
hardened, so much so that four years later, when
only a relative distinction, however, because
he wa~ diseased, he refused to seek the Lord.
za'aq is also found in the Pentateuch, and $ii'aq
This rage of a man's heart is as the roaring of_a
also appears in postexilic writings. But a tally of
lion, it is fierce and awesome (Prov 19:12). lt 1s
the number of times each occurs, during the early
comparable to a sea in a raging storm (Jon 1_:15).
and later periods, supports the general distinc-
The term is used twice of the Lord's att1tude.
tion. In writings, which likely were penned no
The Assyrians who rejoiced as they ravished Is-
later than the time of the united monarchy,
rael are to see the raging, storming character of
$ii'aq, in both its verband noun forms, is fo~nd
Go<l's anger against them (lsa 30:30). Micah says
some forty-four times (out of a total seventy-s1x),
he will endure the Lord's rage brought on by
while zii'aq appears only thirty-six (out of a total
enemies but he is also assured the Lord will bring
eighty-nine). In postexilic writings, $ii'aq occurs
forth light and deliverance when the storm of his
only twice, while zii'aq appears eight times. I_n
rage is spent.
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Zechariah, the score 1s
G.V.G.
twenty-one to seven in favor of zä'aq.
In meaning, the two roots are very close. Both
570 i'lil (za'aq) cry, cry out, call. (Asv and
signify the same basic sense of a cry for help out
~sv similar.)
of a situation of distress. Both show such a cry
Derivative being voiced to God, to false deities,. and to
people, although $ii'aq is used several t1me_sfor
570a t:i:;,vr(z'"aqii) cry, outcry.
the last, while zii'aq is only once. The N1phal
The basic meaning of this root is "to cry for uses of the two are parallel in meaning. Some
help in time of distress." lt is used mainly in the difference occurs in the Hiphil, in that .rä'aq ap-
Qal, but occurs a few times in the Ni_phal an_d pears only once, in one of the meanings of zä'aq,
Hiphil, where it carries distinctive meamngs. lt 1s namely of calling together an assembly.
parallel in meaning to $ii'aq. The two roots ~re
z"'äqä. Cry, outcry. The noun derivative is
doubtless mere variants, as is not unusual w1th
such similar sibilants. used eighteen times, and sixteen of them coi:re-
spond closely to the idea of the Qal stem, 1.e.
In the Qal stem, the word is used almost exclu-
they designate a cry for help in the face of to the
sively in reference to a cry from a dist~rbed
idea of the Qal stem, i.e. they designate a cry for
heart, in need ofsome kind ofhelp. The cry 1snot
help in the face of distr_ess. For instanc~, the
in summons of another, but an expression of the
word is used for the cry directed to Nehemiah by
need feit. Most frequently, the cry is directed to
Jews who were being oppressed by their wealthy
God. When the Israelites were being invaded an-
neighbors (Neh 5:6). Mordecai gave this cry
nually by the Midianites, they expressed this cry
when he heard of Haman's plot against the Jews
(Jud 6:6-7). Occasionally it is directed to a false
(Est 4: 1). za'aq is also used in an abstract refer-
deity (Jer 11:12), and once to a king (II Sam
ence to the foolish clamor of a poor ruler (Eccl
19:29). A few times the word is used for a cry not
9: 17), and to the outcry against Sodom that had
directed to anyone, but simply as a note of alarm.
come to God's notice (Gen 18:20).
All the city of Shiloh so cried out when told that
L.J.W.
the Ark had been captured by the Philistines
(I Sam 4:13). The cry may be sounded in behalf
571 ,in (z'r). Assumed root of the following.
of another person (lsa 15:5). lt may be in lament
571a i't.l) (z'"er) a liltle.
at bad news (Jer 47:2); or it may be a cry of pro-
test (Job 31 :38). In only one instance is the idea of
571b tiv:~ (miz'är) aliltle,atrijle,afew.
summons involved. and that is when Jephthah miz'är. Smallness, a little, a few. This word
called for Ephraimites to assist him against the occurs only four times, in Isaiah. Three usages
Ammonites (Jud 12:2). This is still a cry for help. are in conjunction with m'"a[ (ofthe same me~n-
The Niphal stem is used six times and always ing). Used together. in two instances. they g1ve

248
 574 i1n (zaqen)
literally, "a trifle, a little" time, calling for the rael ites and priests (Lev 19:27; 21 :5) were forbid-
stressed translation, "a very little while" (Isa den to cut the corners of the beard. In times of
I0:25; 29:4 ). The two other usages concern num- distress the beard was plucked (Ezr 9:3) or
bers. In Isa 16: 14, for example, where it is em- shaved (lsa 15:2; Jer 41:5; 48:37). Ezekiel was
ployed again with m•· 'a/, a literal rendition gives, commanded to shave as a symbol of coming de-
"a little, small" remnant. Cf. the root ~ä'ar of struction of Jerusalem (Ezk 5: 1). The odd expres-
similar meaning. This word may be merely a sion in Ps 133:2 (KJV) does not mean that Aaron·s
phonetic variation. beard went down to the skirts of his garments,
L.J.W. but that the anointing oil did.

572 r,~) (zepet) pitch (Ex 2:3; lsa 34:9). zäqen. Aged, ancient, ancient man, elder,
senator, eldest, old, old man, old woman. The
573 ;,1 (zeq) missile, spark (Prov 26:18; lsa LXX renders presbuteros. zäqen is an adjective
50:11). derived from zäqen "to be old," which is a de-
nominative verb from ziiqiin "beard."
i'1 (zeq). See no. 577a. zäqen, used either as an attributive adjective
c•;i,,r (z'qimfm). See no. 574e. or as a substantive, describes the person (male or
female) who, contrasting with the youth ( na 'ar;
574 lt'! (zäqen) be, become old. Gen 19:4; cf. Ps 37:25) has reached the stage in
life called old age. The semitism "old and full of
Related Terms years (days)" is sometimes met (Gen 25:8; 35:29;
574a tli?! ( zäqiin) beard, chin. Job 42: 17). The normal Hebrew society not only
574b t,;,1 ( zäqen) old. had boys and girls playing in the streets but there
574c t1;,'1 (zöqen) old age. were also old men and women leaning on their
574d t:,;,,i (ziqna) old age. staffs (Zech 8:4). "Young" and "old" make up
574e to•~i;,r (z•·qünfm) old age. the total of society (Ex 10:9; Josh 6:21; II Chr
36:17; Est 3:13).
ziiqen is probably a derivative of zäqän (beard). The old man is to be honored (Lev 19:32; cf.
lt is a stative verb which in the Qal denotes the Lam 5: 12). The young wait to speak until the old
state of being which follows being young (Ps have spoken (Job 32:4 ). Their value as advisors
37:25). We meet the phrase "old and advanced in (cf. Ezk 7:26) is recognized in the account of Re-
years·· (Gen 24:1; Josh 13:1; cf. I Sam 17:12) or hoboam·s rejecting their counsel in favor of that
"old and full of days" (1 Chr 23: 1). lt refers to of the young men (1 Kgs l2:6ff.). On the other
both men and women. During this period of life hand, the advice of the elders saved Jeremiah's
prospects of marriage (Ruth 1:12) and childbear-
life (Jer 26: 17). The old man is adorned by his
ing cease (Gen 18:12-13: II Kgs 4:14). Grey hair grey hair (Prov 20:29) and his children are his
appears (I Sam 12:2). There is a failing of sight crown (Prov 17:6). ·
(Gen 27:J; cf. I Sam 3:2; 4:15), metabolism and zäqen as a substantive, usually plural, is a
mobility (1 Kgs 1:1, 15), and there is <langer of technical term occurring about one hundred
falling (1 Sam 4: 18). A description of the onset of times. Only the context can determine whether
age in poetic symbols is found in Eccl 12: 1-5. old men or the ruling body is intended in any
Death is an imminent prospect (Gen 19:31; 24: 1; particular case. The oT is not clear concerning the
27:1-2; Josh 23:1-2). Leadership must be relin- age required to qualify one to be a ziiqen or de-
quished (Josh 13:1; I Sam 8:1. 5; I Chr 23:1). Yet tails of appointment to this group.
one in this state is tobe respected (Lev 19:32) and There are elders within a house, e.g. Pharaoh's
not despised (Prov 23:22). (Gen 50:7; Ps 105:22) or David's (II Sam 12:17).
The Hiphil of the verb denotes the aging of The ruling body of the Hebrew city as weil as of a
persons (Prov 22:6) and of a tree root (Job 14:8). people like the Moabites and Midianites (Num
Age sixty seems to separate the mature from 22:4, 7) and the Gibeonites (Josh 9:11) were the
the aged (Lev 27: 1-8), although evidently the elders. The institution was known to the Hittites,
Levites retired at fifty (Num 4:3, 23, 30). The to Mari, and to the Babylonians from the Ham-
Psalmist suggests seventy years as a normal life murabi period onward. Elders and commanders
span and eighty as unusual (Ps 90: 10). In the (sarim) frequently are combined to make up a
period of the Kings a man of eighty is accounted a governing body. Elders sitting at the gate of the
man of very great age (II Sam 19:32 IH 33 ]). city (Deut 21:19; 22:15; Prov 31:23; Lam 5:14)
zäqän. Beard. A masculine noun from the settled many questions such as disputed virginity
root ziiken. Ugaritic dqn. Ais WUS No. 782. The (Deut 22: 15); ratification of property settlements
chin whiskers of a man(]) Sam 20:9) and of a lion (Ruth 4:9, 11); and trying of murder cases (Deut
(1 Sam 17:35) could be seized. To be cleansed, 19:12: 21 :lfT.; Josh 20:4).
the leper had to shave his beard (Lev 14:9). ls- Already in the Pentateuch we encounter the

249
575 t'll?! (zäqap)
"elders oflsrael" (Ex 3:16; 18:12). They witnes- Bib 40: 522-40. Malamat, Abraham, "Kingship
sed the striking of the rock (Ex 17:5--6). In the and Council in Israel and Sumer," JNES 22:
wilderness a group of seventy witnessed the cov- 247-53. Noth, Martin, The History of Israel,
enant ceremony (Ex 24: I, 9). They adjudicated London: Black, 1958, pp. 107-108. Pedersen,
cases while Moses was on the mountain (Ex Johannes, Israel, vols. I-II, London: Oxford,
24: 14). Elders laid their hands on the head of the 1940, pp. 36ff. TDNT, VI, pp. 655--61.
sin offering when the whole congregation had J.P.L.
sinned (Lev4:15). They received the spirit at the
tent of meeting (Num 11:16, 24-25). Twenty-five 575 t'\i?! (z.üqap) raise up (Ps 145:14; 146:8).
elders witnessed the fate of Datham and Abiram
(Num 16:25). Ten men made up a deciding body 576 1':?! (z.üqaq) I, refine, purify. (ASV and
(Ruth 4:2). Elders stood with the judges before RSVsimilar.)
the ark at the reading of the law (Josh 8 :33; cf.
The basic idea is of making something pure (cf.
23:2; 24:1).
~ürap, which connotes testing something to de-
The elders of Israel requested a king from
Samuel (1 Sam 8:4). Even after the establishment termine its degree of purity). The root is used
twice in Qal, once in Pie!, and four times in Pual.
of the monarchy, the choice of a king rested with
The Qal appears in Job 28: 1, which speaks of a
the elders of Israel so that David made a coven-
place for gold where they "fine" (Rsv "refine")
ant with them before they anointed him at Heb-
it. The Piel occurs in Mal 3 :3, which says that
ron (II Sam 5:3). Absalom obtained their favor God will "purge" (Rsv ··refine") Levites like gold
(II Sam 17:4, 15) and David returned to rule after
and silver. The Pual of z.üqaq always occurs as a
the revolt only with the permission of the "elders
participle. For instance, a part of that which
of Judah" (II Sam 19:11 [H 12]). They continued
David collected for building the temple is de-
as an advisory body to the king in later history
scribed as "refined" gold (I Chr 28: 18). Every
(1 Kgs 20:7) and retained independent authority
instance but two refers to the refining of metals,
(1 Kgs 21 :8). Josiah summoned them for the read-
which, of course was done by fire. win Isa 25:6
ing of the newly discovered law (II Kgs 23: 1).
the refining of wine is referred to which probably
The elders continued tobe influential even dur- was done by decanting, not filtering (as KB
ing the Exile (Jer29:I; Ezk 8:1; 14:1; 20:1) andin
suggest), cf. Jer48: 1I. The reference in Job 36:27
the postexilic community (Ezra 10:8, 14). The
is difficult. Pope ("Job" in AB) translates "that
role continued in modified forms in the
distill rain from the flood." Could the process of
synagogue and in the church. But those who
evaporation here be referred to metaphorically as
ruled in the community of Qumran were not the
a refining?
"elders."
L.J.W.
zöqen. Old age. A masculine noun derived
from the root z.üqan, (Gen 48: 10), it refers to age 577 1'1'! (zqq). Assumed root of the following.
as a quality. Unlike Moses' (Deut 34:7), Jacob's 577a i'T (z.eq) fetter (e.g. Nah 3:10; Isa
senility brought failing eyesight. 45:14). Derivation uncertain. GB,
unlike BDB, derive from znq be-
ziqnä. Old, old age. This feminine noun, de- cause of Arabic and Syriac cognates.
rived from the root zäkan, occurs in the absolute 577b i,nt ( 'az.eq) manacle (Jer 40: I,
and construct states. lt is used for the advanced only).
age of Sarah, Solomon, and Asa (Gen 24:36;
I Kgs 11:4; I 5 :23). lt represents a time of increas- "11 (zer). See no. 543a.
ing infirmity to which God's care extends (Ps .c,r (z.ürü'). See no. 542d.
71 :9, 18; lsa 46:4).
578 *!:l"IT (zürah) be bumed, scorched. Occurs
z'qünim. Old age. This masculine noun refers
to a state of being (Gen 21:2, 7: 37:3; 44:20). In ~~ly in the Pual.
the case of Abraham, it points to the unusualness Derivative
of Isaac's birth. lt explains Jacob's favoritism
toward Joseph and Benjamin.
578a t??:P~T(z''rübübe/) Zerubbabel, a
name.
Bibliography: Bomkamm, G., · ·Presbuteros,''
in TWNT, VI, pp. 651-83. Evans, Geoffrey, Zerubbabel was a grandson of King Jehoiachin
.. Ancient Mesopotamian Assemblies," JAOS 78: (I Chr 3: 16-19), taken captive by Nebuchadnez-
1-11. Jacobson, Thorkild, "Primitive Democracy zar in 597 s.c. (II Kgs 24:11-16): hence an heir to
in Ancient Mesopotamia," JNES 2: 159-72. the throne of Judah. He is frequently called a "son
McKenzie, Donald A., "Judicial Procedure at of Shealtiel" (Salathiel, Ezr 3:2, 8; Neh 12:1; Mt
the Town Gate," VT 14: 100--104. McKenzie, 1: 12, etc.), but a son of Pedaiah, brother of Sheal-
John L., "The Elders in the Old Testament," tiel, in I Chr 3: 17. Shealtiel likely died childless.

250
 580 Mj?(zära}J)
Either his nephew, Zerubbabel, was considered to indicate a scattering or dispersing for reasons
his legal heir, and hence called his son (Ex 2:10), of purification or chastisement. Grain is cleansed
or eise Pedaiah fulfilled his levirate duty in marry- of chaff by using a fan to blow it away. God's
ing the widow of Shealtiel, in which instance the covenant people require a purifying also, but it
first child would be considered son of the de- will be a chastening experience; hence the Lord
ceased (Deut 25:5-10). is said, metaphorically, "to fan" his people (Jer
Zerubbabel was the civil leader (called pahat 15:7), with the result that they will be scattered as
"governor," Hag 1:14; 2:2, 21) ofthe Jews who chaff to various distant places. Moses wamed
returned from the Babylonian exile, under Cyrus· this would happen if Israel forsook the covenant
permission, c. 537 B.c. leading the first returning (Lev 26:33). Jeremiah (49:32) and Zechariah
band of exiles. Rebuilding of the Temple was (1:19; 2:2) both referred to how Israel was dis-
begun c. 536 B.c. (Ezr 3 :8-13 ), but it ceased (Ezr persed by the Gentile invaders among foreign na-
4:24)shortly after the foundation was completed. tions. lt was also foretold that those nations used
Sixteen years later (520 e.c., Darius's second to chastise Israel, would some day themselves be
year, Hag 1: 1; Zech 1: 1), the two prophets Hag- fanned and completely scattered for all time to
gai and Zechariah, began to preach and urge re- come (Isa 41: 16).
sumption of the building. Zerubbabel, along with The dispersion of Israel is referred to by vari-
Joshua, the high priest, responded (Ezr 5:1-2; ous synonyms which express other aspects or
Hag 1:12). The work was completed in the spring nuances of God's chastening process; cf. niipa!f
of515 B.c. Besides leading the rebuilding, Zerub- "dash, scatter"; pu~· "dash, scatter"; piira!f
babel restored both the courses of the priests and "break out, disperse"; piirad "spread"; and
Levites (Ezr 6:18) and the provision for their pazar "scatter."
maintenance (Neh 12:47). Nothing is known of [The difficult usage in Ps 139:3 may be a
the man after the completion of the Temple; nor semantic extension of this root in the sense of
is there any record of his death. "examine" or, as BOB suggest and KB and Da-
[lt is commonly supposed today that Zerub- hood (in AB, Psalms III) affirm, may be a de-
babel who was of the seed royal had kingly pre- nominative verb zära "to measure" from the
tensions. He is supposed to have led an indepen- noun zeret "span." R.L.H.]
dence movement which was quickly put down by G.V.G.
the Persians and Zerubbabel met an untimely
death. There is no direct evidence for this theory. 1 (zerüa' ). See no. 582b.
lt assumes that Zech 6: 11 does not present
Joshua the high priest as typical of the Messiah,
~;.,,
!)~.,
(z'roa'). See no. 583a.
i,•1-:,I (zarzip). See no. 584a.
but that the original reading was "Zerubbabel" .,•1-:,
I (zarzir) . See no. 543b.
who was the object of the prophecy. The view
does not envision Zerubbabel as both king and
priest. lt favors the translation "There will be a 580 M':1) (ziirah) arise, rise, rise up, shine. (ASV
priest by his throne" (Rsv). Cf. the NEB footnote and RSVsimilar.)
to v. 11 "possibly an error for Zerubbabel." The Derivatives
viewis advanced in Kraeling, E. Commentary on
the Prophets, II, Daniel to Malachi. Nelson,
580a M':1( (zerah) dawning, shining.
]966,pp. 299-300. R.L.H.] 580b tn-,iN ('ezräh) native.
L.J.W.
580c tn:,(6 (mizröh) place of sunrise, east.
BOB does not list "to shine" as one of the
'?~;':Ir
(z"rübbiibel). See no. 878a. meanings, but KB gives. "shine forth," "tlash
forth.''
579 ~,! (ziira) Jan, scatter, cast away, winnow;
disperse, compass, spread, be scattered, dis-
zärah means "to rise, come up," and is used in
three ways. 1) lt refers to the breaking forth of
the symptoms of leprosy (.yara'at q.v.; II Chr
persed.
26:19). 2) lt is used ofthe sun as appearing, with-
Derivative out specific reference to the diffusion of its light
(Eccl 1:5; Jn 4:5), (and thus it is a reference to the
579a ~'.'11~( mizreh) pitchfork. time of day), or eise as [radiating] its light in the
The basic thought of the verb is to stir up the morning (II Sam 23 :4). 3) lt is also used in a
air to produce a scattering and spreading effect. figurative sense to speak of salvation. light, glory
However, the simple act of scattering or spread- resulting from God's coming into a man's life (Ps
ing is also suggested, e.g. Moses scattered gold 112:4; lsa 58: 10; 60: 1). The thought is that as the
dust on water (Ex 32:20). Unfaithful priests have sun appears in the moming without man·s effort,
dung spread upon their faces (Mal 2:3). but nevertheless floods his surroundings with
The term ziirii is used in various verbal forms light and dispels the darkness, so the Lord is sov-

251
581 cr:1!
(zäram)

ereign in the bestowal of his salvation, which of both seed and field (e.g. Lev 19:19; Deut 22:9,
brings light and glory. The term is used twice of "You shall not sow your field with two kinds of
God himself appearing to bring salvation (lsa seed"). In this prohibition, a reference is made,
60:2) and righteousness to his people (Mal 4:2 no doubt, to the Canaanite ritual inducing
[H 3:20]). In both cases there is a prophecy con- fertility. Finally, this verb is also used of sowing
cerning the coming of Jesus Christas Saviour and salt in a captured city (Jud 9:45).
Lord. Metaphorically, the action denotes the Lord's
sowing (planting or establishing) Israel in the land
'ezräti. A native, one rising from his own soil.
of Palestine in a future day (Hos 2:25) or of his
This noun refers to one arising from his native
soil. In the Mosaic legislation the term is used confession that though he has scattered (i.e.
sown) Israel among the countries of the earth, he
frequently to indicate the specific native origin
will also gather them one day in the future (Zech
(Num 15:29, like a tree, Ps 37:35) of the descen-
10:9). zära' is also used figuratively in connec-
dants of the Patriarchs who belong to the prom-
ised land (Ex 18:19). tion with moral actions: to sow justice (Prov
11:18), righteousness (Hos 10:12), light, i.e. hap-
mizrati. East, the sun rising. This noun is piness (Ps 97: 11), wickedness (Prov 22:8), trouble
closely related to z.aral). Used in relation to the (Job 4:8), and wind (Hos 8:7). In Isa 17:10 the
sun rising, it refers specifically to the place or verb depicts Israel as practicing idolatry by sow-
area of sunrise. lt is often translated "east." lt is ing plants or slips to an alien god, while in Ps
used in a strictly locative sense (lsa 41 :2; Josh 126:5 it is a figure of the grief of hard work fol-
11:8) but also figuratively in prophecies of woe lowed by joyous results. lt can also refer to reigns
(Arnos 8:12) and ofblessedness (Zech 14:4). of kings and princes under the figure of trees (lsa
G.V.G. 40:24). Finally, in the Niphal it refers to a woman
being made pregnant (Num 5:28) or bearing a
581 C".l! (z.tiram) pour forth infloods,flood away child (Hiphil Lev 12:2).
(Ps 90:5, Qal; Ps 77: 18, Poel).
zera'. Sowing, seed, offspring. This noun is
Derivatives used 224 times. lts usages fall into four basic
581a C'.')_l ( z.erem) flood of rain, down- semantic categories: 1. The time of sowing,
pour (e.g. lsa 4:6; Hab 3: 10). seedtime; 2. the seed as that which is scattered or
581b :ii;,1 ( z.irma) issue (i.e. semen, as the product of what is sown; 3. the seed as
Ezk 23:20). semen and 4. the Seed as the offspring in the
promised line of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob or in
582 tl".l! (z.ära') I, scatter seed, sow. other groups separate from this people of prom-
ise.
Derivatives The pri!nary meaning comes from the realm of
582a ttl".l.T.(z.era') sowing, seed, offspring. agriculture. Seedtime or sowing, as over against
582b ~~,1 ( zerüa') sowing, thing sown.
the time of harvest, will recur according to a
582c ~ ,1 (z.eröa') vegetable. promised pattern which God guaranteed to Noah
582d ftt,1 (z.er'ön) vegetable. after the flood (Gen 8:22: cf. Lev 26:5). This sow-
ing or planting takes place in the fields (Ezk 17:5)
582e t~MV.".11'(yiz.r'"e'/) Jeueel.
582f ttjilf (miz.rti') p/ace of sowing. and thereby accords well with the Akkadian zeru
"cultivated land." The seed itself which is
This verb appears fifty-six times: forty-six planted in these fields has the same name (Gen
times in the Qal, once in the Pual, six times in the 47:19, 23; Lev 11:37-38; Num 24:7; Deut 28:38;
Niphal, and three times in the Hiphil. The lsa55:I0; Arnos 9:13). The product produced has
etymology of z.r' is most puzzling, for while it the same designation (e.g. the seed of the herbs
appears in Arabic, Syriac, and Ugaritic, pointing and trees in Gen 1:11-12. 29 or the seed that is
to a Protosemitic z.r' and seems to be a conflation gathered into the barn in Job 39: 12; cf. Deut
of the two roots of zr' "to sow" and qrw "to 14:22; lsa 23:3). Thus, the whole agricultural
scatter," this does not agree with the fact that the cycle is practically summed up in the word zera';
4 of qr' does not remain in Ugaritic, but appears from the act of sowing to the seed planted, to the
as dry. (Cf. UT, 5: nos 3-4; 19: nos. 702, 705; but harvest taken. zera · is used figuratively in refer-
notice 19:733 qr' "arm.") ring to Judah's idolatry (Isa 17:11). They are
Literally, zara· refers to the action of sowing planting "pleasant plants" along with "strange
seed in the fields (Gen 26: 12; lsa 37:30). lt is used slips." This refers either to the Ugaritic n'mn of
with the accusative of the type of seed sown, e.g. the Tammuz-Adonis cult or to the folly of plant-
sowing wheat (Jer 12:13), or with the accusative ing thorns and thistles and expecting a crop of
ofthe field sown (Ex 23:10; Lev 25:3). Occasion- flowers or vegetables.
ally, it is also followed by the double accusative zera· refers to semen in Num 5:28, "she shall

252
 583 t.tiT (zr')

be made pregnant with seed." Frequently it oc- nected the Esdraelon valley on its west side and
curs in the expression "flow of semen" (Lev the Jordan River valley on its east side.
15:16,32; 22:4). lt is also used as the accusative Jezreel is also the name of one of Judah's de-
ofmode and translated euphemistically as "lying scendants (1 Chr 4:3).
camallywith a woman" (Lev 15:18; 18:20; Num The most important theological usage is the
5:13).Note the same use in the promise of Jer name given to the first child bom to the prophet
31:27.The Lord will sow the houses of Israel and Hosea and Gomer (Hos 1:4-5). The prophet
Judahwith the seed of man and the seed of beast names his son "Jezreel," which in Hos 2:23
in the latter days. IH 25] involves a play on the meaning of the verb
The most important theological usage is found zära' "to sow" and "to scatter." However, in
in the fourth category. Commencing with Gen 1:4 the reference is to the historical incident of
3:15,the word "seed" is regularly used as a col- Jehu's bloo.dy path to the throne (II Kgs 9:30-
lective noun in the singular (never plural). This .10:11). According to Hos 1:3, Gomer bore this
technicalterm is an important aspect ofthe prom- son to Hosea; therefore he was not conceived in
isedoctrine, for Hebrew never uses the plural of harlotry. We must reject the view that God told
this root to refer to "posterity" or "offspring." the prophet to take a woman who was a harlot
The Aramaic targums pluralize the term occa- with children already bom out of wedlock.
sionally,e.g. the Targum of Gen 4:10, but the Rather, the command in Hos 1:2 involves the fig-
Aramaicalso limits itself to the singular in the ure of speech known as zeugma, in which the
passagesdealing with the promised line. Thus the main verb(s) ("go, marry") control two objects
worddesignates the whole line of descendants as grammatically, but orily one logically. The ex-
a unit, yet it is deliberately flexible enough to pression is elliptical, for one must supply the verb
denote either one person who epitomizes the "and beget children." The stigma ofthe mother's
wholegroup (i.e. the man of promise and ulti- Iater action is passed on to the children so that
matelyChrist), or the many persons in that whole they too are called the children of harlotry, but
lineof natural and/or spiritual descendants. they are not such literally. Finally, what may be
Precisely so in Gen 3:15. One such seed is the considered a statement of purpose, Hos 1:2, is
lineof the woman as contrasted with the oppos- more probably a construction signifying result
ing seed which is the line of Satan's followers. and therefore is in this regard like lsa 6:9-12.
Andthen surprisingly the text announces a male In spite of Israel's apostasy and spiritual har-
descendant who will ultimately win a crushing lotry, matched by the later physical harlotry of
victoryover Satan himself. Gomer, God will sow Israel again one day in her
This promise to Eve was enlarged and made land in the latter days (Hos 1:11 (H 2:2]).
morespecific in the Abrahamic Covenant. God Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 538-44.
would grant a land and a numerous offspring W.C.K.
throughAbraham's son Isaac and his offspring:
Gen 12:7; 13:15-16; 15:13,18; 16:10; 17:7-
583 L!"1T(zr') II. Assumed root ofthe following.
10,12,19;22:17-18; 24:7; 26:3-4,24; 28:4,13-14; 583a tp;-,T (z'roa), 1.1·,1 (z'röa') arm,
32:13;35:12; 48:4. This whole line builds and the
shoulder, strength.'
promisecontinues in Ex 32:13; 33:1; Deut 1:8;
11:9;34:4; Josh 24:3.
583b p;,y!:,t ('ezroa') arm.
The same can be said for David and his off- The etymology of this root is not entirely clear,
spring.The promise is continued in II Sam 7:12; but it appears in Akkadian, Ugaritic. Arabic,
madeparallel to the term "Messiah" in Ps 18:50 Aramaic, and Ethiopic.
IH5] (see II Sam 22:51); and repeated in Ethan's The literal meaning of "arm" is the rare usage
commentaryon the Davidic covenant of II Sam 7 for this word, occurring in just over a dozen of
inPs89:4,29,36 IH 5,30,37]. some ninety references, e.g. Jud 15:14; 16:12; II
This corporate solidarity found in the seed of Sam 1:10. Twice it refers to the shoulder of a
Eve, Abraham, and David receives theological sacrificed animal (Num 6:19; Deut 18:3).
commentin Isa 41 :8; 43:5; 44:3; 45: 19,25; 48: 19; Most frequently, z' roa' is used metaphori-
53:10;54:3; 59:21; 61 :9; 65:9; 66:22; Jer 31 :36-37; cally. The "arm of flesh," symbolizing man's
33:26;II Chr 20:7. strength, is impotent compared to God's power
(II Chr 32:8). In the plural, "arms" is equivalent
yizr"e'I. Proper name meaning God sows or God to military or political forces or armies (Dan
willsow;Jeueel. There are five different usages 11:15, 22, 31). Thus to "break the arms" of an
ofthisname. Three are geographical locations: 1. enemy is a figurative expression (1 Sam 2:31; Job
a town in Issachar at the foot of Mount Gilboa 22:9; 38:15; Ps 10:15; 37:17; Jer 48:25; Ezk
(Josh 19:18; I Kgs 21:lff.); 2. a town in Judah 30:21-22, 24-25) for destroying the enemies'
fromwhich one of David's wives came (1 Sam strength, power, or violence, and therefore their
25:43);and 3. the valley of Jezreel which con- capacity to make war.

253
584 *t'\':1!
(zärap)

More frequently still the arm is used as an times. Both are translated ··sprinkle" with but
anthropomorphic figure of God·s power. The few exceptions; e.g. "scatter" seed (lsa 28:25);
most vivid of these instances occurs in lsa 30:30 "strew" idol-dust ongraves (II Chr34:4); streaks
in which the lightning stroke is pictured as the of gray in a man's hair (Hos 7:9). The LXX trans-
"descending blow of his arm." God reveals the lates zäraq as "pour," when it refers to the blood
power of his "outstretched arm" in creation (Jer of the sacrifices upon the altar.
32: I7) and in his deliverance of Israel from Egypt zäraq is used in religious ceremonies for two
(Ex 6:6; 15:16; Deut 4:34; Ps 77:15 [H 16]; Isa specific purposes. 1) By sprinkling blood at the
63: 12). In a similar way, that arm or power of the solemnizing of an inviolable bond between God
Lord will bring another deliverance in the la~: and man (T. Lewis, in ISBE, 2487). The sprin-
day (Ps 98: 1; lsa 40: 10; 51:9ff.; 52: 10; 63 :5; Ezx kling of the blood on the people and the altar (Ex
20:33f.). In the meantime, undemeath Israel are 24:6-S) confirmed the altar as the open way for
the Lord's everlasting arms for the protection the sprinkled, i.e. confirmed covenant people, to
and preservation of his people (Deut 33:27; Ps a holy, righteous yet loving God (cf. also II Kgs
89:13 (H 141; Isa 33:2). These same arms were 16:15). 2) Sprinkling was an integral aspect ofthe
used on behalf of individuals on two occasions (II purification rite. Blood was sprinkled to indicate
Chr 6:32; Isa 40: 11). In Isa 53: 1 the "arm of the or confirm sanctification (Ex 29:20; Lev 1:5), as
Lord" is used as a metonymy for the redemptive weil as for hygienic purposes which had a definite
word which the Lord achieved through his ser- religious meaning (Lev 17:6).
vant. Finally, zäraq is used in other deeply religious
Bibliography: Ginsberg, H. L., "The Arm of ways. lt speaks ofjudgment: Moses threw dust in
YHWH in lsaiah 51--03 and the text of lsa 53: the air to bring the plague of boils upon Egypt (Ex
10-11," JBL 77: 152-56. THAT, I, pp. 522-23. 9:8). Ezekiel uses zäraq, of sprinkling clean
W.C.K. water (36:25) in connection with the Lord's re-
generating work in the hearts of his exiled coven-
584 *ti".I! (zärap) drip. This verb occurs only ant people.
once, in the Hiphil (Ps 72:6).
mizräq. Basin, bowl. Twice this noun is used
Derivative to refer to drinking-bowls (Arnos 6:6; Zech 9: 15)
and thirty times to basins used in various reli-
584a 1'1'!'! (zarzip) drop, dripping (Ps
gious settings and ceremonial rituals. They were
72:6, only).
considered of great significance because sacrifi-
cial blood was sprinkled, spattered, or splashed
585 i'".I! (zäraq) scatter, sprinkle, strew. (Asv
from them.
similar, Rsv "throw upon. ")
G.V.G.
Derivative
585a t;,j!~ ( mizräq) bowl, basin. 586 *"l"I! (zärar) sneeze. This verb occurs
~~ly in the Poel (Job 41:10; II Kgs 4:35).
The verb zäraq, meaning "to toss, throw, scat-
ter in abundance" (cf. BDB) appears thirty-five
times; its synonym näza appears twenty-four 587 ri:,.\ (zeret) span (e.g. Isa40:2; Ex25:10).

254
 :i"I (IJöb). See no. 589a.
M Derivative
590a ii•~t, (/J.ebyön) hiding, hiding place,
588 H1r, (/Jäbä') hide. (Asv and RSVsimilar.) only in Hab 3:4.
Derivatives This word means "hide," used intransitively
588a M;;t,rr;(malJäbe') hiding place, only for people hiding, usually in fear for their Jives.
in lsa 32:2, ma!Jabe' rCtalJ (con- The exception is II Kgs 7:12 where an army is
struct state). presumed to be hiding in ambush. The use is
588b H :lt:J7; (ma/Jäbö') hiding place, only ~iphal except in lsa 26:20, which uses the Qal. lt
in I Sam 23:23. 1sprobably a variant spelling of IJ.äbä'and should
/Jäbä', in twenty-five of its thirty occurrences, be considered with it.
C.P.W.
refers to people hiding in fear of death. Thus the
five kings of the southem confederacy hid them-
selvesin a cave out offear of Joshua (Josh 19:27), (/J.abbCtrii). See no. 598g.
i"!';ll:Drr
and Adam and Eve hid themselves out of con-
sciousness of their alienation from the Lord God 591 i:,;r, (/J.äba() beat (of/, out), thresh. (ASV,
(Gen 3:8). Other occasions include Saul hiding RSVsimilar.)
fromthe public (in modesty?) when he was made
The word is used regarding the harvesting or
king(1 Sam 10:22). Young men "hid themselves" preparation of certain crops: olive trees beaten
in respect or awe from Job (Job 29:8, RSV"with- (Deut 24:20), wheat threshed (Jud 6: 11), barley
drew"). Jacob fled "secretly" from Laban ("hid (Ruth 2: 17). Certain spices are "beaten out" with
himself to flee," Gen 31:27). The most notable a stick (Isa 28:27). The only other usage is figura-
use is in Gen 3 :8, 10 where Adam and Eve hid tive, referring to God's action in regathering Is-
themselves from the Lord after their sin. Tue rael to her homeland (lsa 27: 12).
context _says that they hid in fear, possibly re- C.P.W.
membenng the threat of certain death for their
transgression and sensing their guilt in the pres-
ence of the righteous God. ii•~t, (/J.ebyön). See no. 590d.
Twice the thing hid is not a person. In Job
29:10 the nobles "hid" their voices (Asv RSV 592 ,;r, (/J.abal). The words "bind," "pledge,"
"voice ... was hushed," KJV "held 'their and "travail" are uniled in BDB under one
peace"). In Job 38:30 the waters "hide them- root.
selves ' as a stone, that is, water as such disap-
pears as it becomes ice (Rsv "become hard"). lt appears that there are several words, one
In the Hiphil the use of this verb is transitive as originally beginning with /J.meaning "bind" (root
Rahab "hid" the spies (Josh 6:17, 25, et al.). The I in KB) which has an Arabic and Ugaritic cog-
nate; a second beginning originally with h mean-
singleoccurrence of the Hophal is passive of this
use, as people are hidden in prisons (Isa 42:22). ing "pledge" (root II in KB) which has a cognate
1:J1euse in the Niphal, the Hithpael, and the in Arabic in the Ishtafel stem; a third beginning
smgleoccurrence of the Pual (Job 24:4) is gener- originally with IJ meaning "destroy" (root III in
ally intransitive with a few instances of passive KB) which has a cognate in Arabic; and a fourth
use such as Joash "hidden" from Athaliah beginning originally with IJ meaning "travail"
(root IV in KB). The fifth, "advise;" has no
(II Kgs 11:3 and II Chr 22: 12).
/Jäbii (q.v.) is probably a variant spelling of Arabic equivalent. The analysis ofKB, similar to
l)äbä'and the two should be considered together. GB, will be followed.
592a t',;r, (IJäbal) I, bind (verbal form
C.P.W.
not used in the OT).
589 :;r, (IJäbab) Love (Deut 33:3). Derivatives
Derivative 592b t',;m (IJebel) I, cord, rope, band,
company (Asv and RSVsimilar).
589a :in (/J.öb) bosom (Job31:33). 592c ',;f n (/J.öbel) sailor, used of the Ty-
rian masters of the sea in Ezk 27:8,
590 :i;r, (/J.abii) hide. (Asv the same, Rsv also 27-29 and of Jonah's shipmaster
"conceal. ") (Jon I :6).

257
593 ~~r,(IJäba/)
592d used only in
',:l)n ( 1:zibbe/) mast, 593 ',:in (hiibal) 1/, lay to pledge, take a pledge
Prov 23 :35. Exact meaning uncer- -~f, ~ithhold. (Asv and Rsv similar but ~o
tain. not use "withhold"). The verb, as used m
the or, means "to hold as pledge or secu-
rity.'' lt is used only in the Qal (eight times)
hebel I. Cord, rope, snare, tackling, line, lot, por- and possibly in the Niphal (Prov 13:13).
iion, region, country, coast, band, company.
The basic use of the noun /:lebe/ is as „ cord" or Derivative
„ rope." lt may be a strong, utilitarian kind of 593a t,·::r,i ( l:iabol) pledge.
rope for letting spies out of a window (Josh 2: 15),
Used three times in Ezk, it refers to a pledge
for letting Jeremiah in and out of the cistem (Jer
taken (or registered) to guarantee a loan. Another
38:6), for laying waste a city (II Sam 17:13), or for
word used for pledge is 'eräbon (q.v.) which has
bracing a ship's mast and securing the sail (hence
come over into Greek and appears in the Gr. NT
"'tackling" Isa 33:23). lt may be decorative, of
as arrabon "eamest" (Eph 1:14).
fine linen (Est 1:6), or used on the head for The details of taking a pledge are not entirely
mourning (I Kgs 20:31). It.rnay be used as a snare
clear. E. A. Speiser in a very helpful article
or trap (Job 18: 10). The figurative use in connec-
draws a close parallel between the law in Lev
tion with death (Ps 116:3) or Sheol (II Sam 22:6)
25:35-54 ("Leviticus and the Critics," in Orien-
may represent death as a snare, or binding. Al-
ta/ and Biblical Studies, University of Pennsyl-
ternatively these forms may be considered to be
vania, 1967, pp. 123-42). He remarks that "in
from hebe/, "pain" (as of childbirth see below). Mesopotamia, interest was normally discounted
In mo.st occurrences these two nouns are indis-
in advance. The technical term for such advance
tinguishable by form. The KJV translates th~se deduction was hübul/ü (not loan without inter-
and other passages "sorrows." Other figurative est as the term -is sometimes erronneously ren-
uses include: the "silver cord," speaking of life
dered, but loan with interest already deducted)."
(Eccl 12:6), "with cords of a man," that is,
Speiser holds that the Lev passage (which calls
"compassionately" (Hos 11:4), the "cords" or
the loan neshek, q.v.) shows that the lsraelites
"snares" of sin (Prov 5:22, RSV"toils"), et al.
gave discounted loans, then, if the creditor could
The cord may be used to measure, as David
not pay, he was seized to work otf the loan.
measured two lines of Moabites for death and one
However, at this point no more interest would be
tobe spared (II Sam 8:2). Specifically, a measur- charged-that second interest would be neshek
ing line is /:lebe/ middii (Zech 2:1). Land is mea- "usury." Speiser, following Koschaker, also
sured, or divided by line (Arnos 7:17; Ps 78:55).
suggests that the cloak taken in pledge (Ex 22:26
From this, hebe/ comes to mean the area mea-
[H 25])-or the shoes that confirm a contract
sured, a portion or Jot (Jot meaning "obtained _by (Ruth4:7; Arnos 2:6)-is not a security for a loan,
chance"), especially the inheritance of a tnbe
but a token exchange validating the transaction.
(Josh 17:5f), or of an individual (Ps 105:11). lt
Apparently it was taken in evidence and then was
also denotes a "country" or „ region" (Deut
to be returned promptly ("'Of Shoes and
3 :4f. ). If the region is near the sea it is translated
Shekels," idem, pp. 154-55).
"coast" (Zeph 2:5, 6,7). The KJVtranslates /:lebe/
C.P.W.
as coast also in Josh 19:29, but the Asv margin
and the Rsv take the word in this context to be a 594 ,::n (häbal) 1/1, destroy, spoil; deal cor-
proper name. -;uptly, be corrupt, offend. (Asv also be con-
hebe/ is to be translated "band" or "com-
sumed; RSValso be broken ruined.)
pa~y" in I Sam 10:5, 10. Possibly this is true of Ps
119:61, "bands of wicked men," but "snares" Derivative
also fits the context. The use of /:lebe/ meaning 594a t',;ry (/:lebe/) destruction.
"band" or "company" is attested in Ugaritic
where it is used for a flock of birds as well as a The main use of this verb is in the Pie!, mean-
company of people. lts use as "rope" is also at- ing to "ruin," "destroy." In the Qal the meaning
tested. (See Cyrus H. Gordon, UT, 19: no. 832.) is "act corruptly."
hebe/ is a symbol of captivity or subjection The use of this verb in the Qal, "be very bad,"
(I Kgs 20:31 f.) and is used figuratively of the is limited to Job 34:31, "otfend," and Neh 1:7,
snares for the wicked (Job 18:10; Prov 5:22, the "act corruptly," against God in both instances.
enslavement of sin) or set by the wicked (Ps 140:5 häbal may. occur in the Niphal stem in Prov
[H 6]; 119:61). The Psalmist describes his situa- i3:13, "'be destroyed" or "bring destruction on
tion before the Lord's deliverance as one in oneself." Some, however, take this form to be
which he was bound by the cords of death (Ps from hüba/ 1, "to take a pledge."
18:5 [H 6]; 116:3). The· Pie! use, "destroy" or "ruin," may be in-
C.P.W. tensive of the Qal, "act corruptly." The destruc-

258
 598 ,,i, (~äbar)

tion may be carried out by God (Eccl 5:5), a na- (Job 37:12), or the "guidance" or "counsel" of
tion (lsa 13:5), a knave or villain (lsa 32:7), or the wicked (Prov 12:5). In general the word
"the little foxes that spoil the vines" (Song 2: 15). means "wise guidance" or "good counsel" (al-
The verbis used with the cognate }]ehe/, destruc- though the Rsv translates "skill" in Prov 1:5). lt is
tion, in Mic 2: 10. used only in Prov except for the reference in Job
The Pual, "be destroyed," is used just twice: (above).
in reference to the oppressive yoke of the Assy-
rians (lsa 10:27), and in Job's complaint that bis 596.1 1'1?.;;r:i
(}Jaha~~elet) meadow saffron or
spirit "is broken" (Rsv; ASV"consumed"; KJV, crocus (Song 2: 1; Isa 35: 1).
"breath is corrupt").
!JebelII "destruction" (Mic 2:10 and possibly
.Job 21:17), is related to /Jähal III. 597 i';r;r (}Jahaq) embrace, foul (ASV, RSV
In most forms }Jehel (see below) is not distin- similar).
guishable from IJebel except by context. For this
Derivative
reason there is some disagreement as. to which
word is involved in many of the contexts, and 597a i'~l'.l (}Jihhüq) foul (hands).
some of the analysis is arbitrary. lt seems best to }Jähaq basically designates an expression of
classify under }Jehel only those contexts which love by the position or action of one's hands or
refer to the pains of childbirth, whether literal arms. Three specific aspects of love are referred
(Isa 26:17) or figurative (Jer 13:21). Other uses to.
(includingJob 21: 17 "snares") should be consid- The first use of the term expresses the idea of
ered as from }]ehe/ I or II. The singular of this embracing someone eise to show fondness or af-
word is used only in Isa 66:7. The KJVtranslates fection. Thus, Laban embraced his nephew Jacob
/Jebelmost often as "sorrows" and includes a (Gen 29: 13) and Joseph his brothers in Egypt after
number of instances which may be just as easily revealing his identity (Gen 48:10). The "great
classified with }Jebei (Ps 18:4-5 et al [H 5-6 )). woman" (or prophetess) of Shunem was prom-
C.P.W. ised a newborn son whom she could lovingly hold
in her arms (II Kgs 4: 16). Job uses the term of one
595 *',;r;r (/Jäha/) IV, bring forth, travaü. Used who seeks a rock of safety to find comfort and
only in the Piel. The initial consonant, as security (24:8).
shown by the Arabic cognate, was origi- The second use of IJähaq describes the em-
nally IJ. lt is used only in Ps 7:15 and Song brace of lovers. This embrace can designate
8:5. virtuous love (Song 2:6) or the adulterous em-
Derivative bracing of a stranger's bosom.
Finally, the idea of folding of hands is an im-
595a t',::m (}]ehe/) pain, pang, sor- plicit designation of self-love. This folding of the
row. (ASV and Rsv similar.) This hands (the noun /Jihhüq is used twice, Prov 6: 10;
noun means "pain," specifically 24 :33) is an evidence of sloth and lack of concern.
that of childbirth. In most forms However, the Preacher says the fool folds his
IJehel is indistinguishable from IJebel hands and eats meat, while the worrying, striving
(above). The word occurs with this man sees only wind (Eccl 4:5). The point is that
definition only eight times. neither the sloth nor striving of the self-loving
one are conducive to a lasting peace.
596 ,;r;r (IJähal) V. This verb is represented G.V.G.
in the 01 only in its derivative.
Derivative 598 i;r;r (IJähar) be joined, coupled, league,
heap up, have fellowship wilh, be compact; be
596a ti?~J'.11;1( ta}Jhüla) good advice, (wise)
a channer. BDB adds "to unite, tie a magic
counsel. (RSV(wise) guidance, skill,
knot," (Rsv has "joined forces," Asv "joined
counsel; Asv similar.)
together" and other such variations).
The noun is used six times, always in the
plural. BDB and many commentators, however, Derivatives
relate this word to IJhl I as a nautical term, rope- 598a ti;r,r (}Jeher) company, association,
pulling and hence steering (a ship), used figura- spei/.
tively of wise counsel (Prov 1:5, 11: 14; 20: 18; 598b :i:,;r, (IJehra) association, company.
24:6). 598c ti;i, (}Jäher) uniled, associate, com-
ta/Jbülais "direction" or "guidance" (perhaps panion.
from the pulling of a rope to guide or direct). lt is 598d tl'l:-,;r, (}Jaberef) consort, i.e. wife,
used for God's giving "direction" to the clouds ·orily in Mal 2:14.

259
598 i;r;r (/:zäbar)
598e tri'.');:in ( l;öberet) a thing that joins or ..eher. Company, association,spell, enchantment,
is joined, only of the curtain pieces of companion; grandson. a variant of l;iiber, l;eber
the tabernacle, as joined together reflects the sense of "bind, cast a spell," except
(Ex 26: 10; 36: 17). in a few places (Prov 21 :9). The usual translation
598f i;i:r (l;abbär) associate, partner in a is "enchantments" referring to the means the
trade or calling, only in Job 40:30. charmers employed to influence people or the
598g :i,,,i:r (l;abbimi), :i,~lj (l;abbürii), result of their charming efforts (Deut 18: 11). All
:i,;,i:r (l;abra) stripe, blow. aspects were divinely forbidden to covenant
598h :i,~,;r:i (l;abarbürii) stripe, mark, people.
only in Jer 13:23. The meaning "companion" is found three
598i t~i,:in (hebron) Hebron. times in Jud 4. The meaning "grandson"
598j tri:,;~r,, (mal;beret) thing joined, (perhaps from the close connection between son
place of joining. and grandson genetically) occurs in Gen 46:17;
598k :i,~i:rl? (m' l;abb' ra) binder, clamp, Num 26:4; I Chr 4: 18; 7:31; 8: 17.
joint.
„äber. Companion, associate, knit together (RSV
In U garitic the term appears as a name for a "associated with" him; ASV "companion" for fel-
town, meaning „community," and it is thought to lows).
be related to the common Semitic root meaning This word is used as an adjective and noun to
"to bejoined" (UT 19: no. 924) and translated as refer to the very close bond that can exist be-
"bind" in Assyrian. tween persons (cf. UT 19: no. 834). In Aramaic
The main idea of l;äbar in the oT is „to join or the term indicates the close relationship between
unite" two or more things. However, the root Daniel and his three friends because of their
idea of the term "to bind" also appears, espe- common faith and loyalty to God (Dan 2: 13-18).
cially in the concept "charm." Only in Deut The Psalmist expressly states that the fear ofGod
18:11 does this term appear in a verbal form to is the common bond between "companions" (Ps
express the idea of charming, i.e. casting a spell 119:63).
or tying up a person by magic. The act of charm- The term häber is also used to express the very
ing is set forth as an idolatrous act and diametri- close relationship that exists between people in
cally opposed to receiving revelation from God various walks of life. Israelites were "united as
through his appointed prophets (Deut 18: 15). one man" (Rsv) in their war against the Benja-
The verb l;äbar in the sense of "join" is used mites because of their outrageous crime (Jud
with four specific references. 1) Objects were 20: 11). Men can be very closely joined together
joined together, e.g. curtains in tabemacle con- as thieves (lsa 1:23), as destroyers (Prov 28:24),
struction to make one complete side (Ex 26:3), and as corrupt priests likened to ambushing rob-
shoulder pieces in coupling together the parts of bers (Hos 6:9).
the priests' holy garments (Ex 28:7), wings ofthe „iberet. Consort, wife, companion. This
living creatures touching one another (Ezk 1:9). feminine noun, synonym ofwife (Mal 2:14), indi-
2) Men were joined together in political and mili- cates the type of a close relationship which the
tary activities. Five nations of the Sodom- root l;äbar expresses.
Gomorrah confederacy united for military pur-
poses against invaders from the east (Gen 14:3) _.öberet. Coupling. A feminine noun, it refers
but their union led to a common defeat. to the actual joint of, or joining piece between,
Jehoshaphat made a political union with wicked two parts of the tabernacle (Ex 26:10) and temple
(II Chr 34:11).
Ahaziah of Israel for commercial purposes but it
was denounced by God's prophet (II Chr 20:35- _.ebrön. Hebron. This proper name is said to
37). Daniel saw kings joining themselves together be related to the verb l;äbar and thus its meaning
in a league (Hithpael) (Rsv "make alliance") could be considered as "confederacy, associa-
which was doomed to failure (Dan 11:6, 28). tion, league" or possibly as "charmer" or "en-
3) Men are joined in a general manner as belong- chanting ... Certain scholars have endeavored to
ing to the race of the living (Eccl 9:4) and in a link the name Hebron to certain organized or
specific way as a group of people who are formed united military activities. But even though it is
into a strong unified city (Ps 122:3). 4) Men of true that Abraham, the father of the Israelites,
Judah wrongly joining with faithless Israel in mili- lived in its area (Gen 23), and that David lived
tary and political ventures (II Chr 20:35) dis- there, united the people of Israel, and reigned
pleased God; menjoining themselves to idols and there for seven and a half years (II Sam 5), and
idol worshipers did so much more (Ps 94:20). also that Absalom tried to unite the people in a
God's heartrending complaint against Ephraim is revolt there against David, these episodes do not
that he is joined to idols (Hos 4: 17). Tobe joined indicate necessarily that the place was named
to idols means to have forsaken God. Hebron because of these various activities.

260
 602 .:i~r,
(~ägag)

Hebron was perhaps the highest town in Pales- and Ugaritic evidence. lnstead of damming the
tine (elevation 3,040 feet). Abraham built his floods, the miner would be represented as search-
third altar in its vicinity (Gen 13:18), lived and ing out the sources of the rivers.
buried his dear one there (Gen 23). lt was given to E.Y.
Calebas part ofhis inheritance (Josh 14:13-14). lt
continued to have religious significance in Israel 600 1'\:lM (fJbt). Assumed root of the following.
because it became a city of refuge (Josh 1:13), 600a Cl'l'l~ir) ( /J(lhittim) jlaJ cakes or bread
and it was the scene of the establishment of the wafers (l Chr 9:31, only).
Davidictheocratic monarchy (II Sam 2:4; 5:3). lt 600b r,;r.r~ (mafJahat) jlaJ plaJe, pan, or
remained a worship center (II Sam 15:7, 8) even griddle (e.g. Lev 2:5; 6:14; Ezk
after David transferred his capital to Jerusalem. 4:3).
lt may be noted that in those years the tabernacle
at Shiloh was destroyed and the temple of Sol- c•r-i:;r.r(!Jabitt im). See no. 600a.
omon not yet built. There were then different ac- J,:r (~aR)- See no. 602a.
knowledged places of God-honoring worship of N~l'.'I(/Jägä'). See no. 602b.
which Hebron was one, Gibeon another and
there were others. 601 :lJM (/Jgh). Assumedroot of the following.
601a t:l~i;t ( /JäRäh) grasshopper or locust.
maltberet. This feminine noun is not translated
by one specific word. lt refers to the things The word may be derived from a root which in
joined, e.g. curtain pieces of the tabernacle (Ex Arabic means "to cover" or "to conceal," allud-
26:4-5)or the shoulder pieces of the priestly gar- ing to the covering of the ground or the conceal-
ment (Ex 39:20). lt also refers to the actual place ing of the sun by locust swarms. The term /Jgb
where the joining of two or more pieces took appears in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 836). In the Tal-
place. mud the word becomes the general term for lo-
G.V.G. cust.
The word appears five times. The KJV trans-
lates it four times as "grasshopper" and once as
1i,;ii,;r.r(/Jaharhürii). See no. 598h. "locust" in II Chr 7:13.
1;,~i, (hehron ). See no. 598i. /Jägäh occurs at Eccl 12:5 in a difficult passage
ri,~n(haheret). See no. 598d. which describes the progressive senility of a man.
ri~i"n
(höherer). See no. 598e. The NEB has "the locust's paunch is swollen,"
and the NAB "the locust grows sluggish," which
59<) lV;li;t (IJäbash) bind, saddle, bandage, govern. portrays the stiffness of the aged. On the basis of
Arabic cognates, some hold that the word here is
Used in the Qal, Piel, and Pual stems. Cognate
with Ugaritic fJbsh (UT 19: no. 835); Akkadian a term for the hip.
See also ·arheh.
abäshu; Arabic IJabasa "to confine, to restrict."
E.Y.
lt occurs thirty-three limes.
/Jähash means "to bind on" one's headgear in
Ex 29:9; Lev 8:13; Ezk 24: 17. Jonah speaks ofthe
602 ~;i;i (/Jägag) celebrate, keep (hold) a (sol-
emn)/east (holy day). (ASV and Rsv similar.)
seaweeds which were "bound" around his head
(Jon 2:5 [H 6]). Derivatives
lt is used frequently of "saddling" an ass: Gen
22:3;Num 22:21; II Sam 17:23; I Kgs 13:13, etc. 602a tJi:,(/Jag) /east.
In Ezk 27:24 a passive participle is used for a 602b N~i;t (/Jägä') reeling used only in
decoration of "twisted" cordwork. Isa 19:17. (Derivative from /Jägag
unsure.)
fJahash is often used of "binding" on a ban-
dage, and thus of medicating and healing the The basic idea of this root is "keep a feast" or
wounded. "celebrate a holiday" but the word usually refers
In Job 34: 17 fJähash has the sense of "rule" or to the three main pilgrimage-feasts of Israel. The
"govern." verb is used sixteen times while the derivative
In Job 40: 13 /Jäbash is taken in the sense of the fJaR (below) is used sixty-one times.
Arabic fJahasa "to imprison" by the NAB. The Most often the verb (sometimes with its cog-
NEB aptly translates "shroud them in an unknown nate accusative) is used specifically for the cele-
grave." bration of one of the three main pilgrim-feasts
Many scholars (Dhorme, Dahood, Pope, Row- (Ex 23: 14), the Passover together with the Feast
ley) and some translations (JB, NAB, NIV) interpret of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks or
fJibbesh in Job 28: 11 as representing fJippe.f Harvest of Firstfruits, and the Feast of Booths
"searches," instead of KJV "bindeth" or NEB (Tabernacles) or Feast of lngathering.
"dams up," on the basis of the Vulgate, Aquila, The Passover, instituted at the Exodus (Ex 12),

261
602 ;i~i, (/Jägag)

commemorated God's sparing the Israelites when (Ex 23: 15-16; 34: 18-22; Deut 16:16: II Chr 8: 13).
the first-born of Egypt died. lt was the fourteenth Otherwise the noun applies most often (twenty
day of the first month (Abib or Nisan, about times) to the Feast of Booths (Ingathering), sec-
April). lt was followed on the fifteenth day by the ondly (eleven times) to the Feast of Unleavened
Feast of Unleavened Bread which was held for a Bread (or Passover) and once to the Feast of
week with a special feast on the final day (Ex Weeks (Deut 16: 10).
13:3-10; Lev 23:4-8; Deut 16: 1-8). The two are !JaR is used for the feast instituted by Jero-
usually considered as one feast. By this feast Is- boam I to take the place of the Feast of Booths (1
rael not only expressed heartfelt joy for the Kgs 12:32-33). The term is used on two occasions
Lord's deliverance, but was reminded of its de- for specific feasts which are left unnamed (Jud
votion to the Law (Ex 13:9). 21:19: Ps8l:3 [H 41). There are nine references to
The Feast of Weeks or Harvest of Firstfruits feasts in general.
later known as Pentecost because it was held fifty In Ex 23: 18 the phrase "fat of my feast" is
days after the first day of Unleavened Bread (fif- parallel to "blood of my sacrifice." The term
teenth day of Nisan), although properly fifty days feast is used of the sacrifice connected with the
after the waving of the sheaf of the firstfruits feast, hence the KJV translation here is "sac-
(which was done on a Sabbath. therefore Pente- rifice." The KJV and ASV translate !JaR as "sac-
cost feil on Sunday) (Lev 23:9-21), done at the rifice" also in Ps 118:27 on the basis that since it
beginning of the harvest (Deut 16:9-11). The is bound and the altar is mentioned, it must be an
feast, then, commemorated the first fifty days of animal. The RSV "festal procession" assumes the
harvest. binding tobe decorative and figurative. The term
The Feast of lngathering was held for a week is used by Moses to refer to the feast he re-
starting the fifteenth day of the seventh month quested from Pharoah to be allowed to hold (Ex
(Ethanim or Tishri, about October) to celebrate 10:9). lt is also used for the feast held in honor of
the end of the harvest period (Ex 23: 16). This was Aaron's calf (Ex 32:5).
in conjunction with the Feast of Booths (Taber- The term mo'ed "appointed time," is also
nacles) or Succoth which commemorated the used for "feast," but is a broader term including
time when the children of Israel lived in tents. sabbaths, new moons, etc.
For a week all native Israelites were to live in [Critical scholars debate the development of
booths to remind them of a different era (Lev these feasts. Eissfeldt puts it, "Thus, for exam-
23:33-43; Deut 16:13). The two feasts were con- ple, in J and in E <Ex. 34: 18a, 22; 23: 15a,a, 16) the
sidered one, and with the Day of Atonement and connections of the three agricultural festivals
New Year's the seventh month was especially with nature is quite clear. These connections re-
feastive. Today it is called the time of the high main recognisable in D too (Deut. l6:3a, 9-11,
holy days. 13-15), no matter whether the statements made
The verb is used more generally in Ps 42:4 here are original or not and also in H (Lev. 23:9-
[H 5] and Nah 2: 1. but the reference is probably 12, 15-21, 39-43)" (O/d Testament lntroduction,
to one or all of the above feasts. lt is also used by trans. P. R. Ackroyd, Harper, 1965, p. 207). The
Moses in his request to Pharoah that the children matter is treated extensively from a similar
of Israel might leave to hold a feast. viewpoint by DeVaux (Al, pp. 484-501).
David found his enemies, the Amalekites, lt is indeed true that these feasts have an ag-
"spread abroad ... eating and drinking and feast- ricultural aspect. This is emphasized, as Eissfeldt
ing" (1 Sam 30: 16), that is, they were acting as if says, in Ex, Lev, and Deut. DeVaux argues that a
they were holding a feast. The ASV and RSV trans- feast like Passover was not agricultural, but be-
late "dancing." More difficult to translate is Ps came attached to the agricultural feast of un-
107:27. The context pictures sailors on a storm- leavened bread at a late date. All this is supposi-
tossed ship, staggering like drunken men. A tion. lt is rather natural that the institution of the
parallel to staggering in this context would hardly Passover in Ex 12 does not emphasize the ag-
be feasting, but the actions of one feasting or ricultural. The further provisions given in view of
dancing at a feast might be descriptive of the entering the land do.
sailors, hence the translation "reel (to and fro)." Apparently the Passover season with the sheaf
of firstfruits (Lev 23: 10) signalized the beginning
'1ag. (Solemn) feast, feast day. The noun of barley harvest. The feast of weeks in June
means "pilgrim feast" or simply "holiday," i.e. a would be at the end of the wheat harvest. The
day or season of religious joy. The Arabic cog- feast ofbooths or ingathering would celebrate the
nate, haggun, is used to refer to a pilgrimage to grape harvest as weil as olive, dates, and other
Mecca. fruit. These feasts were pilgrimage festivals, i.e.
The use of this noun is limited mainly to the all males had to come to the sanctuary and bring
three pilgrim-feasts mentioned above. Four times their contribution which were given in kind (Ex
it is used for each of tte three in a single context 23:15). R.L.H.]

262
 605 i:ir, (IJädad)

Bibliography: Haran, Menahem, "zebah An important use of the term appears in Ps

hayyamim," VT 19: 11-22. Lewy, Hildegard and 76: 10 [H 11], where the KJVreads: "Surely the
Julius, "The Origin of the Week and the Oldest wrath of man shall praise thee: the remainder of
West Asiatic Calendar," HUCA 17: 1-152. wrath shalt thou restrain (lit, gird)." This means
Morgenstern, Julian, "Supplementary Studies in that God girds on himself as a garment the last
the Calendars of Ancient Israel,'" HUCA IO: futile efforts of man's wrath. This is the general
1-148. Richardson, TWB, pp. 211--13. Segal, J. sense of the RV, RSV,NASB,and JB.
B., "The Hebrew Festivals and the Calendar," On the other hand, the NEBand the NABrepoint
JSS 6: 74-94. Snaith, Norman H., "Time in the 'ädäm "man·· as 'edom "Edom" and l;emöt
Old Testament," in Promise and Fu/fj//ment, ed. "wrath(s)" as l;amät "Hamath," a city in Syria,
F. F. Bruce, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1963, pp. and follow the Lxx·s heortasei, which presup-
175-86. Stewart, Roy A., "The Jewish Festi- poses the verb IJäRaR "make festival" instead of
vals," EQ 43: 149-61. IJäRar. The NABreads: "For the wrathful Edom
C.P.W. shall glorify you and the survivors of Hamath
shall keep your festivals." The NIV is: "Your
603 :,Jn (/;Rh). As.sumed root of the following. wrath against men brings you praise, and the sur-
603a Cl'm':t(/JilRäwim) places of conceal- vivors of your wrath are restrained."
ment, retreats (Song 2: 14; Jer 49: 16; The appearance of the verb ya!JR'"rü in II Sam
Ob 3). 22:46 seems to be a textual error for ya!Jr' RÜ
"they came out.·.·
iiJt:r (/JilRÖr). See no. 604a. flägörä, tiägör. Girdle, belt. The feminine form
iiJi:t ( /JäRbr). See no. 604b. !JiiRöriiis used five times and the masculine form
!JiiRör is used three times.
604 i~i:i (hägar) gird. The /JtiRöra was mankind's first garment,
loincloths (KJV,Rsv "aprons") hastily improvised
Derivatives
from fig leaves by Adam and Eve (Gen 3:7).
604a tiiJr,t ( /JilRbr) girdle, belt. The /JäRorii as worn by women was not an
604b iiJi:t (/JäRbr) girded (Ezk 23:15, undergarment, as the word "girdle" connotes in
only). modern usage, but a valuable ornamented belt or
604c t:,iiJti ( /JtiRbrii) girdle, belt. sash like the Japanese.abi (lsa 3:24; Prov 31 :24).
604d ri:,·J~I; ( ma/JiiRöret) girding, sash With men the IJiiRorii ( IJllRbr) was the ac-
coutrement on which the sword was hung (I Sam
/JiiRaris cognate with Akkadian aRäru "to sur-
18:4). The phrase designating young men fit for
round," Ugaritic IJRr "to gird" (UT 19, no. 837),
military service is "all who were able to put on
and Arabic l;agara '"to restrain." lt appears in
the IJiiRbrli" (II Kgs 3:21; KJV "armour," NEB
the Bible forty-four times.
"arms"). This military belt was highly prized as a
The verb is used of girding the girdle and other
trophy of war (II Sam 18:I !); Cyrus Gordon be-
garments in Ex 29:9, Lev 8:7, 13, etc. lt is used of
girdingabout the loins the sackcloth, the garment lieves that this verse reflects a tradition of belt
wrestling.
of coarse goats · hair used in mourning or in peni-
For an illustration of belt wrestling see ANEP,
tence: II Sam 3:31; I Kgs 20:32; lsa 22: 12, 32: 11;
fig. 219. For synonyms see 'ahne!, 'ezör, l;esheh,
Lam 2:10.
~iiRaris often used of the girding on of a sword meza/J.
Bibliography: Gordon, Cyrus H., "Belt-
as in I Sam 17:39; Ps 45:3 [H 4). In I Sam 25:13
Wrestling in the Bible World,'' The Hehrew
NEBand JB translate "buckle on" the sword. In
Union ColleRe Annual, 1950-51, pp. 131-36;
Jud 18:11 the armed men are literally "girded"
plates 1-V. Hönig, H. W., Die BekleidunR des
with weapons.
Hebräers, Zürich: Brunner, Bodmer, 1957, pp.
The proverbial statement in I Kgs 20: 11. liter-
2{r.27, 7{r.77.
ally "let not him who is girding boast as he who is
E.Y.
ungirding," means, as the Targum indicates,
"Let not him who is girding himself and going ii:, (!;ad). Seeno.605a.
down into the battle boast himself as the man
who has conquered and is coming up from it." 605 ij" ( l;ädad) be sharp, keen (e.g. Hab I :8;
The NEBsubstitution, "The lame must not think lsa 44: 12).
himselfa match for the nimble,' · is hardly appro-
priate. Derivatives
The custom of tucking up one's Jong flowing 605a ii:, (!;ad) sharp (e.g. Ezk 5:1; lsa
robes into the girdle before strenuous activity or 49:2).
walking quickly has given us the expression "to 605b i1'llj ( l;addud) sharpened,
gird up one's loins"." pointed (Job41:22).

263
606 ~,r,(IJ,äda)
606 :i,r, (/:,äda) 1, be (come) sharp (Prov Smick, E., "Suggested New Translations of Old
27: 17). Testament Poetry," BETS 11: 90-91.
E.Y.
607 :i,r, (/:,iida)
II, re1oice in the Qal stem,
and make glad or gladden in the Pie) stem.
,1,r, (IJaddüd). See no. 605b.
Derivative :im:, (IJedwa). See no. 607a.
607a :im:, (/:,edwa) gladness, joy.
The verbis used but once in the Pie) in Ps 21 :7, 609 ''" (fJiidal) I, cease, stop, forbear, desist,
'"Thou hast made him exceeding glad with thy forego.
countenance" (KJv).
Derivatives
lt is used in the Qal in Ex 18:9 to describe
Jethro's rejoicing when he heard the n:port of 609a t,1r:, (IJedel) cessation.
Moses. Another occurrence has been suggested 609b t,1~ (/Jädel) fleeting, rejected.
at Jer 31:13 by reading the MT ya/:,däw '"to- The word is cognate with the Arabic l:}aqa/a
gether" as ya/:,dü '"shall be merry," a reading '"to leave, forsake"; the root is unknown in
supported by the LXX and adopted by the Rsv, the Ugaritic. The verb occurs flfty-five times.
JB ('"will be happy"), and the NEB ('"shall re-
IJädal most often means to cease doing some-
joice"). The MT reading is upheld by the NAB('"as thing, as in Gen 11:8; Jud 15:7; Job 3:17; 1 Sam
weil") and by J. Bright. 12:23; Jer44:18; 51:30.
Bibliography: Bright, John, Jeremiah, lt can mean to '"forbear" or "refrain" from
Doubleday, 1965, p. 274. Dahood, M., '"Ugaritic doing something, as in Job 16:6. The question put
and the Old Testament," Ephemerides to the oracle in I Kgs 22:6 was, "Shall I go ... to
Theolo{?icae Lovanienses 44:51. battle or shall I forbear?" In II Chr 25: 16 the
E.Y. imperative means '"stop" (Rsv), "be quiet" (JB).
In the parable of the trees in Jud 9:9, 11, 13
608 :i,r, (/:,iida) III, see, gaze; Niphal appear.
/:,iidal means "shall I give up."
In addition to the common Hebrew IJäza, re- In Num 9:13 the word means "neglect" or
flecting Ugaritic IJdy, M. Dahood in numerous '"fail."
articles and books has proposed that we should In Job 19:14 the verb can have either a transi-
also recognize many instances in which the He- tive sense: Job's relatives have failed or deserted
brew text has preserved the variant /:,iida'"to see." him (RSV,NAB),or an intransitive sense: they have
These suggestions have not been incorporated fallen away (NEB).
in any recent translations but some of his more In Ex 24: 12 IJädal means '"to leave alone." Job
plausible proposals have been listed in Koehler- twice asks that God leave him alone (Job 7:16;
Baumgartner's lexicon (cf. HCHL). 10:20). The prophet in Isa 2:22 advises his hear-
In Ps 33:15 where the KJVhas, '"He fashioneth ers, '"cease ye from man" (KJV), i.e. '"have no
their hearts "alike" yafJad, Dahood would more to do with man" (NEB).
suggest, '"The creator „ inspects," ya/:,d(eh), fJiidal is used eight times in the absolute sense of
their intention." In Ps 49: JO[H I IJ instead of the .. cease" or "come to an end."
KJV, "Likewise the fool and the brutish person
tiedel. Cessation. In Isa 38: 11, the sole occur-
perish," Dahood renders, '"If he 'gazes' upon
rence, the word /Jede/ is usually emended to read
fools." lnstead of the Rsv translation of Job
/Jeled '"world." Inasmuch as IQisa has the same
34:29, "'whether' it be a nation or a man," he
form as the MT, Dahood suggests that !Jede/ is
would propose, '"Upon nations and men he
·gazes. ·" correct and means '"cessation."
In Gen 49:6 and Job 3:6 instead of reading the !tädel. Fleeting, rejected. Appears three times
verbs as forms of yälJad '"tobe united or joined," in three different senses. In Ezk 3:27 it means
Dahood would see them as Niphals of fJiida and · 'one who forbears,'' or refuses to heed the proph-
render them "appear." et. In Ps 39:4 [H 5] translated "frail" (KJv), the
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Some Ambigu- word means "fleeting" or "short lived."
ous Texts in lsaias," CBQ 20: 46-48. ---, In lsa 53:3 the Messiah is described as "re-
'"Hebrew-Ugaritic Lexicography," Bib 45: jected of men" (KJV, RSV,JB, NIV), '"avoided by
407-8. --, "Ugaritic Lexicography," in men" (NAB). The alternative suggestion of
Melan{?es Eu{?ene Tisserant, 1, Vatican: Bib- Thomas, "forsaking men," is followed by the
lioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1964, p. 88. ---, NEB, "he shrank from the sight of men." Cal-
Psalms/, in AB, Doubleday, 1966. Ginsberg, H., derone suggests "senseless," from a root /:,ädal
'"Lexicographical Notes," in Hebräische II "to be fat" (q.v.). Neither is a preferable al-
WortforschunR, Leiden: Brill, 1967, pp. 71-72. ternative.

264
 613 Wji, (/Jädash)
Bibliography: Dahood, Mitchell, "/:,edel bridegroom (Song 3:4), and the room in which
'Cessation' in Isaiah 38, II," Bib 52: 215-16. Samson planned to meet with his wife (Jud 15:1).
Gordis, Robert, "Studies in Hebrew Roots of lt is a place to hide: for people in general (lsa
Contrasted Meanings," JQR 27: 33-58. Thomas, 26:20), men lying in wait for Samson (Jud 16:9,
D. Winton, "Some Observations on the Hebrew 12), Joash hidden from Athaliah (KJV "in the bed-
Root l:,dl," Supp VT 4: ~16. chamber," /:,tidarhammi(!ot II Kgs 11:2 same as
E.Y. II Chr 22: 11), Benhadad hiding from Ahab (1 Kgs
610 ,,i, (/:,ädal) II?, tobe fat, tobe prosperous.
20:30). The last passage actually reads "a room in
a room" and is translated "inner chamber." The
same phrase is used by Micaiah when telling the
Citing the Arabic hadula ··to become fat,
false prophet Zedekiah where he would hide
plump." Thomas and Calderone have suggested
(1 Kgs 22:25, same as II Chr 18:24)and by Elisha
that in some passages l:,ädal may reflect an al-
when telling the prophet where to take Jehu to
togetherdifferent root. This may be plausible for
anoint him (II Kgs 9:2). The /Jeder is a place
I Sam 2:5 which would read, "The hungry grew
where one can do evil in secret: Amnon (II Sam
fat." Job 14:6 would then read "that he may be
filledwith food" instead of "that he may rest." 13:I0f.), the elders of Israel (Ezk 8: 12).
More generally the word is used for inner
In Prov 19:27 Calderone would read "grow
rooms of the temple complex (KJV parlours, I Chr
prosperous... by hearing instruction": in Prov
28: 11) and for storerooms (Prov 24:4). In Deut
23:4"by your wisdom grow prosperous."
Bibliography: Calderone, Philip J ., .. 1/DL-II
32:25 it is used in contrast with "outside," hence
KJV "within." (Terrors and destruction are to
in Poetic Texts," CBQ 23: 451-60. --,
"Supplementary Note on lfDL-II," CBQ 24: come in both places.) lt is not used for the holy of
holies of the tabernacle or temple.
412-19.
E.Y. The word is used four times figuratively, refer-
ring to chambers within the belly. · 'The words of
a whisperer go down to the 'innermost parts of
611 ;,ir, (l:,dq). Assumed root of the following.
the belly'' (Prov 18:8; 26:22). The same area is
611a i'11'.!(/:,edeq) brier (Mic 7:4; Prov
. 15:19). searched (Prov 20:27), and made clean by stripes
(Prov 20:30). The phrase, "chambers of death"
612 "ij~ ( /:,ädar) surround, enclose. Occurs
(Prov 7:27), may possibly refer to an afterlife but
only in Ezk 21: 19, as a Qal feminine singu- more likely refers to tombs or the graveyard. lt is
lar participle, hal:,öderet lähem · 'that which parallel to "Sheol" (cf. "The Meaning of the
surrounds them." Word Sheol," JETS 4: 129-35.
· The word is also used figuratively of the
Derivative chamber from which a stormwind (supa. q.v.)
612a t„jti (/Jeder) chamber, innermost or comes (Job 37:9). The KJV translates !Jeder as
"south" for the assumed source of the storm-
inward part, parlor, within. (ASV and
RSV similar except that they do not
wind, but RSV is probably more accurate in ren-
use the last three words.) dering: "From its chamber comes the
whirlwind." "Chamber of the south" (Job 9:9)
The word means a "compartment" or "room" may name a constellation or be the confines of
(withina building) which affords privacy. The KJV one.
usuallytranslates this word as "chamber," using C.P.W.
"room" in the sense of "space." A general word
for "chamber" is lishka. Another term, 'alfyya, 613 i,eijC, (/:,ädash) renew, repair. (ASV and
refers to a cool "roof-chamber." /Jeder is used RSV also restore.)
thirty-ninetimes, including seven figurative us-
ages. Derivatives
/Jedermainly designates a room where people,
613a ti,eiir, ( l:,ädäsh) new, new thing,fresh.
evenrulers, can find privacy (Gen 43:30, Joseph: 613b ti,e;~·-r, (/:,ödesh) month, monthly, new
I Kgs 1:15, David; Jud 3:24, Eglon). lt may be
moon.
that the /Jeder to which Eglon went was a room
withinthe roof chamber ('aliyya), not the roof l:,ädash is used in the sense of "repair" or "re-
chamberitself. Specifically /Jeder is used in ref- build" referring to cities (lsa 61:4), the temple
erence to the ruler's bedroom (l:,adar mishkäb), (II Chr 24:4, 12), and the altar (II Chr 15:8). lt is
where frogs were to enter (Ex 8:3 [H 7:28]). also used figuratively. U nder Samuel the king-
Ishbosheth (II Sam 4:7), and the King of Syria dom was renewed at Gilgal (1 Sam 11:14). David
(II Kgs 6: 12) were murdered there. /Jeder is the wanted a right spirit, equivalent to a clean heart,
roomofthe bridegroom (Joel 2: 16), the birthplace renewed within him (Ps 51: 10 [H 12]). The proph-
of a bride and the place to which she brings the et asked for renewal as of old (Lam 5:21). God

265
614 *:~M (1:züb)
renews the face of the ground, that is, gives it was held on the first day of the seventh month
new life (Ps 104:30), and he renews one's youth and is now celebrated as the Jewish New Year
(Ps 103:5). Job complained that God was bringing (Rosh Hashanah). Thus there is evidence of an
new witnesses against him (Job 10:17). older altemate calendar year starting in the fall.
The use of the verb as weil as its derivatives is The use of i)ödesh "to devour those who sinned"
attested in Ugaritic (see UT 19: no. 843.) (Hos 5 :7) may be that they will be swallowed up
in another month. But possibly the vain offering
-.ädäsh. New, new thing,Jresh. This adjective,
usually attributive, describes, as in English, a va- of the unrepentant is his own downfall (cf. KD),
or perhaps the participation in a pagan new moon
riety ofphysical objects (e.g., house, wife, cords,
sword, garment, cruse, meal offering, king, gate, celebration is his downfall (cf. IB).
When /)ödesh refers only to the beginning of
etc.). lt is also used for non-material things as
the month, it is naturally translated "new
name (Isa 62:2), song (Ps 149:1), covenant (Jer
moon," which was a feast day. lt is one of the
31:3 )), God's mercies (Lam 3:23), heart, and
"appointed feasts" and is listed with the Sabbath
spirit (Ezk 36:26). While suffering, Job longed for
and the pilgrim feasts as involving burnt offerings
the time when his glory was "fresh" in him (Job
(II Chr 8:13 et al.), and is also characterized by
29:20).
the blowing of trumpets (Ps 81:3 [H 4]; Num
-.ödesh. Month, monthly, new moon. Although 10:10). Since it was a feast, David's absence from
this word properly means "new moon," it is Saul's table at the new moon was especially
commonly used as an equivalent to our word noticeable (1 Sam 20:5f.).
"month" because the month began when the thin Bibliography: Morgenstern, Julian, "The
crescent of the new moon was first visible at sun- Three Calendars of Ancient Israel," HUCA 1:
set. lt was used along with the more rare yeral), 13-78. ---, "Supplementary Studies in the
from yäreai) meaning "moon." (Note especially Calendars of Ancient Israel," HUCA 10: 1-148.
I Kgs 6:1, 37, 38; 8:2 where the terms are used Wright, G. Emest, .. lsraelite Daily Life," BA 18:
interchangeably. Although yeral) is never used as 50-79. THAT, I, pp. 524-29.
a numbered month, its use as a named month is C.P.W.
attested in Ugaritic as weil as the OT. See UT 19:
no. 1151.) The Hebrew calendar used a lunar 614 *:in (!)üb) make guilty. Used but once in
month fitted into a solar year. This was done by the Piel stem. In Dan 1:10 with the word
adding an extra month approximately once every rö'sh it means to endanger one's head (KJV,
three years because it was about eleven days less ASV, Rsv). The NEB paraphrases the clause,
than the solar year. In early Israel the first of "lt will cost me my head."
each month, or new moon, was determined by
observation and proclaimed officially by the Derivative
blowing of trumpets. The month was considered 614a :in (!)ob) debt. Occurs only in
tobe thirty days (note Gen 7: 11; cf. 8:3-4), unless Ezk 18:7.
the new moon was observed earlier. E.Y.
Only four of the names of the months used in
lsrael's earlier history are recorded in the Old 615 J~n (i)ug) describe a circle, compass. Used
Testament: Abib, the first month (Ex 13:4), Ziv only once, having the object /)öq expressed
(ZiO, the second month (1 Kgs 6: 1), Ethanim, the (Job 26: 10).
seventh month (1 Kgs 8:2), and Bul, the eighth
month (I Kgs 6:38). Most often the months were Derivatives
designated by number. (Note especially I Chr
615a J~n (i)ü1!) circuit, circle, compass.
27: 1-15 where all twelve are listed by number.)
615b tn~~n~ (m'/)üga) compass. Occurs
Later the Babylonian names were incorporated
only in lsa 44: 13.
into Hebrew. Of these, seven are used in the Old
Testament: Nisan, the first month (Neh 2: 1), Si- In Job 26: 10 the Creator has "compassed the
van, the third (Est 8:9), Elul, the sixth (Neh 6: 15), waters with bounds" (KJV), or according to the
Kislev, the ninth (Zech 7: 1), Tebeth, the tenth more literal rendering of the Rsv, "He has de-
(Est 2: 16), Shebat (Sebat), the eleventh scribed a circle upon the face of the waters."
(Zechl:7), and Adar, the twelfth (Est 3:7). This may mean the establishment of a boundary
The first month, Abib/Nisan, began in the in the distance as the NEB, "He has fixed the
spring with the vemal equinox. This was com- horizon," or at the shore (cf. Job 38:8, 11). This
manded in Ex 12:2, 18. But according to Ex 23: 16 is also the thought found in the use of the noun in
and 34:22 the Feast of lngathering (held in the Prov 8:27, "He set a compass upon the face of
seventh month, Lev 23:39) was held at the end of the depth" (KJV), which the NEB renders, "He
the year (perhaps the agricultural year). The girdled the ocean with the horizon."
Feast of Trumpets (Lev 23:23-25; Num 29:1-6) Job 22: 14 (KJV) declares that God "walketh in

266
 619 l"lll;t(hawa)

the circuit of heaven" (/:111Rshämayim); the The Psalmist in Ps 49:4 [H 51 speaks of the
"vault" of heaven is the expression used by the "riddle" of life, death, and redemption.
Rsv,NAB,and NEB.The JB translates, "He prowls In Num 12:8 the "dark speeches" denote the
on the rim of the heavens." indirect revelations ordinarily given by the Lord,
lsaiah 40:22 (KJV)asserts that the Creator sits in contrast to the face-to-face mode of communi-
upon the "circle of the earth" (IJitR hä'äre~). a cation granted to Moses.
rendering retained by the ASV,Rsv, and JB. The See also miishäl, which occurs together with
NABhas, "He sits enthroned above the vault of IJida in Ps 49:4 [H 51; Ps 78:2: Prov 1:6: Ezk 17:2;
the earth," which the NEBamplifies as the "vault- and Hab 2:6.
ed roof of the earth." NIV: "He sits enthroned Bibliography: Rinaldi, G., "Alcuni termini
above the circle of the earth. · · The poets of the OT ebraici relativi alla letteratura," Bib 49:274--76.
describe their universe phenomenologically, i.e. E.Y.
as it appears to them standing on the earth and
lookingabove and about. This perspective differs 617 :,in (IJwh) I. Assumed root of the follow-
from that of modern scientific thought, which as- ing.
sumes a perspective beyond the earth. Both are
accurate and useful according to their own
617a :im(/Ja11wii) tent village (e.g.
Deut 3: 14; Josh 13:30).
perspectives.
Some have held that lsa 40:22 implies the
sphericity of the earth. lt may, but it may refer 618 :ijr;t (IJäwti) II, show, teil, make known.
only to the Lord enthroned above the earth with Derivative
its obviously circular horizon. Note the remark-
able concept given in Job 26:7. 618a :,inH declaration,
( "ahwil) only in
·J~b 13:17.
m•!uigä. Compass. Occurs only in lsa 44: 13
where it describes an instrument used by a car- IJäwil is used in the Pie! stem five times in Job
penter as he fashions an idol. The LXX renders and once in Psalms.
this as metron "measure" or --ruJe." Most ver- In Job it is used of the condescending efforts of
sions (AV, Asv, RSV, NAB)translate the word as Eliphaz and Elihu to instruct Job: 15: 17; 32:6, 10,
"compass," NIV "compasses," but the rn uses 17; 36:2. Cf. Sir 16:25.
"dividers" and the NER··calipers." In Ps 19:2 [H 3] night after night "imparts"
E.Y. (NAB)or "reveals'" (NASB)knowledge.
The corresponding verb in Aramaic is used in
616 ,,n (IJitd)
tive verb.
propound a riddle. Denomina- the Pael and (H)aphel stems fourteen times in
Daniel.
Scholars have cited the use of the verb in Job
Parent Noun as an Aramaism.
616a t:i:i•n (IJida) riddle, difficult question, The verb appears often in the Elephantine
parab/e. Aramaic papyri, and in the Genesis Apocryphon
(2:5, 6, 21; 5:9; 22:3).
A derivation has been suggested from Aramaic Bibliography: Vogt, Emestus, Lexicon Lin-
'alJad "hold fast, cover," for the Aramaic 'alJida f?Uae Aramaicae Veteris Testamenti, Pontifical
"riddle" (cf. Dan 5:12). The IJidii is an enigmatic Biblical Institute, 1971, pp. 60-61. Wagner, Max,
saying, question, or story whose meaning must Die Lexikalischen und Grammatikalischen
be determined by the audience. Aramaismen in alttestamentlichen Hebräisch,
lt is used seventeen times. The KJVtranslates it Berlin: Töpelmann, 1966, p. 53.
nine times as "riddle," five times as "dark" sen- E.Y.
tences, speeches, or sayings, twice as "hard
questions," and once as "proverb."
619 :iir;t (IJäwil) III, exclusively in the Eshta-
lt is used eight times in Jud 14 of "riddles"
phal stem, hishtalJäwil "to prostrate one-
propounded by Samson to the Philistine guests at
se/f '; "to worship."
his wedding. These were conundrums involving a
contest of wits, a source of entertainment popular Formerly this was analyzed as a Hithpael of
among Arabs today. Cf. the contest of the shä/Jii (q. v .). Cognate with the Ugaritic IJwy "to
guardsmen in I Esd 3: 4-24. bow down" (UT 19: no. 847), used in parallel
At a higher social level the IJidot in I Kgs 10: 1 with kbd "to honor," the verb occurs 170 times,
(II Chr 9: 1) were "difficult questions" posed by in the majority of cases of the worship of God,
the Queen of Sheba to test Solomon's reputation gods, or idols.
forwisdom. Josephus (Antiquities 8.5.3 (143)) de- The verb in its original sense meant to pros-
scribes Hiram of Tyre sending Solomon "tricky trate oneself on the ground as in Neh 8:6 "wor-
problems and enigmatic sayings." shipped" (KJV, Rsv) but more correctly "pros-

267
619 MJ"(~äwa)
trated themselves" (NEB,JB, NAB)as the phrase obeisance to the king.'' Thus the Egyptians will
'är~a "to the ground" requires. bow themselves before Moses, petitioning him
Prostration was quite common as an act of to leave, and kings and princesses will bow
submission before a superior. Vassals in the down before redeemed Zion (Ex 11:8; Isa 45: 14;
Amarna letters write, "At the feet of the king ... 49:23).
seven times, seven times I fall, forwards and The verb is used less frequently of an individu-
backwards." (Cf. ANEP, fig. 5.) Jehu or his ser- al's worship of the Lord. Abraham on his way to
vant bows down on bis knees with bis forehead sacrifice Isaac says that he is going to worship
touching the ground before Shalmaneser III on (Gen 22:5). The distraught Saul asks for forgive-
the Black Obelisk (cf. ANEP, fig. 351). ness that he might worship (1 Sam 15:25, 30-31).
Muslims perform their salaJ:, or prayer by an lt is used most often of particular acts of worship,
elaborately prescribed sugüd (cf. Heb stigad "to e.g. of Abraham's servant who "bowed his head
bow down") in which the forehead must touch and worshipped" (Gen 24:26, 48), and of Gideon
the ground. (Jud 7:15) upon experiencing God's grace. Such
The Greek word proskuneö, which is used to acts often involved actual prostration "to the
translate hishta/:ziiwa 148 times in the LXX, bad a earth" as in the case of Abraham's servant (Gen
semantic development similar to the Hebrew 24:52), Moses (Ex 34:8), Joshua (Josh 5: 14), and
word. Like it proskuneö can mean either "pros- Job (Job 1:20).
tration" or "worship." Whether the proskunesis In Exodus there are three cases of spontaneous
which Alexander the Great received implied communal worship: when the people heard that
"worship" or simply "obeisance" was uncertain the Lord had spoken to Moses (Ex 4:31), when
to his contemporaries, as it has been to scholars. they received instructions for the Passover (Ex
Prostration was a common act of self- 12:27), and when they saw the pillar of cloud
abasement performed before relatives, strangers, (Ex 33: 10). In II Chr 20: 18 Jehoshaphat and the
superiors, and especially before royalty. Ab- people "feil down before the Lord, worshiping
raham bowed himself before the Hittites of Heb- the Lord" (Rsv), when they heard his promise of
ron (Gen 23 :7, 12). He also bowed before the victory.
three strangers who visited him at Mamre (Gen Commands or invitations to worship are given
18:2), as did Lot before the two angelic visitors to Moses, Aaron, and the elders in Ex 24: 1,
who came to him at Sodom (Gen 19:1). Neither "Come up to the Lord ... and worship afar off'
realized at the time that they were before (Rsv), and on the occasion of the firstfruits, "you
superhuman beings. Balaam, however, perceived shall set it down before the Lord your God, and
that it was an angel who blocked his way, and he worship before the Lord your God" (Deut 26: 10;
"feil prostrate" (JB, Num 22:31). unless indicated otherwise, subsequent citations
Following Egyptian protocol, Joseph's broth- will be from the Rsv). The Psalmist exhorts, "O
ers made obeisance before him (Gen 42:6; 43:26, come, Jet us worship and bow down, let us kneel
28), thus fulfilling his dream (Gen 37:7, 9, 10). before the Lord, our Maker" (Ps 95:6).
Because of the infidelity of Eli's sons bis pos- After the death of Bathsheba's child David
terity will be reduced by God's judgment (1 Sam went into his chapel to worship (II Sam 12:20).
2:36) "to crouch" (KJv); "to grovel" (NAB);"to His son, Solomon, completed the temple (II Chr
beg him on their knees" (Je), i.e. to a state of 7:3), which became the focus of organized wor-
beggary. At En-dor Saul recognized the re- ship. Though there were rival sanctuaries, as ar-
vivified Samuel and "did obeisance" (1 Sam chaeology has confirmed, Hezekiah insisted that
28: 14, RSV). worship should be conducted "before this altar in
lt was in open defiance of Persian court Jerusalem" (II Kgs 18:22; lsa 36:7; II Chr 32: 12;
etiquette that Mordecai refused to bow or to cf. 29:29-30). The Psalmist declares, "I will wor-
prostrate himself before Haman (Est 3:2, 5; cf. ship toward thy holy temple" (Ps 5:7 [H 8]; cf.
Herodotus 1.134; 3.86; 8.118). Tlie Targum and 138:2). Jeremiah spoke to those who worshipped
Midrash explain Mordecai's refusal on the basis in the temple oftheir need to repent (Jer7:2; 26:2).
of an alleged idol on Haman's robe. Mordecai As they did not repent, Nebuchadnezzar de-
may have bridled at the thought of bowing before stroyed the temple; but Ezekiel beheld in a vision
an Amalekite or Agagite (Est 3: 1; cf. I Sam a new temple in which the prince and his people
15:32-33). would worship (Ezk 46:2, 3, 9).
The verb is used in I Chr 29:20 with two The Psalms and the prophets foresee the day
phrases, literally as the KJV: "worshipped the when the gentiles will also worship. Those who
Lord and the king." The NEBrenders: "prostrat- will worship the Lord include: "all the earth" (Ps
ing themselves before the Lord and the king" (cf. 66:4); "all flesh" (lsa 66:23); all the nations (Ps
NAB);the JB has "went on their knees to do hom- 22:27 [H 28]; 72: 11; Zeph 2: 11; Zech 14:16-17);
age to Yahweh and to the king." The RSVsupplies kings and princes (lsa 49:7; cf. Ps 72: 11); ''all the
a second verb, "worshiped the Lord, and did fat ones" (Rv; Ps 22:29 [H 30]), which the RSV

268
 622 M?''t:I
(l,zawila)
interpretsas "all the proud" and the JB as "all the 620 n,n (/Jw/J). Assumed root of the following.
prosperous" of the earth. 620a ljiM (/Joa/J) brier, bramble.
Before the Lord, not only men worship but 620b tnr, (/Jä/J) hook, ring, brooch.
also the b' ne 'elim (Ps 29: 1-2) "sons of the
/Jä/Joccurs seven times. lt rneans "brooches"
mighty" (Rv), literally "sons of God," probably
angels (cf. Ps 89:6 [H 7] but also Ps %:7). (KJV "bracelets") in the list of personal orna-
ments dedicated to the Lord's service (Ex 35:22).
Nehemiah 9:6 declares that the host of heaven
In all the other passages it refers to hooks or
worship the Lord who created the heavens, the
rings used to capture and control men, employing
earth, and the seas. According to Ps 97:7 even
the methods normally used to handle animals.
"all gods bow down before him."
The warning against Sennacherib (II Kgs 19:28;
The second commandment forbids the worship
Isa 37:29) may possibly be drawn from actual
of any graven irnages or other gods (Ex 20:5;
practice, as we have an Assyrian relief of cap-
34:14;Deut 5:9). The lsraelites were warned not
tives with a ring through the lips (ANEP, fig. 447;
to worship the gods of the Amorites, Hittites, etc.
cf. fig. 524).
(Ex 23:24; Ps 81:9 [H 10)).
Nevertheless Israel repeatedly worshiped
E.Y.
other gods (Deut 29:26 [H 25]; Jud 2: 12, 17; Jer
13:10;16:11; 22:9). These gods included those of 621 !QiM (/Jw{). Assumed root of the following.
the Moabites (Num 25:2), those of the Edomites 621a ~~M (hq{) thread, string, cord. lt
(II Chr 25: 14), Ashtoreth of the Sidonians, appears seven times.
Chemosh of Moab, Milcom of the Ammonites
(!Kgs 11:33), and Baal of Sidon (1 Kgs 16:31; Abraham refused to accept from the king of
22:53[H 54)). Sodom so much as a "thread to a sandal strap"
In an interesting passage the verb is used both (Gen 14:23; cf. Genesis Apocryphon 22:21). This
of "worship" and of "bowing" without an at- synecdoche, substitution of apart for the whole,
titude of. worship. After Naaman's healing and in this case using small insignificant objects for
hisconversion to the monotheistic worship of the totality, is found in a slightly different form in the
Lord (II Kgs 5: 17), the Syrian officer asked Aramaic papyri (Cowley 15:25) mn /Jm 'd /Jw(
Elisha,"In this matter may the Lord pardon your "from straw to string."
servant: when my master (i.e. the king) goes into Rahab's sign to the Israelites (Josh 2:18) was a
the house of Rimmon to worship there, leaning cord made of scarlet thread. Samson was able to
on my arm, and / bow myself in the house of snap off the Philistine ropes like a "thread" (Jud
Rimmon, when / bow myself in the house of 16:12).
Rimmon, the Lord pardon your servant in this See also pätil, IJebel. 'aböt.
matter" (II Kgs 5: 18, Rsv). Elisha did not object Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., "A Figurative
and said, "Go in peace." Equivalent for Totality in Akkadian and West
A problem passage is Gen 47:31 where Jacob Semitic," JAOS 54: 200-203.
before dying "bowed himself upon the head of E.Y.
the bed (mi{(a)." The LXX, however, reads,
"And Israel worshiped, leaning on the top of his
622 :,7~)TT (/Jawila) Havilah, the name of a
staff," rendering the consonants as ma{(eh number of tribes and places. lt may be de-
"staff." The Syriac and Itala agree; Heb 11:21
rived from IJol, and may mean "a sandy
cites the LXX. In this context Speiser suggests,
area."
"The term 'to bow low' need not signify here
anything more than a gesture of mute apprecia- The Pishon, the first-mentioned of the four riv-
tion.... " Cf. also I Kgs 1:47 where the dying ers that went forth from the Garden of Eden,
David bows down in bed. flowed through the "Havilah," a land of gold
See also käkap, kära·, qädad, sä1<ad, 'äbad. (Gen 2: 11). lt is not possible to establish where
Bibliography: Ap-Thornas, D. R., "Notes on this was. Suggestions have ranged from India,
SomeTerms Relating to Prayer," VT 6: 229-30. Colchis, and Arabia, to northern Ethiopia and
Cranfield, C. E. B., "'Divine and Human Ac- eastern Sudan. (See the discussion under 'ed.)
tion," Interp 12: 387-98. Davies, G. Henton, In the table of nations Havilah is listed with the
"Worship in the OT," in IDB, IV, pp. 879-83. sons of Cush (Gen 10:7; I Chr 1:9). Another
Driver, G. R., "Studies in the Vocabulary ofthe Havilah is listed with the sons of Joktan (Gen
OldTestament," JTS 31: 279-80. Rowley, H. H., 10:29; I Chr 1:23). The former tribe, "African"
Worshipin Ancient Israel, London: S. P. C. K., Havilah, may have been located on the coast of
1967.Watts, John D. W., "Elements of Old Tes- Eritrea and Somaliland in northeast Africa, cor-
tament Worship," JBR 26: 217-21. TDNT, VI, responding to the classical Aba/itai/Aualitai lo-
pp. 758-63. THAT, I, pp. 530-32. cated south of the straits of Bab el-Mandeb. The
E.Y. latter tribe, "Arabian" Havilah, may have been

269
623 ,~n (J:zü/)

located in the area ofYemen in Southwest Arabia mind in referring to dancing (Jud 21:21), quaking
where a Sabaean inscription locates Haulän. movements of mountains (Hab 3: 10), and,
A fourth Havilah is the area which makes up perhaps, the whirling (?) movements of a sword
the eastern terminus of a route whose western (Hos 11:6; RSV„rage" reflects this interpreta-
terminus is Shur in northwest Sinai. The Ish- tion). Twice abstract quantities are figuratively
maelites settled in the territory between these viewed as physical entities which move or whirl
termini (Gen 25: 18). Saul pursued the Amalekites about until they land on their targets: the curse on
from Havilah toward Shur (I Sam 15:7). Eratos- Joab is thus viewed (II Sam 3:29; "May it whirl
thenes cited by Strabo ( 16.4.2) lists the Chau- around," writer's translation) as in God's anger,
lotaioi next to the Nabataeans in describing the Jer 23: 19; "swirl" (NASB).Another example of
route from Petra to Babylon; Pliny (6.32.157) also such figurative representation of an abstract
lists the Avalitae as neighbors of the Nabataeans. quantity as a real, concrete, entity is the "sin"
This Havilah may therefore be the area in north- which crouched at the door for Cain (Gen 4:7).
west Arabia, east of the Sinai and Petra and This verb expresses the writhing movements of
northwest of Teima and the great Nafud Desert. labor contractions (Isa 45: 10) though it may recall
Bibliography: Simons, J., The GeoRraphical the joys of bearing denied to the barren (Isa 54: 1)
and Topo[!raphical Texts of the O/d Testament, as weil as pain. Several times it describes those
Brill, 1959, pp. 40-41. Wissman, I. and Höfner, who are in anguish in witness of God' s judgment
M., Beiträ{!e zur historischen Geo{!raphie des (lsa 23:5; Ezk 30:16; Joel 2:6; Mic 4:10). In such
vorislamischen Südarabien, Wiesbaden: Steiner, cases the idea of inner mental anguish may dis-
1953, pp. 239-41. Yahauda, A. S., The Lan{!Ua{!e place the idea of writhing in pain as when Egypt
of the Pentateuch, London: Oxford University, is in anguish at the news of Tyre's fall (lsa 23:5).
1933, pp. 190-91. Jeremiah's complaint that those who have been
E.Y. judged have not feit anguish (Jer 5:3) refers to
mental anguish or remorse. lt also describes the
anguish of the good man oppressed by the wicked
ni, <hab). See no. 620b. (Ps 55:4 [H 5]).
Contextual parallels show that it can refer to
623 ,~n (hül) I, travail, be in anguish, be pained,
dance, whirl, writhe, fear, tremble. (Rsv
writhing or trembling in terror (Ps 77:16 [H 17];
Jer 5:22). The same idiom underlies poetic similes
in which the earth writhes or trembles (Ps 97:4;
"rage"; otherwise, Rsv and ASVadopt same
I 14:7).
range ofmeanings, though individual verses
Several difficult passages must be noted. The
may be interpreted ditTerently).
interpretation that Saul was "wounded" by the
Derivatives Philistine archers (I Sam 31:3; RSV,KJV)has no
623a
623b
t,·M
t',•n (
( höl) sand.
~il) pain, agony, so"ow.
support from other usages of "hül"; its best sup-
port is the possibility of repointing the text so as
to read the Hebrew word hälal "to pierce"
623c t:,7•n (hilii) pain (?). (wayyähöl). As the text is pointed, "be terrified"
623d ',r, (hi!I), ',•r, (bei) rampart, for- or "harassed" (i.e. "put into anguish") is prefer-
tress.
able. Two passages command the earth to
623e :i7•r, (helii) rampart, fortress. Oc- "tremble" (Rsv, ASV)or "fear" (KJV)before God
curs only in Ps 48: 14.
(I Chr 16:30; Ps 96:9). However, unlike the two
623f t:,7i,7,:i (halhala) writhing. contexts in which the earth trembled above,
623g t',inr,, (mähö/) dance, dancing. these contexts are completely filled with positive
623h t:i7in~ (m'hölii) dance. acts ofworship (1 Chr 16:28, 29, 31; Ps 96: 7, 8,
The verb contains two basic ideas: I) whirling 10). For this reason, it is better in these contexts
around in circular movements (reflected in the to interpret hül with a term of positive worship,
derivatives mähöl and m'holil.) and 2) writhing in either as "dance" (i.e. the m' höla as a religious
labor pains (reflected in hil and hilii). These may dance) or a joyful "trembling" in worship. The
be taken as two distinct roots of similar form usage of this term in Lam 4:6 (Rsv "laid") re-
(KB) or as two emphases of the same root (BDB). mains unclear.
This article adopts the latter point of view. Like The Hiphil is causative, "to make to writhe"
several other verbs ofmovement (e.f!. härad and or "to cause to be in anguish" (BDB; Ps 29:8,
pähad) its meaning may also include those emo- note: other possible Hiphils are better derived
tions and attitudes associated with the move- from yabel: Gen 8:10; Jud 3:25; Lam 3:26). The
ments. (Note: En{!lishman's Hehrew and Chal- Hophal is passive, "tobe born" (lsa 66:8, Asv,
dee Concordance erroneously lists forms from RSV).
hCtlII and yäbal under this word.) Most Poleis are best taken as intensive in
Physical movements of various sorts are in meaning rather than causative. Giving birth (Job

270
 624 ,~n ChuO
39:1), the writhing of "shades" (Rsv) or of the ~ilä. Pain(?), agony(?) (KJV "sorrow"). Ap-
"deceased" (KJV; Job 26:5), and dancing (Jud parently a feminine form of the preceding word
21:23)are all thus expressed in an intensive form. and thus similar in meaning. Used in an unclear
In the intensive form, "giving birth" is broad- context from which no distinct meaning can be
ened into "forming" or "creating" (Ps 90:2: cf. derived (Job 6:10).
also Prov 26: 10 as translated in the KJV). In a
~al~älä. Writhing, agony, terror. Writhing
similar idiom, the north wind "brings forth·· rain
either in anguish (lsa 21 :3) or in terror (Ezk 30:9).
(Prov 25:23). A single Polei seems to be causa-
tive; Ps 29:9 in which the text as pointed is trans- mä~öl. Dance, dancing. The dance may sym-
lated, "maketh the hinds to calve" (Asv) although bolize joy; joy as contrasted with mourning (Ps
the RSVtranslation ("makes the oaks to whirl," 30:11 [H 12]; Lam 5:15) and thejoys which will
NIV"'twists the oaks") demands only a minor come with God's future blessings (Jer 3 I :4, 13).
change in pointing and gives a better poetic paral- The dance, also, is an acceptable means of praise
lel. (Ps 149:3; 150:4).
The Pulal is the passive of the Polei, "to be
born'" (Job 15:7; Ps 51:5 [H 71). This idiom may
m•~ölä. Dance, dancing. No clear distinction
in meaning from mähöl. lt expresses joy and cel-
be used to refer to creation or origins on a cosmic
ebration of military victories (Ex 15:20; Jud
scale (Prov 8:24-25).
11:34; 1 Sam 18:6). Or a purely religious dance
The Hithpolel occurs twice describing the
may be referred to (Ex 32:19: Jud 21:21). Evi-
whirling tempest (Jer 23: 19) and the writhing of a
dence does not permit a clear interpretation of
man in pain (Job 25:20). These are more easily
the „ dance of the two camps" (Song 6: 13
taken as intensive, though they could be con-
[H 7: !]).
strued as reflexive with some ingenuity. Similarly
A.B.
the Hithpalpel is intensive when it describes the
great agitation or writhing of Esther upon learn-
ing of the decree against her people (Est 4:4). 624 ,~n (hitl) II, bejirm, endure. (So Asv; RSV
"prosper" for "be firm"; KJVsee }Jitl I.)
MI. Sand. Generally used as a simile for a
great number or for vastness in some other re- Derivative
spect. The number of grains of sand often is the
6242 t',•r:r (/Jayi/) might.
measure for the number of God's people. Ab-
raham was promised that they would be like the The basic meaning of this verb is "be firm,"
sand in number (Gen 22:17) as was Jacob (Gen "strong." lt is used just twice: God's "ways are
32:13). lt describes their number under Solomon firm" (Ps 10:5). and the "prosperity (of the
(1 Kgs 4:20) and lsrael's number in other times of wicked) will not endure" (Job 20:21 ). Other simi-
special blessing (lsa 48: 19, Hos 1: 10 [H 2: I ]). Is- lar forms are considered to be }Jitl I.
rael's number as the sand of the sea is contrasted
~ayil. Might, strength, power; able, valiant, virtu-
with the small number which will survive judg-
ous, valor; army, host, forces; riches, substance,
ment <Isa 10:22).
wealth; et al. (ASVand RSVsimilar with some var-
Sand also illustrates the quantity of grain (Gen
iation.) The basic meaning of the noun is
41:49), armies (Jud 7:12), and quail sent to feed
"strength," from which follow "army" and
.the Hebrews (Ps 78:27). Extent of judgment is
"wealth." lt is used 244"times.
shown by the number of widows being as the
In the sense of "strength," "power," or
sand (Jer 15:8). Twice sand illustrates weight
"might"' in general, IJayil is used about twenty
rather than discrete number (Job 6:3; Prov 27:3).
times: of God (Ps 59: 11 [H 121), from God (Ps
lt reminds of God's sovereignty in marking the
18:32 [H 33]), physical strength of a man (Eccl
bounds of the seas (Jer 5:22). lt is not clear
10: 10), or even of plant life (Joel 2:22).
whether the phrase "captives like sand"' (Hab
As wealth is often related to power, IJayil is
1:9) refers to the number of captives or to their
thus used to mean "'wealth" about thirty times,
being as unimportant or valueless as sand. Limit-
being translated "wealth," "riches," "sub-
less quantity may be the significance of sand in
stance," or "goods." lt may be the wealth ofa
the "'hidden treasures of sands" (Deut 33: 19).
nation (Tyre, Ezk 28:4-5), an individual (e.g. Job,
~il. Pain, agony, sorrow. Used four times be- Job 31:25), the wicked (Job 15:29), or from God
fore impending disaster to describe pain or agony (Deut 8:18, etc.).
such as that experienced by a woman in labor (Jer Approximately eighty-five times }Jayil is used
6:24, 22:23. 50:43: Mic 4:9). In two passages, as an attribute of people. lt follows "ish "man"'
contextual parallels indicate a meaning of wri- ( .. valiant man," 1 Kgs 1:42), sometimes hen,
thing in terror (Ex 15: 14; Ps 48:6 [H 71). In both "son" ("valiant man," II Sam 17:10), and most
cases, the physical writhing expresses the inner often follows Rihhor "mighty (man)"' ("mighty
terror aroused by knowledge of God · s great deeds. man of valor"). The individual designated seems

271
625 ein (~wm)
to be the elite warrior similar to the hero of the distinguished from /:,ämal "to spare," and rä/:,am
Homeric epic, and it may be that the f!ibbor /:,ayil "to love, have mercy upon, .. although the dis-
was a member of a social class. Although in most tinctions sometimes fade. The word occurs
contexts his military prowess was involved, he twenty-four times.
was wealthy enough to bear special taxes (II Kgs This word is used primarily in Deut and the
15:20, translated because of context, "mighty prophets, especially Ezk. The people are told not
men ofwealth"). The use in I Kgs 1:52 indicates to feel sorry for murderers (Deut 19:13), those
that the hen /:,ayil (translated "worthy man") was who bear false witness (Deut 19:21), or a woman
also tobe honorable or reputable. Adonijah's life who seizes the genitals of a man who is engaged
was in danger because of his treachery, not be- in a fight (cf. Deut 25: 12). These all deserve their
cause of lack of strength or wealth. l:,ayil also punishment so must not be spared out of pity. In
designates men of ability: to care for Joseph's Deut 13:8 it is used in a negative sense with
sheep (Gen 47:6, translated "men of activity"), /:,ämal. Thus God describes how he wants his
or to judge the people (Ex 18:21, 25, translated people to react toward the idolator: !et not your
"able men"). When the term is used of a woman eye pity and do not spare; they have earned their
(Ruth 3: 11; Prov 12:4; and 31: 10) it is translated reward! So, they were not to feel sorry for the
"virtuous" (ASV,RSV"worthy" or "good"), but Canaanites (Deut 7:16); they were not to be
it may weil be that a woman of this caliber had all spared. In Ezk the people are reminded that they
the attributes of her male counterpart. received favorable treatment at their birth (as a
The use of /:,ayil to designate a class of people nation) from God alone who pitied them ( IJüs)
is seldom found outside the historical books from and spared them ( /:,ämal) from certain destruc-
Josh to II Chr. Moreover the translation some- tion (16:5). They are reminded of their sub-
times obscures its occurrence, such as: "men of sequent lack of obedient and loving response
activity," ··able men," "worthy man," "men of when they continually engaged in idolatry.
wealth," "man of power" (1 Sam 9: 1), "man of Therefore, God intones the judgment of Deut
might" (II Kgs 24:16), "strong men" (1 Chr26:7, 13:8 [H 9] (Ezk 5: 11; 7:9, et al.), viz. death. The
9), and even "meet forthe war" (KJV,Deut 3:18). translations both render /:,üs, as "spare," and
l:,ayil follows 'ä.fri "do" or "make" in an idiom /:,ämal "pity ... But there appears tobe no appar-
translated "do worthily" (Ruth 4: 11), ent reason for this switch in meaning, especially
"virtuously" (Prov 31 :29) for women, and "do since Ezekiel's usages clearly recall Deut 13:8
valiantly" (Ps 60: 12 [H 14], et al.) formen. [H 9] (where both ASVand Rsv render /:,üs "pity,"
Resulting from the meaning "strength," l:,ayil and /:,ämal "spare"). Jeremiah uses /:,üs twice
is used over one hundred times (about half of with both /:,iimal and räl:,am; cf. rii/:,am.
which are in Jer and Ezk) in the sense of "army,,. The basic meaning of /:,üs surfaces in Ezk 24: 14
"host," or ••forces ... In this connection it is also where it appears after "go back" and before "re-
translated "band of men" (1 Sam 10:26), "band pent" apparently being parallel with both. All
of soldiers" (Ezra 8:22), and for some reason three are spoken by God who refuses to cancel
"war" meaning "army" in the phrase "captains the coming judgment. So, our word denotes
ofwar" (KJV, II Chr33:14). God's refusal to spare the people out of pity from
In a related sense l:,ayil is used for the entour- the anticipated judgment. Similarly in Jon 4: 10
age which accompanied the queen of Sheba when God reminds the prophet that he feit sorry for the
she visited Solomon (1 Kgs 10:2; II Chr 9: 1; var- gourd even as God feit sorry for and spared the
iously translated "company," "train," "re- creatures (babes and cattle, KD, in. loc.) of
tinue"). Nineveh. Pharaoh teils Joseph's family to aban-
C.P.W. don most of their material possessions and not to
attach themselves to them emotionally, i.e. have
no regard (/:,üs) for them (Gen 45:20).
625 =in (IJwm). Assumed root of the following. Sometimes IJus is hard to distinguish from
625a =in (/:,um) darkened, dark brown or /:,ämal "to spare," as in Ezk 20: 17 where it is
black (Gen 30:32, 33, 35, 40). parallel to „ I destroyed them not" (cf. Ps 72: 13
where it is parallel to "save"). Elsewhere it ap-
:ii;in (/:,bmii). See no. 674c. pears to approach rii/:,am, the inner feeling of
compassion arising out of a natural bond (or, with
God, due to adoption). Cf. Neh 13:22 where God
626 ein (/:,üs) pily, spare. The ASV and RSV
is asked to remember on the basis of /:,üs and
translate about the same.
lovingkindness.
The basic meaning of /:,üs is "to look with L.J .C.
pity" often with the added nuance "spare." lt
refers to the feeling which goes out toward one
who is in trouble (cf. KB, p. 282). lt should be eiin (/Jbp). See no. 710a.

272
 629 i'1M (J_zwq),i',M (J_zyq)
627 r,rr(hll's). I. Assumed root ofthe following. "outside.") An adjectival form of f,,li~, its basic
627a t·r~ri U:rii.y) outside, outward, street. meaning is "outer," "outside."
627b tii:it•rr ( f,,i.~·cin) outer. lt is used twenty-five times, seventeen times in
bus. Abroad, field, forth, highway, out, outside, Ezk 40-46, where it usually refers to the outer
~utward street, without. (Asv and Rsv similar.)
court. Most of the other usages refer to the loca-
This ~oun, which occurs 164 times, basically tion of structures. Twice (1 Chr 26:29; Neh 11:16)
the word is applied to the business duties of offi-
means "outside." This may be the outer surface
cials. This use may be figurative, designating the
of the structure or object involved or it may be
the area away from it. The word is often com- secular nature of the work. The KJV "utter"
meaning ··outer," now obsolete, has been re-
bined with various affixes and is translated ad-
verbially, "(to the) outside:· lt often refers placed in newer versions.
specificallyto the area which is "outside,·· espe- C.P.W.
ciallythe "streets." . . .
hüs is used approximately f1fty-four t1mes m 628 r,rr (f,,11'.)')II. Assumed root of the follow-
refer~nce to a community, either a city. or the ing.
earlier Israelite camp. In the Pentateuch it is 628a l"lj ( f,,ayi.y) party-wall, i.e. a thin
oftenused with respect to the camp. Lepers must wall (Ezk 13:10).
remainoutside the camp (Num 5:3; 12:14); apart
of the sin offering was burned outside the camp 629 ;,,rr (f,,ll'q). ;,•rr ( f,,yq). Assumed root of
(Lev 4: 12). Similarly f,,ii.ymay refer to the "out- the following.
side" of a city, specifically, outside the walls. 629a t,,•tr (f,,eq) hollow, bosom, bottom,
Lot and bis family were placed outside Sodom midst (Rsv "embrace," once
(Gen 19:16); merchants lodged outside Jerusalem "lap··).
over the Sabbath (Neh 13:20). As a specific area
Basic idea is that of a hollow or cavity from
outside the city it is translated "field(s)": as a which the ideas of a hollow formed by a fold of a
place where sheep are born (Ps 144:13, KJV garment at the breast (BOB) and the hollow ofthe
"streets"), as a synonym for .frideh "field" (Prov
lap are derived.
24:27). Litera( hollows are best exemplified by the hol-
The word also is used about thirty-five times in
low bottom of Ahab's chariot in which the blood
conjunction with a structure. such as a tent (Lev gathered (1 Kgs 22:35). However, the significan~e
14:8),a house (Ex 12:46; Josh 2: 19), a temple
of the literal "bosoms" of Ezk 43: 13, 14. 17 1s
(Ezk 41:25). or just outside any structure in the difficult to discern. Suggestions are "blood-
rain (Ezr 10:13). The "outside" within a city channel" (KB), "moulding" (KB), hollow bot-
wouldbe a street and f,,ii.)'is thus translated about tom of altar" (BOB). "bottom·· (Asv), and
ftftytimes, especially in the plural (Jer 5: 1; 11:13, "base·· (Rsv). Giving into the bosom is a
et al.). The reference to streets in I Kgs 20:34 euphemism for sexual relations (Gen 16:5; Rsv
probably involves trading, hence the Rsv transla- "embrace ").
tion "bazaar." lt is used parallel to r'' f,,öh A variety of abstract, figurative ideas are ex-
"plaza." lt may be identified as a specific street. pressed by this term. Family intimacy may be
as that of the bakers (Jer 37:21).
emphasized <Deut 28:54; Mic 7:5). Tender care or
"Outside" may be within a building but out-
concern may be expressed as in the poor_man:s
side a particular room or enclosure (Ex 26:35). lt care for his only sheep (II Sam 12:3), the w1dow s
maybe the outer surface of an object such as the care for her sick son ([ Kgs 17:19), and God·s
ark of the covenant (Ex 25: 11), or Noah's ark
carrying his people in bis arms in bis bosom (lsa
(Gen6: 14), in which case it is used in opposition
40: 11). Giving the old king·s wives into the new
to mibbavit, "on the inside" (from hayit king·s bosom showed the new king·s authority
"house")_- The word may mean "outside" an (II Sam 12:8; cf. also II Sam 16:20-23). Naomi
immediate family or clan (Deut 25:5: Jud 12:9).
formally laid Ruth's child "in her bosom" as a
The use in Eccl 2:25, KJV"more" (than 1), is
symbol that this child was her (and her hus-
difficult. lf this is the meaning, f,,ii.)·must mean band's) legitimate heir (Ruth 4: 16).
outside in the sense of "beyond." The RSV(and The "bosom," like other physical terms (e.g.
ASV marg.) "apart" (from him) translates f,,ii.)'and "bones, .. "kidneys," and "heart") may serve as
fits the context but must substitute "him" (God)
an emphatic, intimate term for the person him-
for the pronoun, following the 1.xx. . . self. Judgment "into the bosom" marks the ob-
The word is part of the placename, KtrJath- ject of judgment with special intimacy (lsa 65:6;
huzoth (Num 22:39), "city of streets," an uniden-
cf. Jer 32: 18, NASB)Anger lodging in the bosom of
tified town in Moab. fools (Eccl 7:9), fire in the "bosom·• (Prov 6:27),
~i$(1n. Outer, outward, utter, without. ( ASVsimi- and prayer returning to the bosom of the one who
lar, but does not use "utter"; Rsv, "outer," prays (Ps 35:13; KJV,ASV)are other typical exam-

273
630 i)r, U1äwar)
ples of this motif (cf. also Ps 89:50 [H 511; Job the verb means "to worry, .. in the sense that God
19:27, lit. "my kidneys in my bosom are is responsible not only for situations which we
finished"). enjoy but also those which cause us to worry.
A.B. In lsa 28: 16 instead of "he who believes will
not be in haste," Driver suggests "will not be
630 i]i, (/Jäwar) be, grow while, pak (lsa 29:22, agitated ... Or the letters J:,shmay be in error for
only). hsh "be ashamed" (cf. 1.xx and Rom 9:33; I Pet
2:6).
Derivatives Bibliography: Driver, G. R., .. Studies in the
630a -m, Cl)ür) white stuf/ (Est 8:15; Vocabulary of the Old Testament II," JTS 32:
1:6). 253-54. Ellermeier, Friedrich, "Das Verbum
630b •·w, ( l)ürtiy) white stuf/ (lsa 19:9). p0sh in Koh 2:25," ZAW 75: 197-217.
630c '''.i'M CIJöri) white bread or cake E.Y.
(Gen 40: 16).
633 :iii, (J:,aza) I, look, see, behold, prophesy,
•i~r, (l)ürtiy). See no. 630b.
provüle.
631 !d~r, (IJüsh) 1, hurry, make haste, hasten. Derivatives
Derivative 633a tiiTr, C/:läz{m) vmon.
633b t:-t.)°M(J:,özeh) seer.
631a w•r, Cl)fsh) Used only in
quickly.
633c rmr:, CJ:,äzot) vmons. Occurs only
Ps 90: 10, of the passing away of
in II Chr 9:29).
human life.
633d trmr:r.(}:,äzüt) vmon.
l)üsh is cognate with Akkadian häshu "to 633e ii•Jr, (J:,izzäyon) vision.
move quickly" and Ugaritic l)sh "hurry" (UT 633f :iir:,r; (mal)azeh) vision.
19: no. 849). The verb occurs twenty times in the 633g l"T!O~ (meJ:,~za) light, place o/ seeing,
Qal and Hiphil stems. window. Occurs only in I Kgs
lsaiah 5: 19 denounces those who say insin- 7:4-5.
cerely, "Let him make haste, led him speed his
Like the ward "behold" in English, this word
work that we may see it." Although God some-
is employed almost exclusively in poetry or
times tarries, he declares, ··1 am the Lord; in its
exalted prose. lt is used exclusively in Qal, but
time I will hasten it" (lsa 60:22).
appears in all parts of that stem: This word, ap-
lt is for this reason that the psalms so often
pearing about fifty times, is apparently an exalted
plead urgently, "'Hasten to help me" or ··Hasten
term in rather frequent use.
to me" (Ps 22:19 [H 20]; 38:22 [H 23]; 40:13
J:,äzti, J:,aza' in the Aramaic portions of Dan
[H 14]; 70:1, 5 [H 2, 6]; 71:12; 141:1).
and Ezr (about thirty times) are entirely parallel
lsaiah (8: 1, 3) was instructed to give his son the
to the Hebrew.
name Maher-.1·häläl-lJash-baz, ••Speed-spoil- The word rä'a, used approximately fourteen
hasten-plunder," signifying the imminent fall of
hundred times in the OT, presents a similar range
Damascus and Samaria before the Assyrians. An
ofliteral, metaphorical, and extended usages as is
Egyptian name of the Eighteenth Dynasty, is IJ'~,
true also of the English words "look," "see" and
similarly means "Hasten, Seize Booty."
"behold."
Bibliography: Humbert, Paul, ··Maher Saläl
Any word meaning to see with the eyes, the
J;Iä!IBaz,'' ZAW 50: 92-92.
most vivid form of sensation, seems bound to be
E.Y. employed for almost any sensation (by eyes,
ears, nose, tongue, skin) as weil as any mental or
632 tu~M(l)üsh) II, be agitated, worry about,
spiritual perception. Notice how at least two dif-
enjoy (?).
ferent senses are attributed to eyes in the prize
Cognate with Akkadian häshu · ·to worry"; mixed metaphor of all literature: The children of
Aramaic l)tJshash "to suffer-, to worry"; Syriac Israel complain to Moses and Aaron, "You have
l)ash "to feel"; and Arabic l)assa "to feel." lt made our savor to stink in the eyes of Pharaoh''
appears in two passages, and possibly a third. (Ex 5:21). In the case of J:,äza the bare literal
Zophar in Job 20:2 does not speak ofthe "haste" sense is rare. Metaphorical and special senses are
within him (KJV, Rsv), but of his "agitation." more common, as follows:
Ecclesiastes 2:25 is taken "enjoy" by many 1. The literal sense, perception with physical
commentators so that it inquires, "Apart from organs of sight (Job 27:12; Prov 22:29; 29:30).
God who can eat or have enjoyment?" on the 2. The special way in which a lover gazes at
basis of Eccl 2:24 and the Akkadian hashäshu his (her?) beloved (Song 6: 13 [H 7: 1J).
"to be happy ... Ellermeier, however, holds that 3. To "see to" something, i.e. provide (from

274
 634 :irn (IJ,zh)

Lai pro-video "see to"). The idea is to secure nähe·. lsaiah 29: 10 further unites /Jözeh with
needful things against a foreseen need or occa- nähi'. lt seems therefore that /Jozeh is simply a
sion (Ex 18:21; ASV margin of lsa 57:8 refers to more elegant word than rö'eh, of near identical
Israel's providing objects for idolatrous worship). meaning (cf. l Sam 9:9). Three words then can
4. This word is carried to the realm of pure designate an oT "prophet," viz. "Now the acts of
spiritual understanding in two outstanding pas- David the king ... are written in the history of
sages (Job 36:25 and Ps 63:2 [H 31). Samuel the seer [rö'eh], and in the history of
5. Metaphorically of God·s awareness of Nathan the prophet [nähi'], and in the history of
either evil or good actions among men (Ps 11:4; Gad the seer [IJözehI'. (l Chr 29:29).
17:2). Whatever the derivation of these three words,
6. Immediate vision of God by select persons Scripture specifies that nähi' means spokesman
specially chosen (Ex 24:9-11 ). for God (Ex 7:1-2; cf. Ex 4:16; Jer 23:16; lsa
7. The revelatory vision granted by God to 1:20; Zech 7:12; Arnos 3:8; 7:16). ro'eh and
chosen messengers. i.e. prophets. Such appar- IJozeh preserve awareness that God sometimes
ently was the experience of Balaam the son of made revelation to the prophets by visions, i.e.
Beor (Num 24:4, 16). This vision of the prophets "seeing."
took place sometimes in the waking state, but See excellent discussion in H. E. Freeman, An
also in "the spirit" (see Num 24:2). Sometimes lntroduction to the OT Prophets, Moody, 1968,
the experience of "seeing" a revelatory dream is pp. 37-41.
designated by IJä;:/i and hazä' (Aram). See Dan
fläzut. Vision, conspicuousness. (Five times in
2:26, 4:5, 9 [H 2. 6] etc.
OT). In three ofthe occurrences it is scarcely dis-
8. The vision of God which every saint shall
tinguishable in meaning from the second meaning
have after death, without reference to any bodily
of IJizzäyon (q. v .}-a prophetic deliverance,
organ of sight is designated by IJäz<iin two very
message, oracle. Twice, in Daniel, it has the ad-
important passages (Ps 17:15; Job 19:26-27, pos-
jectival sense of conspicuousness (Dan 8:5, 8).
sibly also Ps 11:7; lsa 33:17).
9. Because of the importance of the revelatory flizzäyim. Vision. This is one of several nouns
vision as means of the prophets' special knowl- derived from IJäza. lt is very close to ma!Jazeh
edge of divine things, the word sometimes means (which appears only three times, Gen 15: 1; Num
to speak as a prophet (lsa 30: 10, · · Prophesy not 24:4, 16; Ezk 13:7, always of true or alleged revel-
unto us right things"). lt might be that this active atory visions). Of the nine times IJizzayon is used
sense (prophesying, to speak as a prophet), in the OT, five refer to the prophetic function. As
rather than the passive one of receiving prophetic with /Jäza (to see, have vision) it may designate
revelation. may be the sense of lsa 1: 1 ("which the oracle-message from God, e.g. Nathan's pro-
he saw," etc.) and other similar passages (lsa 2: I; phetic "words" to David (II Sam 7: 17) are called
13:1; Lam 2:14; Ezk 13:8; Arnos 1:1, etc.). To an IJizzayön (specifically hadd'biirfm hii'elleh is
speak even as a false prophet may be designated equated with hii/Jizzayon hazzeh). The speakers in
by /Jäz<i(Zech 10:2). The active sense is close to the discourses of Job four times use the word,
certain in this last case. The close association of apparently in the same sense (Job 4:13; 7:14;
/Jiiztiand derived forms IJözeh, /Jäzon etc. with 20:8; 33: 15).
prophecy is shown by the way the "seer" is on Bibliography: Pfeiffer, R. H., "Wisdom and
occasion defined by the technical term nähi' Vision in the 0. T.,.. ZAW II: 93-101.
(II Sam 24:11). See especially Ezk 12:27. Richardson, TWB, p. 277. Rowley, H. H.,
"Ritual and the Hebrew Prophets," JSS 1: 338-
~äzön. Vision. This word has a range of usage
60. Scott. R. B. Y., "Oracles ofGod," lnterp 2:
similar to that of IJizzayon, ma/Jiizeh, and other
131-42. THAT, l, pp. 533-37.
derivatives of /Jäza. Like IJäzbt, it is used in the
titles of certain prophetic books (Nah and lsa). R.D.C.

~özeh. Seer, derived from IJäza. Of the

634 :-nn ( IJzh) II. Assumed root of the following.
twenty-two occurrences eleven are connected
634a t:,_1i:i (/Jäzeh) breast of an animal sac-
with the name of a particular person. indicating
. riji.ce. The word appears thirteen
bis office as prophet (Gad. II Sam 24: 11; I Chr
times in Ex, Num, and especially
21:9; I Chr 29:29; II Chr 29:25: Heman, I Chr
Lev.
25:5; lddo, II Chr 9:29. 12: 15: Hanai, II Chr 19:2;
Asaph, II Chr 29:25; Jeduthun, II Chr 35:15; The breast portions ofthe "ram of Aaron's or-
Arnos is addressed as a /Jözeh). The identity of dination" (Ex 29:26, 27; cf. Lev 8:29), of the
office between nähi' (several MSS) and IJbzeh(in "peace offerings" (Lev 7:30-31. 34; 9:20, 21) and
apposition) is shown by II Kgs 17: 13. This is en- of the Nazirite offering (Num 6:20) were
forced by Arnos 7: 12 where Arnos is addressed as "waved" (Num 6:20; Lev 7:34; 10: 14-15; etc.),
an /Jözeh who prophesies. l'iz. f1özeh. .. rin- that is, in a horizontal movement symbolizing

275
635 TTM(/Jzz)
their presentation to God. They then became the Pharoah's heart the meaning is "harden" (Ex
portions of the priests. 7: 13f.).
Although the Hebrew word is used only of [The hardening of Pharoah's heart is an old
animals, the Aramaic cognate /:ladeh appears problem, one that is more theological than lin-
once in its plural form as the breasts of the image guistic. The verb /:läzaq is used twelve times in
seen by Daniel (Dan 2:32). In the Genesis Apoc- the narrative (Ex 4-14), mostly with the Lord as
ryphon 20:4 the dual /:ldyh is used in the descrip- the agent, but four times in the passive or Stative
tion of Sarah, ··How lovely are her breasts." sense ("Pharaoh's heart was hardened"). Also,
E.Y. the verb kähed is used five times, both with the
Lord as the agent, with Pharaoh as the agent, and
1iti:t ( /:läzon). See no. 633a. in the passive sense. The verb qäshii is used once
l'liti, ( /:läzot). See no. 633c.
with the Lord as the agent. There is no discerni-
l'l~ti:, (/:läzüt). See no. 633d.
ble difference herein the usage of these words. lt
is clear that Pharaoh was an unrepentant sinner at
the start (chapter 5). lt is perhaps enough to point
635 nn (/:lzz). Assumed root of the following. this out and remark that all ofGod's hardening of
635a t•tr, (/:liiziz) thunderbolt, lightning an obstinate sinner was judicial and done that
/lash (Job 28:26; Zech 10:1). God's deliverance should be the more memora-
ble. And this, too, was in God's plan (Ex 9:16),
1i'·!M (/:lizzayon). See no. 633e. though it is also inexplicably true that Pharaoh
t'tl",f (/:laziz). See no. 635a. sinned freely and was therefore terribly guilty (cf.
i•m (/:lazfr). See no. 637a. Acts 4:25-28). R.L.H.]
Other resultant meanings include "be sure"
(Deut 12:23), "be steadfast" (Josh 23:6, Rsv),
636 i'IO (/:läzaq) be(come) strong, strengthen,
prevaü, harden, be courageous, be sore "catch hold" (II Sam 18:9, Absalom's head in the
(meaning be severe). (Asv and RSVsimilar.) oak; the causative of this is common usage in the
Hiphil), "recover" (lsa 39: 1, Hezekiah from
Derivatives sickness), "stout," (of peoples' words against
God, Mal 3:13).
636a ti'!l'.I (/:lazaq) strong.
The Qal form of the verb is used twice (II Chr
636b t:,i?t!".T(/:lezqii) strength (once in the
28:20; Isa 28:22) in the Piel sense of
masc. form /:lezeq).
"strengthen."
636c ti'f n ( /:lözeq) strength.
The basic meaning of the Pie] stem (used
636d t:ib)'n (/:lözqii) f orce. sixty-four times) is causative of the Qal, to
The basic meaning of this word in the Qal stem "make strong," "strengthen." As with the Qal it
is ··be(come) strong." In general, the Piel is is used often in the context of battle or combat.
causative of the Qal. "make strong," Often the object of the verb is the hands or the
"strengthen." The Hiphil is "take hold of," arms of an individual. "To strengthen the hands"
"seize," while the Hithpael stem is "strengthen may mean "to aid" (Ezra 1:6), or, more often,
oneself," hence, "take courage." The use of ··to encourage" (1 Sam 23:16). The person en-
/:läzaq is similar to 'äme.r and 'äzaz except for the couraged may be the object of the verb (II Sam
Hiphil which is more like the Qal of 'a/:laz. This 11:25; lsa 41 :7). Strengthen may be translated
verbis used 291 times. simply "help" (II Chr 29:34).
The Qal form, used eighty-two times, means to The Piel is used sixteen times in the sense of
"be strong" or "become strong."· In most cases "repair" (II Kgs 12:5f.). As in the Qal, when the
it can be so translated, but often the variety of object of the verb is the heart (ten times), the
contexts encourages or necessitates a variety of verbis translated "harden·· (Ex 4:2'Jf.). lt is used
renditions. Most often the word is used for twice in the sense of ••fasten" (or "support") as
strength in battle (1 Kgs 20:23). The admonition with nails (lsa 41 :7: Jer 10:4).
tobe strong in combat may simply be an exhorta- The Hiphil frequently (sixty-three times)
tion to be of good courage (and is so translated in means "take hold," i.e. "grasp," "seize." lt is
II Sam 10: 12). used thirty-four times in Neh in the sense of "re-
In Gen 41 :56 "strong" is used in the sense of pair," referring to the rebuilding the wall of
"severe" (Rsv; KJVand ASV"sore") in reference Jerusalem. Other uses are varied: "prevail" (Dan
to a famine. Similarly a battle may be "severe" 11:7), "support" (Lev 25:35), "receive" (II Chr
(II Kgs 3:26). "To be stronger than" in context 4:5), "retain'" (Jud 7:8), "constrain" or "urge"
comes to mean "prevail," as the word of David (II Kgs 4:8), "confirm" (Dan 11:1),
"prevailed" against Joab (II Sam 24:4), David "strengthen" (II Sam 11:25), "aid", i.e.
against the Philistine (1 Sam 17:50), and Jotham "strengthen the hand" (Ezk 16:49), "join" (Neh
over the Ammonites (II Chr 27:5). When used of 10:29), "hold" (Neh 5: 16).

276
 638 N~'J(hä(ä')
The Hithpael (used twenty-seven times) is basic meaning of the root is to miss a mark or a
translated in a variety of ways but is usually re- way. lt is used two or three times in Ugaritic to
flexive of some use of the Qal stem, i.e. mean "sin" (UT 19: no. 952, Ais WUS 1019).
..strengthen oneself," "encmirage oneself." The verbal forms occur in enough secular con-
texts to provide a basic picture of the word's
~äzäq. Strong, mighty, hard. This adjective
meaning. In Jud 20:16 the left-handed slingers of
means "strong" in the sense of "powerful" (in-
Benjamin are said to have the skill to throw
cludingthe power to resist). Of its fifty-seven oc-
stones at targets and "not miss." In a different
currences, twenty-three refer to a "strong
context, Prov 19:2 speaks of a man in a hurry
hand," most often to God's power, as in the
who "misses his way" (Rsv, NEB,KJVhas "sin-
Exodus.The word refers also to the strength of a
neth"). A similar idea of not finding a goal ap-
man (Caleb, Josh 14:11), the wind (Ex 10:19;
pears in Prov 8:36; the concept of failure is im-
I Kgs 19:11), and a sword (figurative, lsa 27: 1).
plied.
Althoughthe word often refers to God's powerful
The verb has the connotation of breach of civil
hand it does not seem to be used as a substitute
law, i.e. failure to live up to expectations, in Gen
for deity (as 'elyön is).
40: I. Compare the international overtones of
lt is translated variously because it occurs in
II Kgs 18:14, and the accusatory thrust of the
manydifferent contexts. Applied to the blast of a
word, fault, in Ex 5:7. The Egyptians had failed
trumpetthe word is translated "loud" (Ex 19:16).
to supply straw for brick-making. Serious break-
Whenapplied to sickness (1 Kgs 17:17) or famine
down in personal relationship is highlighted by
(1 Kgs 18:2), it is appropriately translated "se-
the verb, negatively in I Sam 19:4, and 24:12 but
vere" (Rsv; the ASVreads "sore"). The KJValso
by confession of Saul in 26:21. Compare Jud
refersto "sore war" (1 Sam 14:52), but translates
11:27.
a similar phrase "hottest battle" (II Sam 11:15).
The KJVdoes not catch the nuance of the verb
The RSVuses "hard(esl) fighting" in both refer-
in Job 5:24, but Rsv does with "miss nothing" and
ences.
NEBdoes with "nothing amiss," NIV "nothing
When referring the face, forehead, or heart
missing." The verb, /:zäfä', here means anything
~äziiq implies an unyielding stubbornness or
less that the total. A corollary in personal rela-
strongresistance (Ezk 2:4; 3:7-8, variously trans-
tionships is found in Gen 43:9; 44:32. Judah
lated: "stiflhearted," "stubborn," "impudent,"
proposes t-hat he "bear the blame" (KJV,REV)or
etc.). lt is also used as a substantive, "mighty
be "guilty" (NEB)if he fails to fulfill his promise.
one," "strong one" (Ezk 34:16; Job 5:15).
Extended to religious obligations, the form, /:zä(ä'
~ezqä. Strength, strengthen seif, strong, was min, in Lev 4:2 designates a failure to observe
strong. (Asv and RSVsimilar.) A noun, used four God's laws andin Lev 5:16 denotes action which
times meaning "strength," but translated as a gives less than is due, a failure of full duty.
verb in some contexts. When /:zä[ä' is followed by le, a failure to re-
spect the full rights and interests of another per-
~özeq. Strength. (Asv and Rsv the same.) The
noun, used five times, means · ·strength, ·' always son is involved, e.g. Gen 20:9; Jud 11:27; II Chr
6:22, or ofGod as weil, e.g. Ex 10: 16; I Sam 2:25.
in the sense of "military prowess."
Often God is the object.
Mzqä. Force, mightily, repair, sharply. (Asv But /:zä[ä' followed by he denotes strong oppo-
similar,but Rsv "violently ."') sition. See Gen 42:22; I Sam 19:4f.; Job 2: 10; Neh
C.P.W. 9:29. In summary, one may say that /:zä[ä' plus le
is quite personal, whereas /:zä(ä' plus he is more
637 'i!M (/:zzr). Assumed root of the following. physical.
637a 'i'T!j (l:zazir) swine, boar (e.g. Lev In the many instances in which the verb occurs
11:7; Deut 14:8). in the Qal stem the object is either God or his
laws, or eise the verb is intransive. In so acting,
man is missing the goal or standard God has for
638 K~i;t (/:zä[ä') miss, miss the way, sin, incur
him, is failing to observe the requirements ofholy
guilt, forfeit, purify from uncleanness.
living, or falls short of spiritual wholeness. The
Derivatives participle seems to designate the sinner in Prov
13:22; Isa 65:20 and all-instances in Eccl. But in
638a ti,t~r, ( !Je() sin.
Isa 1:4 it designates the quality of being less than
638b tNll!M (hattä') sinners.
acceptable to God.
638c t:,~~tt (/:z~Uä'ä) sin, sinful thing.
Thus like other words related to the notion of
638d t:,t:t~!:l (l:zafä'a) sin, sin offering.
"sin" it assumes an absolute standard or law.
638e triN~!j ( /:za[[ä't) sin, sin offering.
But, whereas pesha' signifies a "revolt against
The root occurs about 580 times in the Old Tes- the standard," and 'äwa means either "to de-
tament and is thus its principle word for sin. The viate from the standard" or "to twist the stan-

277
638 N~r,(/:zätä')
dard," /J.atii'means "to miss. to fall short ofthe penalty. A quality of sinfullness is found in Num
standard. The Greek word anomia "sin," con- 32:14.
sists of the privative pr~fix with the word for
"law," thus "without law." Therefore judgment !iaJJä'ä. Sin, sinful thing. This feminine noun
is implied, for the law in fact is binding even if the is used only three times. In Ex 34:7 it is linked
sinner thinks himself tobe "without law ... with ·awon and pesha' as forgiveable, and also
In the Piel stem, the verb has a privative con- has an abstract meaning in lsa 5:18. An Aramaic
notation, as in Gen 31 :39 where Jacob had to form is in Ezr 6: 17 with the meaning of sin-
"bear the loss·· for any animal which could not offering.
be accounted for. In a religious sense, the major- !iäWä, Sin, sin offering. Another feminine
ity of the Piel forms denote a cleansing or purify- noun is /J.atä'a appearing eight times and nor-
ing ceremony during which sin is done away mally carrying an abstract connotation. In all oc-
with, e.g. Ex 29:36; Lev 14:29, 52; Num 19: 19; Ps currences except in Ps 32:6 (where it means "sin
51 :7 [H 9] and all instances in Ezekiel. See also offering") the word means "sin." In Gen 20:9;
the same meaning in the Hithpael stem (Num Ex 32:21; 30, 31; and II Kgs 17:21 it is modified
8:21; 19:12-13, 20; 31:19-20, 23; Job 41:25 by the adjective Riidol and usually refers to
[H 17]). In Lev 9:15 and II Chr 29:24 this verb idolatry. In Ps 32: 1 and 109:7 the noun designates
form means "to make a sin offering." sin as such.
In the Hiphil stem, the verb means "to lead
someone eise into sin." Exodus 23:33 warns the !iaOä't. Sin, sin offering. The most exten-
Israelites against allowing the Canaanites to lead sively used noun form is the feminine /J.a((ä't
them into sin. The sin of Jeroboam was a stan- which occurs almost two hundred and ninety
dard by which the evil kings of northern Israel times. In Gen 18:20 the noun refers to the condi-
were judged (l Kgs 14: 16; 15:30, etc.); cf. Neh tion of sin. In Gen 31 :36; 50: 17 it is paired with
13:26. The verb seems to have the sense of guilt pesha' another common term for sin. In Lev and
in Deut 24:4. ldolatry is the sin against which the in Num the noun appears many times alternating
warnings are primarily directed. in meaning between sin, the reality of disobedi-
ence to God, and sin-offering, the means of re-
lief. Sin, punishment. This masculine noun is moving the guilt and penalty of sin before the
an act of /J,tifü' which means that it is the failure
Lord through the sacrificial system. In this con-
to hit the mark, a turning away from obedience, a
text, the noun is closely associated with ·äshäm,
lack of wholeness or of acceptance before God.
which is often translated as "guilt-offering."
The noun appears thirty five times in the Old Tes-
Both the noun and the verb are for emphasis in
tament.
Deut 9: 18. The noun is used for lsrael's particular
On a secular level the noun refers to a breach
sin, the golden calf (9:21) and is paired with pe•
of civil law or the regulations of a monarch, as in
Gen 41:9 and Eccl 10:4.
sha' in v. 27. In Deut 19: 15 with ·äwon which is
often translated as iniquity. This pairing of /J.at-
In a number of instances (Num 27:3; all occur-
(ä 't with other words for sin is fairly frequent in
rences in Deut; II Kgs 10:29; Ps 103: 10; lsa 38: 17;
wisdom and prophetical writings. The meaning
Lam 1:8; Dan 9: 16) the noun either designates or
sin offering appears quite often in II Chr, Ezra,
implies an act of disobedience to God. Deut 21 :22
Neh and Ezk. The term has the sense of guilt in II
and 22:26, refer to a sin of death, i.e. a sin that
Chr 28: 13; Ps 32:5; of punishment in Lam 4:6 and
must be punished by death.
Zech 14:19; ofpurification in Num 8:7; 19:9, 17.
Since Hebrew does not have a distinctive word
In the majority of cases /J.aua·r denotes sin/s
for guilt, some of the words for sin carry this
against man, e.g. I Sam 20: 1; Ps 59:3, or against
concept. This noun is one which sometimes
God, mainly in the historical and prophetical lit-
functions in this manner. The KJV often indi-
erature.
cates the thought by the phrase, "bear sin."
Man can only deal with sin through the sacrifi-
Examples may be found in Lev 20:20; Num 9: 13;
cial offerings coupled with confession and turning
Isa 53:12 and Ezk 23:49. RSV would add Lev
from sin to God. God may deal with sin by
19: 17 to this list, and would translate the noun as
punishing those who continue in their sin (Josh
"guilt" in Hos 12:8.
24:19; I Kgs 14:16; Neh 9:37; etc.); by forgiving
The noun includes the concept of punishment
sins as indicated in I Kgs 8:36: II Chr 6:25, 27; Ps
in Lam 3:39.
32:5; Jer 36:3; and by purging sin as in Ps 51:2;
!iäJJä'. Sinners, sinful. Another masculine Isa 6:7; Zech 13:1. ·
noun, /J.a((ä' appears eighteen times in the Old Since sin was understood in the ancient near
Testament. lt designates a habitual sinner who is eastern religions as a violation ofthe status quo in
subject to punishment because of his or her prac- cultic, political, and social life, each country with
tices. In one instance, I Kgs 1:21 the word is peculiar emphases, the pagan people could only
secular in orientation and refers to a probable strive to conteract its consequences by magical

278
 644 :i:i, (~äya)
practices. In Israel. the people learned by revela- 642 ii~i:, (l:Jti(ap) catch, seize (Jud 21:21; Ps
tion that sin was disobedience of God's will and 10:9).
exploitation or disregard of the rights of other
people. Sin was declared tobe an extremely seri- 643 ,1:1n (/J[r). Assumed root of the following.
ous matter and could only be taken care of by a 643a .,~ M (/Jö[er) branch or twig (lsa
creative and gracious act of merciful forgiveness 11:1). rod (Prov 14:3).
by God. And the eure was effective, bringing
about a new life of joy and fruitfulness. :i'j'M (/Jidii). See no. 616a.
For the people of Israel there was hope for a 'r:t (/Jay). See nos. 644a,b.
change of life, both as individuals and as a nation,
because God was willing to turn away from his
644 :i;i, (/Jtiya) live, have life, remain alive,
wrath toward sin (primarily idolatry but also so-
sustain life, live prosperously, live forever.
cial sins) and do wonderful things for those who
Also be quickened, revive from sickness, dis-
would contritely turn from sin, confess, make res-
couragement, or even death.
titution and surrender to God and his way of
salvation. Many a song in the Psalms declares the Derivatives
reality of release from the burden of sin's guilt
and penalty.
644a t•r:r (!Jay) /, living.
644b 't'! <!Jay) II, kinsfolk.
Bibliography: Coggan, F. D., 'The Meaning
644c t:,~r:r (/Jayyii) I, living thing.
of l:J( in Job 5. 24." Journal Manchester E,?yp-
tian Oriental Society 17: 53-56. Gelin, Albert,
644d :,~r:r(!Jayyii) II, community.
Sin in the Bihle, Desclee, 1964. Hartman, Louis
644e :i•r:r(!Jayeh) having the vigor of life,
· uvely.
F., "Sin in Paradise," CBQ 20: 26-40. Kidner, F.
644f tC"lj ( l:Jayyim) life.
D., Sacriflce in the O/d Testament, London:
Tyndale, 1952. Milgrom, J .. "The Function ofthe
644g rwr:r (l:Jayyüt). Occurs in the phrase
'almänöt tiayyut "widowhood of
~a(ta't Sacrifice," Tarhi::,40: 1-8. ---, "Sin-
livingness," i.e. grass widow, one
offering or Purification-offering" VT 21: 237-39.
who was separated from her hus-
Porubcan, Stefan, Sin in the O/d Testament,
band.
Herder, 1963. Quell, G., Sin. London: Adam and
644h t:,~i'.'~ (mil:Jya) preservation of life.
Charles Black, 1951. Rabinowitz, Jacob J ., "The
'Great Sin' in Ancient Egyptian Marriage Con- As a verb this root appears in three stems in
tracts," JNES 18: 73. Richardson, TWB, p. 207. Hebrew. The Qal conveys the basic meaning "to
Ringgren, H., Sacrifice in the Bihle, Association, live or have life" whereas the two derived stems
1963. Smith. C. R., The Bihle Doctrine of Sin, overlap in their meaning of "giving or restoring
London: Epworth, 1953. Snaith, Norman H., life."
"Sacrifices in the Old Testament," VT7: 308-17. Throughout the or the possession of life is an
"The Sin-offering and the Guilt- intrinsic good, ··All that a man has will he give for
offering," VT 15: 73-80. Staples, W. E., "Some his life" (Job 2:4), and "a living dog is better than
Aspects of Sin in the Old Testament," JN ES 6: a dead lion" (Eccl 9:4). "Long life is in Wisdom's
65-79. Unger, Merrill F., '"The Old Testament right hand" (Prov 3: 16). Against this estimation
Revelation of the Beginning of Sin," BS 114: oflife one can appreciate the depths of Job's de-
326--33.Zink, J. K., "Uncleanness and Sin," VT spair when he desired to surrender his life (Job
17: 35~1. TDNT, I, pp. 268-293. THAT, I, pp. 3: 17ff.).
541-48. Physical life originally came from God (Gen
G.H.L. 2:7). After the Fall, death entered man·s experi-
ence. The fruit of the tree of life would have en-
1'\M~r:t
(l:Ja((ti't). See no. 638e. dowed man with immortality (Gen 3:22). God
continues to be the source of life (Ps 36:9;
639 :~i:, ( l:Jä[ah) /, cut or gather wood, usually 139: 13ff.) and the Lord of life and death (Num
firewood (e.g. Ezk 39: 10: Deut 19:5). 27:16; Deut 32:39; Job 12:10).
The or speaks of life as the experience of life
640 :=rr (l:J[b) II. Assumed root of the follow- rather than as an abstract principle of vitality
ing. which may be distinguished from the body. This
640a rii:=n (hatübot) dark-hued stuffs is because the or view of the nature of man is
'r'ho;i:16J. holistic, that is, his function as body, mind, spirit
is a unified whole spoken of in very concrete
rii:=n (l:Jatübot). See no. 640a. terms. Life is the ability to exercise all one's vital
:,~i:, (l:Jitra). See no. 691b. power to the fullest; death is the opposite. The
verb l:Jäya "to live" involves the ability to have
641 c~i:, (l:Jti[am) hold in, restrain (Isa 48:9). life somewhere on the scale between the fullest

279
644 :i;i, (~aya)
enjoyment of all the powers of one·s being, with verb häya means "to restore to life." which
health and prosperity on the one hand and des- would imply the overcoming of death. Since OT
cent into trouble, sickness. and death on the terminology uses death and life in a wide spec-
other. Sometimes the Psalmist calls on the Lord trum of nuances, in some passages it is difficult to
tobe saved alive from the very brink ofthe pit (Ps teil whether extreme trouble or illness or what we
30:3 [H 4]). He asks tobe „preserved alive" and would call death is meant. (The reader should
··revived" so that he can enjoy ··the land of the keep in mind that modern medicine, despite its
living." Some have been extreme in maintaining technological sophistication, has trouble defining
that this ··Jand of the living" is heaven, while actual death.) Two such passages are II Kgs
others have gone too far in maintaining that the 13:20--21. where a man·s body "revives" or is
lsraelites did not understand man as having a "restored to life" upon touching the bones of
spirit but simply as being an animated body. Elisha. The other is I Kgs 17:17-24 where Elijah
Some have quoted verses like lsa 26: 14, "The "restores to life" the body of the widow·s son.
dead do not live," to prove that lsrael's view was Both of these passages appear to be dealing with
that death is total. There are indeed some verses resurrection from death, but one would have
that say the living, not the dead, praise the Lord, some difficulty from the terminology alone prov-
but these verses are expressions of simple physi- ing whether they were resurrected or merely re-
cal observation. The fact is that in contrast to vived. But the people involved in II Kgs 13:20--21
Mesopotamian ideas of creation where man was are treating the man as dead that is, burying him
made to be mortal, in the OT man was created to and the boy "'had no breath left in him." So in
immortal life, not as a spirit but as a whole man, each case the person was received back to life
body and soul ("Life," ZPEB, III, p. 927). The from what the Hebrews called "death."
entrance of death was viewed as unnatural. Psalm 49, while using the word /Jäya only
The OT word häya has a range of meaning twice (vv. 9, 18 [H 10, 19]) is very instructive in
which includes "to prosper, to sustain life," or what it says about the Psalmist's attitude toward
··to nourish'" (Gen 27:40; Gen 45:7; II Kgs 18:32; living and dying. He teaches that evil men perish.
I Sam 10:24; II Sam 12:3) or "to restore to There is no way for them to be redeemed so that
health, to heal, recover·· (Josh 5:8; II Kgs 1:2; they can go on living forever and never see death
8:10). (vv. 7--8 [H 8-91). But the Psalmist is not totally
In contrast to the ancient near east. where men negative about death. He expresses his faith in
sought to link themselves with forces of life God's promise to redeem his life from the power
thought of in terms of nature deities, by magical of the grave (Sheol) for he says, "God will re-
recitations of myth accompanied by appropriate ceive (take, snatch, as Enoch and Elijah, see
magical ritual, in the OT life is decided by a right laqa!J) me" (v. 15 [H 16]). This passage should be
relationship to the righteous standards of the linked with Ps 17:15, "I will be satisfied when I
Word of God. Moses places the people in a state wake in your likeness" and also to Ps 16:11
of having to decide between life and death by where · ·the path of life · · and overcoming of death
laying the word of God before them (Deut is predictive of the resurrection of Jesus Christ
30: 15-20). Israel is called upon to choose life, (Acts 2:24-29). Buhmann adds, "There is a re-
"for this word is not a vain thing for you; because markably plain expression that the relationship of
it is your life·· (Deut 32:47). Bultmann notes that grace will persist, that fellowship initiated by God
Ezekiel · •frees life from all false supports and ob- cannot be destroyed in Ps 73 :23ff. One may say
ligations and relates it wholly and utterly to the that here the OT belief in the hereafter finds its
Word of God (Ezk 3:18ff.; 14:13ff.; 18:lff.; purest formulation. This expectation is neither
20:lff.; 33:lff.)" (TDNT, II, p. 845). In Prov, magical nor mythical not speculative nor mysti-
man is again called upon to make a decision for cal. lt is a certainty which is produced in the
life, by embracing Wisdom (Prov 2: 19; 5:6; 6:23; righteous by the concept of grace alone" (TDNT,
10: 17; 15:24). By cleaving to God, the righteous II, p. 848).
have life (Hab 2:4; cf. Arnos 5:4, 14; Jer 38:20). One of the meanings of the word ~wyyim,
But there is also the somewhat less concrete "endless life," has been generally recognized in
meaning where one ·•Jives" by the words ofGod, the past only as a very late usage of the word.
··not by bread alone" (Deut 8:3; Ps 119:50, 93). (See BDB on Dan 12:2, p. 313). M. Dahood
Some would insist that this refers to prosperity as (Psalms I. II. III, in AB, 16, 17, 17a) has brought
the gift of obedience rather than to the spiritual the Ugaritic literature to bear on the early mean-
quality of life, as Jesus seems to have interpreted ing of this word.
Deut 8:3. But considering again the biblical unity Though Dan 12:2 is often cited in the lexicons
of man·s nature. it obviously refers to both. as the usage of hayyim to mean eternal life. Da-
While it may be difficult to show any de- hood sees it so used in the Psalms. He refers to
veloped concept of incorporeal immortality in the the Ugaritic antecedent in 2 Aqht VI. 27-29 (AB
OT, there are a number of passages where the pp. 91, 170)

280
 644 n:i, (l_iayä)
..Ask for eternal life (!Jym) Proverbs entertains the concept that "death"
And I will give it to you, (mäwet) and Sheol involves more than the grave.
lmmortality (bl ·mt) Prov 2: 18-19 parallels death with the place where
And I will bestow it on you. "the shades" (r' pä'im) are. And Prov 9: 18 paral-
I will make you number years with Baal, lels Sheol in the same way. This at least opens the
With gods you will number months." possibility that in Prov 15:24 "the path of life
Proverbs 12:28 uses 'al-mäwet (no death) as the above" can mean eternal life in heaven in con-
parallel of !Jayyim (life). The Ugaritic bl·mt trast with Sheol below where the shades dwell.
translated '"immortality" above is an equivalent Some 01 scholars would reject this notion,
expression.The Rsv says that the Hebrew is un- even though they might admit !Jayyim could
certainand proceeds to give a translation based mean "endless life" on earth. But we are re-
onan emended text. However, Ewald, Bertheau, minded of the repeated 01 idea that God dwells in
Franz Delitzsch, and Saadia, the Judeo-Arabist heaven (Deut 4:36, 39: I Kgs 8:27; Job 22:12; Ps
ofthe Middle Ages, said 'al-mäwet means "im- 20:6 [H 7], 80:14 [H 15], etc.) where his throne is
mortality.·· The KJV wisely translated it "no (Ps 11:4) and that the Psalmist longs to see his
death," NIV, "immortality." They have all been face (Ps 17:15). Arnos (9:2), a prophet the critics
provedcorrect by the Ugaritic bl ·m t as used in accept at face value from the eighth century, con-
the above citation. Dahood translates the verse: siders both heaven and Sheol as places where
people might conceivably go. Although Dahood
"In the path of virtue is eternal life may be extreme in his application ofthis meaning
(Qayyim), for !Jayyim, his critics may be equally extreme in
And the treading of her way is immortal- rejecting the notion entirely. For_ example, in
ity ( "al-mäwet)." what sense does the king receive eternal life in
M. Pope (JBL 85: 455---06)objects to this trans- God's presence (Ps 21:4--6 [H 5-7])? Andin what
lationon the basis that the synonymous paral- sense does Mount Zion abide forever (Ps 125:1)?
lelismgoes against the )arger context which con- The answer is similar in either case. The earthly
sistsof a series of couplets in antithetical paral- Mount Zion has a counterpart in heaven (cf. Ps
lelismand "therefore death not immortality is the 123:1) and the king's prosperity on earth is only
properantithesis." But is there here a )arger con- the beginning of all God's eternal goodness to
text?Are not these proverbs a list of independent him (Ps 16:11). lt is very interesting (Ps 30:5) to
thoughts?Indeed it is not unusual of the proverbs see the temporal contrast between the Lord's
to shift from one form of parallelism to another anger and his favor. His anger is for a moment
(cf. 17:21-22; 19:4-5, etc.). Pope states that but his favor is for "life-eternal" not just a "life-
i)ayyimas eternal life is not justified by the paral- time" as in the Rv.
lelismof !Jym and bl · mt in Ugaritic because, the _.ay. Living, alive. This adjective is often used
hero's, Aqhat's, reply shows he did not believe as an epithet of God (Josh 3: 10; Hos 2: 1; Ps 42:3,
immortalitycould be had by a mortal and he etc.) but also of man, animals, and vegetation in
therefore accuses the goddess Anat of lying to contrast to what is dead or dried up. The plural
him. The implication is that since the Ugaritic form describes flowing or fresh water (Gen 26: 19;
hero didn't believe humans could have im- Lev 14:5--6;Num 19:17, etc.). Jesus used a word
mortality,the writers of the Old Testament must play on this meaning (Jn 4: 10).
sharethe same skepticism. The point is not what
the Ugaritians believed but that they used the _.ayyä. Living thing, animal. The term is used
word QYm for eternal life, whereas the Hebrew mostly of wild animals in contrast to domestic
lexicons generally list only Dan 12:2 as using animals. Psalm 104:25 uses it of creatures that
i)ayyim distinctively to denote eternal life be- live in water. Ezekiel in chapter I employs the
causeof its alleged Maccabean origin. term to describe the "living creatures" of his vi-
Another similar use of /Jayyim is in Prov 15:24 sion, which were composite in nature, having fea-
whereit is put in antithesis with Sheol: tures of both man and animals. More rarely it
means anything that Jives (Ezk 7: 13).
"The path of life above belongs to the wise,
because he turns away from Sheol below." _.ayyim. Life, as an abstract idea, meaning the
state of being alive as opposite to being dead.
Whetherthis passage has relevance on this sub-
Life at its best, health, endless life.
ject depends on how one interprets Sheol (q.v.)
here and in other places in the or. Sheol often mi„yä. Preservation of life (Gen 45:5), the ap-
meansonly "the grave" in 01 usage. Ifthat is the pearance of new flesh (Lev 13:10), food, subsis-
meaninghere, then !Jayyim as its antithesis need tence (Jud 6:4, 17:10).
meanonly "this earthly life." But if Sheol can Bibliography: Greenberg, Moshe, "The He-
mean "netherworld," then /Jayyim here may brew Oath Particle hay/he," JBL 76: 34-39.
mean "life after death." The writer holds that Gruenthaner, Michael J ., "The Old Testament

281
645 :i;,i, (/-Jiika)

and Retribution in this Life," CBQ 4: 101-110. ,,,,:iM ( haklili). See no. 646a.
Lehman, Manfred R., "Biblical Oaths," ZAW r,~,•~~,:r ( l:,aklilut). See no. 646b.
81: 74-92. O'Connell, Matthew J., "The Concept
of Commandment in the Old Testament," TS 21:
351-403. Richardson. TWB, pp. 127-28. Rust, 647 c;,i;i (/:,iikam) be wise, act wise(ly). (Asv
Eric C., "The Destiny of the Individual in the and Rsv similar except in one instance Rsv
Thought of the Old Testament," Review and Ex- uses "shrewdly. ")
positor 58: 296--311. Sawyer, John F. A., "He- Derivatives
brew Words for the Resurrection of the Dead."
647a t:,~:iM ( hokmii) wisdom.
VT 23: 218-34. TDNT, II, pp. 843---ol.THAT, I,
pp. 549-56. 647b tc;~ · (/:,ökäm) wise(man).
E.B.S. The verb is used twenty-six times and most of
the passages appear in the Qal stem meaning "be
ln'lj ( !Jayyüt). See no. 644g. wise," etc. In the Piel stem the meaning is "mak-
Cl''M ( !Jayyim ). See no. 644f. ing wise" or "teaching." Of all the words denot-
',•M- ( /:,i/). See no. 623b. ing intelligence, the most frequently used are this
',•i, ( !Jayil). See no. 624a. verb and its derivatives, which occur some 312
''!'.! (/Je/). See no. 623d. times in the Hebrew OT. About three-fifths of the
:"!?'!'.!(/Je/ä). See no. 623e. usages are found in Job, Prov, and Eccl.
l'M (/:,in). See no. 694c. [The main synonyms are bin, bfnii, and
1"'1' (/Jayi~). See no. 628a. t''bünii. The verb bfn is used more widely to
li':l'M (/Ji.rön). See no. 627b. mean "consider," "discern" "perceive," but
i''!'.T (l:,eq). See no. 629a. the nouns are close synonyms to /Jokmii and are
W'M (/Jish). See no. 631a. used especially in Prov and Job. In the well-
'!!!'.! (/Jek). See no. 692a. known verse Prov 4:7, "understanding" is not a
higher stage than "wisdom," but a poetic
645 :i;ii;t (/Jiikii) to wait; to wait for. synonym used for emphasis. The root siikal is
also widely used for ordinary intelligence and
Cognate with Akkadian haküm "to wait for" skill. lt is often used for that wisdom which
which occurs in a Mari text- (Archives Royale de brings success--even prosperity. This wisdom
Mari 4. 22.9). lt occurs thirteen times in the Pie! was possessed by David (1 Sam 18:14) and will
stem and once as a Qal participle (lsa 30: 18). The characterize the Messiah (Jer 23:5; lsa 52:13).
KJV translates the word as "wait," except in But the Hiphil participle is used particularly in
II Kgs 7:9, 9:3 as "tarry" and in Job 3:21 as Prov as another synonym of l:,okmii. This word,
.. long for." maskfl. is also used extensively to designate a
Bandits are said to wait in ambush (Hos 6:9). type ofpsalm. tüshfyii, like säkal, has the double
Job speaks in despair of those who wait for or meanirig of wisdom and the success which is the
yearn for death (Job 3:21). effect of wisdom. R.L.H.]
The book of Daniel closes with a blessing for The essential idea of l:,äkam represents a man-
those who would wait for the fulfillment of the ner of thinking and attitude concerning life's ex-
prophecies (Dan 12:12). Habakkuk 2:3 urges be- periences; including matters of general interest
lievers to wait for the vision though it tarries. The and basic morality. These concerns relate to pru-
Lord declares, "Wait for me" (Zeph 3:8). The dence in secular affairs, skills in the arts, moral
expressions "to wait for the Lord" in lsa 8: 17 sensitivity, and experience in the ways of the
and "to wait for him" in lsa 64:4 [H 3], connote Lord.
an attitude of earnest expectation and confident The subject wisdom was discussed throughout
hope. the ancient near east. Mesopotamian wisdom,
See also qäwii. which originated with the Sumerian, emphasized
Bibliography: Thomson, J .G .S.S., "Wait on human experiences, character, and counsel re-
the Lord," Exp T 65: 196--98. Wagner, M., garding practical advice. The problems of death
"Beiträge zur Aramaismenfrage im alttes- and suffering were discussed. Egyptian wisdom
tamentlichen Hebräisch," Supp VT 16: 361---<>2. included the concept of ma' at ("truth," "intelli-
TDNT, IV, pp. 583--85; VI, pp. 193-202. gence," "justice"), according to which one order
E.Y. existed in the whole universe. J. A. Wilson
characterizes it as a created and inherited right-
646 i;,:iM (l:,k/). Assumed root of the following. ness, which tradition built up into an orderly sta-
646a ,,,,:iM ( hak/i/f) dull (from wine, bility ( The Culture of Ancient E,?ypt, University
. G~~ 49;12). of Chicago, 1951, p. 48). Gods and men were sub-
646b m':i•,:iM (haklilüt) dullness (of ject to this order of conduct, which was taught by
eye's-in d.runkenness (Prov 23:29). the priests. Some have feit that much of the oT

282
 647 c,r, (IJäkam)
royal wisdom, which great leaders imparted to her clever plea for its safety (II Sam 20:22). But a
their students, was borrowed from Egyptian wis- shrewd person is not to boast ofhis gift (Jer 9:22).
dom (e.g. Prov 23: l 3f. borrowed from the teach- The ostrich displays traits lacking shrewdness
ings of Amenemope, although it is more likely when she acts in her silly selfish manner (Job
that an original source retlects a revelation of 39: 17). The gift of shrewdness can be used in an
wisdom.) Ugaritic literature also has a form of ungodly way to deny the omniscience ofGod (lsa
maxims concerning the father-son relationship 47:10).
possibly retlecting Canaanite wisdom. A later Prudence, an aspect of wisdom, is expressed
Arabicderivative of the verb denotes „to restrain by those who speak with wisdom (Ps 37:30; Prov
from acting in an evil manner." 10:31), and who use time carefully (Ps 90:12).
The wisdom ofthe 01 however, is quite distinct This kind of wisdom in the practical affairs of life
from other ancient world views although the for- is derived from the revelation of God (lsa 33:6).
matof wisdom literature is similar to that of other The source of all wisdom is a personal God
cultures. Reflected in 01 wisdom is the teaching who is holy, righteous, and just. His wisdom is
of a personal God who is holy and just and who expressed against the background of his omnipo-
expects those who know him to exhibit his tence and omniscience. By his wisdom God
character in the many practical affairs of life. numbered the clouds (Job 38:37), founded the
This perfect blend of the revealed will of a holy earth (Prov 3: 19), and made the world (Jer 10: 12).
Godwith the practical human experiences of life Wisdom, being found in God, is regarded as a
is also distinct from the speculative wisdom of divine attribute (Job 12:13). He alone knows wis-
the Greeks. The ethical dynamic ofGreek philos- dom in its truest sense (Job 28:20, 23). The wis-
ophy lay in the intellect; if a person had perfect dom ofGod is notfound in man's speculation. He
knowledge he could live the good life (Plato). alone must provide this wisdom for man's guid-
Knowledge was virtue. The emphasis of 01 wis- ance so that man can live the best possible moral
dom was that the human will, in the realm of and ethical life (Prov 2:6; Job 11:6).
practical matters, was to be subject to divine In proverbial fashion, the Bible personifies di-
causes. Therefore, Hebrew wisdom was not vine wisdom so that it seems tobe a hypostasis of
theoretical and speculative. lt was practical, God, but stops just short of giving it separate
based on revealed principles of right and wrong, existence. This wisdom was brought forth before
tobe lived out in daily life. all things (Prov 8: 22-31 ). She has built a house
In the historical and prophetical books, the and prepared a banquet for those who will listen
word !Jokmii is sometimes used just to refer to to her (Prov 9: lf.). She even teaches in public
ordinary intelligence and skill (Ex 35:35; Dan places (Prov 1:20; 8: 1, 6, 11-12). By her instruc-
1:4), but even there sometimes the divine and tion her students receive a divine spirit (Prov
moralwisdom is in view. 1:2), the naive become wise, politicians become
The wisdom literature, while sometimes using wise, and those who receive from her wealth are
wisdom as prudence and cleverness, majors on crowned with honor and riches (Prov 8: 1-21).
ethical and spiritual conduct. Because God re- This personification of wisdom is unique.
vealed himself to Israel, their sacred literature While there were gods and goddesses in the an-
has the effect of a divine imperative; /Jäkam re- cient near east who were thought to possess the
fers to godly cleverness and skill, which results in gifts ofwisdom it is unlikely that any existed by
practical action. The one who hears (Prov 8:33; the name of wisdom. The figure of wisdom in the
23:19;27: 11), will be industrious, will know how 01 never came to be regarded as a deity indepen-
to talk, and his will, will be in captivity to God's. dent of the Lord although some such expressions
He will have life. This wins divine approbation. occur in Prov 8. These have often been taken as
an adumbration of Christ. Wisdom did attain a
~okmä. Wisdom. The usages of /Jokmii cover degree of personification, with features which
the whole gamut of human experience. Wisdom were by no means abstract. Wisdom should not
is seen in the skill of technical work in making be regarded as God but it does belong to God; it is
garmentsfor the high priest (Ex 28:3 ), craftsman- one ofhis attributes. Wisdom has a personal exis-
ship in meta! work (Ex 31:3, 6), as weil as the tence in the living word of the NT, but wisdom is
execution of battle tactics (lsa· 10:13). Wisdom is not the Logos herself (Delitzsch, Proverbs. p.
required from government leaders and heads of 183). That Wisdom is personified as a woman in
statefor administration (Deut 34:9: II Sam 14:20), Prov 1-9 is partly explained by the fact that the
includingpagan leaders as weil as lsraelites (Ezk noun is feminine. There the Lady Wisdom is con-
28:4-5). The Messiah demonstrates wisdom and trasted with the woman Folly who is personified
discernment in his function as leader of his sin. Note the studied contrast of Prov 9:4-6 and
people(lsa 11:2). 9:16-18. This personification of wisdom is not
Wisdom is expressed in shrewdness. The found outside these chapters.
woman of Tekoa averted a town's bloodshed in Wisdom for man is not only to make one hu-

283
648 M7i,(l}älä')
manly wise, but also to lead him to fear the Lord, and Problems in Old Testament Wisdom Re-
for this is the beginning of all wisdom (Job 28:28). search," CBQ 29: 407-12. Pfeiffer, R. H., "Wis-
True wisdom for man involves knowing the Holy dom and Vision in the O.T.," ZAW 11: 93-101.
One. So, men are to listen to the wisdom of God Priest, John F., "Where is Wisdom to be
with attentive ears (Prov 2:2). In fact, inner hap- Placed," Journal of Bible and ReliRion 31: 276-
piness m:ily comes when man attains this wisdom 82. Reines, C. W., "Koheleth on Wisdom and
(Prov 3: 13) through a strenous search (Prov 2:4), Wealth," JSS 5: 80-84. Richardson, TWB,
which is actually a search for God himself (Prov p. 282. Scott, R. B. Y., The Way of Wisdom,
2:5). Skeptics will never find this wisdom and will Macmillan, 1971. Talmon, S., .. 'Wisdom' in the
never know the füll meaning of life (Prov l4:6f. ). Book of Esther," VT 13: 419-55. Van Imschoot,
In the great poem of Job 28 wisdom in this special P., "Sagesse et Esprit dans l'A. T.," RB 47:
biblical sense is practically defined as trust in 23-49. Whybray, R. N., Wisdom in Proverbs,
God and the avoidance of sin. (Cf. the emphasis London: SCM, 1%5. TDNT, VII, pp. 476-514.
on }Jokmii as referring to moral wisdom in con- THAT, I, pp. 557-{i6,
trast to sinful folly in R. L. Harris, "Proverbs,'" L.G.
in WBC, pp. 553-54.)
,·n (}Jö/). See nos. 623a; 661a.
ltäkäm. Wise(men); cunning (man). Reflects ,r.i(}Je/). See no. 623d.
the usages of }Jokmii in describing the wise man.
He is skilful in various kinds of technical work, 648 H7r;,(}Jälä') I, be diseased, suffer.
e.g. as artisans (of tabernacle and temple furni-
ture, Ex 35:10), and goldsmiths (Jer 10:9). The Derivative
wise man knows how to administer the affairs of 648a C'l:t?tll:l(ta}Jälü'im)
diseases. The
state (1 Kgs 5:12) and is also shrewd, e.g. the wise word occurs five times, always in
woman of Tekoa handling a delicate matter be- the plural.
fore Solomon (II Sam 14:2). The plural also indi-
Derived from }Jälii, }Jälä' is cognate with the
cates the learned and shrewd men, astrologers,
Akkadian halu "sickness, grief." lt occurs once
magicians of many nations: Egypt (Gen 41 :8),
in the Qal stem (II Chr 16: 12) and once in the
Babylon (lsa 44:28), Persia (Est 6: 13). Prudence
Hi phil stem (lsa 53: 10).
also describes the wise person's attitude to kings
In II Chr 16:12 we are told that Asa developed
(Prov 16: 14), his prudence in conforming to the
a serious foot disease, perhaps gout or gangrene
word of God (Deut 4:6), or a lack of it in ignoring
(NEB). Although medical treatment and physi-
God's will (Hos 13:13).
cians are not condemned as such (cf. lsa 38:21;
The wise man constituted a third office, using
Jer 8:22), Asa was at fault because he consulted
wisdom in harmony with the function ofthe other
the physicians rather than the Lord. Fur-
two offices (Jer 18:18). Thus the wise man gave
thermore, we do not know what forbidden rites
practical advice based on divine revelation as these "physicians" (röpa'im) may have prac-
weil as his own experience and observation.
ticed.
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., ··some
In lsa 53: 10 the Lord is pleased to "put him to
Canaanite-Phoenician sources of Hebrew Wis-
grief' (Rsv; cf. also KJv , NASB),literally "make
dom," in Wisdom in Israel and in the Ancient
him sick." That is, it pleased the Lord that his
Near East, ed. M. Nothand D. Winton Thomas, Servant should suffer. The NABrenders, "But the
Brill, 1960. Blank, S. H., "Wisdom," in IDB, pp.
Lord was pleased to crush him in infirmity" (cf.
852--{il. Crenshaw, J. L., "Method in Determin-
JB "with suffering"). The NEB renders a recon-
ing Wisdom lnfluence upon 'Historical' Litera-
structed text.
ture," JBL 88: 129-42. Gordis, Robert, "The So-
cial Background of Wisdom Literature," HUCA taltälu'im. Diseases. Jehoram died of "sore
18: 77-118. Harris, R. L., "Proverbs," in WBE. diseases," which may have been a kind of dysen-
Hubbard, D. A., "The Wisdom Movement and tery resulting in a prolapse of the rectum. Ac-
lsrael's Covenant Faith," Tyndale Bulletin 17: cording to II Chr 21: 19, Jehoram died "in great
3-33. Irwin, William, "Where Shall Wisdom Be agony" (Rsv: JB and NAB, ••in great pain"). The
Found?" JBL 80: 133-42: Knox, Wilfred, "The NEB reads, "Painful ulceration brought on his
Divine Wisdom," JTS 38: 230-37. Kramer, death."
Samuel Noah, "Sumerian Wisdom Literature: A Jeremiah 14: 18 speaks of the "diseases of
Preliminary Survey," BASOR 122: 28-31. Mal- famine" (Rsv), which KJVparaphrases ··them that
froy, Jean, "Sagesse et Loi dans le Deuteronome are sick with famine." Severe malnutrition
Etudes," VT 15: 49-{i5. Marcus. R., ··The Bibli- causes numerous diseases.
cal Hypostases of Wisdom," HUCA 23: 157-71. The Psalmist praises the Lord who forgives all
Montgomery, J. W., ·•wisdom as Gift," Interp his iniquities and heab all his diseases (Ps 103:3).
16: 43-57. Murphy, Roland E., "Assumptions Here, as in lsa 53. sin and sickness are closely

284
 651 ~',r, (~lb)

related. Sin and sickness are related to guilt and Milk is used in other expressions which speak
punishment. Moreover, both are hopeless states of prosperity and fertility (Deut 32:14; Joel 3:18
which only God can relieve. In lsa 53 they find [H 4:18]).
solution in the vicarious death of the Servant of The process of embryonic development is
the Lord. compared in Job 10:10 to the coagulation of milk.
Bibüography: Harrison, R. K., "Disease," in Cf. Ps 139:13-16; Eccl 11:5; Wisd 7:1-2; II Macc
!DB, I, 847-51. 7:22-23.
E.Y. Zion in its füture glory will suck the "milk of
nations" and "the breast of kings" (Isa 60: 16,
649 M',M (h/') II. Assumed root ofthe following. RSV).
649a :,~7r:,(J:,el'a) rust (Ezk 24:6, 12). For Job's description of the prosperous man
(Job 21 :24), most authorities prefer to follow the
versions in reading heleb "fat" for J:,aliib"milk"
650 :i',n ( J:,lb) I. Assumed root of the following.
(MT, KJV). The difficult word is 'a/fn (KJV
650a ::i7r, (J:,äläh) milk, sour milk, cheese.
"breasts") which occurs only here. The Lxx
Cognate with Akkadian hilpu, Ugaritic J:,lb translates it e,?kata "entrails" and the Vulgate
(UT 19: no. 862), and Arabic halab. The word viscera. lt has been conjectured that the word
occursforty-four times in the Masoretic text. represents Aramaic 'afam "flank," hence
Human milk is mentioned in lsa 28:9; the "thighs" or "haunches." The Rsv translates "his
weanedchild would have been about three years body füll offat"; the JB "his thighs all heavy with
old (cf. II Macc 7:27). fat"; and the NAB"his figure is füll," NIV "his
The /' /eh häläb which was offered by Samuel body weil nourished."
(1 Sam 7:9) was a "sucking lamb," i.e. an "un- See also J:,em'a, J:,ema,maJ:,amii'ot, J:,eleb.
weanedlamb" (NAB). Bibliography: Fisher, Loren R., ed., Ras
The lsraelites utilized the milk of cows, goats, Shamra Para/leis /, Pontifical Biblical Institute,
and sheep (Deut 32: 14; Prov 27:27). Because of 1972, pp. 29-32, 182. Gaster, Theodor H., Cus-
the warm climate, people of the N ear East gener- toms and Folkways of Jewish Life, Sloane, 1955,
allyutilized the milk not as milk or butt er, but as pp. 211-14. Kosmala, H., "The So-Called Ritual
sour milk or curds (yogurt). Decalogue," Annual of the Swedish Theolo,?ical
When Sisera came to Jael's tent she opened a Institute 1: 50-57, 60-61.
skinbottle of milk. Fresh milk shaken in such a For figures of milk and milking, see ANEP,
skinwould be curdled by the bacteria left on the figures 76, 97, 99, 100, 600.
inner surface, and would then be served as sour E.Y.
milk(Jud 4:19; 5:25) or J:,em'a, which is not "but-
ter." Called leben in Arabic, it is still served to
651 ::i~r, (J:,lb) II. Assumed root ofthe following.
guestsby bedouins. Cf. Gen 18:8. 651a t::,';,r, (J:,eleb) fat.
When the sour milk was twisted tightly in a
cloth(Prov 30:33), curds were produced. Cf. lsa Cognate with Punic hlb. Syriac helba, Ugaritic
7:22.David brought food for his brothers, and ten hlb, Arabic hilbun "midrifffat." lt occurs ninety
cheeses, literally "cuts of milk," for their com- times, usualiy referring to the fat of animal sac-
mander(1 Sam 17:18). rifices, especially in Lev where it appears forty-
The Israelites were commanded not to five times. lt is to be distinguished from J:,aläb
"seethe," i.e. boil a kid in its mother's milk (Ex "milk" which has a Ugaritic cognate ~zlb and
23:19;34:26; Deut 14:21). Since a Ugaritic text Arabic J:,alab.
(UT 16: Text no. 52: 14) specifies, "They cook a The KJVtranslates J:,elebas "fat" or "fatness,"
kid in milk," the biblical injunction may have except for "marrow" in Ps 63:5 [H 6], "grease"
been directed against a Canaanite fertility rite. in Ps 119:70, metaphorically, "the best" in Num
Later Jewish interpretation held that this in- 18:12, 29-30, 32, and "the finest'' in Ps 81:16 [H
volved the prohibition of eating meat and dairy 17J; 147:14.
dishes together. The fat of sacrificial animals, specifically the
Milk is used in a number of symbolic or meta- fat surrounding the kidneys and intestines, was
phoricexpressions. The Lord promised to bring burned by the priests (Lev 3:3-4, 10, 14-16). In
thechildren of Israel into a land flowing with milk some cases the fat tail of the broadtail sheep,
and honey (Ex 3:8, 17, etc.). The image is of a which can weigh up to ten pounds, was offered
fertile land with pastures and flowers which (Lev 3:9; Ex 29:22).
would present a sharp contrast to the desolate The fat was burned in the following offerings:
Sinaiwilderness. Some protested that Moses had l. the '"burnt offering" (KJV)or holocaust (Lev
not brought them to such a land but had instead 1:8, 12 where peder "suet" is used); 2. the
taken them out of such a land, namely Egypt "peace offering" (KJv) or "communion sac-
(Num 16:13). rifice" (JB, Lev 3:9ff.; 7:15ff.); 3. the "sin offer-

285
 ing" (Lev 4:8-10); and 4. the "trespass offering" 653 ,,n (h/d). Assumed root of the following.
(KJV,Lev 7:3--4). 653a ti',r, (heled) duraJion of life, the
Like the blood, the fat was not tobe eaten (Lev . world.
3: 17; 7:23, 25). Whether this prohibition applied
Zophar admonishes Job that if he (Job) will do
to all animal fat or just the portions specified is a
right and pul away evil his "life will be brighter
matter of dispute; cf. NABfootnote on Lev 7:23.
than the noonday" (Job 11:17). The Psalmist la-
The fat of an animal that had died of natural
ments over how fleeting his life is. "You made
causes or had been torn by other animals could
be used for grease (Lev 7:24). my day like a few handbreadths; my life is as
nothing in your presence" (Ps 39:5 [H 61). Psalm
Various theories have been offered to explain
89:47 [H 48] strikes a similar note, "Remember,
why the fat was sacrificed with the blood. There
how short (of what duration) my life is."
is, of course, the functional reason that fat bums
The other meaning of heled is related to the
weil with little odor and would thus be a good
former. The world is used not meaning just the
practical representative portion of the peace of-
earth, but rather the total scene of life and action
ferings which were offered in large numbers at
on the earth. Psalm 49: 1 uses the word clearly
festival gatherings and which were eaten by with this meaning "Hear this all you people; lis-
priests and people. Some see in fat the seat of
ten, all who live in the world." The translation of
life, the symbol of strength, or the food of gods
Ps 17:14 is more difficult but most agree heled
(cf. Ezk 44:7). In contrast to the pagan gods, who
also means "world" in this verse. The meaning is
were dependent upon sacrifices for their suste-
either "'by your hand, 0 Lord, destroy them from
nance (cf. The Gi/~amesh Epic 1J. 159-61),
the world" or "save me (v. 13) by your hand, 0
Jehovah declares, "Will I eat the flesh of bulls or
Lord, from men of the world."
drink the blood of goats?" (Ps 50: 13).
E.B.S.
Abel' s sacrifice of the firstlings of the flock and
of their fat (Gen 4:4) indicated his desire to offer
the best to God. The offering of the fat, which 654 ,,n (h/d). Assumed root of the following.
was the tastiest part, symbolized the worshiper's 654a ,~· n ( höled) weasel (Lev 11:29).
desire to offer the best to God.
Such offerings were therefore welcomed by
655 :,7,;i (häla) I, be or become sick, weak, dis-
God (lsa 43:24). But the mechanical offering even
eased, grieved, sorry, et al. (Asv and Rsv
of fat was no substitute for obedience (1 Sam
similar.)
15:22).
A number of passages describe the selfish, re- Derivatives
bellious man who reveals his gluttony in his
655a t•',n ( höli) sickness.
obese features. In Job 15:27 the godless man has 655b t:,','ri~ ·(mahäleh) disease.
hidden his face in fat. (In Ps 17:10 the wicked
have shut up their heleb, perhaps not tobe read
655c :,7f~ (mabäla) sickness.
655d t•~,TT~ (mahality) sickness.
as "'fat" here but as "midriff," as in the cognate
Arabic word, as this was considered the seat of The basic meaning of this root is "'to be(come)
the emotions.) The eyes ofthe wicked "'swell out sick" or "faint." The verb is used fifty-nine
with fatness" (Rsv) or "gleam through folds of times. Due to the nature of the verb there is sel-
fat" (NEB)(Ps 73:7). The heart of the godless is dom any difference in translating with the auxil-
"gross like fat" (Ps 119:70, RSV).When Jeshurun, iary "'be" or "become."
i.e. Israel, waxed fat and sleek he forsook God In many contexts (e.g. Gen 48: 1; Ezk 34: 16) no
(Deut 32:15; cf. Jer 5:28). (For Job 21:24 see distinction need be made between "sick" or
häläb.) "weak," the latter resulting from the former. But
heleb is used idiomatically for the best of the in Jud 16:7. 17 sickness cannot be involved be-
land (Gen 45: 18), as is the English expression cause "to be weak" (in opposition to köah,
''the cream of the crop. '' strength) here is explicitly stated to be "as
In Ezk 34:3 the NEB,JB, and NABfollow the LXX another man" or "like any man." The other uses
and the Vulg. in reading häläb "milk" instead of of this verb could be construed always to imply a
heleb. sickness of some sort but this is often not neces-
Bibliography: Heller, J ., "'Die Symbolik des sary. Thus in Isa 57:10 the word is applied to
Fettes im AT," VT 20: !~. what is probably the natural result of a long jour-
See also bärä', bäri', däshen. mishman. ney (Asv and RSV,"be faint"; KJV,"grieved").
mashmanim, peder, shäman, shämen. To be "sick" includes the condition brought
E.Y. about by physical injury or wounding: by beating
(Prov 23:35 KJV:ASVand RSV"hurt"), from battle
652 l"!l:ll
1,M (he/h"nä) a kind of gum (Ex wounds (II Kgs 8:29), from a fall (II Kgs 1:2). lt is
. 30i34)
.. used in a general sense (like the English) for ill-

286
 656 *:,7i, (/Jäla)
ness, regardless of cause, sometimes leading to used to describe a given situation as a calamity
death: Jacob (Gen 48: 1), Hezekiah (II Kgs 20: 1). (Eccl 6:2, Rsv, "aflliction").
lt is used more specifically of disease: as with The word is translated "grief' in Isa 53:3-4,
Asa's feet (1 Kgs 15:23). lt is used of animals such although it may be better translated "sickness"
as those which are unsuitable for sacrifice (Mal (margin of ASVand Rsv), whether physical or
1:8, 13). spiritual. The parallel is mak'ob, meaning
The verb is also used in the sense of · · sick of "pain," but translated "sorrow." Jeremiah
heart" or "mind," as a girl sick with love (Song (chaps 6-7) uses the term to describe the spiritual
2:5; 5:8). Saul complained that nobody was depravity of Jerusalem (KJV, "grief'). The KJV
"sick," i.e. "feit sorry" for him (1 Sam 22:8). also translates "grief' in Jer 10:19 (Rsv, afllic-
The non-physical form of sickness is more evi- tion), but the use in context is similar to Eccl 6:2
dent in the Niphal. Arnos speaks ofthose who are (above), perhaps tobe translated "calamity."
"at ease in Zion" but "are not grieved (i.e.
matJäleh. Disease, infirmity. Used twice
"made sick") for the afllication of Joseph"
(II Chr 21:15; Prov 18:14).
(Arnos6:6) and Isaiah speaks of a "day of being
sick" (translated "day of grief," lsa 17:11). But matillluy. Sickness or wound. Used only in
the Niphal is also used for the "diseased" (Ezk II Chr 24:25 of the condition of Joash as a result
34:4)and "faint" (Jer 12:13). In the latter refer- of conflict with Syrians.
ence Jeremiah uses the word for the effort to sow C.P.W.
wheat (which results in reaping thorns). The KJV
and ASVtranslate "pul themselves to pain," but 656 *:,?i;r (l:,äla) Ii, beseech, entreat, pray, make
the RSV,"tire themselves out." The Niphal parti- prayer, suit, application. (ASVand RSVsimi-
ciple is also used in the sense of "severe" when lar.)
referring to wounds or blows (Jer 10:19).
The Hiphil "make sick" is used four times in Derivative
various contexts. Micah 6: 13 should probably be 656a tl'l,r,tl; (maJ:,iilat) Mahalath.
understood "I have made thy smiting sick" in the
sense of · · sore · · or · · severe. ·' (The RSVrejects the This word is used sixteen times, always in the
Hebrew text here.) The Hiphil is used in refer- Piel stem, and always with p' ne "the face of."
ence to feelings (" hope deferred makes the heart With p"ne the meaning is "entreat," "seek the
sick," Prov 13:12), and to sickness that comes favor of." The use of /:,/h in this construction is
from wine (Hos 7:5). similar to that of the Hithpael of /:,{man. "entreat
Isaiah 53:10 (K1v) reads, "Yet it pleased the favor."
Lord to bruise him; he has put him to grief," i.e. Thirteen ofthe sixteen usages refer to the favor
"he has made him sick" in the sense of mental being sought of the Lord. U sually this involves a
anguish. But it could be in a physical sense, i.e. prayer for mercy or help in the threat of <langer.
"he has wounded him." This would parallel the The <langer may be the hand ofGod (Ex 32:11, as
corresponding passive (Hophal) which is used a result of the golden calf), or of enemies (II Kgs
three times, always in the sense of "I am 13:4, the Syrians against Jehoahaz).
wounded (made sick)" from battle injuries (1 Kgs As applied to others, Zophar teils Job that if he
22:34;II Chr 18:33, Ahab; II Chr 35:23, Josiah). would "be good" people would entreat his favor
The Hithpael is used just three times-all con- (Job 11: 19, KJV"make suit unto you"). In Prov
cerning Amnon, in the sense of "make oneself 19:6 we are told that "many will entreat the favor
sick." He made himself sick with inordinate de- of the liberal man (KJVprince)." According to Ps
sire (II Sam 13:2), and then made himself appear 45: 12 [H 13], the rich shall entreat the bride of the
sick (vv. 5~). King, who is identified in Heb 1:8-9 as the Son of
The Piel is causative in Deut 29:22 (but the KJV God.
translates "hath laid" to avoid a cognate to the Some would call attention to the invariable use
noun "sickness"). The only other Piel is an infin- with p ,.ne and urge that the idiom means to
itivetranslated "infirmity" (Ps 77: 10 [H 111,KJV, stroke the face of someone and thus mollify him,
ASV) or "grief' (Rsv, Asv marg.). For other Piel but this seems to be extreme etymologizing. The
forms see /:,iila, II. The Pual is used once: "be- origin of the idiom may not be clear. The mean-
come (or) be made weak" (Isa 14:10). ing, however, as determined by usage is plain.
Other words for "to pray" are l:,änan and pälal
~öli. Sickness, disease, illness. This noun fol- (q. V.).
lows the verb in meaning "sickness" whether C.P.W.
from physical causes (the fall of Ahaziah, II Kgs
1:2),or from disease (in Asa·s feet. II Chr 16:12: mätJälat. Mahalath. This technical musical
in the bowels of Jehoram. II Chr 21: 15). lt may be term of uncertain meaning is found in the head-
applied figuratively to a nation (Hos 5: 13). lt is ings of Ps 53 and 88 [H 53: 1 and 88: 1]. Most ver-

287
657 :,',n (/J/h)

sions simply transliterate the term. The NASB Derivatives

suggests a connection with !Jäla "to be weak, 660a t',',r, ( /Jti/iil) slain, fatally wounded.
sick," hence a sad tune. Others relate it to 660b t:,~;, (!Jallii) cake (if pierced).
m "~10/a, a round dance. In Ps 88, where it is
660c tii;~ (!Jallön) window ( if taken as a
joined with "Leannoth," the NJV says it may pos-
piercing or hollow in the wall).
sibly be a tune, "The Suffering of Affiiction." 660d ',•1;,i, (/Jtili/) flute, pipe.
For other such terms see selii. 660e ','7i, (l:,alal) play the pipe. Denomi-
H.W. native verb.
660f t:i1r:,~ (me/Jil/ii) hole. Occurs only
657 :,',r,( /J/h) III. Assumed root of the follow-
in Isa 2: 19 (parallel to cave in rocks).
ing.
657a •',t, ( !Jali) ornament (Prov 25: 12; The verb itself is used only eight times and
Song 7:2). mainly in poetry. lt usually means a fatal wound-
657b :,~7r,(/Jelyii) jewelry (Hos 2: 15). ing of persons, as does the adjective /Jti/iil. Twice
it refers to the fleeing serpent, parallel to the
:,',r, (/Ja/lii). See no. 660b. Lord's action in smiting Rahab to death (Isa 51 :9;
ii~~ (/Ja/Jim). See no. 660c. Job 26: 13; though in the latter passage KJV as-
ci',r, (!Jalom). See no. 663a. sumes /Jalal "create ").
~i',~ <!Jalvp). See no. 666b. In the messianic passage lsa 53:5, "wounded"
:iwii:iri (~,alüsha). See no. 671b. (KJV marg. ··tormented"; JB "'pierced through")
:i7i,7~ (/Jal!Jälä). See no. 623f. follows the divine smiting (v. 4). The Poel form
used ( m '!Joläl) is similar to that in lsa 51 :9; cf.
658 ~'71? (/Jä/a!) catch, pick up (a word). Used "pierced by the sword" (Pual, Ezk 32:26). The
only in I Kgs 20:33. quotation in Jn 19: 12 ('"they shall look on him
whom they have pierced") is from Zech 12:10 but
•',r, (holi).See no. 655a. this v. uses another verb (däqar) ·•pierced
-~~ ( haii). See no. 657a. through fatally" (usually in retribution). In Jer
:,~~r,(/Je/yii). See no. 657b. 51:4 and Lam 4:9 däqar is used as a synonym of
,,,,; ( häli/). See no. 660d. pälal.
:,~•Sni hali/ii). See no. 66 Ic. There is no need to read Ps 77: 11 as "my sick-
:,~•,6 <halipa). See no. 666c. ness" (/Ja/oti) instead of "my wounding"
:,;•',t, (/Ja/i.~a). See nos. 667a, 668a. ( !Jalöti), an idea already expressed in Ps 109:22
(Rsv here "stricken," but the context is of death).
659 ,,n (!Jlk). Assumed root of the following. Proverbs 26: 10 is to be read with Rsv ··an archer
who wounds everyone" rat her than the hypothet-
659a t:,~7r, (/Jelkii) hapless, unfortunate
person, poor (KJV). ical KJV "the great (God) who formed (created) all
things."
The word is used only as a noun and only in
one context, Ps 10:8-14. The psalm is about the ltäläl. S/ain, fatally wounded. The rendering
treachery of the wicked who lie in wait to destroy "pierced" rests on its probable derivation from
their unfortunate victims. The wicked man thinks /Jä/al I. This adjective is used eighty-seven times,
God will overlook this but he does not (vv. 11- one-fourth of which are qualified with "by the
14). The hapless are exhorted to commit them- sword. · · That the action was fatal is confirmed by
selves to the Lord who is the helper of the father- the context and circumstantial evidence in most
less. The root appears to be used three times, instances. lt included the act of wounding and the
although some suggest the usage in v. 10 has resultant groans. The wounds were inflicted usu-
another meaning (scoundrel, cf. Holladay, A ally in war, but also in persecution (Ps 69:26
Concise Hehrelt' and Aramaic Lexicon, p. 105). [H 27]) or hunger (Lam 4:9), and ended in death.
lt is true that the spelling in v. 10 is slightly dif- For this reason KJV sometimes equivocates
ferent but the root is no doubt the same. lt is (marg.) between ··wounded" and "slain'" (e.g. I
possible that the word in v. 10 is the so-called Chr 10: )). (In Lev 21 :7, 14 the fern. halälii refers
"abstract plural.'" The verse may be rendered, to a woman who had been violated.)
'"He (the wicked) crushes (him); he sinks low and !tallä. Cake. This feminine noun occurs four-
falls into helplessness because of his strength." teen times and is a technical term for a special
E.B.S. type of baked cake made of fine flour (Lev 2:4)
and oil (Lev 7: 12; Num 6: 15). lt has been consid-
660 ':>'7i,(/Jä/a/) I, wound (Jatally), bore through, ered as having some characteristic perforations
pierce. Survives in Arabic !Jalla "pierce (Rin!(brot) on the basis of a supposed etymology
through ... Occurs ninety-six times, includ- from !Jälal I. This cake was part of the firstfruits
ing derivatives. offering (Num 15:20) and was placed on the altar

288
 661 ',7r,(/Jä/a/)
(Lev 8:26) as part of the burnt offering (Ex 29:23). fanation of hands" UT Supplement p. 552) may
lt was, however, eaten by participants as part of indicate its semantic range.
the communion (peace) offering (II Sam 6:19; Ex lt and its derivatives are used eighty-three
29:2; Num 6: 19). times. /Jälal is associated with uncleanness
((um' a) and similar terms with which the physi-
~allön. Window. This noun (masculine and
feminine) occurs thirty-four times and its mean- cal, ritual. and ethical issues overlap.
ing in the OT is not in doubt. lt is usually taken as The root !Jll is used to mark the act of doing
an opening ·•pierced"' in the wall (from /Jälal 1). violence to the established law ofGod (Zeph 3:4),
lt was an opening in a building which provided breaking the covenant (Ps 55:21), or the divine
light and air, usually high up in the wall and statutes (Ps 89:31 IH 321). Thus to profane is to
below the eaves for security purposes. The misuse the name ofGod (Lev 18:21), the Sabbath
etymology is uncertain and cannot be connected (Ex 31:14) or the holy place, and so desecrate it.
with the Syrian portico architectural feature ( hit The Levitical laws had as one aim to safeguard
~iläni; cf. Akk bitlanni, Hittite hilammar). the priests against defilement in character, body,
Windows are found in many types of building or ritual. They would be made personally unholy
in both inner and outer walls. They were not by contact with the dead (Lev 21:4). In regard to
glazed and seldom shuttered. They served as air sexual relationships, the rules were quite strict.
vents as in the ark (Gen 8:6). They could be set in The priest might only marry a virgin of his own
square frames (1 Kgs 6:4) and were !arge enough people (Lev 21 :7-15). In ritual the priest must not
for a person to be lowered through them (Josh make holy things unholy by partaking of sac-
2:15; I Sam 19:12; II Cor 11:33). Exceptionally a rifices outside the prescribed period (when food
person, as a thief, might enter through them (Joel would have become polluted naturally, Lev
2:9) although they were protected by bars or lat- 19:8). The holy place itself was tobe protected by
ticework (Jud 5:28; Prov 7:6; cf. II Kgs 1:2). prohibiting entry to "aliens uncircumcised in
Through these a person could be seen from street heart and tlesh .. (Ezk 44:7).
level and look out (II Kgs 9:30-32), although to The original use of the word may have been in
identify this "woman at the window" with cult reference to sexual relations, since it is used of
practices and representations in art is hazardous. Reuben's defilement of his father·s line (Gen
The phrase "windows of heaven" (KJV, Rsv) 49:4) or of intercourse within the near kin rela-
translates another term ('arubba, q.v.) which tions forbidden by law. Such actions were con-
should be translated "sluices, floodgates·· (as JB sidered fornication and prostitution. The word
and N1v). Like the eyes (Eccl 12:3), the furnace may therefore be used of any action which con-
(Hos 13:3), or the dovecot (lsa 60:8) these could troverts God·s planned order.
be opened (Gen 7: 11) or shut (Gen 8:2). So figura- God himself was said to "profane"' his own
tively God controls the irrigation to !et fall a de- inheritance by giving it over to Babylon when his
structive flood (Gen 8:2; cf. lsa 24: 18) or the people broke the law and were exiled (lsa 47:6),
showerofplenty (II Kgs 7:2) a symbol ofblessing and likewise his priests when they were sent off
(Mal 3:10). to Chaldea (Isa 43:28). In this he was acting to
prevent his Name from being profaned, i.e. con-
m0 '1illä. Hole. This feminine noun occurs only sidered unholy, by heathen nations, even though
once, in Isa 2: 19, where it is parallel to cave in it meant that the sanctuary, crown, and kingdom
rocks. of Judah were "profaned."
D.J.W. The Hiphil theme of the verb is only used
twice; ofthe Name ("I will not let my holy Name
661 ,,r;r(/Jälal) II, profane, defde, pollute, be profaned any more, ·· Ezk 39:7) and of the
desecrate; begin (Hiphil only). need of man not to "break" his word (KJV
Derivatives "violate ") when it was a vow or pledge involving
the Lord's name (Num 30:3). For this reason the
661a t', M (/Jöl) profaneness, commonness.
frequent use of the Hiphil (106 times) as "to be-
661b t',7r;r (/Jäliil) II, profaned, dishon-
gin" is probably not tobe derived from the same
oured, unhallowed.
root (see (' !Jilla below) unless possibly it de-
661c t:i?''ir;r (/Jii/ilii) far be it (jrom me
veloped from the concept of freeing oneself of the
etc.), Godforbid that emphatic sub-
obligation to act in a certain way by setting about
stantive used as negative particle or
the business of getting free.
interjection.
661d t:,7nr;,(t"/Jillii) beginning,f,rst. !töl. Profaneness, commonness, common. This
The etymology and basic meaning of this root masculine noun is used seven times. First, to de-
are not known. Comparison with Arabic hll "to scribe a non-sacred place (Ezk 42:20; 48: 15) or
free from lawful obligations" and with the· use in anything non-holy. i.e. in distinguishing between
Ugaritic (only once, VRaritica V. 3. 11.6, "pro- the holy and the common, even between the

289
662 c,r,(IJälam)
clean and the unclean (Lev 10:10; Ezk 22:26; 25: 1-8. Richardson, TWB, p. 272. THAT, 1, pp.
44:23). Second, in I Sam 21:5-6 it describes 570-75.
··common" bread as opposed to the bread ofthe D.J.W.
presence (KJV ··in a manrier common"; RSV "even
when it is a common journey"). Here again it is 662 c';>i, ( l;älam) /, be healthy, strong (Job
used to describe the opposite of "holy." 39:4, Qal; lsa 38:16, Hiphil).
fläläl. Unhallowed, profaned, dishonoured.
663 c'ii:t (IJiilam) II, dream.
This adjective (see IJiilal II) occurs four times.
In each case the emphasis is on real or symbolic Derivative
breaking of the sexual laws. In Lev (21:7, 14) 663a ci,r) ( l;alom) dream.
it is used of women associated with (perhaps
synonymous with) women who are harlots. In Apparently derived from the verb l;älam "to
the !ist of persons a Levite may not marry it dream" and certainly equivalent in every way to
follows a widow or divorcee (here also possibly l;elem "dream," in the Aramaic portion of Dan.
synonyms). lt similarly describes Israel as the This article will treat the Hebrew and Aramaic
"unhallowed, wicked one" (Rsv; cf. KJV "pro- l;elem as precisely equivalent. Whether the verb
foundly dishonoured one''; RV "deadly IJälam ·'tobe strong,'' is a homonym or if there is
wounded" taking it from }Jälal 1). a more primitive meaning for l;älam "be strong"
is moot, but it is interesting that if "be strong" is
fiälUa. Farbe it (from me, etc); God forbid (that I, the primitive source, it came to mean "to dream"
etc.). This expression, occurring nineteen times by virtue ofthe fact that erotic dreams of mal es at
introduces a strong negation or deprecation of an puberty, accompanied by seminal emissions con-
act. lt is spoken by a king or person of high offi- nect the idea of "be strong" with "to dream."
cial standing or by persons collectively in a sol- Evidence is the cognate Arabic. KB unites the
emn legal situation. lts use is attested only until two roots und er one entry. There is no other He-
the monarchy. Job 27:5; 34:10 reiterates a con- brew word for a dream in the OT.
text similar to that in which Abraham uses it to Use of the word easily falls under two
God, Gen 44:7. lt is used by God himself(l Sam categories: (1) Ordinary dreams, such as all
2:30), to him (Gen 18:25), and about him (Job people have periodically during sleep. They can
34: 10). The füll, and possibly stronger expres- be frightening (Job 7: 14); are transitory (Job 20:8;
sion, with the force of an oath includes the name lsa 29:7-8); and have natural causes (Eccl 5:2).
of God (as the Lord Jives, may it not be, etc.- This is significant theologically as establishing
1 Sam 14:25; 24:7; II Sam 20:20). the point that authors of scripture endorse no
Since it is usually associated with l;iilal II it general theory of psychic or religious significance
may mean ad profanum. But this is by no means of dreams.
certain. lt may be a reduplicative form (cf. Akk There are, however, a number of cases which
ly'ilu "drip blood," and so the life ebbs away) show that it may have been a general belief
calling down a curse on the person who would among lsraelites and their neighbors that dreams
commit a prohibited action; but this is unlikely in sometimes do have religious significance.
the light of its use by God himself. Pharaoh's imprisoned butler and baker thought
so (Gen 40) as also some Hebrew warriors of Gi-
t"fiillä. Beginning, first (in a series). This deon ·s time (Jud 7: 13-15). (2) Revelatory dreams,
feminine noun, derived from the Hiphil of l;älal in which God conveys information to mankind.
discussed above, is used twenty-two times in These in the case of "lying prophets," are bogus
three categories. First, it marks the first of a se- to start with, i.e. invented by their human
ries of occurrences, the outset, as of a journey originators (see Jer 23: 14-40). "They speak a vi-
(Gen 13:3; 41:21) or the first in order of attack sion of their own heart, and not out of the mouth
(Jud 1:1). Secondly, and most commonly, it re- of the Lord" (v. 16). "I have not sent these
fers to the "beginning" of a specified time, e.g. prophets, yet they ran: 1 have not spoken to
the barley harvest (Ruth 1:22), the growth of veg- them, yet they prophesied" (v. 21). Of genuine
etation (Arnos 7: 1), or the occupation of Samaria revelations by dreams there are several grades.
by Babylonian deportees (II Kgs 17:25). lt is used In some God appears (under what figure or form
of the first words of a prayer (Dan 9:23) or of the we do not know) and in a straightforward way
first words of a godless man's speech (Eccl informs the sleeping recipient. Of this sort is the
10:13). Thirdly, in an abstract sense, it denotes dream of Abimelek, king of Gerar (Gen 20:3-7)
the "first principle" ofwisdom, which is the fear and of Jacob at Bethel (Gen 28: 10-19). Of another
of the Lord (Prov 9: 10). sort are dreams wherein the divine disclosure is
Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., "lsaiah through symbolic things, persons, and actions.
52,5 and the Profanation of the Name," HUCA The dreamer is puzzled and requires the aid of a

290
 666 r:,7r,
(/Jälap)

human interpreter. The interpreter (prophet) is into standing water//the 'flint' into a fountain of
the primary agent of revelation, the dream being water.''
only the occasion (Gen 40, 41; Dan 2:4). In some, Job uses the word in his wisdom poem (chapter
as above the dream is inexplicable without help 28) to speak of the technological ability of men
from God, but the agent of explanation is a divine who can "put their hands on the flint and over-
messenger (angel) who appears within the dream turn mountains by the roots" (v. 9) but still can-
(or vision) state of the subject. An example is in not find wisdom. Deuteronomy 32: 13 uses the
Dan 7 (see v. 16). Sometimes the prophet- word metaphorically to teil how God materially
dreamer awakens and, remembering his dream, is blessed his people. The Lord made his people
puzzled by it, and the divine messenger (angel) "such honey out of the rock and oil out of the
comes to him in his ordinary wakeful state to 'tlinty' rock ... lsaiah uses the word in a forceful
explain the meaning of the dream (Dan 8, see vv. simile of firm determination based on faith in the
15-27). Lord God. "For the Lord God will help me ...
Both dreams and visions (see /Jiizeh and hä- therefore have I set my face like a flint and I
zon) were frequent modes of divine communic- know that I will not be ashamed'" (50:7).
tion to the prophets of Israel. Numbers 12:~ is Bibliography: Landsberger, B., '· Akkadisch-
specific to this point. lt is by no means clear that Hebräische Wortgleichungen," Supp VT 16:
such were the exclusive modes of divine com- 176-204.
munication, even though dreams and visions E.B.S.
were characteristic. (See Isa 1: 1 and contrast Jer
1:1-2- .. vision" versus "word" and "words. ")
Hebrews 1: I suggests many modes of communi-
666 l'\'70 (/Jälap) passon,oraway,passthrough,
change; Pie! and Hiphil usually "change"
cation.
garments, wages, etc.
"Dream" seems to designate the sleeping state
of prophetic receptivity and "vision" the indi- Derivatives
vidual segment within the dream. Dan 7, for
example speaks of "a dream" in which there 666a l'\1m (/Je/ep) in exchange for.
were several "visions of his head upon his bed" 666b l'\i~r, (/Jalop) passing away, vanish-
(v. 1; see vv. 2, 7, 13). ing, appointed to destruction.
Visions and dreams did not as such render the
666c :,p•71:,(l;älipii) change (of gar-
ments), replacement.
one who claimed to have them an authentic bear-
er of divine truth unless the person (prophet) pre- 666d l'\7tt~ (ma/Jäläp) knife (which cuts
ihrough?).
sented his credentials. The dream definitely was
not his credential. (See Deut 18, 13.) Discerning
666e :,~7r,~ (ma/Jaläpci) braids, locks (of
hair).
saints mourned the absence of these prophets,
their dreams and visions, and their "signs" (I The Ugaritic has a cognate to the last deriva-
Sam 3: 1; cf. v. 20; Ps 74:9). tive mhlpt "lock of hair" (Aistleitner WUS no.
Bibliography: "Dream," in Dictionary of 1035). The Arabic IJalafa is used for "replace,"
New Testament TheoloRY, ed. Colin Brown, vol. „succeed." From this usage comes the title of
I. Oppenheim, L., The Interpretation of Dreams the Turkish ruler, the Caliph.
in the Ancient Near East, 1956. Ruble, Richard, In the Qal the usage of the verbis illustrated by
L., .. The Doctrine ofDreams," BS 125: 36~. Jud 5:26. Jael pierced through Sisera's temples
R.D.C. (cf. Job 20:24). Whirlwinds, conquerors, ghosts
pass through or by (Isa 21:1; 8:8; Job 4:15). The
verb is also used for the growth of grass (Ps
664 rm~';tr(!Jallämul) a tasteless plant, purslane 90:5--6) and for the second growth of a tree (Job
(?). Derivation and meaning uncertain. 14:7).
This last usage is of special interest for it bears
on Job's concept of a future life. In despair, Job
665 tu•Q';tr(/Ja/liimish) flint.
had longed for death (3: 11-15). Then he pleads
The word is used only five times in the OT. lt is for relief from God who seemed about to destroy
a quadraliteral root which probably comes from him (10:8-9). Then in a difficult versehe affirms
an unknown non-semitic source. In the Num 20 his hope ( 13:15) and his assurance of vindication
account of Moses' bringing water from the rock (13: 18). In chap. 14 he gives explicit considera-
another root (se/a") is used. But in Deut 8:15 tion to life after death. First, he cites the case of a
where this event is referred to again the words tree which when cut down will put forth a second
~ur /Jal/iimish „the rock of 'flint'" are used. The growth (v. 7, Hiphil of /Jä/ap). Not so with man.
poetry of Ps 114:8 divides the terminology of Of more value than a tree, he dies and does not
Deut 8: 15 putting one of the words on each side rise. Job finds this unthinkable and raises the
of the parallelism: "who turned the rock (~ur) poignant question, "If a man dies, will he live

291
667 r';,n(hälas)
T • •

again?" He answers his own cry with a declara- land as armed soldiers, the passive participle of
tion of faith drawn from his tree illustration. Job this verb is employed. The participle describes
will wait for his '"second growth" (v. 14, IJalipa) the soldiers of David (1 Chr 12:23-24), of
to come. He is sure that God will have respect Jehoshaphat (II Chr 17:18; 20:21), of Pekah
for, will long for Job the creation of his own (II Chr 28: 14) and of the king of Moab (Isa 15:4).
hands. Interpreted by consideration of the key
~Al~a. Belt. A soldier's (hero's) belt with
word IJälap the passage prepares for the more
which he girded himself. Cf. Akkadian l:Jali$u
famous passage on the subject, Job 19:23-27.
belt, leatherstrap (CAD, vol. 6, p. 43). Although
Bibliography: Harris, R. L., '"The Book of
other Hebrew words also apply ( /Ji'IRÖr, 'ezör)
Job and lts Doctrine of God," Grace Journal 13:
28-29. this one fits weil with the figure in Eph 6: 14,
R.L.H. "Stand firm then, with the belt of truth buckled
around your waist" (N1v). Since this was the
667 1'7r;t (/Jü/aJ) I, draw o/J, take off, wilhdraw symbol of the soldier·s prowess in battle, its re-
(Qal); rescue, be rescued, (Pie!, Niphal). moval was proof that he was defeated. The belt
wrestling which was practiced in the OTworld (cf.
Derivatives ANEP 218, 219) is reflected in the two passages
667a ~;•',r, ( /Jöli$a) what is stripped off a where this noun is used. In II Sam 2:21 where
person, as plunder, in war. Occurs probably a belt wrestling joust is in progress
only in II Sam 2:21 and Jud 14:19. Abner tries in vain to get Asahel to take on a
667b ~l?t)I;' (ma!Jalä!fa) robe of state. young man and "take his bell." In Jud 14:19
Samson takes on thirty Philistines and strips
This verb is used with the meaning given above them of their belts.
in the Qal stem only four times in the Bible (Deut
25:9; Isa 20:2; Lam 4:3; Hos 5:6). In Lev the ~äläi,ayim. Loins, as the seat of vigor and
word has this meaning twice in the Pie! (Lev place from which one's seed comes (Gen 35: 11; I
14:40, 43). The other meaning, to rescue, is found Kgs 8: 19). Several usages stress the girding of the
only in poetic material in Job, Ps, and Prov. In loins (Job 38:3; 40:7; Isa 5:27; 11:5; 32: 11).
these books the verbis found sixteen times mean- E.B.S.
ing "rescue," mostly in the Psalms. This OT po-
etic usage is reflected in Phoenician theophoric 669 i'7r;t (/Jtilaq) I, share, divide, allot, appor-
names such as /Jiila$ba'al (Baal has rescued). tion, assign. RSV and KJV also "assign."
The two meanings are within the same semantic
range. The Psalmist is in trouble and calls on the Derivatives
Lord to "rescue" him, "deliver" him, "pull him 669a ti'7r, (/Jeleq) share, part, territory.
out" of his distress. In Ps 7:4 [H 5] the Psalmist 669b t~~7r, (!Jelqa) share, piece, portion,
himself is the agent rather than the object of res- plot (KJV parcel) of land, field.
cue. Here he touches on the lofty theme of doing 669c ~il'?r, ( IJaliiqqä) part, portion, only
good to one·s enemies, asserting, "Yes, I have in II Chr 35:5.
·rescued' him that without cause is my enemy." 669d trii'·',r,r;, (ma!Jalöqet) share, division,
The words of Jesus on loving one·s enemies (Mt al/Qtment.
5:43, 44) is not wholly a NT theme.
The word has legal connotations similar to
Bibliography: Thomas, D. W., "A Note on
na!Jala, '"give as a possession" but with the more
Jud. 14, 18," JTS 34: 165.
specific implication of what is granted. lt differs
E.B.S.
radically from the many Hebrew roots for "di-
vide" used in the sense of "to break into parts."
668 l''ir;t (/Jalas) II, equip for war, put on a The verb, used only in Qal and Pie! (sixty-two
warrior's belt, gird or arm oneself, make
times) is used including its derivatives some 194
ready for battle, invigorate, make strong.
times.
Derivatives The verb is commonly used of parcelling out
shares (RSV "allotments") of land (Num 26:53),
668a t~t•',rt ( /Jiiil,H'l) belt.
whether by lot (Num 26:53), inheritance (Prov
668b tc•;76 (IJalii.yayim) loins.
17:2), or other forms of division (Prov 29:24). lt
With these meanings the root is used mostly in can be used of any division, whether of food at a
the Qal, occasionally in the Niphal and only once feast (II Sam 6:18), clothing (Ps 22:19), or the
in the Hiphil. spoils of war (Prov 16:19). Thus people may be
The widest usage of this root is the meaning divided into unspecified groups (Gen 14:15;
"to arm" or "equip for war." In Num 32:21 etc. though this might be derived from an equivalent
andin Josh 4:13; 6:..7,9, 13, where the Israelites to Arabic IJ/q "encircle"), two factions (1 Kgs
are preparing themselves to invade the promised 16:21), or specific divisions as in the case of the

292
 670 i'7,:t(IJälaq)
priests and Levite s for temple service (see In view of the spiritual implications of the word
ma~iiloqet). it is small wonder that it formed a popular ele-
God makes the division. The question is asked ment in lsraelite personal names, e.g. Hilkiah.
if it is he who ·'distributes" pains in his wrath
~elqä. Share, share (of territory), piece, portion or
(Job21: 17) which "'divides" (KJV;"scatters" Rsv)
plot (of land; KJV"parcel"), field. Cf. Aramaic
the wicked. The ·•divided"' heart of Hos 10:2 is
haläq; Akkadian eqlu "field."
perhaps tobe translated ••fa]se" or "flattering"
The major share or tenure of land in the or
heart; (see hälaq II). lt is God who gives a share
derived from tribal allotments'(see heleq), so that
of (Rsv "allots") sun, moon, and stars as guides
this feminine noun helqä most commonly de-
(not deities for worship) to all peoples (Deut
notes the "share" or division ofland made to the
4:19).Since some Jewish commentators consider various tribes of Israel after the Conquest. Thus
this to condone idolatry among the gentiles, they
God was seen to have granted the best share as
and the Vulgate translate hlq here as an equiva- the commander's choice (Deut 33:21). The multi-
lent of the Arabic halaqa "create." God is the ple ownership of land is already attested in
source of light which is "distributed" (RSVJob Jacob· s need to buy land ("· a share of a field")
38:24). Although the verb is not directly used of from several sons of the Shechem family (Gen
the Lord's allocation of land to his people, the 33:19; Josh 24:32). Later on, Boaz appears to
use of the noun ( see heleq) shows that it was have farmed only part of Elimelech 's land (Ruth
ultimately his. 2:3; 4:3). By the time of the monarchy the term
~eleq. Share, part, territory. KJV, RSV also had become the general one for ••field" (II Kgs
"portion, tract." This word occurs sixty-two 3:19), but often with the implication of inher-
times. lt is used as a synonym of "]ot" ({?Öräl) itance (II Kgs 9:21). Jeremiah sees the land of
when it is a share of booty divided among the Israel as God's field (12:10; cf. I Cor 3:9). The
victors (Gen 14:24) or of offerings among the ··portion" of Job 24:18 may weil mean ••field"
because of the parallelism with ·•vineyard," in
priests (Lev 6: 10). More commonly it refers to a
share in an inheritance. 'Early in the or the word which case every use of this noun can be trans-
lated ••field'" in the ancient sense. The noun
is used with a technical nuance of share of land
IJ,aluqqii is used for "share · · in II Chr 35 :5 only
givento all the tribes when they entered the land.
In this use the term is parallel with "inheritance" and the Aramaic haläq in Ezr4:16; Dan4:12, 20.
(na~illä). On the principle that "the land is the lt was not an uncommon practice in the ancient
Lord's inheritance," the land share came to be near east to name fields by some incident as an
regarded as synonymous with ··share of land" alternative to the owner's name. Helkath-
(~ebel) given out by lot to the tribes. Some think
hazzurim (II Sam 2: 16) near Gibeon where
that those living outside the designated · ·Jand of Ishbosheth's men were killed by David's forces
God," i.e. east of Jordan (Josh 22; cf. Ezk 48) under Joab was the · •field of sword-edges" or
possibly, reading }Ja.q-orim, the · •field of plot-
were thought to have been denied their ··share in
ters. ··
the Lord" (Josh 22:25-27; Zech 2:16). Thus the
land, as part ofthe covenant promise ofGod, was matu}löqet. (Tribal) allotment (of land), division,
given to his people as their possession (Mic 2:4) course. This feminine noun from hälaq I is used
and share in God's righteousness (Neh 2:20). thirty-two times. The KJV also translates "por-
But Aaron and the Levites, dedicated to God's tions" and JB "borders." lt is used in Joshua
service, had no such share ofland. For them ··the (11 :23; 12:7; 18: 10) of the distinctive shares of
Lord is your share and your inheritance ·' (Deut land given by Joshua to Israel, an idea reiterated
10:9;Num 18:20). Cf. the statement in the mes- in Ezk 48:29. In exilic and postexilic times the
sianicPsalm 16:5, ··The Lord is the portion ofmy term is used frequently (twenty-six times in Chr)
inheritance, you maintain my Jot (,:örä/). This of the technical groupings or subdivisions of the
Specialrelationship resulted in arrangements for priests and Levites for the work in the Jerusalem
the maintenance of the temple personnel from temple and, more rarely, of the military divisions
the offerings and not from any land which they arranged by David (I Chr 23:6, etc.) both of
worked themselves. which originated in the Mosaic legislation (Ezr
This relationship with God and people was de- 6: 18).
fined in a spiritual concept "the Lord is my Bibliography: Kamhi, D. J ., "The Root HLQ
share" (Ps 73:26), "the Lord is the portion of his in the Bible,"" VT 23: 236--39. THAT, I, pp. 576--
people" (Deut 7:9), just as he ~~ their refuge (Ps 78.
142:5[H 6]) and so their sufficiency. The Levites D.J.W.
and, by extension, the God-fearer, find here "a
fülland complete expression of all that his rela-
tionship with God guarantees him" (G. von Rad, 670 ;:,';oi;,(hälaq) II, be smooth, slippery thus
The Problem of the Hexateuch, 1%6, p. 263). ji.guratively, jlatter. Cf. Ugaritic hlq,

293
671 iu,i, (IJalash)
Arabic l;a/aqa "be smooth." lncluding de- !JAlaqlaqqöt. Similar in meaning to l;elqii. lt is
rivatives, it occurs twenty-eight times. used as an abstract to describe the way of the evil
Derivatives person, which will be dark and slippery (Ps 35:6).
Since the parallel is darkness, some see this as a
670a i'?t:l (l;eleq) smoothness, flattery, rare use of l;/q (cf. Arabic 'ablawlq "darkness"
·seductiveness (of speech). or l;älaq "destruction." See also l;älaq II). As
670b ti''itl (l;äläq) smooth. smooth speech this noun is clearly used of seduc-
670c t:,i?7tt (l;e/qa) smoothness, flattery. tive words or flattery (Prov 6:24) by which some
670d i'l;,ti (l;allüq) smooth. Occurs only attempted to win kingdoms, a concept em-
·once, in the plural construct (1 Sam phasized in Dan (11:21, 34).
17:40).
ma!Jl•qöt. Smoothness. This feminine plural
670e :i.;i';,ti (l;älaqqa) smoothness, fine
noun occurs only in I Sam 23:28 in the place
promises. Occurs only as plural
name Sela-hammahlekoth (so KJV).If from l;älaq
abstract (Dan 11:32).
II, it could be the "rock of smoothness," i.e.
670f trtii'7i?7t1 (l;a/aqlaqqot) smoothness, slippery rock (so BOB), but this may not be a
slipperiness, flattery, fine promises. proper name. [Though there is a town in
670g trtii'7':1~ (ma/J/' qot) smoothness. Pennsylvania called "Slippery Rock" !-EDITOR)
If taken from l;älaq l it is assumed that it was
The verb refers once to the literal process of
"rock of divisions" as the place where Saul and
smoothing metal to make an idol by hitting it on
David parted. However the word is used else-
an anvil with a forge hammer (lsa 41 :7). lts prin-
where in this sense only of the division of priests
cipal use (Qal and Hiphil) is of smooth speech or
(see mal;alöqet). The · ·rock of escapes" (so Rsv)
flattery, i.e. words which were smoother than
butter and like oil (Ps 55:21 [H 221). This use of can be supported from Akkadian baläqu "es-
the tongue is always condemned (Ps 5:9 [H 10]) cape."
Bibliography: Kamhi, D. J., "The root l;/q in
and ends in the speaker being himself entrapped
the Bible," VT 23: 235-39.
(Prov 29:5). lt is characteristic of the seductive
D.J.W.
woman who is tobe avoided (Prov 2: 16; 7:5). The
enigmatic man who "flatters himself in his own
eyes" (Ps 36:2 [H 3 J) may possibly be better rtiil'7i?7t'.I(l;alaq/aqqöt). See no. 670f.
translated, "His God will destroy him with a
glance when he ljncovers his impious slander" 671 IV7tl (hälash) be weak, prostrate (e.g. Ex
(cf. Dahood, M. "Psalms" I, AB, p. 271), taking 17:13).
this from l;älaq III "perish." Ugaritic blq "per- Derivatives
ish" is parallel to mt "die" (UT 19: no. 969) and
Akkadian balaqu "disappear." "Their heart is • 671a ivl;ti (l;alliish) weak (Joel 4: 10).
divided" (Hos 10:2 KJV)is better taken as "is 671b :,~h',r, ( l;älushii) weakness, prostra-
false" (Rsv) that is, figurative of the fickle heart. tion (Ex 32:18).

!Jäläq. Smooth. This adjective is used to de- er, (l;äm ). See no. 674a.
scribe the smooth skin of Jacob as opposed to Cty (/;am). See no. 677b.
hairy Esau (Gen 27: 11), and smooth stones in a cn (/;öm). See no. 677a.
wadi (Isa 57:6), some of which ("smooth ones of
stones," i.e. possibly "the smoothest") David 672 M~M (l;m'), Assumed root of the following.
used to kill Goliath (1 Sam 17:40, l;alluq). A dis- 672a :,~l?tt (l;em'ii) curd (modern le-
tinctive feature of the bald cliffs by the Dead Sea ben).
was called the "bare (smooth) mountain" (Josh
11:17; 12:7 KJV: Rsv translates as a name, Mt. 673 ir;i, (l;ämad) desire, delight in. Cf.
Halak). Some commentators associate this with Ugaritic l;md "be pleasant," but also
Arabic l;/q "high." Figuratively the adjective de- covet, lust after (Asv and RSVsimilar but in
scribes the mouth of the flatterer (in parallel with the positive contexts [eleven of twenty-
the "lying tongue" Prov 5 :3; cf. 26:28). One day one] prefer the less ambiguous delight in").
divination which flatters would, like the false vi- The Arabic l;amida means praise and the
sion, be done away from Israel (Ezk 12:24). name Mohammed comes from the root.

!Jelqä. Smooth part, smoothness, flattery. This Derivatives

noun is used five times and denotes something 673a t,~r, (l;emed) desirable, pleasant
smooth (lsa 30: 10), like the neck (Gen 27: 16) or · · (marg., things of desire).
slippery places where one is likely to fall (Ps 673b t:,i~M (hemdii) desire, also an ad-
73: 18). ·jective, pleasant, precious.

294
 674 :,~M (IJmh)

673c tni,~~r,i ( l)amudot) desirableness, pears as the desire of Israel (1 Sam 9:20; contrast
preciousness. II Chr 21 :20), Isaiah must predict for the mes-
673d tir;,,:ir;, (mal)mad) pleasant thing. sianic servant an absence of beauty, that we
673e ti~,:ir;, (mal)mod) pleasant thing. should desire (l}iimad), "be drawn to" him
(53:2).
From its initial occurrences, the verb hämad
describes on the one hand God's "pleasant"
'1emed, '1emda. Desirable, pleasant (marg.,
things of desire). More frequently feminine
trees in Eden (Gen 2:9); but on the other, the tree
l)emda (seventeen as opposed to five occurrences
forbidden to Adam, which became sinful when
of hemed) "desire"; also adjective, "pleasant,"
"desired" (the same Niphal participle) to make
"precious."
one wise (3:6). Similarly, the noun hemed iden-
tifies .both "pleasanr· fields (Isa 32: 12; marg., '1Amüdöt. The quality of desirableness, pre-
fields of "desire") and "desirable" young Assy- ciousness, rendered "a man greatly beloved"
rians, pagans (Ezk 23:6, 12, 23), who proved to (Dan 9:23; 10:11, 19), "pleasant (KB, p. 309, de-
be Israel' s downfall. licate) bread" ( 10:3), "goodly raimenr· (Gen
Positively, Ps 39:11 [H 12) speaks of man's 27:15), or "precious jewels" (II Chr 20:25), but
"beauty," KJV(part. pass.; ASVmarg., collective, also true plurals, pleasant or precious things (Dan
"delights"; RSV,"what is dear to him"); cf. the 11:38, 43). Occurs nine times.
noun hamuddim "pleasant things," or luxuries
ma'1mad. Concretely, a pleasant thing (four
(Lam 1:11; cf. Prov 2 I :20). When Haggai there-
out of thirteen times) or person, e.g. either
fore predicts that „ the desire of all nations shall
Ezekiel's wife, "the 'desire· of his eyes," or his
come" (2:7), he probably is not referring to the
contemporaneous temple (Ezk 24: 16. 21, 25);
Messiah (as in v. 9h) but rather to the contribu-
tions of precious things (Asv; hemda) for refur- also adjectival renderings: beloved, lovely,
pleasant.
bishing Zerubbabel's temple (the same noun, II
Chr 36: 10). The Shulammite sits by her beloved m~möd. Only plural, mal)iimuddim, pleasant
"with great delight," hämad, Piel (Song 2:3; lit- things; (Lam 1:7, 11).
erally, "May I delight and sit"); she says that he Bibliography: Büchse!, F., in TDNT, III, pp.
is altogether "lovely," mahmad, a "desire" 169-70. Coates, J. R., "Thou Shalt not Covet [Ex
(5:16). God himself "desired" Jerusalem for his 20: I 7], .. ZA W 11: 238. Gamberoni, J., .. Desire, ..
abode (Ps 68:16 [H 17]; cf. 106:24; Jer 3:19; in Sacramentum Verbi, vol. I, Herder & Herder,
12:10),and the Lord's ordinances are more tobe 1970, pp. 206-209. THAT, I, pp. 579--80.
"desired," nel)madim, than gold (Ps 19:10 J.B.P.
[H 11); see Ezr 8:27, copper items called
hi1mudot "preciousness." like gold). 674 :,~n (hmh). Assumed root of the following.
Even when scoffers "delight' · in their mockery 674a tci, (i)äm) father-in-law.
(Prov 1:22b ), the act as such, of delighting, ap- 674b tl"li~n ( hämot) mother-in-law.
pears to them good, paralleling "love" (1 :22a; cf. 674c :ir;in (~oma) wall.
12:12; Job 20:20). To Judah, correspondingly,
häm. Father-in-law. Asv and Rsv the same.
images became "delectable" things (Isa 44:9;
This noun denotes the father of one's husband.
Asv,"delighted in"; see 2:16), "desired" (1:29);
Its Akkadian cognate is emu (CAD E. p. 154ff.)
but this reaction "is primarily psychological and
which usually represents a male relative: father-
only secondarily ethical" (RTWB, p. 64).
in-law, son-in-law, or wife's/sister's son. Our
Negatively, however, the Tenth Command-
word occurs four times.
ment prescribes, "Thou shalt not hämad, covet"
(Ex 20: 17), which refers to an "inordinate, un- '1ämöt. Mother-in-law. The feminine of the
governed, selfish desire" (BDB, p. 326). Israel above noun. Its Akkadian cognate is emetu·
was not to "desire" (Deut 7:25; ASV, Rsv, (CAD E, p. 149). Our word occurs eleven times.
"covet") the gold adoming idols, to lust after That our word signifies the father-in-law
prostitutes (Prov 6:25), or to covet fields (Mic (mother-in-law) is clear not simply on the basis of
2:2; cf. Ex 34:24). Achan's sin at Jericho was that the Akkadian cognates, but from the Bible itself.
he desired the spoil (l}ämad Josh 7:21). When In Gen 38: 13, 25, it is evident that Judah, who
Aramean officers described what ever was was beguiled by Tarnar to fulfill his levirate duty,
mahmad "pleasant," in their eyes (I Kgs 20:6) was the father of her two deceased husbands.
they sought the most desirable treasures of Equally clear is the use in I Sam 4:19, 21, where
Samaria as plunder. the wife of Phinehas, Eli's son dies grieving over
In religion, "the desire (l}emdä) of women" her family and giving birth to a son, lchabod. The
(Dan 11:37) would probably refer to the deity feminine noun stands opposite kallät in Ruth
Tammuz-Adonis (KB, p. 308; Ezk 8: 14; ICC, 2:23, and clearly signifies mother-in-law. Inter-
Dan, in loc.). Though God's anointed king ap- estingly, Micah (7:6) decries the deep moral cor-

295
675 tQ~M(}:,m{)

ruption evidenced in the breakdown of societal contrast to the restitution when God will spare
bonds, especially the bond between mother-in- his people (Mal 3: 17 in which hamal is difficult to
law and daughter-in-law. distinguish from riil}am, q.v.).
L.J.C. This root can also apply to the emotion leading
(or tending to lead) to the action of sparing. In Ex
2:6, Pharoah's daughter sees baby Moses, and
M~!':1(hemii). See no. 860a. she has compassion on him (Asv), i.e. her heart is
M'!)lj (hammii). See no. 677c. moved with love. Israel rebuffed God's persistent
rii,~ct, (hamudot). See no. 673c. admonitions, bringing his wrath on themselves.
1'iC1' (hamo~). See no. 681a. God had been patient because he had compassion
:,ir.,1:1(hammuq). See no. 682a. (loving concern) upon them (II Chr 36:15f.).
'1iCt, (hamor). · See no. 685a. Ezekiel (16:5) reminds Jerusalem that only God
MiC~ (hiimot). See no. 674b. pitied (see !Jüs) and had compassion (hiimal) on
her as on a baby, saving her from certain destruc-
675 IQCM(hm[). Assumed root of the following. tion (cf. Moses and Pharoah's daughter).
675a =~·n (höme[) a kind of lizard (Lev This root can also express the emotion of pity
'11:30). (cf. hüs). Nathan tells the parable of(ll Sam 12:4)
the rich man who spares taking his own sheep
(Rsv ··was unwilling"), having no pity on the poor
1"~1' (hiimi~). See no. 679c. man (v. 6). This change in meaning is clear from
•w•~~
(hamishi). See no. 686d. the context. He lacked that feeling of concern
which would lead him to spare the poor man the
grief of losing his only and beloved lamb. God
676 ',r;1' (hiimal) spare, have compassion on. says Israel's teachers fatten their "lambs" for
Derivatives slaughter and have no twinge of feeling (pity)
when their "lambs" are slaughtered (Zech 11:5).
676a t:,',cn (hemlii) mercy. Just so, God during the Exile appeared to have no
676b t',~~~ ( muhmal) object of deep love. feeling toward his people (Lam 2:2, 3:43), but
The ASVand RSVtranslations reflect the breadth they brought this on by their own idolatry (cf.
of this root and the subsequent difficulty in ren- Deut 13:8 [H 91). This shows us how terrible was
dering it. Basically, this root connotes that emo- the sin which resulted in the Exile: how deeply
tional response which results (or may result) in God hates idolatry. Contrast with this just how
action to remove its object (and/or its subject) wonderful is the age of restitution (Mal 3: I7; Joel
from impending difficulty. lt should be distin- 2:18).
guished from hus and riiham. lt occurs forty-five Finally, this root is used of God's reaction
times. when his name was profaned by those who scoffed
The idea of "sparing" is clearly seen in Jer Israel in captivity. He states that he has con-
50: 14 whe're God instructs Cyrus's armies to cern (Rsv) or regard (Asv) for his name; i.e. he
"spare no arrows." Obviously, there is no in- cannot allow his name (and, therefore, his per-
ward emotional element of compassion upon the son) to appear powerless to deliver his people.
arrows involved in this sparing. Job confesses Therefore, he says that he will bring his people
that his pain spares not (Job 6: 10). On the other back (Ezk 36:21).
hand, the jealous man when taking revenge !Jemlä. Mercy. This Qal infinitive absolute is
spares not (Prov 6:34), i.e. holds nothing back, is used twice to describe God's mercy in delivering
merciless. The wicked takes delight in his evil and/or protecting from danger. God was merciful
and holds it in his mouth (Job 20: 13). He spares it to Lot's family in leading them by the hand from
and will not let it go (Asv). Sodom (Gen 19:16). In lsa 63:9 hemla is parallel
In Deut 13:8 [H 9) this word is used negatively to 'ahab, love, as God's feeling sorry for Israel
with hu.1·to describe how God wants his people to issuing from his love.
react to idolators. Samuel evokes this judgment:
spare not the Amalakiti:s (the idolators) who re- ma!Jmal. Object of deep love. In Ezk 24:21 the
fused passage to Israel (1 Sam 15:3, 9, 15). De- sanctuary is described as the object of lsrael's
stroy them completely! But Saul disobeyed. pride, and pleasure, and deep Ionging (l}ama/).
Cyrus is directed not to spare Babylon (Jer 51:3; Hence, the sanctuary is what they love and want
cf. Hab 1: 17). In these cases there is to be no to preserve from destruction or defilement.
emotion which would hinder thorough-going de- L.J.C.
struction. Things will be so bad in the captivity
that even natural affection would be absent and
brother would not spare brother (Isa 9: 19 [H 18]: 677 ccn (hamam) be hot, warm. Asv and RSV
the people would turn to cannibalism! What a · ;imil~r; however, cf. Isa 57:5.)

296
 679 r~r,(IJäme
~)
Derivatives Derivatives
677a tc:iM (/Jöm) heat, hol. 678a tcr,,i;, (/Jämäs) violence, wrong.
677b tc:itt ( }Jam ), Cl'~tt (/Jamm im) warm. 678b Cl;'J'.l!'l(ta/Jmäs) a name of the male
677c t,~M (hamma) sun, heat. ostrich.
677d t1~ci (}Jammän), c:i•;~tt(/Jammänim)
This noun and verb are together used sixty-
incense altars.
seven times and mostly translators seem satisfied
This root refers to physical heat, i.e. warrnth with the word "violence" in some form (KJV, RSV,
produced, by the sun, the human body, clothing, Niv). lt may be noted, however, that the word
and an oven. lt appears in most Semitic lan- ~1ämäs in the OT is used almost always in connec-
guages (Akkadian emmu, CAD E, p. 150f.; tion with sinful violence. lt does not refer to the
Ugaritic /Jm, UT 19: no. 870). Some uses of violence of natural catastrophes or to violence as
/Jöreb and shärab parallel the meaning "heat pictured in a police chase on modern television.
produced by the sun,'" or "skin." Heat in an lt is often a name for extreme wickedness. lt was
emotional sense is usually represented by }Jema a cause of the flood (Gen 6: 11, 13, parallel to
and its derivatives (cf. Isa 57:5; Jer 51:39; Ps 39:3 "corrupt"). Other usages are: a "malicious"
[H 4]). Our root occurs thirty-five times. witness (Ex 23: I; Deut 19:16 Niv); "cruel" hatred
(Ps 25: 19); oppression and violence (Ps 72: 14
Mm. Heat, hot. This noun represents a thing
Niv); violence is risen up into a rod of wickedness
typified by heat: viz. a season (Gen 8:22; Job
(Ezk 7: 11, a rod to punish wickedness, Nlv). The
24:19;Jer 17:8; KB), and bread (1 Sam 21:6 [H 7]
aspect of sinfulness is illustrated also by the verb
used adjectivally). The infinitive of /Jämam ap-
which twice refers to "transgression" of God's
pears with the same form as this noun. The noun
Iaw (Ezk 22:26; Zeph 3:4).
occurs four times.
Of special interest is the enigmatic reaction of
~am, !Jammim. Warm. This adjective modi- Sarah to her handmaid's mocking. She says to
fies its subject applying to it the quality resulting Abraham, "My wrong be upon thee" (Gen 16:5).
from /Jamam. lt occurs twice. Speiser (Genesis, AB, pp. 116-8) takes it as an
objective construction "the injustice done to
~ammä. Sun, heat produced by the sun. This
noun usually (except Ps 19:6 [H 7]) is a poetic me, ... /Jämäs 'lawlessness, injustice' ... is a
alternative for shemesh (sun). lt can make one strictly legal term which traditional •violence'
black (i.e. tanned), as can mourning (Job 30:28). fails to show adequately." lt could be that Sarah
In the time of judgment it is darkened (lsa 24:23), is declaring Abraham responsible or it could even
and it is made more luminous in the time of re- suggest that she is saying that it is up to him to
demption (lsa 30:26), even though a single histor- correct that injustice.
ical occasion might produce both results. Signifi- R.L.H.
cantlyour word is paralleled to sha}Jar (q. v.; also
see halal and /"hana (q.v.), and may be an in- 679 T~O (/Jäme$) I, be sour, leavened.
frequently recognized Canaanite name of the sun
god (Song 6: 10). Our word occurs six times. Derivatives
~ammänim. lncense altars. This noun repre- 679a tr~O (/Jäme$) that which is leavened.
sents small (II Chr 34:4) cultic objects used in 679b r~·n (/Jöme$) vinegar.
pagan worship and is paralleled to 'asherim (lsa 679c r'~M (hämis) seasoned. Occurs
17:8). Nabatean and Palmyra inscriptions sub- ~~ly in Job 30:24.
stantiate the proffered identification. Perhaps the 679d l'\~~r:,~(ma}Jme$et) anything leav-
small stone cup-shaped objects discovered ened. Occurs only in Ex 12:19---20.
through Palestinian excavations are }Jammänim The verb occurs five times in the Qal stem, two
(AI 1, p. 286). The word occurs eight times. times in the Hiphil, and once in the Hithpael
Bibliography: Lewy, Julius, "The Old West stem.
Semitic Sun-God Hammu," HUCA 18: 429-81. This root designates the action and result of
Wright, G. E., .. 'Sun-Image' or "Altar of ln- yeast, .f'"or. bread dough which is le}Jem /Jäme$.
cense'?" BA 1: 9-10. The basic meaning is to become fermented or
L.J.C. sour. Hosea 7:4 has a brief description of a baker
working on leavened dough until it was ready for
l~rt (/Jammän). See no. 677d. the oven. This idea of becoming sour is extended
to a person's negative attitudes in Ps 73:21 and
678 cr,i;, (/Jämas) wrong, do violence to, treat probably in Ps 71 :4 where it is translated
violently. Used seven times in the Qal, "cruel."
once in the Niphal. The Arabic cognate The main religious significance of the word is
means to be hard, strict, severe. tied to its exclusion from certain cultic practices

297
680 r~r, (häma~)
of the Hebrews. The Hiphil participle of the verb Derivative
is used in a strong command that anyone who
682a ;,,~i:t (l.zammuq) curving, curve
eats leavened bread during the Passover feast is (Song 7:2).
to be cut off from Israel (Ex 12:I9-20). Ex I2:39
notes that Passover bread was not leavened be-
cause the Hebrews went out quickly from Egypt 683 ir;r;, (/.zamar) l .ferment, boil, foam.
thus having no time to raise the dough. Thus it
had the symbolic value of teaching Israel that Derivatives
having been redeemed from Egypt they should 683a t,~n (/.zemer) wine.
leave their old life quickly and set out toward the 683b t,6ri ( l.zemiir) bitumen.
promised land by faith. 683c t,~n (/.zömer) cement.
~äme~. Leaven, leavened bread. This is the
683d ,~n (/.zämar) smear with asphalt
(Ex 2:3, only).
primary word for food which is in process of
fermenting or has fermented. Normally, it is lim- This root is sometimes confused with another
ited to the grain foods: wheat, barley, and speit. one with identical consonants which means red-
In the Old Testament these grains are theologi- dish (root III).
cally significant because when ground and mixed The verbal form of this root is illustrated in Ps
with yeast, their use is prohibited in certain reli- 46:4 in which "waters ... be troubled" (KJV,or
gious activities. In the discussion of the verb "foamed," RSV).An extension to human emo-
form, it was noted that anyone who ate leavened tions is found in Lam I :20; 2: 11, and to
bread during the passover could be excommuni- "wine ... red" (KJv; '"foaming," Rsv). The verb
cated. The noun is used in this context (Ex 12:15) probably means red (Rsv; "foul," KJV) in Job
and reference is made in Ex 13:3, 7 that no 16:16.
leavened bread is permitted in house or on table
~emer. Wine. A masculine noun, which oc-
during the Passover because of the Exodus event
and God's act of bringing the Hebrews out of curs only in Deut 32: 14 and lsa 27:2.
Egypt quickly (see also Deut 16:3). ~emär. Bitumen, asphalt. This masculine
Leavened bread was also prnhibited in connec- noun may have arisen from the trait of asphalt
tion with the offering of sacr:fices involving blood seething, or swelling up from the ground or com-
(Ex 23: 18; 34:25). Neither it nor honey could be ing to the top of the Dead Sea and/or its reddish-
burned with a meal offering (Lev 2: 11) and it can- brown color. This material was used in Babylon
not be baked with the fire offering (Lev 6: 15). But as mortar (Gen 11:3), was abundant in the Dead
leavened bread could be eaten with the thank- Sea area (Gen 14:10) and was imported to Egypt
offering (Lev 7:13; Arnos 4:5) and with the (Ex 2:3) for mortar and a sealant.
firstfruit offerings (Lev 23: 17).
In later Jewish thought leavened bread became ~ömer. Cement, mortar, clay. This noun was
a symbol of corruption and impurity, as also in also a term for the reddish clay of that area, par-
Jesus· teachings (Mt 16:2; Mk 8:15) and in one ticularly Palestine. See lsa 29: 16: 45:9 (per-
remark by Paul in I Cor 5:8. sonified); Jer 18:4: and cf. Job 30: 19: lsa 10:6. In
Bibliography: Beak, H. F., "Leaven," in one instance clothing is likened to clay (Job
IDB, 111, pp. 104-5. Lewis, J. P. "Leaven," 27: I 6).
ZPEB, III, pp. 901-903. White, H. A., Job extended this term to designate human
"Leaven," in A Dictionary of the Bible, III, bodies in 4:19: 10:9; 13:12 and then to liken,
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1903, p. 90. "1:famez," metaphorically, men in their creaturely relation-
in Encyc/opaedia Judaica, VII, pp. 1235-36. ship to their Maker to the potter-clay relation.
G.H.L. Along this same Iine, Isa 45:9 personifies clay
which rebels against the potter, to make the point
that idolatry is unnatural and illogical.
680 mn (hämas) II, be red (lsa 63:I: Ps [Or this passage may mean that mere man, the
-68:24°), . clay, must not question the ways of the Sovereign
of history, the Potter. The specific challenge in
view here may be one·s questioning the Lord's
681 rr;r;, (l.zama,r) III, be ruthless (Ps 71:4).
use of the uncircumcised Persian king, Cyrus, to
Derivative serve both as his shepherd to restore Israel and as
his anointed one to shatter gentile opposition to
68 I a ri~i, ( /.zämö,r) the ruthless (lsa
his people (Isa 44: 28--45: )), and thereby bring
I: I 7).
forth God's righteousness (Isa 45:8). B.K.w.]
This motif appears also in Isa 64:7 as a humble
682 ;,~r:, (/.ziimaq) turn away (Song 5:6, Qal: affirmation of man's creature relationship to
Jer 31:22, Hithpael). God. Jeremiah was told by God to go to the pot-

298
 690 :,~i, (IJäna)

ter's shop to watch him form clay into vessels related to the Messiah in Zech 9:9; Mt 21:5, 7.
(Jer 18:1--4),then God likened Israel and nations There is a tinge of contempt in Ezk 23:20, which
to clay in the hands of a potter. The crucial dif- refers to the genital organ of an ass.
ferencelies in man's ability to say "yes" or "no" The donkey and ox could not plow together
and God's right to respond with grace or judg- (Deut 22: 10) but they both benefitted in the Sab-
ment. Paul brought into his arguments the same bath rest (Deut 5: 14). The offspring was subject
metaphor to demonstrate God's sovereignty over to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:13) but among the
man(Rom 9:20-23). Hebrews the donkey could not be a sacrifice in
G.V.G. the cultic rites although an ass was killed at Mari
in covenant-making ceremonies (McCarthy, D.
684 ir;,i, (!Jämar) II, heap up. This root is J., Treaty and Covenant. Pontif. Biblical Inst.,
confused with the first root by some trans- 1963, p. 53). In an interesting way the Lord used
lators in Hab 3: 15, e.g. "heap," KJv; "surg- a donkey to frustrate Balaam in some of his
ing,'' RSV. schemes (Num 22-24).
Bibliography: Cohon, Samuel, "Ass," in
Derivatives ISBE, I, pp. 287--88. McCullough, W. S., "Ass,"
684a ,c·n (/Jömer) I, heap. in IDB, II, pp. 260--01. McKenzie, J. L., "Ass"
684b t,~·n (/Jömer) II, homer. in Dictionary of the Bible, l, Bruce, 1965, pp.
684c ti'~l) ( /Jiimor) heap. 62-63.
G.H.L.
The verbal form is present in OT if the form
in Hab 3: 15 is a participle. The nominal form is
duplicated in the plural for emphasis in Ex 8: 10, 686 *rlir,n (hämash) I, take one fifth. This
coming from the masculine noun, /Jömer. The d;nom"inative verb occurs only in the Pie)
Hebrew measure of capacity, the /Jömer, pos- (Gen 41:34).
sibly comes from the act of heaping grain in a Parent Noun
container or pouring liquid into a jar. As a dry
measure, the homer held 10 ephahs equal to 6¼ 686a rlicn (hämesh), :"ltfl;'l:t
(!Jamishsha)
bushelsfiguring the ephah at 22 liters. As a liquid five. ·
measure, the homer held ten baths (22 liters) equal 686b rli~'n (/Jömesh) fifth part (Gen
to 58 gallons (see the discussion of measures 47:26 only).
under "ephah"). These measures are mentioned 686c Cl'W~rr
(!Jamishshim) fifty.
in several religious contexts (Lev 27: 16; Num 686d 'rli'CM (hamishi), r,•rli•cn (hamishit)
11:32;Ezk 45: 11, 13-14). fifih (ordinal number).-, .
The masculine noun, /Jiimor, appears in Jud
15:16 in a redundant manner to emphasize the 687 rlicn ( !Jmsh) II. Assumedrootof thefollow-
magnitude of Samson' s victory over the Phis- ing.
tines. 687a rv~·n(/Jömesh) belly (e.g. II Sam
2:23; 3:27).
685 "l~M (hämar) III, bered. The verbal form
-possibly is found in Job 16:16. 688 rlicn (/Jmsh) III. Assumed root of the fol-
Derivative lowing.
685a iiCl) (!Jamor) (he)-ass.
688a Cl'IVl?I'.)
(IJam ü s h im ) in battle ar-
ray (e.g. Ex 13:18; Josh 1: 14).
685b "1101'.1~(ya!Jmür) roebuck.
lt is uncertain whether this masculine noun 689 r,cn (/Jmt). Assumed root of the following.
comes from the root meaning red since few don- 689a ?'l~\i (/Jemet), r,~i.! (/Jemet) water-
keys in the Middle East are reddish in color. ·skin (Gen 21:14..:.15,19).
From earliest history this animal has served man
as beast ofburden, as transportation, and as field
animal. They are among those creatures listed as 1!".!(/Jen). See no. 694a.
unclean for food (Lev 11:1--8; Deut 14:3--8) but
II Kgs 6:25 says its flesh was eaten in time of 690 n~i, (/Jänli) decline, bend down, encamp, lay
desperate famine. The strength of the beast is siege against.
metaphorically applied to lssachar (Gen 49: 14)
Derivatives
and its burial to the ignominious death of King
Jehoiakim (Jer 22: 19). 690a r,1m (hänüt) cell (as having curved
In contrast to the mule and horse which were r~of).' (Only in Jer 37: 16.)
associated with war, the donkey was associated 690b tr,•,r, ( !Janit) spear.
with peace and humility (II Sam 19:27) and thus 690c tnmr,, (ma!Janeh) camp.

299
691 ~,i, (l:1äna{)

690d :i:rtl'I (tahilna) encamping or en- 20:33, translated here by the KJV as "javelin," but
· ~~mpme~t. Occurs only in II Kgs it is the word hanit). Even its butt could be used
6:8. as a weapon ÜI Sam 2:23). Most frequently, this
The verbis used 143 times in the OT, 74 times in weapon is mentioned as being Saul's personal
Num alone. The latter statistic is what one would weapon: I Sam 18:10; 19:9, IO; 22:6; 23:21; 26:7,
expect in a biblical book dealing to a !arge degree 16, 22; II Sam 1:6; 1 Chr 11:23. Possibly this sig-
with the travels of God's people from place to nifies authority. Thus, in Ugaritic text 125:47 the
place, or from one camp to another. son of King Krt on an important mission carries
his spear, presumably as a mark of royal status.
ma~äneh. Camp. In the 01 a "camp" is a Goliath also had a spear (I Sam 17:7; 21:9; I
temporary (never permanent) protective enclo- Chr 20:5). In his duel, or battle of champions,
sure for a tribe or army. lt is derived from the with David, David is prompted to say: "the Lord
verb hiinii "tobend, curve,., and hence it may be saves not with a sword and with a spear" (1 Sam
that the Hebrew camp (or the ancient semitic 17:47). These are not the kinds of weapons with
camp, since the word was not limited to the He- which God stocks his arsenal (cf. II Cor l0:4).
brews) was originally circular in layout. Possibly Surely this idea is uppermost in the eyes of the
such a circular camp, i.e., tents erected in a pro- prophets as they anticipate the coming age of
tective circle around the cattle, may derive from peace when men shall "beat their swords into
early semi-nomadic days. Or the word may de- ploughshares and their spears into pruning
rive from the circular lines of a besieging force. hooks" (Isa 2:4; Mic 4:3).
A glance, however, at the camp described in Bibliography: AI, 1, pp. 241-46. Yadin, Y.,
the early chapters ofNum (1:47-2:34: 3:14-16: The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, 1-11, 1%3.
10:11-28) reveals that the Israelite camp is set up Unger, M. F., Un!(er's Bible Dictionary, Moody,
in a square around the tent of meeting tabernacle. 1957, pp, 169-70.
In a schematic arrangement three tribes, each V.P.H.
with their own insignia, were stationed on the
four sides ofthe tabernacle, with special position- ?Ut, (/Jannun). See no. 694d.
ing for the Levites.
To choose a camp site when one is or expects
zmi;t (/Jiinur). See no. 690a.
to be continually hounded by antagonistic forces
is not easy. The Bible indicates that at least two 691 IQ:i, (/Jiinaf) spiee, make spicy, embalm.
factors were in mind when a camp site was cho- Derivatives
sen: (1) the availability of water (Josh 11:5: Jud
7: 1, and hence the advantage to camping at an 691a c•c:n (hanütim) embalming, only
oasis rather than at a site dependent on the flow i~-Gen· 50:3.
of a river): and (2) lines of natural defense which 691b t:i;m (/JiUii) wheat.
formed a barricade (1 Sam 17:3: 26:3). The substantive comes from the root /Jäna/,
Most important, the camp, as described in the meaning perhaps "to project" or "to mature"
Pentateuch, assumes its significance simply be- because the grains project from the place of the
cause it is adjacent to the tabernacle, th!;!dwelling ear of the wheat when it ripens. In the Bible it is
place of God's presence. As a result certain con- referred to thirty times, and all but seven ofthese
ditions must be observed and maintained. For are in the plural. The singular is feminine in form
one thing, cleanliness in the camp is imperative and the plural is masculine in form.
(Num 5: 1-4; Deut 23: 10-14). The dead were lt is planted in Palestine after the autumn rains
buried outside the camp (Lev 10:4-5). The Iepers have softened the ground sufficiently for plow-
were banished from the camp (Lev 13:46). For ing, thus in November-December, and is har-
coming in contact with anything dead the penalty vested in the spring, April-June. The "wheat-
was exclusion from the camp for seven days harvest" (q''!iir /JiUim) is mentioned in Gen
(Num 31: 19). Criminals were executed outside 30:14: Ex 34:22: Jud 15:1; Ruth 2:23; 1 Sam 6:13;
the camp (Lev 24:23, and cf. Heb 13:12, "Jesus 12:17. Of the species of cereals referred to in the
also suffered outside the gate"). The camp is too Bible wheat (/JiUii) is usually considered the most
close to God's presence to allow sin or impurity valuable. Note that of the seven species with
to intrude. The idea of "God's camp" is also which Israel is blessed as she enters her new
applied to the permanent temple as seen in II Chr land, wheat is placed first (Deut 8:8). There is
31:2. even a tradition in the Talmud that the tree of
The LXX translation for ma/Jilneh, parembole, knowledge of which Adam and Eve partook was
is also applied in the NT to the church (Rev 20:9), a hittii (Sanhedrin 70b).
"the camp of the saints . ., Ti1is wheat was "harvested" (Ruth 2:23: I Sam
~Anit. Spear. A lethal weapon, the spear was 6: 13). lt was "threshed" (Jud 6: 11: I Chr 20:21);
short and capable of being thrown (I Sam 18:11; "cleaned" (II Sam 4:6). lt also figures promi-

300
 693 '!T:,;r
(/Jänak)

nentlyas apart of Solomon 's obligation regarding Derivatives

the alliance he made with Hiram the king of 693a t'!!•;l'.'T
(/Jänik) trained servant.
PhoenicianTyre. In addition to.olive oil Solomon
693b tliW'.1 (/Ji1nükkii) dedication.
wasto give wheat (I Kgs 5: 11 [H 25); II Chr 2: IO, 693c :i;r, (l)akkii) hook fastened in jaw,
15[H 9,14)) to Hiram. jish hook.
The Psalmist twice uses the word symbolically
of God's care and provision: Ps 81:16 [H 17]; The verb occurs infrequently (five times) with
147:14. God promises the "finest of wheat" the object "house," either private (Deut 20:5) or
(heleb /:li((ii), literally "the kidney fat of wheat" religious (e.g. I Kgs 8:63). Although usually ren-
(cf.Deut 32: 14). Thoms are the opposite ofwheat dered "dedicate" a more accurate translation is
(Job 31:40; Jer 12:13). "begin" or "initiale." See Prov 22:6 for hänak
Jesus, ofcourse, resorted to the analogy ofthe translated as ··train" (a child). Synonyms are
"grain ofwheat" in John 12:24 to press home the qädesh "to set apart," a notion not inherent in
necessityfor his own death. Paul in I Cor 15:36f. l)änak, and the phrase mäle' yad "fill the hand·;·
employs the same analogy to say that the body thought by some to mean "filling the hand (with
cannot be transformed into the new life of the an offering?) for Yahweh" (cf. Jud 17:5, 12; Ex
resurrection unless it dies. 29:24f.), a phrase used with respect to "people."
Bibliography: Feliks, J., ··wheat," in Encyc- /Jänak is best understood as "inaugurate."
lopaedia Judaica, vol. XVI, 480-481. Kislev, M. There is not in the term itself the notion that ded-
E., "tli~~a and Kussemet: Notes on their In- ication is to someone or to something, though
terpretations," Lesonenu 37: 83-95 (in Hebrew). that concept is present in the synonyms. With
Trever, J. C., ··wheat," in IDB IV, pp. 839-40. one exception (Prov 22:6, where the meaning is
V.P.H. "start"; cf. NEB), /:,änak and its derivates refer to
an action in connection with structures such as a
ci•=~r,(l)anü{im). See no. 691a. building (I Kgs 8:63), wall (Neh 12:27), an altar
'!!';~ (l)änik). See no. 693a. (Num 7: 10), or an image (Dan 3:2).
:,~•m(/Jilninii). See no. 694e. IJänak is almost certainly a community action
ri•m·(l)dnit). See no. 690b. which in the case of cult structures involves offer-
ings. The ceremony of dedication (/Jdnükkii) for
Solomon's altar extended over seven days (II Chr
692 i:r, (l)nk) 1. Assumed root of the following. 7:9). Dedication of Solomon's temple as weil as
692a tim (l)ek) palate, mouth. ASV and the temple at Ezra's time was marked by numer-
Rsv similar, although Rsv twice ren- ous sacrifices (I Kgs 8:63; Ezr 6:17).
ders ··speech" for ASV "mouth'" Judging from lsraelite practice, the initial use
(Prov 5:3; Song 5: 16). of a religious structure was given special signifi-
Half of the occurrences of hek are in Job cance. The completion of a project was observed
where, rendered often as · ·mouth," it is set in with an inauguration of the structure, an event
context of taste or speech. appropriately accompanied by sacrifice and joy.
Theologically, the term is significant in two Rites of inauguration have their place. Else-
connections. As an organ vital for speech l)ek, where, with the use of other vocabulary, greater
like mouth (peh, q.v.) is linked with true and emphasis is given to the consecration of people to
false Statements. Wisdom, personified, com- God.
mends herself to mankind by saying, .. All the
words of my mouth (l)ek) are righteous" (Prov '1änik. Trained servants, trained men (Rsv). A
8:7).Job claims innocence because under provo- hapax legomenon in Gen 14:14. Now translated
cation he has not permitted his mouth (l)ek) to as "armed retainer" used by Palestinian chief-
sin. tains as mentioned in the Egyptian Execration
The expression, "tongue cleaving to mouth," Texts (nineteenth-eighteenth centuries e.c. andin
apart from denoting thirst, is an idiom in the He- a fifteenth century e.c. cuneiform inscription
brew for being speechless. Ezekiel's dumbness from Taanach, Israel. lt is of textual significance
may indicate the gravity of the impending de- that this hapax has good second millennium
struction of Jerusalem or perhaps the importance parallels. No point is to b~ made of the number of
of waiting to speak Yahweh's word only. The armed retainers bom in Abraham's house (318).
idiomwas used in imprecations and oaths (cf. Ps Nor is it accurately tobe compared to the Scarab
137:6). of Amenophis III which records that the princess
E.A.M. Gilukhipla arrived from Naharaim (Haran) with
317 women of the harem (A .. DeBuck, El(yptian
Readinl( Book I, 1948, p. 67).
693 ,r:i,(l)änak) II, dedicate, inaugurate. ASV
and RSvsimilar.) '1Anükka. Dedication, inauguration. The term

301
693. l ,~m(/Janame/)
occurs eight times in Hebrew and twice in each of The verbis used in social or secular contexts as
the Aramaic portions of Ezra and Daniel. well as theological ones. lt often has the sense of
The noun is most famous because of its inter- showing kindness to the poor and needy.
testamental use for the reestablishment of wor- Job begs his friends, "Pity me, pity me" (Job
ship in the temple after the excesses of Antiochus 19:21).
Epiphanes. This Hanukkah feast is mentioned in The Hithpael stem means "to beseech," as in
Jn 10:22. lt falls in Jate December. Gen 42:21 where the brothers recalled how
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., JBL 58:96. Joseph had pleaded with them. The Syrian cap-
--, BASOR 94:24. Lambdin, Thomas 0., tain besought Elijah for his life and for the lives of
JAOS 73:150. Reif, S. C., "'Dedicated to i:n," his soldiers (II Kgs 1:13). Esther implored the
VT 22: 495-501. king with tears (Est 8:3; cf. 4:8).
V.P.H. The apparent Niphal in Jer 22:23, ne!J,ant, is
probably a textual error for a form derived from
the verb 'äna/J as shown by the LXX, Peshitta,
CIIM (/Jinnäm). See no. 694b.
and Targum. Modem translations follow the Lxx
katastenaxeis and render "you will groan."
693. l ',Q;t:T(/Jllname/) sleet. The overwhelming number of uses in the Qal
stem, some forty-one instances, have Yahweh as
the subject. The plea IJ,onneni, "be gracious to
694 i:i, (/Janan) I, be gracious; pity,· in Hith- me," appears nineteen times in the Psalms. The
pael stem to beseech, implore. Psalmist asks Yahweh to show him favor in view
Derivatives of bis loneliness (Ps 25: 16 [H 17]), bis distress (Ps
31:9 [H 10]), his transgressions (Ps 51:1 [H 3])
694a tir., (/Jen) favor, grace.
where the favor he asks for is that God will erase
694b tCIIM (/Jinnäm) freely,for nothing.
the indictment against him, etc. Cf. Isa 33:2.
694c i'M (/Jin) grace. Occurs only in
The Lord graciously gave Jacob his children
Job41:4. (Gen 33:5) and prospered him (Gen 33: 11).
694d t,~Jlj (/Jannun) gracious.
Joseph 's benediction upon Benjamin (Gen 43:29),
694e t:,;•m (/Jllninä) favor.
and Aaron's benediction (Num 6:25) ask for
694f t:igl'.ll;I (t' /Jinnti) supplication. God's gracious dealing.
694g TTIJti~(talJtinun) supplication. Arnos (5: 15) urges bis hearers to establish jus-
Cognate with Akkadian enenu, hanänu "to tice that the Lord might be gracious to them. In
grant a favor," Ugaritic /Jnn "to be gracious, to the final analysis the Lord is sovereign in acting
favor" (UT, 19: no. 882), and Arabic IJanna "to graciously to those whom he selects (Ex 33: 19).
feel sympathy, compassion." The Hithpael is used in supplications to God:
lt is used in the Qal stem fifty-six times, in the by Moses who begs to see the Promised Land
Hithpael seventeen times, in the Hophal once, in (Deut 3:23); by Solomon in dedicating the temple
the Piel once, in the Polei twice, andin the Niphal (1 Kgs 8:33, 47, 59; 9:3; II Chr 6:24, 37); by the
once. Psalmist (Ps 30:8 [H 9]; 142:1 [H 21); and by
The verb /Jänan depicts a heartfelt response by Hosea (12:4 [H 51) of Jacob's appeal to the angel
someone who has something to give to one who who wrestled with him. Job, who is advised by
has a need. Ap-Thomas's suggestion that the Bildad to supplicate God (Job 8:5), concedes that
verb comes from a biliteral root "to bend, to in- though he were righteous this would be bis only
cline," i.e. to condescend, is not convincing. Ac- recourse (Job 9: 15).
cording to Flack the verb describes "an action lnstead of taking /Jannot as an infinitive in Ps
from a superior to an inferior who has no real 77:9 [H 10], "Hath God forgotten to be gra-
claim for gracious treatment." cious?" (Av), Dahood suggests taking it as a sub-
In reaction to earlier studies, Neubauer in his stantive, parallel to ra/Jllmäyw "bowels." He
recent monograph defines the verb as God's in- translates, "Have the inmost parts of God dried
tervention to save and to help his faithful servant up.')"
or nation with the emphasis on loyalty rat her than The verb IJänan and its derivatives are compo-
on grace and love. He arrives at this conclusion nents of the names of fifty-one persons. These
by an extrapolation from social relations to include: Baalhanan, Elhanan, Hananel, Hanani,
theological relations. His attempt to read such a Hananiah, Hannah, Hanun, Henadad, Jehoha-
nuance into the various occurrences of IJ,änan nan, Johanan, Tehinnah. Cf. the Punic names
and its derivatives leads to forced interpretations. Hanno and Hannibal.
The LXX translates the verb with oikteireö "to The woman's name Hannah has given us
pity or have compassion," with eleö "to show Anna, Ann, Nan, Nancy, Anita (Spanish) and
mercy or sympathy," or in the Hithpael stem Annette (French). Johanan has given us the name
with deisthaö "to supplicate." John: Jean (French), Giovanni (Italian), Juan

302
 694 iJr, (hanan)
(Spanish), Johann, and Hans (German), Jan vorable impression. In the Aramaic Proverbs of
(Dutch), and Ivan (Russian). Ahiqar we have the phrase /Jn Rhr hymnwth "for
For synonyms of /Jänan, etc. see especially a man·s charm is his truthfulness" (ANET, no.
hesed and rafJCtm. 132, p. 429). lt is the heeding of wisdom which
produces this favor: Prov 3:4; 13:15; Eccl 9: 11;
hen. Favor, grace, charm, etc. This ward oc- IO:12. The woman with this grace or charm, not
curs sixty-nine times, including forty-three times just physical beauty (Prov 11:16; cf. 11:22), is
in the phrase "to find favor in the eyes of," seven worthy of honor.
times with the verb "to give," and three times The woman who fears the Lord is praised, in
with the verb "to obtain" (Est 2:15, 17; 5:2), contrast to one who posseses merely deceitful
which leaves fourteen independent uses of the charm and vain beauty (Prov 31:30). Nahum 3:4
word. compares Nineveh to a prostitute who is (ohat
The ward never appears with the article or in /Jen, which the LXX renders kale kai epicharis and
the plural; it has the personal suffix once in Gen the Vulgate speciosae et Rratae, i.e. "beautiful
39:21. and pleasing." Cf. NAB "fair and charming"; NEB
The vast majority of occurrences are secular · 'fair-seeming. ''
and not theological in significance. In contrast
withthe verb /Jiinan. the focus of attention is not
tlinnäm. Freely, for nothing, unjustly, wühout
on the giver, but on the recipient, of what is giv-
cause, in vain. Cf. Latin f?Tatis, English
en. In contrast with the frequent occurrences of
Rratuitous/y. This adverb occurs thirty-two
times. lt has no inherent religious significance.
the verb and other derivatives, in the Psalms !Jen
lt can mean "for nothing" as in Gen 29: 15. In
occurs but twice in Ps 84: 11 [H 12] "the Lord will
Ex 21:2, 11 it is used of the Hebrew slave freed;
give favor" (Rsv), and in Ps 45:2 [H 3] of the
in Num 11:5 of the food which was eaten for free
"grace" on the lips of the bridegroom.
in Egypt; in lsa 52:3 of the Jews who have sold
!Jenappears thirteen times in Proverbs, often
themselves into slavery "for nothing."
withan aesthetic significance of charm or beauty.
In Prov 23:29 the alcoholic has wounds "with-
As Neubauer has stressed, many of the pas-
out cause" (KJv) or rather "for nothing" (NAB).
sages in which this phrase is found concem the
The NEB paraphrases, "Who gets the bruises
relationsof a superior to an inferior, e.g. a king to
without knowing why?"
his subject. But it is too much to hold that the
The Psalmist complains that his enemies plan
phrase is a terminus technicus so that Jacob in evil for him "without cause" (Ps 35:7; "unpro-
Gen 32:5 [H 6]; 33:8, 10, 15, is actually acknow-
voked," NEB). Cf. Ps 109:3; 119:161.
ledginghimself a vassal of Esau.
The ward !Jinniim is used in several senses in
The phrase is found in the crucial passage on
Job. Satan asks (Job 1:9) whether Job fears God
the justification of divorce in Deut 24: 1 which
"for not hing," that is, without an ulterior pur-
was the basis for the debate between Hillel and
pose. God responds (Job 2:3) by replying to Satan
Shammai. Rabbi Akiba held that a man might di-
that he has incited him against Job "without
vorce his wife "even if he found another fairer
cause" or "without justification." Job (Job 9: 17)
than she, for it is written: 'if she find no favor in
later complains that his wounds have been multi-
his eyes. · "
plied "for no reason" (JB). Eliphaz accuses Job of
In theological usage Noah and Moses are said
taking someone's pledge "unjustly" (Job 22:6).
to have found grace in the sight of the Lord (Gen
The ward can also mean „ in vain," as in Prov
6:8; Ex 33: 12). lt was the Lord who caused
1:17 of the bird net set in vain. In Ezk 6:10
Joseph to find favor with the chief jailer (Gen
Yahweh wams that he has not spoken in vain.
39:21), and the Israelites favor with the Egyptians
Dahood has suggested that /Jinniim, e.g. in Ps
(Ex 3:21; 11:3; 12:36). In Num 11:15 Moses is
35:7, should be translated "secretly, stealthily"
sayingto the Lord no more than, "Dome a favor
from the Ugaritic hnn. The traditional rendering,
and please kill me.''
however, makes good sense.
In Zech 12:10 the hause of David and the in-
The Aramaic verb which is cognate with He-
habitants of Jerusalem will have poured upon
brew /Jiinan is used in the Peal stem in Dan 4:27
them "the spirit of /Jen and tafJanitnim." The
[Aram 24] in Daniel's advice to Nebuchadnezzar
Targum reads "a spirit of mercy and compas-
"to show mercy" to the poor, andin the Hithpael
sion"; Unger takes this as the Holy Spirit.
stem in Dan 6: 11 [Aram 12] of Daniel's supplica-
The shouts of acclamation at the completion of tion.
Zerubbabel's temple in Zech 4:7, literally, ·· /Jen,
/Jen,., are interpreted by Unger to mean, "What ~annun. Gracious. This ward occurs thirteen
gracefulness (beauty) it has!" Sellin has times, eleven times in combination with ra/Jitm
suggested, "Bravo, bravo!" "merciful, compassionate." The LXX usually
In a number of passages /Jen means "charm" translates it eleemon "merciful. .. The adjective
or an attractive personality which creates a fa- describes the gracious acts of Yahweh. His grace

303
695 1~i,(J:zänan)
is revealed together with his righteousness, as 696 t'\~1'(/Jänep) be dejiled, polluted, profaned,
most of the passages which speak of him as /Jan- corrupt. (Asv similar; RSVin most cases
nun also speak of his judging evil, e.g. Joel 2: 13. uses "pollute" for the KJVrenderings.)
All occurrences of /Jannun refer to God (Ex
Derivatives
22:27 [H 26); 34:6; II Chr 30:9; Neh 9:17, 31; Ps
86:15; 103:8; 111:4; 116:5; 145:8; Joel 2:13; Jon 696a tti.in (/Jönep) hypocrite.
4:2). In Ps 112:4, the Rsv supplies "the Lord" as 696b tr:,~i, ( /Jänep) hypocrite.
the one who is gracious, but the description is 696c :,~m( /Jiinüppii) profaneness, pollu-
probably of the righteous man who shares the tion, only in Jer 23:15.
characteristics of his God. The core notion is of inclining away from right
Perhaps the most striking use of this word is whereas in Arabic it may mean to incline to a
the great proclamation of the name of God to right state. In Aramaic the root means "to act
Moses on Mount Sinai (Ex 34:6). The verse is falsely toward," "act with hypocrisy"; in Akka-
alluded to repeatedly in later writings (Num dian (Amarna letters) "exercise ruthlessness to-
14:18, but does not use this phrase; Ps 86:15; ward" (BDB). The verb appears eleven times,
103:8, 145:8; Joel 2:13; Jon 4:2). seven of which are in the Qal stem.
Mninä. Favor, pily. lt occurs but once in Jer The verb can refer to land being polluted for
16:13. The LXX translates it eleos "pity, mercy." various reasons. In the Qal stem there is men-
Because of Judah's apostasy the Lord says that tioned the transgression of laws, violation of
he will no longer grant his pity. statutes and the breaking of the covenant, all of
which pollute the land (lsa 24:5). Breaking of
t•~innä. Supplication, mercy. The word oc- marriage vows to marry another precludes a re-
curs twenty-four times and means a prayer for turn to the first mate; in the same way a favored
grace on all but two occasions when it means people who drifted back and forth between devo-
"mercy." Half of all the occurrences appear in tion to idols and the Lord, pollutes the land (Jer
Solomon' s prayer at the dedication of the temple 3: 1). The evidence of immorality and other gross
(I Kgs 8-9; II Chr 6).
wickedness of the Canaanite fertility cult was to
In Josh 11:20 t'' /Jinnii designates the "mercy" be seen on every hilltop in the land, thus polluting
of the victor for the vanquished, and in Ezr 9:8 it (Jer 3:2, 9). Because of many sins Zion was in
Yahweh's "grace" (KJV)or "mercy" (NAB)for <langer of God's discipline by being polluted by
the remnant of his people. In both cases the LXX pagan nations (Mic 4: 11).
has eleos "mercy." The Hiphil stem describes the pollution of
taMnun. Always used in the plural ta/Janunim. land. The murderer who had shed innocent blood
Supplicatjons. Similar in general to the preceding was regarded as polluting the land (Num 35:33).
but representing less a formal entreaty (used only Prophet and priest could be polluted. Their evil
once in II Chr 6:21 in Solomon's prayer) than the actions were to be found even in the house of the
outpourings of a troubled soul; used in parallel to Lord and their pollution polluted the temple (Jer
"weepings" in Jer 3:21, 31:9. lt is used seven 23: 11). Daniel's prediction regarding Antiochus
times in the Psalms, all except once in the phrase Epiphanes indicated that he was to tlatter (but
qo/ ta/Jiinunay "the voice of my supplications" actually pollute) those who had already broken
(KJv), "my cry for mercy" (NEB). the covenant. Some misguided rulers would ac-
Bibliography: Ap-Thomas, D. R., "Some As- tually serve their interests in the corruption of the
pects of the Root BNN in the Old Testament," sanctuary but the counterforce of those who
JSS 2: 128-48. Flack, E. E., "The Concept of knew God (the Maccabees) would take action
Grace in Biblical Thought," Biblica/ Studies in against this evil (Dan 11:32).
Memory of H. C. Allemen, ed. J. M. Myers, Au- The adjective denotes a godless man, a man
gustin, 1960, pp. 137-54. Lofthouse, W., "Ben who forgets God (Job 8: 13) and lives in opposi-
and l;Iesed in the Old Testament," ZAW 51: tion to all that is right (Job 17:8; Isa 9:17; 10:6).
29-35. Reed, William L., "Some Implications of Of the thirteen times it is used, it appears eight
BEN for Old Testament Religion," JBL 73: times in Job, emphasizing the action and tragedy
36-41. Richardson, TWB, pp. 80, 100. Snaith, N. of the godless. Any hope which the godless have
H., The Distinctive ldeas of the O/d Testament, will perish (Job 8: 13). The godless can never
London: Epworth, 1944, pp. 127-31. Torrance, come into the presence of God (Job 13: 16). As-
T. F., "The Doctrine of Grace in the Old Testa- sociation with the godless is a barren experience
ment," SJT 1: 55-65. TDNT, IX, pp. 37&--81. (Job 15:34). The godless have their pleasures but
THAT, I, pp. 587-96. momentarily (never forever, Job 20:5). The god-
E.Y. less should not hold governmental positions lest
the people fall into a trap (Job 34:30). The man
695 lJM (hänan) II, be loathsome (Job 19:17, who forgets the fear of God is godless, a menace
'only). to society. He will be judged.

304
 698 icn (IJsd)

Daviddemonstrates the upside-down character but loyalty to his covenant obligations, a loyalty
ofthe godless. Those who had turned against him which the lsraelites should also show. He was
werelikened to the coarse jesting at godless ban- followed substantially by W. F. Lofthouse
queting tables (Ps 35:16). The character of the (1933), N. H. Snaith (1944), H. W. Robinson
godless,being and' actions, God will judge. Retri- (1946), Ugo Masing (1954), and many others.
bution will come so swiftly that even the godless There were others, however, who disagreed.
willtremble and be terrified (Isa 33: 14). F. Assension (1949) argued for mercy, basing his
views on the oT versions. H. J. Stoebe (doctoral
~önep. Hypocrisy, lsa 32:6. The fool (worst
dissertation 1951, also articles in 1952 VTand in
word, niihäl q.v.) with whom no one can reason,
THAT) argued for good-heartedness, kindness.
is the one who practices ungodliness or profane-
Sidney Hills and also Katherine D. Sakenfeld
ness,
<The Meaninf! of }fesed in the Hehrew Bihle, a
hänep. Hypocrite, hypocritical. <AW, RW, and Nell' lnquiry), held in general that l;esed denotes
NJVusually translate this word as "godless," free acts of rescue or deliverance which in pro-
possiblythe better rendering from the core idea.) phetic usage includes faithfulness. For this histor-
L.G. ical survey and references see Sakenfeld pp. 1-13
(hereafter called Sak.); also LaRue in the book by
6rt •;,m (l;änaq) strangle. Occurs in the Glueck (here called G.)
Niphal (II Sam 17:23) and the Piel (Nah The writer would stress that the theological dif-
2: 13). ference is considerable whether the Ten Com-
Derivative mandments are stipulations to a covenant re-
stricted to Israel to which God remains true and
697a ;,~i::i~(mahanäq) strangling. to which he demands loyalty, or whether they are
eternal principles stemming from God's nature
698 icn (l;sd) I. Assumed root of the following. and his creation to which all men are obligated
698a ti~!'.I ( l;esed) kindness, loving- and according to which God will judge in justice
. kindness, mercy and similar words or beyond that will show love, mercy and kind-
(KJv). (Rsv usually has steadfast love, ness.
occasionally loyalty, NASB On the meaning of our word l;esed it is conven-
lovingkindness, kindness, love, N1v ient to start, as G. and Sak. have done, with the
unfailing love.) secular usage, i.e. between man and man. Glueck
698b t,•i::,i, (l;äsid) holy one, godly, argues that l;esed is practiced in an ethically
saint. Rsv faithful, godly one, loyal. binding relationship of relatives, hosts, allies,
NJV,saint, godly. friends and rulers. lt is fidelity to covenantal
698c :i,•0r,i ( l;asidä) stork <perhaps be- obligations real or implied. Sakenfeld goes over
cause it was thought tobe kind to its the same material and concludes that indeed a
young). relationship is present 0ove almost necessitates a
For centuries the word l;esed was translated subject-object relation) but that the l;esed is
withwords like mercy. kindness, love. The LXX freely given. ··Freedom of decision" is essential.
usually uses eleos "mercy," and the Latin mis- The help is vital, someone is in a position to help,
ericordia. The Targum and Syriac use frequently the helper does so in his own freedom and this · 'is
a cognate of (oh. The root is not found in Akka- the central feature in all the texts" (p. 45).
dian or Ugaritic. The lexicons up through BOB Glueck certainly seems to find obligation
and GB (which said Liehe, Gunst, Gnade, love, where there is none. Stoebe gives an extensive
goodness, grace) are similar. KB however is the treatment of l;esed in THAT (pp. 599-622) and
"mutual liability of those ... belonging together." remarks (p. 607) that I Kgs is an instance where
In 1927 Nelson Glueck, shortly preceded by I. l;esed is unexpected. Benhaded was defeated. He
Elbogen, published a doctoral dissertation in could claim no obligation. He hoped for mercy,
Germantranslated into English by A. Gottschalk, kindness. Stoebe cites the men of Jabesh also
Hesed in the Bihle with an introduction by G. A. (II Sam 2:5), Saul had died in defeat. The care of
LaRue which is a watershed in the discussion. Saul's body seems clearly to have been a free act
His views have been widely accepted. In brief, of kindness.
Glueck built on the growing idea that Israel was Also Laban·s willingness to send Rebekah to
bound to its deity by covenants like the Hittite Isaac was not from any covenant obligation
and other treaties. He held that God is pictured as (though G. cites the appeal to providence in v.
dealingbasically in this way with Israel. The Ten 50). lt was a kindness to a long-lost relative. He
Commandments, etc. were stipulations of the could easily have said "no." The beautiful story
covenant, lsrael's victories werc rewards of cov- of Ruth is tarnished by considering Ruth's action
enant keeping, her apostasy was covenant viola- as motivated by contractual obligations. The
tion and God's hesed was not basically mercy, Lord had no obligation to get the widows new

305
698 icr, (l;sd)
husbands in Moab (1 :8---9).Ruth went with Naomi text" (p. 131) and holds that ··those who are loyal
from pure love. Boaz recognized her action as (loving) will receive IJesed while those who are
goodness in 2: 11-12 and calls it IJesed in 3: 10. disloyal (hating) will be punished" (p. 131). She is
Even Glueck inclined toward kindness here. The led into this covenantal emphasis by the prior
action of Rahab was kindness (Josh 2: 12). Her idea that since secular treaties speak of love,
loyalty would naturally and legally be to her king brotherhood and friendship between suzerain and
and city. The angels in Gen 19: 19 were hardly vassal, that therefore these are covenant words
bound by covenant obligation-or any obliga- and show that a covenant was at least implied.
tion-to Lot. Indeed the basis of their action is This view forgets that love is a covenant word
said in v. 16 to have been their compassion (cf. because kings borrowed it from general use to try
lsa 63:9). In Gen 21 :23 Abimelech cites his previ- to render covenants effective. They tried to make
ous !Jesed as grounds for making the covenant the vassal promise to act like a brother, friend
with Abraham which required further IJesed. and husband. lt does not follow that God·s love is
Glueck makes something of I Sam 20:8, 14, 15 merely a factor in a covenant; rather the coven-
where David and Jonathan swore friendship. This ant is the sign and expression of his love. McCar-
covenant, says G. was the basis of the !Jesed. thy more acceptably says, "the form of the Sinai
Here, perhaps, is G's major mistake. He forgets story in Ex 19-24 which is reflected in the text
that covenants arise on the basis of a relationship without later additions does not bear out the con-
and that the obligations are often deeper than the tention that the story reflects an organization ac-
covenant. Verse 17 shows that Jonathan's love cording to covenant form." His view is that the
moved him to make the covenant. When power and glory of Yahweh and the ceremonies
Jonathan died, David lamented for him out of conducted effected the union "more than history,
love, not obligation (II Sam 1:26). David's /Jesed oath, threat and promise" (McCarthy, D. J.,
to Saul's house is said to be for the sake of Treaty and Covenant, Pontif. Bib. Inst., ed. of
Jonathan, not because of a legal obligation 1963, p. 163).
(II Sam 9:1, 3, 7). Glueck seems to miss the mark The text itself of Ex 20 and Deut 5 simply says
widely when he says it was neither grace nor that God's love (/Jesed) to those who love him
mercy; it was brotherliness required by covenan- ( 'ähab) is the opposite of what he will show to
tal loyalty. Such a view has failed to see the depth those who hate him. The context of these com-
of David's character. Stoebe calls it the spon- mands is surely God's will for all mankind, al-
taneous proof of a cordial friendly attitude though his special care, indeed his covenant, is
( herzlich freundlich Gesinnung). Other examples with Israel. That !Jesed refers only to this coven-
must be omitted, but they are similar. All parties ant and not to the eternal divine kindness back of
agree that in Est 2:9, 17 the word is used offavor, it, however, is a fallacious assumption.
kindness, but some try to make this usage un- The text of Ex 34:6--7 is fuller and more sol-
usual being post-exilic. emn, coming as it does after the great apostasy. lt
When we come to the IJesed of God, the prob- was a tender revelation of God's seif to Moses.
lern is that of course God was in covenant rela- Sakenfeld is right here "that forgiveness must
tion with the patriarchs and with Israel. There- always have been latent [at least!] in the theologi-
fore his !Jesed can be called covenant IJesed cal usage of /Jesed" even before the exile (p.
without contradiction. But by the same token 119). The association with divine mercy is surely
God's righteousness. judgment, fidelity, etc. patent in the words and in the context of the oc-
could be called covenant judgment, etc. The casion of the apostasy. The word ra!Jüm with its
question is, do the texts ascribe his IJesed to his overtones of mother love, and !Jannün "grace"
covenants or to his everlasting love'l ls not !Jesed combined with the phrase "slow to anger" all
as Dom Sorg observed (see Bibliography) really emphasize the character of God who is love. He
the oT reflex of "God is love · ·? is great in !Jesed and 'emet (of which more later).
A prominent early usage is in God's declara- He keeps /Jesed for thousands which is im-
tion of his own character: Ex 20:6 parallel to Deut mediately related to forgiveness of sin. That all
5: 10 and also Ex 34:6--7. These passages are dis- this simply says that God keeps his oath seems
cussed by G., Sak. and Stoebe from the trivial. The oath is kept because it is the loving
viewpoint of documentary division first. But God who speaks the oath.
aside from this Sak. emphasizes the freedom of Sakenfeld nicely brings together the several
God's IJesed. in all these passages. She notes the passages dependent on Ex 34:6--7. They are:
proximity to words for mercy in Ex 34:6--7 and Num 14:18---19; Neh 9:17; Ps 86:15; 103:8; 145:8
remarks that it is "this aspect of God's !Jesed (as (cf. 9 and 10); Joel 2: 13; and Jon 4:2. Of these
his mercy) which takes on greater importance in passages, only Ps 86: 15 includes the word 'emet
exilic and postexilic writing"-of which she en- after /Jesed. They all speak of the love of the
visions a good bit-{p. 119). However, she con- Lord and some mention his forgiveness. None
siders Ex 20 and Deut 5 as in a "covenantal con- specifically ground the IJesed in covenant.

306
 700 :ii;r;r(IJ.äsa)
The phrase J:,esed and 'emet "truth" men- '1äsid. · Holy one, saint. Whether God's people
tioned above is thought by some to argue for the in the OT were called /:läsid because they were
concept of loyalty or fidelity in J:,esed. lt occurs characterized by J:,esed(as seems likely) or were
some twenty-five times with about seven more in so called because they were objects of God's
less close connection. Most agree it is a hen- J:,esed may not be certain. The word is used
diadys and one noun serves to describe the other. thirty-two times, twenty-five of them in the Pss.
Therefore the phrase means "faithful love" or lt is used in sing. and pi. Once, Ps 16:16, it refers
"true kindness" or the like. Kindness and faith- to the Holy One to come. The word became used
fulness is a fair equivalent hendiadys in English. for the orthodox party in the days of the Macca-
The combination hardly seems to further the idea beans.
offidelity to a covenant in the word J:,eud. If the Bibliography: Dentan, R. C., "The Literary
term already meant that, why would the qualifier Affinities of Exodus 34:6ff.," VT 13: 3~51.
"faithful" be added? U sually, as in the usage of Freedman, D. N., "God Compassionate and
~esed alone, there is no covenant expressed to Merciful," Western Watch 6: 6-24. Glueck, Nel-
whichfidelity is due. lt is alleged in I Kgs 3:3, but son, Hesed in the Bible, trans. by A. Gottschalk,
althoughGod's J:,esedto David in making his son Hebrew Union College Press, 1967. Kuyper,
king was indeed according to covenant; it was Lester J ., "Grace and Truth," Reformed Review
also according to his love which lay back of his 16: l'-16. Sakenfeld, Katherine D., The MeaninR
covenant. The text does not ascribe it to coven- of Hesed in the Hebrew Bible: A New lnquiry,
ant loyalty. Stoebe points out in Ps 89 that the Schofars Press, 1978. Snaith, N.H., The Distinc-
covenantof v. 3 is based on the J:,esedofv. 2 [H 4 tive ldeas of the 0/d Testament, Schocken, 1964,
and 3] (THAT, p. 615). pp. 9~130. Sorg, Dom Rembert, /fasid in the
Another pair of nouns is covenant, b''rit, and Psalms, Pro decimo Press, 1953. Stoebe, H. J.,
~esed used seven times with some other in- "Die Bedeutung des Wortes tläsäd im Alten Tes-
stances of use in near contexts. The main in- tament," VT 2:24~54. Yarbrough, Gien, "The
stance is Deut 7:9, 12 which has echoes in I Kgs Significance of J:,sdin the Old Testament,'· U n-
8:23;II Chr 6: 14: Neh 1:5; 9:32; and Dan 9:4. lt published Ph.D. Dissertation, Southem Baptist
itself is called by Stoebe (THAT, p. 616) a para- Theological Seminary, 1959. TDNT, I. pp. 696-
phrase of Ex 34:6. He remarks that Deut 7:8 al- 701. THAT, I, pp. 599---022.
ready bases all God's favor on his love. If this R.L.H.
pair be translated „ covenantal love" or „ coven-
ant and love," it should be remembered that the 699 *ii;,i, (/Jäsad) II, be reproached,
love is back of the covenant. This point is illus- ashamed. This verb occurs only once, in
trated by Jer 2:2 where the J:,esed of lsrael's the Piel (Prov 25: 10).
youthis likened to the love of a bride. The love of
a bride is the basis of the promise, not the result. Derivative
lt should be mentioned that J:,esed is also 699a i;?ri (/Jesed) shame, reproach (Lev
paired about fifteen times with nouns of mercy 20: 17; Prov 14:34).
like raf:ium, e.g. Ps 103:4; Zech 7:9 (and cf. Ex
34:6--7above), J:,en, e.g. Gen 19:19; Ps 109:12,
700 :i,;ir;, (/Jäsä) seek refuge, flee for protection
tanJ:,um,Ps 94:18-19, etc. These instances usu- and thus figuratively put trust in (God), con-
allystand as paired nouns not really in an adjecti-
fule, hope in (God or person). ASV, RSV
val relation. The implication is that J:,esedis one
similar.
of the words descriptive of the love of God.
So, it is obvious that God was in covenant rela- Derivatives
tion with Israel, also that he expressed this rela-
700a rrn::ii, ( /:läsut) refuge, shelter, only
tionin hesed, that God's hesed was etemal (Note
therefrain of Ps 136}-tho.ugh the J:,esedof Ephra- in lsa 30:3.
700b M!:iMI';( ma!Jseh) refuge, shelter.
im and others was not (Hos 6:4). However, it is
by no means clear that J:,esed necessarily in- The root is probably to be distinguished from
volves a covenant or means fidelity to a coven- bä(a/:1"rely on," "take refuge in" as denoting
ant. Stoebe argues that it refers to an attitude as more precipitate action. The etymology is doubt-
weilas to actions. This attitude is parallel to love, ful. With derivatives the root is used fifty-six
ra!Jumgoodness, (ob, etc. lt is a kind of love, times, predominantly in the Psalms and similar
includingmercy, J:,annun, when the object is in a poetic and hymnic literature.
pitifulstate. lt often takes verbs of action, "do," While it is used literally of taking shelter from a
"keep," and so refers to acts of love as weil as to rainstorm (lsa 4:6: 25:4; Job 24:8) or from any
the attribute. The word "lovingkindness" of the danger in the high hills (Ps 104:18), it is more
KJV is archaic, but not far from the fulness of often used figuratively of seeking refuge and thus
meaningof the word. putting confident trust whether in any god (Deut

307
701 ,~r,(};äsal)
32:37) or in the "shadow" (protection) of any (mal]' seya, "'the Lord is a refuge," Jer 32: 12;
major power such as Egypt (Isa 30:2; cf. the plant 51 :59). Hosah, a Levite listed as the gatekeeper
in the parable of Jud 9: 15). of the western and Shellecheth gate of the temple
This idea of taking refuge may weil derive from (l Chr 16:38) had sixteen sons and brothers in
the common experience of fugitives or of men at similar service (26: 10-11, 16). Hosah was also the
war, for whom the adjacent hills provided a ready name of a place in Asher (Josh 19:29).
· •safe height' · or · · strong rock'' to which the often Bibliography: Delekat, L., "Zum Hebräis-
helpless defender could hurry for protection. In chen Wörterbuch," VT 14: 7-66. Tsevat, M., "A
this way the noun ma/Jseh "place of refuge" is Study of the Language of the Biblical Psalms,"
used as a snyonym of mä'oz "'stronghold," mis- JBL Monograph 9: 4ff., 48ff.
!?ii.h "secure height," or manos "place of es- D.J.W.
cape."
As is the case with the parallel terms, the
·•rock" (~ur, Ps 62:7), "rock of my refuge" (~ur rm:ir, (/Jiisut). See no. 700a.
ma/Jsi Ps 94:22), "the shield, cover" (mii.f?en, Ps i•c:in <IJäsid). See no. 698b.
144:2; Prov 30:5), or the "wings" denoting pro- ,-i;,b ( /Jäsil). See no. 701a.
tection (Ruth 2: 12; Ps 17:8; 36:7 [H 8]), the "Ref- ri;,p ( }Jasin). See no. 703c.
uge" is used as an epithet for God. He above all
is the Refuge (ma}Jseh, Ps 14:6; 46:1 [H 2]; 62:8; 701 ',1;1r,(häsal) fi.nish off, consume. Used of
91 :9), the Shelter (Ps 61 :3 [H 4], KJV),the "strong the locusts destroying crops (Deut 28:38).
Refuge" (Ps 71:7), and Fortress (Ps 91:2). God is
ever the sole refuge of his people. Trust in him Derivative
(godliness) protects the individual by its solidar- 70 Ja t',•i;,r, (hä sil) locust.
ity (Prov 14:26; Jn 4: 10). The Qal stem of /Jii.sa is
primarily used of man putting trust in God as his The word is derived from the verb /Jiisal "to
Rock (II Sam 22:3), Strength (Ps 18:2 [H 3]), and consume" (Deut 28:38). lt occurs six times. The
Stronghold (NEB "sure refuge," Nah I :7). lt is 1.xxmistakently translates it four times as erusihe
always better to trust in God rather than to trust "smut," and twice as brouchos "'unwinged lo-
( bafa/J) in princes (Ps 118:8--9). He acts as the cust." The KJV translates it as "caterpillar."
shield or cover (mäf?en) of all who take refuge in KB's suggestion of "cockroach" is erroneous.
him (II Sam 22:31; Ps 18:30 [H 311). The word appears in Ugaritic as hsn
The analogy of taking refuge in God may occa- "grasshopper," parallel to irhy "locust" (UT 19:
sionally refer to the temple of God in Jerusalem no. 883).
where the affiicted of his people could always In Joel I :4 and 2:25, /Jiisil is used as the "con-
find refuge (lsa 14:32 Rsv: cf. Ps 61 :4). This was a suming" young locust.
development of the ancient custom whereby the See also 'arbeh.
fleeing criminal could seize the horns of the altar E.Y.
and so find safety from revenge (I Kgs 1:50). The
interpretation of Prov 14:32 (' 'the righteous hath 702 ci;,r, (/Jiisam) stop up, muu.le (Deut 25:4;
hope in his death," KJV)is difficult but should Ezk 39:11).
probably be emended from be moto ("'in his
death") to b'tummo (interchanging the "m" and Derivative
"t") to read "'seeks refuge in his integrity" (so 702a cic~r;, (mahsom) mu;;zle (Ps 39:2).
Lxx), as opposed to the wicked who is driven
away in his wickedness.
"To seek refuge" stresses the insecurity and 703 1CM ( hsn). Assumed root of the following.
703a ti;:;i'M (hösen) riches, treasure.
self-helplessness of even the strongest of men. lt
703b 1 er, (/Jäsön) strong (Arnos 2:9;
emphasizes the defensive or external aspect of
Isa I :31).
salvation in God, the unchanging one in whom we
703c l'l;)l'.! (/Jiisin) strong, mighty (Ps
"find shelter" (F. D. Kidner, The Psalms, 1973,
89:9).
ad loc Ps 46: 1). David could view the cave to
which he had fled as a stronghold, whereas others !lösen. Riches, treasure. (Asv and RSVsimilar,
would see it as a trap. KJValso "strength. ") The word is used five
The result of taking refuge in God is to be times. The meaning is ··wealth," usually "physi-
"blessed" (Ps 2: 12) and be "saved" (Ps 17:7). cal prosperity." The exception is lsaiah' s refer-
Such a person should rejoice (Ps 5:11 [H 12)), ence to the Lord as a · ·wealth of salvations, wis-
find goodness (Ps 3 I: I 9 [H 20)) and "possess the dom, and knowledge" (lsa 33:6). The KJVtrans-
land" (lsa 57: 13). lates „ strength" here and also (with the LXX)in
The root occurs in proper names. An ancestor Jer 20:5 (see hun).
of Baruch and Seraiah is called Mohseiah C.P.W.

308
 708 T;i, (~äpaz)
704 CIOCIM(haspas) scale-like (Ex 16: 14, only). madmen (l Sam 21: 15 [H 16]); lack of bread (II
o~rivation uncertain. Sam 3:29; Prov 12:9); Jack of oil (I Kgs 17: 16).
The primary use of this adjective is in express-
705 ,;,:t (/Jäser) lack, have a need, be lacking. ing man's predicament spiritually of lacking wis-
dom or understanding which leads to God. Those
Derivatives who Jack understanding commit sin (Prov 6:32);
705a ,i;r, (/Jeser) poverty (occurs deserve the rod (Prov 10: 13); belittJe their
twice). neighbors (Prov 11: 12); follow what is worthless
705b ,;·n (/Jöser) want, lack (occurs (Prov 12: 11); rejoice over folly (Prov 15:21);
· twice). make foolish vows (Prov 17:18); and are slug-
705c t-,Ott (/Jäser) needy, lacking. gards with a fieJd full of weeds (Prov 24:30). If a
705d 1i,or, (/Jesrön) deficiency (occurs ruler, he becomes a cruel oppressor (Prov 28: 16).
once). Although he may lack nothing of material things,
705e ,io,:i~ (ma/Jsör) need, poverty. one without God has no power to enjoy it all
(Eccl 6:2). In short, if anyone lacks wisdom he
The earliest occurrence of this verb describes
shows himself to be a fool everywhere, even in
the decrease of the waters which prevailed over
public (Eccl 10:3).
the earth at the flood (Gen 8:3, 5). The Jack is
Yet, if one realizes this Jack, he can gain wis-
seen in the decrease of the numbers of the right-
dom by looking to the provider of wisdom, the
eous in Sodom, i.e. the Jack of five from the fifty
Lord (Prov 9:4). One who Jacks can be ad-
seen in the decrease of the numbers of the right-
monished by God's wisdom to seek wisdom
eous in Sodom, i.e. the Jack of five from the fifty
(Prov 9:16).
Abraham first proposed (Gen 18:28).
J.B.S.
häser is most frequently used to express the
sufficiency of God's grace to meet the needs of
his people. They never lack. In the wilderness, 1i,i;ir, (/Jesrön). See no. 705d.
when the people followed God's command they e'\lj · ·( /Jap ). See no. 711a.
never lacked manna (depending on God's daily
supply; Ex 16:18). Moses reminded them of this 706 *M~i;t (/Jiipii') do secretly. /Jiipä' occurs
just before they entered Canaan (Deut 2:7) and only once, in the Pie! (II Kgs 17:9).
this became their basis of hope in Canaan (Deut
8:9). 707 M~i;t (/Jäpä) cover, overlay. (Asv has
This proved to be so for those who trusted the "overlay" in Chr passages where RW uses
Lord, e.g. the widow (I Kgs 17: 14), the Psalmist "covered" or once "ceiled. ")
David(Ps 23: 1), all who seek the Lord (Ps 34: 10
IH 11]), and those who worship the Lord (lsa The Qal is used to express the covering of the
51:14).He who has a good, God-fearing wife will head or face in a time of shame such as the shame
see his abundance from God through her (Prov of Haman (Est 6: 12; 7:8) or the shame of David
31:11). and those with him in his flight from his son Ab-
Conversely, the lack of bread or other bless- salom (II Sam 15:30; cf. also Jer 14:3-4).
ings points to God's disfavor because of Jack of The Piel is used to express the overlaying of
faith (Isa 32:6; Ezk 4: 17). one object with another as in the gold overlays in
Ultimately, because of the faithlessness of the the construction of the Lord's house (II Chr 3:5,
people, not only would they sense the lack of 7, 8-9).
blessings but would even credit it to their not In each case, the idea seems tobe that ofhiding
servingthe pagan gods of Canaan (Jer 44: 18). We the less attractive underneath the more attrac-
see how God gave them up to their reprobate tive. This is borne out by the cognate languages,
minds. especially Arabic, which use the root chiefly to
The root occurs in other Semitic languages express the act of hiding. lt does not occur in
such as Aramaic, Arabic, and Ethiopic, not, Ugaritic.
however, so far, in Ugaritic. Bibliography: Gordis, Robert, "Studies in
Hebrew Roots of Contrasted Meanings," JQR
!Jäser. Lacking, in need of. (The same gener- 27: 33-58.
allyin Asvand Rsv.) This adjective is in form the J.B.S.
same as the verb /Jäser (see above). lt is used
primarily, however, in reference to the lack of
wisdomand understanding. Thus it occurs most M~ti (/Jüppa ). See no. 7 !Ob.
frequently in the wisdom literature and primarily
in Prov (thirteen times out of nineteen). 708 TQi;t (/Jäpaz) hasten, flee, fear, be terrified
The adjective occurs a few times in the sense of (Rsv often prefers "be frightened" or "flee"
the lack of things, as does the verb e.g., Jack of for KJV "make haste."

309
709 i.cn(IJpn)
Derivative Twice /Jüppä is related to a wedding. In Joel
708a t1i1,n (!Jippazön) haste(?). 2: 16 it is parallel to /Jeder, which means "bed-
room, inner chamber." The bride is instructed to
There is no clear distinction between Qal and go from her bedroom, the groom from his canopy
Niphal forms in meaning. In two contexts it paral- to plead that the Lord might spare his people
lels terms meaning fear (Deut 20:3, "tremble"; from judgment. Normal joys are interrupted dur-
Ps 48:5 [H 6], Rsv "took to tlight"; KJV"hasted ing this spiritual crisis.
away"). Some contexts give support, though less There is some question as to whether the
than decisive support, for a meaning of "hasten" canopy was a special tent where the marriage was
(i.e. in terror). The hasty tlight of Mephi- consummated, or whether it was a protective
bosheth 's nurse (II Sam 4:4) and the hasty retreat covering over the wedding ceremony itself.
of the Aramaeans (II Kgs 7: 15) are examples. Psalm 19:5 [H 6] compares the sun rising in its
Once, the term serves as a poetic parallel for strength to a bridegroom coming out of his
"tled" (Ps 104:7). "Beingin terror" suits well the canopy. This expresses the joy of youthful love
context of Ps 116:11 (Rsv "consternation"), Ps as the groom anticipates a new life with his bride,
31:22 [H 23] (Rsv "alarm"), and I Sam 23:26 perhaps specifically referring to the sun·s course
("David was fearful so that he went away" as a happy wedding procession (cf. MT 25: 6-10).
writer's translation). The meaning of this term in H.W.
Job 40:23 is unclear (KJV · 'hasteth"; RSV
"frightened'"). "Flee in terror" may summarize 711 l\l:iM ( /Jpp) II. Assumed root of the follow-
its meanings. ing.
!tippäzön. Haste (?), fear (?), fleeing (?). A 71 la tii:t (/Jap) innocent, pure (Rw), oc-
technical term of uncertain meaning which de- curs only at Job 33:9, where Elihu
scribes the manner in which the Hebrews were to accuses Job of claiming tobe "inno-
eat the first Passover (Ex 12:11) and the manner cent,,. "pure, .. "blameless" (NEB).
in which they left Egypt (Deut 16:3). In these Derived from the verb /Jiipap "to
contexts either "in haste" or "in fear" is possi- rub, to cleanse," the word means
ble. The poetic parallel to "tlight" <Isa 52: 12 in "clean ...
RSV)suggests a meaning such as "hasty tlight" or E.Y.
"fearful tlight."
J.P.L. 712 ri;,r, (/Jäpe~) I, take delight in, be pleased
with, desire.
1i1,n (/Jippäzön). See no. 708a. Derivatives
709 icn ( /Jpn). Assumed root of the following. 712a t'f'!;l!j (/Jäpe,~) delighting in.
709a 1!;1M (/Jopen) hollow of hand (e.g . 712b trpr, (/Jepe,r) delight.
. Eccl 4:6: Ezk 10:7). The basic meaning is to feel great favor to-
wards something. lts meaning differs from the
710 ti~r, (/Jiipap) /, cover, shelter, shield. parallel roots, !Jamad. /Jäshaq, and rä,rii, in that
they connote less emotional involvement. !Jämad
Derivatives and IJäshaq are usually translated "desire:· and
710a tiin (/Jöp) shore, coast. räJii "accept,,. favor being based on need, or
710b t:,~r., (/Jüppä) canopy. judgment of approval. In the case of !Jape.i·, the
object solicits favor by its own intrinsic qualities.
The verb !Jäpap occurs only in Moses' blessing
(Deut 33: 12), describing the security of Benja- The subject is easily attracted to it because it is
desirable. A fourth root, Ril, somewhat parallel,
min. He is loved by the Lord "who shields (KJV
.. covers .. ) him all the day ... connotes even greater emotional involvement.
Here the subject gives expression to his delight in
!tüppä. Canopy, chamber. (Rsv same; ASV uses a joyful attitude and conduct. The root !Jäpe.y is
"covering" in lsa 4:5.) lt is used three times in used more frequently than the other words, a
the OT. In Isa 4:5 the idea of protection seems total of 123 times, including the verband its de-
paramount, and /Jüppä is in close conjunction rivatives.
wit h sükkii, a word for „ booth „ or „ shelter „ /Jäpe,r occurs only in the Qal stem, and it
(v. 6). This important passage describes the fu- means "to experience emotional delight. .. This
ture glory of Zion in terms of the wilderness wan- delight may be feit by men or by God. Men are
dering. Just as the pillar of cloud and fire shielded said to experience it in respect to women.
Israel from the Egyptians, a protective canopy Shechem, son of Hamor, had "delight" in
will provide shade and refuge from storms for Jacob's daughter Dinah (Gen 34:19). The contes-
Mount Zion. tants in King Ahasuerus·s beauty contest did not

310
 715 ,~i, (l:,äper)
returnto him after the first viewing unless he had fasting, and this is said to have been her "de-
"delight" in them (Est 2: 14). Men also experi- light" (lsa 58:3). lsaiah writes that the "delighf'
ence it with other men. When King Saul wanted of God will prosper in the hand of Christ (53: 10).
David to marry his daughter Michal. he in- The word is also used in reference to that in
structed his servants to inform David that the which God finds delight. The Persian king,
kinghad "delight" in him (1 Sam 18:22). Cyrus, would perform that in which God had
This delight may be experienced in respect to "delight'' (Isa 44:28).
matters and things. Joab used the word when he Bibliography: Staples, W. E., "The Meaning
askedDavid why he persisted in having a census of l:Iepe~ in Ecclesiastes," JNES 24: 110-12.
taken, or the army mustered (see pdqad), i.e. THAT, I, pp. 621-22. .
why he had "delight"" in it (II Sam 24:3). The L.J.W.
word is also used in reference to people delight-
ing in certain activities. King Ahasuerus asked 713 T~r, (IJäpe~) II, bend down.
Haman what should be done to the man whom
the king "delighted" to honor (Est 6:6). Still This root must be distinguished from IJäpe~ I,
anotheruse of the word is in an absolute sense, as "take delight in," because of its one use in Job
in a repeated expression of Song: "Nor awake 40: 17: "He bends down his tail like a cedar." The
(my)love, until he please" (2:7; 3:5; 8:4). root is found also in Arabic, where it means
The word is used of God having delight in cer- "lower, depress." This word has no Hebrew de-
tain people. In David's song of deliverance, he rivative and is uncertain in meaning. Pope Job in
saysthat God provided for him because he "de- AB, posits "arches" as suitable for the tail. The
lighted" in him (II Sam 22:20). The Queen of problem is that many take this to refer to a hip-
Sheba expressed a blessing to God because he popotamus which has a small tail. Could the word
"delighted" in Solomon (I Kgs 10:9). God is said "tail" mean appendage? In that case the appen-
to experience this delight toward good works of dage could be the trunk stretched out (Lisowsky)
men. For instance, he ··delights" in his sabbath like a cedar.
being kept and his law observed (Isa 56:4), in L.J.W.
"mercy" and ··knowledge of God" (Hos 6:6),
andin ··truth" (Ps 51:8). In respect to himself, 714 ,~r, (f_täpar) I, dig, search for. (Asv and
God engages in activities in which he takes "de- RSV similar.)
light'"(Ps 115:3; 135:6). Samson's father, Man- Derivative
oah, feared death for himself and wife because
the Angel of the Lord had appeared to them, but 714a M,~'.'ICl!:I(/Jiiparpärii) mole, only
his wife replied that had God "delighted" to do in. Isa 2:20 (one word in the DSS and
this, he would not have received their sacrifices. some Greek witness).
~ä~. Delighting in, having pleasure in. This The basic idea is to dig in the ground for some
adjective, used similarly to the verb, occurs in reason; and, on this count, the word is quite
tenpassages, nine of which depict man 's activity. parallel to kärii. lt can also mean to search for an
With men who "delight'' in God's righteous object. lt is used twenty-two times, in the Qal
cause. God is said to be pleased (Ps 35:27). stem. The word is used often for digging a weil. lt
Nehemiahprays that God would be attentive to is so employed in connection with Abraham (Gen
the prayer of those who "delighted" to fear his 21:30), and Isaac (Gen 26: 15, 18, 19, etc.). lt is
name(Neh 1:11). used for digging a pit as a trap (Ps 7: 15 [ 16]); for
digging in quest of a hidden object (Jer 13:7); and
!Je~. Delight, pleasure. The noun IJepe.i· is even for a horse's pawing as he grazes (Job
used more frequently, thirty-nine times, and in 39:21). The idea of searching is employed less
varyingcontexts. lt is used in such expressions often, but is clearly meant. For instance, the
as "land of delight" (Mal 3: 12) or "words of de- word is used in connection with the work of
light" (Eccl 12:10), where it speaks of the plea- Joshua·s spies, sent to search out Jericho (Josh
sure which the "land" or "words" give. Of the 2:2-3). lt is used regarding the eagle as it
righteousman, Ps 1:2 says his "delight'' is in the "seeketh" (searches for) its prey (Job 39:29).
law of the Lord. Persons can be objects of this L.J.W.
delight,when they please other persons (Ps 16:3).
/Jepe~may be used for that which a person wishes
715 i~r, (f_täper) II, be ashamed, Jeel abashed,
strongly to do or have. For instance, Solomon
be confounded. (Asv and Rsv similar.)
gavethe Queen of Sheba all her "delight" (1 Kgs
l0:13).Job indicates that he had not withheld the The basic idea concems the loss of self-
poor from their "delight" (Job 31: 16). The word possession through humiliation, embarrassment,
is used further in reference to a person·s great or confusion. lt is close in meaning to the root
interest, his business. An interest of Israel was in hösh. In fact, in fourteen of its seventeen usages,

311
716 tu~i, (/Jiipas)
it is parallel with hbsh. hbsh is used more fre- (1 Sam 28:8), but neither Ahab (1 Kgs 22:30 = II
quently, which suggests that /Jäper is mainly a Chr 18:29) nor Josiah (II Chr 35:22) survived the
word of amplification. A typical example of both battles which they had entered in disguise. Once,
appearing in the same context occurs as Micah a prophet pulled a headband over his eyes to keep
predicts a day when "seers" will "be ashamed" Ahab from recognizing him (1 Kgs 10:38).
(hbsh) and "diviners" will "be confounded"
(/Jäper, Mic 3:7). No discernible difference in
!tepes.Plot, shrewd device. This masculine
noun occurs in Ps 64:6 [H 7] only, in conjunction
meaning exists between the two roots in such a with the Pual participle.
context. Both words include the connotation of
disappointment, as used in Job 6:20; Job there
H.W.
speaking of "companies of Sheba" coming and
717 *tu~i, (/Jäpash) be free.
looking in vain for water and thus experiencing
bbsh and /Jäper. Derivatives
One Hiphil usage is clearly causative in nature;
a son being said to "cause shame" (hbsh) and
717a tu~ii (IJöpesh) saddle cloths, only in
Ezk 27:20. Meaning dubious.
"bring reproach" (/Jäper) on his parents, when
717b t.i~,;,r, (/Jüpsha) freedom, only m
he does not respect them properly (Prov 19:26).
Lev 19:20.
Two Hiphils speak of manifesting shame; for in-
717c t'tu!?1' (/Jopshi) free.
stance, Israel being urged not to fear because she
717d ri•tu,;,r:,(IJopshit) freedom, separate•
would not "be ashamed" ( hbsh and would not
ness, only in II Kgs 15:5=11 Chr
"be put to shame" (IJäper); the thought being
26:21.
that the land would not display a scene of hard-
ship and destruction (Isa 54:4). /Jäpash occurs only in the Pual stem in Lev
L.J.W. 19:20, referring to a female slave who is pledged
to a husband but commits fornication with
:,,,,~t:i (Mparpära). See no. 714a.
another man. Both she and the man who violated
her are tobe punished. They are not put to death,
since she is not free and presumably could not
defend herself.
716 iv~i, (IJäpas) search, search for, disguise
oneself. !tüpshä. Freedom. This feminine noun ap-
pears only in Lev 19:20, referring to a slave girl
Derivative who had not been freed.
716a tivp,1:, (IJepes) plot. !topshi. Free. An adjective, probably related
/Jiipasis used primarily in the Piel and Hithpael to Ugaritic IJhl "soldier" or "free commoner"
(eight times each), rarely in Qal, Niphal, and Pual (UT 19: no. 930), and the hubshu of the Amarna
(six times). "To disguise oneself," i.e. "to have letters. The majority of its sixteen occurrences
oneself be searched for," is the regular Hithpael refer to freedom from slavery. A male or female
usage. Hebrew slave was tobe freed in the seventh year
The few occurrences in the Qal stem use without payment (Ex 21:2, 5). In fact, the owner
"search" in a metaphorical sense. One can was to supply the released slave with provisions
search for wisdom (Prov 2:4), or probe one's be- of grain and wine and animals from the flock
havior (Lam 3:40), doing some serious soul- (Deut 15:12-13, 18). Evidently owners were re-
searching (Prov 20:27). luctant to follow this command. During the siege
The Piel is used for concrete situations, i.e. of Jerusalem in the reign of Zedekiah, Hebrew
searching through a house for plunder (I Kgs slaves were given their freedom, but when the
20:6) or for prophets of Baal (II Kgs 10:23). God Babylonians temporarily withdrew, the owners
will search out the wicked of Jerusalem (Zeph quickly reclaimed their slaves. Jeremiah blasted
1: 12), even as Saul searches for the fugitive this hypocrisy (Jer 34:9-11, 14, 16).
David (1 Sam 23:23; Arnos 9:3). A lost cup and If a man knocked out a slave 's tooth or de-
lost idols are the objects of searches by Joseph stroyed his eye, the slave was set free as com-
(Gen 44: 12) and Laban (Gen 31:35). pensation (Ex 21:26-27). lsaiah speaks of letting
In the difficult Ps 64:6 [H 7], some mental the oppressed go free during a genuine fast (58:6).
searching is in progress. The wicked are devising Sheol is a place where the slave is finally free
"a weil conceived plot," perhaps a "weil re- from his master (Job 3: 19), but the "freedom" of
searched" scheme to trap God's servant. Three death is equated with being cut off from the Lord
times in the verse the root /Jäpas appears. in the difficult Ps 88:5 [H 6].
The Hithpael "disguise oneself' usually refers David's father was released (ya'ä.frh IJopshi)
to kings who effect the disguise by laying aside from laxes or other obligations as a reward for
their royal garb. Saul fooled the witch of Endor David's slaying Goliath (1 Sam 17:25).

312
 719 ri;i, (/.zä~a)
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "Canaanite 719d :i;t:r~ (me/:,,e$b.) half, of spoils, only
l:fofäi,•free', in the Amarna Tablets," JPOS 4: in Num 31:36, 43.
169. --, "Canaanite l;Iapsi and Hebrew 719e tri•irir,i (ma/Ja.rit) half, middle.
Hoßi Again," JPOS 6: 106. Gordis, Robert,
"Studies in Hebrew Roots of Contrasted Mean- This verb occurs primarily in the Qal stem,
ings," JQR 27: 33-58. Henry, K. H., "Land Te- eleven times, and also four times in the Niphal. lt
nure in the Old Testament," PEQ 86: 5-15. Men- is used of dividing up quantities of all sorts, in-
delsohn, 1., "The Canaanite Terms for 'Free Pro- cluding groups of people.
letarian'," BASOR 83: 36--39. The concept of · 'dividing' · is applied to things,
H.W. people, and time. Precise quantities are some-
times specified, such as "half a hin" of oil or
wine which accompanied an offering (Num
•~~" (IJ,opsl:,,i). See no. 717c.
(/:,,opshit). See no. 717d.
11'!Ul;lr;t
15:9-10; 28:14). Every time a census was taken,
rri (/Jes). See no. 721b. exactly half a shekel (malJ,a$it) was paid per per-
son (Ex 30: 13). When Israel defeated the Midian-
ites, they divided the plunder equally between
718 !lJr;t (/Jä$eb) dtg, divide, hew, hewer, make, the warriors and the rest of the congregation
mason. (Asv and Rsv similar except that (Num 31:27, 29f., 42, 47). The width of each
RSVtranslates "set up" in Prov 9: 1, "flashes board of the tabernacle was one and one-half
forth" in Ps 29:7, and occasionally "stone- cubits (Ex 26:16).
cutters. ") Half of the blood of an offering was poured in
basins, the other half sprinkled on the altar (Ex
Derivative
24:6). To insult David, the Ammonites shaved off
718a !lJ!'.11','l
(ma/:,,$eb) hewing. Always half the beards of his servants and cut off their
occurs in the phrase ··ahne ma/J$eh clothes "in the middle," i.e. at the hip (II Sam
"hewn stones." 10:4). The Jordan River was divided by Elijah
The basic meaning of the word is "to hew," and then Elisha (II Kgs 2:8, 14), and the Mount of
"to cut or dig by blows with a tool or instru- Olives will be split in halffrom east to west at the
ment." lt is used in this basic sense in Isa 10: 15of Lord's return (Zech 14:4).
cuttingwith an axe and in Job 19:24 of engraving Groups of persons are divided also. Jacob di-
withan instrument of iron. lt is used most often vided the children among his wives at Esau's ap-
in the sense of hewing out cisterns or digging proach (Gen 33: 1), and Gideon split his three
wells (Deut 6:11; Isa 5:2; Jer 2:13; Neh 9:25; hundred into three companies (Jud 7: 16; 9:43).
II Chr 26: 10) and is used once with the connota- "Half the people of Israel" joined Judah in
tion of hewing out a tomb (Isa 22: 16). reinstating David as king (II Sam 19:40 [H 41]),
The word also has the sense of "to mine" or and during a civil war in Israel, half followed
"quarry," as in mining for copper (Deut 8:9) and Tibni while half supported Omri (I Kgs 16:21).
quarrying for stone (II Chr 2:2, 18 [H I, 17)). In The empire of Alexander the Great was divided
theparticipial form the word connotes · ·stonecut- into four parts (Dan 11:4). Also in Gen 33:1 the
ters" or "masons" (e.g. I Chr 22:2). division is into Jour groups, not the two which is
lt may be used in the sense of · 'to fashion,'' as the more common usage. Ezekiel envisions the
with pillars (Prov 9: 1), and "to hew a carcass" day when Judah and Israel will no longer be two
(lsa 51:9). separate kingdoms (37:22).
Metaphorically the verb connotes the devastat- The "half-tribe" of Manasseh" is a technical
ing effect that the words of the prophets had on term referring to the part of the tribe that settled
Israel (Hos 6:5). lt is also used to describe the in Transjordan. Usually IJ,a.ri is used, (Num
hewingof the nation of Israel as from a mass of 32:33; Josh 1:12) but sometimes malJa$it (Josh
rock(lsa 51: 1). In Ps 29:7 it is used of the cleav- 21:25; I Chr 6:71 [H 551).
ingoffire, apparently a reference to forked light- References to time include the expression "in
ningwhich was caused by the voice of the Lord. the middle of the night.'' While some translations
T.E.M. render this "midnight," it was not necessarily
midnight when the Angel of the Lord slew the
firstborn in Egypt (Ex · 12:29). Nor did Samson
719 ri;r;t (/:,,ä$b.) divide, live half (of one's life). carry off the gate of Gaza at precisely twelve
o'clock AM (Jud 16:3). The Psalmist prays that
Derivatives God will not remove him "in the midst of my
719a riitr, (/:,,e$ot) division, middle. days" (102:24 [H 251). lt is ratherthe wicked who
719b t•;ri (/:,,il$f) half. "will not live out half their days" (Ps 55:23
719c •;~ (/:,,e$0 arrow, an alternative [H 24)). Fortunes illegally obtained will disap-
form of /:le$. pear in the middle of one' s life (Jer 17: 11).

313
 The important reference in Dan 9:27 to „the Jeremiah all complain about God's arrows sunk
middle of the week" apparently signifies the deep into them (Ps 38:2 [H 3); Job 6:4; Lam 3: 12).
midpoint of the seven-year period called „the In theophanies, flashes of lightning are often re-
Great Tribulation .. (Dan 12:1, 7 [cf. v. 11J; Rev ferred to as arrows (Ps 18:14 [H 15]; 144:6; Hab
11:3). The last half of this period appears to be 3: 11).
detailed as 1290 days in Dan 12:11. Psalm 127:4compares children to the arrows in
a soldier's hand, andin lsa 49:2 the Servant of the
tiA~i. Half, middle. This masculine noun oc-
Lord is called a select (polished?) arrow.
curs 123 times and shows a broad range of us-
Toward the end of the OT period, the Persian
ages.
armies depended heavily on their archers. They
maftll!iil. Half, middle. ma/Jäsit, a feminine carried large quivers on their backs and were
noun, is used fourteen times. lt is a close trained to shoot with great rapidity.
synonym of /Ja~i. H.W.
H.W.

?'li:1rtt(/Je$6t). See no. 719a. :i,;ir:i (/Ja$ö$rti). See no. 726a.

•;r, (/Jä$i). See no. 719b. i::t::tn ( IJHr). See no. 726b.
•;~ (/Je.yi). See no. 719c.
i•;,:i (/Jä~ir). See nos. 723b, 724a, 725a. 722 i::tn (/J$r) I. Assumed root ofthe following.
722a ti::t,:i ( /Jti.yer) court, enclosure.
720 i::tn ( /J.yn). Assumed root of the following.
720a iir.r (/Je$en) bosom of a garment (Ps Cognate with Ugaritic /J;r and its dialectal var-
. 129:7). iant /J(r (UT 19: nos. 855, 852a) "court"; cf.
720b ii·n (/Jö$en) bosom (Neh 5: 13; Isa Aramaic /Ju(rä, Phoenician /J~r. Arabic /Ja?,irat
. 49:22). "an enclosure for sheep." lt occurs in the singu-
lar 120 times, in the feminine plural 20 times, and
721 r;i, (/Jti$a~) divide. in the masculine plural 5 times. The LXX usually
translates it aule, and occasionally epaulis or
Derivatives skene.
721a r;i, ( /Jti~ti~) gravel.
Near Eastem houses were built around a court.
721b trr.r (/Je.y) arrow. Such a court might contain a weil (II Sam 17:18).
721c *r;,:i (/Jti$G$) shoot a"ows (Piel The plague of frogs died out from the houses, the
only, Jud 5: 11). Perhaps this verb is courtyards (KJV "villages"), and the fields (Ex
8: 13 [H 91).
derived from /Je$.
Most of the references to courts concern sa-
tie~. Arrow. Most of its fifty-six uses occur in cred or royal buildings. Ahasuerus's palace in
poetry. Arrows are deadly weapons normally Susa had an „ outer" and an "inner" court.
shot from a bow, but Uzziah built a catapult that Haman waited in the "outer" court (Est 6:4), for
could shoot arrows or stones (II Chr 26: 15). Pow- no one was permitted to enter the "inner" court
erful armies were armed with sharp arrows (lsa without the king's permission (Est 4: 11).
5:28), though God kept Assyria from shooting a The numerous references in Ex and Num are to
single arrow at Hezekiah's Jerusalem (II Kgs the court of the tabemacle, a )arge rectangular
19:32 = lsa 37:33). lsrael's army (Num 24:8) and space one hundred cubits by fifty cubits. They
kings (Ps 45:5 [H 61)possessed sharp arrows also. describe in particular the hangings and the pillars
The spelling /Je~i derived from /Jä~ti is also used. around its periphery. The court was functional,
Arrows were consulted by the king of Babylon allowing space for the worshipers to gather, to
as a means of divination, along with idols and slaughter animals, and to eat. lt was symbolic of
livers (Ezk 21:21 [H 26]). Elisha had King Joash the worshiper approaching God and yet God
shoot an arrow and strike the ground with his being set apart in the temple itself.
arrows (II Kgs 13:15, 17-18) to symbolize Solomon's building complex at Jerusalem in-
victory. cluded: the "inner" court of the temple (1 Kgs
Wicked men shoot their arrows to feil the 6:36; 7: 12); the court of the palace (l Kgs 7:8),
righteous (Ps 11:2). Often this refers metaphori- perhaps the "middle" court of II Kgs 20:4 (fol-
cally to the bitter, violent words hurled at the lowing the Qere); and the "great" court covering
godly (Ps 57:4 [H 5]; 64:3 [H 4]; Jer 9:7). God is the entire area of the complex (l Kgs 7:9, 12).
the one who nullifies these dangerous arrows (Ps The temple that Ezekiel beheld in his visions
58:7 [H 8]; 91:5) and makes his arrows drunk with had an outer and an inner court (Ezk 40: 17-19).
the blood of his enemies (Deut 32:42). The people assembled in the outer court, which
Yet God' s arrows of judgment are aimed at Is- was surrounded by thirty rooms (Ezk 40: 17). On
rael (Deut 32:23), and the Psalmist, Job, and the sabbath and the new moon the gate of the

314
 726 '1':lM(/J.~·r)

inner court was opened so that the prince could (P.~90:5; cf. Ps 103: 15). The tleeting nature of
worship at its threshold (Ezk 46:1-3). man, which is like that of the grass, is contrasted
Although many have asserted that Solomon·s with the abiding character of God's Word (lsa
temple had only one court, Ezekiel's vision and 40:frS; cf. Jas 1: 10-11). Inasmuch as it is the
other references (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12: II Kgs 21:5; Creator who comforts us we are not to be afraid
23:12; II Chr 4:9; 33.5) indicate that the first tem- ofmortal man who is like the grass (lsa 51:12).
ple had an inner court of priests and an outer The tlat roofs of the Palestinian houses would
court. The second temple of the New Testament often sprout some grass which would wither even
era had a court of the gentiles and an inner court before it grew much because it had no depth of
whichwas subdivided into courts of the women, soil. So lsrael's enemies would wither before the
Israel and the priests. Lord (II Kgs 19:26; lsa 37:27; Ps 129:6).
Even in the OT era the Psalmist had invited the
nallons to come into the courts of the Lord (Ps 725 i:tn Uw) IV. Assumed root of the follow-
96:8).The Psalmist declares that he longs for the ing.
courts of the Lord (Ps 84:2 iH 3]), for even a day 725a ti•:ttt (/Jii~ir) leek.
in his courts is better than a thousand elsewhere
From a root "to be narrow," as the leek looks
(Ps 84: 10 iH 11]).
like an elongated onion. lt appears but once, in
E.Y.
Num 11:5 in the list of Egyptian foods which the
lsraelites missed in Sinai. The A/lium porrum,
723 i:rr, U1.yr) II. Assumed root ofthe following.
called iaqet by the.Egyptians, is featured in such
723a ti;r;t (/Jii.yer) village.
texts as the Medinet Habu calendar, the Ebers
'723b i•:rn (/Jü~ir) settled abode, haunt
papyrus, the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor. etc.
(lsa 34: 13; 35:7).
Pliny (Nawral History 19.33) mentions that the
~r. Village, settlement. Cognate with the most esteemed leeks come from Egypt, and says
Akkadian hastirum found at Mari; cf. Arabic that Nero ate nothing but chives. i.e. chopped
/Ja<fara "to- d~ell" and S Arabic IJ<!r"enclosed leeks, on certain days of the month.
camp." lt occurs forty-six times (thirty-two times See also deshe', yereq. 'e.frh.
in Joshua), always in the masculine plural. The Bibliography: Fauna and Flora of the Bihle.
Lxx usually translates it körne. occasionally London: United Bible Societies, 1972. Shewell-
epaulis. Cooper, W. E., "Flora," in ZPEB, II, pp.
In some cases the /Ja.rer may have been no 571,578.
more than a settlement of the tents of Bedouins E.Y.
(Gen25:16; lsa 42:11). In contrast to cities, vil-
lageswere unwalled (Lev 25:31 ). In the distribu- 726 'ilM ( /J.rr) V. Assumed root of the following.
tion of land in Joshua, 114 cities are allotted to 726a t:i-:i; lt) ( /Jö~ö:jra) trumpet.
Judah together with daughter or satellite villages 726b *'illM (/JHr) sound the trumpet This
(Josh 15:32, 36, 41, 44). denominative verb occurs only in the
Bibliography: Orlinsky, H .. "lfii.yer in the Pie] and the Hiphil. (Qere *iJr;t).
OldTestament, .. J AOS 59: 22-37. Wolf, C. U .•
"Village," in IDB, IV, p. 784. !täi;ö~rä. Trumpet. Perhaps from a root "'to be
narrow," describing its shape, the word occurs
E.Y.
twenty-nine times. always in the plural except
Hos 5:8. Of these occurrences sixteen are in I and
724 i:rr, (/J.yr) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing. II Chr. lt is translated by the LXX sa/piRX and by
the Vulgate tuba. both "trumpet."
724a ti•:r,:t (/Jii.)'ir) grass.
The trumpet was made of beaten silver (Num
Derived from a root "to be green"; cf. Arabic I0:2). According to Josephus in Antiquities
~a<fira.lt appears as /J.rrin the Old Aramaic Se- 3.12.6 (291), "In length a little short ofa cubit, it
fire I.A 28 text, and in the Akkadian treaty of is a narrow tube, slightly thicker than a flute .... "
Ashurnirari V (Rev 4.20) as .)'eri "green" in the The trumpets of Herod's temple are depicted on
senseof grass. the Arch of Titus and on silver denarius coins of
In Palestine grass grows rapidly after the Bar Cochba. Early Egyptian examples were
winter and spring rains. lt wilts just as rapidly found in Tutankhamon ·s tomb. lt should be dis-
before the heat of summer or the blistering tinguished from the shöpär, the curved ram's
khamsin, the dry desert wind. horn trumpet.
Because of its ephemeral nature, grass is often Moses was commanded to make a pair of
used as a symbol of the transitoriness of man's trumpets (Num 10:2). The number of trumpets
existence: the wicked will soon wither like the was increased to 7 (1 Chr 15:24) and to 120 (II Chr
grass (Ps 37:2); men are like the grass which 5: 12).
flourishesin the morning but fades in the evening With the possible exception of their use at the

315
727 rt1?1'
(/Jäqa)

coronation of Joash (II Kgs 11: 14; II Chr 23: 13), siderasti ("consider") by the Vulgate. Older in-
trumpets were used by the priests (Num 10:8; terpreters paralleled the verse to Job 14: 15, deriv-
I Chr 15:24; 16:6; II Chr 23:13; cf. Sir 50:16). ing the meaning that God had limited Job by
Trumpets were used for a variety of purposes. drawing a line about his feet that he could not
They were used to summon the tribes, or their cross. That act may be compared to Solomon's
leaders, and to signal the breaking of camp (Num limitation of Shimei (I Kgs 2:36--37). Hence the
10:2--4). Trumpets were blown while the burnt KJv: "Thou puttest a print for the souls of my
offering was being offered in Hezekiah's rite feet," and ASVand Rsv: "'Thou markest a line
(II Chr 29:27-28; cf. Num 10: 10). about the soles ofmy feet." The NEB and M. Pope
Although the ram's horn (shoptir) was usually in loh, AB assume a custom of cutting a brand
employed for military purposes, priests some- into the heels of a slave so that the heels make
times used the trumpets in times of war so that identifiable tracks in the earth. Similarly, it is im-
the Lord would respond (Num 10:9; 31 :6; II Chr possible for Job to escape.
13: 12, 14). J.P.L.
In Hos 5:8 the prophet commands the blowing
of the horn and the trumpet as a signal of the 728 i'i?1' ( /Jiiqaq) engrave, portray, decree, in-
enemy's approach. scribe, govern. (Asv and RSVsimilar, but
The trumpets must have emitted a high, shrill Asv translates the participial form as "gov-
sound. The signals depended upon the number of ernor," and RSVuses ··commander" when
trumpets used, the types of sounds, and their se- the context is military .)
quence. The t'"rü"a (Rsv ··atarm") seems to have
been a rapid succession of three notes (Mishnah, Derivatives
Rosh ha-Shanah 4.9). At the first "alarm" the 728a t;, M ( /Jöq) statute.
camps on the east set out, etc. (Num 10:5). The 728b t:,1;1r, (/Jüqqa) enactment.
ordinary way of blowing the trumpet (tiiqa') pro-
/Jiiqaq occurs in the Qal, Polei, and Hophal
duced a sustained sound. Mazar's excavation
stems a total of nineteen times, and has the pri-
discovered in 1968 a fragment from Herod's tem-
mary meaning of cutting in or engraving in stone
ple with the inscription "for the house of the
as hewing a tomb in the rock (lsa 22:16) and as
blowing (of the trumpet)," designating where the
drawing a picture on a brick (Ezk 4: 1) or a wall
priest stood on the parapet to blow the trumpet:
(Ezk 23:14). lt may also describe writing on the
LBYT HTQY'H.
palm of one·s hand (lsa 49: 16) or in a book (lsa
See also shopiir, qeren, yohel.
30:8; Job 19:23). lt is set alongside katab
Bibliography: Finesinger, Sol Baruch, "Mu-
("write") in Isa 30:8. God has drawn a circle
sical Instruments in the OT," HUCA 3: 21-75,
upon the face of the deep and has marked out the
esp. pp. 61-o3. Yadin, Yigael, The Serail of the
foundations of the earth (Prov 8:27, 29).
War of the Sons of LiRht a{;!ainst the Sons of
This root occurs in the Polei stem. /Jtiqaq re-
Darkness, London: Oxford University, 1962, pp.
fers to enacting a decree (lsa 10: 1; Prov 8: 15; cf.
87-113. TDNT, VII, pp. 7fr85.
Jer 31:35), hence the participial form (m''/Joqeq)
E.Y.
designates a ruler, lawgiver (Gen 49: 10; Isa
33:22), or commander (Jud 5:9, 14). The root may
i'M (/Jöq). See no. 728a.
also parallel shehe( (" staff") designating the
;,r, (/Jeq). See no. 629a.
ruler's staff which is the symbol of ruling (Num
21:18; Ps 60:7 [H 9]; 108:8 [H 9]).
727 Mi?1'(/Jiiqti) carved, portrayed, set a print
Genesis 49: 10 is a significant messianic passage
(Asv and RSV similar, also render "set a
(see R. L. Harris, "Excursus" in J. 0. Buswell,
bound").
Systemarie Theolo{;!y of the Christian ReliRion,
The root is parallel to /Jtiqaq · ·engrave ·' and II, Zondervan, 1963, p. 544). Whether m"/Joqeq
occurs four times in the OT: three times as Pual is translated "lawgiver" (KJV)or "ruler's staff'
participle and once as a Hithpael form. The doors (Rsv), it is clearly a symbol of rule and therefore
of the temple were adorned with carved work promises the kingship to Judah. Critical authors
(hamme/Juqqeh, I Kgs 6:35). Ezekiel saw the attempt to date this prediction after the event, but
idols of Israel portrayed by carving on the walls Gen 49 is widely admitted to be earlier than the
of the temple chamber (Ezk 8: 10). Oholibah in monarchy. The LXX reading makes the verse even
her idolatry saw men portrayed on the wall (Ezk clearer by taking "between his feet" as a
23: 14). euphemism for "loins." The king would belong
The Hithpael form (Job 13:27) is difficult to to Judah's descendants. Interestingly, a fragment
interpret. GKC 54f suggests the meaning, ''to from the Dead Sea Scrolls quotes this verse and
draw a line for oneself." The verb was rendered applies it to "the coming of the legitimately
aphikou ("to reach unto") by the LXX and con- anointed (king), the scion of David" for whom

316
 728 i'l?':t(IJäqaq)
they hoped (T. H. Gaster, The Dead Sea Scrip- them from selling their land (Gen 47:22). The
tures, rev. ed., Doubleday, 1964, p. 334). priest's share in the sacrifice was a perpetual
The Pual participle describes that which is de- right (Ex 29:28; cf. Lev 24:9), established by
creed. God's decree.
/Jöq as "custom" is demonstrated in the case
~öq. Statute, custom, law, decree (ASVand RSV
of the memorial for Jephthah's daughter (Jud
translate also ordinance, due and bound.) The
11:39). lt is also seen in the demand that Israel
masculine noun /Jöq is from the root /Jäqaq
not walk in the customs (/Jüqqa) of Canaan (Lev
which means "to scratch" or ··10 engrave,"
18:3, 30; 20:23).
hence "to write." lt occurs 128 times, and its
femininecounterpart /Jüqqa occurs 102 times. tlüqqä. Enactment, statute, ordinance
lt was a common practice among the ancients manner. (Asv and RSVsimilar, but when dealing
to engrave laws upon slabs of stone or metal and with pagan rites render the root "custom" (Lev
toset them up in a public place (e.g. the code of 18:30; 20:23; II Kgs 17:8; Jer 10:3).
Hammurabi, engraved on diorite stone). But this A feminine noun from the root /Jäqaq "en-
root is not limited to the writing oflaws on stone. scribe" or "engrave." ~üqqa is used in the com-
The LXX chietly used three words to render !Joq: bination /Jüqqbt 'bläm (perpetual statute) to des-
prostagma "order" or "injunction," dikaioma ignate an ordinance from God which is perpetu-
"regulation" or "requirement," and nomimon ally binding, e.g. the regulations of Passover (Ex
"commandment." The use of /Jöq in Qumran is 12:14), Unleavened Bread (Ex 12:17; cf. 13:10),
similarto that in the OT. Booths (Lev 23:41), Day of Atonement (Lev
~öq occurs in sequences with other words for 16:29, 31, 34), the Aaronic priesthood (Ex 29:9),
law: d' härfm (words), tbra (law), mishpä( the perpetual light (Ex 27:31; Lev 24:3), the
Gudgment), 'edüt (testimony), and mi.pva (com- priest's linen clothing (Ex 28:43), blowing of
mandment). These words are used almost indis- trumpets (Num 10:8), laws for the sojoumer
criminately. In a few cases /Jöq and mishpä( are (Num 15:15), and laws of uncleanness (Num
used as if intended to summarize two kinds of 19:10, 21).
lsraelitelaw (Ex 15:25; Josh 24:25; Ezr 7: 10). But Certain prohibitions are also called perpetual
effortsto distinguish clearly between their conno- statutes, e.g. against eating of fat and blood (Lev
tations have not been entirely successful. Al- 3:17), against a priest drinking wine and strong
brecht Alt has suggested such a distinction in his drink when entering the tent of meeting (Lev
categoriesof casuistic and apodictic laws. But he 10:9), against sacrificing to devils (satyrs?) (Lev
admits that /Jöq is not limited to the apodictic 17:7), against eating certain foods (Lev 23:14),
form.More recent efforts to make /Jöq designate against Levites inheriting land (Num 18:23).
that to which men must respond in obedience is There are also ordinances of Passover (Ex
in general true, but fits only some of the cases. 12:43; Num 9:12, 14; cf. 9:3); the altar (Ezk
As "rule" or "prescription" /Jöqmay desig- 43: 18); the house of the Lord (Ezk 44:5); the law
nate duties imposed by God (Ex 18:16) or man (Num 31:21; 19:2); judgment (Num 27:11); life
(Gen47:26; II Chr 35:25; Jud 11:39). In the case (i.e. leading to life, Ezk 33:15), and the Statutes of
ofthe latter, it conveys the import of ·' statute · · or Omri (i.e. the customs of Omri, Mic 6: 16).
"custom,· · as in the phrase · ·statutes of your In certain passages /Jüqqä parallels judgment
fathers" (Ezk 20: 18; I Sam 30:25). The verb most (mishpä( II Sam 22:23; Ps 18:22 [H 231) and
frequently used with /Jöq is shämar "to keep," commandment (mi~wa, Deut 6:2; 28:15, 45;
whichStresses the concept that /Juqqim (plural) 30: 10). lt occurs in legal sequences "command-
are precepts and rules to be obeyed. When used ments, statutes, and ordinances" (Deut 8: II;
inconnection with b' rft (covenant) it denotes the 30: 16); "commandments, statutes, and ordi-
demands which God made upon his covenant nances" (Deut 8: 11; 30: 16); "commandments,
people.The decree of the Lord gives the king his testimonies, and statutes" (Jer 44:23); and
rightsand duties over the people ofGod (Ps 2:7). "charge, statutes, ordinances, and command-
~öq at times designates a legal right. Joseph ments" (Deut 11:1; cf. I Kgs 2:3).
givesPharoah a fifth of the land's produce (Gen Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., "The LXX
47:26).Isaiah (10: 1) alludes to iniquitous decrees Renderings of Old Testament Terms for Law,"
by which the poor were legally tleeced. Even HUCA 7: 25~0. Braulik, Georg, "Die Aus-
natural laws such as the "bound" of the sea drücke für 'Gesetz' im Buch Deuteronomium,"
(Prov8:29) give the sea its right of sway. There Bib 51: 39--66. Falk, Zeev W., "Hebrew Legal
are regulations for the heavenly bodies (Ps Terms," JSS 5: 350. Jones, G. H., "The Decree
148:6),the rain (Job 28:26), and the sea (Jer 5:22; of Yahweh (Ps 11.7)," VT 15: 336-44.
Job 38:10). Morgenstern, Julian, "The Book of the Cove-
~öq at times designates "privilege" or "due." nant, II," HUCA 7: 19-258. --, "The Dec-
TheEgyptian priests had a right which exempted alogue of the Holiness Code," HUCA 26: 1-27.

317
729 'i~t'(IJ,iiqar)
Van der Ploeg, J., ··studies in Hebrew Law," 730b l"ll$,r,r7;(ma}J.arä'a) draught
CBQ 12: 248-59, 416-27; 13: 2~3. 164-71, house (II Kgs 10:27).
296-307. Victor, ·Peddi, "A Note on IJ.öq in the
Old Testament," VT 16: 358--61. THAT, 1, pp.
731 ::-,i, (/J.äreb) l,dryup;beinruins;laywaste;
626-32.
make desolate.
J.P.L.
Derivatives
729 ,i;,i, (/Jäqar) search, investigate, examine.
73 la t:,n (/Järeb) dry, desolate.
Derivatives 731b t:,_.M (/Jöreb) I, dryness, desolation.
729a t,i:)!'.I (/Jeqer) searching, inquiry.
731c t:,·n (/J.öreb) II, Horeb.
.,~l'.I~ ( me/Jqär) range (as place to
731d t:,zin <!Jorbii) ruins.
729b
tieexplored). Only in Ps 95:4 (cf. Job 731e t:,;;~ (/Jiiräbii) dryland.
731f t,;:-,r.i (/Jeräbon) drought. Used
38:16).
only in Ps 32:4, as a metaphor of
IJ.äqar is used primarily in the Qal stem, but fever heat.
also four times in the Niphal, and once in the Piel
/Järab is used in the Qal, Niphal, Pual, Hiphil,
(Eccl 12:9). lt can refer to initial phases of a
and Hophal stems. Cognate with Akkadian
search or the end result, but always connotes a
haräbu "be desolate"; Ugaritic hrb "become
diligent, difficult probing.
dry" (UT 19: no. 1000); Arabic bariba "be void
A concept common to wisdom literature,
of water and vegetation." The verb occurs
which is concerned with investigating legal cases
thirty-seven times, including twelve times in lsa.
(Prov 18: 17) and the plight of the needy (Job
BDB divides into two roots: be dry and be in
29: 16), searching out a particular subject (Job
ruins. We follow KB which takes this word as
5:27; 8:8; 28:27), or examining proverbs (Eccl
one root with a semantic extension.
12:9). A search can have as its object information
The verb /Järab originally meant "tobe dry."
about a city (II Sam 10:3 = I Chr 19:3) or a coun-
Secondarily it and its derivatives denoted, on the
try (Jud 18:2) or even mining prospects (Job
one hand, the heat which caused dryness, and on
28:3). Sometimes the search is fruitless, e.g. the
the other, the desolation of waste areas, the de-
attempt to find out the weight of the bronze used
vastation caused by wars.
for the temple (1 Kgs 7:47) or to search out the
The verb is used in the Qal stem of the waters
foundations of the earth (Jer 31 :37).
which dried up after the flood (Gen 8: 13), and in
Often a person · s character or feelings are being
the Pual stem of the bowstrings which had not
probed. Jonathan sought to "sound out" his
been dned which were used to tie up Samson
father's attitude toward David (1 Sam 20: 12). The
(Jud 16:7). Gideon sought to test the Lord with
Lord is the one who searches and knows us (Ps
the fleece which was alternately wet then dry
139:1; Job 13:9). He probes the heart and exam-
(/J.öreb, Jud 6:37, 39-40). In lsa 48:21 !Jorba
ines the mind (Jer 17:10), and if there is sin and
means "deserts."
unfaithfulness, he is not deceived (Ps 44:21
The verb in the Hiphil stem is used of Sen-
[H 22]).
nacherib 's boast that his warriors were so nu-
!teqer. Searching, inquiry. This noun is used merous that they had dried up rivers with the
of the "heart-searching" of the tribe of Reuben, soles of their feet (II Kgs 19:24; lsa 37:25). Job
which failed to aid Deborah and Barak against the 14:11 compares the drying up of a river to death.
Canaanites (Jud 5: 16). One of the characteristics of the might of
Usually, the emphasis is on the impossible. Yahweh is his ability to dry up the seas and the
The heart of kings is unsearchable (Prov 25:3). rivers (lsa 44:27; 50:2; Nah 1:4). He dried up the
Six of its ten usages refer to the unsearchable Sea ofReeds (Av, "Red Sea") for the passage of
nature of God, e.g. his greatness (Ps 145:3) and the lsraelites (Ps 106:9; Isa 51: 10).
his understanding (lsa 40:28). His miraculous When Judah forsook the Lord's living waters,
deeds are inscrutable (Job 5:9; 9: 10), and the Jeremiah called upon the heavens to be appalled,
number of his years past finding out (Job 36:26). literally "be exceedingly dried up," at such per-
H.W. fidy (Jer 2: 12).
In some passages /Jöreb refers to "heat" rather
.,-,, (/Jör). See nos. 757a, 758a. than to "dryness." Jacob complained to Laban,
ir.r (/Jür). See no. 758b. that he had been consumed by the heat (KJV
"drought") of the day and the cold of the night
730 KiM (/Jr') Assumed root of the following. (Gen 31:40). Jehoiakim 's corpse was to be ex-
730a K'.')!'.1(/Jere') dung (lsa 36:12; II posed to the heat of the day and the cold of the
·Kgs 18:27), i.e. h're yonim "dove's night (Jer 36:30). Job complains, "My bones are
dung." burned with fever" (Je, Job 30:30).

318
 731 ~ji, (hareh)
In Isa 4:6; 25:4-5 the Lord's protection is tiöreb. Dryness, drought, heat, desolation. This
Iikened to the refreshing shade from the heat, noun occurs sixteen times. Compare the proper
provided by the clouds. noun Horeb.
Especially in the writings of lsa, Jer, and ~zk höreb. Horeb. An alternative name for Mount
who both foresaw and witnessed the devastat1ons
Sinai, derived from biirah and signifying a deso-
of invading Assyrian and Babylonian armies, the
late region. lt occurs seventeen times, includi~g
word ~ärah and its derivatives denote desolation nine times in Deut. The documentary hypothes1s
and ruin. suggests that this name for the mountain of God
A rare use of the word in an earlier period is its is characteristic of D and E (Ex 3: 1: 17:6; 33:6),
occurrence as a Hiphil participle to describe while Sinai is used in the J and P sections (see,
Samson as the "ravager" (Jud 16:24, Rsv) of the
however, Deut 33:2).
Philistine country. In some passages Horeb seems to designate an
In the postexilic period Nehemiah is saddened area larger than Mount Sinai <Deut 4: 10; 9:8;
to learn that Jerusalem is still in ruins (Neh 2:3, 18:16). Moses struck the rock in the region of
17),but Ezra thanks God for his grace in permit-
Horeb (Ex 17:6), but not on Mount Sinai which
tingthe Jews to repairthe temple's ruins (Ezra 9:9). the Israelites did not reach until later (Ex 19: )).
However, when the Jews· dedication to re- Suggestions as to the location of Horeb/Sinai
building the temple flagged, the prophet Haggai have included: 1. a volcanic mountain al-Hrob in
rebuked them with a paronomasia or play on Midian southeast of Aqaba; 2. Jebel el-Halal,
words. He proclaimed that because the Lord·s thirty miles west of K.adesh-barnea; 3. Sinn Bishr
house had remained "in ruins" (~än'h, Hag 1:4, (2000 feel), thirty miles southeast of Suez; and
9) the Lord would bring a "drought" ( biirl'h, Hag 4. one of three peaks in southern Sinai.
1:11)upon the land. Deuteronomy 1:2 indicates that it was an
Yahweh warned that he would bring desolation eleven-day journey from Horeb to Kadesh-
upon his own people if they turned to idols (Lev barnea. Elijah in his flight went forty days and
26:31, 33). Such desolation was sent in turn forty nights to Horeb (1 Kgs 19:8). Both refer-
against Israel (Arnos 7:9). and Judah (Jer 7:34; ences would fit a location in southern Sma,, as
22:5;25:9; Ezk 6:6) because of their disobedience would the identification of Paran with the Wadi
and apostasy. Feiran.
In Judah's case the desolation was tobe limited Peaks in southern Sinai identified with Horeb/
in time (Jer 25: 11), and remedial in purpose (Ezk Sinai include: 1. Jebel Serbal (6825 feet), iden-
12:20;Zeph 3:6-7). Jer 33: 10 promises that in the tified as early as Eusebius: 2. Ras e~-Saf~afeh
desolate place •'without man or inhabitant or (6739 feel) with a considerable plain below it; and
beast" voices of gladness would be heard once 3. Jebel Musa (7363 feet), the favored site loom-
more. Ezk 36:38 prophesies that the waste cities ing over St. Catherine's Monastery, established
willbe filled with "flocks ofmen" and Ezk 36:35 by Justinian in the sixth century.
that the desolate land will blossom like the "gar- The Psalmist recalls how the Israelites made a
den of Eden ... calf at Horeb (Ps 106: 19). When Solomon in-
But it is above all the prophet lsaiah who stalled the ark, it contained only the two tables of
voices the promise of a resurrection from the stone which Moses placed in it at Horeb (1 Kgs
ruins of God's judgment. lt is the Lord who will 8:9; II Chr 5: 10). One of the last exhortations of
raise up the ruins of Jerusalem (44:26). Their des- the or is the injunction to remember the law of
olate places will one day be too limited for the Moses which the Lord had commanded him at
increased population (49: 19). The Lord will com- Horeb (Mal 4:4 iH 3:221).
fort Zion·s waste places and transform them into
an Eden (51 :3). Jerusalem·s ruins will break forth horbä. Waste or desolate places, ruins. The
into singing (52:9). as they will be rebuilt (58: 12; ~ord occurs forty-two times, including twenty-
61:4). six times in the plural, mostly in Isa, Jer, Ezk.
In Zeph 2: 14 the Hebrew reads, ··Desolation häräbä. Dry land. The word occurs eight
(höreb) is on the threshold.'' Following the Vul- times. In all but two cases (Gen 7:22; Hag 2:6) the
gate and the LXX. which reads. korakes represent- land has been made dry by God's miraculous in-
ing the Hebrew 'vrl'h, the Rsv. JR. and NAR trans- tervention: at the Sea of Reeds (KJV „Red Sea, ..
late "raven" and the NFR "bustard" as an indica- Ex 14:21 ): at the Jordan (Josh 3: 17. 4: 18: II Kgs
tion that Nineveh will become the lodging place 2:8); and at the Nile as a threat by Yahweh (Ezk
of wild birds and animals. 30:12).
See also dälal. yähc-sh. shä'n, shämam.
heräbön. Heat or drought. Occurs but once at
häreb. Dry, waste, desolate. The adjective oc- Ps32:4. The Psalmist declares that before he con-
curs twice in the sense of "dry" (Lev 7: 10: Prov fessed his sin his strength had been dried up by
17:1)and eight times in the sense of "desolate ... the "heat" or the „drought„ of summer.

319
732 ~:,r,(/Järab)
Bibliography: Hyatt, J. P., Exodus, London: Ehud, a left-handed man, was ·able to conceal
Oliphants, 1971, pp. 203-207. Phythian-Adams, his weapon in his girdle on the right side. He
W. J., "The Mount of God," Quarterly of the made for himself a two-edged short sword, about
Palestine Exploration Fund 1930: 135:--49,193- eighteen inches long, with a small hilt (Jud 3: 15-
209. Rothenberg, Beno, and Aharoni, Yohanan, 16, 21-22).
God's Wilderness, Thomas Nelson, 1962. In the days of the united monarchy the Israel-
E.Y. ites adopted the heavy swords of the Philistines,
which could penetrate armor(I Sam 17:5, 38, 51:
732 :ljtr (härab) II, slay,fight. 21:9). As it was also pointed for stabbing, such a
sword was used by Saul to commit suicide (I Sam
Derivative 31:4).
732a t::i,r:,(hereh) sword. Once in Ps 89:43 [H 44] the expression $Ur,
Cognate with Arab haraha "to plunder" and literally "rock, flint'' of "his sword" denotes the
harbu --war, battle." lt occurs only in the follow- edge of the sword, reflecting an archaic practice
when blades were made of flint; cf. Akkadian
ing passages: in the Qal at Jer 50:21,27 in the
sense of "slay" (Rsv); in the Niphal at II Kgs $Urru, $Urtu "flint," "blade."
The usual Hebrew expression translated "edge
3:23, "The Kings have surely fought together"
of the sword'' is pi-hereh, literally · · mouth of the
(Rsv; the KJV reads "the kings are surely slain").
sword" (Ex 17:13; Num 21:24; Josh 6:21, etc.).
!Jereb. Sword, dagger; rarely knife or a chisel. The Hebrew phrase, literally "a sword of
Cognate with Akkadian harbu; Ugaritic hrb mouths" occurs in Ps 149:6 and Prov 5:4. This
"sword," "knife" (UT 19: no. 893); Egyptian phrase is translated "two-edged" sword, follow-
hrp; Arabic harhatu "javelin"; Greek harpe ing the LXX distomos, literally "double-
"sickle"; Latin harpe "sickle." mouthed," but meaning "two-edged." (Cf. Heb
hereh, which occurs 407 times, is the most fre- 4:12; Rev 1:16; 2:12.) The sword is said "to de-
quently mentioned weapon in the oT. The LXX vour" its victims (Deut 32:42; II Sam 2:26; 11:25;
translates it 195 times as rhomphaia "sword"; etc.).
165 times as machaira "shon sword," "dag- In Ezk 21 there is a vivid description of the
ger." .. knife"; 8 times as xiphos „ straight "sword of Yahweh" at work as an instrument of
sword"; and 4 times as e1:cheiridion ."dagger." his judgment. In vv. 1-7 [H fr-12] his sword is
From archeological and iconographic evidence unsheathed for action. Then in the furious Song
we know that the common swords of the third of the Sword (vv. 8-17 [H 13-22]) we see the
and early second millennia B.c. were rather short, sword polished, then brandished, and even ad-
straight swords made of bronze. In the second dressed as a living object (v. 16 [H 21]). Though it
millennium a curved sickle-shaped sword, called is the king of Babylon who wields the sword
by the Egyptians khopesh "foreleg," became against Judah (vv. 18-27 [H 23-32]) and against
popular. Yadin believes that the expression "to Ammon (vv. 28-32 [H 33-37]), it is actually
smite with the edge of the sword," e.g. in Yahweh himself who exercises the divine judg-
Joshua's campaigns, refers to this type of smiting ment (v. 17 [H 22]).
sword. Examples have been recovered from In the following passages the word is used as a
Shechem and Gezer. metonymy for "war": Lev 26:25; II Chr 29:9; Jer
At the end ofthe second millennium, the Philis- 14:15; 24:10; Ezk 7:15; 33:2ff. etc.). In Ps 22:20
tines and other Sea Peoples introduced the long, [H 211 hereh is used as a metaphor for a violent
straight sword made of iron (cf. I Sam 13:19), end.
which could be used to cut and to stab. Such iron In a different simile harsh words and sharp
swords have been found at Beit Dagon and Tell tongues are likened to swords. Proverbs 12:18de-
el-'Aiiul (see illustrations in Yadin cited in the scribes rash words as being like "sword thrusts"
bibliography). (Rsv). The Psalmist's enemies have tongues like
Swords were worn in a "sheath" (ta'ar, I Sam "sharp swords" (Ps 57:4 [H 5]). The wicked
17:51), which was hung on a "girdle" (see häRar "whet their tongues like swords" (Ps 64:3 [H 4)).
and hiiRbra). This was normally worn on the left Cf. Ps 55:21 [H 22) where malicious words are
side. compared to "drawn swords" and Ps. 52:2 [H 4]
Apparently the tempering of iron to make steel a "sharp razor."
usable for swords was a military secret kept from Succumbing to a temptress is as fatal as an
the Israelites by the Hebrews. This advantage encounter with a "two-edged sword" (Prov 5:4).
was held by the Philistines until David's day. The The "flaming sword" in the hands of the
I Sam 13: 19-22 passage preserves a very accurate cherubim who guarded Eden has been explained
analysis of the days when the Philistines had the by Cassuto and von Rad as the objectification of
long iron swords and the Israelites had only the lightning (cf. Ps 104:3-4). lt is rather the symbol
short bronze daggers. of God's holiness and judgment.

320
 735 i:,i, (/Järad)
In a few passages IJereb may represent a tool lts etymology is uncertain. The word occurs
or knife rather than a sword or dagger. In Jer 5: 17 only in Lev 11:22 in the list of leaping insects
a foreign enemy will batter down the cities with considered edible. The LXX renders it akris "lo-
the !Jereb, a phrase omitted by the NEB and JB as cust" (NEB "green locust"). Both KJV "beetle"
an incongruous addition. Inasmuch as we have and RSV"cricket" are hardly correct, since those
Assyrianreliefs of sappers undermining the walls insects are omnivorous and thus not suitable for
of a besieged town with their daggers, the phrase food.
is not so incomprehensible. The same practice See 'arbeh.
maybe in mind in Ezk 26:9, where the KJV trans-
lates "with his axes"; cf. NAB "weapons." 735 iji, (IJärad) quake, move about, (be) star•
Although Ezekiel (Ezk 5: l) may very weil have tled, tremble, (be) afraid; causative stems
used a sharp sword to shave himself, a smaller to (cause to) move, terrify (Rsv emphasizes
"blade" (JB) would have been handier. terror and panic).
The instruments used for circumcision were
"tlint knives" (Josh 5:2-3; cf. Ex 4:25). For an Derivatives
Egyptian depiction of the rite of circumcision 735a ti'.'11j (IJäred) afraid, trembling.
usingsuch a knife, see ANEP fig. 629. The early 735b tM-,;t:1(IJtirädii) quaking, trembling.
stone altars to Yahweh were not to be built or
The root meaning is "to shake," from which
engraved with the use of a "tool" (Ex 20:25;
meanings such as "tremble" and "fear" are de-
Deut 27:5).
rived. Physical shaking describes the quaking of
There are some passages in which the reading
Mount Sinai (Ex 19:18). Geographie quaking
hereb in the text poses problems. In a list of
serves as a poetic figure for human trembling (Isa
natural calamities in Deut 28:22 the preferable 10:29, 41 :5; Ezk 26: 18). Physical movement may
vocalization (cf. LXX, Vulg.) is IJöreb "droughf'
be the point of this verb and IJärada as weil in
(Rsv). In Lam 5:9 the IJereb of the desert is read
II Kgs 4: 13 referring to the solicitous moving-
as IJöreb"heat" by the NEB and NAB.
around of typical Near Eastem hospitality (cf.
Job 5: 15 says that God saves melJereb mip- however "be anxiously careful"" and "anxious
pihem, literally "from a sword, from their
care" suggested by BOB). "Come trembling"
mouth." The NAB takes this as a form of the
(Hos 11:10-11) probably emphasizes the notion
commonexpression "the edge of the sword," but
of bird-like (v. 11!) movements and may refer to
the Rsv, NEB, and JB omit melJereb from their
movements of joy or terror.
translations.
Most occurrences refer to trembling from emo-
In Isa 1:20 the NEB has chosen to revocalize
tional agitation before an unusual circumstance.
herebas IJärüb, a word which does not appear in
Isaac trembles upon perceiving Jacob's decep-
theor, but is known from later Jewish texts, and tion (Gen 27:33). Adonijah's guests react simi-
translates: "Locust beans (i.e. carobs) shall be
larly when they leam that Solomon has been
youronly food."
crowned (I Kgs 1:49). Boaz's startled awakening
Bibliography: Meek, Theophile J., "Archae-
in the night is described by the same word (Ruth
ology and a Point in Hebrew Syntax, BASOR
3:8; RSV"startled"). lt can describe a military
122:31-33. Wever, J. W., "Sword," in IDB, IV,
force either as passively demoralized (l Sam 13:7)
pp.469-70. Yadin, Yigael, The Art of Warfare in
or as broken into outright panic (I Sam 14:15).
BiblicalLands, London: Weidenfeld and Nicol-
The Hiphil functions causatively meaning ··10
son, 1%3, pp. 134-36, 140-45, 172-75, 194--95,
cause to move ·• or "to frighten." lt describes
204-9, 222-23, 228, 232-37, 340-41, 344--45,
throwing an army in terror (Jud 8: 12; II Sam
348-50, 358-59, 384--85, 420-25, 438. --,
17:2). Most Hiphil usages occur in two recurring
"Warfare in the Second Millennium B.C.E.," in
idioms: the description of desolation as the ab-
TheWorld History of the Jewish People: II, Pat-
sence of anyone to frighten away the wild animals
riarchs,ed. Benjamin Mazar, Rutgers, 1970, pp.
(Deut 28:26; lsa 17:2; Jer 7:33) and the descrip-
129-33.
tion of security as the absence of anyone to ter-
E.Y.
rorize (Job 11:19; Jer 30: 10; Ezk 34:28).
!iäred. Afraid, trembling. Root meaning may
li:l;ri (IJeriibon). See no. 731f. appear in describing the fearful of Gideon·s army
as "trembling" (Jud 7:3). Eli's anxiety concern-
733 J'1M ( haraR) quake <Deut 32:25; Ps ing the ark is described as "his heart trembled"
-i8:46). (l Sam 4: 13). Four passages speak of trembling
before God's word or commandment. In lsa 66:2,
5, these are the penitent and faithful; in Ezr (9:4,
734 1mn (IJrRI). Assumed root of the following. 10:3) it refers, perhaps as a technical term, to
734a t', J;l'.1 (IJarRöl) a kind of locust. those leaders who perceive God's word of judg-

321
736 :i,r,(~ärä)
ment and support Ezra's reforms. In all four pas- God." Only once is the subject of the verb
sages a meaning of "awe" or "reverence" is in- "God" (man is never the subject), in Hab 3:8,
dicated (cf. similar usages of pähad and yare' ). "Was the Lord displeased against rivers'>" (liter-
ally, "Was the Lord kindled against rivers'>").
~ärädä. Quaking, trembling,fear, care (?) (RSV
In the Niphal stem, the root appears three
"panic'"). Primarily describes human trembling
times, and each, in contrast to that just noticed
before some strange or fearsome event. Typi-
for the Qal stem, either has or implies a personal
cal examples are the terror of Daniel"s compan-
ions before a vision (Dan 10:7) and the trembling subject, referred to in a passive sense. For in-
of the nations at Tyre's downfall (Ezk 26: 16). The stance, in Song 1:6 the Shulamite bride says
terror of a demoralized army is called the "panic that the sons of her mother "were angry" 0iter-
ally, "were kindled") with her.
of God" (1 Sam 14:15: RSV"great panic": note:
while this expression may mean "great panic" it In the Hiphil stem, the root appears only twice
may also emphasize the miraculous, divine origin and neither in a causative sense. In Job 19: 11, it is
of the panic !). lt is not clear whether the "cry of used in the same way and meaning as in Qal,
panic" (Rsv Jer 30:5; KJv "voice of trembling") when the subject ·ap is employed. In Neh 3:20, it
refers to the shout which causes panic or the ter- carries the unusual sense of intensifying an idea;
rified cry of those in panic. For "care" in II Kgs Baruch, a worker on the wall of Jerusalem, being
4: 13 see below. said to have "earnestly" 0iterally, "in a burning
A.B. manner") repaired his part of it.
The Hithpael stem occurs four times, always
736 :i,c, (hiirii) burn, be kindled (of anger). meaning, "Fret not yourself' (Ps 37:1, 7--8: Prov
(ASVand Rsv similar, except that RSVavoids 24: 19). The reflexive thought is: "Do not kindle
the translation "wroth," usually employing yourself" in respect to the wicked, etc. Again, a
"angry.") personal subject is implied.
An unusual feature regarding the root is that
Derivatives two instances of the Tiphel (causative) stem
736a tihr, (häron) heat, burning (of occur (Jer 12:5; 22: 15). Both imply the existence
anger). of a personal subject, the one speaking of aper-
(of son "competing" (literally, "burning to out-
736b t•it:i ( höri) heat, burning
anger). race ") with horses; and the other of "compet-
ing" (literally, "burning to outshine") with other
This word is related to a rare Aramaic root people for status by living in cedar.
meaning · ·to cause fire to burn," and to an
Arabic root meaning "burning sensation," in the Mrön. Heat, burning (of anger). This noun
derivative, which occurs forty-one times, is used
throat, etc. The Hebrew verb is always used in
only in reference to God. A frequent use finds it
reference to anger. The meaning of the root dif-
followed by 'ap, giving the translation, "The
fers from such words for "anger" as 'änap.
fierceness 0iterally, "burning· ·) of the anger of
zä'am, and qä.~ap, in that it emphasizes the
Yahweh" (Num 25:4). Many times it is followed
"kindling" of anger, like the kindling of a fire, or
simply by 'ap with a suffix, giving "the fierce-
the heat of the anger. once started. The verb and
ness ("burning") of his (your, my, etc.) anger"
its derivatives are used a total of 139 times.
(Deut 13: 18). A few times the word itself carries
hiirä is used in reference to the anger of both
the suffix, without the use of ·ap, but these are
man and God, andin parallel ways. In respect to
infrequent. lt may be added in respect to Jer
man, the noun 'ap "anger." frequently occurs as
25:38 that härön, as here shown in some texts, is
subject, ··anger was kindled." For instance, the
better taken as a variant for ~1ereh "sword."
"anger" of Potiphar, Joseph's master in Egypt,
"was kindled" toward him, over his wife's false Mri. Heat, burning (of anger). This noun
accusation (Gen 39: 19). An equally common bearing the same meaning as ~1ärö11,is used twice
usage is without a subject, thus giving a medio- of God and four times of man. lt is always fol-
passive meaning, "lt was kindled." Of Jacob it is lowed by 'ap. For instance, Jonathan left the
said that. "lt was kindled to him," meaning that presence of his father, Saul, in "the fierceness
his anger was kindled when he learned that (burning) of anger" because of Saul' s attitude
Laban had pursued him. toward David (1 Sam 20:34).
In respect to God, the noun 'ap is employed as Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H.. .. 'Doest
subject in Num 11: 1. The "anger" of the Lord Thou Weil to be Angry'>'" HUCA 26: 29-41.
"was kindled" toward Israel because of further THAT, L pp. 633-34.
murmuring. An instance of the medio-passive L.J.W.
voice is found in II Sam 22:8 (cf. Ps 18:7 [H 8]),
according to which the "foundations of heaven 11,r:i rhäru;:,J. See no. 737a.
moved and shook, because it was kindled to iiiti <harön). See no. 736a.

322
 740 t'".IM (~örf), '".liM
(~orf)

'mi:r (/Järul). See no. 743a. Golden Calf," Bib 48:481-90. Ward, William A.,
1'1"11'( /JiirÜ!f). See nos. 752a,b, 753a. "Egyptian Titles in Genesis," BS 114: 40-59.
Zuck, Roy B., "The Practice ofWitchcraft in the
737 T"1M( /Jrz). Assumed root of the following. Scriptures," BS 128: 352-60.
737a mi, ( /Jiiruz) string of beads (Song R.L.A.
1:10).
,,:,,!'.!Owr~1ür). See no. 756b. 739 t="1M( /Jr/) II. Assumed root of the following.
739a t:)'"11'( /Järi() bag, purse (II Kgs
738 l:l"1M(/JrO 1. Assumed root of the following. 5:23; lsa 3:22).
738a t U"l!'.1(!Jere!) graving tool.
738b t CiUir, (/:larföm) magician (Ex 8:7 [H cb-:,r, (IJar(öm). See no. 738b.
3], 18-19 [H 14-15]; Dan 4:7 [H 4]). •-:it:r'(l,iori).
See no. 736b.
~ereJ. Graving tool, pen. Aaron used a /Jere(
to shape the golden calf (Ex 32:4). Some modern 740 t•-:,rr (l,iori), •-:,ir,(l,iörf) Horite, Hori. (ASV
versions paraphrase the expression to give the and RSV translate the same.)
idea of casting or molding (cf. JPS, JB, NEB).
This noun appears to be a loan. word. Formerly
The only other occurrence of the word is in lsa
it was thought to be related to the root l,irr III,
8:1 where God commands the prophet to write
having to do with a hole or cave, though usually
the name of Maher-shalal-hash-baz on a tablet
firr refers to a small hole. Now it is generally
with "a man's ~iere(." The Berkeley translation
considered to be the Hebrew spelling for Akka-
has "common script." The Amplified has "a
dian hurru (Ug, hrv). lt is to be distinguished
graving tool and in ordinary characters [which
from hori "white -b~ead or cake." lt occur's ten
the humblest man can read. J" The Jerusalem
times, twice as a personal name.
Bible has "ordinary writing," NEB has "common
writing," and NAB has "ordinary letters," the NIV The extrabiblical sources clearly attest the
presence of Hurrians in Palestine after 1550 B.c.
"ordinary pen."
(cf. the Ug. texts, the Amarna tablets, cuneiform
~arJöm. Magician, diviner, scribe. This word, tablets from Taanach and Shechem, and certain
describing some variety of occultist, appears in Egyptian writings; Noth, The 0/d Testament
both Hebrew (IJar/ummim) and Aramaic Wor/d, pp. 233, 240ff.). During the second half of
(~ar/ummin). lt is the word for Egyptian "magi- the second millennium the Egyptians knew SW
cians" (Gen 41:8, 24; Ex 7:11, 22; 8:3, 14-15; Asia as ljr. Hurrian names appear in Near East-
9:11) and for the Babylonian "magicians" (Dan ern inscriptions of this period (confirmed by Hur-
1:20;2:2, 10, 27; 4:4, 6; 5: 11). The last five refer- rian tablets from Boghazköy). Albright says that
ences are in the Aramaic section of Daniel. Only in the Old Testament the names of the Horites are
2:IOuses /Jar(öm in the singular. Hurrian; therefore, "there can be no doubt that
According to Gen 41 :8, the pharaoh summoned this (i.e., Hurrian) is the language spoken by the
all the IJar(ummim (magicians) and /Jiikamim biblical Horites" (Frvm the Stone ARe to Chris-
(wise men). The word is parallel · to tianity, 1947, p. 36).
m' kashsh" pim (sorcerers), ·ash.l'häpim (enchan- Our problem is that the biblical Horites were
ters, q. v .), and ka.Mim (Chaldeans) in Dan 2:2. In residents of Edom, not Palestine. The Horites
the Aramaic list of Dan 2:27 f.!äz''rin (sooth- appear to be the Hurrian inhabitants of Edom
sayers) replaces m''kashsh''pim, while ~wkkimin (Gen 36:20), who were driven out of the region by
(wise men) replaces kcddim. Esau's descendants (Deut 2: 12, 22). lt has been
Because it seems related to the word /Jere/ suggested, therefore, that the Horites are the
(q.v.) meaning "stylus" or the like, some transla- non-Palestinian Hurrians, and the Hivites are the
tions take har(öm to mean "scribe." (See Palestinian Hurrians (Thomas, ArchaeoloRY and
Yo11n1(sLitera/ Translation, the ASV marg,, the 0/d Te.l'tament Study, p. 81). This would explain
1913Jmproved Edition Bihle, and the Berkeley how Zibion could be a Hivite (Gen 36:2) and the
Version in the Gen and Ex passages.) son of Seir the Horite (Gen 36:20). If so, they
lt may, however, be a loan word from Egyp- occupied some places in central Palestine, includ-
tian. lt consists of four radicals, unlike most ing Shechem (Gen 34:2) and Gibeon (Josh 9:6-7).
Semitic words, which have three. There is an The LXX reading "Horite" strengthens this
Egyptian word IJrj-tp which may mean "magi- suggestion.
cians" or "priests," although it usually means The Hurrians are to be distinguished from the
"governor, ·• "chieftain," "adviser." Subarians, the Sumerians, the Semites, and the
Bibliography: Cornfeld, G., "Magie, Divina- lndo-Europeans. They originated in the moun-
tion and Superstition," in Pictorial Bihlical En- tains E and NE of Mesopotamia which they
cyclopedia, Macmillan, 1964, Loewenstamm, gradually infiltrated. By the fifteenth century R.c.
Samuel E., "The Making and Destruction of the they boasted a kingdom, Mittani. During this era

323
741 '!ij1' (l}ärak)

their nobles seem to have been Indo-European to be sold or redeemed by substituting something
(as attested by their names). eise. According to Num 18: 14 and Ezk 44:29, all
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., From the such objects are to be given to the priests for the
Stone ARe to Christianity, Doubleday, 1947. support of the religious ceremonies. The gold,
Gelb, 1. J., Hurrians and Subarians, 1949. Noth, silver, bronze, and iron from Jericho, for in-
M., The O/d Testament World, l, Edinburgh: stance, were so designated (Josh 6:19, qödesh
Clark, 1964. Speiser, E. A., lntroduction to Hur- layhwh).
rian, ASOR Annual, 1941. Thomas, D. Winton, U sually IJäram means a ban for utter destruc-
Archaeolo,l?y and O/d Testament Study, Oxford: tion, the compulsory dedication of something
Clarendon, 1967. which impedes or resists God's work, which is
L.J.C. considered to be accursed before God. The idea
first appears in Num 21 :2-3, where the Israelites
vowed that, ifGod would enable them to defeat a
l!l''il'.I (/Jiiri().See no. 739a. southern Canaanite king, they would "utterly de-
c•:i'".'11'.1
(/Jiryönim), i.e. h're yönim. See stroy" (i.e. consider as devoted and accordingly
no. 730a. utterly destroy) his cities. This word is used re-
l„'il'.I (/Jiiri.y). See no. 752c.
garding almost all the cities which Joshua's
!U''iM ( hiirish ). See no. 760c. troops destroyed (e.g. Jericho, Josh 6:21; Ai,
•iv•,r,i(/Jllrishi). See no. 760e. Josh 8:26; Makkedah, Josh 10:28; Hazor, Josh
11:11), thus indicating the rationale for their de-
741 '!1"1M (hiirak) I, set in motion, start (Prov struction. In Deut 7:2--6, the command for this
-12:27). manner of destruction is given, with the explana-
tion following that, otherwise, these cities would
742 ,.,r,( fJrk) II. Assumed root of the following.
Jure the Israelites away from the Lord (cf. Deut
20:17-18). Any lsraelite city that harbored
742a c•;jr.t (/Jarakkim) lattice or other idolators was to be "utterly destroyed" (Deut
opening through which one may 13:12-15; cf. Ex 22:19).
look (Song 2:9). A man who was the object devoted to God
came under the same ban. Leviticus 27:28-29
743 ,,n (/Jr/). Assumed root of the following. states that he was to be put to death. He could
743a ,~.,1' (/Järitl) a kind of weed, perhaps
chickpea (e.g. Prov 24:31; Zeph
hardly be assigned to ceremonial service, for this
was the work of Levites. To make this regulation
2:9). agree with the sixth commandment (Ex 20: 13; cf.
21:20), however, the thought must be that the
744 *CljJ;! (/Jiiram) /, ban, devote, destroy utter- persons so devoted were captives in wars such as
those of Jericho or others under the ban, e.g. the
ly. (Aw and Rsv similar, except that both
prefer „ devoted" or "devoted thing „ m Amalekites (1 Sam 15:3).
passages not dealing with destruction.) Because the root qädash "to be holy," also
carries the thought of setting apart from ordinary
Derivatives use in surrender to God (especially in the Piel),
744a tc:,r.i (/Jerem) devoted thing, ban. we must distinguish objects set apart because
"devoted," from those set apart because
744b t,i~-;,r,(/Jermön) Hermon. "holy ... In a text discussed above, Lev 27:28-29,
The root /Jrm is used only in the causative the two were brought together in that the devoted
stems; forty-eight times in the iphil and three in object was considered most holy by God. This
the Hophal. The basic meaning is the exclusion of suggests that the two were closely related, and
an object from the use or abuse of man and its this was true in respect to objects devoted for
irrevocable surrender to God. The word is related ceremonial service. But in respect to the objects
to an Arabic root meaning ··10 prohibit, espe- to be destroyed, they were considered to be of-
cially to ordinary use ... The word "harem," fensive to God and injurious to his work. Objects
meaning the special quarters for Muslim wives, to be set apart because holy were pleasing to him
comes from it. lt is related also to an Ethiopic and useful.
root, meaning "to forbid, prohibit, lay under a A few times the root is used in respect to for-
curse ... Surrendering something to God meant eign nations "utterly destroying" a city or coun-
devoting it to the service of God or putting it try (cf. II Kgs 19: 11; II Chr 20:23). Light on this
under a ban for utter destruction. may come from the Mesha inscription. Online 17
The idea of devoting an object for service to King Mesha (cf. II Kgs 3:4) uses the word as he
God appears in Lev 27:28. Whatever is devoted explains that he slaughtered all the inhabitants of
to the Lord, whether man, animal, or property, is Nebo because he made the city a "devoted" city
considered most holy by God and is therefore not to his god Chemosh.

324
 749 !:\':Ir,(IJiirap)
lierem. Devoted thing, devotion, ban. This ,;~,i, (/Jermon). See no. 744b.
noun derivative is used twenty-eight times in the
or to refer either to the object devoted or to the 746 tu~"lrr (hermesh) sickle (Deut 16:9; 23:25
ban itself. The story of Jericho's fall to Israel ··1ä26]). Derivation uncertain.
provides clear examples of the first use. The
whole city is called a "devoted thing" (Josh
6:17),and all Israelites are warned to keep them-
747 ,,i, (/Jaran) Haran.
Haran was the city in which Abraham and his
selves from the "devoted thing," which likely is
family settled after they left Ur (Gen 11:31-32).
a reference to items within the city all of which After the death of Terah, Abraham's father, Ab-
hadtobe burned ifflammable and ifnot, given to
God. When Achan disobeys and takes of these raham and his family began their journey to Ca-
naan (Gen 12:1). Haran is called the "city of
items, Israel's army is defeated by the people of Nahor" in Gen 24:IO because Nahor, Abraham's
Ai and God says that Israel has now become a
"d,evotedthing" itself until the "devoted thing" brother, settled there. Haran was the home of
Laban, the brother ofRebekah. Rebekah encour-
(Achan in his sin) is destroyed from its midst aged Jacob to flee to Laban's home at Haran
(Josh7: 12-13). So, then, Jericho the heathen city when Esau allegedly threatened his life (Gen
was "devoted" because it stood in the way of 27:43). Jacob's fortunes improved greatly during
God's work through Israel in making conquest of his long stay with Laban. The account of Jacob's
Canaan. Israel became "devoted" because of sin arrival at Haran is recorded in Gen 29: 1-8.
whichentered and made the nation unusable in Rabshekah, in h_is boastful challenge to
God's work. Achan in his sin became "devoted" Hezekiah, mentioned Haran among cities de-
because he·was the reason for Israel's hindrance stroyed by the Assyrians (II Kgs 19:12; Isa
as the people of God.
37: 12). Ezekiel 27:23 cites it as a center of trade.
Also note passages using /Jerem to refer to the
The city was an Assyrian provincial capital for
ban itself. According to I Kgs 20:42, Benhadad, some time, as weil as the capital of Ashur-urballit
the Syrian king, was a man under the "ban" of after the destruction of Nineveh.
God. In Isa 34:5, Edom is said to have been a T.E.M.
peopleunder the "ban" ofGod. The kingdom '?f
Judah was given to the "ban" in t_hatBabyloma 748 C,"IM (/Jrs). Assumedroot of the following.
was permitted to bring the captivity on her (Isa 748a C"IM (heres) sun (Job 9:7; Jud
43:28). '•'f4:18).
lierm6n. Hermon. The name of Mount Her-
man, meaning "sacred." Also called siryon and C"IM (heres). See nos. 748a, 759b.
i'nir (Deut 3:9) or Jf'ön (Deut 4:48). n{c,,rr· (harsi>t). See no. 759c.
' - .
Bibliography: Malamat, Abraham, "The Ban
in Mariandin the Bible," in Biblical Essays, pp. 749 11\"IM(harap) I, reproach, blaspheme, deb,
40-49. Richardson, TWB, p. 68. THAT, I, pp. -j~opa~dize, rail, reproach, upbraid.
635-38.
L.J.W. Derivative

745 ci~rr(/Jaram) II, slit, mutilate. (Asv uses

749a :i,,i, (/Jerpa) reproach.
.''flat"; Rsv "mlltilated. ") Basically, the word means "to reproach," with
the specific connotation of casting blame or scorn
Derivative on someone.
745a ttljö (herem) net. The connotation of casting blame is evident in
Job 27:6 where Job protests that his heart does
häram is related to the Arabic root meaning not reproach him for any of his days. In Prov
"t~ slit" or "to perforate" the partition between 27: II the wisdom teacher desires that his pupil
the nostrils, for the insertion of a ring. lt is used may be wise so that the teacher may not incur
onlyonce, in Lev 21:18. The form is a passiv_e blame from others. In Neh 6: 13 the word seems
participle,and it describes a face (nose) as "mu_t1- to be used in the sense of "defame," i.e. impute
lated," one of the deformities which would d1s- blame or guilt to someone in order to harm his
qualifya priest from service. character.
berem. Net. This noun is used nine times. lts In most instances the word is used in the sense
meaningcomes from the idea of something perfo- of casting scorn. In Ps 74:10 the word occurs !n
rated.lt is used twice in reference to the net of a parallelism with nii'a~ (scorn, condemn) and m
bunter(Mic 7:2; Eccl 7:26); and seven times to Prov 14:31 it is the antithesis of kiibed (honor)
the net of a fisherman (Ezk 26:5, 14; 32:3; 47: IO; and may be understood as disgrace or dishonor.
Hab 1:15-17). In Jud 5:18 the people of Zebulon are described
L.J.W. as scorning their lives even to death.

325
750 tiji, (IJärap)

In contexts where an adversary reproaches judgment. In all other instances the word con-
with scorn or insults, "taunt" is an acceptable notes the concept of "determined" and refers to
translation (Jud 8: 15; Ps 119:42). Where one is something which cannot be changed. Perhaps the
pictured as treating another with contempt or basic idea of "cut" is evident here in that that
scorn the word may bear the nuance of ··mock- which is incised cannot be altered.
ing" (II Kgs 19:22). The connotation "defy" is
!täril~. Decision, pointed things, sharp, threshing
evident in contexts where one sets at naught the
instrument, ,tial/. The concept of sharpness in-
strength of an enemy (1 Sam 17:lotT.).
herent in the verb is evident in the noun /JärüJ
T.E.M.
when it is used of a threshing sledge (Isa 28:27;
41:15; Arnos 1:3; Job 41:30 [H 22]). Metaphori-
750 !'i'.:11'.1
(/Jiirap) II, spend harvest time. This
cally the word was used of ··sharpness" as an
denominative verb occurs only in Isa 18:6.
attribute, i.e. diligence (Prov 10:4; 12:24, 27;
Parent Noun 13:4; 21 :5).
The concept of "cut'' is evident in its reference
750a !'i'.)M (/Jörep) harvest time, autumn.
to a moat (Dan 9:25). The word is used metaphor-
ically of a strict decision in the sense that some-
751 *!'ijl'.i (/Järap)III, acquire. This verb oc-
thing which is cut or incised cannot be altered
curs only once, in the Niphal (Lev 19:26).
(Joel 3: 14 [H 4: 141).

752 l''.Jr;,(!Jära~) I, bestir oneself, decide, decree, 753 l''1M ( !Jr.n II. Assumed root of the following.
determine, maim, move. (Rsv similar ex- 753a r,,r;, (/Järü.)·) III, gold (e.g. Zech
cept that it translates ··growl" and "muti- 9:3; Prov 3: 14).
late" in Ex 11:7.)
754 ::ii,n (/Jr$b).Assumedrootofthefollowing.
Derivatives 754a :i,i,n bond, fetter (lsa
(harsübbii)
752a tr~,i:i (/Järü.~) I, sharp, diligent. ·s·s:6), pa~g
(Ps 73:4).
752b l'1'1M (härüs) II, trench, moat, only
inDan 9:25. c:i•ri,r:i (!Jar$llllllim ). See no. 752d.
752c r,r;, (/Järi$) a cut, thing cut, sharp
instrument. 755 ,':l'.Jl'.I
(/Jiiraq) gnash or grind the teeth (e.g.
752d c:i•;i,,:i (/Jar.yannim) an insignificant Job 16:9; Lam 2: 16).
vine product, grape seeds(?J.
756 '1'1M (härar) I, be burned, charred. The
Basic to the meaning of /Jiira$ are the concepts
-;sv t~anslates "burned" except in Ps 69:3
"to cut or sharpen" and · · to decide." (The
[H 4]. The RSV concurs in all places except
former meaning is represented in the noun /Järü.f
lsa 24:6 where it renders "scorched," and
and the Akkadian cognate harä.rn which means
··to cut," "cut off, .. "'dedÜct". as weil as ··to in Ps 69:3 [H 41 where it renders
"parched."
determine" and "to clarify.")
The connotation ··to cut" is most clearly seen Derivatives
in Lev 22:22 where the word occurs in a proscrip-
756a '1'.'11'.1
01ärer) parched place. Only
tion against the use of maimed animals for sac-
in Jer 17:6, referring figuratively to
rifice.
the life of the godless.
Other usages of the word with the connotation
756b '1tl'1r:t ( !Jar!Jür) violent heat,
of "cut" occur in more metaphorical passages. In
Jever, only in Deut 28:22.
Josh 10:21 the word is used in an expression
which means "to speak against. .. The translation Basically this root connotes the product left
··moved" (KJv; Asv; Rsv) has little support either from burning (cf. Ugaritic /Jrr "roast"). lt is tobe
in the Hebrew or Akkadian usage. The expres- distinguished from ~irr II, having to do with nobil-
sion literally means · ·to sharpen the tongue · · and ity or being freeborn. and !Jrr III, having to do
evidently connotes speaking against another with with a hole. lt is not tobe confused with /Jära "to
hostility. The same meaning seems tobe inherent burn" (usually of anger). /Järar "burned,
in the use of the word in Ex 11:7 where it is used charred" is mostly a poetic root. lt is used twelve
of a dog and expresses the idea of angry growling. times. .
In II Sam 5:24 David was commanded to "be This root describes the inhabitants of the earth
sharp" when he heard a sound in the trees, i.e. he who were objects of Goct·s wrath (lsa 24:6), what
was to act quickly. (The Chronicler renders the is left after fire has worked on bone (Ezk 24:10-
command as "go out to battle. ") 11), meta!, or wood (Ezk 15:4; Ps 102:3 [H 4]). lt
The concept "decide, determine" is clearly can also be used of the inward effect offever (Job
evident in I Kgs 20:40 where one decided his own 30:30), and of the parching of a throat due to

326
 760 V/jr, (/Järash)

excessive weeping (Ps 69:3 [H 4]). lt occurs once 758a ,;, (/Jör), iin (hor) hole (e.g.
in the Pilpel stem (indicating rapidly repeated ac- II Kgs 12:9 [H 10]; Song 5:4).
tion), setting forth the contentious man·s con- 758b -,,:, (hür), ,~n (hf,ir) hole (lsa
tinualagitation (kindling) in fostering and sustain- 42:22: 11:8).
ing strife (Prov 26:21 ).
759 ivil"I ( /Jd). Assumed root of the following.
757 ,,r,
(/Jrr) II. Assumed root of the following. 759a tivjr, ( !Jere.0 earthenware.
759b =~~ (heres) an eruptive disease
757a ti·r, (/Jör) noble (usually occurs in
· (Deut 28:27).
the plural).
759c ri,c,n (hrswt, Kethib), ri•cin (har-
The ASVand Rsv translate the same except in sit, Qere) potsherds (Jer·I,9:2).·
Eccl IO:17 where the RSVrenders "free-man „
(ASV "nobles"), and lsa 34: 12. /Jör is usually
This word, which occurs seventeen times, rep-
connected with the root /Jrr II, which (concluding resents the potter·s product (Isa 45:9) which is
on the basis of Semitic cognates) has to do with dried and fired (Ps 22: 15 [H 16]), or even glazed
beingor becoming free. There is a possible con- (Prov 26:23). Bottles (baqbüq), bowls (k'/i), and
nection between /Jör "noble" and the root hll'r pots/pitchers (nebe/) are made of it. lt is in ves-
"be or grow pale, white" (the princes of ls~ael sels made of herd that documents were stored
have fair complexions, Lam 4:7). Distinguish (Jer 32: 14). hereJ can apply generally to a vessel
from /Jör, "hole" and from /Jör "white cloth." (Prov 26:23), or it can mean pieces of potsherd at
Our word occurs thirteen times. least large enough to use to carry a coal from a
The hörim, along with the elders, were leaders hearth or dip water for a drink (Isa 30: 14). Hence,
ofcities (I Kgs 21:8) who had authority to bring a hereJ is the baked clay so commonly unearthed
manto trial. They were of sufficient prominence by archaeologists.
to escape hand-to-hand warfare and were found Being porous, it absorbed the fat of holy things
in the inner palace during the Babylonian seige. and the uncleanness of unclean things. Thus it
They were slain before Zedekiah's eyes, along was to be broken when contacted by either holi-
withthe princes (Jer 39:6), according to prophecy ness or uncleanness (Lev 6:28 (H 21); Num
(lsa 34:12). Later the /Jörim were listed beside 15:12). A clay vessel was tobe used in the trial of
the priests and rulers (s'Ränim) as the leaders of jealousy (Num 5: 17) and in leprosy purification
Israel during the postexilic reconstruction (Neh rites, symbolizing man's commonness before
4:14 IH 8], 19 [H 13]). They appear tobe the God. The Psalmist prophetically compares the
heads of the people, perhaps equivalent to the Messiah's strength to a dried up and baked piece
sarim "princes" (cf. Ezr 9:2). Since the word of clay (potsherd, Ps 22:15 IH 16]). During the
occursin contexts where Israel has close contact exile the "most precious" royalty of Israel be-
withAramaic-speaking peoples, it might weil be came as valueless and common as clay pots (Lam
an Aramaic loanword. 4:2). God reminds the people of their relative
The hörim supervised construction of the wall worthlessness and vulnerability by comparing
duringthe reconstruction (Neh 4: 14 [H 8]). They them to clay vessels (lsa 45:9). Jeremiah (19:1)
had sufficient funds to loan to the common bought (and subsequently broke) an earthenware
people(Neh 5:7). They controlled farming and pot to symbolize how Israel had so absorbed sin
merchandising (Neh 13: 17). They had ready ac- that they had tobe destroyed according to God's
cess to the ruling body (Jer 39:6; Neh 6: 17) and law regarding polluted pottery (Lev 11:33).
werea body to be reckoned with. L.J.C.
l;örimseems tobe almost synonymous at times
withsarim (cf. Jer 27:20 and II Kgs 24: 14). If it is 760 w-:,r,(/Järash) /, engrave, plow, devise.
synonymous, then monarchical usage denotes Derivatives
administrators and heads of influential families
i.e. men of position, while postexilic usages em~ 760a tw:ir, <haräsh) engraver.
brace "influential people." On the basis of an 760b riw ir, <häröshet) carving.
identificationwith .forim, these hörim were not 760c W'".11' (/Järish) plowing, plowing time.
"nobles" in the sense of a landed aristocracy. 760d M~jr,~ (mah/J.reshii), l'l~'.'ltr~ (ma-
Bibliography: McKenzie, John L., "The El- hare shet) ploughshare. · · ·
dersin the Old Testament," Bib 40: 522-40. Van 760e •~•".lt, (harishi) harsh. Used only
der Ploeg, J., "Les Chefs du Peuple d'lsrael et in Jon 4:8. Meaning uncertain and
leursTitres," RB 57: 57-58. uncertain to which root härash it is
L.J.C. related. KJV "vehem~nt," NIV
"scorching."
758 ,,r, (IJrr) III .. Assumed root of the follow- The basic idea is cutting into some material,
ing. e.g. engraving meta) or plowing soil. The word is

327
761 tvji, (/Järesh)

used twenty-six times, of which twenty-three are specifically the tempering of irori a military se-
in the Qal stem, two in the Niphal, and one in the cret. The new long iron swords were denied to
Hiphil. The Ugaritic noun hrsh means "crafts- the Israelites. Only the Philistine smiths could
man." Another Ugaritic word hrr cognate to He- sharpen the plow points which they did by heat-
brew härash means · 'to plow.'' This would argue ing, beating them out and tempering again (Fine-
for two overlapping roots in Hebrew. gan, LAP, p. 149). See hereb.
härash is used a few times for engraving metal. härash is used a few times in reference to
For instance, one of the expert craftsmen from wood and stone. In the days of the good high
Tyre, whom King Solomon summoned to work priest Jehoiada, money is said to have been given
on the temple, is described as a "worker" ("en- to the "carpenters" ("workers of wood") and
graver," a participle) in brass (I Kgs 7:14). More builders for repairing the temple (II Kgs 12:12).
often the word is used for plowing the ground. The skilled work necessary to cut the names of
Elisha, when Elijah called him to service, is said the twelve tribes on two onyx stones is said to
to have been "plowing" with twelve yoke of have been that of an "engraver" in stone (Ex
oxen (I Kgs 19: 19). One of the Mosaic laws was 28: 11). harash refers to both stone and wood in II
that a person should not "plow" with an ox and Sam 5: 11 (1 Chr 14:1 same), as Hiram, king of
an ass together (Deut 22: 10). Tyre, is said to have sent "carpenters" ("work-
The idea of "plowing" is also used figura- ers of wood") and "masons" ("workers of
tively. lt symbolizes wicked activity (Hos 10:13), stone ") to David for the construction of a palace
Israel being charged with having "plowed" in- in Jerusalem.
iquity. lt stands for oppression in Ps 129:3, as the The word is used numerous times without in-
Psalmist cries out, · 'The plowers plowed upon dicating any type of material. For instance,
my back." A third usage is to mean "devise," Nebuchadnezzar is said to have taken captive to
usually in connection with evil. For instance, a Babylon all the "craftsmen" and smiths of
proverb states, "Devise not evil" against your Judah. The word is used also to describe the
neighbor (Prov 3:29). härash refers to both evil work of Bezaleel and Aholiab, specially chosen
and good in Prov 14:22. Those who "devise evil" to lead in the tabernacle construction, an en-
are said to err and those that "devise good" to deavor which no doubt involved materials of var-
receive mercy and truth. härash occurs twice in ious kinds (Ex 35:35; 38:23). In one instance, the
the Niphal concerning Micah's prediction (Jer word is used to refer to a person "skilled" in
26: 18 quoting Mic 3: 12) that Jerusalem would be respect to bringing destruction (Ezk 21 :36).
"plowed" like a field. The one Hiphil usage Bibliography: Mendelsohn, 1., "Guilds in
shows no clear difference in meaning from Qal, Ancient Palestine," BASOR 80: 17-21. --,
as Saul is said to have "practised" ("devised") "Guilds in Babylonia and Assyria," JAOS 60:
evil against David (I Sam 23:9). 68-72.
L.J.W.
!täräsh. Engra,ling, carpenter, smith, mason.
Whereas the verb majors on plowing soil, its 761 tu')r, (häresh) II, be silent, speechless, deaf.
noun derivative, occurring thirty-five times,
(Asv and RSV similar.)
stresses engraving, usually meta!, but also wood
or stone. Gold brought from Uphaz is said in Jer Derivatives
10:9 tobe the work ofthe "workmen" ("engrav-
761a ttu')!'.t (heresh) deaf.
ers "). David states that in preparation for the
761b !V'.')!'.!
(heresh) süently, secretly, only
building of the temple he had gathered gold and
silver to be worked on by the hands of "artific-
in Josh 2: 1.
ers" ("engravers") of the day (1 Chr 29:5). Fre- The basic idea is of non-communication, ex-
quently, however, the word refers to more than pressed by either not speaking or not hearing.
the work of engraving. For instance, the gold That is, the word may refer to the subject being
calf, erected in Israel by Jeroboam, is said to silent, or to the object being deaf. The root
have been made by "workmen," the context im- damam is parallel in meaning to häresh as "being
plying all the activity involved with making it, silent."
such as casting the meta) as weil as engraving it The verb is used only seven times in the Qal,
(Hos 8:6). In Isa 40: 19, häräsh is used for the thirty-eight in the Hiphil, and once in the
··workman" who melts a graven image. lt is also Hithpael. In the Qal, it usually concerns silence
properly translated "smith," in I Sam 13:19, in speaking. lt always refers to God. For in-
which refers to people who could sharpen iron stance, David calls upon God not to keep "si-
implements. This verse is now elucidated by lence" toward him in a time of need (Ps 35:22).
reading häräsh as ironsmith. Coppersmiths were The Psalmist prays similarly in Ps 83: 1 [H 2],
long active in Israel, but the Philistines had employing hiiresh and diimam in parallel. Only o
brought in the iron age and kept the working and ce is the Qal stem used definitely to mean "be

328
 767 ~W1'
(l;äshab)
deaf," namely, in Mic 7:16, where the prophet has the power over the object. This root is to be
speaksof nations being "deaf' in respect to Is- distinguished from miina' "to withhold, deny."
rael in a future day. Used in the Hiphil stem, it Ug. IJ.sk means "take hold of." Our root occurs
usuallyconcerns silence in speaking, but, in con- twenty-eight times.
trastto the Qal, almost always refers to man. The Elisha spared Naaman, i.e. restrained, stopped
meaning is quite the same, however. For in- him from paying for his eure (II Kgs 5:20). A
stance, Abraham's servant is said to have "held somewhat different connotation occurs where
his peace" ("remained silent") as he observed Job remarks that comforting words can dull the
Rebekah, wondering if she was God's choice as edge of grief, keeping it und er control and holding
lsaac's wife. Only in Job 11:3 does the Hiphil it back (Job 16:5--0). In Jer 14:10 the people are
carrya clear causative meaning. Once the Hiphil condemned because they did not control them-
means "be deaf'; namely, when the people selves but wholeheartedly gave in to evil. ln-
urgedSamuel to "cease not" (literally, "do not terestingly, God teils lsaiah (lsa 58: l) to be
be deaf') to cry to God for them, as the Philis- equally unbridled in denouncing this sin. In the
tineswere drawing near. The word appears once eschatalogical age God's unrestricted blessings
in the Hithpael, with the expected reflexive stand in stark contrast to man's present sin.
meaning(Jud 16:2). Those who are in the most helpless position (the
barren, since God alone controls the womb, cf.
~eresh. Deaf. Though the verb is seldom used
relJemlralJam) are to construct dwellings without
inreference to non-hearing, the derived adjective
restraint in anticipation ofthat blessing (lsa 54:2).
carriesthis sense in each of its nine usages, call-
God may restrain man's sinfulness. Thus he
ing for the translation "deaf' (Ex 4: 11; Lev
keeps Abimelech from taking Sarah (Gen 20:6),
19:14;Ps 38:13 !H 14] etc.).
L.J.W. and David from killing Nabal (1 Sam 25:39). So
the Psalmist beseeches God to keep him from
presumptuous sin (Ps 19:13 !H 14]).
762 w,ri(IJrsh) III. Assumed root of the follow- L.J.C.
ing.
762a IQ'.')n (IJoresh) wood, wooded 766 l'lWt!(IJäsap) strip, lay bare.
·height (e.g. Isa 17:9; Ezk 31:3).
Derivatives
763 w,ri(IJrsh) IV. Assumed root ofthe follow- 766a e,•~tr(IJäsip) little flocks (1 Kgs
ing. 20:27). Meaning uncertain.
766b tiivl'.'17;
(ma}Jsop) a laying bare, a
763a tW'.')r,(IJeresh) magic art or possibly siripping (Gen 30:37).
mechanical art.
The ASVand RSVgenerally agree in concept but
This noun is used only in lsa 3:3. BDB favors vary a little as to wording. The basic meaning
the meaning "magic art," citing Aramaic and here is to strip off a covering so as to bare what is
Ethiopic roots in support. KB and Gesenius covered. IJäsap occurs almost exclusively in
agree. Accordingly, the phrases "skillful magi- poetical literature and is very similar to (if not
cian" and "expert enchanter" are parallel. KD equal to) the more common Räla. This root oc-
and E. J. Young favor "mechanical art," and curs nine times (orten times; see Ps 29:9).
interpretthe two phrases as contrasts: "skillful This word is used to describe the armies who
artificer" and "expert enchanter." Ugaritic uses like locusts that strip trees of leaf and bark, will
the noun IJrsh in the area of magic and sorcery devastate Israel (Joel 1:7). So God in judgment
(AisleitnerWUS no. 976). will strip Edom (Jer 49: IO). Judgment and dis-
L.J.W. grace result in having one's clothes stripped off
below the waist (as with captive slaves, lsa 20:4,
764 n'jtf (IJärat) grave, engrave (Ex 32: 16). or harlots, Jer 13:26). God brings such extreme
humility even upon his own people (Jer 13:26). lt
~•~ti (IJäsip). See no. 766a. is also used of the action of the Lord as he bares
his· arm to effect salvation before the eyes of all
the earth (lsa 52: IO).
765 ,rtr (häsak) withhold; keep in check; re- Ugaritic (IJ.sp) suggests another radical mean-
frain. ing of }Jäsap, viz. to draw out a liquid from a
The ASVand Rsv translate similarly, each at- large vessel "to scoop": cf. lsa 30: 14; Hag 2: 16.
temptingto render the same idea. The root refers L.J.C.
to the free action of holding back something or
someone(also used intransitively, Ezk 30: 18; Job 767 :::wi:,(}Jäshab) think, plan, make a judg-
16:5.See G. R. Driver, JTS 34: 380). The actor ment, imagine, count. (ASVand RSVmainly

329
768 :i~r,(}Jäsha)
similar, though Rsv avoids the translations whom the Lord "imputes" not iniquity (Ps 32:2:
.. imagine" and „ count. ") Rom 4:8).
A fifth variation means "to invent," a use
Derivatives found only in the Qal. lt is employed of Bezaleel,
767a :wlj (f;esheh) ingenious work. chosen by God to be head builder of the taberna-
767b ,ii!f~ (f;eshbon) reckoning, ac- cle, describing a part of his work as "devising"
count. (inventing) artistic productions, using gold,
767c ,;:~M (f;ishshiihbn) device, inven- silver, and brass (Ex 31:4: 35:32, 35). Uzziah,
tion. king of Judah, placed in Jerusalem, war machines
767d t.i:;,wr,ii; (maf;ashäha) thought, de- "invented" by clever men (II Chr 26: 15).
vice. The last variation means "accounting,"
"bookkeeping, .. used only in the Piel. In the time
The basic idea of the word is the employment of the aged high priest, Jehoiada, when repairs
of the mind in thinking activity. Reference is not were being made on the temple, the ward is used
so much to "understanding" (cf. hin). but to the to say that the priests "reckoned" (accounted)
creating of new ideas. The root appears mainly in not with the workmen in connection with money
the Qal stem, but also in both Niphal and Piel. for the project, because the workers were honest.
and once in Hithpael. The verb alone appears 121 In the Mosaic legislation, the word is used sev-
times. eral times in respect to the "accounting" neces-
Six clear variations of the basic thought of this sary for figuring the fluctuating value of prop-
root can be distinguished in the OT. The most erties and produce, in the light of an approaching
frequently used is that of "planning," "devis- year of Jubilee (Lev 25:27, 50, 52: 27: 18, 23). The
ing." This variation is employed in reference to one use of the Hithpael is simply a reflexive of
both man and God, and it appears in both Qal and the second variation noted, "to make a judg-
Piel. lsraelites, for instance, are warned not to ment'' (Num 23:9).
"devise" evil against a brother (Zech 7: 10). In
maltäshäbä. Thought, device. This noun de-
one verse, Gen 50:20, there is reference to both
rivative appears in three basic meanings:
man and God, as Joseph uses the word twice: "thought," "plan, .. and "invention," all three
first in saying that his brothers "meant"
corresponding to basic variations noted for the
(planned) evil in their earlier treatment of him, verb. lt is used to mean ··thought" in Gen 6:5,
but that God "meant" (planned) it for good.
"Every imagination of the 'thoughts· of his heart
The next most frequent use is in the sense of was "evil." The second, "plan ... occurs when
"making a judgment." This too is employed in
the Israelites are made to say, in contrast to
reference to both man and God, and it appears in God's will for them, that they would follow their
Qal and Niphal. The well-known text, lsa 53:4, own "devices (plans) and do as they wanted"
uses it: "We did esteem (judge) him stricken, (Jer 18:12). The third is used in reference to a
smitten ofGod. and afflicted." God is the subject
skilled worker, whom Hiram ofTyre sent to Sol-
as Job exclaims. "He counts (judges) me for his omon to work on the temple. He was described
enemy" (33: 10). The uses in Niphal are simply
as being able to work out any "invention „ neces-
the passive of Qal.
sary for the task (II Chr 2:14).
A third use, rather infrequent, is that of merely
L.J.W.
running thoughts through the mind, meditating
(Qal and Piel). Malachi speaks commendably
li!!l!UM(heshbim ). See no. 767b.
about those who feared the Lord and "thought'" 1i:~n (hishsh<ihön ). See no. 767c.
about his name (3:16). The Piel is employed
(without any clear distinction in meaning) as 768 nwi, (f;ashii) silent, inactive, still.
David shows surprise. in respect to the identity of
man, that God should take "account" (have The ASV tends to translate "hold one·s peace"
thoughts) of him (Ps 144:3). where the Rsv renders "keep quiet. .. The basic
A fourth variation means "to impute, ·• actually meaning of the root is "to keep quiet, .. i.e. tobe
a specialized sense of "to make a judgment." inactive, especially with reference to speaking; it
This variation occurs three times in Qal and three is used also of wares (Ps 107:29). This is a poeti-
in Niphal, the latter simply being the passive. lt cal root which strongly parallels ~ulrash and
refers to both God and man. Shimei, after having d<imam (cf. lsa 42:14).
blatantly cursed David, beseeches David not to The Psalmist gives insight into the nature of sin
"impute" sin unto him (II Sam 19:20). More sig- by reporting that his silence in the face of aggra-
nificantly, God is spoken of as imputing. Ab- vation left him with sin within (Ps 39:2 1H 3J: cf.
raham believed God and God "counted" (im- v. 8 [H 9], also Mk 7:20).
puted) it to him for righteousness (Gen 15:6: Rom Among the prophets, only lsaiah uses this
4:3). David states that the man is blessed to ward. God, comparing himself to a warrior, says

330
 770 *,~i, (/Jäshal)

thatformerly he was silent, but now he will speak primeval ··ctarkness" which covered the world.
againstthe sin of his people (lsa 42: 14). When he In verse 4 the celestial luminaries divided the
did not speak they ignored him (lsa 57: 11; cf. "darkness" from the light (cf. v. 18). And in
Rom 2:4). Now he will speak in judgment (lsa verse 5 the "darkness" was called "night. ··
65:6).The judged, however, are to remonstrate Elsewhere höshek is equal or parallel to "night."
againsthis silence as the cause of their affliction. as in Josh 2:5; Job 17:12; 24:16; and Ps 104:20.
In the eschaton the Servant of the Lord pledges This word is used for the plague of · 'darkness"
himselfto tireless activity until the righteous of on the Egyptians (Ex 10:21-22; Ps 105:28). lt also
Jerusalem shine forth as brightness (62:1). He accompanied God's appearance on Mt. Sinai (Ex
willappoint watchmen upon her gates to call out 14:20; Deut 4: I 1; 5:23).
continuallyto God on her behalf (64:6) until God In several places it refers to the „ darkness" of
responds. Restoration does not rest upon man the grave (l Sam 2:9; Job 10:21; 18:18; 34:22; Ps
eitheras to instigation (man needs a mediator) or 88:12 [H 13]; Eccl 6:4).
accomplishment (justification is an act of God). The word occurs far more frequently in Job,
L.J.C. Psalms, and Isaiah than in all the other books
together. Often it has a figurative meaning as
:,1wi:i(häshuq). See no. 773b. noted in the paragraph above. Among those
,,1wn(l)ishshuq). See no. 773d. meanings are "ignorance" (Ps 18:28 [H 29];
,1wn (l)ishshur). See no. 774b. 107:10; lsa 9:2 [H 1]); "evil" (Isa 5:20); "hidden-
ness" (Ps 18:11 [H 12]; 139:11-12); "blindness"
769 '!!tn (häshak) be dark, darkened, black, (Job 12:25; 22:11; lsa 29:18); and "judgment"
dim,hidden. Denominative verb. (Job 3:4; Ps 35:6; lsa 47:5; 59:9). The few times
the other prophets use höshek it is mostly in this
Parent Noun last sense (cf. Ezk 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31 [H 3:4];
769a t'!!WM ( l)öshek) darkness. Arnos 5:18, 20; Nah 1:8; Zeph 1:15).
769b '!!·wn (häshök) obscure, low, only
Mshekä. Dark, darkness, dark places. Like the
i~ Pr~v 22:20. verb (/)äshak, q.v.) and masculine nouns
769c t:i:ii:in ( hasheka) darkness.
(höshek, and mal)shäk, this feminine noun also
769d t'!f~r,~ (;,,,al)shäk) darkness. means "darkness" in the few places where it oc-
Little doubt surrounds the meaning of this de- curs.
nominative verb coming from the noun l)öshek The first appearance of l)äshekii "darkness"
(darkness). lt occurs eighteen times, seventeen and the only one in a prose section is in Gen
timesin poetical books. Exodus 10:15 is the only 15:12. There it is a supernatural "darkness"
occurrenceof l)äshak in a prose passage. There it paralleled by the Hebrew word tardemii meaning
refers to the plague of darkness over Egypt. ;cteep sleep" or "torpor ...
Elsewhere the word is used to indicate judgment ~ · Psalms 82:5 and 139:12 both use l)ashekä; in
or curse. (See Job 3:9; 18:6; Ps 105:28; lsa 5:30;' fact, 139:12 also has l)öshek. Both refer to a
13:10; Jer 13:16; Ezk 30: 18; Arnos 5:8: 8:9; Mic darkness that cannot hide or limit God.
3:6.) The word appears twice in Isaiah. In 8:22 it is
The author of Eccl used l)äshak to describe the parallel to $ara (distress), m•··up $fiqa (anguished
dimvision that comes with old age: "Those who gloom), and 'apela m" nuddäh (thick blackness).
lookout the windows shall be darkened'' ( 12:3h). In 50: 10, as in Ps 82:5, it is figurative for "igno-
Lamentations 5: I 7 uses the word similarly. The rance," "evil," or "unbelief."
Psalmistmay be prayirtg down the curse of blind- This word may occur in Mic 3:6, but since
nesson his enemy when in Ps 69:23 he asks that grammarians cannot distinguish between this
theireyes "be darkened." feminine noun and a feminine form of the verb in
In Lam 4:8 l)äshak refers to the sun-blackened the third person singular of the verb häshak,
skinof the exiles. there is a difference of opinion. The sense of the
A cognate accusative appears in Ps 139:12: verse is not altered, however, in either case.
"For you darkness itself is not dark" (NAB). Only
matishäk. Dark, darkness, dark place, hiding
Job38:2 clearly conveys the idea of hiding in it.
place. The noun mal)shiik appears only in poet-
There God asked the patient hero the immortal
question, "Who is this who darkens counsel ical passages. In Ps 88:6 [H 7] mal)shäk is parallel
withoutknowledge?" to "grave•· (cf. Ps 143:3; Lam 3:6) and is used in
connection with wickedness (Ps 74:20; lsa 29: 15),
~öshek. Dark, darkness, obscurity, night, dusk. terror (Ps 88: 18 [H 19]), and blindness (lsa 42: 16).
Thenoun l)öshek is the common word for "dark- R.L.A.
ness,·· and in about half of its eighty occurrences
it means literally the opposite of light. 770 *~WI'.!(/)äshal) shatter. Used only once,
Genesis 1:2 uses l)öshek referring to the in the Niphal.

331
770.1 ',r,~tt (~ashmal)

770.1 ,r,,,~lj (IJashma/) a shining substance, sure in." Also, contrast IJäshaq, II "to join, fur-
aniber or electrum. nish with fillets or rings." Our root occurs twelve
times.
771 1Q!flj (IJashman) ambassadors. Occurs This root may denote the strong desire of a
only in Ps 68:31 [H 32]. Meaning and deri- man toward a beautiful woman (Gen 34:8) who
vation uncertain. could, however, be put away if she did not live up
to expectations (Deut 21:11-14).
772 l!UM (IJshn). Assumed root ofthe following. A deep inward attachment (in a positive sense)
772a nwn (/:u5shen) breastpiece. (KJVand is descriptive ofGod's love of Israel (Deut 10:15).
· ASVare similar, "breast-plate"; RSV He was bound to them of his own volition (love)
renders it "breastpiece. ") and not because of anything good or desirable in
lt occurs twenty-three times in the OT. Arabic
them (Deut 7:7). lt is to God's attachment (love)
cognates indicate that the word means "beauty," that Hezekiah attributes his deliverance (Isa
pointing to its value and importance among the 38:17). This is the lov.e that will not let go. If a
holy garments of the high priest. lt was made of man has such an attachment toward God he will
be delivered (Ps 91: 14).
the same materials as the ephod (Ex 28: 15). lt was
a square pouch a span (about three inches) on a tiesheq. Desire, thing desired. In I Kgs 9: 1, 19
side, with gold rings at the comers. On it were (II Chr 8:6) the temple and palace, as weil as
twelve gems on which were engraved the names other structures necessary for the functioning of
of the tribes of Israel. Gold cords fastened the the kingdom, are described as IJesheq to Sol-
upper rings to the gems on the shoulders of the omon. These were not constructed merely for his
ephod. The breastplate symbolized the unity of own pleasure. But he was emotionally bound to
the nation, the dependence of the people on the them by his love of pleasing God (cf. 1 Kgs 9: 1).
person and ministry of the high priest, their pres- L.J.C.
ence before God as a beloved people, and the
channel of the revelation of God's will. With it
were the Urim and Thummim whereby the will 774 ,iun (IJsh~). Assumed root ofthe following.
of God was conveyed to the people (Ex 28: 15-30). 774a :i,ir,lj (IJashra) collection, mass (II
The LXX designates it as the "oracle ofjudgment" Sam 22:12).
for "breastplate of judgment" or "breastplate of 774b ,~wr:,
(IJishshür) hub of a wheel (1
the (oracular) decision," in Hebrew. lt was con- Kgs 7:33).
sidered the most important item among the dis-
tinctive garments of the high priest. Josephlis's 775 tutun (IJshs h). Assumed root of the follow-
account of the breastplate is elaborate, but not ing.
entirely reliable (Antiquities of the Jews 3.7.5) 775a tuWrt (IJäshash) chaff (lsa 5:24;
Bibliography: Al, p. 350f. 33: 11).
C.L.F.

773 1'Wl;I (IJäshaq) be attached to, love. The 776 nr, (!Jet) Heth.
ASVand Rsv basically agree with the A v, im- 'A son of Canaan and the eponymous ancestor
proving Deut 10:15, Ps 91:14, lsa38:17 (but of the IJitti (Gen 10:15; I Chr l: 13). The name
Rsv "desired to build" is hardly adequate in occurs fourteen times, twice in the phrase
I Kgs 9:19 = II Chr 8:6). "daughters of Heth" (Gen 27:46), and ten times
in the phrase "sons of Heth" (Gen 23:3, 5, 7, 10
Derivatives [twice], 16, 18, 20; 25:10; 49:32). lt is plain from
773a ti,wr, (!Jesheq) desire, thing desired. the collocation of this phrase with IJitti (cf. Gen
773b i,i'tui:,(IJäshüq) fillet or ring clasping 23: 10; 25:9, 10; 49:30, 32) that they are equiva-
a pillar of the tabernacle. lent.
773c *1'~1;1 (IJshq) to furnish with fillets or 776a ~l'ln (IJitti) Hittite.
rings. Denominative verb used
only in the Piel and Pual. An ethnic term which is apparently but not cer•
773d 1'~Wr:,(IJishshüq) spoke of a wheel tainly cognate with Hittite ljAITI, Egyptian, IJt,
(1 Kgs 7:33). Akkadian IJattü, Ugaritic IJt, IJty (UT 19: nos.
1021, 1024). The name is transliterated by the LXX
IJäshaq emphasizes that which attaches to as khettaios. The name occurs forty-eight times,
something or someone; in the case of emotions including twenty times in lists of the inhabitants
(to which the biblical usage is limited) it is that of Canaan along with such groups as the Amo-
love which is already bound to its object. lt rites, Canaanites, Girgashites, Jebusites, and
should be distinguished from 'ähab "love," Perizzites.
'äwa "desire, wish," IJämad "desire, take plea- Leaving out of account the geographical list-

332
 777 :i~i, (/Jäta)
ings (Num 13:29; cf. Gen 10:15; I Chr 1:13) and lieve that even earlier references retlect anachro-
the expanded !ist of Gen 15:19f., the Hittites oc- nistic allusions to the Neo-Hittites.
cupy the first place five times (Deut 7:1: 20:17; On the other hand, in spite of the inconclusive
Josh 9:1; 12:8; II Chr 8:7), and second place ten nature of the external evidences, other scholars
times (Ex 3:8, 17; 13:5; 23:23; Josh 3:10: Jud 3:5; such as Bruce, Gordon, Kitchen, Simons, and
I Kgs 9:20; Ezr 9: 1; Neh 9:8). In prominence the North maintain that the patriarchal Hittites may
Hittites are second only to the Canaanites. very weil have stemmed from the imperial Hit-
In the patriarchal narratives of Gen the Hittites tites of the second millennium B.c. The name of
occupy the areas of Hebron and Beersheba. Tidal (Gen 14:1) has been compared with the
Numben 13:29 reports that together with the royal Hittite name Tudhalia. M. Lehmann has
Jebusites and the Amorites they held the hilly suggested that Gen 23 reveals acquaintance with
areas. Abraham bought the cave of Machpelah a Hittite legal background. A Hittite text of Mur-
for the burial of Sarah from Ephron the Hittite shili II mentions a migration of the people of
(Gen 23: IO). Kurushtama from Anatolia into Egyptian terri-
Esau grieved his parents by marrying the tory c. 1350 B.c., which might conceivably be
daughters of Heth, apparently in the Beersheba Palestine.
region (Gen 26:34; 27:46). These women are also E. Speiser, followed by Gelb and Gray, believe
considered "daughters of the land" and "daugh- that the designation l}itti may be a textual error
ters of Canaan" (Gen 27:46; cf. 28: 1; 36:2). for l}ori (q.v.) or "Hurrians." As noted above,
From the period of the Conquest and the Uriah's name may be Hurrian. We know that
Judges, apart from the lists there are but two in- there were many Hurrians in central Palestine in
dependent occurrences of the word. In Josh 1:4 the second millennium s.c.; in the Amarna period
Joshua is promised "all the land of the Hittites to (fourteenth century) the king of Jerusalem bore
the Great Sea." As the reference to the Hittites is the name Abdi-Hepa (or Warad-Hepa if the first
omitted by the LXX, it may possibly be a gloss. In half of the name be read also as Hurrian), i.e.
Jud 1:26 a man of Luz (Bethel), who aided the "Slave of the Hurrian goddess Hepa." The
Israelites against his own city, departed to the Masoretic text and the LXX confuse the names
land of the Hittites. Hittites are also mentioned in Hittites, Hurrians, and Hivites more than once.
connection with David and Solomon (1 Sam 26:6; H. Hoffner has argued that the simplest solu-
I Kings 11: 1 etc.). tion is to regard the Hittites of the patriarchal
In a passage decrying the abominations of stories and of the lists as an indigenous Canaanite
Jerusalem, Ezekiel (Ezk 16:3, 45) declares that tribe, whose name is homonymous with the im-
the city's father was an Amorite and her mother a perial Hittites, but who are quite independent of
Hittite. them.
An analysis of the names of nine individuals Bibliography: Bruce, F. F., ·•Hittites," in
who are called Hittite indicates that they all have NBD, pp. 528---29.Gelb, I. J., "Hittites," in !DB,
Semitic names: Ephron (Gen 23:10); his father II, pp. 612-15. Gurney, 0. R., The Hittites, rev.
Zohar (Gen 23:8); Esau's wives, Judith, Base- ed., Penguin, 1966. Hoffner, H. A., "The Hittites
math, Adah (Gen 26:34; 36:2); and Ahimelech (1 and Hurrians," in Peoples of O/d Testament
Sam 26:6). Uriah (II Sam 11:3) may be a name Times, ed. D. J. Wiseman, Oxford: Clarendon,
derived from the Hebrew word 'ür "light, fire," 1973, pp. 197-228. --, "Some Contributions
or from the Hurrian word iwri "lord." of Hittitology to Old Testament Study," Tyndale
In nonbiblical references the name Hittite can Bulletin 20: 27-55. Lehmann, Manfred R., "Ab-
have a number of meanings. In rare instances it raham's Purchase of Machpelah and Hittite
can designate the aboriginal Hattian people of Law," BASOR 129: 15-18. North, Robert, "The
Anatolia. U sually, it designates the Indo- Hivites," Bib 54: 43-62. Speiser, E. A., Genesis,
Europeans (Nesites and Luwians) who invaded in AB. Tucker, Gene M., "The Legal Back-
Anatolia c. 2000 B.c. and established a mighty ground of Genesis 23," JBL 85: 77-84. Van Set-
empire which tlourished c. 1700-1200 B.c. The ers, John, "The Terms · Amorites' and •Hittites'
remnants of this empire in the form of the king- in the Old Testament," VT 22: 64-81.
doms of Carchemish, Hamath, etc. in northern E.Y.
Syria are called Neo-Hittite by scholars. The As-
syrians and the Babylonians in the first millen- r,i:1 ( l}at). See nos. 784a,b.
nium B.c. used the term mät Hatti "land of
Hatti" to designate Syria and Palestine.
lt is fairly clear that the references to the Hit- 777 :"!l;l,:t ( l}äta) snatch up, usually jire, coals.
tites in the days of David, Solomon, and Elisha
(1000-900 B.c.; cf. II Kgs 7:6) are probably to the Derivative
Neo-Hittites of Syria. Some scholars such as 777a t:,1;1i:,r; ( mal}ta) snuffdish, jirepan,
Montgomery, Noth, Gurney, and Van Seters be- tray, censer.

333
 778 *'!Tt\1'(l;ätak)
This feminine noun seems related to the root Derivatives
hth meaning "to take" or "to catch," referring to 780a tcr,·n (/uitä111) seal,signet (ASV,Rsv
fire (cf. Ps 52:5 [H 71; Prov 6:27; 25:22: lsa 30: 14). · the s~me except RSVhas signet ring
(The noun m''hittil differs only in the vowels and in Hag 2:23).
dagesh and m~ans ··ctestruction" or "ruin. ") 780b tri~r,n (/Jötemet) a signet seal.
maht<i first occurs in connection with the de-
scriptlon of the tabernacle and its tools for ser- The basic meaning of this root is "to seal."
vice. They were made of gold (Ex 25:38: 37:23; Various kinds of documents were authenticated
Num 4:9) and were parts of or used with the by affixing seal impressions from stamp or cylin-
seven-branched lamp. Some, used with the altar, der seals. The one was stamped into clay or wax
were bronze (Ex 27:3; 38:3; Num 4: 14). Of course while the other was rolled across it, leaving an
in a culture which had no matches, firepans or in impression. Letters (1 Kgs 21 :8), decrees of kings
common life potsherds would be used to carry (Est 3: 12; 8:8, 10; Dan 6: 17-18), covenants (Neh
the coals to light one fire from another. 10:1 [H 2]), land purchase deeds (Jer 32: 10, 11,
According to I Kgs 7:50 and II Chr 4:22, Sol- 44), and books (Dan 12:4) were sealed. Also an
omon made new firepans for the temple, which unintelligible prophecy is said in a simile to be
were later taken as booty by the conquering sealed (lsa 29: 11).
Babylonians (II Kgs 25:15; Jer 52:19). These are Hence sealing designates that which is securely
the bronze tools associated with the altar. enclosed (Dan 12:9) by lying under a seal (Dan
In Lev 10:1, 16: 12, and Num 16, ma/Jta refers 12:9), e.g. the stars (Job 9:7), a treasure (Deut
to something other than the utensils used with the 32:34), or one·s transgression (Job 14:17). Isaiah
lampstand or the altar. Most translate maJ:,ta in was to seal up his teaching in his disciples, that is,
these places as "censer." Numbers 16 describes to keep it securely (Isa 8:16). A sealed fountain is
the rebellion of Korah. The earth swallowed up a metaphor for a chaste woman (Song 4:12).
the rebels but their "censers" were beaten out as The root also signifies to close up the hand of
a plating for the altar (16:39-40 [H 17:4-51). man so that he cannot work in winter (Job 37:7)
R.L.A. and signifies that which is closed up (Job 24: 16)
as when a man·s running sore or discharge ofthe
urinary tract is stopped (Lev 15:3).
:"lt)l'.l (hitta). See no. 784d.
,~r.n (hittul). See no. 779b. !tötäm. Seal, signet. This masculine noun,
r,nr,n ihathal). See no. 784e. from the root ~1iitam "to seal, .. refers to a seal
•r-iri
- (J:,iiti).· See no. 776a. made of engraved stone impressed in clay or wax
ri•r,n U1ittit). See no. 784f. to authenticate a document. If it were a cylinder
seal like those used in Mesopotamia it would be
suspended around the neck on a string (Gen
778 *11'.11:1
(bä1ak) are df'termined (KJV): de- 38: 18). A stamp seal such as was more common
creed (ASV.KSV. Amplified. JB. :S:AB): settled in Palestine would be carried. or worn on a finger
(Berkeley Version): marked out (,rn). (Jer 22:24). However (aha'at is the ordinary
This verb appears only in the passive stem ward for signet ring. Jezebel used Ahab's seal to
(Niphal), and only in Dan 9:24, the famous "se- authenticate the order of Naboth's death (1 Kgs
venty weeks" passage. In rabbinic Hebrew the 21:8; cf. sir 42:6). Numerous stamp seals and cy-
root /Jtk basically means "cut. .. hence the trans- linder seals have been found in archeological ex-
lation "decreed" in most versions. (See Marcus cavations in Palestine.
Jastrow. Dictionarr ofthe Tan:umi11. the Talmud The stones and gold plate on the priest's gar-
Bahli and Yeruslwimi, and the Midrashic Litera- ment were engraved as a jeweler engraved sig-
ture, I, Pardes. 1950. p. 513.) nets (Ex 28: 11, 21. 26: 39:6, 14, 30). As distinc-
R.L.A. tive property of its owner, a seal could prove that
Judah had been with Tarnar (Gen 38: 18: but v. 25
has /Jötemel). "The signet on the right hand" is a
779 *1?i:,i, Oultal) entwine, enwrap. Occurs figure for that which is particularly precious to
only in the Pual and Hophal (Ezk 16:4). one (Jer 22:24: Hag 2:23).
Derivatives In figures of speech the beloved desires to be
as the seal on the heart and upon the arm (Song
779a :,7M Ouitüllci) swaddling band- 8:6). One speaks of morning changing the earth
. (Job 38:9). like clay under the 1,eal (Job 38: 14) the figure
779b 1,~l'IM 01ittül) bandage (Ezk 30:21). probably being derived from the rolling of a cy-
linder seal over clay: of Leviathan ·s back shut up
780 QM (hätam) a/JIX a seal, seal up. This closely as with a seal (Job 41:15 [H 71); and of a
-~erb occurs in the Qal, Niphal. and Hiphil. king as the signet of perfection (Ezk 28: 12).

334
 781 i.nn(IJtn)
!iötemet. Signet. Used for impressing docu- and RSVtranslate alike.) Some twenty references
ments, the cylinder seal was widely known in the to the noun are found in the OT. The root appears
ancient near east. As a mark for personal prop- in Ugaritic as noun and verb.
erty, the seal, practically a signature. was undis- Married life was the normal state among the
putable evidence that Judah had been with Tarnar Hebrews. The family was the basic social unit.
(Gen 38:25: cf. v. 18). Marriage had important family and tribal conse-
Bibliography: Tufnell. 0., ··seals and quences. lf a woman proved unsatisfactory to her
Scarabs;· in IDB, pp. 254-59. Huey, F. B. husband, she would return to her father·s house .
.. Seal," in ZPEB, V, pp. 319-24. with an aftermath of strained relations between
J.P.L. the families (Jud 14:20: I Sam 18: 19). The natural
procedure, then, was for the families involved to
781 u,n 01t11). Assumed root of the following. contract the conditions for the union. This did not
781a i;,·n (/:löten) wife's fat.her,father-in- rule out automatically the consent of the couple
law. KB use the word /Jöten in the (Gen 24:8), and love matches were possible also
sense of son-in-law. The Ug is htn. (Gen 29:20; 34:3; Jud 14:1: I Sam 18:20). The
UT 19: no. 1025: vb ... to marry." husband was his bride's master ()sa 62:4). but
noun: --son-in-law" (KJv, ASV.and this was not an absolute norm (Gen 21: 1Off.).
Rsv, "father-in-law.") The word ap- When the husband was incorporated into the
pears twenty-two times, of which all tribe of his wife, the children were considered as
but four citations refer to Jethro, belonging to her tribe or family (cf. Jacob and
priest of Midian. Moses· father-in- Laban, Gen 31:31. ·43; Moses and Jethro. Ex
law. KB reverse the persons calling 2:21; 4:18).
Moses the son-in-law. Betrothal among the ancient lsraelites was a
781b *1.tir;t(/Jätan) make oneself a daugh• binding agreement, considered a part of marriage
ter's husband. Denominative verb. (Gen 24:58, 60). Dowry was paid to the parents of
the bride, and this was the central element in the
Parent Noun betrothal. In Jacob"s case it took the form of a
781c tii;,r:, (/Jätän) daughter's husband, stipulated number of years of service; for David it
bridegroom. involved a specific task for Saul (1 Sam 18:25).
781d Mgi:,t,(/Jtitünnii) marriage, wedding, The betrothal consisted of a settlement of the
only in Song 3: 11. terms of the marriage in the presence of witnes-
ses. The union could take place some months or
The denominative verb occurs only as a
even years after the betrothal. Unfaithfulness of a
Hithpael "make oneself a daughter·s husband, ..
"become somebody·s son-in-law. ·· (KJV,ASV,and betrothed couple was considered adultery (Deut
22:23: see also Mt 1:19).
Rsv render alike in Josh 23: 12, --make mar-
riages. ") At the time of the marriage the wedding pro-
cession was the first part of the ceremonies (Ps
Joshua, in his final address to Israel. explicitly
45: 15). The friends of the btidegroom (Jn 3:29)
warned them against contracting marriages with
went, as a rule by night. to take the bride and her
the native Canaanites lest the latter become a
party to the groom·s home (Mt 9: 15). an event
snare to the people ofGod (Josh 23:12-13). Once
marked by much joy (Jer 7:34). The marriage
Solomon was established on the throne of Israel,
supper took place in the home of the groom. a
he began the well-known practice of contracting
marriages for political purposes (1 Kgs 3: 1). The feast as elaborate as means permitted. No formal
religious ceremony was part of the marriage
nation had been admonished on this very score
ceremony, unlike our custom. The union was
with regard to the nations already resident in the
consummated in the btidal chamber or tent (Gen
land of promise (Deut 7:3). The questionable
24:67).
value of contracted marriages to settle problems
The biblical basis for marriage is in Gen 2: 18.
between peoples had already been witnessed in
24. lt is to be monogamous (Gen 2:24). Polygamy
the case of the sons of Jacob and Shechem the
was common (Jud 8:30; II Sam 5: 13), but the as-
Hivite, who had violated the sanctity of Jacob's
sumption underlying references in Ps 128: Prov
household. Saul the king enticed David to be-
12:4; 31: 10-31 is monogamy. The prophets used
come his son-in-law to satisfy his inordinate
marriage as a figure of God"s love for Israel (lsa
jealousy (1 Sam 18:2<r-27).Examples of the rela-
61: 10: 62:5: Hos 2:21-22: Song). Marriages which
tionship of sons-in-law to a father-in-law are seen
involved close relations (but not first cousins)
in the history of Jacob (Gen 29-31) and Moses
were forbidden (Lev 18, 20). Children were a
(Ex 2:20-22: 4:18).
blessing and barrenness a misfortune <Psa
!iätän. Daughter's husband, bridegroom. The 127:3-5). Little is known ahout the marriage
first designation shows the relationship to the ceremony. The act is referred to simply as „tak-
btide's father: the second, to the btide. (KJV.Asv. ing a wife" (Ex 2: 1). Some type of feast as a

335
782 eitir,(IJätap)
celebration took place (Gen 29:22). Processions dismay in general while the Niphal form has
for the bride and groom were a chief part of the clearly assumed the meaning of "to fear."
celebrations. For the Qal form, literal breaking is indicated
Biblwgraphy: Burrows, M., The Basis of Is- in describing the "cracked" condilion of land
raelite Marriaf,!e, American Oriental Society, under drought (ASVJer 14:4; RSV"dismayed").
1938. Epstein, L. M., Marriaf,!e Laws in the Bible The "destruction" of Misgab (Jer 48: 1; RSV"for-
and the Talmud, Harvard University Press, 1942. tress" for "misgab") may preserve the root
Goodman, P. & H., The Jewish Marriaf,!e An- meaning.
tholof,!y, Jewish Publishing Co., 1965. Kahana, However, most of its usages refer to secondary
K., The Theory of Marriaf,!e in Jewish Law, Brill, meanings. lt describes the terror or panic of mili-
1966. Neufeld, E., Ancient Hebrew Marriaf,!e tary leaders whose courage has been broken (Isa
Laws, Longmans, 1944. 31:9). With the broader meaning of ··cte-
C.L.F. moralized," usually translated "dismayed," it
may describe defeated nations (lsa 20:5; Jer
:iu,ri (/Jatünnii). See no. 781d. 48:20, 39), gods of defeated nations (Jer 50:2) or
classes of people (Jer 8:9). In harmony with its
meaning, the typical parallel for the Qal form of
782 l'ltlr;t ( /Jätap) seize, snatch away (Job this verb is bösh "to be ashamed" as in most
9: 12). examples cited above. Demoralization, stemming
Derivative from frustration, may be expressed by this verb
as applied to Job's three friends after they gave
782a l\!)ri ( IJetep) prey (Prov 23 :28). up arguing with Job (Job 32:15).
The Niphal signifies breaking or destruction in
783 ititi (/Jätar) dig, row (e.g. Jon 1:13; reference to people: Ephraim is shattered (lsa
Arnos 9:2). 7:8), and God's enemies will be broken to pieces
(I Sam 2: IO). However, God's righteousness shall
Derivative never be broken (Isa 51:6).
783a n,r,n~ ( malJteret) breaking in, bur- The meaning "to fear" is several times attested
'ii~ry(Jer 2:34). in passages where the Niphal parallels other
terms for "fearing." lt describes the terror of the
784 1'1ti1' (/Jätat) (be) broken, abolished, afraid, Hebrew army at Goliath's challenge (1 Sam
dismayed causative stems: to break, ter- 17:11) and it appears in the negative command
rify, dismay, (Rsv "be in panic," "to not to fear (Deut 1:21; Josh 8: 1). Like other verbs
panic"; ASV"cracked"). of fearing (cf. yäre' and pä/Jad) it can refer to
awe or reverence as in revering God's name (Mal
Derivatives 2:5).
784a tr,r:i ( IJat) I, terror,fear. Other derived stems develop the meanings
784b 1'11'.1(IJat) II, shattered, dismayed. noted above. The Piel is causative, "You ter-
784c trititt (IJatat) terror, only m Job rified me" (Job 7: 14; note: most authorities re-
6:21. gard the Piel of Jer 51:56 as a textual error and
784d t:,~n ( IJittii) terror, only m Gen translate it passively or statively, "bones are
broken"). The Hiphil is causative, meaning "to
35:5.
784e tr,ri~r:i ( IJatlJat) terror, only in Eccl break" (lsa 9:4 [H 3]; "hast broken") and "to
f2:5.
terrify" (Job 31; 34; note also the difficult pas-
784f tn•!'ln (IJittit) terror. sage, Hab 2: 17).
784g t:,~n7? (m' IJittii) destruction, ruin, tiat. Dread, fear. Twice refers to the internal
terror. emotion of fear (Gen 9:2; Job 41 :33 [H 25)). II,
The basic idea is "tobe broken" from which broken, demoralized. Once describes the broken
other abstract and secondary ideas are derived bows of the mighty (1 Sam 2:4) and once de-
such as "be abolished" or "be in panic." Four scribes emotional demoralization (Jer 46:5; usu-
ranges of meanings are attested for this word and ally translated "dismayed").
its derivatives: 1) literal breaking, 2) abstract de- tlAtat. Calamity (KJV "casting down"; ASV
struction, 3) demoralization, and 4) terror. "terror"). Describes Job's state (Job 6:21).
Both Qal and Niphal forms of the verb are sta- "Calamity" or "misfortune" drawn from the
tive. Both may refer either to being broken or to idea of "breaking" best fits the context.
derived ideas such as fearing or being de-
moralized. They can be slightly distinguished in tlitta. Tellor, fear. Used once (Gen 35:5) for
that the secondary significance of the Qal form the supematural terror cast upon the surrounding
refers to the broader idea of demoralization or cities after the massacre of Shechem.

336
 784 r,rir, (hätat)

!Jattiat. Fears, terrors. Occurs only in the 1) Litera] physical ruins (Ps 89:40); 2) Destruc-
plural, referring to the fears of old age (Eccl tion in an abstract sense may be described (e.g.
12:5). Prov 10:14; 18:7); and 3) An external object of
terror (Jer 17:17; 48:39). In several passages it is
!iittit. Terror. V sed only in Ezk 32:24--32 to
unclear whether abstract ruin or an external ter-
describe the terror cast upon the nations by Tyre
ror is described (e.g. Prov 10:15; 10:29). There
and by the military power of the other nations
are no clear examples in which this term refers to
listed there.
the internal emotion of terror.
me!iittä. Destruction, ruin, terror (KJV, ASV A.B.
"dismaying"; RSV "horror"). Three meanings:

337
785 *K~K~ ((e'(e') sweep. Occurs only in the 31). Though Babylon is the "sword" used by
Pilpel, in lsa 14:23, we(e'(e'tfha h'ma('ate' God to "slaughter" Israel in judgment, Babylon
hashmed "and I will sweep it with the too will perish as a lamb led to slaughter through
broom of destruction." the Lord's wrath (Jer 51:40). This comparison to
a lamb brought to slaughter emptasizes two as-
Derivative pects of judgment depicted by this root. First, the
785a K~~t?t; (ma('a(e') broom. Occurs slaughtered victim is unaware of the conse-
only in lsa 14:23. quences .of the course which he is following, as
implied by Jeremiah's self-description as a lamb
,~:!? (t' bu/). See no. 788a. led by the men of Anathoth to slaughter, uncon-
"!~l~ ((abbür). See no. 790a. scious of their pi ans (Jer 11:19; cf. Jer 51:40).
This is vividly portrayed by (eba!J when it is em-
786 M;~ ((iiba!J) slaughter, buJcher, slay, kill ployed to describe a young man who does not
ruthlessly. (ASV and RSV similar.) realize the consequences of being seduced by a
prostitute (Prov 7:22). Second, the element of
Derivatives planning by the executioner is clearly present in
786a tM;i;i ([ebalJ) slaughter, slaughtering, contexts where this root is employed (cf. Jer
animal.
11:19; Prov 7:22). Psalm 37: 14 portrays the
wicked plotting to "slay" the upright.
786b tMi:,=?t:i((ib/Ja) slaughtered meat,
flesh, slaughter, meat.
A unique use of (eba!J and (tiba/J is provided in
786c mi~ ([abha/J) cook, body guard, Prov 9:2 when "wisdom" is personified as one
guardsman. preparing "wisdom" as her food ((äb/Ja (ib/Jah)
786d tMi:,;~ ((abhii/Ja) female cook. for foolish mankind to eat.
786e tti:llt?t; (ma(bea/J) slaughter.
jeba... Slaughter, slaughtering, animal. fib„a.
The primary literal meaning of this root is "to Slaughtered meat, flesh, slaughter, meat. maJbe-
deliberately slaughter or butcher an animal for
food," but this concept is most often employed
a... Slaughter, place of slaughter.
These three derivatives are employed to repre-
metaphorically to depict the slaying of men. The sent the slaughtered victim. The sense of an ani-
synonym ziiba!J, though similar in its basic mal being slain is conveyed only by (eba!J in Gen
nuance, conveys the additional idea of "slaughter 43:16 and (ib!Ja in I Sam 25:11 (as cognate ac-
for sacrifice" from which the offerer often par- cusatives). Otherwise, (eba/J is employed primar-
takes. htirag (q.v.) and shii/Ja( (q.v.) are found in ily to represent people as the slaughter victim,
parallelism with (tiba!J; härag conveys the sense especially by God'sjudgment (cf. two exceptions
of killing with violence in war or conflict while discussed above in Prov 7:22; 9:2). All nations
shti/Ja( emphasizes beating the subject in order to will ultimately experience the Lord's vengeance
kill it or, since the Akk sha/Jii(u means "'flay," demonstrated in their slaughter (lsa 34:2) through
"to kill for sacrifice" which often included skin- Babylon's campaigns (of 586 s.c. and following)
ning. and at the end time. Israel will be slain by the
The central meaning of the root occurs only Lord"s "sword," Babylon (Ezk 21:10, 15 [H 15,
three times (Gen 43: 16; Ex 22: 1 [H 21 :37]; 1 Sam 20)-note the relation to harag, "slay" !Jalalim
25: 11). The root is predominantly used metaphor- and re~a/J "slaughter" in Ezk 21: 11, 14, 22 [H 16,
ically, portraying the Lord's judgment upon Is- 19,271); Edom, Moab, Ammon, and Babylon will
rael and upon Babylon as a slaughter. The em- be brought down to the slaughter by the Lord (Isa
phasis is placed upon lsrael's leaders, the 34:6; Ezk 21:28 [H 33]; Jer 50:27; cf. ma(bea/J in
"shepherds," who ironically are being slain. This lsa 14:21). (eba!J emphasizes God's justice
carnage is executed by Nebuchadnezzar's inva- whereby he purposes to punish those who refuse
sion in 586 s.c. (Jer 25:34; Ezk 21:10 [H 15)) to respond to his call (lsa 65: 12)--those who have
which leaves slaughtered corpses in Jerusalem's failed to understand that the ultimate conse-
streets (Lam 2:21). Cursing upon Israel was quences of failing to listen when God speaks, is
promised in the Mosaic covenant (Lev 26; Deut physical destruction.
28), where God declares that he will ultimately (eba!J is employed to describe the Messiah's
curse lsrael's rebellion by depriving her of her death for sin, emphasizing his silence by the
own herds which will be confiscated and comparison to a lamb when it is slaughtered (lsa
slaughtered for food by foreigners (Deut 28:26, 53:7). Although a lamb is silent because it is ig-

341
787 ,,~ (täbal)

norant of its destiny, certainly the Messiah was bom (Ex 12:22). ldentification is also conveyed
fully cognizant of the Father's will in his death, in the cleansing ritual for lepers (Lev 14:6, 16, 51;
the horribleness of which is conveyed by the fig- II Kgss5:14) and the dead (Num 19:18). Hyssop,
ure of „ slaughter." or the priest's finger, is dipped in water or oil,
The noun (iblJii is used (in parallel to härag )in cleansing agents, and sprinkled upon the unclean
Jer 12:3 for the judgment of the wicked andin Ps object to identify it as cleansed.
44:22 (H 23] for lsrael's affliction which the right- Job 9:31 employs the root to represent Bildad
eous endure because of their stand for the Lord. "plunging" Job into the filthy pit of accusations.
Apparently 'eblJ,ii (Ezk 20: 15 (H 21]) is an error or Blessing is depicted by "dipping" one's feet in oil
an altemate for (iblJ,il. (Deut 33:24; cf. Job 29:6).
Bibliography: TDNT, I, pp. 535-36.
JabbalJ. Cook, bodyguard, guardsman. Jabbäba. R.H.A.
Female cook. These two derivatives convey the
idea of a "cook" who slaughters and prepares
meat: rabbälJ,, for a masculine "cook" (only in I 788 ',:,~ ((bl) II. Assumed root of the following.
Sam 9:23-24) and rabbälJ,ii, used only once in I 788a ,~:,~ ((' bül) turban. Occurs only
Sam 8: 13 for a female "cook." The normal use of in Ezk 23:15.
(abbälJ, (twenty-nine times) describes a "body
guard" or "guardsman." Genesis employs the
term with sar and säris to describe Potiphar and
789 11,~ ((äba') sink, sink down, drown, settled
or planted. (Asv and Rsv translate "fas-
the prison warden, chief officials in Egypt. The tened" and "shaped" respectively for
basic nuance of "executioner" lies behind the "settled" or "planted. ")
development of the noun, though both in the
Joseph account in Egypt (Gen 37-41) and in the Derivative
function of Nebuzaradan, the "chief (rab) of the
guard" of Nebuchadnezzar in II Kgs 25 and Jer
789a trw;~ ((abba'at) ring, signet-ring.
39-52, the sense of the term has become that of The central meaning is "to sink into some-
"chief official." This is supported by the parallel thing.'' The literal meaning of the root is clearly
officials mentioned in Jer 39: 13-"the chief of the pictured by the stone which sank in Goliath's
soothsayers" and "the chief of the eunuchs"- skull (1 Sam 17:49). However, the root is nor-
and by the cognate Aramaic noun in Dan 2:14 mally employed metaphorically. Tobe "sunk in
which describes a high court official commis- the mire'' (Jer 38:6) portrays the idea of one trap-
sioned to execute the Babylonian wise men. This ped in a given circumstance, whether in indeci-
passage may argue that the function of "execu- sion and entanglement (Jer 38:22), in predic-
tion" is still the duty of officials receiving this aments of sin (Ps 9: 15 [H 16]), or in despair over
title. Whether in Egypt or Babylon, the official affliction and distress (Ps 69:2, 14 (H 3, 15]).
with this title is the king's representative to exe- God's work of creation is described in terms of
cute discipline, judgment, and leadership. "sinking" a foundation (Job 38:6----parallel to
Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 929-33. "laying a comerstone ") and establishing the
R.H.A. mountains (Prov 8:25). Destruction is conveyed
by this root in the collapse of Jerusalem's gate
787 ,,., ((äbal) I, dip, plunge. (ASVand RSV ("sunk into tte ground," Lam 2:9) and the drown-
similar.) ing of the Egyptian army in the Reed Sea (Ex
15:4).
The verb conveys the immersion of one item
into another: bread in vinegar (Ruth 2: 14), feet in Jabba'at. Ring, signet ring. This term denotes
water (Josh 3: 15), a coat in blood (Gen 37:31). an official seal-ring of the Pharaoh or king which
baptö is the common LXX rendering of this root. makes decrees official by its imprint (Gen 41 :42;
"Dipping" is employed in Israel's religious Est 3: 10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10). The synonym IJ,otäm
ritual of cleansing. (See I Sam 14:7 for dipping in (q.v.) has this same nuance and implies that the
the literal sense). In the sin offering, whereby the Messiah, represented by Zerubabbel, will be
sinner's (individual or national) iniquity is God's official seal and certainty of all his decrees
atoned, the priest dips his finger into the blood of (Hag 2:23). This meaning, or that of an ordinary
the sacrificial animal and sprinkles it before the finger ring, is used in Ex 35:22, Num 31 :50, and
veil or places it upon he altar's homs (Lev 4:6, lsa 3:21. The noun is employed twenty-eight
17; 9:9). The sinner is identified with the animal's times in Ex to describe the rings used for poles
blood shed as a representation of the death paid (or bars) which hold the tabemacle together,
for the sin. Hbrews 9: 19-22 draws on this figure which carry the fumiture, or which enable the
of cleansing by blood. Similarly, bllod was placed high priest's breastplate to be fastened to the
on the doorposts at Passover, representing the ephod.
lamb's blood shed substitutionally for the first R.H.A.

342
 792 , 0 ~ ((äher)

790 ,:i~ ( (br). Assumed root of the following. topaz, and pure gold (Job 28:18-19). The words
790a ,~z~ ( (abbur) highest part, of the Lord are pure words, (JB) "without alloy,"
center. Occurs in Jud 9:37; Ezk as silver (Ps 12:6 [H 71).
38: 12. In Zechariah's vision (Zech 3:5) the high priest
Joshua was to exchange his filthy garments for
791 l"I~~ ((ebet) tenth month (December- rich apparel, including "a clean turban" (Av,
)anuary). This noun, a loan from Akka- "fair mitre"). Its glistening purity would be
dian, occurs in Est 2: 16. (For other month emblematic of his newly sanctified state.
names see no. 613b.) The word (iiher is used of the purification of
the booty taken in war either by fire or by "the
iiM~ ((iihor). See no. 792d. water of impurity" (Num 31 :23). The verband its
derivatives are most frequently used of the
purification necessary to restore someone who
792 '1t,~ ((aher) be pure, clean.
has contracted impurity (see (iime') to a state of
Derivatives purity so that he could participate in the ritual
activities (Lev 22:4-7).
792a ti::t"~ ( (öhar) clearness.
After the birth of a child a mother had to wait a
792b t'1M~ (t'' hiir) cleanness.
certain period and then bring certain offerings to
792c m,~; ·((i,hora) purif,cation. be cleansed "from the flow of her blood" (Lev
792d tiiM~ ((iihor) clean, pure.
12:7-8). A man who had a discharge waited seven
The root (hr is cognate with Ugaritic (hr (var- days, then washed his clothes and bathed in order
iant ?,hr), used of gems of lapis lazuli (UT 19: tobe clean (Lev 25: 13). The identification of the
no. 1032);cf. S. Arabic (hr "pure" and Arabic (ah- discharge (see zub) is uncertain. Was it diarrhea?
ara "tobe pure, clean." The verb occurs ninety- Or did it include any running sore?
four times in the Qal, Pie!, Pual, and Hithpael A "leprous" man who had been healed had to
stems. lt is used almost exclusively of ritual or go through an elaborate ceremony to be declared
moral purity. Once, however, in the Pie! it refers clean (Lev 14): Two live "clean" birds had tobe
to the cleansing of the skies by the winds in Job provided. The priest killed one bird, dipped the
37:21, "sweeps the clouds away" (NAB), and living bird in its blood, sprinkled the man with the
once as a Pie! participle it refers to the purifying blood, declared him clean, and then released the
of silver (Mal 3:3). bird (vv. 4-7). The man then had to wash his
All told (iiher and its derivatives occur 204 clothes, shave, and bathe (v. 8), and repeat all
times. In the great majority of cases they appear this a week later (v. 9). The priest then sacrificed
in the priestly literature: about forty-four percent the man's offerings of lambs, cereal and oil, and
in Lev and Num, about sixteen percent in Ex anointed parts of the man's body with blood and
(especially of the pure gold for the cult), and oil (vss. 11-20). Less expensive offerings were
about fourteen percent in Chr and Ezk. prescribed for the poor (vss. 21-32). The leprous
The Lxx generally translates (iiher and its de- man healed by Jesus was instructed to show him-
rivatives by katharizö, katharos, katharismos, self to the priest and offer for his cleansing what
etc. "to purify," "pure," "purity." Moses had commanded (Mk 1:44; Mt 8:4; Lk
In a material sense the adjective (iihor is used 5:14; cf. Lk 17:14). A house which was "lep-
to describe the pure gold of the appurtenances of rous" was purified through a similar process (Lev
the tabernacle in numerous passages in Ex: of the 14:48-53). See ~iira 'at "leprosy, disease."
ark (25: II), the mercy seat (25:17), the table For the purification from the defilement of
(25:24), various vessels (25:29), the lampstand, death either by contact with a corpse, a tomb,
AV"candlestick" (25:31); the plate (28:36), the etc., special "waters of impurity" prepared with
incense altar (30:3), etc. Garments for Aaron the ashes of a red heifer had tobe sprinkled (Num
were made with cords as ofpure gold (Ex 39:15); 19): After the heifer had been burned, a clean
cf. Ex 37 passim. The lampstand of gold is also person had to gather the ashes and place them
described as a pure lampstand (Ex 31:8; 39:37). outside the camp in a clean place (v. 9). The de-
Also made of pure gold were the appurte- filed man was to be sprinkled with this water on
nances of the temple (1 Chr 28: 17), its inner deco- the third and the seventh day of his week of im-
rations (11 Chr 3:4), and Solomon's throne (II Chr purity (vss. 11, 12). He would then wash his
9:17). The "pure table" ofthe showbread (II Chr clothes, bathe, and then be clean (ve. 19).
13:11) is interpreted by the Rsv to be a "table of Soldiers who killed in warfare also required
pure gold." such purification (Num 31: 19). In Ezekiel's vi-
The Lord commanded Moses to make per- sion of Gog, Israel would spend seven months
fumed incense which would be "pure and holy" burying the multitude of corpses to cleanse the
(Ex 30:35). land (Ezk 39: 12, 14, 16).
The price of wisdom is above that of pearls, Priests and Levites, in particular, had to be

343
792 "'lt!~((äher)

cleansed to fulfil their ritual functions. Moses are an abomination to the Lord, the words of the
was commanded to sprinkle "the water of expia- pure are pleasing to him." The Heb. reads,
tion" (Rsv) upon the Levites to cleanse them "pleasant words are pure." [Citations are from
(Num 8:5-22). Later the duty of the Levites in- the RSVbelow.]
cluded the cleansing of all that was holy in the True purity cannot bc achieved by any man on
temple (I Chr 23:28). During Hezekiah's reform his own. Rather, "There are those who are pure
they purified the temple (II Chr 29: 15). in their own eyes but are not cleansed of their
In the post-exilic period when the temple was filth" (Prov 30: 12). Eliphaz asks, "Can a man be
rebuilt the priests and the Levites purified them- pure before his Maker?" (Job 4:17).
selves so that the passover could be celebrated Only God can cleanse. There are those, to be
(Ezr 6:20). Likewise at the dedication of the wall sure, who will not be cleansed. The Lord asks
of Jerusalem the priests and the Levites purified Jerusalem, "How long will it be before you are
themselves, the people, the gates, and the wall made clean?" (Jer 13:27). But for others, the
(Neh 12:30, 45). When Nehemiah returned to Lord promises: "I will cleanse them from all the
Jerusalem a second time he cleansed the temple guilt of their sin against me" (Jer 33:8).
chambers which had been defiled by Tobiah (Neh The Lord promises cleansing in a number of
13:9), and ordered the purification of the Levites key passages in Ezekiel: "I will sprinkle clean
and the priests from everything foreign (Neh water upon you, and you shall be clean from all
13:22, 30). When the Lord returns he will purify your uncleannesses, and from all your idols I will
the sons of Levi as a refiner (m '(aher) of silver cleanse you" (36:25; cf. 36:33). "They shall not
(Mal 3:3). defile themselves any more with their idols .... ;
Ritual purity was intended to teach God's holi- but I will save them ... and will cleanse them"
ness and moral purity. Lev 16:30 (Rsv) declares, (37:23).
"For on this day shall atonement be made for That such cleansing was not just intended for
you, to cleanse you; from all your sins you shall the people ofGod in the future but for individuals
be clean before the Lord." Hauck says: "Be- is demonstrated by that most personal of Psalms
cause the religion of Israel emphasises so (Ps 51), in which the writer, identified in the
strongly the holiness of God, it develops the con- superscription with David after his sin with
cept of purity with corresponding energy. The Bathsheba, cries out: "Wash me thoroughly from
law works out a whole series of regulations. my iniquity" (vs. 2 [H 4]); "Purge me with hys-
Somc purifications are preparatory. They set sop, and I shall be clean" (vs. 7 [H 91); "Create in
man in a necessary state of holiness for encounter me a clean heart, 0 God" (vs. 10 [H 12]).
with God (Ex 19: 10; Num 8: 15). Some are expia- See also: bar, bör, bärar, zäk, zäka, zäkak,
tory. They restore forfeited purity by lustrations käbas, näqi, räf;a.r; for impurity see (äme'.
(Lev 16:lff., 19:23ff.; Ezk 39:12; II Chr 29:15;
34:3, 8 (TDNT, III: 416). ,öhar. Clearness; purijication. This substan-
lt was not the ritual purification from the of- tive is used but once in Ex 24: 10 of the clearness
ficiating priest which ultimately mattered, but the ofthe sky, "clear blue" (NEB),and twice ofritual
forgiveness from God which rendered men clean purification in Lev 12:4, 6.
before him. Hezekiah prayed for those who sin- ,•här. Cleanness, purity. This hapax le{?ome-
cerely sought the Lord though they may not have
non occurs in Ps 89:44 [H 45] in a passage which
observed all the rules for ritual cleansing: "Fora
speaks about the Lord's power to cast the king's
multitude of the people ... had not cleansed
throne to the ground. The AVrenders it, "Thou
themselves, yet they ate the passover otherwise
has made his Rlory to cease." Some Hebrew
than as prescribed. For Hezekiah had prayed for
MSS read *mi(här, perhaps "purity, splendor."
them, saying, "The good Lord pardon cvcry one
The NABreads "luster." Following the conjec-
who sets his heart to seek God ... even though tural emendation ma((eh are the RSV"the scep-
not according to the sanctuary's rules of cleans-
ter," JB "his glorious scepter"; cf. NEB "his
ing'" (Rsv, II Chr 30: 18-19).
glorious rule."
Ritual sanctification and purification could be
practiced by idolaters in preparation for their ,öhorä. Purification, cleansing. This noun is
cults (Isa 66: 17). On the· other hand, whereas used thirteen times, always of ritual purity.
faithless Israel brought forth unsatisfactory offer-
ings to the Lord (Mal 1:7-10), the Gentiles would ,ähör. Pure, clean. The adjective occurs
one day offer a pure offering (Mal 1: 11). ninety-four times and is used in a material sense
Not external appearance but an inward attitude as of "pure" gold, in a ritual sense. and in an
is what is required for true purity ... He who loves ethical sense.
purity of heart ... will have the king as his Bibliography: Girdlestone, R. 8., Synonyms
friend" (Prov 22: 11). Following the LXX, the RSV of the O/d Testament, Eerdmans, reprint, 1953,
of Prov 15:26 reads: "The thoughts of the wicked pp. 142-46. Gispen, W. H., "The Distinction be-

344
 793 :i= ((ob)

tween Clean and Unclean," Oudtestamentische Wine being "good" indicates the joy produced
Studien 5: 190-96. Rinaldi, Giovanni, "Note Eb- by drinking (Est 1:10).
raiche: Lev. c. 12 ("lti"l:l;:i-,t,~)." Aegyptus 34: The Hiphil means to actively engage in good, in
50-55. Huppenbauer, Hanswalter, ""l:ir:i und contrast to the stative meaning of the Qal. lt can
M"l:il:l in der Sektenregel von Qumran,'' refer to doing practical good to someone eise, as
Theologische Zeitschrift 13: 350-51. Vaux, Ro- the Hebrews promised to Hobab (Num 10:29, 32)
land de, Ancient Israel, 1961, pp. 460--64. Mil- or it can refer to doing the right thing. Both Jehu
grom, Jacob, "The Biblical Diet Laws as an (II Kgs 10:30) and David (1 Kgs 8: 18) are thus
Ethical System," Interpretation 17: 288-301. praised. (Some alleged Hiphils of this verb are
Hauck, F. and Meyer, R., "xa0aQ6~," in TDNT, better classified under yä(ab q.v.).
III, pp. 413-23. Noth, Martin, Leviticus, SCM,
1965. Snaith, N., Leviticus and Numbers, Nel- ~öb. Good, pleasant, beautiful, delightful, glad,
son, 1967. Paschen, Wilfried, Rein und Unrein, joyful, precious, correct, righteous. (The nouns
Kösel-Verlag, 1970. Neusner, Jacob, The Idea of (ob and (oba are treated as substantival usages of
Purity in Ancient Judaism, Brill, 1973, pp. 7-31. the adjective, since there is no distinction in
Levine, Baruch, In the Presence of the Lord, meaning between them.) Hebrew idiom often
Brill, 1974, pp. 77-91. Harris, R.L., Man-God's uses (ob where English idiom would prefer a
Etemal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 139-44. more specific term such as "beautiful" or "ex-
E.Y. pensive."
"Good" is weil attested referring to practical
or economic benefit. Good fruit (Gen 2:9) and the
grain of Pharaoh's dream (Gen 41 :5, 36) were
793 ::iir:i ((ob) (be) good, benej,cial, pleasant,
good for eating. The "good" of Joseph's en-
favorable, happy, right. Hiphil "to do
slavement (Gen 50:20) included such practical
good," etc.
benefits as food and national survival. Practical
Derivatives administrative disadvantages were involved in
Moses' judging which was "not good" (Ex
793a t,ir:i ({ob) good (adjective and
18:17). Other practical goods denoted by this
noun).
term are: the promise of victory denied to Ahab
793b t::i~r:i ((üb) good things, goodness.
(II Chr 18:7); hospitality and friendship (Gen
793c :i;ir:i (!aha) good, welfare.
26:29); beneficial counsel (II Sam 17:7, 14); gen-
This root refers to "good" or "goodness" in eral economic prosperity (I Kgs 10:7); agricul-
its broadest senses. Five general areas of mean- tural prosperity (Hos 10:1, Asv); and God's inten-
ing can be noted: 1) practical, economic, or mate- tions (Arnos 9:4). The violent life (Prov 16:29)
rial good, 2) abstract goodness such as desirabil- and deeds which undermined the morale of the
ity, pleasantness, and beauty, 3) quality or ex- nation (Neh 5:9) are called "not good." The
pense, 4) moral goodness, and 5) technical "good" of labor may refer to the practical gain
philosophical good. This article is organized as from work (Eccl 3:13; but cf. RSV"pleasure").
follows: 1) the verb (ob, 2) the ai.ljective (ob to- "Good" is used in respect to a wide variety of
gether with its substantival uses, 3) the noun tCtb. abstract perspectives. A good name is better than
lt is frequently difficult to distinguish between descendants in respect to fame and reputation
verbal and adjectival derivatives from (ob. This (lsa 56:5). David's loyalty to Achish, his feudal
difficulty is insignificant for present purposes lord, is described as "good" (1 Sam 29:9, Rsv
since both usages deal with the same range of "blameless"). Elihu challenged his companions
meanings. to determine what was good in respect to truth or
The verb frequently occurs with an impersonal validity (Job 34:4). For the wise men, slowness of
subject, "lt is good ... " This idiom may describe anger was more desirable than the violent
a state of happiness or well-being as in describing strength of the warrior ideal (Prov 16:32).
the illusory well-being of the Hebrews in Egypt Likewise, the poor wise child was "better" than
(Num 11:18), the well-being of a slave with a the stubborn king (Eccl 4:13).
good master (Deut 15:16), and Saul's restful con- Esthetic or sensual goodness may be denoted.
tentment resulting from David's music (I Sam lt describes the beauty, or desirability, of the
16:16). To be good to someone or in their eyes "daughters of men" to the "sons of God" (Gen
indicates that person's desire or will. lt was good 6:2), Rebekah's beauty (Gen 24: 16), and
in God's eyes (i.e. God's will) to bless Israel Bathsheba's beauty (II Sam 11:2). English idiom
(Num 24: 1). Job asks God if it was God's will to prefers "handsome" when this term describes
oppress (Job 10:3). Balaam saw the tents oflsrael men (1 Sam 16:12). Sensory delight is at issue in
as good, meaning, beautiful or fair (Num 24:5). describing the "sweetness" of cane (Jer 6:20),
Pleasantness or desirability is meant when the and in Namaan's judgment that the waters of
woman's love is "better" than wine (Song 4:10). Damascus were "better" than the muddy waters

345
794 :,l~ ((wh)
ofthe Jordan (II Kgs 5: 12). Sensual desirability is the phrase. To acknowledge the word of another
included in describing one vintage as better than as "good" was to indicate assent or acceptance;
another (Jud 8:2). moral judgment is not the issue (II Kgs 20: 19; cf.
"Good" frequently means "happy." lt de- I Sam 20:7). The "good eye" indicates generosity
scribes the happy occasion of a royal wedding (Ps (Prov 22:9; Rsv "bountiful eye"). In Eccl, "to see
45: 1 [H 2]). A happy feast can be described as a Good" is translated as experiencing the good
"good day" (Est 8:17; RSV"holiday"; cf. I Sam things or the joys of life (Eccl 5:17; RSV"find
25:8). The "good heart" describes happiness enjoyment"; Eccl 6:6; RSV"enjoy no good").
(II Chr 7:IO; Prov 15:15). Happiness may be in-
duced by alcohol (Eccl 9:7).
,ob. Goods, prosperity, goodness, fairness, gra-
ciousness. The same categories of meaning are
A related idiom is the usage of „ good in [one' s]
found as for the adjective above except for the
eyes" to express preference or will. Examples
technical philosophical usage. lt refers to mate-
are the escaped slave's preference for a domicile
rial things in Joseph's dealings with his family
(Deut 23: 16; RSV··where it pleases him") and
(Gen 45: 18, 20, 23) and in the goods taken in seek-
Zelophehad's daughters' preferences for hus-
ing a bride for Isaac (Gen 24: 10), though the latter
bands (Num 36:6). God's will may be thus ex-
case involves quality as weil as economic value.
pressed (1 Sam 3: 18). lt describes perverted, sin-
For abstract meanings, "goodness of heart" re-
ful desires (Gen 19:8; Jud 19:24). In such cases,
fers to joy (Deut 28:47; lsa 65: 14). Esthetic
the idiom is without moral significance. beauty is involved in Hos 10:11 Oit. "fairness of
tob may include ideas of superior quality or
neck"; possibly also Zech 9:17). The "good-
relative worth. As such it describes the "pure"
ness" of God which can be appealed to for for-
gold of Havilah (Gen 2: 12) and high quality per-
giveness (Ps 25:7) is something akin to kindness
fumed oils (Song 1:3; RSV"anointing oils"). Qual-
ity craftsmanship is thus designated (lsa 41 :7), as or graciousness. "Goodness" of taste and
knowledge may refer to correctness (Ps 119:66;
is quality or nobility in human character, as when lit. .. correctness of taste and knowledge"). From
Moses is described as "goodly" (i.e. "noble";
context (vv. 17-20) God's moral goodness is the
Ex 2:2).
object of praise in Ps 145:7. These examples
An important usage of this term refers to moral
show that the meanings of this term are nearly as
goodness. The command, "Depart from evil and
broad as those of the adjective; thus the füll range
do good" (Ps 34: 14 [H 15]) clearly contrasts
of possible meanings for the adjective must be
··good" with moral evil. The "good way" which
considered in exegeting this term.
God will teach his reluctant people refers to
Bibliography: TDNT, I, pp. 13-15. THAT, I,
moral life (1 Kgs 8:36). "Good" and "right"
pp. 652-63.
yäshär, often occur as parallel terms for moral
goodness (II Chr 14:1; 31:20).
A.B.
Finally, Eccl uses tob in the sense of the
philosophical summum bonum. Ecclesiastes 2 794 :i,r;i (twh) spin. This verb refers to the
tells the reader that there is no higher good than work of the women in spinning curtains for
the life of hedonistic pleasure (v. 24) and, in this the tabernacle (Ex 35:25-26).
context, raises the question of what is the
"Good" which man should seek. Other refer- Derivative
ences could be interpreted similarly (Eccl 3:22; 794a :,,~~ (matweh) that which is
8: 15). --~pun,i.~. yarn (Ex 35:25).
Some usages blend two or more of the areas
ofmeaning discussed above. The "good land" of
795 r:m:l (tüa/:i) coat, plaster, overlay, besmear.
the Old Covenant included practical, economic,
(Asvand Rsvalso renderthe tenn by "daub. ")
and esthetic overtones (Deut 1:25; Josh 23: 13).
Likewise, the concept of God as "good" is rich Derivatives
with the overtones of all possible meanings of the 795a r:t•~ (tia/J) a coating, only in Ezk
term "good" (1 Chr 16:34; Ps 145:9). In light of
13:12.
the above discussion, each individual usage must
795b tr,iM!P (tü/Jot) inward parts.
be clearly examined to see which of the above
meanings are possible. The primary meaning of this root is to cover
A number of literary expressions need special over one item with another. lt is employed to
treatment. "Good and evil" serves as an idiom of describe the silverplating of temple stones (1 Chr
universality (Num 24:13; II Sam 13:22). Some 29:4) and the process of cleansing a house in-
have suggested that the tree of knowledge of fected with a plague ("leprosy?") (Lev 14:42-
good and evil involves no more than this idiom of 48). The priests remove the infected plaster and
universality (Gen 2:9), but the total context of stones which harbored the disease and repair the
early Gen is based upon a moral significance for house with new stones and plaster. False

346
 802 ir:i~ ((äl.ran)
prophets use rual]. figuratively to "cover-up" turbulent sea stirring up the "mud" from the bot-
God's truth (Ezk 13:10-15) or politicians' wick- tom (Isa 57:20).
edness (Ezk 22:28). Figuratively, this noun is employed to portray
God's deliverance of believers from enemies (II
Jü'16t. In ward parts. This noun (found twice in
Sam 22:43) or his judgment upon foes (Mic 7: 10;
the OT) describes an object covered over, hidden,
Zech 10:5) by trampling them like "mud" or dust
or concealed. Ps 51:6 [H 8] clearly communicates
in the streets. The figure of one sinking into the
the sense of "inward being"-inner man covered
"mire" at the bottom of a cistern is used to depict
by the body. (ü/Jot is parallel to .vätum, a "closed
the instability, loneliness, and helplessness of
up place," and to the seat ofthe sin nature (v. 5), one in distress (Ps 40:2 [H 3); 69:2, 14 (H 3, 151).
denoting the residence of truth or faithfulness
referred to elsewhere as "heart" (Ps 15:2; er: The abundance of "mud" in the ancient streets is
employed to describe Tyre' s wealth in gold (Zech
I Sam 12:24). There is no agreement conceming
9:3).
the etymology of this term in Job 38:36, and the
meaning of the word poetically parallel to it is
R.H.A.
debated. (ü/Jot is understood as 1) man's inward
being" (cf. Ps 51:6 [H 8)), 2) "clouds" (in the
i,;s:,~i= ({o(äpot). See no. 804a.
sense of that which is covered), or 3) "Thot " the
797 *',,IQ ((u/) hurt, cast. Does not occur in
Egyptian ibis bird (parallel to the sen~e of
the Qal.
"cock" for S:ekwi). The context describes man's
inability to direct storm and rain clouds. Verse 36 Derivative
implies that God is the source of wisdom im-
planted either in the inner man (perhaps the best 797a M?~?~({al{elti) a hurling. Occurs
only in Isa 22:17.
ren~e~ing),or in a cloud to make it give rain, or in
the 1b1s.[For discussion of the third view, that
ru/Jot is the Egyptian god of wisdom and sekwi
MCi!Q ( fopa!J), also ncb ({öpa!J). See
either "cock" or the planet Mercury (coptic no. 818c.
souchi, so Pope, "Job," in AB, p. 302); cf. Al-
798 ii= ({wr). Assumed root of the following.
bright's remarks in YGC pp. 244-8. He argues
from UG that ru/J.ot does indeed refer to Thot, 798a ,,=
((ur) row.
798b :i,•~ ({irä) encampment, battlement.
but that sekwiy means "mariner" (Ug Thkt
"shi~," UT 19: no. 2680). He says that souchi,
Copt1c for "Mercury," is a mistake of modern 799 iv,IQ ({us) rush, dart. Occurs only in Job
Coptic students. The possible reading then would 9:26, k' nesher yätus 'llle 'ökel "like eagles
be, "Who puts wisdom in Thot (or the ibis, sym- swooping down upon their prey" (N1v).
bol of Thot) or who gives understanding to the
mariner?" On the whole, the first view as indi- 800 *M"~ ({ä/:lä) hurl, shoot. Occurs only in
cated above is probably preferable. R.L.H.) ~en 21:16 (in the Pa'lel), har!Jeq
R.H.A. k1m{a/:lawe qeshet, literally "making dis-
tant like shooters of a bow" i.e. about a
bowshot off.
796 =i= ({w[),=•= ({y[). Assumed root or
:,"~ ({ü/Jti), i,in1= ({ühot). See no. 795b.
the following.
796a t=•~ ({i[) mire, mud, damp dirt, clay. 1in= (r"/Jon). See no. 802a.
0

(Asv is similar; RSV also employs iin~ (r" /:lor). See no. 803a.
"bog.")
801 n1:n~({ä/Ja!J) be besmeared. Occurs only
The term represents wet dirt, sediment, or
in lsa 44: 18.
building clay. yäwen has a similar meaning; re-
pesh has the nuance of "sludge." 'äpär is em-
802 11:1~(rä/Jan) grind, crush. (Asv and RSV
p~oyedin antithetical parallelism to r,r-the dry similar.)
d1rt versus the wet. The meaning of the verbal
root is unknown (BDB), although there is an Ak- Derivatives
kadian cognate {i(u. 802a 1in!i) (r" /:Ion) grinding mill. Occurs
There are two basic literal meanings: "mud,"
only in Lam 5: 13.
or "mire," which settles in a cistern (cf. Jer 38:6)
802b :im=({a/Jllnti) mill. Occurs only
and clay employed for bricks (Nah 3: 14). Twice
in Eccl 12:4.
the literal meaning is used in similes. Leviathan is
represented as a crocodile whose scales leave (ä/J,an means to reduce to powder by rubbing
marks in the "wet dirt" (Job 41:30 [H 221), and between two harder objects (cf. Ex 32:20; Num
the restlessness of the wicked is pictured as a 11:8; Deut 9:21).

347
803 in= ((IJr)
Figuratively (ä/Jan portrays extreme political mandments as the "frontlets"-the statutes of
oppression against the poor (parallel to däkä', lsa the feast of unleavened bread (Ex 13:1-10), the
3:15), wifely submission through pelformance of regulations of the firstborn (Ex 13:11-16), and the
normal domestic duties (Job 31: 10), humility to overall stipulations of the Mosaic covenant (Deut
pelform menial tasks resulting from judgment 6:8; 11:18). These "frontlets" were to be
(Isa 47:2), and teeth (Eccl 12:3). "memorials" on the forehead (cf. the substitu-
R.H.A. tion of zikkäron for (Ö(äpot in Ex 13:9), remind-
ing the lsraelite to think upon the commandments
803 "IMIQ (r/Jr). Assumed root of the following. of the Lord and to keep them. Later Jewry took
803a t"liMtp (r"/Jor) hemo"hoül, tumor. (Asv these "frontlets" in a literal ostentatious way and
similar; Rsvemploys "ulcer" in Deut were rebuked by Jesus (Mt 23:5). They tied little
28:27 [26). boxes on their foreheads and wrists and placed
scripture verses in them as a reminder. One of
A swelling or tumor. UT, 19: no. 1034 ({/Jr)
these phylacteries was found in the caves of
gives no meaning. r•IJor (always plural) is the Qumran.
Qere reading for 'öpel six times; (' IJor is em-
ployed outright twice (1 Sam 6: 11, 17).The verbal
r:i•~ (rfa/J). See no. 795a.
root is not found in Hebrew, but it means "eject''
in Arabic and "strain at stool" in Aramaic
=•~ ((ir). See no. 796a.
:i,•t:1 (fira). See no. 798b.
(BDB).
',; (fal). See no. 807a.
r•IJor, as the Qere reading, was probably em-
ployed as a euphemism for ·öpel by the Maso-
retes. Deuteronomy 28:27 relates 'öpel to the
805 K?~(fälä') patch, spat.
general term sh'' IJin "boils'" or "eruptions," and 806 :,',=i ({lh). Assumed root of the following.
to other skin diseases----scurvy and itch. These 806a tM~I? (f iileh) lamb. (ASV and Rsv
are physical disorders which Yahweh will bring
similar.) A "young lamb" (cf. I Sam
upon Israel in judgment for disobedience to the
7:9). The root flh is unknown
Mosaic covenant. Many render the term "tumor" (BDB).
in I Sam 5-6 from its description as a "plague"
(maf(f(epa) and its association with "mice," God's tenderness and gentleness is displayed
known for carrying bubonic plague characterized by shepherding his kingdom subjects as new
by swellings in the lymph glands of the groin, "lambs" (Isa 40: 11). Millennial pelfect environ-
armpits, etc. (1 Sam 6:3-4). This malady was able ment-without fear or harm-is portrayed by a
to be visualized by images. The Philistines made defenseless lamb feeding with its perennial de-
golden images of the "tumors" and "mice" as stroyer.
trespass-offerings ( 'äshäm) for the guilt incurred R.H.A.
by their invasion of Yahweh's rights. These im-
ages of Yahweh's judgment upon the Philistines :,7=7; (falfela). See no. 797a.
were given as restitution for their guilt (I Sam 6:3)
to secure healing in perhaps a homeopathic way. 807 r,r,=i({II) I. Assumed root of the following.
R.H.A. 807a t',; ((al) dew.
Ugaritic fl "dew" and verb fil "to fall" (of
804 ei== (Up). Assumed root of the following. dew); UT 19: no. 1037. This masculine noun is
804a tr,;i:,~;= (tö(iipöt) frontlets, bands,
from the assumed root fiila/. The great difference
marks. (Asv and Rsv employ only
between temperatures of night and day in Pales-
"frontlets. ")
tine causes heavy dews, which keep vegetation
Always plural. Denotes a mark or sign placed alive during the summer.drought. The amount var-
on the forehead between the eyes as a memorial. •ies in different regions, but in Gaza there is dew
lt is debated whether the verbal root is UP 250 nights of the year. The Bible often notices
(BDB), ··encircle," or fpp "strike" or "tap." this feature. One spending the night out of doors
The placing of "frontlets" upon the forehead is was "wet with dew" (Song 5:2). Considered a
always associated with making "signs upon your gift from the sky (Deut 33:28; Prov 3:20), dew
hand." A common means of identifying slaves in was withheld by God for disobedience (Hag
the ancient near east was to mark their hands 1:10); was withheld along with rain by Elijah's
and/or their foreheads. Perhaps these "frontlets" prayer (I Kgs 17:)); but was given in times of
were marking lsraelites as the Lord's servants God's favor (Zech 8:12). Hence dew was consid-
who were to be identified by allowing the Law to ered a blessing (Gen 27:28) and the Jack of it was
permeate •their thoughts and actions. The literal a privation (Gen 27:39) or a curse (II Sam 1:21).
"marking" (whatever the form) had its primary Job is unable to answer who has begotten it (Job
sense in the figurative equation with God's com- 38:28).

348
 809 M~~ ((ame')

Moming dew in the wilderness was accom- Most of the ordinances dealing with ritual un-
panied by manna which remained when the dew cleanness appear in Lev 11-15: chapter 11 deals
had evaporated (Ex 16:13-14; Num 11:9). The with clean and unclean animals, chapter 12 with
sign to Gideon, dew being on the fleece but not birth, chapters 13-14 with "leprosy," and chap-
on the surrounding ground, was then reversed, ter 15 with emissions and menstruation.
the ground being wet and the fleece dry (Jud Leviticus 7:19-21 stipulates that one who bad
6:37-40), which would be just as unusual. come into contact with anything unclean was not
Figuratively, God's and the king's favor (Prov to eat of the sacrifice. An unclean person who
19:12), man's speech (Deut 32:2), and the bless- presumed to do so should be cut off. (An unclean
ings of unity of brethren (Ps 133:3) are compared person could eat unconsecrated meat [Deut
to the fall of dew. God's quiet watching is as a 12:15, 22).) The unclean person had tobe sent
cloud of dew (lsa 18:4). Job's former prosperity is outside the camp, as the Lord dwelt in its midst
compared to dew on branches (Job 29: 19). An (Num 5:1-4; cf. Lev 15:31).
unexpected attack (II Sam 17:12), Jacob's influ- Genesis 7:2 speaks of clean and unclean ani-
ence among the nations (Mic 5:7 [H 6]), and the mals which Noah took into the ark, and Gen 8:20
vigor of youth (Ps 110:3) are all also compared to of the clean animals which he sacrificed to the
dew. Israel in their unfaithfulness were like the Lord. The unclean animals which are listed in
dew that goes away early (Hos 6:4; 13:3). Lev 11 included the camel, the bare, and swine
Bibliography: Baly, Denis, The Geo{?raphy of (vv. 1--8); sea creatures without fins or scales,
the Bible, 1957, pp. 43-45. e.g. eels (vv. 9-12); birds such as the raven and
J.P.L. the vulture which eat carrion (vv. 13-19); most
insects except the locust (see 'arbeh, vv. 20-23);
crawling animals such as weasels, mice, and
808 *',';,~ (tälal) II, cover over, roof. Occurs
Iizards (vv. 29-31). Cf. Deut 14:3-21.
only in the Piel stem (Neh 3:15; Gen 19:8).
Objects such as earthemware vessels, ovens,
809 M~~ (rame') become unclean.
food and drink which bad been contaminated, for
example, by a mause bad to be broken or dis-
Derivatives carded (Lev 11:33-35).
lt was in order not to defile themselves with
809a tM~~ (!äme') unclean.
809b t1'1MC!Q(tüm'a) uncleanness. non-kosher food that Daniel and his friends in
Babylon determined to eat vegetables and water
809c :,~~~ (tom'a) uncleanness, only in
(Dan 1:8; cf. I Macc 1:62--63;II Macc 7).
Mic 2:10.
After giving birth to a son, a woman was con-
(äme' is cognate with Jewish Aramaic ('mä', sidered unclean for seven days until his circumci-
Syriac rama'; cf. Egyptian Arabic (amy "alluvial sion and then for thirty-three more days in the
mud" from ramä "to flow over." The verb oc- "blood of purification" (Lev 12:2-4). For a
curs 155 times in the Qal, Niphal, Piel, Pual, daughter she was to be unclean for eighty days
Hithpael, and Hothpaal stems. lt occurs but once (Lev 12:5). Birth was not only a mysterious pro-
in the Pual stem in Ezk 4:14 and once in the cess but one which involved ritual uncleanness
Hothpaal in Deut 24:4. (cf. Gen 8:21; Job 14:1, 4; 15:14; 25:4).
All told, rame' and its derivatives occur 279 Sexual relations per se resulted in ritual un-
times, about 64 percent in Lev and Num, and 15 cleanness until sunset. Both the man and the
percent in Ezk. The LXX translates these words woman had to bathe in water to be cleansed (Lev
by akathartos 121 times, akatharsia 38 times, 15:18). Intercourse was forbidden during a wo-
and miainö 94 times, respectively "unclean," man's menstrual uncleanness (Lev 15:24; 18:19).
"uncleanness," and "to defile." A woman's normal menstruation rendered her
Animals and foods were considered clean or unclean for seven days (Lev 15:19-24). When
unclean by their nature. Persons and objects David noticed Bathsheba bathing on her roof, she
could become ritually unclean. Personal un- was "purifying herself from her uncleanness"
cleanness could be incurred through birth, (II Sam 11:4).
menstruation, bodily emissions, "leprosy," sex- A woman with a discharge of blood beyond her
ual relations and misdeeds and contact with normal period was considered unclean until
death. Priests and levites were especially con- seven days after such a flow ceased (Lev 15:25-
cerned with the issues of cleanness and unclean- 28). Thus the woman with the issue of blood who
ness. was healed by Christ, continually conveyed un-
The greatest uncleanness was idolatry which cleanness to all about her. But instead of Jesus
defiled the temple and the land. The prophets, in being defiled, the woman was cleansed (Mt
denouncing moral uncleanness, used ritual un- 9:20ff.; Mk 5:25ff.; Lk 8:43ff.).
cleanness as a metaphor for the wickedness A man who had a discharge or emission from
which only God can cleanse. his "flesh" was rendered unclean for seven days

349
809 N~~ (!ame')
(Lev 15:2-13). Though the description of the clean (Lev 22: 1-9). Aaron was to make atone-
emission is not explicit, it was probably an ab- ment for the uncleannesses of the people by kil-
normal discharge from the penis, but may have ling the goat of the sin offering (Lev 16: 15-16).
included any abscess, diarrhea or running sore. God's temple was to be guarded against de-
The disease represented by the Hebrew word filement. Jehoiada stationed guards at the temple
$ära·ar in Lev 13-14 was apparently not true lep- so that no one who was unclean could enter
rosy, elephantiasis waecorum or as it is called (II Chr 23: 19). Alas, it was the priests under
today, Hansen·s Disease. The LXX and Vulgate, Zedekiah who made the temple unclean (II Chr
however, translated it lepra; cf. RSV "leprous 36: 14). Because of lsrael's apostasy the Lord
disease,·· NEB "malignant skin disease." The permitted his temple to be defiled by the heathen
"leprosy" (KJV) of Lev 13-14 seems to refer to (Ps 79: I ), abominations (Jer 7:30; 32:34), slayings
epidermal maladies including boils, rashes. im- (Ezk 9:7), idolatry, adultery, and human sacrifice
petigo, and ringworm. They were ritually and (Ezk 23:37-39).
medically contagious. Of more significance, The land was defiled if an executed criminal
perhaps, were the contagious and dangerous dis- was left on the tree overnight (Deut 21 :23; cf. Gai
eases with skin symptoms, such as scarlet fever 3: 13). The sacrifice of innocent children polluted
and smallpox. the land with blood (Ps 106:38).
Upon the appearance of "leprosy" the patient ldolatry defiled the land ( Ezk 36: 18; cf. Gen
was to be examined by the priest after a quaran- 35:2). The Lord asked Judah, "How can you say,
tine of a week or two (Lev 13:4-5). lf declared · I am not defiled, I have not gone after the
unclean, he was to wear torn garments, leave his Baals?'" (Jer 2:23). Israel had defiled herself by
hair disheveled. eo ver his upper lip, and cry. the idols which she had made (Ezk 22:4; cf.
"Unclean! Unclean!" until he recovered (Lev 14: 11; 36:25; 37:23).
13:45-46; cf. Lam 4: 14-15). Once cured he was to Inasmuch as the people had made themselves
present himself to the priest who would declare unclean through their idolatry (Ezk 20:7, 18, 30,
him cleansed (Lev 14: 1-32; see (äher). 31), Yahweh would defile them through their gifts
The word .~ära'at is also used of a mold, mil- (Ezk 20:26), that is, by the horrible practice of
dew, or fungus which spread in garments (Lev child sacrifice. The lsraelites would be exiled and
13:47-59) and the walls of a building. Garments forced "to eat" unclean food in Assyria (Hos
were burned if the "leprosy" persisted, and the 9: 1-4). Amaziah, the priest who opposed Arnos,
building had to be broken up (Lev 14:45) if the was to die in an unclean land (Arnos 7: 17).
''leprosy" remained. What was the basis for the various regulations
Death was especially defiling. A priest was not concerning uncleanness? Baruch Levine has
to defile himself with the dead, except his closest gone so far as to suggest that impurity was the
relatives (Lev 21: 1-3; Ezk 44:25). The high priest "actualized form of demonic forces" which even
was not to defile himself even for his father or threatened God himself. Impurity in this view has
mother (Lev 21: 11). a quasi-independent power.
Those who had become unclean through con- Certain elements of impurity were associated
tact with the dead were to eat the Passover a with contagious disease and death. The laws of
month later (Num 9:6--11). Touching a grave con- uncleanness gave Israel a very effective quaran-
veyed impurity (Num 19: 16). This led to the later tine for public health. Some matters of impurity
custom of whitewashing sepulchres to warn were aesthetically repulsive. Other elements may
passersby of their presence (cf. Mt 23:27; Acts originally have been associated with idolatry.
23:3). Whatever theories are adduced to explain the
To cleanse such defilement, the priest em- laws of uncleanness, the Scriptures themselves
ployed the water of the ashes of the red heifer emphatically associate them with the holiness of
(Num I 9: 1-22, see (äher). God. The so-called Law of Purity (Lev 11-16)
One who had tobe particularly wary ofbecom- was placed side by side with the Law of Holiness
ing unclean through contact with a corpse or even (Lev 17-26). In the passages which list unclean
by entering a room where a dead man lay (Num foods, the holiness of Yahweh is emphasized as
6:6) was the Nazirite. If someone suddenly fell the reason for avoiding unclean foods.
dead beside him and contacted him, he became The regulations regarding uncleanness set Is-
unclean and had to be cleansed and begin the rael apart from other nations. These were object
days of his Nazirite vow over again (Num 6:9- lessons or adumbrations (Heb 8:5; 10: 1) ofGod's
12). The Nazirite Samson also had to beware of holiness which could not co-exist with the un-
eating anything unclean (Jud 13:4, 7, 14). cleanness of sin.
Priests were to teach the distinction between Especially in the prophets, the ideas of ritual
what was clean and what was unclean (Lev 10: 10; uncleanness were used as metaphors of moral
cf. Ezk 22:26; 44:23). Priests were not to ap- uncleanness. Haggai used the contagion of the
proach the holy elements while they were un- defilement of death to denounce the immoral be-

350
 815 cp~ ((ä'am)

havior of Israel which contaminated even their their paths and sees the traps (cf. Ps 31 :4 [H 51:
offerings (Hag 2: 13-14). The behavior of Judah is 142:3 [H 4]). Job invokes similar snares upon the
likened by Ezekiel to the impurity of a woman in wicked (Job 18: 10; 20:26; 40: 13). Job also em-
her menses (Ezk 36: 17). ploys the verb to portray the inner sin that lies
Hosea (5:3; 6: 10), Jeremiah (2:23; 13:27), and hidden from man· s sight (Job 31 :33). lsaiah com-
above all Ezekiel (23:7, 13, 17; 24:13; 43:7) de- mands Israel to hide herself for safety and secu-
nounced the infidelity of Israel as defiling adul- rity in the time of Yahweh 's judgment (lsa 2: 10).
tery or harlotry. Cf. Ps 106:39.
maimön. Treasure; hidden treasure (Asv and
Micah decried as impurity crimes of injustice
RSVrender it "stones" in Jer 41 :8). This deriva-
(Mic 2: 10; cf. 2: 1-7). lsaiah realized that he was a
tive, similar to the passive participle in Deut
man of "unclean lips" (lsa 6:5) and confessed,
33: 19, conveys the idea of a treasure precious
"We have all become like one who is unclean,
enough to be hidden (normally silver and riches,
and all our righteous deeds are like a polluted
but even food stuffs). Figuratively the word por-
garment" (lsa 64:6 [H 5]).
trays the preciousness of an item which is greatly
Unfortunately the prophets' ethical perception
desired: wisdom, discernment (Prov 2:4), and
of the precepts of uncleanness was replaced by
death (Job 3:21).
an increasing preoccupation with ritual minutiae.
R.H.A.
The last division of the Mishnah, the Tohoroth
and its twelve tractates, deals with the casuistry
812 Nl!Q ({n'). Assumed root of the following.
of uncleanness.
lt was in protest against their exaggerated em- 812a N.:1;1 ((ene') basket.
phasis upon ritual cleanness that Jesus de-
nounced the hypocrisy of the Pharisees (Mt 813 *!:\'~ ((änap) soil, defile. Occurs only in
15:10-20; 23:25-28). By his fiat Jesus declared all the Pie) stem, in Song 5:3.
foods clean (Mk 7: 19, Rsv; cf. I Tim 4:4-5). lt was
supremely ironic that the Jewish leaders who de- 8)4 :iv.i ({a'ä) wander astray, stray, err. (ASV
nounced Jesus were so scrupulous that they did translates "seduce" and RSVrenders "mis-
not step into Pilate · s judgment hall lest they be led" due to the Hiphil form.)
defiled and become unfit to eat the Passover (Jn The basic meaning is ··to deviate from what is
18:28). right." (ä'ii is employed once (Ezk 13: 10) offalse
See also gä'a/ II, hälal, hänep. For purity and prophets who lead Israel into error by condoning
purification see (äher. evil practices (which the Mosaic covenant con-
Bibliography: See under {äher. demned) and declaring ··peace" when judgment
E.Y. was imminent.
R.H.A.
810 *:,li'~ ((ämä) stopped up. Occurs only in
the Niphal, in Job 18:3 or possibly by-form 815 =~~ ((a'am) taste, eat; perceive. (ASVand
for täme' "be unclean." Rsv similar.)

811 1~.i ((ämen) hide, conceal, bury. (Asv and Derivatives

RSVsometimes translate "lay" or "lay up" 815a tc~~ ((a'am) taste.
when traps are hidden.) 815b cvipr; (ma{'am) tasty food, dainties.
Derivative The primary meaning of the root is ··10 try, or
to evaluate, with the tongue, normally with a
81 Ja tii~ipr; (ma(mon) treasure.
view to consumption if the flavor is suitable."
The primary meaning ofthis root is "to hide an Akkadian (emu has a similar semantic range. A
object so that it cannot be found." The normal major difference between this verb and bin is that
sense of the root has developed also a specific hin emphasizes understanding as we)l as decision
nuance of "hiding by burial," especially of im- making. bin is also more comprehensive, includ-
portant or precious items (Gen 35:4; Ex 2: 12; ing perception through all the senses. The
Josh 7:21-22; II Kgs 7:8). The OT hymnic and synonym näkar Stresses recognition and acknow-
wisdom literature norma)ly employ the root to ledgment.
convey the concept of one being ensnared or The root is employed in three basic situations.
trapped by the devices of the wicked or enemies, First, it is used for the act of eating food, an act
whether litera)ly or figuratively. The emphasis is which also incorporates the normal process of
upon 1) the unknown secrecy of these snares of "tasting" the flavor (1 Sam 14:24, 29, 43). Close
life that lie in wait and 2) the petitions and expec- to this first usage is the second-the concept of
tations of the righteous to be delivered from en- "tasting" to ascertain flavor (II Sam 19:35
snarement by an omniscient God who knows [H 36]). This sense is employed in comparison

351
816 w~((ä'an)
with the function of the ear testing words (Job panse, demonstrating God's sovereign, omnipo-
12:11; 34:3), showing how the final meaning of tent, and extemal attributes (lsa 48: 13).
this verb developed-the idea of evaluation and
~öp~. Span, hand-breadth. töpa/J, is inter-
decision, i.e. perception. "Discemment" is made
changeable with (epa/J, and identical in meaning.
by the wife as she experiences the profits of her
The root of the plural form is uncertain (perhaps
labor to be good (Prov 31: 18) and by the Psalmist
from (ap/J,ä) (KB).
who discovers God's faithful protection to be
The derivatives are linear measurements
good when he decides to take refuge in Yahweh
(Ps 34:8 [H 91). equivalent to the hand's width at the base of the
fingers. The (öpa/J, (about 3 inches) is apparently
ta'am. Taste, discretion, judgment, discernment, the difference between the common and the long
decree. (Asv and Rsv translate "behavior" in cubit in Ezk 40:5. In contrast, zeret "span,"
I Sam 21:13 [H 14] andin Ps 34 superscription, (q.v.) equals the distance between the thumb and
the ASVtranslates "reason" in Prov 26:16 and the little finger when extended. (epalJ, and (öpa/J,
"understanding" in Job 12:20.) are primarily used to convey measurements of
Though the derivative noun is employed to tabernacle and temple structures and furnishings.
convey the more basic idea of "flavor" (Ex David compares life's brevity to a few hand-
16:31; Num 11:8), its predominant usage is to de- breadths (Ps 39:5 [H 6]). The architectural sense
note "discretion" and "discemment." Good in I Kgs 7:9 is uncertain; perhaps it is a "cover-
"judgment" comes only from God's command- ing" or a "border" (cf. Ex 25:25).
ments (Ps 119:66) and is in the sovereign control R.H.A.
of God (Job 12:20). A woman with discretion is
praised (I Sam 25:33), while a woman without MCb ((öpa/J,), also MCit:i ((opa/J,). See
godly discernment is like a pig with a gold ring in no. 818c.
its snout (Prov 11:22).
A variant meaning of this noun is discovered
when David changes his "conduct" and acts like
819 ,c~ ([äpal) smear or plaster over.

a madman before Achish (1 Sam 21:13 [H 14]). 820 '11?~~((ipsar) scribe, marshal. Probably a
David made a decision to act differently when he loan word from Sumerian through the Ak-
appraised the need of the situation. He changed kadian dup sharru.
his „ discretion" or "behavior." Another variant
meaning is "decree." This occurs when a judg- 821 l'IP~ ((äpap) trip, take quick little steps, only
ment has been made and thcn formalized (Jon in lsa 3: 16.
3:7). The Aramaic influence of {''em may have
affected this usage by the Assyrian king. Derivative
R.H.A. 821a tl'le ([ap) children, little chüdren, lit-
tle ones. (Asv and Rsv translate
816 W~ ((ä'an) I, load. Occurs only in Gen "families" and „ dependents" re-
45: 17. spectively in Gen 47: 12.)
The primary meaning is "human beings from
817 *ip~ ([ä'an) II, pierce. Occurs only in the ages of O to 20, with stress on the younger
the Pual, in Isa 14:IO. ages" (cf. Num 14:29-31). A similar root, 'öle/,
stresses "infancy." Another synonym, ben, por-
I')~ ((ap). See no. 821a. trays a much !arger classification for "people"
which may be limited to "sons." (ap is always
818 MC~ (räpa/J,) extend, spread (out). employed in the singular in the generic sense.
Derivatives The verbal root from which this noun derives is
thought by some to be [pp (BDB), others (np
818a 0'1'.1~~([ippü/J,im) dandling, only (KB) with the verb (äpap "trip along" being a
in Lam 2:20. denominative verb.
818b MP!;I ((epa/J,) span, hand breadth.
This noun is commonly employed to represent
818c MCb (röpa/J.) span, hand breadlh. the remaining element of mankind apart from
818d 1'1r:tll~~(mi(pa/J,at) cloak. men and wornen (e.g. Josh 8:35), though some-
The basic meaning is "to stretch, expand, or tirnes it is lirnited to those bänim of Israel who
draw out a surface." (äpa/J, stresses "space," have not yet known good or evil (Deut 1:39; cf.
while nä(ä emphasizes the stretching "act.ion" II Chr 20: 13; 31: 18) or to females who have not
and "'direction," päras accentuates "unfolding" bad sexual relations (Nurn 31: 17-18). The term is
often, to cover something, päsa conveys "con- used frequently in military contexts where the
tagion," and shä(a/J, highlights "dispersement." "little children" are to be protected or taken as
The root describes the creation ofheaven's ex- spoils of war-a specific stipulation of the Law

352
 827 C'\j~ ((ärap)
(Deut 20: 14). '"Little ones" are slaughtered when While the root is employed to convey the pri-
a nation is exterminated (Jud 21: 10). When God's mary meaning, the very is predominantly used to
judgment comes upon Israel, all the wicked, in- illustrate the predatory nature of people who con-
cluding "little children," will experience the tinually conquer and destroy others. The tribes of
Lord's wrath (Ezk 9:6). Benjamin and Gad, respectively, are likened to a
R.H.A. ravenous wolf (Gen 49:27) and a lioness (Deut
33:20); the kings of Israel and Judah are viewed
822 IV~~ ((äpash) be gross. as young lions destroying their people (Ezk 19:3,
6), while Assyria and Edom are pictured as fero-
823 ij~ ([ärad) pursue, chase, be continuous. cious lions in their conquests (Nah 2:12 [H 13];
Arnos 1: 11). Israel's fäJse prophets are depicted
824 :,-,tQ (trh). Assumed root of the following. as lions ravening the lsraelites, taking their trea-
824a ,.,~ ([iiri)fresh. sures as payment for prophecies which devoured
thP-irlives. Israel's princes were ravenous wolves
Cli'1tp(('rom). See no. 826. which preyed upon the people, shedding blood
for dishonest gain (Ezk 22:25, 27). God's judg-
825 *Mj~ ([ära!J) toü, be burdened. Occurs ment is likened to a beast tearing its prey (Ps
only in the Hiphil, in Job 37:11, 'ap-b"rf 50:22), though God will ultimately heal his
ya[ria!J 'iib "he burdens with moisture the people's wounds of judgment (Hos 6: I ). In
cloud(s)." Yahweh's kingdom, Israel will be an instrument
of judgment like unto a predacious lion (Mic 5:8
Derivative [H 7]).
825a Mj IQ ( [öra!J) burden. t•repa. An animal torn (by beasts), torn flesh.
(Asv translates "prey" in Neh 2:12 [H 13).)
'".'ltp(('rf). See no. 824a. {"repa is predominantly used in the Mosaic cove-
nant stipulations: 1) When one kept his neighbor's
826 Clj~ ((erem) cihrp (('rom), not yet, be- domestic animal and that animal was slain by a
fore that. Adverb of time. Not found in wild beast, no restitution was to be made to
cognate languages. the neighbor, for the animal's death was acci-
dental (Ex 22: 13 [H 12)). 2) The Law forbade
827 l'lj~ ((ärap) tear, rend. (ASV and RSV the eating of flesh from an animal tom by beasts
translate the Hiphil as '"feed" in Prov 30:8.) (Ex 22:31 [H 30]), especially by the priests when
they ministered, for a priest would die if he pro-
Derivatives faned the holy things (Lev 22:8). Ezekiel prac-
827a l'lj~ ( [iiräp) fresh plucked, only in ticed this principle (Ezk 4: 14), and this law will
Gen 8:11. also be valid for millennial priests (Ezk 44:31). 3)
827b l'I'.')~ ([erep) prey,food, leaf. The consumption of fat from a torn animal was
827c t:i~~tp (['repa) animal torn (by beasts). prohibited, though this fat may be used for other
purposes (Lev 7:24). 4) If one ate tom flesh, pro-
The primary meaning of this root is "to seize a visions for cleansing were stipulated (Lev 17:15;
creature with predaciousness, tear the flesh, and cf. Lev 22:8). 5) Each prohibition conceming the
consume it." A similar root, gäzal, q. v. em- consumption of a tom animal is found in a con-
phasizes "tearing away and gaining possession;" text forbidding the eating of blood because tom
päraq stresses "partition," as in tearing apart;" animals are not bled properly and would there-
qära' is similar to päraq and is used primarily for fore faJI under this ban as weit.
"tearing of garments." R.H.A.

353
828 :itc~ (yä'ab) long /or, desire. Occurs only The primary meaning ofthis verbis "to make a
in Ps 119:131. volitional decision to commence a given activ-
ity." Archomai is normally employed in the LXX
829 MM' (yä'a) befiJ, befüting. Occurs only in to translate this Hebrew term.
'ier 10:7. This volitional decision to begin an act clearly
indicates the function of one's mind to initiate.
830 ',M• (yä'al) I, be /oolish, become /ools, act This causative aspect of the verb is highlighted by
-Joolishly, show wicked folly. (ASVand RSV the fact that it only occurs in the Hiphil form. The
similar, except that RSVtranslates "have no verb concentrates on the volitional element
sense" in Jer 5:4.) rather than upon emotional or motivational fac-
tors. lt stresses the voluntary act of the individu-
The primary meaning ofthis root is "to exhibit al's will to engage in a given enterprise, not what
a moral behavior which demonstrates a lack of may have brought him to that decision.
understanding of God's righteous ways." lt is This basic concept is expressed in three ways
similar in meaning to näbal. in the OT. First, the verbis employed in a context
The term involves both an ignorance of God's of politeness or modesty, as when Abraham de-
ways and an active ins1;nsibilityand opposition to clares that he "would like to speak" (Gen 18:27,
the known righteous behavior which God desires 31). The individual has determined to act, but
of his people for their own good. they state their decision politely. Men employ
When the Lord is dealing with foreign nations, this verb in this manner to offer invitations (Jud
the emphasis of this root lies upon the Jack of 19:6) and to encourage (cf. II Kgs 5:23; 6:3; Job
understanding of God's purposes and ways. The 6:28).
princes of Egypt have led their people astray be- Second, the essential idea found in this root
cause they did not understand the Lord's pur- may take the form of "willingness." One is "will-
poses for Egypt (Isa 19:13). Parallelterms in the ing to initiale an action" (cf. Ex 2:21; Josh 7:7;
context indicate that these leaders were "de- Jud 17:11). David, humbled by the import of the
ceived" (nishsh' ·ü) and "scoundrels" (' ewilim) Davidic covenant, modestly petitions God to "be
who were morally bad. Likewise, the Lord willing" to bless David's descendants (II Sam
judged the Babylonian diviners because their 7:29). Samuel is reminded that the Lord will not.
words and boastings were empty ofGod's righte- forsake Israel, for he "was willing" (or pleased)
ous ways (Jer 50:36). to make Israel his people (1 Sam 12:22). In both
The common usage of this root when it is used incidents, the Lord took the initiative to choose
to describe lsraelites concems a failure to behave Israel as his own People and the descendants of
morally according to their understanding of David as the Messianic line. God must, therefore,
God's righteous revelation. Miriam deliberately bless them both.
acted contrary to God's revealed truth when in Finally, the central meaning of this verb takes
jealousy she questioned Moses' humility and the nuance of "determination" and "resolve."
Ieadership (Num 12:11). Jeremiah claims that the Both the Canaanites and the Amorites made the
people of Jerusalem, being weak (dallim), be- decision to begin to retain their residence in the
haved improperly when they did not seek to do land of Canaan with resolve (cf. Josh 17:12; Jud
God's truth or justice, but rather swore falsely, 1:27, 35). Likewise, Ephraim was determined to
refused to repent, and obstinately rejected cor- begin to walk in the ways of man which were in
rection and instruction (Jer 5:4). contrast to the stipulations of the Mosaic coven-
Foolishness, therefore, as conveyed by this ant (Hos 5: 11). Because of this stubborn volition
term, does not stress the inability to act in- of Ephraim, the Lordjudged her.·
telligently, but rat her the moral failure to behave Theologically, this verb strongly supports the
according to God's prescribed holy conduct. concept of man's freewill, for man can make de-
R.H.A. cisions to initiate any given action (within human
control), but God holds him responsible for that
831 ',M• (yä'al) II, shew willingness; be pleased; volitional decision.
-be determined; undertake to do; begin or make R.H.A.
a beginning. (Asv and RSVsimilar, though
both also translate "taken upon" and "be 832 •,M•(y''ör) Nile,· Nile-canals,· river; stream,·
content"; ASVin addition renders "would" ~anal. (Normally ASVtranslates "river"
and RSVtranslates "persist. ") and Rsv translates "Nile. ")

357
833 *ttitc;(yii'ash)
The primary meaning is "a river or stream 835g ?;l1N ('ubal) stream, river, only in
which forms a definite channel through the land, Dan 8:2, 3, 6.
usually referring to the Nile and/or its canals." 835h t?;!'I ( tebe/) world.
The term is probably an Egyptian loan-word from
The primary meaning of this root is "to cause
'io'r, 'iotr. Synonymsare: nähär, a general term
to transport an object from one place to
for a larger "river;" (often the Euphrates) na}Jal,
another." The verb occurs only in the causative
denoting a „ dry wady;" 'äpfq, describing a
stems. Ugaritic is similar. The Akkadian wabälu
"stream-bed;" and peleK sometimes suggesting
"to bring" also has a by-form tabälu with the
an "artificially-cut canal."
same meaning.
This noun is employed five basic ways. First, it
The root conveys two essential nuances. First,
refers to the river Nile. lnjudgment contexts, the
drying up of the Nile portrays Egypt's life-source the basic sense of "bring" is used when the ob-
ject of the verb is inanimate. The object is nor-
being severed (lsa 23:3); the Nile's dominance
mally 1) a gift (shay) offered in homage to
over the land of Egypt is compared to the com-
Yahweh in response to his presence (Ps 76: 11
prehensiveness of Egypt's judgment (lsa 19:frll;
[H 121), especially in time of judgment (lsa 18:7)
Ezk 29:3-10) and that of others (lsa 23:10); the
and in his temple (Ps 68:29 [H 301), or 2) a present
ßuctuation of the Nile is likened to the rise and
given to others. lsrael's deportation to Assyria is
fall ofnations (Jer46:7--8; Arnos 8:8). Second, the
viewed as a present to Assyria (Hos 10:6), and
Nile's canals are depicted by the plural of this
term, often describing the vastness of Egypt (lsa Israel brought oil to Egypt as a bribe (Hos 12:1
(H 2]). Passively, this nuance is employed to de-
7: 18). Third, this noun sometimes conveys the
pict the expansion of Tyre (lsa 23:7).
general idea of "river" (lsa 33:21). Fo~rt~,
Second, when the object is people, the sense of
Daniel employs the term in reference to the T1gns
this root is normally "lead." This verb conveys
river (or Hiddekel, cf. Dan 10:4 and Dan 12:5-7).
Yahweh's leading in three ways. First, he will
Fifth, Job uses this noun to describe man's ability
to cut rock channels (Job 28: 10; cf. pe/ef?). lead Israel back to Canaan in lsrael's future res-
BibUography: TDOT, VI, pp. 596--601. toration. Then, in the millennial kingdom,
R.H.A. Yahweh will lead Israel in paths where they will
not stumble (Jer 31:9). Second, all who seek
Yahweh will be led by him into the blessings of
833 *WM' (vä'ash) despair. Occurs only in the Davidic covenant (lsa 55: 12). Third, Yahweh
th~ N-iphal and Piel stems. will lead Israel into judgment (Ps 60:9 [H 11];
108:10 (H 11], et al.). lt is also significant that the
iitiN• (y'twn) Kethib. See no. 188a. Messiah, himself, is to be led as a lamb to slaugh-
ter on behalf of the sins of the people (lsa 53:7).
834 *:i;~ (yäbab) cry shrilly. Occurs only in y•bul. Produce (of the soil), increase. (ASV and
the Piel stem, in Jud 5:28. RSV also translate "fruit." Rsv uses "pos-
sessions" in Job 20:28.) yp bul primarily refers to
,~:i~ (ye bul). See no. 835c. the produce which grows up directly from the
•r;:i~:i~ (y'büsf). See no. 216a. ground. The synonym p' ,; indicates the "fruit"
of trees as weil as other plants (cf. Ezk 37:24).
rebu'ii emphasizes the "yield" or "income" of
835 ,;• (yäba/) bring, carry, lead, conduct. the product. y' bul is primarily associated with
(Asv same; Rsv translates "bear" in Ps 60:29 the blessings and cursings of Yahweh. In the
[H 30].) Mosaic covenant, the land is blessed or cursed in
Derivatives response to Israel's obedience or disobedience to
the covenant (Lev 26:4, 20; Deut 11:17; 32:22),
835a ?:l' (yäbäl) watercourse, stream, as though ultimately she will receive the blessings of
']rrigating. Occurs only in lsa 30:25 the land in the millennium (Ezk 34:27; Zech 8:12).
and 44:4, as the plural construct, Judgment is often manifested through the de-
yible (-mäyim). struction of a nation's produce by Yahweh or by
835b ',;1• (yübal) stream, only in Jer another nation (Jud 6:4; Ps 78:46; Hag 1:10).
17:8. Figuratively, even the production of one 's house
835c t',1:i• (y'' hul) produce (of the soil). may depart during judgment (Job 20:28).
835d t?1:!l, (bul) produce, outgrowth, only
in Job 40:20; lsa 44: 19. yöbel. Trumpet, ram's hom,jubilee. This noun
835e t',:ii• (yobel), '7;• (yöbel) trumpet. is most likely derived from the root yäbal (BDB),
835f ,ii~ (yabbal) runnings, suppurating, though some think the root is more appropriately
only as the feminine singular yab- ybl "toss" or the Phoenician ybl "ram." From
belet, as a substantive in Lev 22:22. usage, it appears that two roots may be repre-

358
 836 c~:(yabam)
sented in the singular noun form. The horn ern- 14: 17). Lightning is said to enlighten the
ployed to call assernblies and announce one's "world"-undoubtedly referring to a lirnited land
presence in Ex 19: 13 and Josh 6 rnost likely de- area (Ps 77: 18 [H 19); 97:4).
rives frorn the Phoenician ybl "rarn," since the Third, tebel rnay also refer to the inhabitants
horn is probably rnade frorn the rarn's horn. This living upon the whole earth. This is dernonstrated
terrn is distinct frorn shöpär which is the general by the parallelisrn of tebel with /' ·ümim (Ps 9:8
and rnost cornrnon word for any kind of trurnpet [H 9]) and 'ammim (Ps 96:13; 98:9). The context
or hom. Sorne think the yobel in Josh 6 refers to of these references is Yahweh's judgrnent upon
the sarne "horn" that is ernployed at the begin- the world's inhabitants--a judgrnent both exe-
ning of the year of jubilee. On the other hand, this cuted in righteousness and instructive of Yah-
noun in Lev and Nurn is never translated, but weh's righteousness (lsa 26:9; 34: 1).
transliterated by the word "jubilee." The context In several passages the sense of tebel as the
of these passages is the "year of jubilee" when global earth in combination with its inhabitants is
the land lies fallow, all possessions (especially clearly observed. Everything belongs to Yahweh
the land, its produce, and slaves) revert to the as his creation (Ps 50: 12). Yahweh alone controls
original owners, and produce is provided for the this world (Job 34:13; Nah 1:5) and his power is
people by Yahweh's blessing upon the land in the over all the earth which always responds to his
previous year, therefore it seerns that the deriva- presence (Job 37:12; Ps 97:4).
tion of "jubilee" is probably frorn yäbal "to Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 75-85.
bring (forth)." The produce is "brought forth" to R.H.A.
provide for the fallow jubilee year, and property
is "brought" or "retumed" to the original own-
ers. The "year ofjubilee" begins with the blast of
836 c;; (yiibam) perfonn the duty of a brother-
in-law.
the shöpär on the Day of Atonernent each fiftieth
year. lt is a year that is holy (separated) unto Parent Noun
Yahweh (Lev 25:10-15).
836a tc;; (yiibäm) husband's brother,
bul. Produce (of a tree), food. (Asv translates brolher-in-law
Isa 44:19 "stock" and Rsv renders it "block.") 836b t:,r;;i; (y, bema) brother's wife,
bul is only employed twice in the or. In Isa 44: 19 sister-in-law.
the reference is used to depict an idol constructed
The prirnary rneaning of this denominative
frorn wood (or product of a tree). This terrn in Job
verb is "to assurne the responsibility to marry
40:20 refers to the edible product of trees.
one's widowed sister-in-law in order to raise up a
tebel. World. This noun is used in three basic male heir to the deceased brother." The verbal
situations. First, the noun is employed to repre- root is probably a Piel denorninative verb derived
sent the global rnass called earth, including the frorn the noun yäbiim ("brother-in-law") (BDB)
atrnosphere or heavens (cf. Ps 89: 12; II Sam but which developed its specific nuance frorn the
22: 16; et al.). tebel is often in parallelism or brother-in-law's function in the law of levirate
apposition with 'ere$ (1 Sam 2:8; lsa 26:9; 34: 1; et rnarriage. The Ugaritic root rneans to "heget,
al.) when 'ere$ is used in its broadest sense of create" with the noun derivative, ybmt, rneaning
"the world." The "world" was created by God, possibly "progenitress," used as an epithet of the
not false gods (Jer 10: 12; Ps 93: 1) and it belongs goddess Anath (cf. Dahood, Biblica 46: 313; UT
solely to hirn (Ps 24: 1). God's etemality is illus- 19: no. 1065).
trated by his existence before the creation of the The verbal root is only ernployed in two con-
"world" (Ps 90:2) and his wisdorn (perhaps a texts in the or: Gen 38 and Deut 25. In Gen 38:8
personification of Christ) was present prior to the the root is used by Judah to encourage his son,
world's creation (Prov 8:26, 31). Creation itself Onan, to rnarry Tarnar, Onan's sister-in-law, and
gives a "worldwide" witness to God's glory (Ps to go in to her and raise up "seed" to his brother,
19:4 [H 5]) which should result in Yahweh's Er. The context clearly indicates thar this rneant
praise (Ps 98:2). Yahweh willjudge this "world," that Onan was to have sexual relations with
rnaking it ernpty (lsa 24:4), though in the rnillen- Tarnar in order to heget a male descendant to
niurn God will cause Israel to blossorn and fill the carry on Er's narne.
whole world with her fruit (lsa 27:6). This principle, illustrated in Gen 38, is known
Second, tebel is sornetimes lirnited to "coun- as "the law of Levirate marriage." This law, de-
tries" or "the inhabitable world." This rneaning lineated in Deut 25:5-10, was designed to provide
.is rnore closely related to the root rneaning. lt a male heir to a man who died without a son so
refers to the world where crops are raised. This is that that deceased man might have his "narne"
observed in the judgrnent rnessage against the continued ("build up his ... house") in Israel and
king of Babylon (not Satan) for violently shaking have his property retained in his narne. The law
the "world" or "inhabitable world" (Isa 13: 11; was only applicable when a man died without

359
837 ~,: (yäbesh)
having a male heir. The first son born to the union 837 lli;; (yäbesh) be or becomedry, be dried up,
of the widow and her brother-in-law carried on make dry, wither. (Asv, RSVsame.)
the name ofthe son's "legal" father (his mother's
first husband), even though he was conceived by Derivatives
proxy. The importance of keeping the name in 837a tlli;; (yäbesh) dried, dry.
the family is stressed when the law forbids the 837b t:i~;i~ (yabbäshii) dry land.
widow to marry outside her husband's family. Of 837c l'lW;!!~(yabbeshet) dry land, only
course, the custom kept the litle to the property "in Ps 95:5; Ex 4:9.
within the clan.
The act of assuming the responsibility to per- The primary meaning of this root is "to be or
form this duty for the deceased brother is the become dry without moisture from necessary or
essence ofthe meaning of yäbam. Ifthe brother- normal fluids." The synonym IJ,ärab is almost
in-law refused to perform this duty ofraising up a equivalent to yäbesh though IJ,ärab is employed
male heir to his deceased brother, then before the more frequently to indicate bodies of water be-
elders the widowed sister-in-law would publicly coming dry, whereas yäbesh is employed more
disgrace her brother-in-law by taking his shoe off often to portray dryness of vegetation.
his foot and spitting in his face. From that mo- Though the verbal root is employed to convey
ment on, he would be known throughout Israel as the concepts of plants withering for Jack of inter-
'"the house of him who has his shoe loosed." nal moisture and land becoming parched for Jack
of rain, the root is used primarily in the OT to
yäbäm. Husband's brother, brother-in-law. (Asre communicate four basic theological truths. First,
v and Rsv the same.) This masculine noun is this verb is employed to describe two important
employed only in the Deut 25 passage to refer to OT miracles: the dryness of the earth's surface
the "brother-in-law" who is to perform the duty which God caused after the Noahic flood (Gen
for his deceased brother described above. One of 8:7, 14)and the dryness ofthe ground upon which
the best known examples of the execution of the the children of Israel walked as they crossed the
law of levirate marriage is in the book of Ruth Reed Sea in the exodus from Egypt and the Jor-
where Boaz performs this duty for his deceased dan river in the conquest of Canaan (Josh 2: 10;Ps
relative by marrying Ruth and raising up heirs for 74: 15). The second theological verity is closely
his kinsman who had died. However, another related to the first. This root is used to portray
separate biblical principle is also integral to the certain attributes of God. God's immutability is
argument of the book of Ruth-that of the observed in his drying up the Jordan river just as
kinsman redemption whereby Boaz redeemed the he previously dried up the Reed Sea (Josh 4:23).
land that N aomi had to seil in her poverty. The sovereignty of God is emphasized in his
yäbäm refers to the performing of the duty de- ability to cause plants and lands to dry up at his
scribed in the law of levirate marriage whereas command (Isa 40:24; Ezk 17:24; et al.). God's
gö · el is used to depict the function of the "rede- omnipotence is clearly seen in the miracles men-
mption ·' of property. tioned above (cf. Job 12:15).
In the book of Ruth the nearest kinsman was The third truth communicated by this verb is
willing to purchase the property whlch Naomi judgment. The literal judgment of Yahweh in
had had to seil in her poverty, but when he dis- which he makes a land barren by withholding rain
covered that he must also perform the duty of and drying up all water and produce in that land is
levirate marriage and marry Ruth, he refused to common throughout the OT. This type of judg-
perform either responsibility. lt was at this point ment is poured out upon Moab (Isa 15:6); Egypt
that Boaz assumed these duties. (Isa 19:5-7; Zech 10:11), Babylon (Jer 50:38;
51:36), and most of all Israel and Judah (Jer 12:4;
y•bemä. Brother's wife, sister-in-law. (RSVand Isa 42: 15; Joel 1:20; et al.). lsrael's scattering
ASVthe same.) UT 19: no. 1065 renders the term until the end times is symbolized by "dry bones"
"widowed sister-in-law" and also proposes (Ezk 37: 11). Individuals who oppose God are
"progenitress (of heroes)." Variant vocalizations sometimes judged by the withering of a limb
are y'bämii and y'biimeh. y''bemii is employed (1 Kgs 13:4; Zech 11:17), and those who forget
in the Deut 25 context to designate the widowed God will perish like a withered plant (Job 8: 12;
"sister-in-law." In the book of Ruth, the term is 15:30; 18:16).
used outside the context of levirate marriage just Finally, the frailty of mankind and life is com-
to refer to Ruth's "sister-in-law," Orpah (Ruth pared to grass that withers (lsa 40:7--8).The brev-
1:15). ity of man's normal lifespan is likened to grass
E. A. Speiser "Of Shoes and Shekels" in that grows up in the moming but withers and dies
Oriental and Biblical Studies Univ of Pennsyl- by the evening (Ps 90:6). This, in turn, is con-
vania, 1967, pp. 151-56. trasted to the enduring quality of God's Word
R.H.A. (lsa 40:7--8). The failure of man's vitality and

360
 842 t:~:(yägea')
strength is compared to the dryness of a potsherd yägön. Grief, so"ow, anguish. ls employed to
in a Messianic psalm (Ps 22: 15 [H 16]) while the portray both individual sorrow experienced in
distress of man (Ps 102:4, 11 (H 5, 12]) and his times of difficulty (e.g. David when pursued by
death (Job 14:11) are likened again to grass that enemies, Ps 31: 10 [H 10]) and national grief (Ezk
withers. A broken spirit can even produce 23:33). Grievous judgment demonstrates God's
psychosomatic illnesses ("dries up the bones," power (Ps 107:39), though God is "grieved" over
Prov 17:22). Israel's rebellion (Jer 8: 18).
yäbesh. Dried, dry. Though identical in form tiiga. Grief, so"ow, heaviness. This noun
with the verbal root, this word is probably a par- stresses the emotional sadness of grief. Such grief
ticipial form frozen as an adjective-all three comes to a foolish son' s parents (Prov 10:1) and
forms are alike in many of the stative verbs. to the perverse man's heart (Prov 14:13). Only
yäbesh is primarily employed figuratively. The God's Word brings relief from this state of mind
Lord's judgments are likened to the burning of (Ps 119:28).
dry fuel (Ezk 20:47 [H 21:3); Nah 1:10). Other R.H.A.
concepts conveyed by the figure of "dryness"
are harassment (Job 13:25), captive Israel (Ezk 840 *M1; (yägii) II, thrust away. Occurs only
37:2, 4), Yahweh's sovereignty (Ezk 17:24), de- in the Hi phil, in II Sam 20: 13.
sire for food (Num 11:6), and the sterility of an
eunuch (lsa 56:3). li.'1; (yägon). See no. 839a.
yabbäsha. Dry land, dry ground. The synonym
"liJ; (yägor). See no. 843a.
~äräbii is equivalent in meaning, whereas $iyyii
t1•~;(yägfa'). See no. 842d.
stresses "drought."
yabbäshii emphasizes "dry land" in contrast 841 lJ• (ygn). Assumed root of the following.
to bodies of water (cf. Jon 2:11). Two basic 841a tr,~ (gat) winepress, wine vat.
theological events are partially described by this 841b ri•N (gittit). Meaning unknown.
noun: the separation of the "dry land" from the Probably a musical instrument.
waters in creation (Gen 1:9-10) and the crossing
Probably derived from ygn (BDB). The pri-
of the Reed Sea and the Jordan river in the
mary meaning is "a vat for treading out juice
exodus and conquest respectively (Ex 14:16-29; from grapes" (synonymous with purii). yeqeb
Neh 9:11). describes the container that receives juice from
R.H.A. the gat.
:,w;~(yabbeshet). See no. 837c. The Law prohibited the use of winepresses on
the sabbath (cf. Neh 13:15). God's judgment is
838 :::i~;(yägab) till, be husbandman. compared to the treading of grapes (cf. Lam I: 15;
lsa 63:2).
Derivative The word is at least as old as the Amarna let-
838a :::i~;(yägeb) freld. ters, where it appears in the form Gi(n)t- in place
names.
839 :i 1; (yägii) I, suffer, grieve, afflict. (Asv, R.H.A.
Rsv similar.)
gittit. Gittith. This is a musical term of uncer-
Derivatives tain meaning, perhaps related to the Philistine
839a tri.'!; (yägon) grie/, sorrow, anguish. city Gath and occurring in the heading of three
839b tri;,1'1(tugii) grief, so"ow, heaviness. Psalms (8, 81, 84). Each time it is connected with
the preposition 'al "upon," "according to," or
The primary meaning is a mental troubling re-
even "in the fashion of." Since gat is also the
sulting from affliction. yägii stresses mental sor-
row in affliction. kä' ab accentuates the · pain. word for "winepress," some feel it refers to the
'änii emphasizes humbling. celebration of the grape harvest at the Feast of
Tabemacles. All three psalms are joyful hymns of
In Lam the root describes Jerusalem' s grief re-
sulting from God's judgment in 586 e.c. Jeru- praise. Other interpreters think "Gittith" sig-
nifies either a tune or an instrument well-known
salem's great iniquities occasioned this judgment
at Gath. David spent several months as a vassal
which God desired not to bring. Israel will also
suffer in the end-time judgments (Zeph 3: 18). of the king of Gath and could have become famil-
iar with it then. For other such terms see selii.
Such "sorrow" will ultimately be removed and
placed upon Israel's tormentors because ofGod's H.W.
faithfulness and compassionate restoration of Is-
rael (Lam 3:32-33; lsa 51: 11, 23; cf. yägon in Isa 842 ll~; (yägea') toll, Labor, grow or be weary.
35:10). (ASV,RSVsimilar.)

361
843 ,.:i~ (yägör)

Derivatives judge her with famine (Deut 28:33; cf. Jer 3:24;
842a !)~:(yägä') gain (product of labor), Hag 1:11). In this sense the noun emphasizes the
end product of "labor" being destroyed, while
only in Job 10: 18.
p;; (yä!(ea') weary, wearisome. the verb stresses the action of "toil" that pro-
842b
t1'!~~;(y' Ri'a) wearying. duced the final fruit. Egypt was judged in like
842c
p•~: (yä!(ia') weary, only in Job manner (Ps 78:46) through the plagues.
842d
3: 17, as a plural construct in the Nehemiah wams of similar discipline (Neh 5: 13),
phrase y' Rf' e köa/J "weary of while David's imprecations against his enemies
strength" i.e. toil-wom. consist of analagous judgments (Ps 109:11).
842e p•~; (y' gia') toil, product. R.H.A.

The primary meaning is "to work until one is 843 "1J: (yagör) be afraid, fear, dread.
tired and exhausted." The two synonyms yä'ep Derivative
and lä'a (q.v.) tend to stress the nuance of
"weariness." The adjective yä!(e(a)' is identical 843a iiJ; (yagor) fearing, only in Jer
in form and is translated "weary, wearisome, 22:25; 39:17.
toilsome." The basic meaning is "to fear something with
The roöt is used to convey two basic thrusts: great dread" (similar to pa!Jad q.v.). yäre' (q.v.)
1) an emphasis on the toil of work, and 2) the has nuances of ··reverence. '' Probably a byform
weariness that results from labor. God meant that of Riir "be afraid" (q.v.).
toil should result in the benefits of the end prod- The root primarily describes "fear" of God's
uct. This is especially true in farming (Josh discipline when one has disobeyed, or thinks he
24: 13). However, whenever Israel "toiled" in has disobeyed, God's ways (Deut 28:60; Job 9:28;
idolatry and "grew weary" of God's ways (lsa Ps 119:39). Moses "fears" when the golden calf
57: 10; Mal 2: 17), she reaped the product of her is built (Deut 9: 19).
labor: God' s judgment. This judgment often took R.H.A.
the form of drought, famine, and devastation, so
that Israel was unable to harvest the fruits of the
land. This, in turn, caused I~rael to complain that
844 i: (yäd) hand, power, monument, axle,
tenon, stay side, part, time. (Asv and RSV
her "labor" in the land was only in vain (lsa similar.)
49:4). The Lord promises, however, that in the
millennium Israel will no longer labor in vain, but The primary meaning of this noun is "the ter-
she will reap the fruit of the land-the product of minal part of the arm used to perform functions of
her labors (lsa 62:8; 65:23). A similar type of man's will."
judgment is brought upon Babylon because ofher This term is employed literally of man's band
"labor" in sorcery (lsa 47: 12, 15). However, which does normal work functions (Gen 5:29),
there is no deliverance for Babylon (Jer 51:58; good or bad (Gen 4: 11). The law of /ex talionis
Hab 2: 13). ("band for a band") is a penalty involving de-
The Scriptures warn against toiling for wealth, struction of bodily parts for bodily parts harmed
for the labor of a fool only wearies him (Prov by another (cf. Harris, R. L., Man-God's Eter-
23:4; Eccl 10:15). nal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 117-18).
Because Israel "grows weary" of the Lord's Significant theologically is the manifold way in
ways by practicing idolatry, they will also "be- which the word "band" is employed idiomati-
come weary" of God's judgments (Lam 5:5). cally. These idioms arise from the versatility of
Men grow physically weary and emotionally the band. The phrase "into (or "under") some-
weary, but the Lord never "grows weary" in His one's band" conveys authority involving respon-
works and ways (lsa 40:28-31; Ps 6:8 [H 7)). The sibility, care, and dominion over someone or
Lord is "wearied" only by the iniquities of man something. One may be under the custody of this
(cf. Isa 43 :24). authority. In the Amama letters, the Canaanite
gloss ba-di-u means "in bis band." Mankind is to
y"gia'. Toil, labor, product, gain. (Asv and RSV have the rest of creation "under bis dominion"
similar, though Rsv translates "wealth" in lsa (Gen 9:2). Sarah's authority over Hagar (Gen
45: 14.) 16:6, 9), Joseph's over Potiphar's house (Gen
This noun denotes the work of creatures that 39:3-8), that of Moses and Aaron over Israel
yields a product. lt is primarily employed to de- (Num 33: 1), and David over Aram (1 Chr 18:3)
scribe the fruit of labor in agriculture and animal are all expressed by this phrase. Yahweh is to
husbandry. lt is the blessing of God for one to eat have authority over our Jives. We place our
the produce of his own labor (Ps 128:2), but if hearts and spirits into bis care, sovereignty, and
Israel turned from God's ways and "worked" in- judgment (Ps 31:5, 15; [H 6, 16]; II Sam 24:14).
iquity (Isa 55:2; Hos 12:8 [H 9]), God promised to Moreover, this idiom portrays "victory over

362
 844 i; (yäd)

someone" when one is "delivered into one's tions. First, this phrase was employed to depict
hands." Deliverance, on the contrary, is de- killing (Gen 37:22, 27). Second, it was used in the
scribed as being "delivered out of one's hands." ritual ceremony of blessing (cf. Gen 48: 17).
Often Yahweh promised Israel that he would Third, commissioning for a specific office or task
"deliver her enemies into her hands" (Gen 49:8; was normally accompanied by the laying on of
Josh 6:2) and that he would deliver Israel "out of hands (cf. Moses' inauguration of Joshua and
her enemies' hands" (Ex 3:8). Refuge cities pro- Acts 13:1-3). Fourth, the important theological
vided "deliverance" for the innocent slayer concept of substitution was continually portrayed
"from the band" of the revenger of blood (Num through the laying of hands upon a sacrificial
35: 15). animal. On the Day of Atonement, the high priest
The hand symbolized "power" or "strength" transferred the nation's sins to the goat ("sub-
(Deut 8: 17). Deuteronomy 32:36 described Is- stitution"), by laying his hands upon the goat.
rael's loss of power by saying "their hands were Individuals depicted their sins as transferred to
gone." Moses' hand was poignantly used to por- and bome by the sacrificial animal through this
tray power in the plagues against Egypt (Ex expression (Ex 29: 10-19; Lev 1:4). Ultimately
10:12-25). The most notable use of this metaphor this figure was fulfilled in Christ's bearing of our
is its conveyance of God's power. I Chronicles sins upon the cross (Col 2: 14).
29:12 declares that in Yahweh's hand is power The "uplifted hand" expressed several nu-
and might (cf. Ps 89: 13 [H 14]). His hand is not ances. First, it symbolized prayer as one lifted up
"short" (or "weak") (lsa 59: 1), but mighty. A his hands toward the sanctuary (Ps 28:2). Sec-
predominant demonstration of his power was his ond, the uplifted ha"ndperiodically accompanied
deliverance of Israel from Egypt (Ex 13:3-16; a public blessing (Lev 9:22). Third, it was com-
Num 33:3). All the world witnessed Yahweh's mon for one to lift up his hand in an oath. When
power through this event (Josh 4:24). His hand Abram vowed not to take spoils of war, he lifted
created the world (Ps 8:6; 95:5) and works truth up his hand to the king of Sodom. Another means
and justice (Ps 111:7). He upholds and guides the of expressing a vow was to place the hand under
righteous with his hand (Ps 37:24; 139: 10). He the thigh of the other person as Abram's servant
continually lifts up his band on our behalf (Ps did when swearing that he would be faithful to
10:12). A corollary idea is that of "ability" to Abram's charge (Gen 24:2, 9). The most signifi-
accomplish a task. The phrases "hand reaches" cant vows of scripture are those anthropomor-
or "hand finds" denote the ability to do or obtain phically made by God. The oath most remem-
something (Lev 14:21-32). bered in the scripture by this accompanying sign
"Possession" is a common function of the is God' s unconditional and eternal covenant
hand. Therefore, "in one's hands" often bears promise to make a nation from Abram and bless
that connotation. The lshmaelites had Joseph in the world through that nation, Israel (Gen 12:1-3:
their possession ("hands," Gen 39:1). Yahweh cf. Ex 6:8; Num 14:30). God also swore to avenge
declared that he would take David's kingdom the blood of his servants (Deut 32:40).
from his son (1 Kgs 11:12, 31-35). Consecration was depicted by the idiom '"fill
"Submission" is indicated by the phrase "to the hands." Some suggest that the sense offilling
give one's hands under" someone eise. Sol- means the hands were full and had no time for
omon's officials "submitted" to him (1 Chr other business, though others think that "filling"
29:24). Yahweh exhorted Israel to "submit" to was with a sacrificial portion since this phrase
him and not rebel. was predominately used in the commissioning of
"To stretch out the band" conveys two ideas. priests (Ex 29:9-35; 16:32). Ritual cleansing was
lt expresses the "attacking" of an object (Josh portrayed by "washing the hands" (Lev 5: 11),
8: 19, 26); second, it describes the psalmist's making the person ritually righteous (II Sam
yeaming for the Lord (Ps 143:6). 22:21). This symbolic action also denoted "ab-
"Putting one's band to" something expresses solution from guilt" (Deut 21:6--7; cf. Mt 27:24).
"work" and the activity in which that person is To give to one was to "open the hand" (Deut
involved (Deut 2:7; 30:9). "Strengthening the 15:8, 11), whereas to "shut the hand" was to
hands" is helping someone (cf. Jonathan helping withhold (Deut 15:7). God opens his hand to
David; I Sam 23:16). satisfy the desire of every living thing (Ps 145: 16).
Obstinate rebellion is described by the phrase One who "slacks his hand" (or withdraws his
"high hand" (Num 15:30). Contrarily, the same hand) "gives up" (Josh 10:6); the slothful "buries
expression conveyed God's mighty deliverance his hand in a dish" (Prov 19:24). The silent places
of Israel from Egypt (Ex 14:8). "Shaking the the "hand to the mouth" (Prov 30:32).
band" symbolized God's waming and destruc- "Hand" is interestingly employed to mean an
tion of judgment (Isa 10:32; 19:16). Contempt is "ordinance" (Ezr 3:10) or a "monument" (cf.
likewise visualized by this symbol (Zeph 2: 15). ritual stelae at Hazor) used perhaps to establish a
"Laying hands on" has four basic connota- covenant or as religious commemorations (1 Sam

363
845 ij: (yiidad)

15:12; Isa 56:5). The Law was symbolically cates the broad use of this psalm as a wedding
placed on the hand of the lsraelite to remind him hymn.
of its centrality in life (Deut 6:8). The instrumen- R.H.A.
tality of giving ordinances and God's word was
expressed with "by the hand of."
Perhaps the joining of hands led to the use of
847 :i,~ (yäda) confess, praise, give thanks,
thank. (ASV, RSV similar, except that RSV
yad to denote "axles" which held the wheels of
also uses "acknowledge" and "extol. ") In
the molten sea together (1 Kgs 7:32-33) and the
the Qal and Pie! it means "throw, cast."
"stays" (tenons) to fasten the boards of the
tabernacle or temple (Ex 26: 17-19; I Kgs 7:35- Derivatives
36). The hand hanging at the side most likely pre-
847a iiii•r, (hüyy''dol) songs of praise,
cipitated the use of yiid for "side, coast, or bor- o·n·lyin Neh 12:8.
der'' (Ex 2:5; Num 2:17; 34:3). The spreading of 847b t:,,;r-, (todii) con/ession, praise.
the hands denoted "space" (Gen 34:21), while
847c tnm,~ (y' dütün), ni,~7 (y' dütün)
"hand" also meant "part" or "time" (Gen 43:34;
Jeduthun.
47:24). A different root, ydd, "to love," may be
the basis for translating yiid "penis" in the con- The primary meaning of this root is "to ac-
text of lsa 57:8, 10 (cf. UG 19: no. 1072). knowledge or confess sin, God's character and
Bibliography: TDOT, IX, pp. 426-29. THAT, works, or man's character." The basic difference
I, pp. 667-73. between this verband its synonym, hälal, is that
R.H.A. the latter term tends to stress "acclaim of,"
"boasting of," or "glorying in" an object, while
845 ij~ (yädad) /, cast a lot. yada emphasizes "recognition" and "declara-
tion" of a fact, whether good or bad. The LXX
846 ,,, (ydd) II. Assumed root ofthe following. normally renders yäda with exomoloReö.
846a ti•".'I~ (yädid) beloved, lovely. The root verb is employed three basic ways.
846b tiii,•".'17 (y• didot) love song. First, it was used to convey the acknowledgment
846c i,~i•".'17 (y'didüt) beloved one. or confession of sin, individually or nationally.
The basic idea was clearly observed in David's
yädid. Beloved, lovely. The basic meaning of
personal confession described in Ps 32:5 in which
the noun is "one greatly loved" by God or by
the poetic parallelism demonstrates that confes-
man. The noun is derived from the verb "Iove"
sion was making known the sin to God and not
(ydd) (BDB; KB).
hiding it. lt is important to note that the confes-
This noun is primarily employed to describe
sion of sin is to be made to God. The epitome of
the nation of Israel (or Judah) and individuals as
national confession is found in the Day of
those who are greatly loved by the Lord. Such
Atonement ceremony when the high priest laid
love by God brings protection (cf. Benjamin;
his hands on the head of the goat, thereby sym-
Deut 33: 12) and prosperity (Ps 127:2) upon the
bolically transferring the nation' s sins on to the
beloved people. This love demonstrates the rea-
goat, while the high priest confessed aloud all the
son for God's continual faithfulness to his people
sins of the nation of Israel (Lev 16:21). The
Israel, even when they were disobedient and un-
Hithpael form is normally employed when this
faithful (Jer 11:15). lt is upon the basis of this love
verb is used to convey the confession of national
of God for Israel that she petitions for the Lord to
sins. This stem was also employed when the great
hear and deliver her from judgment (Ps 60:5 [H
confessions of Israel's sins were made by Daniel
7); 108:6 [H 7)). lsaiah describes the Lord, the
(Dan 9:4, 20), Ezra (Ezr 10:1), Nehemiah (Neh
vinedresser of unfaithful Israel, as his beloved I :6), and the people of Israel (Neh 9:2-3) during
(lsa 5: 1), showing his great love for the Lord. The
and after the Babylonian captivity. National con-
psalmist rejoices in the temple dwellings as fessions of sin were normally public. God greatly
"lovely" (or "beloved"), i.e. the place where he
desires that we acknowledge our sins before him
delights to worship the Lord.
(cf. I Jn 1:9) in order to maintain a proper rela-
y 0 didöt. Love (song); (song of) love. The pri- tionship with him.
mary meaning of this noun is "love" or "be- Second, this verb was predominatly employed
loveds. •· The form is grammatically equivalent to to express one's public proclamation or declara-
the feminine plural of yädid, being understood as tion (confession) of God's attributes and his
that form by BDB, but listed separately by KB. works. This concept is at the heart ofthe meaning
This noun is employed only once in the OT, of praise. Praise is a confession or declaration of
being used to describe a song of love, or a song of who God is and what he does. This term is most
beloveds, which they most likely sang for the often translated "to thank" in English versions,
groom or the couple as a wedding song at their but such is not really a proper rendering accord-
wedding (Ps 45: 1). The plural form probably indi- ing to Westermann:

364
 847 ri;: (yäda)
In the Old Testament ... theTe is as yet no veTb ca) instruments (II Chr 5:13; Ps 33:2; 43:4). Such
that means only "to thank." Hödtih, which is praise was normally given in the tabemacle (or
usually tTanslated as "to thank," is not used in temple) (Ps 100:4; 122:4) under the direction of
the Old Testament a single time foT an expTes- those Levites appointed by David strictly for the
sion of thanks between men. Thus it is cleaT ministry of celebration through praise and con-
from the start that this hödtih cannot be fession of Yahweh's person (1 Chr 16:4). This
equated with ouT "to thank," which can be was a major aspect of worship which was to be
directed equally to God and to man. In those carried on every moming and evening in the
places in the O.T. wheTe OUT"thank" as some- tabemacle (1 Chr 23:30). This praise was to be
thing taking place between men is most cleaTly given wholeheartedly (Ps 86: 12; II 1:)) with an
found, the veTb used is berek, which does not upright heart (Ps 119:7) in accordance with
have the pTimary meaning of "pTaise" but Yahweh's righteous ways (Ps 7:17 [H 18]). Such
means "bless." praise was to be continual-forever (Ps 30: 12
In view of these facts, it is clear that the O.T. [H 13]).
does not have OUTindependent concept of Third, yädii was also employed to convey
thanks. The expTession of thanks to God is in- man's praise of man, the confession of some truth
cluded in praise, it is a way of praising. (Wes- about a man (Ps 49:18 [H 19]). The name
termann, Claus. The Praise of God in the „ Judah," meaning "praise," comes from this
Psalms. Richmond: John Knox Press, 1965, root, for Judah's brothers would praise (or con-
pp. 26-27.) fess) him (Gen 29:35).

The best rendering of the term is "confession," töda. Confession, praise, sacrifice of praise,
for the person confesses or declares God's attrib- thanks, thanksgiving, thank-offering. This cog-
utes and works, as seen abundantly in the psalter nate noun, being derived from yädii, basically
(cf. Ps 89:5 [H 6]; Ps 105; Ps 106; Ps 145) and means "confession," either of sin or of God's
elsewhere (cf. 1 Chr 29: 13). Therefore, yädii is character and works. The term was employed
one of the key words for "praise." lt is continu- uniquely in reference to the sacrificial system of
ally found in Hebrew poetry in parallelism with Israel. One could bring a "thank-offering" (or
such praise terms as htilal "to praise," zämar "praise-offering") in which he would make dec-
"to praise with musical instruments," rum "to larations of praise to God and/or confession of sin
exalt," zäkar "to remember," ktibad "to to God as he offered his sacrifice. When the ac-
glorify," and nägad "to declare." Thanksgiving companying confession concemed sin, the offer-
follows praise, for when one declares God's ing was classified as a "peace-offering" and was
attributes and works, he cannot help but be thank- so offered in order that the individual may be
ful for these. Praise leads regularly to thanksgiv- accepted before God (cf. Lev 7: 12-15; 22:29).
ing. [Westerman has drawn attention to an impor- Such an offering and confession glorified God,
tant point. However, it may be doubted if his showing his righteousness in contrast to the per-
formulation be necessary in all particulars. lf, son 's sin (Ps 50:23), and was a means by which
sometimes, thanks is included in praise, then one ordered his way aright.
those numerous instances where yädii is used to When the sacrifice was accompanied with
praise God f or some act or thing may weil be pTaise (confession) of God, it was especially a
equated to our concept giving thanks, especially time of joy (Ps 95:2; Jer 17:26; 33: 11). God was
if a basic meaning of the root is "to acknowl- magnified by such praise (Ps 69: 30 [H 31 ]). Psalm
edge" as BDB suggests. R.L.H.] 100 is a typical psalm of praise for this type of
Praise normally has Yahweh, or his Name, as occasion as indicated both in its superscription as
its object (Ps 97: 12; 99:3; 136: 1-3, 26). Only the weil as in its content. Singing appears to have
living, not the dead, praised God (Isa 38: 18-19; been a common means thTough which one con-
Ps 6:5 [H 6]; 30:9 [H 10]; 88: 10 [H II]). Initiators fessed God's greatness (Ps 147:4). lt also seems
of praise included righteous individuals (Ps that in given situations many made vows that
140: 13 [H 14]), the people of Israel (Ps 106:47), they would come to the tabemacle (oT temple)
the nations (Ps 45: 17 [H 18]), all the kings of the and offer a sacrifice of praise and confession
earth (Ps 138:4), the heavens (Ps 89:5 [H 6]), and when God delivered them from their present cir-
the wrath of men (Ps 76: 10 [H 11]). They all con- cumstance (Ps 56:12 [H 13]; 116:17; cf. Jonah in
fessed God's great character and his wondrous Jon 2: 10 and Manasseh in II Chr 33: 16).
works. Praise of Yahweh was public, found There are instances where confession is made
among the nations (II Sam 22:50) and in the great without sacrifice. The retumed exiles from Baby-
assembly ofthe people oflsrael (Ps 35:18). When lon gave praise; Israel praised God for the re-
an individual, oT a people, came to praise building ofthe walls of Jerusalem (Neh 12:31-40);
Yahweh, they gave praise orally by word or song Achan confessed his sins to Yahweh before
(Ps 109:30; 28:7), often accompanied with musi- Joshua (Josh 7: 19-21).

365
848 t.':t;(yäda')

y•dutun. Jeduthun. The name of one of the 1:39; Isa 7: 15). The context of the latter passage
three leaders of the musical guilds in the tabema- and the similar statement in lsa 8:4 may indicate
cle (and the temple) under king David (1 Chr 9: 16; that the reference is to a child's not being able to
25:1-7; II Chr 5:12: 29:14; 35:15). These per- distinguish what is beneficial and harmful. While
petual guilds were appointed to celebrate, con- ordinarily gained by experience, knowledge is
fess, and praise Yahweh with song and musical also the contemplative perception possessed by
instruments. The primary instrument of Jedu- the wise man (Prov 1:4; 2:6; 5:2; Eccl 1:18).
thun's guild was the harp. though the trumpet, yiida' is used to express acquaintance with a
lyre, and cymbals were perhaps used as weil (1 person in such statements as "do you know La-
Chr 16:42; II Chr 5: 12). In the superscriptions to ban?" (Gen 29:5; Ex 1:8; II Sam 3:25). The Pual
Psalms 39, 62, and 77, the reference to participle designates kinfolk (II Kgs 10: 11, etc.)
„ Jeduthun" is most likely a reference to him and and acquaintances (Job 19:14; Ruth 2: 1, etc.).
his guild as the musical performers who were to yiida' is also used for the most intimate acquain-
render the psalm instrumentally and/or vocally. lt tance. God knows Moses by name and face to
is therefore interesting that the name "J eduthun" face (Ex 33:17; Deut 34:10). He knows the Psal-
is most likely derived from yiidä, one of the mist's sitting and arising (Ps 139:2).
major terms for praise (cf. BOB, pp. 392-393). yiida' is also used for sexual intercourse on the
R.H.A. part of both men and women in the well-known
euphemism "Adam knew Eve his wife" and its
nrn,7 (y•· d(Uiin ). See no. 847c. parallels (Gen 4:1; 19:8; Num 31:17, 35: Jud
11:39; 21:11; I Kgs 1:4; I Sam 1:19). lt is used to
848 l.l'j; (yiida') know. (RSV, ASV similar.) describe sexual perversions such as sodomy (Gen
Derivatives 19:5; Jud 19:22) and rape (Jud 19:25).
In addition to knowledge of secular matters
848a 11, (dea') knowledge, opinion. yiida' is also used of one 's relation to the divine,
848b t:ivi (de'ä) knowledge. whether acquaintance with other gods (Deut
848c tlil.,':1 (da'at) knowledge. 13:3, 7, 14) or with Jehovah (1 Sam 2: 12; 3:7). The
848d t•;·l.l"l' (yidd" 'oni) familiar spirit. heathen do not know God (Jer 10:25) and neither
848e tl.,'iio (moda'), l.ljC (möda') rel- does Israel, according to the prophets (Jer 4:22).
ative. The plagues of Egypt were sent so that the Egyp-
848f tlil.,''jC (moda'at) kindred, kinship, tians might know that Jehovah is God (Ex 10:2,
only in Ruth 3:2. etc.). He will destroy (Ezk 6:7) and restore Israel
848g t1.1,~ ( maddä') knowledge. so that they may know that he is God (lsa 60: 16).
848h tl.,'~i~ (maddüa'), 1.1:0,~(maddüa') The prophet Ezekiel, in particular, uses the
why? . phrase "that you may know" in his threats (Ezk
This root, occurring a total of944 times, is used 6:7, 10, 13, 14; 7:4, 9, 27, etc.).
in every stem and expresses a multitude of de'a. Knowledge. This feminine noun is trans-
shades of knowledge gained by the senses. Its
lated Rnösis in the LXX, and scientia in the Vul-
closest synonyms are hin "to discem" and niikar
gate. The Lord is a God of all knowledge (Job
"to recognize." The root is found in Akkadian,
36:4; 1 Sam 2:3). The wicked question his knowl-
Ugaritic, and the Qumran materials. In addition edge (Ps 73: 11). He is the object of man's knowl-
to "know:' the KJV uses the archaic forms "wot"
edge, and lsaiah envisions an earth füll of the
and "wist."'
knowledge of the Lord (lsa 11:9). The prophet
yada' is used ofGod's knowledge ofman (Gen
18: 19; Deut 34: 10) and his ways (lsa 48:8; Ps 1:6; preaches knowledge (lsa 28:9) and the ideal ruler
rules by it (Jer 3: 15). The noun may be only
37: 18), which knowledge begins even before birth
another form of da'at (sec below). The masculine
(Jer 1:5). God also knows the fowl (Ps 50: 11).
noun dea' is quite similar.
yiida' is also used for man's knowledge and for
that of animals (lsa 1:3). da'at. Knowledge, cunning (Asv and RSV simi-
The participle occurs in phrases describing lar). This feminine noun is from the root yiida'
skill in hunting (Gen 25:27), leaming (lsa 29: 11- "to know." The root expresses knowledge
13), lamentation (Arnos 5:16), sailing the sea (II gained in various ways by the senses. The noun
Chr 8: 18), and playing an instrument (1 Sam occurs ninety-three times in the Old Testament,
16: 16). most frequently in the wisdom literature, with
In certain contexts it means "to distinguish." forty-one instances in Prov, ten in Job, and nine
"To know good and evil" (Gen 3:5, 22) is the in Eccl. lt is used forty-two times in the Qumran
result of disobeying God. To distinguish between materials and is also used in U garitic and Akka-
these is necessary for the king (II Sam 19:36). A dian.
child cannot distinguish between the left and right da' at is a general term for knowledge, particu-
hands (Jon 4: 11) nor between good and evil (Deut larly that which is of a personal, experimental

366
 848 i;j: (yäda')
nature (Prov 24:5). lt is also used for technical !';All); familiar spirit (JPS. NEII); spirit (NEll, NAll):
knowledge or ability such as that needed for magician (rn); and sorcerer (Jll). Since the root of
building the tabernacle and temple (Ex 3 I: 3; yidd" ·öni is the verb yäda · "to know," implied
35:3 I; I Kgs 7: 14). da'at is also used for discern- in the title, therefore, is esoteric knowledge not
ment (Ps I 19:66). Both deeds committed uninten- available to the ordinary person.
tionaJly (Deut 4:42; 19:4; Josh 20:3, 5; h" li da' at) yidd" 'önf always occurs paraJlel to 'bh (witch,
and mistaken opinions are "without knowledge" q.v.). lt may be a description ofan '<ib or it may
(/ö' da' at, Prov 19:2). be thc masculine counterpart. (Similarly,
dll' at is possessed by God (Job 10:7; Ps 139:6; "witch" and "wizard" are a feminine and mas-
Prov 3:20), from whom nothing can be hidden (Ps culine pair in English.) As the Hebrew word yid-
139:1-18). He teaches it to man (Ps 94: 10; I 19:66; d''öni is related to knowledge, so the English
Prov 2:6). lt appears paraJlel with wisdom ward "wizard'' is related to wisdom.
U:,ökmii) and understanding ( 1•·hünii ), instruction God forbad his people to consult the yidd' 'öni
(müsär), and law (tora). Wisdom is used in series (Lev 19:31; 20:6, 27; Deut 18: 11) as weil as other
with "science" (mllddä', Dan 1:4) and is the op- diviners. Despite the fact that Saul outlawed
posite of "folly" ( 'iwwelet, Prov 12:23; 13:16; them, he still consulted an 'ob "spirit" according
14:18; 15:2). Hence da' at is the contemplative to I Sam 28. How the Israelite kings dealt with
perception of the wise man (Prov 1:4; 2:6; 5:2; these spiritists was a significant factor in charac-
Eccl I: 18). terizing the king as good or evil (II Kgs 2 I :6;
da' llt is also used for moral cognition. Thus 23:24; II Chr 33:6). Isaiah spoke of them with
the tree in the Garden of Eden was a tree of the utter scorn (8:19; 19:3).
knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:9, 17). By
eating its fruit man came to know in a way com- möda'. Kinsman. The LXX follows the Kethib,
parable to the knowledge of God (see above). rendering this feminine noun as gnöri.rnws "ac-
This important reference may also be taken as the quaintance, .. from a Pie! participial form. The
figure of speech known as merism to indicate ob- Vulgate and English versions follow the context
jective awareness of all things both good and bad. where Boaz is a kinsman (Ruth 2: I; cf. 2:20; 3:2,
In this sense the sinful pain did become like God 12; 4:3).
(Gen 3:22). Cassuto says, "Before they ate of the möda' is used figuratively in Prov 7:4, parallel-
tree of knowledge, the man and his wife were like ing sister, to describe wisdom.
smaJI children who know nought of what exists möda'at. Kindred, kinsman. The 1.xx renders
around them" (U. Cassuto, Genesis, vol. I, p. this feminine noun as gnorismos "acquain-
1I 2). tance," but the Vulgate translates propinquus
Particularly distinctive is the prophetic concept "kindred." The English versions follow the Vul-
of "knowledge of God" (da' llt 'elöhim) which is gate and context (Ruth 3:2; cf. 2:20; 4:3). For
particularly prominent in Hosea (4: 1, 6; 6:6; cf. the Levirate marriage custom. see Gen 38; Deut
Prov 2:5). Knowledge of God is derived from 25:5; Mt 22:23, and cf. yäham.
those outstanding historical events in which God
has evidenced and has revealed himself to chosen madda'. Knowledge, science, thought. This
individuals such as Abraham and Moses. These masculine noun is used in contexts with wisdom
revelations are to be taughl to others. "Knowl- (hokmii). Solomon·s request was for wisdom and
edge of God" appears in paraJlel with "fear of the knowledge (II Chr 1: 10-12). The Hebrew chil-
Lord" (yir' at YHWH lsa 11:2; cf. 58:2; Jer 22: 16) dren surpassed others in knowledge (Dan 1:4, 7;
as a description of true religion. The man who has KJVand ASV,"science .. ; Rsv, "learning"). lt is
a right relation with God confesses him and obeys paralleled with that done in secret, hence
him. To do justice and righteousness and to judge "thought" (Eccl 10:20). lt also occurs in Sir 3: 13:
the cause of the poor and the needy is to know 13:8.
God (Jer 22:15-16). On the other hand where J.P.L.
there is no knowledge of God there is swearing,
lying, kiJling, stealing, committing adultery and maddua'. Why? wherefore? on what ac•
breaking all bonds (Hos 4: 1..:..2).Such wiJI bring count? (Asv and RSVare similar.) BOB and KB
destruction upon a people (Hos 4:6: cf. Isa 5: 13). suggest that it is a contraction of mli yadüa'
Knowledge of God is more pleasing to him than "what being known, .. i.e. "from what motive ...
sacrifice (Hos 6:6). The prophetic view of the lt is variously translated in the 1xx by tis. dia ti,
messianic age is of a time in which the knowledge hina ti, hina tf toüto. ti hoti. hbs ti. Hence, this
of God covers the earth as water covers the sea interrogative adverb is used to inquire about a
(Hab 2: 14; cf. lsa 11:9). motive (cf. Gen 26:27), as an indirect question
(cf. Ex 3:3), or as a rhetorical device, as in Isa
yidd"öni. Wiwrd (KJV and some modern 5:4f., "When I looked for good grapes, why did it
translations): fortune-teller ( Rerkeley Version. only yield bad?" (N1v).

367
849 :::i:(yähab)
Bibliography: Baumann, E., "yada' und ster). Hence the passages would demand
seine Derivate," ZAW 28: 25-41, 110-41. everyone to acknowledge the Lord Yahweh as
Davies, T. W., Magie, Divination and De- the great king and offer such ascription of glory
monology, reprint, KTAV, 1969. Dentan, Robert and greatness as is commensurate with bis
C., The Knowledge of God in Ancient Israel, majesty. Cf. Rev 21:24 which alludes to lsa 60: 11
Seabury, 1%8. McKenzie John L., "Knowledge where the kings of the earth shall bring (pherö)
of God in Hosea," JBL 74: 23ff. Pi per, 0. A., their glory to the new Jerusalem.
"Knowledge," in IDB, pp. 42-44. Richardson, In the Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra,
TWB, pp. 121-22. Thomas, D.W., "Additional the cognate has the more general meaning of Heb
Notes on the Root yd' in Hebrew," JTS 15: nätan "give." In Biblical Aramaic the verb
54-57. TDOT, I, pp. 6%-703. THAT, I, pp. y' hab in the simple stem is not used in the imper-
682-700. fect and the verb n' tan is used only in the imper-
P.R.G. fect. In many of these passages, the sovereignty
of God is set forth as the giver of wisdom (Dan
•f1r•1~(yidd''öni). See no. 848d. 2:21, 23), life (Dan 7: 12), kingdoms, power,
:,~ · (yäh). See no. 484b. strength and grandeur (Dan 2:37-38; 5: 18-19),
deliverance from physical danger (Dan 3:28) and
the one who is in control of the destinies of
849 ::::i~ (yähab) give, ascribe, come! Aramaic
people and nations (Ezr 5:12, Dan 7:12, 25, 27).
y'hab "give."
y•hab. Gift, Lot (what is given). The two de-
Derivatives rived nouns (see also habhab) are considered
849a 'b:,; (y' häb) Jot. corrupt or unexplained in KB. y" häb in Ps 55:22
849b t::::i~::t (habhab) gift. [H 23]) is translated "burden" (KJV, ASV,Rsv)
with the additional marginal note "what he has
yähab is used some thirty-three times, only in
given you" (Rsv taking the word as a perfect of
the Qal imperative. The Aramaic is used twenty-
the verb). lnstructive is the LXX merimna "care,
eight times in different tenses. The more common
anxiety, burden" in this passage, used four times
synonym is nätan rendered by didömi "give," in
for d'' äga "anxious care." In Sir 34: 1 and 42:9 it
LXX. Yet didömi is also used, almost exclusively,
is linked with sleeplessness. The thought then
for the Aramaic y' hab. Our word emphasizes the
would be God's providence, whether it forbodes
notion of presenting or setting an object or person evil or good, should not induce fear or brooding
somewhere. The LXX renders the noun y' häb
anxiety, but contrariwise should cause one to
with merimna (Ps 55:22 (H 23]) "what has been
given you" (KJV"burden"). turn in quiet confidence to the Lord who gives a
new perspective on life. God then does not
The verb is used only in the Qal imperative in
guarantee our desire, but rather he is the one who
the following ways: (1) as an interjection "Come!
knows our needs better than we ourselves.
Come now !" (Gen 11:3, plus four times) trans-
lated in LXX by the adverb deute, mostly used as habhab. Gift. Hosea 8: 13, they sacrifice flesh
a hortatory particle (cf. lsa 1:18, LXX). (2) The for the sacrifices of "mine offerings" and eat it,
basic idea is expressed by "give!" lt is used with KJV; "they love" sacrifice, they sacrifice flesh
the object of what is to be given with indirect and eat it, Rsv: as for the sacrifices of "mine of-
object expressed, in Gen 29:21 "give me my ferings," Asv; they "bring" sacrifices, Modem
wife'' the idea being of having her presented to Language Bible; as for "my sacrificial gifts,"
Jacob, in Deut 1: 13 of giving, i.e. presenting men NASB,similarly NIV. KB considers this corrupt,
for appointment. The notion of choosing or and would emend both here and in 4: 18 to a form
nominating would be involved here. A develop- of 'ähab "love." The RSVconsiders both pas-
ment ofthe above is "set!" "place!" as in II Sam sages unclear, and then follows KB. But the form
II: 15, "Set/place Uriah on the front of the bat- habhab is not an unusual reduplication.
tle!" P.R.G.
(3) The most theologically important meaning
is used in the comma,nd to "give" (KJV)or ·•as-
850 *i~ (yähad) become a Jew. Denomina-
cribe" (ASV,Rsv) glory to the name of the Lord
(Deut 2:3; Ps 29:1-2; 96:7-S; 1 Chr 16:28-29). lt is tive verb.
interesting to note that though these passages are Parent Noun
practically the same, the LXX renders I Chr by
850a t-,~:i; (y' hudf) Jew, Jewish.
didömi "give" and the Ps passages with pherö
850b l'l'':n:i; (y"hudft) Jewish.
which basically means "to bring, present, bear"
whether a burden or a gift. "Ascribe" with the 850c t:i,~:i; (y' huda) Judah.
synonyms ··attribute" or "credit" would suggest yiihad occurs only once, in Est 8:17, "Many
"inferring of cause, quality, authorship" (Web- among the peoples of the land became Jews"

368
where it is a Hithpael participle. We here note Jerusalem (in the territory of Judah) as "the place
Sennacherib's use Ya-u-di for the land of Judah where Yahweh your God chooses to put his
and /ja-za-qi-a-u Ya-u-da-ai "Hezekiah the name" (Deut 12:5, II, 14, 18, 21, 26, etc.; cf.
Jew." II Sam 7:5-6, 13).
Following Solomon's apostasy (I Kgs 11:1-13)
y•hudi. Jew, Jewish, an adjective used fourteen God divided Israel (ten tribes) from Judah which
tirnes. Its plural y' hudim "Jews, rnen of Judah" from the days of Joshua included the territory of
is used seventy-one tirnes substantively. Simeon (Josh 19:9). Although the prophets spoke
y•hudit. Jewish is the feminine adjective used of the people of Israel and the sons of Judah as
six times in the expression ·' in the Jewish lan- people of God because of a covenantal relation-
guage" as in Isa 36:11, 13 and Neh 13:24. ship (cf. 'ammi "my people") stemming from the
times of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Moses (e.g.
y•hudä. Judah (ASV and RSV similar). This Amos2:4,6;3:lf.;9:14;Hos 1:11 [H2:2]; 12:13);
proper noun is used of persons and of a territory. nevertheless the covenant relationship continued
lt occurs over eight hundred times, not including through Judah alone after the disastrous fall of
derivatives. The original meaning of the root is Samaria and the northern kingdom. The name
lost, not being found either in Ugaritic or Assy- "Israel" is used more specifically of the
rian. In Gen 29:35 and 49:8 an explanation is covenanted people of God, denoting the totality
rnade by using yäda in the Hiphil meaning "to ofthe elect who are united to Yahweh, but Micah
give thanks, laud, praise." However, these and Isaiah and other writers after the fall of
names of Jacob's sons should often be considered Samaria use the term "Israel" when speaking of
a play on words rather than definition or deriva- Judah which essentially is a political name. Cf.
tion. In the one case Leah names her fourth son, Isa 5:7; 8:18; Mic 2:12; 3:1, 8-9; 4:14; 5:1. But
saying, "This time I will give thanks to Judah as a nation was to last a little over one
Yahweh." In the second, Jacob's blessing on him hundred years more before her overthrow in 586
rnakes the pun "Judah, your brothers shall praise B.c. The prophets continually were calling the
you" and then continues with the specific prom- people of God to return to true covenant relation-
ises. ship (e.g. Jer 4:4). With the Babylonian exile,
Judah was the name of the fourth son of the Judah continues its basic identification, though a
patriarch Jacob, bom of Leah. lt is the name of people no longer in their own land. During this
several individuals in the postexilic period (Ezr period the people of God are· called y' hudi nota-
3:9; 10:23; Neh 11:9; 12:8, 36). Judah takes a sec- bly in Zech 8:23 and Dan 3:8, 12. A small per-
ondary position in the patriarchal account. centage returned to their homeland during the
However, Gen concludes with a significant Persian period, yet both groups ultimately par-
prornise anticipating the prominence of Judah in ticipated in God's providential workings. The
later covenantal history. The episode of Judah remnant restored to the land became the channel
and Tarnar (Gen 38) contrasts with the ethical, through which the promised Messiah came, born
indeed, the covenantal standard of behavior of in David's natal city Bethlehem. The people of
Joseph (Gen 39:9) who recognized that adultery the dispersion provided a bridge for the apostolic
with Potiphar's wife was above all eise sin against proclamation and the reception of the Gospel. In
a holy God. However, God' s sovereign grace was this connection special reference should be made
operating in Judah's life, both in his becoming a to Est 8:17, "many among the peoples [in each
leader among his brothers (Gen 43:3; 44:14; and every province] became Jews," with the
46:28) as weil as being the foremost in repentance several NT references to proselytes, i.e. Acts
and confession for his sin against Joseph (Gen 2:10; 10:If., and synagogues, i.e. Acts 13:14ff;
43:8f.; 44: 16-34). Jacob's blessing promised 13:43; 14:1.
leadership, victory, and kingship (Gen 49:8-12) Many believe that Judah and Israel will be re-
anticipating the royal line established by coven- stored to covenantal favor by the sovereign
ant with David and ultimately the Lord Jesus steadfast faithfulness of Yahweh. Explicit state-
Christ who was to combine in his person the ments by Hosea (1 :9, 10 [H 2: !]; 3:5; 14:4), Arnos
suzerain king and the anointed one (Messiah). (9:8-12), Jeremiah (33:3-26), and Ezekiel
See the discussion of v. 10 under shebe[. (37: 16-28) should be compared to Paul's teaching
Throughout the Pentateuch, little prominence (Rom 9-11) and John's revelation (Rev 7:4-8).
is given to Judah's descendants, other than lead- Bibliography: TDOT, III, pp. 359-65.
ing the vanguard in the wilderness wanderings P.R.G.
(Num 2:9). Clearly, Judah is now the name of a
tribe which does not figure strongly until David :"i'W'!' (y"hudii). See no. 850c.
ben Jesse was anointed king over Judah, then •,'~:,• (y'hudi). See no. 850a.
over all Israel (II Sam 2:4; 5:3). The significant 1'1'".l~ii•(y' hudft). See no. 850b.
religious contribution was the establishment of :,1:,• · (yhwh). See no. 484a.

369
851 ,:i~ ( yhr)

851 ,:i• (yhr). Assumed root of the following. same Hebrew construction, yet the Rsv confuses
851a i•:i• ( vähir) proud, haughty; (Asv; the reader by rendering them differently).
~~v ,;dds '"arrogant"). Our word is the "most important concept of
time in the OT by which a point oftime as weil as a
LXX translates with a/aziin. Used only twice in
sphere of time can be expressed ... The word is
the 01, Prov 21 :24 and Hab 2:5. Both the Hebrew also common in Ugaritic. lt can denote: 1. the
parallels and the Greek translation clarify t~e period of light (as contrasted with the period of
meaning. In Prov the parallel words are ze~ darkness), 2. the period oftwenty-four hours, 3. a
'"presumptuous. haughty'" and le.y '"scoffer general vague "time," 4. a point of time, 5. a year
(q.v.) which are further described as '"one who
(in the plural; 1 Sam 27:7: Ex 13:I~, etc.). ~spe-
acts with insolent pride" (zädan). In Hab '"the cially note the following spectal meanmgs:
haughty. arrogant man„ is one who, betr_ayed by h''vbm (frequently '"when": h'' can be replaced
wine, is motivated by greed. In short, h1s confi- by. min or · ad), hayyr)m (frequently "today, .. or
dence is not in the Lord who is in control of the some particular day), hime "in the time of."
destinies of all men. y" me "as Iong as" (Deut 11:21; Ge_n8:22)._Ak~a-
In Wisdom 5:8 alazoneia ('"what has our arro- dian ümu "day," is often combmed w1th ma
gance profited us?") is set in contrast to the ways "in "in the form inüma, enüma to mean "when"
of the Lord and thus separates from God. (e.~. enüma elish), exactly as Hebrew h''ybm.
The NT usage of alazoneia focuses more There is no real synonym to our word although
clearly the meanings involved. In Rom 1:30 and compare · et ("time") and · öläm ("eternity") in
II Tim 3:2 the word appears in lists of characteris- some contexts (Ezk 21:25 [H 30J: Num 13:20,
tics which describe the unregenerate who de-
etc.). Other Hebrew words sometimes translated
serve to die for these sinful practices. 1John 2: 16 "day" are: ·cir "light," h<iqer (the usual Hebrew
declares that the "pride of life" does not origi-
word for '"morning" the period of light before
nale from the Father. Rather, it comes from the
noon; Jud 19:26), shahar (the Northwest Semitic
sinful heart which arrogantly and defiantly re- word for "morning-goddess, .. see shahar, hälal,
places the sovereign God. Contrawise, he who UT 19: no. 2399: Gen 32:25). Finally, yi>m used
truly loves the Father and exalts him as _sove~- adverbially (köl-hayycim, Job 1:5; Gen 6:5) paral-
eign, exhibits his faith commitment by domg hts lels tämid ("continually") in meaning g)num
will. James puts it clearly in perspective when he
4:7). Antonyms of our word are: lay" la (Gen
speaks of the arrogant man who makes his_deci- 8:22), and ·ereb (Gen 1:5: cf. Dan 8:14). Our
sions as if he could dispose of the future w1thout word, a common Semitic root (UT 19: no. 1100),
taking into account that God is sovereign in all and the concept of time surrounding it do not
the affairs of life in the final analysis. "lnstead present a unique Hebrew understanding of time
you ought to say, •If the Lord will we shall li~e (Jenni, THAT I, ybm, "tag"). The root occurs
and we shall do this or that. · As it is, you boast m
2355 times.
your arrogance. All such boasting is evil" (4: 15-
lt is important to note that the daytime was not
16). Ribbeck is quoted as defining the alaziin as divided into regular hourly divisions, but accord-
one who "makes more of himself" than the real-
ing to natural phenomena (Ex 18:13; Gen 43:1~;
ity justifies, · ·ascribing to himself either more and
15:12; 18:1, etc.). The night. however, was d1-
better things than he has, or even what he does
vided into three watches (perhaps Lam 2:18: Jud
not possess at all ... and who "promises what he
7: 19: Ex 14:24). Furthermore, there is apparently
cannot perform" (in TDNT. I, p. 226).
a certain duality in the determination of the be-
In short, yiihfr reflects an egocentric, arrogant
ginning and ending of the day with the former
person. being sometimes evening (Est 4: 16: Dan 8: 14).
P.R.G. and sometimes morning (Deut 28:66-67: AI, I.
pp. 180ff.). .
,,~, (vähir). See no. 851a. "Day" is surrounded by many theolog1cal
o,d~(yahalöm).
,,~- (viiha/).
',::ii• (;•iihel).
See
See no.
See no.
no. 502b.
835b.
835e.
themes related to God·s sovereignty. God, bemg
eternal, antedates (lsa 43: 13: Dan 7: 9) and tran-
scends time (Ps 90:4). Time ("days") was created
by God (Gen 1) and is under his control (Ps
74: 16). Especially, note Joshua's miraculous
852 oi• (yom) day, time, year.
"day" (SOTI, p. 259 ff.). Man is called to recog-
Derivative nize this sovereignty by conforming life to the
time divisions established by God (Ex 20: 11:
852a to~i• (yi>mäm) by day.
31:17, etc.). God assured the regularity of time
The Asv and Rsv translate yom similarly with (Gen 8:22), but this does not mean that regularity
the latter frequently representing the sense more is a law to which God is subject. Indeed, it will
accurately (exception: Gen 2: 17: 3:5 attest the someday be divinely suspended (Zech 14:7). Like

370
 854 ,,, (ywn)

cosmological and terrestrial time man's lifespan day of judgment and/or blessing (lsa 2). Hence,
is ordered (Ps 90: IO). determined (Ps 139: 16). and the eschatalogical meaning embraced by this idea
controlled (Deut 30:20: Ps 55:23 [H 24]); 91:16; entails all of prophetic eschatology (George A.
lsa 38:5) by God. The Bible gives repeated indi- Gay, "Day", Baker Dictionary of Theology, p.
cations of God's interest in and concern for time 156; Jenni, op. cit., loc. cit.; K. D. Schunck,
and its events (Gen 26:33; 24:55). Moreover, a "Der Tag Jahwehs," VT 14: 319-30). Similar ex-
unique (to the ancient world) and ever-present pressions are bayyom hahu' "in that day" which
philosophy of history is exhibited therein. can refer to ordinary expected events (Isa 21 :6)
[The myth makers ofthe Ancient Near East did or can be eschatological and 'a/:larit hayyiimim
not conceive of time in terms of a horizontal, which can refer to events in the general future
linear ordering of events reaching from a histori- (Deut 31 :29) or to the eschaton (Harris, R. L.,
cal beginning to a final consummation of all "The Last Days in the Bible and Qumran," in
things. Rather. they regarded time as cyclical, the Jesus of Nazareth Savior and Lord, C. F. H.
annual reordering and revitalizing of the uni- Henry, ed., Eerdmans (1966)).
verse. Their creation myths were recited at an-
yömäm. By day. This adverb modifies the
nual New Year's festivals as magical words to
verbal activity by specifying that it occurred
accompany a magical ritual in order to reac-
while it was yet light. lts antonyms are lay" lii (Ex
tualize the original cosmology. the passage from
13:21) and hä'ereb (Ezk 12:3-4). Our word oc-
chaos to cosmos. In mythopoeic thought time has
curs fifty-one times.
no significance and history no meaning.
Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 943-48. THAT,
But Genesis I betrays a totally different notion
I, pp. 707-26.
about time. Here time is conceived as linear and
events occur successively within it. Moreover.
L.J.C.
from the biblical viewpoint man's behavior in the
present determines his state in the future. Time is tl~i• (yömiim). See no. 852a.
the defined arena in which it will be demonstrated
that righteousness is rewarded with life and evil is 853 ,,, (ywn) I. Assumed root of the following.
punished with death. Such a viewpoint invests
man's time with the greatest moral value and his-
853a n:
(yiiwen) mire (Ps 40:3; 69:3).
tory serves as an instrument whereby God's 854 ,,, ()'»'n) II. Assumed root ofthe following.
character can be displayed B.K.w.]
854a tn;i• (yonii) dove, pigeon used
Special notice should also be given to the
thirty-two times, exclusive of the
theological significance of several constructions
personal name or psalm title (56: 1).
and phrases. yöm 'asher "the day when" is used
preponderantly to introduce events with prticu- Translated in LXX by peristera, the field or rock
lar importance in the history of salvation (Deut dove which in Lev is translated "young pigeon."
4:32; Num 15:23, etc.; see also the use with shii). From ancient times this was domesticated for
The period "forty days and forty nights" fre- food and as a carrier pigeon. This should be dis-
quently signifies a time of reformation (Gen 7:4; tinguished from tor "turtledove," 1.xx truf!ön.
Ex 16:35; 24:18) and/or trial (Jon 3:4). The word The term yönii, however, may be used generi-
hayyöm sometimes signifies a redemptive time (if cally for all the different species.
not moment) when repentance is divinely sum- The yonii is used in the Levitical code as a
moned (Ps 95:7), salvation divinely bestowed (Ps sacrifice by the poor instead of the more costly
118:24). or adoption divinely effected (Ps 2:7). bull or sheep in the burnt offering ( Lev 1: 14) or in
For the meaning of the phrase ''days of old, '' see the case of the sin offering, "if he cannot afford a
qiidam. One of the most debated occurrences of lamb, then he shall bring to the Lord his guilt
yöm is its use in reference to creation. The diffi- offering for that which he has sinned, two
culties in exegesis there are complicated by many turtledoves (tor) or two young pigeons (yona),
factors (see E. J. Young, Studie.1· in Genesis One, one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt
Presbyterian and Reformed, 1964, pp. 43ff.). offering" (Lev 5:7). Furthermore, in the rites of
Like Young, this writer believes the days of Gen purification, a woman who had given birth was to
1 tobe intentionally patterned, chronological. of bring a lamb and a young pigeon or a turtledove
indeterminable length, initiated with 1: 1, in- for the dual sacrifice, but "if she cannot afford
tended to show step-by-step how God "changed the lamb, then she shall take two ... young pi-
the uninhabitable and unformed earth of verse geons" (Lev 12:6, 8). Cf. Lk 2:24 where Mary
two into the well-ordered world of verse thirty- fulfills her obligation after the manner of the
two," and „straight-forward, trustworthy his- poor. The doves still represented a valuable per-
tory" (ibid., p. I03ff.). Another much debated sonal possession.
phrase is the "day of the Lord." lt can be used The dove was so familiar to an lsraelite house-
eschatalogically or noneschatalogically. lt is a hold that its habits were an excellent source of

371
855 l); (yäwän)
similies or metaphors. Its cooing was used in sons, 0 Greece." lt is not quite clear if this is a
similies for mournmg or lamenting, e.g. historical reference within the fifth century or to
Hezekiah's "I moan like a dove" (Isa 38: 14). Cf. the Seleucid wars in the second century, or pos-
Isa 59: 11; Nah 2:7 [H 8]. In Ps 55:7 David wishes sibly to a future eschatological occasion.
he had "wings like a dove," to fly away from the P.R.G.
troubles prevailing upon him. Cf. Jer 48:28. The
meaningless flights back and forth serve as simile :i;i• (yona). See no. 854a.
for Ephraim's vacillation between Assyria and i,;i• (yoneq ). See no. 874a.
Egypt, i.e. "like a silly dove" (Hos 7: 11). Hosea fii:?~i• (yoneqet). See no. 874b.
also uses the figure of the returning migration of r:,~,•(yosep). See no. 876a.
doves as a figure depicting the return of exiles :i'.')i• (yoreh). See no. 910a.
from Assyria. im• (yoter). See no. 936d.
P.R.G.
856 *n; (yäzan). Occurs only in the Pual, in
855 li; (yäwän) Greece, lonia, lonians. Trans- Jer 5:8, possibly meaning "furnished with
literated Javan. Appears eleven times in the weights," i.e. testicles, as if from 'äzan II,
oT, plus once in a disputed passage, Ezk but dubious. GB derive from z(m, Syriac
27: 19. A loan word. "feed," therefore "well-fed."
In the geneologies of Gen 10 and I Chr Ja van is 857 1.11' (yz'). Assumed root of the following.
listed as one of the sons of Japheth along with 857a tJ!,' (yeza') sweat. This masculine
Gomer, Magog, Tuba!, Meshech, and others. 'noun occurs only in Ezk 44: 18,
Gomer's sons are listed, followed by the sons of "they must not wear anything that
Javan, including Tarshish and Kittim among oth- makes them perspire" (NIV).
ers. The names mentioned above are recognized 857b :itn (ze'a) sweat. A feminine noun
immediately as significant place names appearing occurring only in Gen 3:19, "by the
elsewhere in Scripture. Furthermore Gen 10:5, sweat of your brow, you will eat
20, 30-31 explicitly mentions that these gene- your food."
alogies are by nations. Finally, the LXX by trans-
lating with Iöuan would clearly identify this ,ti,t (yizr' 'el). See no. 582e.
name with Ionia, one of the republics of Greece.
When Isaiah speaks of "Javan" among a group
of nations, he refers to them as distant coastlands
858 ir:r; (yä/Jad) be united, be joined. (Asv, Rsv
similar.) Occurs three times in the Qal,
that have not known of the Lord's glory (Isa
once in the Pie!.
66: 19). We note in passing that in the prophets,
LXX translates with Hellas or Hellenes. Ezekiel Derivatives
refers to Ja van as one ofthe nations which traded
858a ti•n• (yä/Jid) only, only begotten son.
with Tyre (27:13). Further, Daniel has several
858b tir:r~'(yalJad) unitedness.
references to Greece. Although not specifically
named in chapters 2 and 7, it seems to be in-
858c ,,,:i~
(ya/Jdäw) together.
cluded as one of the four empires. However, it is yä'1id. Only, only begotten son, beloved, soli•
explicitly mentioned in 8:21, "the shaggy goat tary. Appears eleven times (KJV twice uses
represents the kingdom (lit. king) of Greece, and "darling," RSVrenders "my life" following the
the large horn that is between his eyes is the first poetic parallel with napshi or Ps 22:20, [H 21];
king." 35: 17 (NIV"my precious life") and "desolate" in
That here we have a reference to Alexander the Ps 68:6 [H 7] (ASVfollows KJV).LXX translates it
Great is clear from the following verse which re- seven times with agapetos "beloved" and four
fers to the "four kingdoms which will arise from times with monogenes "only begotten." The
his nation." Ugaritic cognate is y/Jd.
In 10:20 Daniel refers to the guardian angel of Theologically, yä/Jid is important as it im-
Greece with whom the angelic being struggled as pinges on NTChristology. The word basically re-
he came to assist Daniel. Daniel also refers to fers to an only child (cf. Ug y/Jd "either 'a person
Greece in a tremendous battle confrontation with without kith or kin' or ·an only son' subject to
the army of the Persian empire (11:2). Hencefor- military service only under extenuating circum-
ward, there follows a series of identifiable histor- stances," UT 19: no. 410). Jephthah's daughter is
ical episodes down to the time of the Seleucid described accordingly, "now she was his one and
Antiochus Epiphanes who apparently stands as a only child, besides her he had neither son nor
type of the eschatological Antichrist. daughter" (Jud 11:34). Consider the pathos elic-
Zechariah refers once to Greece in 9: 13, "And ited in Arnos 8: 10 where the judgment of God is
I will stir up your sons, 0 Zion, against your described as "a time of mourning for an only

372
 859 ',rt~ (yalJ,a/)
son" (cf. Jer 6:26; Zech 12:10). However, in Gen tion,'' i.e. "with the same mind") "unani-
22 Abraham is told, "take now your son, your mously." Demosthenes urges the people to set
only son (yiil_zid),whom you love Ciihab), Isaac, aside personal feelings replacing it by homo-
and go to the land of Moriah.'' Here the LXXuses thumadon to resist Philip. Hence, personal feel-
a[?apetos "beloved" rather than mono[?enes ings are not to be considered in „ unity." The NT
"only begatten" as in Jud 11:34. mono[?enes may stresses the inner unanimity of the church, as in
be more specific. If so, it could not apply to Isaac Rom 15:4-5, "May God ... grant you tobe ofthe
who had lshmael as a half brother. lt must be same mind with one another according to Christ
pointed out, however, that even mono[?enes may Jesus, that with one accord you may with one
"be used more generally without reference to its voice glorify the God and Father of our Lord
etymological derivation in the sense of ·unique', Jesus Christ." See also Acts 1:14; 2: 1, 46; 4:24;
·unparalleled,' 'incomparable,' " (TDNT, IV, p. 5:12, 15:25.
738; see especially nn. 5--6).
yatiad. Unitedness, as adverb when accusative
In what sense is Isaac a yiil_zid = af?apetos?
in union, together, altogether, also adverb
Obviously, an only child is especially dear to par-
ya!"ldäw together, alike, both appearing alto-
ents. lt is tempting to see here the idea of "in- gether 134 times. LXXprimarily translates with
comparable" and "without parallel" anticipating
homothumadon "with one mind, unanimously."
the Messiah in his "unique" relationship to the
P.R.G.
Father who claims him as ho huios mau ho
agapetos "my beloved Son" (Mt 3:17; 17:5 and
parallels). This expression finds its equivalence
,,1:1~
(yal_zdiiw). See no. 858c.
in John's ho mono[?enes huios "the only begat-
i•n• (yiil_z.id). See no. 858a.
',•n~ (yiil_zi/). See no. 859a.
ten son" i.e. "the unique son" (Jn 1:14, 18; 3:16,
18; I Jn 4:9). The supreme act of God is evidence
859 ',ti: (yiil_zal) wait, hope.
of his love for the world. This was prophetically
typified by Abraham's willingness to sacrifice Derivatives
Isaac. In Ps 22:20 and 35:17 yäl_zid= monoJ?enes
859a ',•n: (yiil_zil) waiting, used only in
is variously translated "my darling," "my only
Lam 3:26.
life," referring to the uniqueness of the soul.
859b tl'l?ryir-1(tol_zelet) hope.
[There is thus warrant for the idea that the term
monogenes in John does not refer to derivation of yiil_za/occurs eighteen times in the Pie!, fifteen
the Son from the Father as in human families, but times in the Hiphil and three in the Niphal with
to the uniqueness and love of the Trinitarian rela- the idea of "tarrying" and "confident expecta-
tionship. The doctrine of etemal generation of the tion, trust." The LXXtranslates it nineteen times
son never meant such derivation. Indeed it was with elpizö and epelpizö "to hope." ASVand RSV
adopted against the Arian theology that the son translate similarly.
had a "beginning" and was "made." R.L.H.) In the three instances where yä}_za/is used in
Another use of yiil_zid is "solitary," "iso- Niphal it has the simple concept of waiting for a
lated," "lonely." lt is used of men, as when short period of time, e.g. Noah "waited yet
David cries out "turn to me and be gracious to another seven days'' before sending the dove
me, for I am lonely and afilicted" (Ps 25: 16). God (Gen 8:12). Cf. Ezk 19:5. This notion also is ex-
expresses his concem for such in Ps 68:5--6 pressed in the Piel (Job 14:14) and the Hiphil (I
(H 6-7), "A father of the fatherless and ajudge Sam 13:8). However, yiil_zalis used of "expecta-
for the widows ... God makes a home for the tion, hope" which for the believer is closely
lonely; he leads out the prisoners into pros- linked with "faith, trust" and results in "patient
perity." Dahood, by vocalizing MT yal_z.edas waiting." The sense of expectation may be posi-
yiihid in Ps 86: 11, translates, "Yahweh, teach me tive, i.e. hoping for good in the future. Ezekiel
your way, that I may walk faithfully to you alone; 13:6 is a case in point, where people rely on the
teach my heart to revere your name." (Cf. Ps declarations of the false prophets "yet they hope
88:17 [H 18] "they close in on me alone" as in for the fulfillment of their word." Cf. Ps 71:14,
contrast to "encompassed me altogether. ") He "But as forme, I will hope continually." Since
then comments, "The king pledges fidelity to yiil_zalis primarily translated by elpizö in the LXX
Yahweh alone since he alone is God, as affirrned with the good in view, the opposite notion (Heb
in the preceeding verse" (AB, Psalms, II, p. z'wii'a "fear" or "dread" in lsa 28:19) is trans-
295). Generally, yal_z.addescribes the community lated elpis ponera, lit. · 'hope of evil.'' This yiil_zal
in action, doing things together. In Ps 34:3 [H 4]; "hope" is not a pacifying wish ofthe imagination
Isa 52:9, the community extols the praise of God which drowns out troubles, nor is it uncertain (as
together. This unanimity especially for the people in the Greek concept), but rather yiil_z.al"hope"
of God is beautifully underscored by the Lxx's is the solid ground of expectation for the righte-
use of homothumadon ("with the same emo- ous. As such it is directed towards God. The

373
860 *Cltt~(yäham)
Psalmist twice commands: .. 0 Israel, hope in the at death the hope of the wicked is gone. The
Lord, for with the Lord there is lovingkindness words 'aharit and tiqwa (q.v.) are open to similar
(Heb IJesed), and with him is abundant redemp- interpretations in Prov 23: 18; 24: 14, 20. There,
tion" (Ps 130:7; cf. 131:3). the righteous man is said to have an 'a/Jtirft (NIV
In times of des pair. the Psalmist encourages "future hope ") in contrast to the wicked who has
himself by saying, "Hope in God, for I shall yet none and whose lamp will be snuffed out. Sol-
praise him, the help of his presence" (Ps 42:5 omon, like Job, found the resolution of the anti-
[H 6]; also 42:11 [H 12]; 43:5). momies of this existence in the judgments of a
However, no greater testimony to such confi- future life. R.L.H.)
dent expectation is given than when Job cries Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 583--85; VI, pp.
out, "Though he slay me, 1 will hope in him. 193-202. THAT, 1, pp. 727-29.
Nevertheless, 1 will argue my ways before him" P.R.G.
'(Job 13: 15). However ASV and Rsv render the
verse, .. Behold, he will slay me; 1 have no hope"
860 *Cllj; (yü/Jam) be hot; Pie), conceive.
following MT Kethib reading instead of the Qere
which is supported by the 1.xx and other versions, Derivative
in which case, Job's impatience demonstrates his
refusal to "patiently wait'' for the Lord (cf. Job
860a tit?n (/Ji!ma) heat, hot displeasure,
6: 11). Nevertheless, yä/Ja/, "hope" is a close indignation, anger, wrath, poison, bot-
tles (ASV and Rsv use various
synonym to bäta/J "trust" and qäwii "wait for,
synonyms).
hope for," as in Mic 7:7, "But as for me, 1 will
wait for the God of my salvation. My God will The noun /Ji!mii, according to BDB, is derived
hear me.' · The last phrase clearly demonstrates from the verb yii/Jam "be hot," which is used
the confidence of the righteous in God's future only in Piel and means "to be in heat" or "to
action at a time when sin is being judged. But conceive." Thal the noun /Ji!ma is derived from
further, the verse reflects not only the ground of the verb /Jämam "be or become warm," "be-
faith, the Lord himself, but the saving activity of come hot," is also entirely possible, for its vari-
his God. In short, that which is hoped for is not ous derivatives ( /Jöm. IJam, /Jamma) all mean
some desideratum arising from one's imagina- heat as from the sun or a fire. Ugaritic uses the
tion, but in God himself and whatever he should word !Jm "heat, .. but does not use either verb
propose to accomplish. One is reminded of the (UT 19: no. 870). Actually, the two verbs may be
Christian's confidence as expressed in Rom by-forms; their meanings are similar. However,
8:28-29. Hence the godly may confidently rest on since !Jema is used in the or of heat within a
God's word, e.g. "Those who fear thee shall see person, i.e. his heart, mind, etc., the word could
me rejoice, because I have hoped in thy word" weil be related to the root yä~wm which refers
(Ps 119:74, NASB weakens this "because I wait for primarily to conception.
thy word"). Cf. also 119:43, 81, 114, 147; 130:5. The or has a number of synonyms for /Jema
He may also be confident about God's faithful and each has its specific emphasis (see qü!fUP. for
convenant love, e.g ... Behold, the eye of the a discussion).
Lord is on those who fear him, on those who The term hi!ma is used a few times to indicate
hope for his loving kindness (/Jesed, Ps 33:18). physical heai in the sense of a fever or of poison
Cf. also Lam 3:21, 24. causing fever (Deut 32:24, 33). However, the
Not only does "hope" bring relieffrom present term is used, as a rule, to convey the concept of
problems, but also in the eschatological sense an inner, emotional heat which rises and is
"hope" in God's help and ultimate salvation will fanned to varying degrees. The context usually
bring to an end all distress. One needs to look at gives a clue as to which translation should be
Isa 51:5 where God promises his omnipotent preferred, whether anger, hot displeasure, indig-
help, "My righteousness is near, my salvation nation, wrath, rage or fury. Thus, in Ps 37:8, in a
has gone forth, and my arms will judge the progressive parallelism, the Psalmist says,
people; the coastland will wait forme, and for my "Cease from anger ('ap), yes from intense, hot
arm they will wait expectantly." Cf. also Jer anger (/Jema). (Cf. also Jer 20.)
29:11; 31:17; Mic 7:7. The or speaks ofman's !Jema. Esau's reaction
to his brother's deception was one of intense heat
töltelet. Hope. [This word may refer in two (Gen 27:44), so also could a king's reaction be to
verses of Prov to a confidence in a future life. In the death of his warriors (II Sam 11:20). Naaman
Prov 10:28 the joyful tbhelet of the righteous is went away in a rage (II Kgs 5: 12). Ahasuerus was
contrasted with the no hope (tiqwa) of the furious with Haman (Est 7:7, 10). A man's
wicked. The previous verse concerns long life jealousy is the source of his "rage" (Prov 6:34).
and sudden death so the questions of eternity are The prophets spoke of the fury of the oppressors
in view. Proverbs 11:7 seems to support this idea; (lsa 51: 13) and Ezekiel of his own hol anger or

374
 864 r~(yayin)
fury (Ezk 3: 14). These examples indicate a va- unworthy of all the lovingkindness (IJesed "co-
riety of reasons for this "heat in men," and show venant love"; q.v.) and of all the faithfulness
that rage and fury could be considered the legiti- which thou hast shown to thy servant" (Gen 32:9
mate translation in many instances. [H 10)). The prosperity in view (see also v. 12 [H
In various places where IJemii appears it refers 131) is in the context of covenantal relation as
to God's reaction to his unfaithful covenant evidenced by the name Lord (yhwh), lovingkind-
people (Deut 9: 19; Jer 42: 18). God is aroused to ness (l;esed), faithfulness ('emet "truth") and
great heat because he, as ajealous God, sees the servant ( 'ebed). This helps to understand God's
people he loves disobey him and appeal to, or dealing weil with the midwives (Ex 1:20), and
consort with, sinners or "no gods." He then ex- Solomon (1 Kgs 1:47). God's "doing good" to his
presses his rage or pours out his fury (Ezk 36:6). people pervades the book of Deut in the fre-
Other nations who violate his intentions and quently repeated formula ·.. that it may go weil
Word, also experience God's displeasure by the with you" (4:40; 5: 16, 29 [H 26]; 6:3, 18; 12:25,
pouring out ofGod's fury (Jer 10:25; Nah 1:2, 6). 28; 22:7) and often in Jer (7:23; 38:20; 40:9; 42:6).
God's indignations and fury are abated and ap- Conversely, the covenanted servant's re-
peased when he has poured them out injudgment sponse is ever to be weil pleasing to his Lord.
(Jer 42:18). Remorse and repentance would not Hence, Solomon's prayer is commended as
avert it (II Kgs 22: 13-17). However, Phinehas, "pleasing in the sight of the Lord" (lit. "be good
jealous with God's jealousy, having killed the in the eyes of'). Cf. Ps 69:31 [H 32]. Jeremiah
lawbreaker, did turn God's heat away from Israel laments over the decadent Jews in 4:22, "They
(Num 25: 11). The point seems clear, once God is are stupid children, ... they are shrewd to do
provoked to IJemil, satisfaction of some kind evil, but to do good they do not know," and
must be made by the execution of judgment upon Isaiah ( 1:17) calls them to a radical decision of
the cause of it. repentance, "Learn to do good, seekjustice, re-
G.V.G. prove the ruthless, defend the orphan," etc. Cf.
Gen 4:7, Jer 13:23 and the various calls of the
w~r:,~(yalJmiir). See no. 685b. prophets to "amend your ways and your doings"
(e.g. Jer 7:3; 26: 13).
861 r,n• (y/Jp). Assumed root of the following. This vertical relationship is the theological
861a rir-r;(yälJep) barefoot. basis for the horizontal relationship between
men, as in Gen 34: 18, "their words pleased
862 *Wi:t; (yäl;as) enroll or be enrolled. De- Hamor." See Neh 2:5-6. This pleasing interper-
nominative verb used in the Hithpael. sonal relationship makes a joyful or glad heart.
Cf. Eccl 7:3; Prov 15:13; 17:22.
Parent Noun All of these notions converge on the Lord
862a Wi:t~ (yalJas) genealogy. Jesus Christ who as the God-Man epitomizes
them, for "he went about doing good" (i.e. heal-
ing, etc.) ever pleasing the Father who had sent
863 :\;; (yä(ab) be good, be weil, be glad, be
him.
pleasing.
[Aside from the usages in which yä(ab refers to
Derivative God's beneficent attitude and dealings with his
people, the verb seems to refer to beneficence in
863a :~•~ (me(äb) the best.
general whether or not it is associated with fidel-
yä(ab is used forty-two times in the Qal imper- ity and righteousness of character. E.g. it is used
fect and sixty-three times in the Hiphil. The in connection with the trickery of Jacob's sons at
Hiphil infinitive is used adverbially, "diligently, Shechem [Gen 34: 18], of Pharaoh's pleasure at
thoroughly." For Qal perfect the OT uses tob Jacob's coming to Egypt (Gen 45:16), of the
(q.v.). idolatrous priest's pleasure, atjoining the Danites
When David prays in Ps 51:18 [H 20], "Do (Jud 18:20), of David's agreement with Joab to
good in thy good pleasure unto Zion," he ac- stay away from the battle (II Sam 18:4 [H 51). The
knowledges that the covenant Lord is the source word is also used in the sense of doing something
of all that is good and pleasing to mankind. This weil or diligently. lt is even used of going to ex-
"doing good" is not capricious, but based on the cess in sin (Mic 7:3)! R.L.H.]
covenant relationship revealed to the patriarchs P.R.G.
(which was in turn based on God's free mercy
and choice), e.g. when Jacob prepares to face
Esau, he prays, "O God of my father Ab-
864 r~ (yayin) wine.
raham ... 0 Lord, who said to me, 'Return to Probably a loan word. lt has cognates in
your country and to your relatives, and I will Indo-European: Greek oinos, Latin vinum,
prosper you· (lit. will do good with you). I am German Wein. lt also appears in the Semitic Jan-

375
 guages, Akkadian inu, Arabic wayn (meaning Probably ancient wines were 7-10 per cent.
"black grapes"), and Ugaritic yn (UT 19: no. Drunkenness therefore was of course an ancient
1093). The word is used 140 times, 12 of these in curse, but alcoholism was not as common or as
combination with shekiir (KJV"wine and strong severe as it is today. And in an agricultural age,
drink"; NIVsometimes "wine and beer"). lts in- its effects were less deadly than now. Still, even
toxicating properties are mentioned at least then it had its dangers and Prov 20: 1 and 23:29-35
twenty times. lt is mentioned as a common drink, are emphatic in their wamings. To avoid the sin
an element in banquets and as the material used of drunkenness, mingling of wine with water was
in libation offerings. These are called "drink of- practiced. This dilution was specified by the
ferings" in KJV,RSV,NIV,etc., but they were not Rabbis in NTtimes for the wine then customary at
drunk. The related Hebrew verb (niisak) means Passover. The original Passover did not include
"to pour out." These offerings were poured out wine (Deut 20:6).
on the sacrifices on the brazen altar (Ex 29:40 and Related words are shekiir, probably beer, 'iisis
30:9), but in sarcasm the heathen gods are spoken perhaps wine from other fruit juices (Song 8:2),
of as eating the food and drinking the drink offer- tirosh (q. v .) apparently the fresh juice from the
ings given them (Deut 32:38). vineyard, never by itself associated with intoxi-
Wine was forbidden to priests while minister- cation.
ing (Lev 10:9-there is a hint that Nadab and R.L.H.
Abihu in Lev 10: 1-7 desecrated the sanctuary in
drunkenness). Nazirites also and Samson·s
865 *M~~ (yiikafi) decide, judge, prove, rebuke,
mother-to-be were to drink no wine or shekiir
reprove, correct. (ASV,RSVsimilar.)
(NIV"fermented drink"; Jud 13:4; Num 6:3). The
lsraelites "ate no bread and drank no wine" dur- Derivatives
ing the forty years in the wilderness, (Deut 29:6).
865a r.itt::iir-, (tokelia) reproof, rebuke.
Kings were to avoid it so as to govern with a clear
865b tri,:i,;r-, (tokaliat) argument, reproof.
head (Prov 31:4--5). Solomon warns against the
use of wine because of its final tragic conse- yiikafi does not occur in the Qal. lt is used
quences (Prov 23:30--31). fifty-four times in the Hiphil, and three times in
Abundance of wine, however, is taken as a the Niphal.
symbol of affluence (Gen 49: 11-12; l Chr 12:40; The juridical notion of yiikafi is clearly estab-
Ezk 27: 18). There are places that speak of the lift lished by one of its early uses: Laban, having
to the feelings that wine brings (Zech 10:7; II Sam caught up with Jacob and having searched in vain
13:28; Est 1:10; Ps 104:15; Eccl 9:7-10; 10: 19; lsa through all Jacob's belongings for his valuable
55: 1). lt may be questioned whether in these amulets, is scolded by Jacob, "What is my sin,
verses wine is commended because of this lift or that you have set in hot pursuit after me? Though
if the verses use the freedom from inhibition of you have feit through all my goods, what have
incipient drunkenness as a symbol of plenty and you found? Set it here before my relatives and
blessing---cf. Nathan's reference to David's po- yours, that they may decide (i.e. judge) between
lygamy as a symbol of God's giving him great us two" (Gen 31:36f.). Then referring to Laban's
riches (II Sam 12:8). dream the night before, he claims, "God has seen
Wine is also used in symbolic ways of the drink my affiiction ... and rebuked you last night."
that wisdom mingles (Prov 9:2), of the Lord's NASBtranslates, "So He rendered judgment last
wrath (Jer 25: 15, etc.) of disaster (Ps 60:3 [H 5]) night"; NIV "rebuked" (v. 42). See also I Chr
of Babylon's judgment (Jer 51:7) of violence 12:18; Job 9:33 where "daysman" is used, but
(Prov 4:17) and ofdesire (Song 1:2; 4:10). ASVand Rsv · · umpire." Yet other usages are also
Wine was the most intoxicating drink known in witnessed, e.g. Gen 24: 14, 44, "appointed."
ancient times. All the wine was light wine, i.e. The forensic use is clearest in the covenant
not fortified with extra alcohol. Concentrated al- lawsuit context. See Huffmon, JBL 78: 286-95.
cohol was only known in the Middle Ages when Psalm 50:8, 21, Hos 4:4, and Mic 6:2 are consid-
the Arabs invented distillation ("alcohol" is an ered cases where Yahweh in his covenant rela-
Arabic word) so what is now called liquor or tion with a people who have repeatedly broken
strong drink (i.e. whiskey, gin, etc.) and the the covenant, now brings a lawsuit against them
twenty per cent fortified wines were unknown in after the pattern of Deut 32. Dahood translates Ps
Bible times. Beer was brewed by various 50:21c, "l will accuse you and draw up a case
methods, but its alcoholic content was light. The before your eyes" (AB, 16, p. 304, but ASV"re-
strength of natural wines is limited by two fac- prove," NIV, "I will rebuke you and accuse you
tors. The percentage of alcohol will be half of the to your face"). He refers to Job 40:2 where the
percentage of the sugar in the juice. And if the nuance of the participle mökiali "he who ac-
alcoholic content is much above 10 or 11 percent, cuses" God (Rsv "he who argues") is clearly
the yeast cells are killed and fermentation ceases. present as understood by the ancient versions.

376
 866 'i~; (yäköl)
However, the most familiar passage where yaka}:, yiisar "to instruct, discipline" or musar "disci-
occurs is in lsa 1:18 which is within a covenant pline, instruction" (Ps 6:1 [H 2]; Job 5:17; Prov
lawsuit. Following a record of rebellion where 3:11 [H 12]; 10:17; 12:1; 13:18; 15:5, etc.). lt is
Yahweh, the plaintiff, condemns Judah for their evident that there is a pedagogic force to yiika}:,
self-designed religious festivals (1: 10-15), Isaiah and yiisar. But whereas yiisar has the notion of
issues a call to repentance (1: 16--20).Within this paternal chastisement (as evidenced by the Lxx's
context then we should understand the expres- translating paideuo), yiika}:, denotes education
sion "!et us reason together" (KJV,NIVas mean- and discipline as a result of God's judicial ac-
ing "!et us debate our case in court." Micah 6:2 tions. "This embraces all aspects of education
supports this notion, speaking of '"the indictment from the conviction of the sinner to chastisement
of Yahweh," then of Yahweh's case against his and punishment, from the instruction of the
people" (rfb "lawsuit, case") in parallel with the righteous by severe tests to his direction by teach-
phrase "with Israel he will dispute" (Rsv and ASV ing and admonition" (Buchsei, in TDNT, II, p.
„ will contend," NIV „ is lodging a charge," BOB 473). [Fora somewhat varying view of the cov-
"will argue"). This judicial element, which is the enant lawsuit motif, see the articles on mishpii(
primary meaning of yiika}:,, has a clear theologi- and rfb. R.L.H.]
cal basis as seen in Isa 11:3, where the activities
töke~ä. Reproof, rebuke, correction (only four
of "the Stern of Jesse, the Branch" is spoken of
occurrences). Translated in LXXas ele,?chos "re-
as one who "will notjudge (shiipha[) by what his
futation, correction" (Asv and RSV "rebuke,
eyes see, nor make a decision by what his ears
punishment").
hear." The parallelism underscores our thesis. In
addition, v. 4 uses the same two words, "But töka~at. Argument, reproof, correction. Often
with righteousness he will judge the poor, and used in parallel with musiir (q.v.) "discipline, in-
decide with fairness for the affiicted of the earth'' struction, discipline.''
in connection with the ever loving concern for the Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 730-31.
innocent party, the poor, the widow, the orphan, P.R.G.
who are oppressed by the greedy and ruthless (cf.
Isa 1:17, 23; Mic 6:8). But it is precisely because
866 1i::i• (yäkol) be able, prevaü, overcome
of the covenant that Yahweh acts in such a man-
(Asv and Rsv similar.)
ner, that he requires his people to exhibit in their
lives this element of the ima,?o dei. yaköl is translated in the LXX mostly by
lt is not without significance that Lev 19:17 dunamai "I can, am able" which is used in a
enjoins the people of God to confront their rather weak sense as in contrast to ischuö "be
neighbors when they sin, "thou shalt surely re- strong, powerful." yiikol is used of ability or
buke your neighbor" (Asv), "you may surely re- capacity in a physical, ethical, or religious sense.
prove" (NASB).RSVweakens it considerably with The negative particle is used in about 85 percent
"you shall reason with." This in view of the of the 199 times it occurs in the oT. Whereas the
command „ you shall be holy, for I the Lord your Hebrew word expresses only a weak ability, the
God am holy" (v. 2). But this confrontation has Aramaic y' kfl seems to express greater power.
two reasons attached: to avoid developing a The basic meaning "tobe able" is used primar-
hatred for the neighbor, and to avoid complicity ily of man. lt refers (with the negative) to Jack of
in his sin. Verse 18 further amplifies the action seif control, as Joseph not being able to restrain
with the second great commandment, "You shall himself (Gen 45: 1; cf. v. 3); or to inability to con-
love your neighbor as yourself." Confrontation, trol circumstances as Moses' mother no longer
rebuke, correction is tobe considered, therefore, being able to hide him (Ex 2:3; see also Gen 13:6;
as an integral part of brotherly love. Ex 7:21). lt is also used of capacity in virtue of
To rebuke, to correct, to convince or convict ability, again, negatively of the magicians not
would not only imply exposure of one's sin but having the ability to replicate the miracles of
also to call a person to repentance. lt has a Moses (Ex 9: 11) and of the tribes of Israel "not
theofugal motion which points away from sin and being able to drive out" the enemy out of their
to repentance toward God. Hence the tremen- newly inherited territory (e.g. Josh 15:63; 17:12;
dous implication for discipline in the church-not Jud2:14; cf. also Deut 31:2; Isa36:14; Lam 1:14).
only to purify. the Body of Christ, but also to In the moral or religious sense, there is the
restore the wayward to holy living and covenan- limitation of prohibition, often translated "you
tal service (cf. Mt 18:15; Eph 5:11; I Tim 5:20; may not" such as in Deut 17:15, "You may not
II Tim 4:2, etc.). put a foreigner [as king] over yourselves" (cf.
Furthermore, when one examines the many also Deut 7:22; 12:17; 16:5; 21:16, etc., all in Qal
passages that speak of God's loving correction imperfect). Perhaps the most impressive example
(e.g. Prov 3:12, "For whom Yahweh loves he of God's command as delimiting the power of
reproves"; Job 5:17), one finds the parallel term man is Balaam's statement, "Though Balak were

377
867 i~; (yalad)
to give me his house füll of silver and gold, above, in Deut 9:26--29, the Israelites were re-
could not do anything ... contrary to the com- deemed by the great köa/J of Yahweh. a much
mand of Yahweh" (Num 22: 18; cf. 24: 13, Asv "I stronger term than the root yäköl would imply,
cannot go beyond the word of Jehovah my for here it expresses the great deployment of
God"). God's power. Finally when referring to a person
However, yäköl is correctly translated "pre- "who can do something" (seeking to express
vail, overcome" when used of men in wrestling power, might, or dominion) such as a ruler, the
or battling. A prominent example would be Hebrew uses gibhor "strong, mighty, valiant
Jacob's wrestling with the Angel ofYahweh (Gen man" (Jud 6:12); /Jäzäq "strong, stout, mighty
32:25ff.). The Angel does not overcome Jacob, (one)" (Isa 28:2; Arnos 2: 14); sar"chief, ruler,
and then Jacob's name is changed to "Israel, for captain, prince" (Dan 11:5).
you have striven with God and with me and have Bibliography: Grundmann, in TDNT, II, pp.
prevailed." In I Sam 17:9, Goliath puts alterna- 284ff.
tives before Saul's army. "If he is able to fight P.R.G.
with me and kill me, then we will become your
servants, but if I prevail against him and kill him,
then you shall become our servants and serve
867 i'?; (yälad) bear, beget, bring forth, gender,
travail. The Ugaritic yld is similar.
US.
yäköl is also used of the gods. In II Chr 32: 13- Derivatives
15, Sennacherib sardonically gloats over the in-
867a ,,, ( wäläd) child (Gen 11:30).
ability of the various gods of the nations to pro-
tect them from his mighty army. But his equating 867b M~~ (yeled), l"l;I?~ (yaldii) child,
the God of Israel with the national deities proves
.son,youth. .
to be his downfall (cf. v. 19), for Yahweh of 867c MI"!?~ (yaldüt) youth, childhood.
hosts, the sovereign God of the universe, is in- This noun, which occurs only three
times, may indicate the time when
deed able to deliver his covenant people from
one is young, or the quality of being
Sennacherib. He is the God of history, creating
young.
and sustaining the world, and his power and will
867d tii\;,• (yillod) born. An adjective
affect the destinies of nations and of individual
equivalent to the passive participle
Jives. This power of God is assumed by Moses
of yiilad.
when he intercedes for the lsraelites who deserve
tobe destroyed. But what would the heathen na-
867e M•'?;(yiilid) born. Used only in the
construct state.
tions say, that „ Y ahweh could not bring this
867f tM'.'l~i~ (moledet) kindred, relatives.
people into the land he promised by oath, there-
·Sometimes wrongly translated as
fore he slaughtered them in the wilderness"
"nativity" or "birth."
(Num 14: 16; Deut 9:28). But it is precisely "by
867g tr,ii';til'I (toledot) descendants, re-
thy great power (b' kö!Jiikii haggädöl) and thine
sults, proceedings. Always used in
outstretched arm" (Deut 9:29) that Yahweh ex-
the plural and in the construct state
hibits his mighty power to deliver and to redeem
or with a pronominal suffix.
his people.
God's sovereign power is in clear focus in The root wld (yld in Northwest Semitic) is a
Daniel's Aramaic cognate y' kil. In Dan 3: 17f. the common Semitic root (cf. Arabic walada, Akka-
three friends of Daniel make an eloquent confes- dian (w)a/adu, Ugaritic yld and Phoenician in-
sion offaith, "Our God, whom we serve is able to scriptions yld.
deliver us from the furnace of blazing fire" (cf. In its narrowest sense yiilad describes the act
3:29, Nebuchadnezzar's statement contrasting of a woman in giving birth to a child (e.g. Ex 1: 19;
God's power against that of heathen gods). I Kgs 3: 17-18), but it is sometimes used of the
Nebuchadnezzar, from his personal experience, father's part in becoming a parent (e.g. Gen 4: 18;
affirms God's sovereign power to control the des- I0:8, 24, 26; 22:23, 25:3; I Chr 1:10-20, Prov
tinies of proud and powerful individuals (4:37, 23:22). lt may be used with reference to the
[Aram 34]; cf. Dan 6:20 [Aram 6:21]). whole procedure involved in producing a child
With reference to the concept of power, (e.g. Gen 38:27-28) or it may even be specifically
strength, and omnipotence of God, several applied to the pains of a woman prior to the ac-
synonymous nouns or adjectives should be tual birth (e.g. Gen 35: 16; Mic 5:33). Although
noted: !Jayil "ability, power, competence, predominantly used of human beings it is occa-
strength" as in Ps 84:7 [H 8), "They go from sionally used of animals (e.g. Gen 30:39; 31 :8;
strength to strength." A stronger synonym is Job 39:1-2, Jer 14:5; Ezk 31:6). A man's part in
köalJ "strength, power" which is used of God's the production of a child is generally represented
power in creatioh (Jer I0:12; 51:15; Ps 65:7) and by the Hiphil, but sometimes the Qal is used.
governance of the universe (Ps 29:4). As noted [Critics sometimes explain this usage as due to

378
 867 i7; (yälad)
documentary division. lt is claimed that the some found the trials of life so severe that they
Hiphil usage as in Gen 11 is characteristic of P wished they had never been bom (Job 3:3: Jer
and the Qal as in Gen 10 betokens J. lt is more 15: 10; 20: 14). More tragic, however, is the case
likely that the different forms mean different of Judas Iscariot who, because of his betrayal of
things. In most every instance actual paternity is Jesus, would have been better off had he never
represented by the Hiphil and a more general re- been bom (Lk 16:24).
Iationship like relationship of peoples (the Table The apostasy of Israel becomes more painful
of Nations, Gen 10) uses the Qal. Thus Ps 2:7 is and tragic in the light of the reality that the Lord
not causative, but refers to a relation of love. The "begot" them, a metaphor denoting that he gave
Qal is used. R.L.H.JIn the Piel the verb means "to them life and cared for them during their tender
do the office of midwife ... Except for Ex 1: 16 this years (Deut 32:18: cf. Ezk 17:20; 23:4, 37). See
usage is confined to the Pie! participle. Both Nip- ·äb „ fat her" and be n „ son" .
hal and Pual are commonly used for the passive yälad in Ps 2:7 (note that it is not Hiphil) refers
of the Qal. Hophal is used occasionally with the to the relationship oflove between the Father and
same meaning (Gen 40:20, Ezk 16:4--5). Hithpael the Son. The NT interprets it of Christ's resurrec-
is used once to mean "declare their pedigrees" or tion and session at the Father's right hand (Acts
"register by ancestry" (Num 1:18). 13:33; Heb 1:3-5; 5:5) (cf. Büswell, J. 0., Sys-
The word is often used in a figurative sense. tematic Theology of the Christian Religion [Zon-
Thus it may refer to a city or nation as having dervan, 1962] pp. I, 107-112; II, 18).
given birth to its inhabitants (e.g. Isa 23:4; 51:18;
yeled. Child, young man, son, boy, fruit (Rsv
Ezk 16:20). lt may refer to the wicked as having
similar: adds youths). yaldä. Girl, damsel
brought forth evil, lies or stubble (e.g. Job 15:35; (Rsv "girl," "maiden").
Ps 7: 15; lsa 33: 11). "Bringing forth wind'' is used
These words are generally used for very young
as a vivid figure of frusration (lsa 26:18). Often
children but may refer to adolescents and some-
yälad is used as a simile for distress (e.g. lsa
times even young adults (e.g. I Kgs 12:8--14;
42: 14; Jer 30:6; Mic 4: 10). Once it speaks of the
II Kgs 2:24; II Chr 10:8--14). Once yeled refers to
day as bringing forth the events that will occur in
a fetus (Ex 21 :22). In Job 38:41: 39:3 and lsa 11:7
it (Prov 27: 1). God is spoken of as having given
the plural is used for the young of animals. In one
birth to Israel (Deut 32:18). The word may be
instance the word is used to mean descendants
followed by an accusative, but is often used
(Isa 29:23). lt is used in a figurative sense to rep-
without an object. When used in the passive the
resent the Israelites as either "children of trans-
effective agent is generally introduced by lamed.
gression" (lsa 57:4) or "a child of delights" (Jer
The word does not necessarily point to the 31:20).
generation immediately following. In Hebrew
thought, an individual by the act of giving birth to yillöd. Born. An adjective equivalent to the
a child becomes a parent or ancestor of all who passive participle of yälad.
will be descended from this child. Just as Christ is yälid. Born, children, sons (Rsv "bom," "de-
called a son of David and a son of Abraham, scendants"). This noun found only in the con-
yälad may show the beginning of an individual's
struct state, has the same meaning as a passive
relationship to any descendant. participle of yälad. lt is generally used to desig-
The various derivatives indicate special as- nate the children bom to slaves already pos-
pects or relationships that are in some way con- sessed by an Israelite (seven occurrences). lt is
nected with birth, though sometimes this relation also used three times of the children of Anak and
is rather distant. twice of sons (or children) of "the giant(s)" (or
The word is used in several important theologi- Rephaim). Willesen tries to prove that the word
cal connections. must always refer to slaves, since he feels that it
A constant threat to the Lord's promise that would be too much spread of meaning for the one
the patriarchs' seed would be innumerable and a word to be used for men of distinction and also
blessing to all the families of the earth was the for slaves. With such meager evidence, the ar-
barrenness of their wives (Gen 16: 1; 17: 17: 18: 13; gument is not weil founded. Note the breadth of
25:21). But God fulfilled his promise by causing
meaning in such words as p'' qüddii. and mipqiid.
their barren wombs to bear. Then too, during
such times of crisis in the life of his people, the möledet. Kindred, nativity, issue, born, begatten,
Lord demonstrated his sovereign saving control native (Rsv translates similarly, but adds
of their destiny by promising that elect women "birth"). This noun should properly be inter-
would give birth to sons who would save their preted as "relatives" or "kindred" (occasionally
people (Jud 13:3, 5, 7: I Sam 1:2-10). This theme referring to one individual, but generally used as
finds its consummation in the birth of Jesus a collective). All its occurrences can be inter-
Christ (lsa 7: 14: 9:5; Mt 1). preted in line with this meaning, although in a few
Great joy accompanied the birth of a son. But cases explanation may be necessary (see below).

379
868 *','i; (yälal)

lt has been suggested that m6ledet must mean to the fact that he was the son of Abraham). After
"birthplace" since the prefix m- is sometimes the conclusion of the account in which Jacob was
·used to form nouns indicating place. However, the principal actor, Gen 37:2 says, "These are the
this prefix also forms nouns of other types, hav- t6led6t of Jacob" and proceeds to teil about his
ing nothing to do with place. Frequently m6ledet children and the events with which they were
has a general meaning (six times following the connected.
construct of "land" and five times being parallel In line with these usages it is reasonable to
to "land" or "country. ") Often "kindred" or interpret Gen 2:4, "These are the t6/ed6t of
"birthplace" would fit equally weil. But there are heaven and earth," as meaning, not the coming
a few contexts where m6/edet could not possibly ofheaven and earth into existence, but the events
mean "birthplace." In Gen 48:6, where it points that followed the establishment of heaven and
to Joseph's posterity, "relatives" would fit, but earth. Thus the verse is correctly placed as intro-
"birth" or "birthplace" would be quite meaning- ducing the detailed account of the creation and
less. In Est 8:6, and probably also in Est 2: 10 and fall of man. lt is not a summary of the events
2:20, "kindred" fits the context and "birth" or preceding Gen 2:4.
"birthplace" does not. In Ezk 16:3-4 it seems to The often repeated statement that the book of
refer more to people than to place. In Ezk 16:4 Gen is divided into natural sections by the word
the translation "birth" or "nativity" would t6/ed6t does not work out on close examination.
merely repeat the idea expressed in the following Sometimes, as in Gen 36:9, it merely introduces a
words, while "kindred" would point to the indif- genealogical table.
ference of the relatives. In Gen 43:7 "kindred" In Gen 10:32, 25: 13, Ex 6: 16, 19 and in eight of
fits much better than "birth" or "birthplace." the nine occurrences in I Chr the word is intro-
If taken as "birthplace" in Gen 24:4, it would duced by the preposition l and in Ex 28: 10 it is
contradict the statement in Gen 11:28-31 that introduced by k. The significance of the preposi-
Abram came originally from Ur of the Chaldees. tions is not clear, particularly since we have no
To assume such a contradiction is quite unneces- other evidence relating to the history of the sons
sary since the meaning "kindred" would fit just of lshmael (Gen 25: 13) or the arrangement of the
as weil in all cases, and many of Abram's kindred stones on the breastplate (Ex 28: 10). Therefore
had moved to Haran. we do not know in accordance with what princi-
A difficulty might be assumed in Lev 18:9, 11. ple the arrangement was made. In both cases the
Y et in these two verses it would seem that rela- word "birth" must be considered to be only a
tionship rather than actual birth is of primary im- guess.
portance. Bibliography: Willeson, Folker, "The Yalfd
in Hebrew Society," Studia Theologica 12:
töledöt. Generations, birth (Rsv similar). The 192-210. TDNT, I, pp. 665-675; V. pp. 636--54.
precise meaning of this derivative of yalad "to THAT, I, pp. 733-35.
bring forth," will be discussed below. lt occurs
only in the plural, and only in the construct state r,1i7~ (yaldut). See no. 867c.
or with a pronominal suffix. In the KJV it is always ii',• (yillod). See no. 867d.
translated "generations" except for one case i•7~ (yiilfd). See no. 867e.
(two in the Rsv) where it is rendered "birth." Rsv
generally translates it "generations" but occa-
sionally uses "genealogy." In six occurrences it
868 *'7~ (yiilal) howl, waU.
renders it as "descendants" and once as "his- Derivatives
tory."
868a ,,~ (y'' Lei) howling, only in Deut
The common translation as "generations" 32:10.
does not convey the meaning of the word to
modern readers. The English word "generation"
868b :,77•(y'liilii) howling, wailing.
is now limited almost entirely to two meanings: 868c i,i,;r-, (16/ii/) tormentor. Occurs only
( 1) the act of producing something or the way it is • in Ps 137:3. Derivation uncertain.
produced; (2) an entire group of people living at yiilal is used twenty-nine times, only in the
the same period of time, or the average length of Hiphil. ASV sometimes uses "wail," but Rsv uses
time that such a group of people live. Neither of "wail" consistently. Occurs only in the prophets.
these meanings fits the usage of 16/edot. The parallel of the verb with zii'aq "cry out,
As used in the oT, t6/ed6t refers to what is call" (q.v.) points to a relationship with anxiety,
produced or brought into being by someone, or sorrow, and distress. But the parallel with säpad
follows therefrom. In no case in Gen does the "wail, lament" (q.v.) makes it clear that mourn-
word include the birth of the individual whose ing for death and destruction is in view. The LXX
t6/ed6t it introduces (except in Gen 25: 19. where uses threneö "mourn, lament." The emphasis is
the story of Isaac· s life is introduced by reference not on singing a dirge, although that is sometimes

380
 871 c~~ (ymm)

in view (cf. Arnos 8:3), but rather on violent translated "from the south" but this must be a
lamentation. Joel (1:5, 8, 11, 13) calls on priests manuscript error, although in Isa 49: 12 also yam
and drunkards, city and land, farmers and minis- is opposite to north.
ters to "wail" because of the disaster which Specific seas are mentioned, namely, (1) the
would come on the day of the Lord. Micah the Mediterranean, called "the great sea" (Num
prophet experiences this bewailing (1 :8). How- 34:6), "the hinder sea," i.e. the westem sea
ever, not only the people ofGod are called to wail (Deut 11:24), "the sea of the Philistines" (Ex
(which in essence is a call to repentance from 23:31) andin Ezr 3:7 "the sea of Joppa"; (2) the
sin), but the gentile nations are also called by a Dead Sea, named "the salt sea" (Num 34:3),
sovereign God to wail for the destruction await- "the east sea" (Ezk 47: 18) and "the sea of the
ing them (e.g. Babylon, Isa 13:6; Moab, Isa 15:2; Arabah" (Deut 3: 17); (3) the Red Sea, yam sup,
etc.). lit. "sea of weeds" (Ex 10:19), "the sea of
For content of mourning and lamentation, see Egypt" (Isa 11:15), andin the NT "the red sea"
Lam, Jer 9:18-20, Arnos 5, Isa 14. Also see arti- (Acts 7:36); (4) the Sea of Galilee, known as kin-
cle on qinii. "elegy, dirge." (An interesting article neret (Num 34: 11) with sometimes a slight
on the customs of mourning in the ancient near modification in orthography, then in I Macc 11:67
east is TDNT, III, Stahlin, in pp. I48ff). "the water of Gennesar," and then in NT times
P.R.G. known as the Sea of Gennesaret (Lk 5: 1) or
Galilee (Mt 4: 18) or Tiberias (Jn 21: 1). Also, yam
1,17~(yala'). See l/1,, no. 1098. is used of the Nile river (Nah 3:8) undoubtedly
because of its vastness, as also the Euphrates (Jer
869 .,,. (ylp). Assumed root of the following. 51:36; cf. lsa 21:1 where it may refer to the Per-
869a J'l!;I,~ (yal/epet) scab, scales, an sian Gulf). Often it is used in general, as con-
·eruptive disease. Occurs only in trasted to earth or sky. According to I Kgs
Lev 21:20; 22:22. 7:23ff., Solomon's temple court had an immense
laver called "the bronze sea." Any symbolism to
870 :,',• (y/q). Assumed root of the following. be connected with yäm, however, would be
870a ti'?,.~(yeleq) young locust. purely conjectural. lt was doubtless so called be-
cause of its size.
Perhaps from the verb laqaq "to lick, to lap."
The location of the Mediterranean may weil
The word occurs nine times. lt is translated by
have given rise to the use of •·west'' in Hebrew
the KJV as "caterpillar" or "cankerworm," i.e. a
particularly and semitic thought generally. Ugari-
destructive caterpillar. The LXX renders the word
tic has the same cognate for "sea." Israel was
as brouchos "unwinged locust."
never noted for its maritime enterprises. Sol-
In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 the yeleq may represent
omon indeed had a merchant fleet, but he may
the young larval stage of the locust; the NEB and
have hired Phoenician sailors to man it.
JB suggest "hopper." But in Jer 51:27 the yeleq is
The OT speaks of the Lord as the creator of the
described as "rough," alluding to the homlike
sea (Gen 1:10), who also imposed a limit on its
sheath which covers the rudimentary wings of the
waters (Ps 104:6--9;Prov 8:29). The mighty power
nymph stage. In Nah 3: 16 the last nymph stage is
of God who controlled the Red Sea at the time of
indicated, when the locust molts and then unfurls
the Exodus, becomes the cause for celebration
its wings.
then (Ex 15) and later (Ps 78: 13; 136:13). This in
See also 'arbeh.
turn becomes a symbol for expected victory by
E.Y. the same omnipotent God, so that prayer and
promises are made with füll confidence (Isa
t:ii:,7~ (yalqur). See no. 1125b. 51:10; cf. Ps 107:23-32). Heathen nations are
e~ ·(yäm). See no. 871a.
likened to the roaring sea (Isa 17:12) but they will
er,,.~(yemim). See no. 871b. be rebuked by the Lord and will flee away
1•r,,~(yamin). See no. 872a. (17: 13).
•rr,,~(y'' mini). See no. 872b. In Daniel, the satanic world powers take on the
figure ofbeasts that rise up from the sea (7:3), but
871 e~• (ymm). Assumed root of the following.
in keeping with the sovereign power of the
871a te~ (yam) sea, west, westward, (Asv creator, the most high overthrows these as he
and RSV similar, although RSV some- establishes bis everlasting kingdom.
times uses adjective ··westem").
To the people of ancient Israel, the sea must
871b er,,~ (yemim). Meaning dubious. generally have been perceived as a place of
Occurs only in Gen 36:24. dread, fraught with dangers. Jonah 2:2f. gives
yäm is used over three hundred times referring expression to the close relation between Sheol
to "sea," and over seventy times referring to and the seas from which Jonah was delivered. lt
"west" or "westward." Once (Ps 107:3) it is may weil be that this fear ofthe seas is what gives

381
872 ,~, (ymn)

rise to John's eschatological vision "the sea shall power of God is pictured by his right hand as an
be no more" (Rev 21: 1). instrument for delivering his people from their
Bibliography: TDNT, IX, pp. 585-91. enemies. This in turn becomes the theme of many
P.R.G. a psalm ofpraise, e.g. Ps 98:1, "'His right hand
and his holy arm have gained the victory for
him ... Cf. also Ps 20:7: 21 :9. Furthermore, it is
872 1~• (ymn). Assumed root of the following. the Lord's right hand that becomes the hope and
872a tl'r~; (yämin) right hand, right side. confidence of God's people in time of need.
872b •r~• (y'' mini) on the right. lsaiah 41: IOb explicitly conjoins strength and
872c ~~; · (yäman) go to or choose the
help to the instrumental usage of right hand, "I
right, use the right hand. De-
will strengthen you, surely I will help you, surely,
nominative verb. I will uphold you with my righteous right hand."
872d 'l~'. (y' mani) right hand, right.
See also Isa 41:13; Ps 18:35 [H 36]. In Isa 45:1
872e t,~•!'l (teman) I, south, southward. Cyrus of Persia is said to be "taken by the right
872f t,~•!'l (temän) II, Teman. hand." We understand this to mean that Cyrus·s
yamm. Right hand, right side. The word yämin right hand was strengthened by the Lord.
is used literally of a man·s right hand as opposed The scriptures also acknowledge that the
to s''m'öl "the left" (which is also used for the power of God's right hand strengthened the
"north"). An excellent illustration of this is in people to conquer Canaan and more specifically
Gen 48: 13-14 where Jacob blesses the two sons the holy hill of Zion (Ps 78:54). The location "at
of Joseph stretching out "his right hand and laid the right hand" of God is specifically noted in Ps
it on the head of Ephraim, who was younger, and 16: 11 as a place where godly people taste eternal
his left hand on Manasseh's head, crossing his pleasures and delights. Also, it is used es-
hands, although Manasseh was the first bom." chatologically of Messiah's throne "The Lord
Joseph was displeased and tried to exchange says to my Lord, 'Sit at my right hand until I
Jacob's hands, for there was already a signifi- make thine enemies a footstool for thy feet'" (Ps
cance attached to the right hand. As Jacob re- 110:1). This begins to be fulfilled at the ascension
fuses to remove his right hand from the head of of Christ as noted by Peter in Acts 2:33-35,
Ephraim, he explains, "He [i.e. Manassehl also "'Therefore having been exalted to the right hand
shall become a people and he also shall be great. of God. · · With reference to the second coming of
However, his younger brother shall be greater Christ, it is said that he will separate the sheep
than he, and his descendants shall become a mul- from the goats, "and he will put the sheep on his
titude of nations" (v. 19). The idea of favor and right, and the goats on the left," declaring to
strength being transmitted through the right hand those on the right, "Come, you blessed of my
of blessing begins to emerge. lt should be noted Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you
that Benjamin "son of (my) right hand" clearly is from the foundation of the world." This gives
a name showing special favor and position as the added significance to Ps 16:11, noted above. In
youngest son of Jacob. The name was also used response to the high priest on the night of his
earlier in the Mari tablets of a tribe of Semites. In betrayal, Jesus said, "Hereafter you shall see
that case it probably had the other meaning"Sons 'the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of
of the South. · · One other literal usage should be power' '' (Mt 26:64). Quoting from Ps 110:1, he
mentioned. Jonah 4: 11 concludes with the Lord's clearly demonstrates the divine omnipotence by
expression of covenantal love and concem for the addition tes dunameös "of power" (cf.
those in Nineveh "who cannot distinguish be- Stephen's vision of the exalted Christ in Acts
tween his right hand and his left hand." 7:55).
The more important usage for theological con- yämin locative is used as a "wall on the right
sideration is the figurative expression "the right hand and on their left hand" in Ex 14:22, 29; or
hand of the Lord"' which exhibits the omnipo- directional, as in Deut 2:27, "Let me pass
tence of God especially on behalf of his people through your land ... I will not turn to the right
Israel. One of the earliest and most explicit or to the left." This directional usage may also
statements is found in Moses· song of triumph express figuratively the potential for moral and
after they had crossed the Red Sea and the Egyp- spiritual deviation from the law of God (Deut
tian army had been destroyed. In Ex 15:6 he 17: 11,20; Josh 1:7: 23:6, etc.). yämin is also used
claims, "Thy right hand, 0 Lord, is majestic in of other parts of the body, e.g. shoulder, thigh.
power; Thy right hand, 0 Lord, shatters the Finally yämin is translated "south," since
enemy." The last phrase is even more explicit when facing east, the right hand is on the south.
when coupled with 15: 1b, "The horse and its Note especially Ps 89:12 [H 131 ~äpön w''yämin
rider he has hurled into the sea," and further on, "the north and the south, thou hast created
"Thou didst Stretch out Thy right hand. the earth them." The kingdom of Yemen in southern
swallowed them" (v. 12). Hence, the almighty Arabia still shows this meaning „ South."

382
 874 i';; (yänaq)
lt is interesting to note that Ugaritic ymn is a Lev 19:33 where the opposite of yäna is to "love
precise cognate, the only exception being the es- him as yourself." Similarly Deut 23: 16 [H 17] ex-
chatological notion regarding Messiah. lt should presses the great king's concern for the refugee
be noted that Egyptian orientation "called for slave, seeking asylum from a foreign land, that he
facing upstream (thus 'right = west' "; UT 19: not be maltreated. The Levitical legislation fur-
no. 411). ther protects the economic rights of people who
could easily be bilked by the abuse of the year of
temän J. South, southward, south wind (lit.
Jubilee (Lev 25: 14, 17). In sum, covenantal stipu-
"what is on the right [hand, as one faces south]).
lt is used most frequently (over one hundred lations forbad the maltreatment of the poor and
infirm, particularly the alien, by the rich and
times) with reference to the Negev, which is the
powerful.
most common word. temän is often used poeti-
The prophets of the Babylonian crisis use the
cally, as BDB observes. Job 39:26 speaks of the
participle of yäna in referring to Jerusalem the
soaring hawk "stretching his wings toward the
"oppressing city," because her civil rulers have
south." Job 9:9 refers to '"Orion, and the
turned from the Lord, behave as "roaring lions,"
Pleiades, and the chambers of the south."
profaning the sacred and doing violence to the
Zechariah 9: 14 speaks of the ··whirlwinds (or
law. Jeremiah 46: 16 speaks of the oppressing
stormwinds) of the south." In this connection,
sword (cf. 50: 16).
Asaph refers to the sovereign control of God over
The prophets considered these oppressive ac-
the "east wind" and adds, "by his power he di-
tivities to be nottiing less than sin against God.
rected the south wind" as he brought the quail
Hence political oppression and private affiiction
and manna to the lsraelites who had been re-
of slaves or aliens were denounced as contrary to
cently redeemed from Egypt (Ps 78:26). Cf. Song
God's will for the covenantal people ofthe Lord.
4:16.
P.R.G.
temän Jl. Teman. The name of Esau's
grandson, the son of Eliphaz, who was an Edom- :,i?'r (y''niqa). See no. 874c.
ite chief (Gen 36: 11, 15). Seven times it is used of
a district northeast of Edom (Jer 49:20; Ezk
874 ;,~~ (yänaq) suck, nurse.
25:13) upon which fire will come as predicted by
Arnos ( 1: 12), and which was known for its mighty Derivatives
wise men (Ob 8f.; Jer 49:7). Seemingly incongru- 874a t;,;i' (yöneq) suckling, sapling.
ous is Habakkuk's vision wherein he sees the 874b tr,;,~i' (yuneqet) young shoot.
holy God coming from Teman. The parallel 874c :,~•;; (y'niqa) young shoot, twig,
perhaps explains. it: God is viewed as coming
found only in Ezk 17:4.
from that general direction as in the exodus and
wilderness experience. Nelson Glueck identifies Compare Ugaritic ynq "to suck," Akkadian
Teman with Tawilan, in The Other Side of Jor- eniqu "to suck," museniqtu "wet nurse," Egyp-
dan, pp. 25f. tian snq "to suckle." The word appears approx-
P.R.G. imately sixty-two times in the oT.
Properly, the verb belongs to the action of an
';r;; (y" mäni). See no. 872d. infant suckling at its mother's breast (Job 3:12:
Song 8: 1: Joel 2: 16). Often it occurs as a substan-
tive, a suckling or a babe (Num 11: 12; Deut
873 :,;~ (yäna) oppress, vex, do wrong.
32:25).
Of its twenty usages, only six are in the Qal; lt then broadens to become a metaphor of
the others are in the Hiphil. However, in Ezk abundance and honor. In Deut 33: 19, lssachar
46: 18 it is translated "to thrust them out of their and Zebulun will suckle '"the abundance of the
inheritance." ASV and Rsv are similar. The LXX seas and the treasures hid in the sands." lsaiah
uses thlfbo or thlipsis for yäna as also for several 60:16 uses the same figure to predict the great
Hebrew synonyms, the most common of which is wealth and power that will come to Jerusalem
$ärar "to treat someone with hostility," Hiphil from the converted gentiles, for they will give of
"to constrict someone." These words in Hebrew their life energies just as a mother gives milk to an
express a whole range of afflictions. yäna seems infant. Indeed she will "suck the breast of
to be used in the sense of "doing wrong" to kings.'' This is similar to a subject frequently de-
someone as in the Mosaic legislation which pro- picted in the art of he ancient near east. A young
tects the rights of the ger "resident alien." prince is portrayed as being suckled by the god-
Exodus 22:21 [H 20]. '· And you shall not wrong a dess who conferred royalty to the next ruler of
stranger or oppress him" (/ä/Ja$ "press, crush, the pagan nations. In lsa 66: 11-12, it is a picture
oppress'') appending the rationale, "For you of satisfaction and comfort.
were gerim in the land of Egypt.' · See further The Hiphil stem means "to give suck to,

383
875 iQ; (yasad)
nurse." lt is used in the participial form of a nurs- 875e tM,Ql~ (müsäda) foundation.
ing woman (Ex 2:7; Gen 24:59). This stem also is 875f iQi~ (mosäd) foundation.
used of animals (Gen 32: 15 [H 16]; Lam 4:3) and 875g ,;~ (massad) foundation.
in a figurative expression, of causing one to suck
honey (Deut 32: 13). Another such metaphorical The primary meaning of yäsad is "to found, to
expression has both kings and queens of the gen- fix firmly,'' from which the major nominal mean-
tile nations being Israel's foster fathers and nurs- ings derive, i.e. "foundation" especially of a
ing mothers. building. Hence the verb is translated "to estab-
lish'' a city, etc. lt is used in a literal sense just a
yöneq. Suckling, sapling, young plant (Rsv).
few times, as in Ezr 3: 12 "the old men ... wept
This form appears only once, in a messianic ref-
with a loud voice when the foundation of this
erence (lsa 53:2). lt is parallel to shöresh "root."
house (i.e. the second temple) was laid before
To men, the servant appeared as a shoot growing
their eyes." The Pie! and Pual are used more
from the main stalk, to be pruned off since it
often in this sense (i.e. with reference to the tem-
sapped or sucked strength from the main plant.
ple, I Kgs 5:31; Ezr 3:6,10; Zech 4:9, etc.), but
yöneqet. Young shoot, twig. Appears only six also of the foundation of a city. Both Josh 6:26
times. lt refers in Job 14:7 to the "shoots" which and I Kgs 16:34both refer to the curse ofrebuild-
come up around the stump of a felled tree. Job ing Jericho upon the pain of laying such founda-
uses this as an argument for his hope of im- tion with the death of a son. Note also the foun-
mortality, for just as trees sprout again, after they dation of Zion, lsa 14:32. y' söd is evidently used
have been cut down, so a man must wait until his of the "foundation" for a city wall. Solomon's
"change" or "release" or "second growth" temple had !arge blocks ofstone (12' x 15') upon
comes (v. 14) (see f:tälap). Already, Bildad had which it was built. See I Kgs 5:17; 6:37. The NT
referred to shoots spreading over the garden uses themelios for this literal sense of foun-
(8: 16). Then Eliphaz echoed Bildad's type of ar- dations of houses, towers, and cities (cf. Lk
gument (15:30). These two men both applied our 6:48f.; 14:29; Acts 16:26; Heb 11:10; Rev
word to the wicked. 21: 14,19).
In Ps 80: 11 [H 12], the (cf. Ps 44:2 [H 31) The metaphorical usage would signify some-
classic picture of Israel as a vine occurs. There it thing which cannot be moved. The NT katabole
speaks of the vine's shoots going down to the "a casting or laying down" is often used of "the
river. But in Hos 14:6 [H 7] it is a shoot from a foundation of the world" (e.g. Mt 13:35; Eph
poplar tree, if lib' neh "poplar" is read for the MT 1:4). This cosmological usage reflects many pas-
tebanön as it is in Hos 4: 13. sages from the OT, e.g. Ps 24:2, "For he has
The most significant passage, which is similar founded it [the world] upon the seas." See also
to the abbreviated form in lsa 53:2, is Ezk 17:22. Ps 78:69; 89:11 [H 12]; 104:5.
There the Lord will take a "sprig" ($ammeret) Several passages refer to the foundation of the
which by interpretation is a descendant of earth and the heavens together, as Prov 3: 19
David's house, from the top of the cedar tree. "The Lord by wisdom founded the earth; by
Then he will break off from the topmost of its understanding He established (Heb könen) the
young twigs, "a tender one" (rak), i.e. the Mes- heavens" (see also Ps 102:26; Isa 48:13; 51:13,
siah himself. Note the corporate solidarity of the 16). Some other cosmological references are to
whole line of David, yet its final and ultimate the foundations of mountains and lands as weil as
representative in Jesus Christ. the heavens and the earth. And yet in a signifi-
W.C.K cant verse Job says that God "suspends the earth
over nothing" (Job 26:7, Ntv).
eiitu1~ (yanshüp ). See no. 1434b. lsaiah 54: 11 speaks of the future of Israel,
"Behold, I will set your stones in antimony, and
your foundations I will lay in sapphires." This
875 iQ: (yasad) establish,found, layfoundation. eschatological note anticipates the New
(ASV, RSV similar.) Jerusalem described with precious stones and
metals in Rev 21-22.
Derivatives Two verses in the Psalms have an unusual use
875a i!?; (y'süd) foundation, beginning, of yäsad in the Niphal. "The kings of the earth set
only in Ezra 7:9. themselves (yityaH' bu), and the rulers take
875b tiic; (y'' söd) foundation, base. counsel together ( nös ,,du) against the Lord and
875c rii,c• (y'suda) foundation, mean- his anointed" (Ps-2:2; cf. Ps 31:13 [H 141). As
ing city founded. Occurs only in Ps BDB puts it, the meaning here is ''fix or seat
87:1. themselves close together, sit in conclave" which
875d ic,~ (müsäd) foundation laying, is closely parallel to the first verb, yii$ab (q. v .) in
Tfoundation. the Hithpael. The notion is of people firmly set-

384
 876 ti~;(yäsap)
ting themselves against someone, here specifi- ,;a:,, (yissor). See no. 877a.
cally against the Messiah. i;,: (yäsak). See ,~c.no. 1474.
This leads us to a further usage in messianic
prophecy, namely that of lsa 28: 16. The Lord
876 l'IQ: (yäsap) add,increase,doagain (ASV,
speaks, "Be hold I am laying in Zion for a founda-
Rsv similar.)
tion a stone, a tested stone, a precious cor-
nerstone, of a sure foundation. He who believes Derivative
will not be in haste" (Rsv). The context is a mes-
876a tl'l;i• (yosep) Joseph.
sage of judgment to "the drunkards of Ephraim"
(28:1) and more specifically "the scoffers who yäsap occurs almost two hundred times,
rule this people who are in Jerusalem" (28:14) mostly in the Qal and Hiphil (six times in the
who now boast of having made "a covenant with Niphal). The LXX translates usually with pros-
death and with Sheol'' and · · made a lie our refuge tithemi. No cognate is found in Ugaritic.
and falsehood (or false gods) our hiding place" A very common usage of yäsap is "to do
(N1v).They thus entertain the false hope that "the again," as in Gen 4:2, "And again, she gave birth
overwhelming scourge [i.e. Assyria] will not to his brother Abel" (cf. 38:5). In the case of
reach us." lsaiah, as often before, maintains that Abraham taking Keturah as wife, Gen 25: 1
the only basis for real hope is faith in the coven- states, "Now Abraham had taken another [lit.
ant Lord. The apostle Peter gives the inspired added or took again a] wife." Sometimes, espe-
interpretation of our passage when he refers to cially with a negative particle, it is translated "no
Jesus Christ as "the precious cornerstone," in- more" as in the moving scene where Judah
deed "as to a living stone" upon whom believers, quotes Joseph, "Unless your youngest brother
"you also, as living stones, are being built up as a comes down with you, you shall see my face no
spiritual house" (1 Pet 2:4-8). Paul also confirms more" (lit. you shall not add to; see Gen 44:23).
this in Rom 9:32f. where, however, he conflates The literal idea "to add" is clearly evident in
lsa 28: 16 with Isa 8: 14 which speaks of a Lev 27: 13, 15, 19, 27 where repeatedly Moses
"stumbling stone" which Isaiah uses to refer to writes about the person who makes a vow that
Immanuel who will be to both houses of Israel · 'a "he shall add a fifth of the value" if he should
stone to strike and a rock to stumble over" (lsa wish to redeem an object or property. The case of
8: 13-15). lt is important to note that the NTrefer- Hezekiah also is to the point, where in response
ences agreeing with some LXX manuscripts add to his prayer, the Lord promises, "I will add fif-
ep' autö "in him" following the "he who be- teen years to your life" (lsa 38:5). Rache!, in
lieves." The MT does not make this explicit. The naming her firstborn Joseph, prays, "May the
yissad b' ~fyyon "I lay for a foundation in Zion" Lord give me [lit. add to me] another son." Both
has reference to the holy city as the city of God, Isaiah and Rache! acknowledge that longevity
but extending the meaning to include the people and progeny are at the sovereign discretion of
of God, the church, and its foundations. lt is this God. In this connection observe Prov 10:27,
conception of a solid and firm foundation which ''The fear of the Lord prolongeth days. •· See also
is the backdrop for understanding the statement Prov 9: 11.
"upon this rock I aill build my church" (Mt There is a negative note in connection with
16:18). Also in Eph 2:20, the apostle speaks ofthe yäsap. This is the human ethical problem of sin.
"household of God, having been built upon the lt is first encountered with Pharoah, "But when
foundation (themelios) of the apostles and Pharoah saw that the rain and the hail and thun-
prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the cor- der had ceased, he sinned again (lit. he added to
nerstone." See also Rev 21:14, 19f. where there sin) and hardened his heart" (Ex 9:34). But this is
may well be a christological and ecclesiological the case even with the people of God, as the re-
significance. curring phrase in Judges "and the children of Is-
rael did evil again (lit. added to do evil) in the
y'söd. Foundation, base. Seven of its eighteen
sight of the Lord" (3: 12; 10:6, etc.). This heaping
usages refer to the "bottom" ofthe altar, (so KJV, up of something need not be totally negative.
but ASVand RSVtranslate "base"). Once it is used Psalm 71: 14 quotes the psalmist as saying, "I will
of "repairing" the temple (II Chr 24:27). increase thy praise" or as KJV"and will yet praise
müsadä. Foundation. Used only twice, once thee more and more."
in Isa 30:32 of a rod of "punishment" (KJV"ap- Nevertheless, there are instances where a posi-
pointment") tive note is struck. The incorporation of men into
Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 73~37. a society occurs several times. A striking episode
P.R.G. is the concern expressed by the Egyptians over
the growth ofthe Israelite population: "Come, let
iic~ (y" sod). See no. 875b. us deal wisely with them, lest they multiply and
:i,~=~
(y< südti). See no. 875c. in the event of war, they also join themselves to

385
877 ,Q:(yiisar)
those who hate us and fight against us" ( Ex names her son Joseph, saying, "May the Lord
1:10). The Psalmist prays, "May the Lord give give me (lit. add to me) another son·· (Gen 30:24).
you increase, you and your children" (Ps 115:14). Hence at the very beginning of Joseph's life.
Cf. ls 14: 1. One should note the similar NTusage there is an acknowledgment of the sovereign
in Acts 2:41,47; 5:14; 11:24, where "believers grace of God which magnificently anticipates
were continually added to the Lord," i.e. the God's providence for his people as developed in
Lord was adding them to the church (passive the story of Joseph (Gen 37-50). Note that in v.
rather than middle, "they joined themselves"). 23 there is a play on the word. 'äsap · ·take away,
There is in this connection, an eschatological remove" which is in assonance with Joseph. In
hope in the oT related to the doctrine of the rem- Gen Joseph must be considered a historical
nant, i.e. "and the surviving remnant of the character. His name is not used in the patriarchal
house of Judah shall again take root downward appellative for God, as in "the God of Abraham,
and bear fruit upward, for out of Jerusalem shall Isaac, and Jacob," doubtless because there were
go forth a remnant, and out of Mount Zion sur- twelve brothers in his generation. However, he
vivors" (II Kgs 19:30, 31). Admittedly this becomes the important link from the creation and
prophecy may have been fulfilled in part either patriarchal revelation with the great revelation at
after Sennacherib's army was decimated or fol- the exodus from Egypt.
Iowing the Babylonian exile, nevertheless if the Joseph is not tobe taken merely as an example
writer understands Rom 11 aright, the apostle for ethical conduct (Gen 39). His dealings with
Paul confidently hoped for an even greater and his brothers as a young man might betray him
more glorious fulfillment. (Cf. Nah 1:15 [H 2:1].) (Gen 37). However, Gen 39:9 clearly points to the
In a similar vein, Jeremiah speaking of the re- theological basis for his ethics. · · How then could
gathered people of Israel, says, "And their life I do this great evil, and sin against God?" Indeed,
shall be like a watered garden, and they shall throughout the narrative, God's activity in the
never languish again'' (31: 12). Note also Isa 52: 1 history of his people is the focus of attention.
where Jerusalem is called to awake, "For the un- This is most clear in Joseph's insistence that
circumcised and the unclean will no more come "God sent me before you to preserve life" (45:5
into you" (cf. Rev 22: 14-15). is repeated in order that the message might not be
yäsap is frequently used as part of an oath, as lost, 45:6-9). After Jacob's death, he again em-
for example, when Ruth entreats Naomi not to phasizes this "good" providence of God even
force her to Ieave, "For where you go I will go, when "evil" had been intended (50:20f.). Fur-
and where you lodge I will lodge; your people thermore, on his deathbed he anchors his faith to
shall be my people and your God my the oath-bound covenantal promises made by
God .... May the Lord do so to me and more also God to his forefathers. Based on this assurance
(lit. so may he add) if even death parts me from he demands that his remains be interred in the
you" (Ruth 1: 17). Cf. also I Sam 3: 17; II Sam 3:9, promised land (50:24f.; cf. Heb 11:22).
19:13 [H 14]. Joseph' s explanation of Pharaoh' s dreams that
The phrase "to do so to me and more also" "God has shown Pharoah what he is about to do"
seems to involve an ellipsis, which may be under- (41:25, 27, 32, 39) must also apply to Joseph's
stood when the literal expression is completed, own dreams (eh. 37). See also 40:8. Finally, his
such as · ·so may he add curses upon me if.' · This life bore clear testimony to a close walk with the
is plausible when one reads in the treaties of Lord (39:3). Even in naming his two sons, he was
nearby kings the Iist of blessings for obedience conscious ofGod's gracious activity (41:51f.).
but a longer list of curses for disobedience or P.R.G.
rebellion.
877 ,~: (yäsar) discipline, chasten, instruct.
yosep, y 0 hösep. Joseph. y"hosep is found
once, in Ps 81:5 [H 6]. The name appears over Derivatives
200 times in the 0T, referring primarily to the
877a iit:.i• (yissor) one who reproves. Only
older son of Jacob and Rache!. lt is used for the
in Job 40:2.
tribe, i.e. Ephraim and Manasseh (Deut 33:13;
877b tii;,~~ (müsär) discipline.
Josh 14:4; 17:lf.), for the northern kingdom
(Arnos 5:6, 15, Zech 10:6), and for the whole na- The LXX translates primarily as paideuo. which
tion of Israel (Ps 80:1 [H 2], 81:5 [H 6]). Four emphasizes the notion of education. The Ugaritic
other men in the 0T have this name: 1) Num 13:7, cognate ysr meaning "to chasten, instruct" (UT
a man from Issachar; 2) I Chr 25:2, 9 a son of 19: no. 1120).
Asaph; 3) Ezr 10:42 one who took a foreign wife; From the usage and parallels in the OT, one
and 4) Neh 12:14 a priest. must conclude that yäsar and musär denote cor-
The name is derived from yäsap "to add, in- rection which results in education. The theologi-
crease, do again" (q.v.). Rache) specifically cal basis for discipline is grounded in the coven-

386
 878 ii;: (yä'ad)
ant relationship which Yahweh establishes with tion, teaching." Hence, also the pricelessness of
his people. The words are found almost ninety müsiir (8: 10) and the reason why fools despise it
times, nine times in the Pentateuch, twenty-six (15:5, 32). Proverbs and other wisdom literature
times in the prophets, and fifty times in the speak of discipline with emphasis on instruction.
Hagiographa, (thirty-six of these in Prov). In Lev lt is tempting to see that the seemingly disparate
26:18, 28 yiisar is used in the formula "J will notions of correction and instruction converge
chastise (NASBpunish) you seven times for your beautifully only in the covenant.
sins," wit h a clear parallel in v. 24, "I will punish How was discipline administered? Proverbs
you seven times" (niika "to beat. strike, hit"). 22: 15 speaks of the "rod of correction." But
God's corrective discipline seeks the reformation most often, müsiir is oral instruction. hence the
of the people ( v. 23). The other six uses in the close association with the torä. In Job 5:17 ff.,
Pentateuch are found in Deut, the all important when he urges Job not to "despise the discipline
covenant renewal document. Key to an under- of the Almighty, · · Eliphaz shows insight concern-
standing of müsiir is Deut 11:2ff., · ·consider the ing the means which God may use to discipline
discipline of the Lord your God, his great- his children: pain and wounds, famine and war.
ness, ... his signs and his deeds which he did in Arnos would add drought. mildew, locusts,
Egypt to Pharaoh .... and what he did to the epidemics, and earthquakes (4:6-11).
army of Egypt .... and what he did for you in the The prophets develop the theme of milsiir as in
wilderness." In short, the miisiir of Yahweh is Deut 11:2, revealing God's discipline through his
his mighty activity in covenant history by which mighty acts in the.history of the people of Israel
he reveals himself (cf. v. 7 with 4:35f.). and Judah in particular and the nations in general.
The discipline of Yahweh is not to be taken God deals with his people from the standpoint of
negatively. for the hardships in the wilderness warning and correction. The severity of the exile
were balanced by his miraculous provisions both must be thus understood (cf. Hos 5:2: 7:12; lsa
designed to test "what was in your heart, 8: 11). But all such discipline becomes futile
whether you would keep his commandments or through the resistance and stubbornness of those
not'· (Deut 8:2). Hence, by their hunger, as weil to whom it is given (cf. Jer 2:30; 5:3; 7:28: 17:23:
as by the manna which he provided, they were to 32:33). lsaiah 53:5 adds ··the chastisement of our
"understand that man does not live by bread peace was upon him" (Rsv "the chastisement that
alone, but ... by everything that proceeds from made us whole"). This is clearly a context of
the mouth of Yahweh" (8:3). Thus, they were to substitutionary atonement. Here the Servant of
know in their hearts that Yahweh was disciplin- the Lord is seen as taking "the severe punish-
ing them (8:5). This discipline then might be con- ment" vicariously, more clearly revealing God's
sidered education that is theocentric, indeed, merciful ways of dealing with his rebellious
theofugal. That Deut 8:5 uses the comparative (pesha') people through redemptive judgment
expression "as a man disciplines his son" is not and suffering.
without covenantal and theological significance. Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 738--41.
The ancient treaties often refer to the suzerain P.R.G.
king as a father and to the vassal as his son (cf.
McCarthy, CBQ 27: 144-47). In Moses' covenant tl; (yii'). See no. 879a.
hymn we read that Yahweh is referred to as
Father (Deut 32:6: cf. 1:31; Isa 1:2) of the coven- 878 il,'; (yä'ad) appoint, betrothe, assemble, meet,
ant people (although Ex 4:22; Deut 1:31 teach the
set.
same concept). Hence, the theological basis for
an earthly father's discipline over his son is in the Derivatives
covenant. He bears the image of his covenant
Lord, and as such stands in parallel relationship
878a m,µ ('edä) congregation.
878b tiµi~ (mo'ed) appointed place.
over his children---chastening, correcting, in-
878c ,~;~ (mo'iid) place o/ assembly,
structing, providing-which are expressions of
only in lsa 14:31.
an interpersonal relationship of Iove. So also the 878d ~,~,~ (mü'iidä). Occurs only in
thirty usages in Prov and elsewhere, e.g. Prov phrase 'iire hammu'iidä "cities ap-
3: 11-12 where müsiir and toka/Jat "reproof, cor-
pointed" (Josh 20:9).
rection" are said to come from Yahweh "for
whom the Lord loves (' iihab) he reproves The basic meaning of this root is "to appoint,"
(yiika/J), even as a father the son in whom he in which sense it occurs in the Qurnran War
delights." Hence, discipline gives assurance of Scroll, the Thanksgiving Psalms, and the Mes-
sonship, for müsiir primarily points to a God- sianic Rute. ASVand RSVsimilar, except ASVuses
centered way of life, and only secondarily to ·· espoused" and RSV,"designate" (Ex 21 :8) and
ethical behavior. Proverbs 1:7 couples it with the ASV,"agreed" (Arnos 3:3).
"fear of Yahweh," and 1:8 with torä "instruc- The root is used in the Qal for the betrothal of a

387
878 it,; (yä 'ad)

woman (Ex 21:8). to designate a time (II Sam but qiihiil is not. 'eda occurs most frequently in
20:5) and place of meeting, and to appoint a rod Ex, Lev, and Num, and occurs only three times
(Rsv "tribe"; Mic 6:9). in the prophets (Jer 6: 18; 30:20; Hos 7: 12). qiihiil,
The Niphal form is used for God's meeting Is- on the other hand, is infrequent in those portions
rael at the sanctuary (Ex 25:22; 29:43f.; 30:6, 36) of the Pentateuch, but is frequent in Deut. The
and for the assembling of the congregation for book of Chr uses qiihiil frequently, but 'edii only
worship in the sense of appearing (Num 10:3; once (II Chr 5:6= I Kgs 8:5). A man may be
I Kgs 8:5; II Chr 5:6) or for other purposes. lt is excluded from the 'eda (Ex 12: 19), but the same
of interest that God's meeting with Israel's repre- is true of the qiihiil (Num 19:20). Bastards, Am-
sentative at the "mercy seat" (kapporet, q.v.) is monites, and Moabites are excluded to the tenth
an appointed meeting (Ex 25:22). So also were generation; but Edomites and Egyptians are bar-
the other times when God met with the people red only to the third.
before the tabemacle. The people were expected Most characteristic of the OT is the use of 'eda
to come and God promised to meet them there. for the congregation of Israel. "The congrega-
God keeps his appointments. tion" (hii'edti) occurs seventy-seven times in Ex,
The Niphal form may also be used with the Lev, Num, and Josh. We also have "the congre-
preposition against ( 'a/) for an assembling against gation of the Lord" (Num 27:17; 31:16; Josh
the Lord (Num 14:35; 16:11; 27:3) in rebellion. lt 22: 16--17);"the congregation of Israel" (Ex 12:3;
is used for kings joining their forces (Josh 11:5). Josh 22:20); and "all the congregation." There is
lt may also designate making an appointment the "assembly of the congregation of Israel"
(Arnos 3:3; Job 2:11; Ps 48:4 [H 51). The Hiphil (q' ha/ 'adat yifrii' el, Ex 12:6) and the "assembly
signifies to appoint (Jer 49: 19) or in some cases to of the congregation of the children of Israel"
summons (Jer 50:44; Job 9:19). (q'hal 'adat b'ne yisrii'el, Num 14:5).
The Hophal participle, mu'iidim, signifies that Moses headed the ·edii when it was in the wil-
which is ordered or set (Jer 24: 1; Ezk 21: 16 demess, but there were other designated offi-
[H 21]). cials: princes (Ex 16:22; 34:31; Num 4:34, etc.),
elders (Lev 4:15; Jud 21:16), heads ofthe fathers
'edä. Assembly, congregation, multitude, people, (Num 31:26), and renowned persons (Num 1:16;
swann (Asv and Rsv similar except Asv tends to 26:9). The men of fighting age were "those num-
render 'eda uniformly by "congregation."). 'eda bered of the congregation" (Ex 38:25).
occurs frequently, in Qumran materials as a The 'eda was signalled to assemble when two
self-designation of the community. silver trumpets were blown (Num 10:2). lt
'eda is a feminine noun from yii'ad "to ap- gathered for war (Jud 20: 1), to deal with breach of
point, ·' hence is an assembly by appointment and the covenant with the Lord, for tribal affairs, for
is rendered in the KJVmost frequently as "con- worship (1 Kgs 8:5; Ps 111:1), and at times of
gregation." First appearing in Ex 12:3, the noun national calamity. lt gathered to crown a king
occurs 145 times in the or and is rendered (1 Kgs 12:20) and for other political affairs. lt
synagoge 127 times in the LXX. However the acted as a unit in sending men to war (Jud 21: 10,
noun itself does not imply the purpose of the 13). The term 'eda appears last in the historical
gathering; hence we have a swarm of bees (Jud literature (at I Kgs 12:20) at the division of the
14:8) and a multitude of bulls (Ps 68:30 [H 31]). lt kingdom. lts absence in Chronicles and Ezra-
may be a gathering of the righteous (Ps 1:5), but Nehemiah would militate against the view that it
there is also the assembly of the wicked (Ps 22: 16 was coined by the postexilic community.
[H 17]), violent men (Ps 86:14), and the godless
(Job 15:34). The followers of Korah (Num 16:5) mö'ed. Appointed sign, appointed time, appointed
and Abiram (Ps 106:17-18) are frequently termed season, place of assembly, set feast. (ASVand RSV
a company. Assembly is sometimes used in the similar.)
KJVfor 'eda for variety when it occurs in prox- This masculine noun occurs 223 times. lt fre-
imity to some of the other terms rendered con- quently designates a determined time or place
gregation (Num 16:2; 20:8; Prov 5:14). 'edti des- without regard to the purpose of the designation.
ignates the assembly of people gathered before lt may be the time for the birth of a child (Gen
the Lord injudgment (Ps 7:7 [H 8]). Similar is the 17:21; 18:14; 21:2), the coming of a plague (Ex
designation of an assembly of the officers of God 9:5), the season of a bird's migration (Jer 8:7), an
(Ps 82: 1) which is nearly identical with a Ugaritic appointed time (l Sam 13:8; 20:35), the time for
expression for an assembly of the subordinate which a vision is intended (Hab 2:3), the times of
gods of the pantheon (Text 128:11,7, 11). the end (Dan 8: 19), or the time for the festivals
Despite the fact that we have "congregation (Lev 23:2) and solemnities (Deut 31:10).
and assembly" (qiihiil w' 'edii, Prov 5: 14), qiihiil The heavenly bodies are for determining the
and 'edii seem tobe synonymous for all practical seasons (Gen 1: 14; Ps 104:19). Each festival is a
purposes. 'edii is also used for groups of animals, mb'ed, but collectively they are the "feasts ofthe

388
 882 *',~:(yä'al)
Lord" (mo'Me YHWH, Lev 23:2, etc.). Appear- Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania,
ing at times (Hos 9:5) with l;ag (which designates 1965. Weinfeld, Moshe, "Congregation," in En-
the three great annual festivals), mo'ed must be cyclopedia Judaica, III, pp. 893-96. THAT, I,
thought of in a wide usage for all religious as- pp. 742-45.
semblies. Jerusalem became the city of as- J.P.L.
semblies (lsa 33:20; cf. Ezk 36:38) which were
characterized by great rejoicing and were deeply 879 M~; (yä'a) sweep together. Occurs only in
missed during times of exile (Zeph 3: 18; Lam lsa 28:17.
1:4).
Once mo'ed is an appointed sign (Jud 20:38) by Derivative
which men should act. 879a 11; (yä') shovel.
The Lord met with Moses at the "tent of meet-
ing" (' öhel mo 'ed). He appeared in the cloud at "lill; (yä'or). See "II,'~,no. 888a.
the door of the tent and spoke to him as "a man
speaks to bis friend" (Ex 33:7, 11; Num 12:8). 880 *Tl,'; (yä'az). Occurs only as a Niphal par-
Tue purpose of Yahweh's meeting Moses and Is- ticiple, in lsa 33: 19, 'am nö'äz "a barbar-
rael is revelation (Ex 29:42; 33: 11; Num 7:89). ous (?) people."
The Lxx translates 'ohel mo'ed over one hundred
times as skene marturiou (tent of witness) which 881 l:ll,'; (yä 'a() cover, Occurs only in lsa
probably connects (incorrectly) mo'ed with 'ed 61: 10, m''il !i""däqa y''ätäni "he has covered
or 'ud. But the general idea conveyed of the me with a robe of righteousness."
place of revelation is sound. According to some
passages, the tent was outside the camp (Ex
882 *?I,'; (yä'al) 1, profit, gain, benefll. Hiphil
33:7-11; Num II :24-30), but according to others
only, used twenty-three times. LXXtrans-
it was located in the middle of the camp (Ex
lates nineteen times with öphelö, etc., mean-
25:8). Literary critics have traditionally ex-
ing "to help, aid, benefit, be of use to."
plained these passages as coming from two
sources, E and P, with P not reflecting a histori- There is a predominantly negative connotation
cal situation. lt is, however, entirely possible that in the use of yä 'al as it appears in the oT. lt seems
there were two successive tents called 'öhel not to be used in Ugaritic. Even the NT öphelö
mo'ed. The first was Moses' tent, which was has a negative note. Religiously, heathen idols
used before the completion of the tabernacle, are unprofitable, e.g. in Isaiah's famous satire on
which was also called 'öhel mo'ed, as well as the manufacture of idols: "All who make idols
mishkän. are nothing, and the things they delight in can do
mo'ed also designates an "assembly" in such a nothing (lit. "are of no profit"). Who fashions a
phrase as "picked men of the assembly" (Num god has cast an image that is profitable for noth-
16:2).This usage has been paralleled by Wilson in ing" (lsa 44: 10, as rendered by C. Westermann).
the Wen Amun story (JNES 4: 245) for the city In Jer 2:8, 11, Israel is scathingly rebuked for
council of ZakarBa'al of Gebal. The King of exchanging the Lord for what were not gods,
Babylon dreams of a seat in the "mount of as- "But my people have changed their glory for that
sembly" (har mo'ed) in the north (lsa 14:13), a which does not profit." See also Jer 16:19; Hab
term similar to the Ugaritic expression for the 2: 18; I Sam 12:21.
council of the gods (see above). Scholars have Politically, the prophets warn against the futil-
seen a parallel between these terms and the ity of trusting in foreign alliances, as Isa 30:5
words for the court surrounding the Lord or the speaking of an alliance with Egypt, "Everyone
gathering of the officers of God, which is de- will be ashamed because of a people who cannot
scribed as the "assembly of EI" ('iidat 'el; Ps profit them, who are not for help or profit, but for
82:1) in which he stands and and judges. shame and also for reproach."
mo'ed is also the worshiping assembly of Wealth carries no weight in terms of eternal
God's people, hence Yahweh's foes roar in the destiny. Proverbs 11:4, "Riches do not profit in
midst of his assemblies (Ps 74:4). lt may possibly the day of wrath, but righteousness delivers from
be an early designation for the synagogue ("ap- death," should be compared with Christ' s words,
pointed places of God mo'Me 'el; Ps 74:8). "What shall it profit a man if he should gain the
However that this phrase actually refers to early whole world and lose bis own soul?" (Mt 16:26).
synagogues is disputed. Even where there is a positive denotation to
Bibliography: Haran, Menahem, "The Na- yä'al (only three times) there is a negative conno-
ture of the 'Ohel Moc edh in Pentateuchal tation as in Job 30: 13 (of those who would profit
Sources," JSS 5: 50-55. Pope, M. H., "Congre- from Job's destruction) and lsa 47: 12 (of Babylon
gation," in IDB, pp. 669-70. Scott, John A., who might profit from her sorceries). lsaiah 48: 17
"The Pattern of the Tabernacle," Unpublished is the only positive use, which magnifies the Lord

389
883 '?t."(y'l)
as the one who brings benefits to his people: "I counsel and strength for the war" retlects the
am the Lord your God, who teaches you to usual careful deliberation that goes into planning
profit, who leads you in the way you should go." for battle, in this case for defense.
This clearly reflects the biblical concept of stew- Psalm 33: IO speaks of nations and peoples de-
ardship, that all that one has and possesses be- vising counsels and plans (Heb ma/Jllshäba
longs to him only because of God' s gracious pro- "thought, device, plan, purpose") albeit not in
vision (cf. II Cor 8:9; 9:8). accordance with God's "counsels ('e,ra) and
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 746--87. plans" (cf. Isa 8:10; 30:1).
P.R.G. In contrast to the counsels of men and nations,
the OT speaks of the "counsel of the Lord."
883 ,1r (y'/) II. Assumed root of the following. Psalm 33: IOf. presents this thought most clearly.
883a ,1,1:
(yä 'el) mountain goat. "The Lord nullifies the counsel ofthe nations; he
883b :,7~~(ya'ala) /emale mountain goat. frustrates the pi ans of the peoples. The ·counsel'
of the Lord stands forever, the plans of his heart
W~ (ya'an). See no. 1650e. from generation to generation." Noteworthy
here is the overruling power of God as he nullifies
884 HI' (y'n). Assumed root of the following. and frustrates the plans of men. The case of
884a W' (yä'en) ostrich (only in Lam Ahithophel's counsel is apropos. In II Sam 15:31
4:3). David prays to the Lord to "make the counsel of
884b :,;~~ (ya'llna) only in combination Ahithophel foolishness." He thereby acknowl-
bat ya'llna. Ostrich BOB, GB. edges that God sovereignly disposes what man
KJV' NIV owl. proposes. Further, in II Sam 17:14 after Absalom
chooses the advice of Hushai over that of
885 l!\1,1;(yä'ep) /, be weary, faint. Ahithophel, the inspired author makes the
theological comment, "For the Lord had or-
Derivatives dained to thwart the good counsel of Ahithophel,
885a l!\1,1;(yä'ep) weary, faint. in order that the Lord might bring calamity on
885b !!\Ir (y' 'äp) weariness,faintness. Absalom." Cf. Neh 4:15 [H 9].
The counsel of the Lord is etemal, "lt stands
886 1!11.'' (y'p) II. Assumed root of the following. forever. ·' The enduring character of God' s coun-
886a :,~viri (to'äpa) eminence. sel and plan is grounded in the unchangeableness
of God himself. The "plans of his heart' · may be
equated with "the secret things" which belong to
887 T~; (yä'a,r) advise, counsel, purpose, devise,
the Lord our God. lt is God who guarantees the
plan. (Asv, RSV similar.)
accomplishment of his etemal decrees. Isaiah
Derivatives beautifully integrales these thoughts, "Re-
887a t:,;1,1 ('e,rä) counsel, purpose. member the former things long past, for I am
God, and there is no other; declaring the end
887b :i;1,1i~ (mo'e,ra) counsel, plan. from the beginning and from ancient times things
This verb is translated in LXX by bouleu6 or a which have not been done, saying, 'My purpose
compound over seventy times, "to give counsel, will be established, and I will accomplish all my
deliberate, purpose, determine." The first occur- good pleasure'; Calling ... the man of my pur-
rence of yä'a,r is in Ex 18: 19. Jethro, seeing the pose (lit. the man who executes my purpose, i.e.
tremendous burden of Moses, says, "1 shall give Cyrus) from a far country. Truly I have spoken;
you 'counsel,' and God be with you." He then truly, I will bring it to pass. 1 have planned it,
gives him an organizational plan and advises him surely I will do it" (46:9-11). lt is weil to re-
how to carry out the administrative respon- member that 'e,ra is translated in the Lxx by
sibilities for ruling and judging his people. Jethro boule, a word replete with theological signifi-
gives counsel from wisdom attained by age cance in the NT (see Acts 2:23; 4:28; 5:3S-39;
and/or experience. One may remember Re- 20:27; Eph 1:11 where "the counsel of his will"
hoboam's rejection of the counsel ('e,ra) of the expresses the immutable foreordination ofGod's
old men (1 Kgs 12:8, 13). Moses, as chief adminis- will); cf. Heb 6: 17, "the unchangeableness of his
trator of the people of God, is not obligated to purpose").
accept such counsel. A case in point is Ab- Arising from the theological conceptualization
solom 's rejection of Ahithophel's good counsel are anthropological and ethical conclusions.
which was countered by Hushai's evil counsel Moses anticipates the waywardness of Israel as a
(II Sam 17). Jethro, as counsellor, presents a "nation void of counsel," i.e. not following the
carefully thought out plan together with a proce- plans and purposes of God (Deut 32:28). Job ac-
dure for its implementation. In II Kgs 18:20 Rab- knowledges that through lack of knowledge, he
shakeh's taunt of Hezekiah's claim, "I have has darkened counsel (42:3; cf. 38:2). In Prov,

390
 890 :,9~(yapa)
counsel is rejected and spurned to one's own det- that rather than being cut down, it is pictured as
riment () :25, 30) but "he who listens to counsel" allowed to grow into a wilderness forest, as in
is a wise man (12:15). From Prov 19:20--21 we Mic 3:12, "Zion will be plowed as a field,
understand that the counsel the godly man is Jerusalem will become a heap of ruins, and the
urged to listen to is the „ counsel of the Lord" mountain of the temple will become high places
which will stand, in contrast to the many "plans of a forest," i.e. thick and overgrown.
in a man's heart." The blessed man of Ps 1:I is The symbolism of a forest is not altogether
one "who walks not in the counsel of the un- negative, however. The Lord's mighty act of sal-
godly." Further, in Ps 32:8 the psalmist is en- vation and forgiveness calls for shouts of joy, as
couraged by the Lord's instruction and teaching, in Isa 44:23, "Break forth into a shout of joy, you
together with the assurance „ I · will counsel' mountains, 0 forest, and every tree in it, for the
(ya·a~) you with my eye upon you" (cf. 73:24). Lord has redeemed Jacob." In a slightly different
Two christological passages need to be studied context, the maiden in the canticle speaks of her
in this connection. The only hope of Judah, lover "like an apple tree among the trees of the
Isaiah claims, is tobe found in the person of the forest, so is my beloved among the young men. In
Messiah, who is characterized by four compound his shade I took delight and sat down and his fruit
names, the first being "Wonderful Counsellor" was sweet to my taste" (Song 2:3).
(9:6). The child who is to come, on whose shoul- P.R.G.
ders the government of the world shall rest, is
one whose plans, purposes, designs and decrees 889 i!J• (y'r) II. Assumed root ofthe following.
for his people are marvellous. We further learn 889a ,~~ (ya'ar) II, honeycomb.
from II :2 that "counsel" is a gift of God's own 889b :i,11~ (ya'ra) honeycomb.
Holy Spirit. Consequently, Jesus Christ 1s re-
vealed as the counsellor par excellance. 890 :,~; (yapa) be fair, beautiful, handsome.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 748-52.
P.R.G. Derivatives
890a t:i~; (yapeh) fair, beautiful.
890b :,~1:1-:,1:1•(y 'peh-pi'ya)very beautiful,
888 ilJ• (y'r) I. Assumed root of the following.
'~ed~'plication giving the force of di-
888a ti~~ (ya'ar) I, forest, woods,
minutive, "pretty."
thicket. LXX translates drumos. The
Ugaritic cognate y'r is quite com-
890c '!;l; (y' pi) beauty.
mon, used as a personal name, place yapa appears only eight times, including Ps
name, and as gentilic. ASVand Rsv 45:2 [H 3] yopyapita which many try to emend.
use similar words. But Dahood suggests it may be a genuine dialec-
tical form as in Ugaritic d' d' "weil known" from
Specific forests are identified in the oT, e.g. the
yd', and ysmsmt "beauty" (in AB, Psalms, I. p.
forest of Lebanon (1 Kgs 7:2), Ephraim (II Sam
271). The consonants may be taken as simply a
18:6), Hareth (l Sam 22:5), the Negev (Ezk 20:47
reduplication of the adj y 'pi which is then made
[H 21:3]), Carmel (though this may be better
into a stative verb. KJV,ASV,RSVconsistently use
translated "its choice cypresses," II Kgs 19:23;
"be fair" and "be beautiful" even of men, as in
lsa 37:24 as in Rsv and NASB).Joshua designates
II Sam 14:25.
the forested area in the hill country of Ephraim as
the possession ofthe sons of Joseph, encouraging yäpeh. Fair, beautiful, excellent. Translated in
them by saying, .. If you are a numerous people, LXX by kalos "beautiful, useful, good." Ugaritic
go up to the forest and clear a place for yourself" has a word yp (?) probably a cognate (UT 19: no.
(Josh 17:15; cf. v. 18). 412).
The forests apparently were dense enough in Esthetically, yapeh denotes "beauty as to
0T days that wild animals roamed at will, e.g. outward appearance," e.g. Gen 12: 14 regarding
bears (II Kgs 2:24), a roaring lion (Arnos 3:4; Mic Sarah, "When Abraham came to Egypt, the
5:8 [H 7]; Jer 5:6; 12:8), boars (Ps 80: 13 [H 14]), Egyptians saw that the woman was very 'beauti-
and beasts generally (lsa 56:9; Ezk 34:25). ful'." In the case of Rache! (29: 17), .. She was
Psalm 29:9 ascribes glory to God by claiming beautiful and lovely" (Heb y''pat tö'ar wipat
that "the voice of the Lord makes the deer to mar'eh, literally "beautiful in form and beautiful
calve (or "twists the oaks" NIV)and strips the to look upon"). Cf. Song 7:6 [H 7]; II Sam 13:1 of
forests bare.·· Other metaphors or similes appear Tarnar; I Kgs 1:3, 4 of Abishag the Shunammite.
referring to the Lord's judgments, as for exam- Elsewhere these words describe young men, e.g.
ple, judgment on Assyria in Isa 10: I 8, "And he Gen 39:6, "Now Joseph was handsome and good
will destroy the glory of his forest and of his fruit- looking" (Rsv). Cf. II Sam 14:25 of Absalom; I
ful garden." Cf. Ps 83:14 [H 15]; Jer21:14. Some- Sam 17:42 ofDavid; Song 1:16. Under the figure
times, the figure of judgment is turned around so of a woman, Jerusalem is called "beautiful in ele-

391
891 *n~:(yäpa};)
vation" (Ps 48:2 [H 3]). Cf. also Ezk 16:13, 14, yäpeh, etc. for the beloved, would tend to sup-
15, 25. Tyre (Ezk 27:3) and Egypt are also called port our view of a handsome Christ. That beauty
beautiful, the latter as a metaphor with the redu- may be defined in the spiritual sense of inward
plicated diminutive in Jer 46:20, .. Egypt is a beauty should not detract from the outward phys-
pretty heifer." However, it is used literally of ical appearance of our Lord.
cows in Gen 41 :2, 4, 18 where "beautiful and fat" One final reference should be noted. Zechariah
cows are contrasted with "ugly and gaunt" ones 9: l 6f. speaks of the ransomed people of God,
in Pharaoh's dream, Other objects of beauty '· And the Lord their God will save them in that
mentioned in Scripture are olive trees and cedars day as the flock of his people; for they are as
(Jer 11:16; Ezk 31:3), feet (Song7:2); eyes (1 Sam stones of a crown, sparkling in his land. For what
16:12). In Ezk 33:32, the prophet's ministry is comeliness and beauty will be theirs!" May
described as being "like a sensual song by one God's people even now reflect the beauty of the
who has a beautiful voice and plays weil on an Lord our God (cf. Ps 90:17).
instrument.'' Ecclesiastes 3: 11 describes every- P.R.G.
thing in general as God's creation "beautiful in its
time." M~~H"t!;l; (y'peh-piyyii). See no. 890b.
Several times these words are used in Ezk 28
to describe the king of Tyre and the wisdom for 891 *MP: (yäpa!J,) breathe, puff. This by-form
which Tyre was known. Her enemies will "draw of pua!J, occurs only in the Hithpael stem,
their swords against the beauty of your wisdom in Jer 4:31, tityappea!J, "she gasps for
and defile your splendor" (v. 7). The king him- breath."
self is described as "füll of wisdom and perfect
in beauty" (v. 12). But this proved his downfall, Derivative
as v. 17 declares that „ your heart was lifted up 891a r:,r;,:(yäpea!J,) breathing or puffing
because of your beauty; you corrupted wisdom out. Occurs only in Ps 27: 12,
by reason of your splendor." If the king of Tyre wfpea!J, IJ,ämäs "puffing out vio-
stands for Lucifer, one can appreciate the poten- lence."
tial for the seduction of God's people. Jeremiah
speaks of craftsmen beautifying their wooden
idols, "They decorate it with silver and gold"
'!;); (y'"pf). See no. 890c.
(10:4).
There are two messianic passages which use 892 *l.'P; (yäpa') shine forth, cause to shine.
our words. In Ps 45:2 [H 3], in a song celebrating U sed eight times in the Hiphil only. Asv
the marriage of the king, the songwriter says, and RSV similar except in Job 10:3 where
"You are fairer than the sons of men; grace is "favor" is used.
poured upon your lips; therefore God has blessed Derivatives
you forever. · · Prophesying the future hope of Is-
rael as being in the person of Messiah, Isaiah 892a M"I); (yip ·ii) brightness, splendor.
says, "Your eyes will see the king in his beauty, In Ezk 28:7, 17 ofthe king ofTyre.
they will behold a far distant land" (lsa 33: 17). yäpa' is used of the Lord shining forth from
The LXX translates doxa (rather than kalos), Mount Paran (Deut 33:2), Zion (Ps 50: l), among
thinking of his heavenly glory. But this transla- the cherubim (Ps 80: l [H 2]). Undoubtedly these
tion for y 'pf is unusual. are references to the majestic splendor of his
If these are messianic references, then what is holiness, as revealed by the theophanic brilliance
the meaning oflsa 53:2, "He has no stately form of the Shekinah glory. But further the Lord's
or majesty that we should look upon him, nor shioing forth is made explicit by Jesus· claim to
appearance that we should be attracted to him"? be the light of the world. In Job 37: 15 the refer-
There is no mention of "beauty" in Isa 53. Fur- ence may be to literal light, possibly lightning,
ther, the servant is depicted as suffering, espe- which God has created.
cially in the crucifixion scene. In view of 52: 14, Job's plaint in 10:3 alludes to God's light shin-
„ His appearance was marred more than any ing with favor on the wicked, whereas he himself
man,'' coupled with the NT description of the feels keenly the darkness of his plight. Similarly,
brutal beatings (e.g. the crown of thorns pressed his cursing the day of his birth is expressed by a
on his brow), we conclude that Christ in his suf- desire that no "light shine on it," i.e. that it may
fering would not manifest the beauty described not be looked upon with favor, joy, or celebra-
elsewhere. Some theologians have opposed the tion. Much later, the derivative yip'ii "splendor"
idea of an ugly Christ based on the Hellenistic is used to describe the lofty and exalted position
notion that beauty is intrinsic to deity. If the ofthe king ofTyre, from which he will have fallen
church' s interpretation of the Song of Solomon as because of pride.
being messianic is valid, then the many uses of lt is interesting to note that Ugaritic yp' is the

392
 semantic cognate, appearing both in texts as weil The record shows that history is theologically re-
as in many personal names (cf. yp'b'/ "may Baal lated, the great "going out" event was to sym-
shine forth.' '). But the root in Ug does not clearly bolize the mighty redemption of God's people
refer to a theophany in the oT sense. Aistleitner from the shackles of sin by his sovereign power-
(AisWUS No. 1215) translates it "be sublime" ful grace. In Deut 4:37 a reason is given: "Be-
(hehr sein). cause he loved your fathers, therefore he chose
Bibliography: THAT, I, ppl 753-54. their descendants .... And he personally brought
P.R.G. you from Egypt" (cf. Eph 1:4). Throughout Is-
rael' s history, the covenanted people of God are
893 Ml~ (yä$ä') go out, come out, go forth. called to remember this God-initiated redemption
and to live accordingly. (Cf. Deut 6:12; 26:8: Jud
Derivatives 2:12; I Sam 12:8; I Kgs 8:16; Jer 11:4; Dan 9:15
893a M•;~ (yä$i') coming forth, only in and numerous references in the psalter, particu-
larly Ps 136:11, but note also 106:6-12.)
II Chr 32:21.
A second usage arises from the exodus motif.
893b tM;tc; ($e'i'$ä') offspring, produce.
893c tM;i~ (m6$ä') act or place of going In a technical sense yä$a' is used for the emanci-
out.
pation of a Hebrew slave, probably an indentured
servant. Exodus 21 :2 puts the maximum limit of
893d t.i~;i~ (mo.rä'a) origin (Mic 5: 1),
places of going out to, i.e. privy service at six years, "But on the seventh he shall
(II Kgs 10:27). Occurs only in the go out as a free man without payment." U. Cas-
plural. suto points out that these laws aim to protect
893e t:,~;ir, (tö$ä'a) outgoing, border. certain rights of the Hebrew slave, and in effect
say to the Israelite, "You have been Hebrew
yä$ä · appears over a thousand times in Qal and slaves in Egypt, and, therefore, you must act
Hiphil, but only five times in the Hophal. The with love and compassion towards the people
Hiphil has the usual causative meaning "cause to who are Hebrew slaves, even as you were, irre-
go out, bring out, lead out." ASV and Rsv similar. spective of their racial origin." lt seems signifi-
The basic notion of yä$a · is "to go out." lt is cant that this section reads so much like the
used literally of going out from a particular local- preamble to the Decalogue, reminding the people
ity or from the presence of a person. lt is used of of God that as you went forth from Egyptian
nature, i.e. water out of a rock, sun rising out of bondage, even so shall your identured servant go
the east, etc. For our purposes we shall note the out free.
following uses. First, it is used frequently of the Somewhat related is a technical usage meaning
great exodus event which forms the major focus "revert." Leviticus 25:8-55 records the regu-
oftheological attention in the OT. The Hiphil with lations for the year of Jubilee. Property or
its causative function is used extensively. Moses dwellings which had been sold on account of
is the human element in bringing the people of poverty, no near of kin being able to redeem it,
God out of Egypt (e.g. Ex 3: !Off.; 14:11). Aaron "at thejubilee [it] shall revert (lit. "go out"), that
is mentioned with Moses in Ex 6: 13, 26f. But far he may return to his property" (25:28, 30, 31, 33).
greater emphasis is given to Yahweh, the Lord lt may weil be that Isaiah had the above two ideas
God who is involved in this great act of redemp- in mind when he uttered the evangelical message
tion from Egypt. Moses himself puts the em- "to proclaim liberty to captives, and freedom to
phasis on God's work in Ex 13:3 as he addresses prisoners; to proclaim the favorable year of the
the people of God on that memorable day, .. Re- Lord" (61:2-3).
member this day in which you went out from Another theological usage of yä$a' is an exten-
Egypt, from the house of slavery; for by a power- sion of the exodus theme. The prophets see the
ful hand the Lord brought you out from this irremediable corruption of Israel and Judah
place." The historical event was recorded in which inevitably leads to exile but after that a
12:50f. Moses reiterates four times the mighty return. Ezekiel, himself an innocent victim of
power of God in the exodus redemption so as to such judgment, quotes the Lord's promise of a
underline the revelation which this great miracle new exodus-Iike redemptive activity from the
proclaimed. (Cf. 13:3,9, 14,16.) Both the consec- exile. "As a soothing aroma I shall accept you,
ration of the firstborn and the passover feast will when I bring you out from the peoples and gather
serve as constant reminders. Further, in the in- you from the lands where you are scattered"
scripturation of the Sinaitic covenant, all that (20:41; cf. v. 34). Its true fulfillment may only
need be said by way of a historical prologue to come after the good shepherd "will bring them
identify the benevolent activity of the great King out from the peoples and gather them from the
is to refer to this saving action: "I am the Lord countries and bring them to their own land"
your God, who. brought you out of the land of (34: 13). Hence, an eschatological note of hope is
Egypt, out of the house of slavery" (Ex 20:2). introduced.

393
894 ~l; (ya~ab)
Sometimes yä$a' is used with a special em- tö~ä'ä. Outgoings, borders. Used twenty-three
phasis on source or origin, particularly when that times (all plural), mainly in geographical con-
source is the Lord himself, as of fire (Lev 9:24), texts.
providential guidance (Gen 24:50), or salvation Bib/iography: THAT, I, pp. 755-60.
(Isa 51 :5), lt is used of words going forth from the P.R.G.
mouth of a speaker, as in Job 8: 10; Prov 10:18;
Neh 6: 19. In Deut 8:3 Moses utters one of the
894 :::i;; (yä$ab) stand, set or station oneself,
cardinal principles of the spiritual life, "That he
present oneself (only in the Hithpael). The
might make you understand that man does not
LXX uses paristemi, histemi, anthisll'mi
live by bread alone, but man Jives by everything
plus other compounds of histemi. The more
that proceeds out (mö$ä') of the mouth of the
common Hebrew words are 'ämad and
Lord." (Cf. Christ's use of this in Mt 4:4.) Al-
nä$ab which KB calls a byform of yä$ab. lt
though both Ezekiel and Daniel use this expres-
appears forty-five times in MT. ASV and Rsv
sion once, only Isaiah emphasizes the notion of
are similar.
the word of God going out with effectual force.
Following a universal invitation tobe saved, the The word appears in Ugaritic only as the name
Lord guarantees its effectualness by an oath, "I of the son of Keret.
have swom by myself, the word has gone forth The simple usage is found in Ex 2:4 where
from my mouth in righteousness and will not turn Miriam, Moses' sister, "stood at a distance to
back, that to me every knee will bow, every find out what would happen to him." Habakkuk
tongue will swear allegiance" (45:23). Similarly, also uses the word similarly, "I will stand on my
on a context ofGospel invitation to seek the Lord guard post ... and I will keep watch to see what
and call upon him, Isaiah uses the analogy of he will speak to me" (2:1). Cf. II Sam 18:13
life-producing rain coming down from heaven to where it is translated "stood aloof." However,
illustrate the effectual working of his Word, "So there is more to the idea than simply standing.
shall my word be which goes forth from my lt is used of those who set themselves against
mouth; it shall not return to me empty, without others. Specifically, in the well-known messianic
accomplishing what I desire, and without suc- psalm, "the kings of the earth take their
ceeding in the matter for which I sent it'' (Isa stand ... against the Lord and against his
55: I I ). lt is tempting to consider that these pas- anointed" (Ps 2:2). Hence, it means "to oppose"
sages might have been the genesis of John's or possibly "to oppress" as the parallel phrase
theology of Jesus as the Word of God. Consider might also indicate. In a twist to the metaphor,
the relation that Ps 33:6 might have to Jn I :3. One Num 22:22 expresses God's anger against
should note also the christological interpretation Balaam so that "the angel of the Lord took his
of 45:23 as given by Paul in Phil 2: lOf. If this is stand in the way as an adversary against him." In
true, one wonders if lsaiah did not have in mind a a military sense, it is used in I Sam 17: 16 where
person when he spoke ofthe "Word" going forth Goliath stood in defiance of the Lord and the
(cf. Jn 16:28), and not returning empty, but "suc- army of Israel. Cf. Jer 46:4. However, several
ceeding in the matter for which I sent him" (cf. Jn times we find the promise of God that the enemy
17:4). will not be able to stand before the godly, i.e. to
oppose him. The most familiar passage is Josh
~e•e~ä'. Offspring of men, produce of the I :5, "No man will be able to stand before you all
earth. Used eleven times (all plural) in lsaiah the days of your life" (cf. Deut 7:24; 11:25).
and Job. Sometimes the people of God are told to take
their stand, passively and quietly awaiting the
mö~ä'. Act or place of going out; hence, issue, mighty deliverance ofthe Lord as in Ex 14:13f.,
source, such as a spring of water or mine (for "Do not fear! Stand by and see the salvation of
silver). Used twenty-seven times. the Lord which He will accomplish for
you today ... the Lord will fight for you while
mösä'ä. Place from which one comes or to you keep silent" (cf. I Sam 12:7, 16 and II Chr
which one goes. Used only twice in very different 20: 17).
connections. In II Kgs 10:27 it means "latrine." Furthermore, God calls on the righteous be-
The meaning in Mic 5:2 [H I] the plural is de- lievers to take their stand against evil: "Who will
bated. The translation "origin" (Rsv) is unsuita- stand up (Heb qüm) for me against evildoers?
ble for the messianic reference. The meaning of Who will take his stand (yä$ab) for me against
the KJV "going forth" is obscure. The NIV "whose those who do wickedness' 1 " (Ps 94:16; cf. II Chr
origins are from of old, from ancient times" 11: 13 where the priests and Levites of the north-
agrees with the idea that the ancestry of the ex- em ten tribes stood firm with Rehoboam when
pected ruler traces back to David's time as weil Jeroboam divided the kingdom).
as David's city. The NEB "roots" is similar. In another usage yä$ab lipne means "to pre-

394
 sent oneself before." Moses is commanded, i'~qr (yi!flJaq). See no. 1905b.
''Present yourself before Pharoah" (lit. "station M,;; (ya!fi'). See no. 893a.
yourself') in Ex 8:20 [H 16]; 9:13. Deuteronomy ;,;; (ya$ia' ). See no. 896b.
31:14 is instructive because God teils Moses and
Joshua to "present themselves" at the tent of 896 *ir;; (ya!ja') lay, spread. Occurs only in
meeting, that he might commission him" i.e. in- the Hiphil and Hophal.
stall him for service. Similarly, in Josh 24: 1 the
elders of Israel, heads, judges, and officers are to Derivatives
present themselves before God as they anticipate 896a tmt; (ya!fua') couch, bed.
taking the oath of leadership. Cf. I Sam 10:19; 896b ~,;; (ya!jfa') flat surface.
Jud 20:2. This note of service is more clearly re- 896c :,;r,, (ma!j!ia') couch, bed. Occurs
vealed in Zech 6:5. "These are the four spirits of only in Isa 28:20.
heaven, going forth after standing before the
Lord of all the earth." They are depicted as em-
missaries of God, accomplishing his work. This 897 i';; (ya!jaq) pour, pour out, cast (meta!).
(ASV, Rsv similar.)
illuminates Job 1:6; 2: 1 where "the sons of God
came to present themselves before the Lord, and Derivatives
Satan also.·· Satan·s malevolent "roaming about
on the earth" need not detract from the high ser- 897a :-li?J.t:
(y" !füqa) a casting (of meta!),
only in I Kgs 7:24.
vice which the sons of God rendered. Fur-
897b i'i1~ (mil!faq) a casting, only in 1
thermore, we need not denigrate the service per-
Kgs 7:37; Job 38:38.
formed as being servile, but rather an honorable
897c r'ii'i!1~ (mu!jeqet) pipe (Zech 4:2);
task. lt is this idea which indubitably is behind
the proverb, "Do you see a man skilled in his ·a:casting (II Chr 4:3).
work? He will stand before kings; he will not ya!faq is used about fifty times, about one
stand before obscure men" (Prov 22:29). One fourth of them used of casting or pouring molten
who thus stands before kings implicitly makes metal. ASV and Rsv similar. The Ugaritic Y!fq has
himself available and ready for service. Cf. Mil- the same range of meaning.
ton's memorable words in his sonnet on his The basic meaning is to pour out a liquid, e.g.
blindness, "They also serve who only stand and Elisha poured water on the hands of Elijah
wait." (II. Kgs 3:11), pouring oil, e.g. the widow filling
One further idea may be considered. If they containers with oil (II Kgs 4:4-5), or pouring
who stand before kings are servants and couriers soup or food from a pot (II Kgs 4:40--41).
ready to serve, how much more should those who Ceremonially, it is used of pouring oil in anoint-
present themselves to the great king, the Lord of ing, e.g. on the head of the priest (Ex 29:7, Lev
lords, be submissive to his will and command. 21: 10) or the head of a king (II Kgs 9:3, 6; I Sam
This seems tobe the thought in Ex 19:17 where 10:1). The principle of inauguration or ordination
„ Moses brought the people out of the camp to to office is clearly involved. But perhaps another
meet God. and they stood at the foot of the more subtle principle is implied, that of repre-
mountain ... The people gave a response of rev- sentation and solidarity. When Ps 133:2 speaks of
erent obedience, .. All the words which the Lord the oil that ran down Aaron's head to the beard
has spoken we will do. and we will be obedient" and onto the collars of the priests' robes, God's
(24:3. 7). blessing on the people as weil as on the priest was
P.R.G. thereby symbolized. Hence, the significance of
the "oil of gladness." The meal offering in Lev
895 J;; (ya.rng) set, place, establish. 2: 1, 6 was to have oil poured upon it and mixed
with frankincense as a sweet smelling offering
Used sixteen times. in the Hiphil and Hophal symbolic of one's complete consecration to the
only. lt is a synonym of süm. its primary meaning Lord, to be pleasing before him. Further, in the
being toset or place. The notion of placing some- sacrificial system, blood was poured out at the
one or something in such a position as to be ex- base of the altar, making atonement for Aaron
hibited to all may be seen in Job 17:6, "But he and his sons (Lev 8: 15).
has made me a byword of the people, and I am Eschatologically, the Lord promises through
one at whom men spit." Hosea 2:3 [H 51 lsaiah (44:3) to "pour out water on the thirsty
likewise, "Lest I strip her naked and expose her land" (or "on him who is thirsty") and in the
as on the day when she was born" (NASB). parallelism he alludes to Joel's prophecy (2:28),
P.R.G. ··1 will pour out My Spirit on your offspring, and
my blessing on your descendants." The implica-
,:,;• (yi!fhar). See no. 1883c. tions for the doctrine of the Trinity in the OT are
;tr: (yii.yüa · ). See no. 896a. inescapable, but neither should one lose sight of

395
 the greater blessings to be realized following the used of his preordained purposes (II Kgs 19:25;
fulfillment in Acts 2. The Holy Spirit is not tobe lsa 37:26; 46: 11; Ps 139:16) as weil as his current
conceived as a liquid poured out, but rather man- plans (Jer 18:11).
ifesting his activities among the people of God in The root is used of God' s forming the nation of
"these latter days." Israel in the sense of bringing it into existence. lt
Interesting]y, the word is never used for cast- is used in this way only by lsaiah and always
ing idol images. lt is used frequently for casting connotes God's activity in this regard (lsa 43: 1, 7,
the golden temple furniture and for the great 21; 44:2, 21, 24).
bronze casting which Solomon accomplished in The participial form meaning "potter" is
the Jordan valley-no small feat of engineering applied to God in lsa 64:7 where mankind is the
for his day (1 Kgs 7:46). work of his band.
P.R.G. When applied to the objects of God's creative
work, the emphasis ofthe word is on the forming
or structuring of these phenomena. The word
898 i;: (Yii!far) fashion, form, frame. (RSV
and Asv generally similar except that RSV speaks to the mode of creation of these
translates "planned" in II Kgs 19:25; Isa phenomena only insofar as the act of shaping or
37:26, and ASV has "ordained" in Ps forming an object may also imply the initiation of
139:16.) that object. In this way the root yii!far is an ap-
propriate surrogate for bärä' but not an exact
Derivatives synonym.
898a t,;ir (ye!fer) form. y~r. Form. The noun ye!fer, which con-
898b 0'".lJ' (y'!fürim) forms, members, notes the concept of "form," may refer either to
ori°lyin Job 17:7, referring to parts of the shape of an object or the object itself, i.e. that
the body as having been fashioned. which has been formed. lt refers to the external
shape of an idol in Hab 2: 18, but to pottery itself
The basic meaning of this root is "to form,"
in Isa 29:16. lts most frequent usage in the latter
"to fashion." While the word occurs in
sense refers to that which is formed in the mind,
synonymous parallelism with biirii' "create" and
e.g. plans and purposes (Gen 6:5; 8:21; Deut
'asii "make" in a number of passages, its pri-
31:21) or even the state of mind (lsa 26:3).
mary emphasis is on the shaping or forming of the
Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 1005-28. THAT,
object involved. I, pp. 761--64.
As with many Hebrew words of theological T.E.M.
significance, the root yii!far may be used of
human as weil as divine agency. When used in its
secular sense it occurs most frequently in the par- ,~: (yä!far). See no. 1970, !fiirar l.
ticipial form meaning "potter," i.e. one who
fashions (clay). The word is used in this form
frequently in the prophets where "the potter"
899 ri;: (yii!fat) burn, kindle, set onjire.
provides an apt vehicle for the communication of The most common word for burning is bii'ar.
the prophetic message (lsa 29: 16; Jer 18:2, 4, 6; yä/fat is used largely by the prophets to depict the
Zech 11:13). . coming desolation. The word is always used to
The concept of "fashioning" is particularly express destruction by fire. For ordinary burning
clear in Isa 44:9-10, 12 where an idol is pictured as of wood on the altar bä 'ar or yäqad would be
as being shaped (yii!far) by hammers (v. 12). See used, although these words too are often destruc-
also Hab 2: 18. The same concept is evident in the tive.
use of the word in Ps 94:20 where wicked rulers yä!fat is used in Josh 8:8, 19 where the city of
use the law to devise or frame means of wrong- Ai was destroyed by fire. This was done by ex-
doing. press command from the Lord. Cf. Jud 9:49
When used of divine agency, the root refers where the tower of Shechem was set on fire. lt is
most frequently to God's creative activity. lt de- used of setting fields on fire (II Sam 14:30f.),
scribes the function of the divine Potter forming forests (Jer 21:14), gates (Neh 1:3; 2:17), thorns
man and beasts from the dust of the earth (Gen (lsa 33: 12), houses (Jer 51:30). Jeremiah uses this
2:7--8, 19). lt occurs in association with bärä' word 15 times, mostly to predict the fiery de-
"create" and 'asii "make" in passages that refer struction of Jerusalem and Judah. But such de-
to the creation of the universe (lsa 45: 18), the struction is not to come upon Jadah exclusively,
earth itself (Jer 33:2), and the natural phenomena but on foreign nations as weil, e.g. Egypt (46: 19),
(Arnos 4:13; Ps 95:5). See also Ps 33:15; 74:17; Ammon (49:2), Damascus (49:27), Babylon
94:9; Jer 10:16; 51: 19; Zech 12:1). (50:32; 51:30). Jeremiah Iaments (Lam 4: 11) most
The word also occurs in the sense of God's bitterly that Zion has been thoroughly destroyed
framing or devising something in bis mind. lt is by fire, "The Lord has accomplished his wrath,

396
 903 !Jt;,~(yäqa')
he has poured out his fierce anger; and he has in Dan 3 as a participle "buming" modifying the
kindled a fire in Zion which has consumed its fiery fumace. Also, in an eschatological passage,
foundations.'' the fourth beast of Dan 7 is slain "and its body
Jeremiah's use of ya~at may have been im- was destroyed and given to the buming fire"
pressed on him by the discovery of the scroll of (v. 11) which anticipates "the lake of fire and
the law during Josiah's reign. Josiah expressed brimstone" into which the devil, the beast, and
his concem for what was read to him, by com- the false prophet are thrown (Rev 20: 10).
manding Hilkiah the priest and others, "Go, in- P.R.G.
quire of the Lord for me ... for great is the wrath
of the Lord that bums against us, because our 902 :oi;,• (yqh). Assumed root of the following.
fathers have not listened to the words of this 902a t:"!l;!i?' (yiqhii) obedience. (Asv and
book, to do according to all that is written con- Rsv similar.)
ceming us" (II Kgs 22:13).
lt is used only twice, in Gen 49: 10 and Prov
For the metaphoric use of the buming anger of
30: I 7. lt is presumably from yaqah (not used in
the Lord, see the article on yaqad.
Hebrew). The Genpassage is the familiar Shiloh
P.R.G.
prophecy concluding "and to him shall be the
obedience of the peoples." However, LXX ren-
900 :;,• (yqb). Assumed root of the following. ders our word by prosdokia "expectation" (as
900a :('.; (yeqeb) wine vat. iffrom qawii) expressing the hope of the peoples
awaiting Shiloh' s coming. Proverbs 30: 17 "de-
901 i;;,; (yaqad) burn, kindle. (Asv, RSVsimi- spiseth to obey a mother" is rendered "scoms a
lar.) mother's old age" in NEBfollowing LXX geras
"old age." The parallel with "mocking a father,"
Derivatives the Arabic cognate waqhat "obedience" and the
901a ii;,; (y'qod) aburning onlyinlsa usage in Gen 49: 10 would seem to suggest that
10:16. obedience to both father and mother is in view.
901b i;,iQ (moqed) burning, hearth, used Such scom by the eye (of a son) would be se-
only twice (Ps 102:4; lsa 33: 14). verely judged.
901c :i,;;,iQ (moq'dii) hearth, used only P.R.G.
once (Lev 6:2).
The more common words for buming are ba'ar
ii;,; (y'qod). Seeno.90la.
and yd$at for the literal expression, qa(ar "bum
c~;,• (y"qüm). See no. 1999f.
incense," !Jarii for the figurative of "anger bum-
~i~; (yaqosh). See no. 906a.
ing," plus several others of less significance.
~~i'; (yäqüsh). See no. 906b.
,•;;,~ (yaqqfr). See no. 905c.
yaqad and its derivatives are mostly used in
connection with the brazen altar. lt is used sev-
eral times in Lev 6 where instructions are given 903 llit; (yäqa') be alienated, dislocate (Qal);
hang (Hiphil). (ASVand RSVessentially the
for the bumt offerings, e.g. "the bumt offering
same.)
itself shall remain on the hearth (moq' da) on the
altar all night until the moming, and the fire on Of the eight usages of this word, half are causa-
the altar is tobe kept buming (yaqad, Hophal) on tive. Genesis 32:25 [H 26], "So the socket of
it" (Lev 6:9 [H 2]; cf. 6:12 [H 5]; 6:13 [H 6]). Jacob's thigh was dislocated while he wrestled,"
By and )arge these words are used metaphori- clearly establishes the basis for the metaphoric
cally for the wrath of God in judgment. Although sense meaning "be alienated, separated." The
!Jarii is more commonly used, nevertheless Hi phil clearly brings out the causative, although
yaqad is used in this sense, as in Deut 32:22, it serves euphemistically for the idea of execution
"Fora fire is kindled (qada!J) in my anger, and by hanging or, more likely at that time by impal-
bums (yaqad) to the lowest part of Sheol, and ing (as in Num 25:4 as NASBtranslates "and exe-
consumes the earth with its yield, and sets on fire cute them in broad daylight ... so that the fierce
(/aha() the foundations of the mountains." Isa anger of the Lord may turn away from Israel").
10:16 picks up this figure of fiery judgment. Normally in ancient Israel execution was carried
Jeremiah uses the same metaphor in 15:14, andin out by stoning (saqal or ragam, q.v.). For the
17:4 accuses Judah of kindling the fire of God's curse associated with hanging, see Deut 21 :23,
anger. In a slight twist to the metaphor, Isaiah see the synonym talii "hang." The several refer-
reveals God's frustration with the recalcitrant ences to hanging bodies may refer not to death by
people of Judah, declaring of them, "These are hanging, but to the exhibition of the corpses of
smoke in my nostrils, a fire that bums all the those killed some other way (cf. II Sam 21:12;
day" (lsa 65:5). Josh 10:26).
The Aramaic cognate y' qad is used eight times P.R.G.

397
904 'ri?; (yäqa~)
904 ri?; (yaqas) awake. (Rsv, ASVsimilar.) exegeir<J for the literal and figurative concepts of
yäqa.y and qi.y.
Derivative('?) P.R.G.
904a *tr;;, (qi.y) awake. Hiphil only.
905 "li?; (yäqar) be precious, valuable, costly,
lt is difficult to determine the precise relation
esteem. (ASV and RSV similar; cf. Zech
of yäqa$ and q(s. BDB treats them in separate
11:13, ··the goodly (Rsv "lordly") price that
articles. lt may be they go back to a common
1 was prized at (Rsv ··paid off") by them··;
Semitic biradical root. KB takes yiiqa$ as a by-
be (much) set by" ASVin I Sam 18:30.)
form of qf$. A Ugaritic tablet tells of EI inviting
gods to a banquet as $~1 I </$ ··he shouts to wake Derivatives
(them) up·· (UT 19: no. 474).
Most of the uses are of a narrative nature relat-
905a ti~; (yäqär) precious.
905b i;?• (y'' qar) preciousness, honor,
ing the fact that a person "awoke·· from his
splendor, pomp.
sleep, e.g. Noah (Gen 9:24), Jacob (Gen 28: 16),
Pharaoh (Gen 41:4), Samson (Jud 16:14), Sol-
905c "l'ill~ (yaqqir) very precious, honor.
omon (I Kgs 3: 15), etc. The root and its derivatives are employed 65
Several times in the Psalms, it is associated times. lt comes from a Semitic root which con-
with one·s awaking and finding God's sustaining veys the idea of ··heavy," "honor," "dignity."
presence. Ps 139:18 exalts the omnipresence of An object is considered precious or valuable
God; "When I awake, I am still with thee" (Ps either because of its intrinsic worth or its rarity.
17:15). In a slight metaphorical change, Prov Some things considered precious are wisdom,
6:22 speaks of the law as guiding one and "when more precious than jewels (Prov 3:15; cf. Job
you sleep, they will watch over you and when 28:16); the steadfast love ofGod (Ps 36:7 [H 8]);
you awake, they will talk to you ... The thought is the death of the saints in God's sight (Ps 116: 15);
clear: God· reveals himself through the inscriptu- the lips of knowledge (Prov 20:15). When one
rated revelation, not through mystical experi- visits his neighbor infrequently, it has value in
ence. Ancient mythology expresses the limitation true friendship (Prov 25: 17). Another precious
of the gods as needing to sleep. hence, having to object is God's thoughts, which are inexhaustible
shout to awaken them. (Cf. the Ugaritic example to the believer (Ps 139:17; cf. Jer 15: 19). Here
noted above and I Kgs 18:27). An allusion to this true value exists in quality, not quantity. Con-
is made in several Psalms with reference to the versely, the phrase "the word of the LoRD was
Lord, e.g. Ps 78:65, "Then the Lord awoke as if precious in those days'" means it was seldom
from sleep, like a warrior overcome by wine.,. heard (1 Sam 3: 1).
From the human viewpoint, one may so speak of Honor also is associated with this root. One
the Lord who keeps silent when sin and rebellion who performs an outstanding deed receives the
goes on without repentance. However, our king·s honor (Est 6:3, 6). The daughters of a king
theology is rat her built on Ps 121:3-4, .. He who are called "ladies of honor·· (Ps 45:9 [H 10]). The
keeps you will not slumber. Behold he who keeps citizens of Israel are also referred to as "the pre-
Israel will neither slumber nor sleep.·· cious sons of Zion, worth their weight in fine
Finally, qi$ is used four times with the meaning gold" (Lam 4:2).
"to awaken from the dead, ·· i.e. resurrection. The root frequently appears with stone or
Before Elisha brought the Shunammite widow·s alone to refer to jewels and other valuable ob-
son to life, Gehazi reported, "The lad has not jects. Solomon in building the temple hewed out
awakened" (II Kgs 4:31). huge, weil dressed stones for the foundation of
Job, in a pessimistic section, speaks of man the temple (1 Kgs 5:17 [H 31]; 7:9 f.). The fame
lying down and not rising again, indeed, "He will and splendor of that temple are legendary. Also
not awake nor be aroused out of his sleep .. (Job the objects within the temple were very valuable.
14: 12; see also v. 14). Job did, however, hope for When a foreign king conquered the land, he first
the resurrection (19:25; 14:14b (N1v), see !Jälap). sought out these treasures for his spoil (cf. Jer
In lsaiah's apocalypse, the resurrection hope is 20:5). lsaiah foresaw the construction of a new
explicitly stated with respect to Judah, ··Toeir temple founded on "a stone, a tested stone, a
corpses will rise. You who lie in the dust, awake precious cornerstone" (lsa 28: 16). The content of
and shout for joy·· (26: 19). this prophecy ga1ns significance in the light of
But it is Daniel (12:2) who gives the clearest Solomon·s temple and indicates the coming of a
expression of the eschatological hope of resurrec- new temple for a new order of approach to God.
tion: ··And many ofthose who sleep in the dust of Life is valued very highly in the OT. David
the ground will awake, these to everlasting life, would not kill Saul even when he had the upper
but the others to disgrace and everlasting con- hand because he valued his life (1 Sam 26:8--11,
tempt." The NT follows LXX by using egeirö and 21; II Kgs l:13f.). An adulterous woman is most

398
 907 Nj~ (yäre')
damaging because she claims the most precious and leave Yahweh (Deut 7:16, 25; Ex 23:32f.; but
aspect of a man, his life (Prov 6:26). God also cf. Ps l06:34ff.).
protects and delivers his people from oppression God, on the other hand, prepares a trap for his
and violence because he values their blood (Ps opponents. They become so self-sufficient in
72: 14). Man's life exceeds the value of his ability their opposition to him that they are unaware of
io redeem himself. He does not have the money, the snare (cf. Jer 50:24). lnitially they become
nor can he offer himself, for he is a sinner (Ps entrapped by their own sin (Prov 29:6). Although
49:7f. [H 8f.J). Consequently God alone can re- sin is destructive in itself, it remains for
deem man, and out of love he will provide the Yahweh's direct intervention to seal the trap and
redemption necessary, even at great cost (lsa judge the victim (Ps 9:16 [H 17]). God's words
43: 1-4). and his deeds set the snare. Those who resist and
belittle the proclaimed word are broken and en-
yäqär. Precious, rare, splendid. In Job 31 :26 in
snared (lsa 28: 13). Immanuel too will be a stone
reference to the "moon moving in splendor" (Asv
of stumbling, a rock of offense, and a trap and a
"brightness"). Used with "spirit" in Prov 17:27
snare; people will scumble over him, fall and be
to indicate a cool or controlled disposition.
snared (lsa 8: 14f.). This imagery emphasizes the
J.E.H.
climactic finality of hrael's resistance to God's
communication by word and by flesh.
906 iu·:,: (yäqösh) lay a snare, set a trap, snare.
(ASV'RSVsimilar.) möqesh. Snare, gin (Asv.) G. R. Driver argues
that it is the upper moveable part of a jaw-like
Derivatives trap (pa/J ), "striker"; then it may stand for the
906a w,;,:(yiiqbsh) bait-layer, fowler, only whole trap, especially in metaphorical language.
in Hos 9:8. Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Reflections on
906b W~i'; (yiiqush) bait-layer, fowler. Recent Articles, II Heber Mbqesh 'Striker,'"
906c tiu:,io (mbqesh) snare. JBL 73: 131-36. Gilman, Henry S., "Notes on
mbqsh" JBL 58: 277--81. Heaton, Eric W., Every-
yaqösh and its derivatives occur forty times. lt
day Life in Old Testament Times, London: B. T.
refers to setting a trap to catch some prey, but
Batsford, 1956. TDNT, VII, pp. 340-44.
more frequently in a metaphorical sense of en-
J.E.H.
trapping people.
A snare metaphorically is something that al-
907 Mj; (ytire') l,fear, be afraid, revere.
lures one from his real purpose and then destroys
him. In such a light Saul to ruin David gave his Derivatives
daughter Michal to him in marriage so that she
907a tMj; (yare') fearing, afraid.
might become a snare to David (1 Sam 18:21).
907b i1"11$~'(yir"a) fearing,fear.
Pharoah's servants considered Moses a snare to
907c tM,iO (mbra') fear.
Egypt (Ex 10:7). Similarly a godless ruler is a
snare to the people (Job 34:30). Because of its
907d :i,io (mika) terror (prob.). Oc-
curs only in phrase shfta mora
inescapable hold, the power of death is referred
lahem "appoint terror" i.e. an awe-
to as the "snares ofdeath" (Ps 18:5 [H 6]). Other
inspiring exhibition of power (Ps
snares include wickedness (Prov 29:6), fear of
9:21).
man (Prov 29:25), vowing rashly (Prov 20:25) and
being friends with a man given to anger (Prov In this discussion, biblical usages of yare' are
22:24f.). divided into five general categories: 1) the emo-
The wicked seek to ensnare the just (Jer 5:26). tion of fear, 2) the intellectual anticipation of evil
He who argues their defense or presents a just without emphasis upon the emotional reaction, 3)
case at the court assembled in the gate also con- reverence or awe, 4) righteous behaviour or pi-
stantly confronts the attempts of the wicked to ety, and 5) formal religious worship. Major oT
trip him up (lsa 29:21). So too does the prophet synonyms include pä/Jad, /Jtitat, and /Järad as
who seeks to turn the people to God (Hos 9:8). weil as several words referring to shaking or
Therefore the righteous turn to God in prayer to quaking as a result of fear.
be kept from being thus snared (Ps 141:9). Typical examples of fearing as an emotional
Those who follow idolatry become ensnared reaction are the Jews· fear of the fires on Mount
and can no longer serve Yahweh (Ex 23:33). Gi- Sinai (Deut 5:5) and the fear of the Jews at Miz-
deon made an ephod out of the spoils from battle. pah when they heard of the Philistine mobiliza-
The ephod became a snare to himself and his fam- tion (1 Sam 7:7). Other examples give more em-
ily, for they feil to worshipping it (Jud 8:27). For phasis to the anticipation of evil without neces-
this reason God charged the people to destroy sarily pointing to the emotional reaction. David's
utterly the inhabitants of Canaan, even their ar- recognition while in Achish's court that his repu-
tifacts, so that they would never serve their gods tation was a <langer to him (l Sam 21: 13) is an

399
907 w,:(yäre')
example along with Jacob's anticipation that his "awesome," or "terrifying." This is a good
family might be taken from him (Gen 31:31). example of the gerundive character of the Niphal
These two usages are in mind in using the nega- participle, "to be feared" (GKC, 116e). lt may
tive command not to fear as a comforting phrase describe places (Gen 28:17), God (Ex 15:11),
or a greeting (e.g. Gen 50: 19-20). In such cases God's name (Deut 28:58), God's deeds (Ex
ytire· is often used parallel to one or more 34:10), people (lsa 18:2), and the Day ofthe Lord
synonyms (e.g. !Jatat "be demoralized"; 'tira!i (Joel2:31 [H3:4]).
„ be terrified "). A similar motif is the defining of The discussion of yiire' is complicated by the
security as the lack of fear (e.g. Ps 56:4). need to distinguish between those examples
There are many examples of the third usage which are genuinely substantival-and therefore
listed above. Such reverence is due to one's par- discussed in this section-and those examples
ents (Lev 19:3), holy places (Lev 26:2), God (Ps which are involved in periphrastic verbal form
112:1), and God's name (Ps 86: 11). Habakkuk's and thus discussed above with the verb. This dis-
"fearing" of God's work (Hab 3:2) and the fear- tinction is not always clearly made in translation;
ing of Job's friends at seeing his misery are best and often need not be made. The most frequent
considered as this kind of fear (Job 6:21). usage of the substantive is to refer to the "God-
In several passages, "fearing" and proper liv- fearer" (different names or expressions for God
ing are so closely related as to be virtually may be used). Clearly substantival examples
synonymous ideas (Lev 19: 14; 25: 17; II Kgs which show fear as an emotion (1 above) or as an
17:34; Deut 17:19). lt is plausible that this usage anticipation of evil (2 above) are found (e.g. Ex
of ··to fear" as a virtual synonym for righteous 9:20; Deut 20:8; Jud 7:3). More frequently the
living or piety grew out of viewing "fear"-in emphasis is upon awe or reverence rather than
any of the senses above-as the motivation terror (Ps 112:1; Eccl 8: 12).
which produced righteous living. This practical, The "God-fearer" will implement his fear in
active fear is the kind of fear for which God re- practical righteousness or piety. Job, as a God
warded the Egyptian midwives (Ex 1: 17, 21). fearer, avoids evil (Job 1:1). In Ps 128:1 the
This kind of fear was most appropriately learned "fearer" of the Lord walks in his ways. The fear-
by reading the Law (Deut 31:11-12). One right- ers of the Lord may be those whose particular
eous deed repeatedly and emphatically associ- piety is evidenced by a response to God's mes-
ated with "fearing" God is kindness to the sage. The "fearer" of God is contrasted with the
stranger or resident alien (e.g. Deut 10:lS-20; wicked (Eccl 8: 13). lt is desired that office hold-
25: 18). ers be fearers of God (Neh 7:2). Blessings are
The clearest example of "fearing" as formal provided for fearers of God: happiness (i.e.
religious worship occurs in describing the reli- "blessed"; Ps 112:1), goodness from God (Ps
gious syncretists of the northern kingdom who 31: 19 [H 20]), provision of needs (Ps 34:9 [H 10]),
"feared" the Lord in respect to cultic worship protection (Ps 33: IS-19 [H 19-20]), overshadow-
(II Kgs 17:32-34), while not "fearing" the Lord ing mercy (i.e. !Jesed; Ps 103:11), and promise of
in respect to righteous obedience to his law. The fulfilled desires (Ps 145:19).
formal cultic elements mentioned in Deut 14:22- An interesting usage of this term is found in Ps
23 suggest that this is the kind of fear to be 22. There the phrase "thou who fear God" paral-
learned in that context. In light of the above dis- lels „ sons of Jacob" and „ sons of Israel" on the
cussion and of the context of Josh 22, the Rsv is one hand (v. 23 [H 24]) and "the great congrega-
probably correct in translating "fear" as "wor- tion" on the other hand (v. 25 [H 26]). These
ship" there (v. 25). parallels, especially the last, suggest that the term
There are a few passages in which "fearing" is used to refer to the worshiping congregation,
seems to mean "being a devotee or follower." gathered for worship. Two other possible exam-
This usage could reflect either usages 4 or 5 ples ofthis usage are found (Ps 115:IO, 11, 13; Ps
above. Related substantival examples will be dis- 118:3-4).
cussed below under yare', but possible verbal
examples are found in Job I :9 and II Chr 6:33. mörä'. Fear, terror, terribleness. (Rsv "terrible
Fear of various sorts may be caused by God's deeds," Deut 34: 12.) lt may refer to the emo-
great deeds (Ex 14:31; Josh 4:23-24; I Sam 4:7- tion of fear as in the case of the fear of Noah
9), by judgment (lsa 59: lS-19), and God's law placed in the animals (Gen 9:2) or reverence to-
(Deut 4: 10) as weil as by various human agencies ward God (Mal 1:6). morti' may refer to exterrial
(1 Sam 7:7; 15:24). objects of fear. In the clearest example, morii'
In the Piel, ytire' means "to make to fear" (Isa 8: 12: RSV "fear") parallels an external
(II Sam 14:15; Neh 6:9, 14, 19; II Chr 32:18). In "dread" (lit. "which makes to fear"). In other
the Niphal, the meaning is passive, "to be passages, it parallels God's great signs and won-
feared" (Ps 130:4). The Niphal participle is fre- ders and thus can be taken as referring to external
quently used to describe things as "terrible," objects offear (Deut 26:8; 34:12; Jer 32:21). The

400
 909 ij~ (yärad)

variant Hebrew spelling (m{mi) in Ps 9:20 [H 21] fore about any place traveled in Israel is either up
should öe noted. lt is easier simply to take this as or down. Since Jerusalem is the geographical
an acceptable orthographic variant rather than to focal point, a traveler either "goes up" (' äla) or
enter into textual emendations (e.g. KB). "goes down'" (modern Hebrew "immigrant" and
"emigrant''). In a few places yärad is used when
yäre'. Feuring, afraid (often "who fear'"). An
the destination is actually up hill; then it appears
adjectival form which serves both as a substan-
to mean a southward direction or down country,
tive and as a participle for the verb yäre ·. It has or eise going up and down (cf. Isa 15:3 yöred
almost the same range of meanings as the verb. babbeki, ASV"weeping abundantly,'· RSV"melts
yir'ä. Fearing,fear, etc. Used both as a noun in tears:· or possibly "going up and down while
and as the infinitive for yäre'. Found in all usages weeping'"). There is also the feeling of moving
(above) of yara', except 5. from a place of prominence to one of lesser im-
The usages of this noun are similar to those of portance, i.e. from the temple or palace to a pri-
the verb. lt may refer to the emotion of terror or vate house (e.g. II Sam 11:9f.). Further to come
fear (Ps 55:5 [H 6]; Ezk 30: 13). This terror may be down is to leave one's place of prestige, to hum-
put into men's hearts by God (Ex 20:20; Deut ble oneself (lsa 47: 1; Jer 48: 18). lt often means a
2:25). Isaiah 7:25 uses the term for an unemo- military maneuver to encounter the enemy in bat-
tional anticipation of evil. When God is the object tle. In the defeat of battle, soldiers, cities and
of fear, the emphasis is again upon awe or rev- walls all come down (Hag 2:22; Deut 20:20;
erence. This attitude of reverence is the basis for 28:52), and whoever is brought down is thus de-
real wisdom (Job 28:28; Ps 110:10; Prov 9: 10; feated (cf. Jer 5 I :40; Hos 7: 12). Other uses in-
15:33). Indeed, the phrase sets the theme for the clude taking apart something, getting down from
book of Proverbs. lt is used in 1:7; recurs in 9: 10 an animal or out of a chariot, throne or bed, low-
and twelve other verses. The fear of the Lord is ering things to the ground, the coming down of
to hate evil (8: 13), is a fountain of life (14:27), it rain or tears, and sailors going down to the sea
tendeth to life (19:23), and prolongeth days (cf. Isa 42: 10, Rsv emends the text).
(10:27). Numerous passages relate this fear of "To go down to Egypt" has the overtone of
God to piety and righteous living: it motivates leaving the promised land to dwell among people
faithful living (Jer 32:40). Fear of God results in outside the covenant. The first time the sons of
caring for strangers (Gen 20: II). Just rule is rule Jacob went to Egypt to settle, God had to appear
in the fear of God (II Sam 23:3). Fear of the Al- and instruct Jacob as to his purpose in directing
mighty does not withhold kindness from friends them to Egypt (Gen 46:2ff.). Then after they
(Job 6: 14). Economic abuses against fellow Jews gained control of Palestine, "to go down to
were contrary to the fear of God (Neh 5:9). The Egypt" was to forsake God and to seek the help
fear ofthe Lord turns men from evil (Prov 16:6). of man which would fail (lsa 30:2; 3 I: I).
Biblwgraphy: TDOT, IX, pp. 197-208. Since Sheol (q.v.) is considered to be in the
THAT, I, pp. 765-77. earth beneath, whoever dies goes down to Sheol
A.B. (e.g. Num 16:30). Sheol's appetite is )arge and
will swallow up all that go down (lsa 5: 14). Prov
908 M'; (yärä') II, shoot, pour. Doubtless a emphasizes that whoever will follow the adulter-
by-form of:i,; (q.v.). The single case ofthe ous woman discovers her house is "the way to
Hophal, Prov 11:25, seems to come from Sheol, going down to the chambers of death"
räwa. There are variations among the He- (7:27).
brew manuscripts. A theophany is described as God coming
down. He leaves his abode and comes to com-
909 i':,; (yärad) Qal: go down, descend, de- municate with man either directly through the
word or indirectly through some instrument. God
cline, march down, sink down (of sun); descended on Mt. Sinai in fire (Ex 19:18; cf. II
Hiphil: bring down, take down, pour out Chr 7: lff.) and on the tent he appeared in a pillar
(down), pul off (ornaments). of cloud (Ex 40:34f.; Num 12:5). To lighten
Derivatives Moses· load God came down among the elders
and distributed some of his Spirit from Moses to
909a ,,;~ (moräd) descent, slope, steep
the elders (N um 11: 17). Furt her God comes down
place, also hanging (work) (1 Kgs
to bring salvation to his people; e.g., he appeared
7:29, beveled [work], Rsv); RSValso
to deliver his people from Egyptian bondage (Ex
ascent, Josh 10:11.
3:8). On the other hand, God also descends to
909b tr,1-:,~(yarden) Jordan. judge, But before God judges, he comes down to
The hill country of Palestine is tlanked on the investigate the actuality of man's wickedness
west by the Mediterranean Sea and on the east by (e.g. at the tower of Babel, Gen II :5, and at
the deep rift Arabah, far below sea level. There- Sodom and Gomorrah [Gen J8:20f.]). Convinced

401
of the sinfulness he descends and treads on the 29). After Gideon had defeated the Midianites at
high places (Mic I :3); i.e. he begins the judgment Moreh he called upon the Ephraimites to seize
by destroying the centers of idol worship. Then the fords (Jud 7:24--25).
he proceeds to bring down the rebellious nations The Israelites under Joshua were able to cross
to their defeat (cf. Ob 4). the Jordan near Jericho dry-shod as the Lord
J.E.H. dammed up the waters (Ps 114:3, 5; Josh 3:16) at
Adam (sixteen miles north) as far as Zarethan
yarden. Jordan. Most scholars would derive (Tell es-Sa'idiyeh, ten miles further upstream).
the name from the verb yiirad "to descend," Landslides have been known to dam up the Jor-
hence "the descender. .. The name occurs in dan: for ten hours in 1267 and for twenty-one
Egyptian as ya-ar-du-na. Cyrus Gordon com- hours inl927. The conquest (Josh 1-11) begins
pares tlte name with the Iardanos rivers in Crete with the crossing of the Jordan and the capture of
and Greece, and concludes that all of them derive Jericho; the distribution of the land (Josh 13-21)
from an East Mediterranean word for "river." terminales at this river. This procedure corre-
The fact that almost all of the 183 occurrences of sponds to Moses' directive (Num 34:12).
the word, with the exception of poetical passages The width of the Jordan Valley broadens from
(Job 40:23; Ps 42:6 [H 7 J), are with the definite four miles below the Sea of Galilee to fourteen
article, indicates that the word was originally a miles above the Dead Sea. The Ghor "Rift'' or
common noun. The LXX transliterates the word as upper valley can be cultivated north of Gilead. In
lordanes. the arid southern parts below the Ghor are the
The Jordan is formed by four sources. The sterile chalk hills called Qattara. The green flood
Nahr Banias arises from Paneas (modern Banias, plain is known as the Zor, the Arabic word for
NT Caesarea Philippi) at the base of Mount Her- "thicket."
mon. The Nahr el-Leddan springs from Dan (Jud The latter was known as the gä'{m of the Jor-
18:29), lsrael's northernmost city. The Nahr dan, translated by the KJV "swelling," by the RV
Hasbani tlows twenty-four miles through a valley "pride," by the NEB "dense thickets," by the NIV
west of Mount Hermon (possibly the "Valley of "thickets," and by the RSV "jungle." lt was
Mizpeh," Josh 11:8). The Nahr Bareighit, a small noted as the habitat of wild animals such as lions
stream, west of the former, tlows from Merj (Jer49:19; Zech 11:3). Jeremiah is asked how, if
· Ayun (cf. ljon, I Kgs 15:20). he fell down in a safe land, he would do in a
The Jordan flows seven miles through a once dangerous place like the "jungte of the Jordan"
swampy area into what was a small lake, Lake (Jer 12:5).
Huleh, drained in 1955. Just south, at the Bridge The uninhabitable nature of the Zor and the
of Jacob's Daughters, the ancient international Qattara made the Jordan River an effective re-
highway to Damascus may have passed by a ford; gional barrier. Moses was concerned that the
the great site of Hazor lies four miles to the west. tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh,
The Jordan then tlows eight miles through a who were assigned territories east of the Jordan,
basalt gorge to the Sea of Galilee (the Sea of might not assist their brethren who had to con-
Chinnereth, Num 34: II). The river has de- quer Cis-Jordan to the west (Num 32). In a rela-
scended from 230 feet above sea level N of the tively short time dialectal differences appeared.
Huleh region to 690 feet below at the Sea of The Ephraimites from the west betrayed them-
Galilee. selves at the fords by saying "Sibboleth" instead
The river reforms at the south end of the Sea of of "Shibboleth" like Jephthah's Gileadites from
Galilee and descends to the Dead Sea, 1290 feet the east (Jud 12:6). The word "Shibboleth" means
below sea level, the lowest spot on earth. Thus it "river" and was a natural test.
tlows through a portion of the Great Rift Valley The west side of the Jordan River is fed by the
which extends from between the Lebanon and Nahr Jalud from Beth-shean and by the Wadi
Anti-Lebanon mountains to the great lakes of Af- Farah from Tirzah. The key sites were Jericho,
rica. The air distance between the two lakes is Gilgal, Beth-shean; Egyptian texts reveal Rehob
but sixty-five miles, but the Jordan in its mean- south and Yenoam north of Beth-shean.
dering covers almost two hundred miles. Except The east side receives ten perennial tributaries.
at tlood stage the river is only three to twelve feet The Yarmuq, which enters the Jordan five miles
deep, and ninety to one hundred feet broad. south of the Sea of Galilee, contributes as much
The Jordan can be forded at about sixty sites. water as the Jordan itself but is not named in the
Jacob crossed the Jordan to get to Aram and then Bible. The Zerqa (biblical Jabbok) rises near
recrossed with the household he had acquired Amman and feeds into the Jordan just above
there (Gen 32: 10 [H 11]). After Ehud killed Eg- Adan.
lon, the king of Moab, the lsraelites seized the Nelson Glueck identified thirty-five sites which
fords and killed many of the Moabites who were were populated between the thirteenth and sixth
trapped on the west side of the Jordan (Jud 3:28- centuries o.c. The OT mentions only nine sites in

402
 910 ~,: (yära)
the Jordan Valley. The site of Penuel where 910c :,-,;~ (moreh) II, teacher.
Jacob wrestled with the angel was near the Jab- 910d t:i:iil'l (tora) law.
bok (Gen 32:22-32). Succoth, where Jacob built
booths for his cattle (Gen 33:17) and a city which The basic idea of the root yära is "to throw"
refused aid to Gideon (Jud 8:5-8), was located or "to cast" with the strong sense of control by
by the Jabbok. the subject. Lots were cast in regards to dividing
When Abraham and Lot came to a parting of the land among the various tribes (Josh 18:6).
ways, Lot saw that the kikkar of the Jordan (KJV God cast the Egyptian army into the Red Sea (Ex
"plain"; Rsv "valley"; Gen 13:10) was weil 15:4; cf. Job 30: 19). With stones it has the idea of
watered. In this case the kikkar, literally "round placing them in a certain place; God laid the cor-
shape." included the region south of the Dead nerstone of the world (Job 38:6) and Laban set up
Sea. Solomon cast copper works in the kikkar, a heap of stones and a pillar as a witness between
perhaps the oval depression of the Jordan be- Jacob and himself to their covenant of peace
tween Succoth and Zarethan (1 Kgs 7:46). Cf. (Gen 3 I :5 lf.). The three most frequent uses of
Gen 19:17, 25; Deut 34:3. this root deal with shooting arrows, sending rain
The expression yarden y''rel;o the "Jordan of and teaching.
Jericho" which occurs at Num 22: I; 33:50; 34: I 5; A most deadly weapon of the ancients was the
Josh 13:32; 16:I; 20:8; and I Chr 6:78 [H 63] is bow and arrow. They could shoot from a distance
translated by the RSV"Jordan at Jericho" and and from behind protection. Some missiles were
"Jordan by Jericho." As the phrase can indicate shot from specially designed engines (II Chr
not just the territory east of Jericho (Josh 16:1), 26: 15). Three of Israel's kings feil on the
but the entire eastern border of Ephraim and battlefield because of the archers' range, namely
Manasseh, Eimer Smick has suggested that yar- Saul (1 Chr 10:3), Ahab (1 Kgs 22:35), and Josiah
den should be treated as a common noun so that (II Chr 35:23). Metaphorically the wicked from
the phrase would mean the "river of Jericho," behind ambush shot suddenly at the blameless
i.e. the Jordan River in its entirety. (Ps 64:4 [H 5); cf. Ps 11:2). On the other band,
If the behemoth (Heb b" hemöt) in Job 40: 15ff. God too is pictured as shooting an arrow at the
is the hippopotamus, the yardc•n of 40:23 may wicked and wounding them suddenly to protect
simply refer to a "river," not the Jordan. Hip- the upright (Ps 64:7 [H 8]). In addition, shooting
popotamuses were found in the Orontes in Syria of arrows could be used as a sign (1 Sam 20:20; cf.
c. 1500 e.c. and in the Lower Nile until the II Kgs 13:17).
twelfth century A.D., but not in the Jordan.
Bibliography: Cohen, S., .. Jordan," in IDB. yöreh. Early rain. God gives the early rain and
Driver, G. R., '"Mistranslations," Palestinian the Iatter rain to assure abundance of harvest
Exploration Quarterly 79: 1236--26.__ , .. '/h (Deut 11:14). Joel compares the future blessing to
'Went Up Country· and yrd ·went Down Coun- the coming of the early and latter rains (Joel 2:23;
try'," ZAW 69: 74-77. Glueck, Nelson, The cf. Hos 6:3; Jas 5:7). God will restore to his
River Jordan, Westminster, 1946. Leslau, Wolf, people abundance of produce; this promise en-
"An Ethiopian Parallel to Hebrew '/h 'Went Up compasses both material and spiritual blessings;
Country' and yrd 'Went Down Country'," ZAW e.g. Hos 10:12, "lt is the time to seek the Lord,
74: 322f. Leslau demonstrates in Ethiopic yrd that he may come and rain salvation upon you."
"down south" or "west"). Smick, Eimer B., Ar-
chaeology of the Jordan Valley, Baker, 1973. törä. Law, teaching. ASValways "law," RSV
TDNT, VI, pp. 608-13. sometimes "teaching," "instruction" and "deci-
E.Y. sions." The word is used some 221 times.
Teaching is the special task of the wisdom
school as seen especially through the book of
1'.'l,~ (yarden). See no. 909b. Prov and of the priesthood. The latter accom-
panies a revealed religion. The priests are to
910 :i,~ (yära) throw, cast, shoot (Qal); teach teach the law given by Moses (Lev 10: 11; Deut
(Hiphil). (Asv, RSVsimilar.) 33: 10); e.g. King Jehoash acted uprightly because
he was instructed by the high priest (II Kgs 12:2
Derivatives [H 3]). Ezra the priest faithfully taught the Law of
910a t:,:-,i• (ybreh) early (ASV"former," Moses in the fall Feast of Tabernacles in accor-
·Rsv "autumn'') rain, in contrast to dance with the Deuteronomic injunction (Deut
malqösh "latter rain." The early 31:9-11; Ezr 8:Iff.). Unfortunately the priests
rains feil from the end of October were not always true to God; they taught for
until the beginning of December. money and became teachers of lies (lsa 9: I 5
910b :,:-,i~ (mbreh) /, early rain, only in [H 14]; Mic 3: 11). Similarly an idol is deemed "a
Josh 2:23; Ps 84:7. teacher of lies" (Hab 2: ISf.).

403
910 M?;(yara)
Teaching is associated with the anointing of the meaning to encompass history, regulations and
Holy Spirit. Bezalel and Oholiab were inspired to their interpretation, and exhortations. lt is not
teach the skills of the artisan so that the tabema- merely the listing of casuistic statements as is the
cle and its furnishing could be built (Ex 35:34). case in Hammurabi's code. Later the word ex-
God himself is particularly described as a tended to include the first five books of the Bible
teacher. He taught Moses both what to do and in all their variety.
say (Ex 4: 15). He also teaches sinners the right
way (Ps 25:8) and instructs those who fear him in
the way they should choose (Ps 25: 12). Therefore Law and Covenant
the Psalmist often beseeches God to teach him so Covenant precedes law; and the law was given
that he may keep the statutes and walk in the way only to the nation which had entered into coven-
of truth (Ps 27:11; 86:11; 119:33; cf. Job 6:24; ant with God [although in the sense of moral
34:32). In the last days God promises the people principle, law is as old as human sin and God's
of Jerusalem a teacher whom they will behold govemance, Gen 3:7; 9:6; 26:5.-R.L.H.]. The law
(lsa 30:20). The nations also will come to specifically is the stipulations of the covenant.
Jerusalem so that God might teach them (lsa 2:3). But in the broad sense of Iaw, namely God's
No wonder Jesus, as God incamate, assumed the teaching, covenant plays the central part. Law
title of teacher and performed much of his minis- and covenant may parallel one another (e.g. Ps
try as a teacher. 78: 10). Since they are so closely tied together, to
break one is to break both. Their interconnection
is further witnessed to in that the tables of the
Scope of the Word
testimony were placed in the ark of the covenant
The word toril means basically "teaching"' and a copy of the book of the law placed beside it
whether it is the wise man instructing his son or as a perpetual witness to the covenant between
God instructing Israel. The wise give insight into God and his people (Ex 40:20; Deut 31 :26).
all aspects of life so that the young may know The law, as weil as the covenant, brings with it
how to conduct themselves and to live a long blessings or curses. He who follows its precepts
blessed life (Prov 3:lf.). So too God, motivated will be blessed (Deut 29:9 [H 81), but whoever
by love, reveals to man basic insight into how to breaks them will be cursed (Deut 29:20-21
live with each other and how to approach God. [H 19-20]). Following the law is the source of
Through the law God shows his interest in all life; it makes life a joy and lengthens its days
aspects of man's life which is tobe lived under (Deut 6: 1-2). On the other hand, as the standard
his direction and care. Law ofGod stands parallel it tests Israel to determine whether they follow
to word of the Lord to signify that law is the God completely or not (Deut 8:2; Jud 3:4).
revelation of God's will (e.g. lsa 1: 10). In this Frequently the OT says Moses wrote the law
capacity it becomes the nation's wisdom and and refers to the book of the law (e.g. Deut 30: 10;
understanding so that others will marvel at the 31:9; Josh 24:26). These references give weight to
quality of lsrael's distinctive life style (Deut 4:6). the importance placed on a written code from the
Thus there is a very similar understanding of the beginning of lsrael's history. lt became the objec-
role of teaching with its results in the wisdom tive standard from which interpretation was
school, in the priestly instruction, and the role of made (cf. Deut 17:8-11). In addition, it was tobe
the law with its results for all the people of the read and meditated on so that its precepts should
covenant. become an integral part of the lifestyle of the
Specifically law refers to any set ofregulations; people (cf. Josh l:7f.). lt was their guidebook;
e.g., Ex 12 contains the law in regard to observ- more than that it was their constitution. Israel
ing the Passover. Some other specific laws in- was a religious state; as such, the fundamental
clude those for the various offerings (Lev 7:37), document that determined its character was the
for leprosy (Lev 14:57) and for jealousy (Num law given through Moses. E.g., the king was to
5:29). In this light law is often considered to con- have his own copy, and he was to read it all the
sist of statutes, ordinances, precepts, command- days of his life so that he would leam to fear
ments, and testimonies. Yahweh by keeping all the words of the law (Deut
The meaning ofthe word gains further perspec- 17:18-19). Since the written law was superior to
tive in the light of Deut. According to Deut 1:5 the king in Israel, the king could never become a
Moses sets about to explain the law; law here god or a religious innovator. His right to rule was
would encompass the moral Iaw, both in its subordinate to the law.
apodictic and casuistic formulation, and the References to the written law or the law of
ceremonial law. The genius of Deut is that it in- Moses are numerous in the historical books. The
terprets the extemal law in the light of its desired most significant ones may be collected for con-
effect on man's inner attitudes. In addition, the venient reference: Deut 17:18; 28:61; 29:21
book of Deut itself shows that the law has a broad [H 20]; 30:10; 31:9, 24; Jos 1:7,8; 8:3If.; 23:6; I

404
 912 c~,~~,~ (yerushälayim), c':;,~~,~
(y"rushälaim)

Kgs 2:3; II Kgs 14:6; 22:8; 23:25; II Chr 23:18; The Law in the Coming Age
30: 16; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Neb 8: 1-2.
Because of Israel's constant disobedience, the
The Property of the Priests prophets looked for a time when once again the
law, directly from God, would go forth from
The law was the special property ofthe priests. Jerusalem (Isa 2:3). Then God himself will both
They were to teach its precepts and follow its teach and judge according to the law. Such is a
regulations (Deut 17:8-11; 33: 10). They were part of the suffering servant's task, namely to
known as "those who handle the law" (Jer 2:8). render judgment according to truth and to give
But unfortunately the priesthood became blind forth a new teaching or law (Isa 42:3f.). lt will
and arrogant. They forgot God (Hos 4:6). They surpass the Mosaic law because of its source
no doubt had the law memorized but failed to see through a new prophet-leader. lt will not disagree
its spiritual dimensions. Instead they turned it with the old but build on it. Also its scope will be
into a means of enhancing their own power and universal. Jeremiah sees the establishing of a new
wealth (Ezk 22:26; cf. Zeph 3:4). Therefore God covenant in which the law will be written on the
sent his prophets to call the people back to true heart (Jer 31:33). Man will be able to obey God
observance of the law (II Kgs 17:13). The from his inner life outwards. Then the true pur-
prophets' task was to apply the law to their own pose of the law, namely, to lead man into a fruit-
situation. Their message was founded on the law; ful, abundant life of fellowship with God, will be
they struck out at its misapplication. fully realized.
Bibliography: Cole, R. A., "Law in the OT,"
The Law at the Time of Ezra and Nehemiah in ZPEB, III, pp. 883-94. Davies, W. D., Torah
In the postexilic community under the leader- in the Messianic Age and!or the Age to Come,
ship of Ezra and Nehemiah, the law became cen- Society of Biblical Literature, 1952. Jacob, Ed-
tral to the community's life. Both men struck out mond, Theology of the Old Testament, tr. Arthur
at the lax, selfish Jives the people were Iiving and W. Heathcote and Philip J. Allcock, Harper &
sought to turn them back to the true worship of Row, 1958. Manley, G. T., The Book of the Law,
God through having the law taught. Ezra read the Inter-Varsity, 1957. Payne, J. Barton, The
law before the assembly and interpreted it so that Theology of the Older Testament, Zondervan,
the people were sure to understand its application 1962. Vriezen, Th. D., An Outline of Old Testa-
(Neh 8:2--8). Upon hearing the law the people ment Theology, Branford, 1966. Zimmerli, W.,
wept (Neh 8:9). But Nehemiah and Ezra com- The Law and the Prophets, tr. R. E. Clements,
forted the people and led them to celebrate the Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965. Zuck, Roy B.,
feast of booths according to the law (Neh 8: 13- "Hebrew Words for 'Teach'," BS 121: 228-35.
17) as Moses had ordered to be done (Deut J.E.H.
31:10-11). Each day ofthe feast the law was read
(Neh 8: 18). Afterwards they repented of their 911 :,:,: (yärah). Used only once (Isa 44:8).
sins and made a covenant to follow the entire law Probably to be read as from yäre' "be
(Neh 9:3; 10:29-31). The activities of these two afraid" (so DSS).
men led the people back to God, and their use of
the law became formative for the community's ;,i,: (yäroq). See no. 918c.
life with effects lasting even past the destruction
of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. 912 c•';>~,.,;(y'rüshälayim), c';>~i-,;(y'rüshä-
laim) Jerusalem.
Praise for the Law
An ancient city of southern Canaan, capital of
Some psalms render praise to the law. The the Davidic dynasty and religious center of
chief, of course, is Ps 119. The Psalmist yeams Judaism until its rejection of Jesus and the resul-
for understanding in order that he can keep the tant destruction by Titus in A.D. 70. lt was taken
law, the object of his delight and love (vv. 1, 61, also as a symbol of the Christian church, pre-
92). Psalm 19 speaks about God communicating dicted seat of the future messianic kingdom, and
his glory through the heavens and through his prototype of the ultimate New Jerusalem that
spoken word. The latter communicates directly succeeds God's final judgment. Mentioned by
and specifically God's will. The law turns (Rsv name 669 times in the OT alone, Jerusalem is the
"reviving the soul") the whole person to God. world's most significant city (Ps 48: 1-2 [H 2-3]).
Thereby it enlightens, makes wise and is a cause lt was God's earthly dwelling place (I Kgs 8: 13),
of rejoicing (vv. 7--8 [H 8-9)). lt also wams the scene of Christ's resurrection (Lk 24:47) and
against evil and prevents one from inadvertently will be the place of his return in glory (Zech 14:5).
turning from God (v. 11 [H 12)). No wonder its Although Paleolithic tools have been recovered
value is higher than the finest gold and its taste southeast of modern Jerusalem, urban settlement
sweeter than honey (v. 10 [H 11)). seems to have begun with the Early Bronze Age

405
913 n,, (yrlJ)
Canaanites (3000-2000 e.c.). The choice of site 913 M'l\ (yr/J.). Assumed root of the following.
appears to have been dictated by the presence of 913a tljj~ (yärealJ.) moon.
a road junction, the military strength of the hill 913b tnj_; (yera/J.) month.
Ophel, or Zion, and the perennial water of the
Gihon spring in the Kidron Valley on the city's yärea~. Moon. (Asv and Rsv the same.) The
east. Its first mention comes at the close of this word occurs 27 times. "The moon," frequently
period, when Abraham honors its priest-king paralleled by "the sun," was created by God to
Melchizedek (Gen 14:20), a type of Christ (Ps rule the night and to indicate the seasons, espe-
110:4; Heb 7) in his double office. On the adjoin- cially the occasions of feasts (Ps 104:19; 136:9).
ing hill of Moriah (II Chr 3: 1) Abraham was will- Tue moon gives otf enough light in the Near East
ing to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice to God by which to perform many tasks, and during full
(Gen 22:2, c. 2050 e.c.). moon journeys could be made at night. People
The city is first mentioned in the Ebla tablets with certain mental disorders were considered by
according to preliminary reports (Kitchen, K. A., some to be moon struck (Ps 121:6). [In Gr. the
The Bible in its World, Paternoster, 1977, p. 53). word for "epileptic" is from words meaning
Then it is mentioned in the Middle Bronze Age "moonstruck" (Mt 4:24 NIV). The etymology of
(2000-1600) Egyptian Execration Texts of the the word need not argue that the concept was
Twelfth Dynasty, as Urusalimum? foundation (?) then current that the moon caused such illness.
of Shalem." This form is probably to be read in Cf. our word "lunatic" which in its etymology
the Amarna letters (fourteenth century e.c.) as reflects much older notions. Obviously, the moon
Ursalimmu. In early Hebrew it therefore was is harmless, but as Dahood observes ("Psalms,"
pronounced yerushalem probably meaning in AB, III, p. 202) many ancients believed oth-
"Foundation of Shalem," shalem being a god erwise. David asserts that it cannot harm the be-
known from a Ugaritic mythological text, but in liever. lt is also possible that David had in mind
Hebrew coming to mean peace or security. the pagan deities: the sun god and the moon god
Its initial biblical designation, in Moses' writ- are nonentities.-R.L.H.] The moon was viewed
ing of Genesis (c. 1450 e.c.), is simply "Salem" as having a powerful effect on life.
(14:18; cf. Ps 76:2 [H 3]), shälem, meaning com- Sin, the moon god, was the main god worship-
plete, prosperous, peaceful. lts form in biblical ped at Ur in southern Babylonia and at Haran in
Aramaic, y' rush' lern (Dan 5:2) and in the LXX, northwestem Mesopotamia. He was associated
ierousalem, is therefore probably more correct with order and wisdom. Both of these cities were
than the medieval Masoretic Hebrew, y' rushä- deeply rooted in the life of Abraham before he
layim, which may be modeled after mi$rayim, the left to follow God. The movements of the moon
dual noun for Egypt. were carefully observed and various omens were
Although captured by Joshua in the Late given by its relationship to the sun, its son. An
Bronze Age (Josh IO:1) and occupied for a brief eclipse was an ill omen, and special rituals were
period after his death (Jud 1:8, c. 1390), Jeru- performed to avert any disaster. Thus the moon-
salem remained in Canaanite (Jebusite) hands god had a profound effect on ancient Near Eastern
(1:21) until its capture by David in 1003 e.c. (II life. Such worship, however, was strictly forbid-
Sam 5:6-9). By bringing up the ark of the coven- den in Israel (Deut 4: 19). Any who were so at-
ant into a special tent (6: 17) David made Zion the tracted were under the penalty of stoning (Deut
throne of God's presence (Ps 132:13). In 959 Sol- 17:3tf.). Job, to proclaim his innocence, asserted
omon completed the permanent temple, which, that he had never been allured by any of these
though destroyed by Nebuchadrezzar in 586, was heavenly bodies, including the moon (Job
rebuilt by Zerubbabel, 520-515, into which Jesus 31:26ff.).
later entered with God's true peace (Hag 2:9). In Israel the moon was constantly affirmed as
Jerusalem is thus "the city of the Great King" Yahweh's creation. lt had no external power.
(Ps 48:2 [H 3]; Mt 5:35). To be "born in Zion" Thus the pilgrim to Jerusalem did not have to fear
seems to be equated with participation in divine being moon struck, for Yahweh would most as-
salvation (Ps 87:4-5), whatever one's actual na- suredly protect them (Ps 121:6). As his creature,
tionality may be (v. 6; ICC, Psalms, II, p. 240; cf. the moon is to praise Yahweh (Ps 148:3). Because
Gai 4:26). The name of the city comes to desig- the moon is subject to Yahweh, Joshua was able
nate heaven itself (Heb 12:22-23). to command it and the sun to stand still while he
Bibliography: Kenyon, K., Jerusalem: Ex- completed the battle (Josh 10:12f.).
cavating 3000 Years of History, McGraw-Hill, When the day of the Lord comes, all of the
1967. Payne, J. 8., "Jerusalem," in ZPEB. Si- heavenly bodies will be affected. Joel speaks
mons, J., Jerusalem in the OT, Drill, 1952. about the sun and the moon becoming darkened
Yadin, Yigael, ed., Jerusalem Revealed, Yale, (Joel 2: 10; 3: 15 [H 4: 15]) and the moon turning to
1976. blood (2:31 [H 3:4]; cf. Mk 13:24; Lk 21:25; Rev
J.B.P. 6: 12). lsaiah 13:10 confirms that the moon shall

406
not give its light during the day ofYahweh. In the gion, London: Hutchinson House, 1953. Lilley,
new age Isaiah sees that there will be no need of J., "Calendar," in ZPEB.
the moon's light or pattems of movement (Isa J.E.H.
60:l9f.).
Interestingly the covenant with the house of 914 !Qj: (yärar) be precipilate, precipilate
David to rule Israel is pictured as firmly estab- (Num 22:32).
lished like the moon (Ps 89:37 [H 38]). No doubt
the certainty as weil as the temporality of this ~•".'!:(yärfb). See no. 2159b.
covenant is indicated. As long as there is a moon,
so the covenant stands, but in the new age when 915 in•,• (y'rfho), n·n•,• (y'rfhöh), in,•
there is no longer any need for the moon so there <irel;o) ·Jericho. · (Asv, RSVthe same.) ..·
will be no need for that covenant.
The names appear 38 times. Jericho is located
yera-.. Month. Aramaic, "new moon," also in approximately 900 feet below sea level and 10
Ugaritic (Asv and Rsv same except former miles north of the Dead Sea. lts plain is made
"moons" in Deut 33: 14). This noun is used green by a plentifül spring, known as the Foun-
twelve times. The primary unit of time in the tain of Elisha. Its weather is almost always warm
Semitic world is the month (more often called and dry, pleasant in winter, hot in summer. Here
l;ödesh, q.v.), especially for establishing festi- it controlled the less used roads along the Arabah
vals. Months named with yeral; include ziw, sec- and a permanent ford of the Jordan River. The
ond month (l Kgs 6:37), 'etänfm, seventh month mound known as Tell es-Sultan is oT Jericho, and
(1 Kgs 8:2), and bül, eighth month (1 Kgs 6:38). is one of the oldest walled cities of man, going
These three month names with a fourth, 'äbfb, back to at least the eighth millennium e.c.
are probably the old Canaanite names. Two After the long wildemess joumey the lsraelites
of them (bul and 'etänfm) are also found in under Joshua crossed the Jordan and encamped
Phoenician. More often the oT gives the month by at Gilgal. To gain a foothold on the west bank
number~.g. seventh month, etc. In exilic and they had to capture Jericho, then a city covering
postexilic books (Est, Neh, Zech), the Babylo- five to eight acres enclosed by forbidding walls.
nian names Nisan, Sivan, Elul, Chislev, Tebeth, The Israelites marched around the city for six
and Shebet (Sebet) are mentioned. The Hebrews consecutive days. On the seventh day, they
reckoned time by the lunar month, but to keep in marched around the city seven times; then on the
step with the solar calendar they put in an extra seventh time, through the miraculous interven-
leap month about every three years. By this tion of God amidst the sounding of trumpets and
rnethod the spring festival always came in the the shouting of the people, the walls collapsed
spring and the fall festivals in the fall. See also causing the utter discomfiture and defeat of the
l;odesh, no. 613b. inhabitants of Jericho (Josh 6). Rahab's family
A month of days means a füll month; a girl only escaped due to her faith and to her siding
taken captive was allowed to mourn the death of with Israel (Josh 6:22f.; Jas 2: 25). Afterward the
her parents a füll month before becoming a wife city was burned, but the valuable vessels became
(Deut 21: 13). The number of months fülfilled may a part of the treasury of the Lord's house (Josh
rnean the time it takes an animal to come to birth 6:24). The fall of Jericho became a symbol of
(Job 3:6; 39:2). Similarly in regard to harvest it God's power and intent to give the land to the
appears in the blessing given Joseph; namely he Israelites and firmly established the leadership of
is to be blessed "with the choicest fruits of the Joshua as Moses' successor. The conclusive
sun, and the rieb yield of the months" (Deut manner in which it was taken provided the stan-
33:14). Certain events are numbered by months. dard for füture attacks. Ai was to be captured in
Moses was hid at home three months by bis the same fashion (Josh 8:2). These mighty deeds
rnother (Ex 2:2). Shallum reigned one month in also bore witness to the inhabitants of Canaan
Sarnaria (II Kgs 15:13; cf. Zech 11:8). Month in that Israel was a force to be reckoned with, be-
these instances indicates a short period of time, cause God was on their side. The men of Gibeon
but when used to measure suffering or one' s long- realized this, feigned their habitation and entered
ings, it means a long time has passed. Job into covenant with Joshua (chapter 9). After
lamented, "So I am allotted months of empti- Adonizedek, king of Jerusalem, leamed what had
ness, and nights of misery are apportioned to happened to Jericho and Ai, he summoned a coa-
rne" (Job 7:3); and "O that I were as in the lition of kings to Jerusalem to plan a concerted
rnonths of old, as in the days when God watched effort against Israel. With God's help that coali-
over me" (Job 29:2). tion was soundly defeated and the kings slain
Bibliography: Conteneau, George, Everyday (Josh 10:1-28).
Life in Babylon and Assyria, Norton, 1966. Excavations at Jericho by Garstang and K.
Hooke, S. H., Babylonian and Assyrian Reli- Kenyon have uncovered significant artifacts and

407
916 "Ti~ (yrk)

aroused a tremendous debate over its fall into 40:22) and of the altar (Lev 1: 11) and the "base"
Israelite hands. Garstang argues for a late fif. of the lampstand (Ex 25:31).
teenth century date and Kenyon a late fourteenth No wonder the angel in his wrestling match
century date. Kenyon claims, however, there is with Jacob at Peniel smote Jacob's thigh. He
very little evidence left of the city which was showed his superior strength, and he indicated
taken by Joshua; therefore the archaeologist will that the very basis of Jacob's life was altered,
not be able to shed much light on that city or the further signified by the change of his name. A
exact date of its fall. perpetual reminder was given to Jacob in his con-
The defeat of Jericho brought Joshua's curse stant limping and to the nation in its being forbid-
on anyone who dared to rebuild it (Josh 6:26). In den to eat the sinew ofthe thigh (Gen 32:25, 31f.
the days of King Ahab, Hie) of Bethel dared and [H 26, 32f.)).
it cost the death of his two sons (1 Kgs 16:34).
yarka. Flank, side, rear, extreme or uttermost
The city is mentioned as the boundary between
parts, innermost parts, depths, recesses. (Rsv
Benjamin and Joseph, and as belonging to Ben-
more varied than Asv, often using "far(thest),"
jamin (Josh 16:1, 7; 18:12). In this area there was
but for "rear" Asv reads "hinder part. ") lt ap-
a settlement at the time of David, for David's
pears twenty-eight times. The word refers to the
servants recovered here from their humiliation at
backside or farthest part of anything. lt is em-
the hand of Hanun the Ammonite (II Sam 10:1-
ployed to indicate the rear of a building, the ex-
5). Furt her, a school of the prophets resided here
tent of a border (Gen 49: 13), the back country
during the days of Elijah and Elisha, and Elisha
(Jud 19:1), the deepest part of a cave and the
miraculously healed the spring that had turned
inner parts of a ship (Jon 1:5). "The far recesses
brackish (II Kgs 2:5; 19-22).
of Lebanon" indicates where the great cedars
Bibliography: Garstang, John, and J. B. D.,
grew (II Kgs 19:23). Also Sheol is called the
The Story of Jericho, London: Marshall, Morgan
depths of the pit (lsa 14:15; cf. Ezk 32:23).
and Scott, 1948. Garstang, John, "The Walls of
The remotest parts, particularly the distant
Jericho," Palestinian Exploration Quarterly 63:
north, are conceived of as those away from God.
186-%. Kenyon, Kathleen, M., Digging Up All countries, except Egypt, had to approach
Jericho, London: Emest Benn, 1957. Smick, E.
Jerusalem from the north, because of desert and
B., Archaeology of the Jordan Valley, Baker, sea. Consequently in those remotest parts the
1972, pp. 63-o6. Vincent, L. H., "The Chronol- enemies of God are viewed as assembling and
ogy of Jericho," Pa/estinian Exploration Quar-
planning their attack on Jerusalem. Jeremiah saw
terly 63: 104f. the source of the coming destruction against
J.E.H.
Jerusalem as "a great nation ... stirring from the
farthest parts of the earth" (Jer 6:22; lf 25:32;
l'!V''.'I;(y''ri'a). See no. 917a. 50:41; Ezk 38:6, 15; 39:2). The recesses can ex-
tend even beyond the globe. Babylon, intending
to rule all the world, affirmed, "I will sit on the
916 ii• (yrk). Assumed root of the following. mount of assembly in the far north" (lsa 14:13).
916a 1-,tj; (yarek) thigh, loin. . Although the recesses are a refuge for God's
916b t:i;i,~ (yar'ka), :i;,j; (y'reka) flank, opponents, they are never beyond his control.
side. From the farthest parts of the earth, God will
yärek. Thigh, loin, side, base. ASV and Rsv bring back his people (Jer 31:8). Mount Zion is
similar; "that comes out of his loins" = "off- placed figuratively in the far north to show that
spring" Rsv (e.g. Gen 46:26), but "of his body the city of God rules the entire world (Ps 48:2
begotten" (Jud 8:30 ASV).The thigh stands for [H 31). [The word is also used with less emphasis
man's foundation (e.g. "the place of girding on to mean merely "end" of anything (Ex 26:22-23
the sword" (cf. Jud 3:16, 21)) and for the source etc.; I Kgs 6: 16; Ezk 46: 19). lt is possible that Ps
of life. Thus a hand placed under the thigh af- 48:2 [H 3] only means to say that the temple was
firmed the strongest oath, especially during the on the north end of Jerusalem, although a com-
patriarchal age (cf. Gen 24:9). And smiting the mon view is the one expressed that Zion is placed
thigh was a sign of intense repentance (Ezk 21: 12 figuratively in the far north. A variant of this view
[H 21]; Jer 31:19). The Hebrews recognized the is that Zion is figuratively like the northern
beauty of the female thigh (Song 7: 1 [H 2]). How- mountain, Zaphon, sacred to the Phoenicians.
R.L.H.]
ever, a woman jealously accused of adultery had
to drink water of bitterness and utter a curse. If J.E.H.
she was guilty, her body swelled and her thigh feil
away (Num 5:21f.); perhaps a miscarriage of an 917 ll'j~ (yara') quiver, only in phrase nap-
illegitimate child is hereby indicated. Also the sho yär'a lo "his soul quivers to him," i.e.
word refers to the · · side · · of the tabernacle (Ex is in terror and distress.

408
 920 Wj: (yärash)

Derivative 920 Wj: (yärash) take possession off, dispos-

sess, inherit, disinherit, occupy, seize, be an
917a t:,~·"".I; (y'ri'a) curtain. (Asv and Rsv
heir, impoverish (Qal); come to poverty,
the same, except sometimes Rsv
impoverish, be poor (Niphal); de-
"tent. ")
vour (Pie!; Deut 28:42, the cricket devours
lt occurs fifty-one times. Since tents were the trees and the fruit of the ground); in-
made out of curtains, these two words are paral- herit, drive out, cast out, dispossess, destroy,
leled frequently in the or. The color of the tents make poor (Hiphil).
was quite dark (Song 1:5), and children helped set
them up (Jer 10:20). Intimes of war they, along Derivatives
with all the flocks and goods, were taken as spoils 920a :,~'.'; (y''resha) a possession, only
(Jer 49:29; 4:20). The tabemacle was composed in Num 24:18.
of ten curtains woven from fine twined linen and 920b :,~~; (ye rüshsha) possession, inher-
blue, purple and scarlet stuff (Ex 26: 1). The cur- itance.
tains were held together by a series of loops. A 920c tl"\W:'1(reshet) net.
covering over the tabemacle consisted of eleven 920d tw;;~ (möräsh) possession.
curtains made from goats' hair; a half curtain 920e t:,~,;~ (möräsha) a possession.
hung over the back. The ark of the covenant was
viewed as dwelling within curtains (II Sam 7:2; lt is used with its derivatives (except reshet)
I Chr 17:1; Rsv "tent"). In symbolic language 260 times. In civil matters the verb means tobe-
God is pictured as spreading out the heavens like come an heir (cf. Jer 32:8). In military matters it
a tent (or curtain, Ps 104:2). Little effort on his means to gain control over a certain area by con-
part and yet his complete control is thus em- quering and expelling the current inhabitants of
phasized. that area. In such a light the word came to take on
lt is of some interest that all the tabemacle the meaning of "dispossess," "drive out," "cast
curtains were 4 cubits (6 ft) wide, which was the out," and "seize."
standard width of an Egyptian horizontal
loom-all except the court hangings which were Possession and Covenant
five cubits wide. The extra cubit may have come
In Israel's history the root takes on its double
from a section woven on the low hand loom,
force, to inherit and to dispossess, in relationship
which was about one ~ubit wide. to the covenant. God made a covenant with Israel
After God's great saving act through the suffer-
that they would become his own special people
ing servant, the effect is anticipated in the com-
(e.g. Ex 19:5f.). A major benefit on lsrael's side
mand to Israel to "enlarge the place of [his] tent
was the promise of an inheritance, namely a land
and [to] Jet the curtains of [his] habitations be
where they could develop into a holy nation (Gen
stretched out" (lsa 54:2). This exhortation means
15:8; Ex 6:8). Israel, however, became a people
that the number of people reached by God · s reve-
in Egypt before they occupied a land. Therefore
lation becomes increasingly !arger.
Bibliography: Dickson, H. R. P., "The Tent
to become a nation they had to gain possession of
a land. They Ieft Egypt, agreed to the covenant at
and lts Fumishings," in People and Cultures of
Sinai and then proceeded to take Palestine as
the Middle East, ed. Ailon Shiloh, Random
their possession. However, forty years passed
House, 1969.
between Sinai and the first successful attempt at
J.E.H.
conquest.

View of Taking Possession of the Land

918 ;,,• (yrq) l. Assumed root of the following. Found in Deuteronomy
918a i'j; (yereq) green, greenness.
918b ;,1; (yäräq) herbs, herbage. The book of Deut was composed in the light
918c ;,ii; (yäröq) green thing (only in that the people after the long years in the wilder-
Job 39:8). ness were about to begin their conquest. Con·
918d lii',.' (yeräqon) mildew, paleness, sequently the highest number of occurrences of
lividness. yärash appear in Deut. The program of conquest
918e i'j,?j; (y" raqraq) greenish, pale described in Deut emphasizes that the people had
green. to live according to the law given at Sinai in order
to have God's help in conquest (Deut 6: 17ff.).
Above all they had to be sure to live justly (Deut
919 i'j; (yäraq) II, spit. 16:20). Thereby God obligated himself to help
them defeat the nations and to possess the land
lii',~ (yeräqon). See no. 918d. (Deut 12:29). However, before God could act it
,,j,?j; (y''raqraq). See no. 918e. was imperative that the people come to the land.

409
920 ~':I;(yarash)
1.e. they had to respond in faith expecting God to them for a possession (Deut 33:4). As long as this
overcome their enemies by placing their lives in lifestyle would be maintained the land would be
jeopardy on the battlefield. In other words, they theirs forever (1 Chr 28:8). Their ownership of the
had to present themselves to receive the promise. land was etemal, but their right to occupy it de-
As long as they were obedient, God would go pended on their obedience to God. If they tumed
before them to dispel the inhabitants even though from God and followed abominable pagan prac-
they were greater and mightier than Israel (Deut tices, they lost the right to live there. Yet as long
7: 1; 11:23; 31:3; Ps 44:2f. [H 3f. 1). Deuteronomy as they were obedient to God, he allowed them to
anticipated that God would drive out the inhabi- continue their occupation of the land by helping
tants in spectacular ways if needed, such as send- them to overcome their enemies (e.g. II Chr
ing "homets" among the nations (Deut 7:20). 20:5-17).
Here there was the crucial balance between the
act of God and the responsive participation of the Israel' s Response
people, both of which were necessary to accom- Under Joshua, Israel drove out many nations
plish God's purpose (Deut 9:3). There was no and occupied large portions of the land (Josh 12).
doubt that it was God who gave them the land However, there was much land left to be pos-
and the victory to possess it; yet they had to re- sessed (Josh 13:1-6; Jud 1). God used the nations
spond by actively participating in the taking pos- which remained to test Israel in order to deter-
session for the plan ofGod tobe realized. Further mine how complete was lsrael's obedience to the
God acted through his people, but also through law (Josh 23:12f.; Jud 2:3, 2lff.). When Israel feil
nature and circumstances so that the outcome to false worship, they became weak and encoun-
accomplished was the best. tered the wrath of God which caused these na-
There was a fully moral basis to the conquest. tions to oppress Israel. But when they tumed
Gen says Abraham could not possess the land back to God, he brought them deliverance. This
because the sin of the Amorites was not yet com- pattern continued until Israel feil captive to Baby-
plete (Gen 15:16). Leviticus 18:24-30 teaches that lon (Neh 9:26--31). Prior to that day they suffered
the morality of a people either allows them to all kinds of misfortune which was intended to
occupy a land or eise causes the land to expel lead them to repentance. But the majority stub-
them. The reason Israel possessed Canaan by bornly continued to act disobediently; therefore
dispossessing the Amorites was that the sin of its God allowed other nations to possess them as
inhabitants abounded to the point that God no their just punishment (Ezk 7:24; 33:23-24).
longer allowed them to occupy that land. In such Under the Persians a remnant returned to settle
a light Israel became the means of God's judg- the land, but their continued occupation was de-
ment on these nations (Deut 9: 1-5; 18:12). Just as pendent upon the same obedient response to
Iater Assyria was God's rod to punish Judah (lsa God's law (cf. Ezr 9: 10--15).
10:5f.) Israel was not allowed to dispel the Amo-
rites because Israel was !arger, or more noble The Concept of Possession
than they, but rather solely under the sovereignty Generalized in the Psalms
of God did Israel serve as his instrument of judg- The Psalms build on this pattem of living in the
ment and solely under his Iove did they become land by emphasizing that possession of the land
the recipients of the inheritance (Deut 4:37f.). belongs to those who fear the Lord (25: 12f.),
There is a definite theological pattem established those who wait on the Lord (37:9), the meek
here. Covenant results in inheritance, but one (37: 11), those blessed by the Lord (37:22) and the
must come to the inheritance to obtain it. And he righteous (37:29). Those who enter into covenant
must be willing to face all opponents in obtaining with God receive an inheritance, but they must
the inheritance. Yet in reality it is God who de- act to take possession of it and must live up-
feats the opponents and allows the inheritance to rightly to maintain their inheritance. This idea is
be gained. no doubt the background for the beatitude -
[An additional justification may be found here "blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the
even on the secular plane, in that Canaan in the earth" (Mt 5:5).
15th-14th centuries was nominally a part of the
Egyptian empire just then losing its grip. The 1s- Its Eschatological U se
raelites had paid in bitter service in Egypt for The prophets pick up the themes around
every cubit of land the Lord gave them in Ca- yarash as they foresee God's establishing his
naan! R.L.H.] reign at the end of the age. The people will ex-
After possessing the land by expelling and de- perience a "new Exodus," and they will again
stroying its inhabitants, the lsraelites were toset- possess the land (Jer 30:3). Isaiah looks for the
tle in it and establish a way of life based on obedi- time when their descendants will possess the na-
ence to the love of God (Deut 11:3 lf.). For this tions; i.e. instead of defeating them in battle the
way of Iife to be realized the Iaw was given to nations will also become God's peoplc (lsa 54:3;

410
 922 ~W;(yäshab)
cf. Arnos 9:12). Since the people will be trans- the opposite of the negative 'ayin. Generally a
formed to follow righteousness, they will always noun follows it; e.g. "there was grain in Egypt"
hold the land (lsa 60:21). The idea carries over to (Gen 42: 1). lt is so employed to draw attention to
the New Covenant in that the people offaith have the dynamic presence of God with his people in
the promise of an inheritance and yet before it is this world (cf. I Sam 17:46: Gen 28:16). Occa-
fully enjoyed the final conquest of their greatest sionally a noun precedes yesh for additional em-
opponent Satan must be accomplished. phasis (e.g. I Sam 21:4 [H 5]). With a participle it
emphasizes that there is a person who exhibits
möräsh. A possession. In Job 17:11 möräshe
the action or quality denoted by the verb, e.g.
l' bäbi (lit. "the possessions of my heart") is ren-
"One man pretends tobe rich, yet has nothing"
dered "the desires of my heart" (Rsv; ASV
(yesh mit'ashsher, Prov 13:7). lt can also take a
"thoughts"; BDB gives "my cherished
pronominal suffix before the verb to indicate that
thoughts").
the action denoted by that verb is actually being
möräshä. A possession, inheritance (Asv: cf. performed by that person (e.g. Gen 24:42, 49).
Ezk 33:24, RSV"to possess"), heritage (ASv; Ex After questions it may stand alone to indicate an
6:8). affirmative answer (cf. I Sam 9:llf.). However,
reshet. Net. (Asv and Rsv the same.) lt appears
placed in a question it may express a doubt about
the thing questioned; e.g., "are there any among
twenty-two times. Net is an instrument used to the false gods ofthe nations that can bring rain?"
catch game, as birds (Prov 1:17); it was made out (Jer 14:22).
of cords woven together. Sometimes a net was Often it is accompanied by the preposition / to
spread over a pit; the animal became entrapped in indicate possession; e.g. "I have enough" (Gen
the net as he fell into the hole. lt also indicates 33: 11). With the infinitive preceded by / it
the bronze grate placed under the altar which ex- suggests the possibility of the verb (e.g. II Chr
tended (or set in the middle (?)) halfway to the 25:9). lt appears also with other prepositions and
ground and had four bronze rings at its comers adverbs of place (e.g. Jon 4: 11; Jud 4:20). Used
(Ex 27:4f.; 38:4f.). lt is translated "network" with 'et or 'im (with) it indicates accompani-
when used with ma'liseh "work." ment. yesh 'asher in Num 9:20f. is translated
This word is employed metaphorically to de- "sometimes." Ofinterest is yesh 'et-napsh''kem:
scribe people being trapped by their enemies. "(if) it be your mind" (Asv) or "(if) you are will-
The wicked spread nets to overcome the righ- ing" (Rsv, Gen 23:8).
teous (Ps 140:5 [H 61), and the arrogant lay a net J.E.H.
by flattery (Prov 29:5). However, they often be-
come trapped in their own deeds (Job 18:8).
Priests and rulers too lay a net for the people by 922 ::i~:(yäshab) sit, remain, dwell.
entangling them in sin (Hos 5:1). On the other Derivatives
hand, God spreads a net for disobedient Israel
(Hos 7:12; Ezk 12:13; 17:20; cf. 19:8) and for 922a tr,;w (shebel) seat, dwelling.
Pharoah (Ezk 32:3). lt means they shall be taken 922b t:i;•~ (shfbii) sojourn, only in II
into captivity. This image draws from real life, for Sam 19:33.
a picture in ANEP 288 shows a Mesopotamian 922c t::i~ic (moshäb) seat, assembly.
king containing his enemies in a net (cf. Lam 922d t::i~ir-, (toshäb) sojourner.
1:13). The righteous, however, escape the net of This verb is used 1090 times. The root yshb
the wicked by confidently calling on God, their appears in most Semitic languages, and now in
refuge (Ps 25:15; 31:4 [H 5]). Ugaritic ylb "to sit. ·· One new development is
Bibliography: Miller, Patrick D., "The Gift of that when ylb or Akkadian wasäbu appear with
God: The Deuteronomic Theology of the Land," kussi "throne," the verb yields the sense of "as-
lnterp 23: 451--65. Richardson, TWB, p. 112. cending the throne" (e.g. I Kgs 1:46).
Weinfeld, Moshe, Deuteronomy and the Some have argued that this verb yäshab is
Deuteronomic School, Oxford: Clarendon, 1972. never used of Yahweh "dwelling" on the earth or
J.E.H. any appearance of Yahweh to Israel. According
to this view, the verb shäkan and its derivatives
:,i,~~ (yis/Jäq). See no. 1905b.
are reserved for any concepts of the immanence
of God or of his "tabernacling with the men" of
921 IV~ (yesh) existence, there is, are. (Rsv and
the OT. Usually the Lord is said to dwell in
Asv similar.)
heaven (Ps 2:4; 9:7 [H 8]; 29:10; 55:20; 102:13;
As a noun only in Prov 8:21 where RSVreads Lam 5:19) or is "enthroned with the cherubim"
"wealth" and ASV"substance." Elsewhere it ap- (1 Sam 4:4; II Sam 6:2 = I Chr 13:6; II Kgs 19:15;
pears as a particle which draws attention to the Ps 99: 1). In places where the Lord is said to dwell
existence or presence of an object or a quality, in heaven or in Zion, the thought is that he is

411
922 :::lW;
(.väshah)

enthroned. He is also "enthroned on the praises In Arnos 6:3, it refers to the „ seat or throne of
of Israel" (Ps 22:4), perhaps as a metonymy for violence." This abstract sense uses „ seat" as a
the sanctuary where the Lord was praised. The technical term for a judicial seat or throne. Cf.
idea of the cherubim must not be associated too the Ugaritic evidence for this new meaning.
closely with the ark of the tabernacle. since the Obadiah 3 uses it to refer to Edom's dwelling
verb does not mean "indwelling'' and the place. Numbers 21:15 and II Sam 23:7 illustrate
cherubim elsewhere in Scripture are used in vari- its use as site, location, or spot. The former re-
ous self-manifestations ofYahweh (e.g. Ps 18:11, lates to the "location (or site) of Ar" while the
Ezk 1,10). According to M. Woudstra, this ex- latter says "they are burned on the spot." These
pression „ served rat her to direct the attention of usages are similar to those of möshäb in II Kgs
the worshiper to the heavenly sanctuary with its 2:19 and Ezk 8:3 (see below).
heavenly Occupant, of which the earthly coun- shibä. Sojourn (Rsv "stay" ). This form of the
terpart meant to be a faithful image.. (M. noun is found only in II Sam 19:32 [H 33]. lt is
Woudstra, The Ark ofthe Covenant, 1965, p. 70). most unusual since there is an anomalous
shäkan then would be a temporary indwelling on aphaeresis of the initial yod and the introduction
the earth, but as Solomon asks, "Will God indeed of a medial yod as if it were intluenced by the root
'dwell' (yesheb, permanently) on the earth?" shub "to return ... The meaning of the corrected
(1 Kgs 8:27). The answer is clear. On the other reading b'' shibtö "during his sojourn" or "while
hand, it ma)' be argued that some verses refer to he stayed" is clear.
the Lord's dwelling above the ark on earth, e.g.
Ps 9:11 [H 121 reads: "Sing praises to the Lord möshäb. Seal, assembly, dwelling place,
who dwells in Zion." Also the statements about dwellers. This masculine noun appears forty-
his being enthroned with the cherubim may refer five times. Basic to its other meanings is the seat
to the ark. of David or Saul at the banquet table (1 Sam
The verb yäshab is also used of men. The Qal 29: 18, 25; cf. Job 29:7) or even the imagined seat
stem can be divided into four categories: 1. to sit among the gods which the king of Tyre had con-
on anything: 2. to remain. stay, linger: 3. to dwell jured up in his mind (Ezk 28:2). Collectively,
in a house, city, territory; and 4. of a place, city, many seats taken together refer to a sitting or
or country being inhabited. even an assembly of officials (1 Kgs 10:5), the
The first category includes some special situa- wicked (Ps 1:1), or elders (Ps 107:32).
tions such as the sitting of judges in judgment Then the dwelling place of a city, tribe, or
(Ps 9:4 [H 51: lsa 10:13: Ex 18:14) and ofkings people was so designated (Gen 10:30; 27:39; Num
on their thrc>nes (1 Kgs 1:35,46). The second is 15:2; 31: 10). Zion is called the dwelling place of
usually followed by an accusative of place, or a Yahweh (Ps 132:13). Even houses could be called
dative of person. Even inanimate objects such as dwellings (Lev 25:29: Ex 12:20 etc.). Then the
a bow can "remain"' strong (Gen 49:24). In the people in them were called inhabitants, or
third semantic range, one of the key verses dwellers (II Sam 9: 12).
theologically is lsa 45: 18. God formed the earth Several unusual applications appear: the site or
for dwelling. i.e. formen to inhabit it. lt was not setting for a city (II Kgs 2: 19), the location of an
meant to be a desolation or a chaos. One of the idol (Ezk 8:3) and by metonymy, the time of
most frequent forms here is the Qal active parti- dwelling in Egypt (Ex 12:40).
ciple, dweller, inhabitant (215 times according to Many commentators wish to change "their
BDB). Therefore when the prophets predict the dwelling places"' in Ezk 37:23 to "their apos-
desolation and depopulation of an invader's land tasies," from meshub. The textual evidence is
they speak of it as being "without inhabitant" limited to Syriac with the Greek reading "their
(lsa 6: 11; Jer 4:7; Zeph 2:8). The opposite of this abominations ...
depopulation is category four, a land, city. or töshäb. Sojourner. Occurring fourteen times,
country "abiding in its place „ (lsa 13:20: Jer seven times in Lev 25, this noun refers to the
17:6; Ezk 26:20: Zech 2:8). temporary, landless wage earner. The term is
The verb is used in the Piel stem once (Ezk used with ger (permanent resident, alien) to de-
25:4), Niphal stem fifteen times, Hiphil stem scribe Abraham in Canaan (Gen 23:4), and the
about forty times, and three times in the Hophal Israelites in God's eyes (Lev 25:23, 35; Ps 39:12
stem. [H 13]; I Chr29:15). lt is also used as a synonym
for a hired servant (Ex 12:45; Lev 22: 10; 25:40).
shebet. Seal, dwelling, place. There are only The töshäb could not eat the Passover, and his
six instances of this word used as a substantive children were not exempt from being sold as
(rat her than as an infinitive of yäshab) in the oT. slaves (Lev 25:45). But he could seek the protec-
lts basic meaning is expressed in its use as the tion ofthe cities ofrefuge (Num 35:15).
seat on Solomon·s throne (1 Kgs 10:19; II Chr So his freedom was not as great as that of the
9: 18). Literally the text is "the place of sitting." [?er even though he shared some ofhis privileges.

412
 927 Cl~;(yiisham)
Bibliography: Cross, Frank, "The Priestly ZAW 48: 77. Clines, D. J. A., "X, X Ben Y, Ben
Tabernacle," in Biblical Archaeologist Reader, Y: Personal Names," VT 22: 266-87. He argues
G. Ernest Wright, David N. Freedman, eds., vol. persuasively that the references to David as son
I, Doubleday, 1961, pp. 225-27. DeVaux, R., of Jesse are not derogatory. Driver, G. R., "New
Ancient Israel, McGraw-Hill, 1961, pp. 75-76. Aramaeo Jewish Names in Egypt," JEA 25: l 75f.
Woudstra, Martin, The Ark of the Covenantfrom
Conquest to Kingship, Presbyterian and Re- :ir;•~~(y' shimii). See no. 927a.
formed, 1965, pp. 68-77. li~•w• (y' eshfmon). See no. 927b.
W.C.K. w•~~
' (yashish ). See no. 931b.
923 :,w• (yshh). Assumed root of the following.
927 CW;(yäsham) be desolate, ruin. (Asv
923a t:,~~1.r-, (tCtshiyii)
wisdom, sound
"desolate"; Rsv also "ruin," "strip" and
knowledge. Delitzsch (Proverbs, p.
"appall. "
77) suggests "an advancement of
that which profits," particularly true Derivatives
wisdom. (For synonyms see
927a t:,~•tu• (y' shima) desolation.
l;okmii.)
927b t,iQ•i;;~(y' shimon) waste, desert.
Among the usages of this technical word is
yäsham and its derivatives occur eighteen
sound efficient wisdom, i.e. sound judgment,
times. The root is primarily concerned with the
wisdom that leads to practical success. Thus the
desolate condition of arid land, most often the
son will find life and honor if he follows his
desert land around the Dead Sea, the Negeb, and
father's sound judgment (Prov 3:21f.). Because
personified wisdom gives this quality to kings, the Sinai.
they rule effectively. On the other hand, God During the years of famine in Egypt at the time
of Joseph, the Egyptians sold their land and
frustrates the shrewd so that their hands cannot
attain success (Job 5: 12). Sound judgment is themselves for food and bought seed so that they
based on the righteous character of God's rule. could sow the land that it might not become deso-
late (Gen 47: 19). Three of the four occurrences of
The upright have sound wisdom hidden in them
the verb appear in Ezk to describe the coming
(Prov 2:7). But Job questioned whether his wis-
judgment on Judah. Armies were about to march
dom, his ability to succeed, was driven from him
in his adversity (Job 6: 13). through, destroying crops, polluting fertile fields,
often burning and devastating fortresses and
L.G.
cities. As a result the land would become deso-
late (Ezk 12:19; 19:7). Particular destruction was
:,"iiv~ (y'shü'ii). See no. 929b.
directed at the high places, the quiet groves
924 Mtu• (yshl:,). Assumed root of the following. which were lush and refreshing and where altars
924a Mt~ (yeshal;) emptiness (of hunger). to fertility gods were erected (Ezk 6:6). The deso-
lation ofthese shrines demonstrated to the people
Meaning conjectured from context.
that those gods were false, unable to help in time
Occurs only in Mic 6:14.
of distress.
925 *t=W;(yäshat) extend, hold out. Occurs After the Exodus from Egypt, God led the
only in the Hiphil (Est 4: 11; 5:2; 8:4). people through the desert. He encircled them and
protected them from their enemies (Deut 32: 10).
926 'W' (yfshay) }esse. (Asvand Rsvthe same.) According to Ps 107:4ff., God found Israel wan-
Derivation uncertain. dering in the desert and became their guide and
protection. lt was here that God appeared
The name appears seventeen times. Jesse, an through many natural phenomena and spoke to
inhabitant of Bethlehem in Judah, had eight soris, the people directly and through Moses (cf. Ps
including David the king. Jesse was a pious man 68:7f. [H 8f.]). However, before and after Mt.
and a strong supporter of the state. David is often Sinai the people tested God by complaining about
called the son of Jesse, and the Messiah is re- their condition and by craving food and water (Ps
ferred to as the root or stump of Jesse (lsa 11:1, 106:14). Each time God was able to meet their
10), in line with the tendency to use alternative complaints and supply their needs; however,
expressions to indicate the promise to David's some type of judgment against the unbelief gen-
line. Cf. the "Branch of David" (Jer 23:5), the erally accompanied the granting of the request.
"tabernacle of David" (Arnos 9: 11) and, proba- Isa in the latter part of his prophecy picks up the
bly, the city of David, "Bethlehem" (Mic 5:2 theme of God's new saving events, which will be
[H 11). a new Exodus. Once again the people in leaving
Bibliography: Bauer, H., "Die hebräischen the land of their captivity and returning to
Eigennamen als sprachliche Erkenntnisquelle," Jerusalem will have to pass through the desolate

413
928 iw:(yäshen)
wildemess. As in the former Exodus, God will neither slumber nor sleep" (Ps 121:4). Amidst a
make a way through the desert and will provide polytheistic environment this confession pos-
rivers of water to meet the parched thirst of his sessed dramatic content. Yet figuratively sleep is
people (lsa 43:19). attributed to Yahweh for his apparent inactivity
y•shimä. DesolaJion (Ps 55: 15 [H 6]). ASVand
by one who has heard about but not experienced
his great deeds (Ps 44:23 [H 24]). Similarly
Rsv accept Qere (yashshimiiwet): "'Let death
Yahweh's bursting into action is described as his
come upon them"; i.e. when they go down to
awaking from sleep (Ps 78: 65f.).
Sheol. Of course. the Kethib, "desolation be
Sleep may stand as a euphemism for death (Ps
upon them,'" makes sense, for there is no place
13:3 [H 4]). In the last days Yahweh will raise up
more desolate than Sheol.
"those who sleep in the dust of the earth" (Dan
y'shimön. Waste, desert, wilderness. Fre- 12:2). Their new life will be one of either everlast-
quently y''shim,in is paralleled with ·•wilder- ing life or everlasting contempt.
ness" (midbiir) and translated "desert." Rsv J.E.H.
takes it as a toponym in I Sam 23:19, 24; 26:1, 3;
possibly it is a proper name in Num 21:20: 23:28;
it is most likely located in the Arabah, near the 929 *IIW' ( vasha ·) be saved, be delivered (Ni-
north side of the Dead Sea and to the north and phal); save, deliver, give victory, help; be
west of the hill of Hachilah and to the north of safe; take vengeance, preserve
Maon. In this vicinity David hid from Saul. (Hiphil); AS>.',"rescue" "defend cause";
J.E.H. RSV, substantive "savior." (Asv and RSV
similar, but interchange synonyms.)

Derivatives
928 iw: (yiishen) Qal, sleep, be as-
leep; Piel, make (one) go to sleep (Jud 929a 1/W~(yesha') salvation, deliverance.
16: 19). (Asv and Rsv similar; but RSV 929b :,~1w~(y' shu'ii.) salvation.
"'dream" in Ps 90:5; in Hos 7:6 ASV"their 929c ti.,iw (shöa') independent, noble.
baker sleepeth," while Rsv [with different 929d :,~,;~ (möshii'ii.) only as mosha-
vocalization] "their anger smolders. ") 'öt. saving acts (Ps 68:21).
Derivatives 929e :,~1wz:, (t'shu'ii.) salvation, deliver-
ance.
928a iw: (yiishen) sleeping.
928b i~: (yiishiin) old. vasha' and its derivatives are used 353 times.
The root meaning in Arabic is "make wide" or
928c :i;w (shena), MJW (shenii'), riJf
( sh'niit) sleep. "make sufficient"; this root is in contrast to
siirar "narrow," which means "be restricted" or
Sleep is a blessing; it provides rest and re- =·cause distress. '' That which is wide connotes
freshment. One who works hard, though poor, freedom from distress and the ability to pursue
has sweet sleep; but the rich in their surfeit are one·s own objectives. To move from distress to
denied this refreshment (Eccl 5: 12 [H I IJ; cf. Ps safety requires deliverance. Generally the de-
3:5 [H 6]; 4:8 [H 9]). One is not to love sleep, for liverance must come from somewhere outside the
that will lead to poverty (Prov 6: IOf.; 20: 13). party oppressed. In the or the kinds ofdistress,
Neither is one to rob himself of rest to increase both national and individual, include enemies,
his wealth (Ps 127:2). Sleep, however, can afford natural catastrophies, such as plague or famine,
the opportunity for an opponent to gain the ad- and sickness. The one who brings deliverance is
vantage; e.g. Delilah robbed Samson of his known as the „ savior." The word may be used,
strength during his sleep (Jud 16:20). however, in everyday life free of theological
In the new age Yahweh will make a new co- overtones; e.g., at a weit Moses saved the
venant of peace restoring harmony between man daughters of Reuel from being driven off by the
and nature once again. Then man may lie down to shepherds (Ex 2: 17). But generally in the or the
sleep in the woods unafraid of nature (Ezk 34:25). word has strong religious meaning, for it was
God may communicate a message during one's Yahweh who wrought the deliverance. Thus he is
sleep; e.g. God caused Pharoah to dream about known as the "God of our salvation" (Ps 68: 19f.
the approaching famine (Gen 41:1-7). While [H 20f.]). Although salvation could come through
Adam slept very deeply, the Lord took part of his a human agent, it was only because God empow-
side and created Eve (Gen 2:2lf.). ered the agent. In the NT the idea of salvation
Sleep was a quality ascribed to pagan gods, primarily means forgiveness of sin, deliverance
e.g. Elijah"s taunt conceming Baal's being asleep from its power and defeat of Satan. Although the
(1 Kgs 18:27). In contrast, the Psalmist says con- or begins topoint in this direction, the majority of
ceming Yahweh, "He who keeps Israel will references to salvation speak ofYahweh granting

414
 929 *tJW;(yäsha')

deliverance from real enemies and out of real rests my deliverance and my honor: my mighty
catastrophies. rock, my refuge is God" (Ps 62:7 [H 81). One who
experiences salvation does not need to be tor-
Kinds of Salvation mented by internal anxiety. lt is true that he will
At various times Israel, oppressed by other na- have to endure opposition, but God will ensure
tions, had to go to war to win and to maintain its that his opponents do not destroy him. The pro-
freedom. In these battles the nation turned to tective nature of salvation is seen in other con-
God for help. They believed that the outcome of cepts, namely "the shield of salvation" (Ps 18:35
the battle belonged to Yahweh (I Sam 17:47). [H 361), "a helmet of salvation" (lsa 59: 17: Eph
Thus they ventured out in the assurance of a 6:17), "the garments of salvation" (lsa 61:10).
victorious outcome. The focal point ofGod's sav- Thus salvation is not merely a momentary victory
ing deeds in the oT was the deliverance of Israel on the battlefield: it is also the safety and security
from Egyptian bondage (Ex 14:30). Thereby they necessary to maintain life unafraid of numerous
became known as a people saved by Yahweh dangers. As the OTlooks for the city ofGod at the
(Deut 33:29). Such deeds of salvation became a end of the age, it sees that its walls will be called
witness of the lordship of Yahweh not only to "Salvation" (Isa 60:18). This city is only for the
future generations, but also to the surrounding righteous, and it provides all the security attend-
nations (cf. Ps 106:8: I Sam 4:6ff.). Later as the ing salvation (lsa 26: 1).
lsraelites anticipated entering the promised land,
Moses said, "the Lord your God is he that goes Spiritual Meaning
with you, to fight for you against your enemies, The word „ save „ developed a theological
to give you the victory" (Deut 20:4). God fulfilled meaning in that God saves by forgiving sin and by
this promise through Joshua, who led the people changing the character of an individual: e.g. "l
to take possession of Canaan. Afterwards when will save them from all the backslidings in which
Israel was oppressed by one of the surrounding they have sinned" ( Ezk 37:23). David realized
nations, God delivered them through ajudge (Jud this and prayed, "Deliver me from bloodguilti-
2: 16). The general pattern was to endow thejudge ness, 0 God, thou God of my salvation" (Ps
with his Spirit in order that he could defeat Is- 51:14 [H 161: cf. Ps 79:9). In Jer 17:14 "save"
rael's enemies. Later under the kingdom Israel parallels "heal": i.e. salvation becomes a
defeated their enemies by a righteous king who dynamic force bringing emotional and physical
was anointed and aided by Yahweh (l Sam 9: 16: well-being.
Ps 20:6 [H 7]). The truly believing leader ven-
tured forth in the spirit of the words of Jonathan, Salvation and Righteousness
"nothing can hinder the Lord from saving by All of Yahweh's saving deeds are built on
many or by few" (1 Sam 14:6). The salvation righteousness, retlected by the fact that "righ-
from God was the king's glory and firmly estab- teousness" and „ salvation „ are often found in
lished his authority over the people (Ps 21:5 parallelism (e.g. lsa 51 :8). Although every act of
[H 6]). lt became imperative as the nation grew in deliverance contains judgment, those who are
power and prestige for the king and the people to judged are guilty and therefore deserve this jus-
realize that salvation does not come by a mighty tice (cf. Ps 76:8f. [H 9f.]). On the other side, God
army, but solely from the power of God (Ps is true to the covenant and to the creation of man
44: 1~ [H 2-91). Although God generally used· in his own image by acting to provide man a
human agents to bring salvation, the obstacles means of deliverance from his original disobedi-
surmounted were so spectacular that there un- ence. In this regard God fulfills his responsibility
questionably had to be special help from God as Redeemer through being a Savior. Yahweh is
himself (cf. Prov 21:31 ). Here is the creative ten- thus known as "a righteous God and a Savior"
sion between divine action and human response (lsa 45:21).
which establishes God's purpose on earth and yet
builds the character of his people. Sometimes Character of God Revealed
God may do the work totally, and all man has to The salvation which God accomplishes reveals
do is wait and see the mighty deeds of the Lord his universal reign (cf. lsa 33:22). His kingdom
(II Chr 20: 17: cf. Hos 1:7). Building on this histor- over the entire world allows him to work salva-
ical pattern of God · s saving deeds through a char- tion for whomever he wills. Further deeds of sal-
ismatic leader arose the concept of a future savior vation destroy the purposes of the forces of evil,
who would fulfill the role of a king anointed with often personified as the sea and the sea monster
God's Spirit (cf. Jer 23:5f.). (Ps 74: 12ff.). Thus every victory moves toward
Salvation may be not only offensive, but also the final salvation for all of his people. God's
defensive. When opposition comes, one may re- ability to give salvation provides the basis for
treat to a refuge for safety. God is frequently man to worship him: i.e. only a god who can save
viewed as this refuge for his people: "On God is worthy of worship. Therefore a frequent

415
929.1 :,~~; (yäshpeh)
polemic against idolatry is to challenge the other lsaiah' s description of salvation through the com-
gods to bring deliverance to their oppressed fol- ing Messiah is followed by song in chapter 12,
lowers (lsa 46:7; Jud 6:31). Their failure to re- and three of the servant songs end with singing:
spond demonstrates that those gods are vain and 42: !Off.; 49: 13; 54: !ff. Singing gives expression to
leads to the confession that besides Yahweh the joy attending God's salvation. Joy is fre-
there is no savior (lsa 43: 11; Hos 13:4). To ensure quently mentioned as man·s inner response to
that the deeds of salvation are not viewed as a God's victory (e.g., Ps 13:5 [H 6)). Further those
mere accident of history, Yahweh reveals what who have received Yahweh's help feel compelled
he is going to do before he does it (lsa 43: 12). to share it with others; "I have not hid thy saving
Then he is faithful to his word by performing it. help within my heart, I have spoken of thy faith-
Afterwards the act is interpreted and proclaimed. fulness and thy salvation" (Ps 40: 10 [H 11]). Thus
The saving deed then is determinative for the na- God's salvation fills life with meaning and joy.
ture of each generation's relationship with
Yahweh, and its proclamation inspires the faith Future Salvation
to establish and to maintain the relationship (cf
lsa 52:7). The return of Israel from captivity is anlic1-
Further salvation witnesses to the fact that pated in the language of salvation. Yahweh says,
God cares about his people. Salvation flows from "I will save you from afar" (Jer 30: 10; Zech 8:7).
his love (cf. Deut 7:7f.). Because the faithful Since God considers the people his flock, he de-
comprehend God's steadfast love, they turn to clares, "I will save my flock, they shall no longer
him for deliverance in times of distress (Ps 6:4 be a prey" (Ezk 34:22).
[H 5]; 109:26). Salvation is thus God's love in Since there is no salvation outside of Yahweh,
action. he extends the invitation, "Turn to me and be
Salvation also witnesses to the active presence saved, all the ends of the earth! For I am God,
of God among his people and with his leaders. and there is no other" (lsa 45:22; cf. Ps 67:2 [H
Many commissioned with a task were promised 31). The prophets look to the time when salvation
his presence in a special way. God promised will affect all nations and be everlasting. lsaiah
Jeremiah, "l am with you to deliver you" (Jer foresees this salvation coming through the suffer-
1:8, 19; cf. Mt 28:20). Jeremiah was Iater impris- ing servant. Because of the servant's obedient
oned, and at various times his life was en- endurance of suffering, God promises," I will
dangered, but his opponents were never able to give you as a light to the nations, that my salva-
destroy him. Moses too succeeded by this prom- tion may reach to the end of the earth" (lsa 49:6).
ise (Ex 3: 12). Thus the presence of God among In other words, the acts of salvation in the OT
his people accomplishes their deliverance from build toward the final act of salvation which will
adversaries and out of troubles. include all people under its possible blessing (lsa
52: 10).
Preparation and Response of the People shö'a. Noble, honorable, rich (Rsv and ASV),
A. Repentance and Trust. Man must prepare bountiful (Asv). Whether its root is y-sh-' (BOB)
or sh-w-' (KB) is debated. In lsa 32:5 it parallels
himself to receive God's salvation. When in dis-
tress, he must seek God in prayer (e.g., Jud 3:9; "the noble" (niidib) andin Job 34: 19 it stands in
contrast to "the poor" (da/). lt probably indi-
Ps 69: 1 [H 2)). 1. e., he must recognize his need
cates those who receive recognition due to their
and humble himself before God with a contrite
wealth in property. But God does not grant Spe-
heart (cf. Job 22:29; Ps 34: 18 [H 19)). Turning to
cial favor to the noble over the poor, for both are
God involves forsaking sin, for sin hinders God
his work. And during the reign of the righteous
from helping those in distress (lsa 59: lf.).
king, the world's false values will be altered in
Once man has sincerely turned to God, he must
that the knave will no longer be considered noble.
express his confidence in God by waiting for sal-
Bibliography: Foerster and Fohrer, "Sözö,"
vation (lsa 30:15). God chooses the time to act;
in TDNT, VII, pp. 965-1024. Pedersen, Johs, Is-
man must wait in hope. God expects his people to
rael, lts Life and Culture, vols. 1-2, London:
endure difficult circumstances in faith as he
Geoffrey Cumberlege, 1964. Barr, James, ··An
chooses the most opportune time to bring salva-
Aspect of Salvation in the OT," Man and His
tion. While one awaits salvation, he is actively
Salvation, ed. E. J. Sharp and J. R. Hinnels,
involved in pursuing righteousness and in ex-
pressing love (lsa 56:1; Hos 10:12; 12:6). Manchester Univ Press, 1973, pp. 39-52.
Richardson, TWB, pp. 219-20. TDNT, VII, pp.
B. Hymns of Praise. Man's immediate re- 970-89; 1012-15; lll, pp. 284-93. THAT, 1, pp.
sponse to God's saving deeds, actual or antici- 785-89.
pated, is in hymns of praise. The Song of the Sea J.E.H.
was composed and sung immediately following
the deliverance at the Red Sea (Ex 15:1-18). 929.1 :,~~~ (ytishpeh) jasper.

416
 930 '"i~;(yäshar)
930 "IW; (yilshar) be Level, straight, (up) right, teristic of David's life (1 Kgs 3:6, y"shära, only
just, lawful. (Asv, RSV,NEB similar except here). lt is used both of words spoken (Job 6:25)
that they vary translations with "honest," and written (Eccl 12: 10).
"righteous. ") 3. As an idiomatic expression with "eyes."
"Tobe right in the eyes (of a person)'' is to have
Derivatives his approval by keeping his commands. lt is used
930a +-i~; (yiishiir) (up-) right. of God (Num 23:27; Jer 27:5) perhaps also under
930b "IW' (yösher) uprightness, straight- the figure of the Potter (Jer 18:4). When marriage
ness. was so considered by Samson (Jud 14:3, 7), Saul,
930c
930d
:i,~~ (y'' shiira)
ti~-iw• (y''shüriin)
uprightness.
upright, law keep-
and David (1 Sam 18:26), it can be rendered "law-
ful" as in Ugaritic (ysr; Van Zijl, Alter Orient
ing,Jeshurun. und Altes Testament 10:83). Similarly when a
930e +,~•~ (meshär) uprightness, straight- treaty (II Sam 17:4) or religious action (II Chr
ness. 30:4) was ratified by an assembly.
930f t-iiiu•~ (mishvr) Level place, upright- A fuller phrase "to do what is right (hay-
ness. yiishär, the right) in the eyes of the Lord" is
linked with obedience to his commands (Ex
The root y-sh-r is employed in at least three
15:26; Deut 6:17-18) and covenant (Deut 12:28:
ways.
13:19). lt is commonly used by the so-called
1. Literally. 'To go straight or direct in the
way" (1 Sam 6: 12), but more frequently in the Deuteronomist historian in his summary evalua-
intensive (Pie!) ··10 make (a way) straight," i.e. tion of the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah.
direct and level and free from obstacles, as when Thus David is said to have followed the Lord's
preparing to receive a royal visitor. This is the commands (1 Kgs 15:5-7) and the laws of Moses
work of God for man (Prov 3:6 KJV"direct"), but (1 Kgs 14:8) as did Solomon when he followed his
also of man for God (lsa 40:3). lt is "to look father's statutes, which were the same as those of
straight ahead of you" (Prov 4:25), to do some- the Lord (1 Kgs 3:3, 14). Asa (1 Kgs 15: 11; II Chr
thing evenly (I Kgs 6:35, KJv) as Solomon's over- 14:1) and Josiah (II Kgs 22:2) were similarly de-
laying the cherubs with gold or Hezekiah's de- scribed as having done the right. So Jehoshaphat
signing the aqueduct bringing it straight (II Chr did the same as had Asa (II Chr 10:32), Azariah
32:30, KJV)to the west of Jerusalem. as did Amaziah (II Kgs 15:3; cf. II Chr 25:2) and
2. Ethically. Uprightness as the manner oflife Amaziah as did Joash (II Kgs 14:3). Hezekiah did
is a characteristic of the blameless (Prov 11:5) the right in that he kept the commandments
and of the man of discernment (Ps 1I 9: 128, "I which the Lord had commanded Moses (II Kgs
have lived uprightly"). Thus the fact that God 18:6). Note that this phrase implies the existence
has made man upright (Eccl 7:29) is probably to and knowledge of the law of God, and that indi-
be interpreted as granting him the ability to rec- vidual kings were thought to have kept it. This
ognize the divine law, rather than some inborn was shown by the king taking action (the so-
character as honest or straightforward (so NEB). lt called reforms) to ensure that the people also
is said of the reckless that his soul is not upright kept the Law. Suchaction was marked by public
within him (Hab 2:4) and this leads to pride and decrees which might include remission of dues,
failure. deliverance from oppressive legislation (Josh
9:23ff.), and the observance of religious festivals
yäshär. Upright. The attributive adjective is (Passover). Even when a king was said to have
used to emphasize an attribute of: a. God, de- done the right, any major omission in his en-
scribing his reign over his people (Deut 32:4), his dorsement of the whole law is carefully noted
ways (Hos 14: 10), words (Ps 111:8), and judg- ("except in the case of') Hezekiah's public act
ments (Ps 119: 137); b. especially qualified per- was initiated in the first füll regnal year. lt has
sons, as a parallel to the righteous (Ps 33: 1) or the been pointed out that there is a somewhat similar
perfect (Job 1:1, 8). lt is a quality of heart and practice among Mesopotamian kings who ef-
mind (Ps 7: 11; 11:2, et al.) which enables the up- fected the continuity of law and order by issuing
right man to keep loyally to any legally binding mesharum, decrees (Wiseman, D. J., "The Laws
agreement (II Kgs 10: 15). lt is not always possi- of Hammurabi Again," JSS 7: 167-68). In this
ble tobe sure whether the "level" path (Jer 31 :9) phrase the OT uses yshr with the force of law-
or "straight" foot is tobe understood as an ethi- keeping, doing justice according to the law,
cal appraisal of the way of life or literally. Cer- which was the norm (as the Akkadian iJartu is
tainly the nouns meaning "uprightness" are used used of what is normal in writing).
of a moral quality of heart (yösher, Deut 9:5;
I Kgs 9:4), as often in Prov (2: 13; 4: 11) which mishör. Level place, uprightness. meshär.
results in "right paths, .. i.e. right both morally Uprightness, straightness (in government), justice.
and practically (Job 33:23). This was a charac- meshärim and mishör could weil be translated

417
931 ll,ill,i, (yshsh)

"justly·· (with justice) or "lawfully·· (as in Ug Thus it marks the „ plain „ in contrast to the
'Anat 3.3) and describe the way judgment is hills (l Kgs 20:23-25; it is so rendered by KJV,Rsv,
given (Ps 58:1 [H 2]; 75:2 [H 3], RSV ·•with JB, NEB,or as opposed to the valleys (lsa 40: 11).
equity"). With the verb "tojudge"' it means "de- In lsa 42: 16 it may be translated "level tracks"
cide in favour'' (KB).lt is the way a people should (JB) or "(straighten) twisted roads" (NEB). As
bejudged (Ps 67:4 [H 5]; KJVrighteously; RSVwith used in David"s prayers (Ps 26: 12; 27: 11; 143:10),
equity; NEBwithjustice). To do this is holding to the word could mean a level place or be figurative
the covenant (Mal 2:6). lt is the Lord who de- for a place of safety, comfort, and prosperity
clares "justice" (lsa 4 : 19) and this sense of the (BDB). lt may denote justice or the blessing
word persists (Dan 11:6, /a'aföt meshtirim "to which follows from lawkeeping in view of the in-
make an equitable arrangement"'). Occasionally vocation of the Lord as judge (Ps 26: lf.). In Jer
these nouns are clearly used in a legal context 21:13, "the rock of the plain" seems to refer to a
(Prov 2:9; cf. Ps 17:2). They are not really precise topographical location in Jerusalem (KB),
synonymous with righteousness (-$edeq) although perhaps the palace on Ophel (JB).
often used in parallel with it, with good ((ob) and In a number of verses mishor marks a specific
with judgment (mishpti{). Cf. also Ugaritic -$dq. region of Jordan, north ofthe Arnon River, which
In Akkadian documents "justice" also appears was captured by the Hebrews. lt lay in the desert
as a deity (dMi~arum; Ugaritica 5: 220, line 166), wilderness (Deut 4:43) where there was grazing
namely the son of the sun-god Shamash, who was (II Chr 26:10). Within the area were villages
in Mesopotamia the primary god of justice. (Deut 3: 10) as weil as one of the cities of refuge
(Josh 20:8).
y'shurun. Jeshurun. Jeshurun is a proper
Bibliography: Finkelstein, J. J., "Some new
name used only of Israel, in four passages. The
misharum material with its implications," in
parallelism of Jacob and Israel with Jacob and
Studies in Honor of B. Landsberger, ed. Hans G.
Jeshurun (Deut 32: 15; lsa 44:2, Jeshurun) makes
Güterbock and Thorkild Jacobsen, Chicago:
it clear that the reference must be to Jacob under
University Press, 1965. Richardson, TWB, p.
his name Israel (so Deut 33:5). The Lord is "God
273. THAT, I, pp. 790-93.
of Jeshurun"' (Deut 33:26).
D.J.W.
While it might designate Israel as an ideal, up-
right one (so Gr, Vulg rectissimus, dilectus) it is
more probable that the sense of law-keeping or
iiiW,; (y'' shüriin). See no. 930d.
upholding justice is appropriate here; they are a
931 'li'li• (yshsh). Assumed root of the follow-
Rechtsfolk who possess the law. The old etymol-
ing.
ogy as a diminutive of ytishur "good little
people' · cannot be supported since there is no
93 la 'li'?i';,(yäshesh) aged, decrepit. Oc-
evidence of such a diminutive formation in He- curs only in II Chr 36: 17.
brew; nor would the title be apposite. Personal 931b 'li•~; (yäshish) aged. Occurs ex-
names in -ün do occur (possibly as hypocoristica) clusively in Job (12:12; 15:10; 29:8;
32:6).
and the possibly contemporary name of Jesher,
the son of Caleb (1 Chr 2: 18) the Ras Shamra
932 '1!'1' (ytd). Assumed root of the following.
name of Mi~ara ( Ugaritica 5, RS 17.325), and
932a f<i!'.1';,
(ytited) peg, stake, pin. (ASV
Ugaritic bn msrn1 "son of uprightness" (UT 19:
prefers „ pin" and „ nail"; Rsv
no. 1566) may be compared, even though they
"peg. "')
lack the termination.
The "book of Jashar"' (Josh 10:13) is given as a lt appears twenty-four times. Pegs were used
source or record of lsrael's defeat of the Amo- to secure tents and bronze pegs held the taberna-
rites. lt also recorded the defeat and death of Saul cle together (Ex 27: 19). They were also fastened
and Jonathan at the hands of the Philistines and into the wall to hang utensils on and used in con-
David"s lament for them (II Sam 1:18). lt con- junction with a loom (Jud 16:14). In his parable
tained information which could be quoted or Ezekiel points out that when a vine ceases to bear
taught. While most scholars consider it a collec- fruit, its only value, it can not be used even for a
tion of ancient national poetry, it may weil have peg (Ezk 15:3). One was to carry a peg (Asv
been part of the pre-monarchy state records "paddle," Rsv "stick") with him in order to dig a
which would have included written agreements hole in case of an emergency (Deut 23: 13 [H 14]).
or other publicly issued statements similar to the Jael, while entertaining Sisera in her tent, per-
msrm decrees. formed a heroic deed by hammering a peg
The noun mishor, derived from ytishtir, means through his skull (Jud 4:2 If.; 5:26).
primarily "a level place,"' and is used for geo- lnterestingly peg is used in a positive manner in
graphical descriptions as weil as to connote "jus- regard to the blessing of God. Ezra speaks about
tice" discussed above in connection with me- the blessing God has bestowed in terms of giving
shtirim. a nail (Rsv "secure hold") within his holy place

418
 935 ,ri,(ytn)
(Ezr 9:8). To emphasize the extending impor- 935b ~ti•~ (' etän) 11, Ethan.
tance of the servant's ministry Isaiah exhorts to 'etän, /. Perennial, eve,flowing, permanent, en•
enlarge the tent. to lengthen the cords and to during. (Asv and Rsv differ frequently, ASVpre-
strengthen the stakes (lsa 54:2). Similarly fers words related to "strong. ")
Jerusalem will become "an immovable tent, lt is used thirteen times. lt refers to the con-
whose stakes will never be plucked up" (Isa tinual existence of a phenomenon of nature as the
33:20). The certainty and stability of David's perennial running water in a stream (Deut 21 :4);
throne is pictured as a nail fastened in a sure such a stream is especially valuable in Palestine,
place (lsa 22:23. cf. Zech 10:4). However, before where the majority of the wadies are dry much of
God establishes the true kingdom. the false ruler- the year. The seventh month bears the name
ship, as a securely fastened peg, and all that relies Ethanim, "the month ofsteady flow," perhaps in
on it will give way (lsa 22:25). relationship to the time when these are the only
J.E.H. streams with water (1 Kgs 8:2). lt means also the
eternal movement of the sea which God stopped
(yätöm). See no. 934a. only long enough to allow Israel to pass through
(yätur). See no. 936, passive participle. safely (Ex 14:27, "wonted flow" Rsv; "strength"
Asv). Psalm 74: 15 describes this feat as the drying
933 r,ri• (yt/J). Assumed root of the following. up of everflowing streams ("mighty" ASV).Thus
933a Mtiir. (t,}tä/J) name of a weapon, Arnos 5:24 bears a powerful image, "But letjus-
perhaps a club or mace (Job 41:21). tice roll down like. waters, and righteousness like
an ever-flowing stream." Justice is truly the per-
934 cri• (ytm). Assumed root of the following. manent, enduring quality that every believer
934a tciri; (yätom) orphan, fatherless. seeks and which will become the foundation of
(Asv and RSVsimilar.) the kingdom of God. The mountains are consid-
lt occurs forty-one times. The orphan, gener- ered the enduring foundations of the earth.
ally associated with the sojourner and the widow. Therefore, because of their continual presence,
is the object of special concern. The quality of they are in a position to witness in favor of the
one · s devotion is measured by how one treats the Lord and against Israel at the great judgment
widow and the orphan. Justice is especially due (Mic 6:2).
them (Deut 24: 17); if not, the curse of God comes This word is applied also to the human sphere.
on the congregation (Deut 24: 19). Although they For instance, man is faced with the continual
have occasion to mourn, they are not excluded problem ofstrife in his body (Job 33:19); this re-
from the pilgrim festivals. They are invited tojoin flects the enduring nature of the curse on man for
and rejoice as are all the sons of Israel (Deut his original sin. In Job 12: 19, translated "the
16:11-14). A corrupt society extorts the mighty," it probably indicates the nobles whose
sojourner, wrongs the orphan and the widow, and status is continuous by heredity, yet who can be
expresses contempt for father and mother (Ezk overthrown by God. Further, some nations are
22:7; cf. lsa 10:2). E.g., they drive away the or- considered enduring ("mighty" ASV,Jer 5:15; cf.
phan's donkey and take the widow·s ox in pledge Num 24:21). The nation intended here is Baby-
(Job 24:3). Those who mistreat the orphan and lon, which was a nemesis to Israel throughout her
the widow are paralleled with adulterers, sorcer- history. Although the dwelling place of man may
ers and perjurers in Mal 3:5. But God himself appear ever enduring (ASVand RSV"strong") like
provides for the basic needs of these unfortunates the sheepfolds near the Jordan, God is able to
(Deut 10: 18) and is known as the "Father of the destroy them, even by a ravaging lion (Jer 49: 19;
fatherless" (Ps 68:5 IH 6]). This fact is reflected 50:44: KB understands the phrase as "pasture-
in the laws that forbid picking up fallen sheaves, ground on the everflowing river"). The concept
or regleaning the vine or the olive tree (Deut here is not so much of strength, but the fact that
24:19ff.). Also they along with the Levites re- they have been around so long they appear per-
ceive a portion of the tithes of the produce given manent.
every third year (Deut 14:28f. ). The word occurs Jacob's blessing describes Joseph as amidst in-
also in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 1168) where the chief tense battle, holding his bow steady and dis-
god EI also is said to be beneficent to the orphan charging arrows in rapid succession (Gen 49:23f.,
and the widow. This common consciousness of Skinner). Another difficult text is Prov 13:15,
mercy is not surprising. The specific laws of "the way of the faithless is enduring" ("hard"
Ugaritic on such matters have not been pre- Asv; "ruin" Rsv emends text). The MT makes
served. good sense, for Jack of faith forms its own rut
J.E.H. from which there is no escape.
'etän, 11. Ethan (Asv and Rsv the same.) The
935 ~ri• (ytn). Assumed root of the following. name occurs eight times. At least three different
935a t~ti•~ ('etän) 1, perennial, eve,flowing. men bore this name.
419
936 iti.; (yätar)
1. Ethan was known as a wise man and heads abundantly met (Ruth 2:14; II Chr 31:10). The
the list consisting of himself, Heman, Calcol and people gave liberally for the building of the taber-
Darda. Solomon's wisdom is compared to nacle so that items,were left over (Ex 36:7). Most
Ethan's as surpassing it (l Kgs 4:31 [H 5:11]). of the sacrifices were to be eaten on the day of-
Ethan must have been a legendary man, indeed. fered; any leftovers were to be consumed (Ex
He is listed as one of the sons of Zerah (l Chr 12:10; Lev 8:32). But a votive or freewill offering
2:6), who was of the tribe of Judah, and his son was allowed to remain three days before being
was Azariah (I Chr 2:8). He is called the Ezrahite consumed (Lev 7: 16f.).
(the son of Zerah). Psalm 89 bears the inscription The future of a person's life is referred to as the
"A Maskil ofEthan the Ezrahite." Maskil (q.v.) remaining years (lsa 38: 10). The unrecorded
might mean a wisdom song composed for instruc- events of a king·s reign are called "the rest of
tion. This Psalm concerns the eternal covenant [his] acts." In Gen 49:3f. the word carries the
with David to rule Israel. idea of pre-eminence; there Jacob declared to
2. Another Ethan, son of Kushaiah of the Reuben, "you are ... pre-eminent in pride and
Levitical family Merari, is listed as a Levitical preminent in power; unstable as water you shall
singer, along with Heman and Asaph (l Chr not have pre-eminence." In Prov 17:7 s"pat
15:17, 19; 6:29). They shared a !arge part of the yeter "a lip of excess" is taken as "arrogant
responsibility of the temple music and sounded speech" by BDB, "fine speech" by Rsv and "ex-
the cymbals as they sang. Perhaps he also bore cellent speech" by ASV.
the name Jeduthun, which occurs in the same The wisdom school, especially Eccl, often em-
capacity along with Asaph and Heman in I Chr ploys this root in search of the real advantage or
25:1, 6; II Chr 5:12; 35:15. the true excellence in life. Prov emphasizes that
3. A third Ethan is mentioned as the son of abundance can be gained by toil and diligent ef-
Zimmah, of the Levitical family Gershom (l Chr fort (Prov 14:23; 21:5). But abundance must not
6:42 [H 27]). become the goal of life, for after necessities have
Bibliography: Driver, S. R., Deuteronomy, in been met that which is left then becomes the in-
ICC, V, pp. 241f. Pope, Marvin H., Job, in AB, heritance of one's family (Ps 17:14).
XV. Skinner, John, Genesis, in ICC. 1. Smend, Kohelet uses this word family to get across
Rudolf, Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach, Berlin: many of his ideas. One is not tobe too wise or too
Georg Reime, 1906, pp. 373f. righteous; i.e. one cannot authenticate himselfby
J.E.H. putting his wisdom and righteousness on display
so that they appear greater than they really are
(Eccl 7:16). Truly the best advantage belongs to
936 "lt\; (yatar) remain over, leave; Hiphil,
one with wisdom (Eccl 7: 11). He uses yitrön in
leave in excess, preserve, !et escape (Ezk
the manner of ··advantage," "gain" or "profit."
12:16, Rsv), have preeminence. (ASV, Rsv
There is advantage for an agricultural community
translate similarly.)
to have a king, no doubt so that its production
Derivatives can be fully realized (Eccl 5:9 [H 8]). He also
936a ir,_• (yeter) I, rest, remnant.
finds advantage or benefit in wisdom over folly
(Eccl 2:13). Wisdom shows man how to over-
936b Mr,~ (yeter) II, cord, bowstring.
come a difficult problem and knowledge allows
936c ~,~• (yitrii) abundance, riches.
wisdom to preserve the life of its owner (Eccl
936d irii• (ybter), ir,• (yöter) more,
7: 12; 10:10). Prov points out there is advantage in
better, advantage.
toil over laziness (Prov 14:23). But Eccl probes
936e l"l')l)• (yöteret) appendage.
deeper by continually asking what profit does one
936f 1iii:,• (yitrbn) advantage, excellency. gain from his toil (Eccl 1:3; 3:9). The answer is
936g ii:,i'r~ (mötdr) profit, abundance.
936h tii:,•i; (metar) cord, string.
nothing, especially if it is to accumulate goods
which cannot be taken at death (Eccl 2: 11; 5: 15).
yatar and its derivatives are used some 227 Eccl here feels the füll force of the curse on
times. lt refers to one portion of a quantity which man's work which makes it toil and he clearly
has been divided. Generally it is the smaller part sees that ultimate value can not reside in man's
and sometimes it is the part of less quality. lt may labor or its results.
refer to the portion less in quality but more in In military contexts this root frequently indi-
quantity (Jud 7:6); e.g., in Neh it includes the cates the survivors of the people who have been
people besides the priest, nobles and officials defeated (Josh 12:4; 23:12). Also it may refer to
(Neh 2: 16; 4: 14 [H 8], 19, [H 13]). lt may also be those who have survived a conspiracy (e.g. Jud
used in the sense of"advantage" or "more than." 9:5). A truly devastating event is when no one is
The concept of remain occurs in a wide variety left (Josh 11:11, 22). Sometimes one is left and
of contexts with many connotations. Food left feels quite alone; e.g. Elijah complained, "I,
over is an indication that one·s need has been even I only, am left a prophet ofthe Lord" (l Kgs

420
 936 iti; (ylltar)
18:22). In regard to Israel it refers to those who dark at the upright in heart" (Ps 11:2). In regard
escaped the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon to life the cord being loosed means that one's
(Ezk 6:8; 12:16; cf. Isa 1:9; but most often the health has been broken so that one is near death
idea of ··remnant" comes from the root sh'r). (Job 4:21; 30:11).
The survivors will become God's weapon of
metär. Cord, string, tentcords. (Asv and Rsv
punishment against other nations (Zeph 2:9). But
similar.) This word occurs nine times. Most
at the end of time the survivors in Jerusalem will
never be wiped out again (Zeh 14:2). frequently it appears in conjunction with the pegs
and bases of the tabemacle (Ex 35: 18). The cords
yeter. Cord, bowstring, tentcord. (ASVand RSV of the new tent will have to be lengthened (lsa
similar; but in Jud ASV"withes. ") lt is used six 54:2). Conversely broken cords indicate a people
times. In the series of attempts by Delilah to dis- about to succumb to their enemies (Jer 10:20). In
cover the source of Samson's strength, Samson Ps 21: 12 [H 13] the word stands for the bow as the
told her to bind him with seven new, not even instrument the righteous use to overcome the ag-
dried, bowstrings; certainly they would tighten gressive, deceitful plans of their enemies.
intensely as they dried. While he was asleep, they Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 196-208.
so tied him; but on awaking he was able to snap J.E.H.
the bowstrings (Jud 16:7ff.). The attempt of the
wicked to destroy the righteous is pictured as 1i"'ll"I' (yitron). See no. 936f.
their fitting an "arrow to the string to shoot in the l"lj~~ (yöteret). See no. 936e.

421
937 ~ (k') as, like, the like of. thorns which cause pain (although used figura-
Basically a substantive, it is often used as a tively of Israel's enemies).
For the most part, however, it is impossible to
preposition of comparison attached to its noun.
Quantitatively, especially with numbers and time separate the mental and physical anguish as far as
it can mean "about.'" Qualitatively, it can mean this word is concemed. A case in point would be
"according to" (Gen 1:26). In a correlative ex- Ex 3:7 where God's compassion for his people's
pression the preposition appears twice "my aflliction is expressed. Surely they were suffering
people are li.ke your people" (like my people so physical pain, but their total situation was cause
your people, I Kgs 22:4). Before an infinitive it for anguish, as weil.
expresses the time at which action occurs, there- Because oflsrael's inability to serve God faith-
fore "when, as, or while." lt may express fully she was plunged back into such anguish dur-
contemporaneity "while" more than b• with an ing the Exile (Lam 1: 12, 18). But the word of
infinitive which is more conveniently rendered hope is that Jesus has borne all of this suffering,
"when." this "heartbreak" (lsa 65:14) that we might be
healed (lsa 53:3-4)
938 ir.i~ (k'mo) like, as, when. k•'eb. Sorrow, grief, pain. (Asv similar. RSVuses
"pain" in place of "sorrow. ") Six occurrences.
The word k" stands by itselffifty-six times and
when it does it always uses the expanded form mak'öb. Sorrow, grief, affliction, pain. (ASVsimi-
k' mo. This is the form used in combination with lar. Rsv almost always translates with "pain,'"
the light suffixes, e.g. kämoni "like me," where KJVhas "sorrow.") Sixteen occurrences,
kamokä "like you,'" and it is sometimes used of which at least eleven have to do with mental
with the heavy sutfixes, e.g. either k' mohem or suffering.
kahem "like them." The usage in Ugaritic is simi- J.N.0.
lar. The prepositions b' and /' also use the form
with the enclitic mem, but less commonly than 941 *M~;, (kä'a) be disheartened, cowed. Oc-
does k''. curs only in the Niphal and Hiphil stems
(e.g. Dan 11:30; Ezk 13:22).
939 ,111~,
(ka' asher) as, when, according as. Derivative
Combined with 'asher, k" still means "as, 941a M";, (ka'eh) cowed (Ps 10:10).
when, according as," perhaps with some em-
phasis, but in addition may show causal force, 942 ::i::i::i (kbb). Assumed root ofthe following.
"since, because." 942a t::i::ii::i (kökäb) star. (ASV and RSV
'the same.)
940 ::i~;i (kä'ab) be sore, have pain, be sorrow•
The nations around Israel worshiped the stars,
Jul. ASV,Rsv similar.
both individually and in constellations. Astrolo-
Derivatives gers and wise men carefully studied their
movements to determine the will and the mes-
940a t::i~~ (k' 'eb) sorrow.
sages of these gods but to no avail (lsa 47: 13).
940b t::iiM:;,r; (mak'ob) sorrow.
Such was their Jot from Yahweh (Deut 4: 19; cf.
kä •ab occurs with its derivatives thirty times, Arnos 5:26), but Israel was strictly forbidden to
all but four of which are found in poetry. Al- worship them. In lsrael's thought the stars influ-
though the root does not appear in Ugaritic. it is enced life, but only as agents of Yahweh. God
found in Aramaic, Akkadian, and Arabic. The made the stars to give light and to rule the night
former two emphasize the pain aspect while the (Gen 1:16 f.; Ps 136:9). He "determines the
Arabic usage stresses sadness and sorrow. AJ. number of the stars, he gives to all of them their
though the root can be used to express physical names" (Ps 147:4). No star exists outside of
suffering, it much more commonly has to do with Yahweh and their destiny is determined by him.
mental anguish. Also the vast number of stars was a symbol for
Only four usages of kä 'ab refer to physical God's promise of abundant descendants to Ab-
pain. Genesis 34:25 refers to the pain of circumci- raham (Gen 22:17; 26:4).
sion; Job 14:22 and 33: 19 to the bodily pain which The stars are sometimes personalized. They
is said tobe the Jot ofhumanity; and Ezk 28:24 to may be identified with the sons ofGod, who sang

425
943 i;;, (kühed)
forth praise at the creation (Job 38:7; cf. Ps severity in terms of heaviness. The third would
148:3). God, however, is unquestionably superior express size or number in such terms.
even to the highest stars (Job 22: 12). God used The first usage is found most often in relation
the stars to fight on Israel's side to defeat Sisera to Pharaoh, in seven places (Ex 7: 14; 8: 15 [H 11],
(Jud 5:20). In climax, the individual who will 28 [H 32]; 9:7, 34; 10:1: I Sam 6:6). Pharaoh's
bring salvation to Israel is foreseen as "a star refusal to be sensitive to the situation or to the
[which] shall come forth out of Jacob" (Num pleas of the Hebrew people is spoken of as a
24:17). Jesus, in Rev. says, "l am ... the bright heaviness or hardening of the heart (cf. the dis-
morning star" (Rev 22:16; cf. II Pet 1:19). Then cussion by Girdlestone, SOT, pp. 66-67.) Simi-
too the faithful who diligently Iabor to turn people larly the ears (lsa 6:10; 59:1; Zech 7:11), the
to God shall shine Iike the stars forever (Dan tongue (Ex 4: 10), and the eyes (Gen 48: 10) may
12:3; cf. I Cor 15:41f.). become dull and insensitive, while the hands may
J.E.H. grow weary (Ex 17: 12). In the latter three cases
physical infirmity is involved, but the former ex-
press spiritual problems.
Heaviness as a figure for severity relates to
943 i::i;i ( kiibed) be heavy, grievous, hard, rich, work (Ex 5:9, etc.), servitude (I Kgs 12:10 etc.),
honorable, glorious. (Asv. RSV similar.)
warfare (Jud 20:34, etc.) and pestilence (Gen
Derivatives 41:31 etc.). Three times the severity ofsuch mis-
fortunes is expressed as the hand of the Lord
943a ti;:;, (kiibed) I, great.
being heavy upon them (cf. I Sam 5:6, 11; Ps
943b ti;:;, (käbed) II, liver.
32:4). In the same way a person's hand can be
943c i::i::i (köbed) great.
heavy on someone eise (Jud 1:35, Job 33:7). Also,
943d ib;i (käbod) /, glorious, occurs
a person, without necessarily intending to, can
only as the feminine singular
become burdensome to another (II Sam 13:25.
k'buddii (Ezk 23:41: Ps 45:14).
II Chr 10:10, 14; 25: 19; Neh 5: 15). The fact that
943e tii::i;, (kiib()d) II, glory.
the severity of bondage is often expressed by
943f t:iii::i::i (k'. buddii) abundance,
means ofthe figure "a heavy yoke" (1 Kgs 12:4;
'riches. Only in Jud 18:21.
II Chr 10:4, 11) makes Jesus· declaration, "My
943g l"l~;l; (k'"bedüt) heaviness, only in
yoke is easy" (Mt 11:28), all the more significant.
Ex 14:25.
From severity to magnitude is a simple step
This root with its derivatives occurs 376 times and in several cases it is not easy to be perfectly
in the Hebrew Bible. lt is especially prominent in clear which connotation is in view. For instance,
Ps (sixty-four occurrences) and lsa (sixty-three), the statement that the sin of Sodom and Gomor-
as weil as Ex (thirty-three), Ezk (twenty-five) and rah was very heavy (Gen 18:20). Is this to say
Prov (twenty-four). Of the total number of occur- that the sin was great or that it was severe? So
rences, 114 are verbal. The root is a common also Isa 24:20; Ps 38:4 [H 5): Job 6:3, etc. At any
Semitic one, occurring in all except Aramaic rate it is plain that sin is a burden which weighs
where yäqär seems to take its place. The basic down the one who carries it, making the person
meaning is "to be heavy, weighty," a meaning himself heavy and dull (lsa 1:4; Prov 27:3). Other
which is only rarely used literally, the figurative usages are quite clear however. Cf. e.g. Num
(e.g. "heavy with sin") being more common. 20:20 „ Edom came out with a heavy people," or
From this figurative usage it is an easy step to the II Kgs 6:14 "a heavy host." Similar references
concept of a "weighty" person in society, some- would be Ex 12:38; II Chr 9: 1; Isa 36:2. Hab-
one who is honorable, impressive, worthy of re- akkuk 2:6 uses the word in this way when it at-
spect. This Iatter usage is prevalent in more than tacks those who increase pledges (cf. Nah 3:15).
half the occurrences. In one case, Abraham is said to be very heavy
The literal use of the term occurs only in I Sam (Gen 13:2), and the context makes it plain that the
4:18, "Eli was heavy" (käbed, adjective), and II magnitude of his wealth is being spoken of. This
Sam 14:26 "Absalom·s hair was heavy" (käbed, has significance for the succeeding usages.
noun). The second major group of connotations is a
käbed usually carries a negative connotation. further extension of the figurative use of the
The Qal and Hiphil stems comprise the niost of term. In this case the idea is of that which is
these occurrences in the verbal form, while weighty in the sense of being noteworthy or im-
käbed and kobed are the nouns whose meanings pressive. Common translations are "honorable,
fit the category. Generally speaking, there are honored, glorious, glorified." The Niphal and
three groupings of figurative uses. The first Piel stems normally have these connotations.
would relate to parts of the body, expressing The reputation of an individual is of central
slowness, dullness or implacability. The second importance in these usages. Thus the person of
relates to events or experiences, describing their high social position and accompanying wealth

426
 943 i;;, (kähed)
was automatically an honored, or weighty, per- liver rejoices." Note the mention of bodily parts
son in the society (Num 22:15, etc.). Such a posi- in the context. Of course, it is not the liver liter-
tion, its riches, and long life were commonly as- ally, but the person that rejoices. Properly, there-
sumed to be the just rewards of a righteous life fore, the LXX and NT translate "my tongue re-
(1 Chr 29:28, etc.). While one would be honored joices." R.L.H.]
automatically if one attained this stature, it is also Over against the transience of human and
clear that one was expected to merit the honor earthly glory stands the unchanging beauty of the
and the glory. The book of Prov makes it clear manifest God (Ps 145:5). In this sense the noun
that the trappings of glory without an accompany- käböd takes on its most unusual and distinctive
ing weightiness of character was an offense to life meaning. Forty-five times this form of the root
(21:21; 22:4; 26:1; etc.). relates to a visible manifestation of God and
Likewise persons in positions of responsibility whenever "the glory of God" is mentioned this
and authority were deserving of honor (Ex 20: 12; usage must be taken account of. lts force is so
Mal 1:6). lt is significant to remind oneself that compelling that it remolds the meaning of doxu
giving honor or glory is to say that someone is from an opinion of men in the Greek classics to
deserving of respect, attention and obedience. A something absolutely objective in the LXX and NT.
life which does not back up one's honorable The bulk of occurrences where God's glory is a
words is hypocrisy of a high form. Israel was visible manifestation have to do with the taberna-
again and again guilty of honoring God with her cle (Ex 16: 10; 40:34; etc.) and with the temple in
lips, while by her actions making him appear Ezekiel's vision of the exile and restoration (9:3,
worthless (lsa 29: 13). etc.). These manifestations are directly related to
One could also become honored as a result of God's self-disclosure· and his intent to dwell
heroic feats of courage, fidelity, etc. David's among men. As such they are commonly as-
mighty men are spoken of in this way (1 Kgs 11:21 sociated with his holiness. God wishes to dwell
etc.) These were people who had made a name with men, to have his reality and his splendor
for themselves. In this vein God is also to be known to them. But this is only possible when
honored. God's name is glorious in righteous- they take account of the stunning quality of his
ness, faithfulness, judgment, and salvation holiness and set out in faith and obedience to let
(Ps 66:2; 79:9; lsa 40:5). He is the king of glory that character be manifested in them (Num 14: 10;
(Ps 24:7-10), who has done gloriously. So he is lsa 6:3; Ezr 10, 11).
not only tobe honored because of his position as The several references which speak of God's
sovereign head ofthe universe, but because ofhis glory filling the earth and/or becoming evident
surpassing character in all realms. are instructive. On the one hand they quite
The accoutrements of glory were commonly legitimately refer to that reputation for greatness
impressive in their beauty. Thus the garments of which God alone deserves, not only because of
the priests were expressly designed to be unusu- his natural position as king, but because of his
ally beautiful, in order to convey some of the unsurpassed activity as deliverer and saviour.
great dignity and importance of the office However, as the preceding discussion indicates,
(Ex 28:2, 40). The glory of the great kingdoms is something more is intended here. lt is not merely
commonly compared to the splendors and God's reputation which fills the earth, but it is the
beauties of the great forest of Lebanon (lsa 8:7; very reality ofhis presence. And his desire is that
10: 18). lt appears that the particular beauty of all persons may gladly recognize and own this.
man is his capacity for rational and moral re- His first step toward the achievement of these
sponse (Gen 49:6; Ps 108: 1 [H 2]; Jer 2: 11). goals was to fill the tabernacle with his presence
Yet it is at the point of these beauties that the and then the temple.
Bible speaks most devastatingly of the transience But nowhere is the reality and the splendor of
of all glory except God's. Isaiah is especially his presence and his character seen as in his son
pointed. How quickly beauty fades. How sud- (lsa 4:2). Here the nearblinding quality of his
denly a great cedar forest can be reduced to a glory is fully portrayed, "We beheld his glory,
sickening field of stumps (lsa 10: 18). How easily the glory as of the only son of the Father, füll of
man can exchange his true glories for that which grace and truth" (Jn 1:14; cf. 17:1-5). Through
really cheapens and destroys him (Ps 106:20). him and through his presence in the church,
Any impressiveness or noteworthiness which God's glory is indeed filling the earth.
man has created for himself in his own pride and
arrogance is doomed to destruction (lsa 16:14; käbed /. Great, grievous, hard, heavy. An ad-
17:4; 21:16). jective, this word does not occur with the mean-
[A few references to "glory" (käbod) may bet- ing "honored," or "honorable." Moreover, it
ter be taken as misvocalized references to the and the following are distinct from other forms of
"liver" (käbed II) spoken of as we do the heart. the root in the fact that they sometimes carry the
Thus Ps 16:9 "my glory rejoices" may mean "my connotation of number or volume (eleven out of

427
944 :, 1f (käha)

forty for käbed, one out of four for köbed), cerning hell in Mark 9:48. But, at the same time,
whereas other forms rarely do so. when the Messiah comes his gentleness will be
such that he will not even quench smoking flax
käbed 1/. Liver. The heavy organ. Fourteen
(lsa 42:3), i.e. he will not extinguish the weak and
occurrences, ofwhich nine are found in Lev 3-9.
poor-even dull-of society; rather he will save
käböd. Glory, glorious, honor, honorable. A them.
noun, often in construct with a preceding word, J.N.O.
thus taking on an adjectival aspect ("'King of
Glory" equals "'Glorious King"). Occurs two
ii::i; (käbod). See nos. 943d,e.
hundred times, never with the idea of weight or
:i,1::if (l<büddii). See no. 943f.
heaviness directly in view.
-i•::i;, (kabbir). See no. 947a.
k"buddä. An adjective only used in the feminine, -i•:i; (kabir). See no. 948a.
glorious, stately, carriage. In Ps 45: 13 [H 14]
where KJVreads "'glorious," Rsv reads '"wealth ...
In Jud 18:21 KJVtranslates "'carriage, .. evidently 945 ,::i:i (kb/). Assumed root of the following.
meaning "things tobe carried" (Rsv '"good"). 945a ,:;::;i (kebel) fetters (Ps l05: 18;
. i49:8).
Bibliography: Caspari, Wilhelm, Dif:' Be-
deutung der Wortsippe i::i:i in Hebräischen,
Leipzig, 1908. Caird, G. B., '"The Glory of God 946 o;i; (käbas) wash, be washed, perform the
in the Fourth Gospel," New Te stammt Studies work of a Jul/er. (ASVand RSVsimilar.)
15:265-77. Forster, A. H., '"The Meaning of
M!;a in the Greek Bible," The Angdican Theo- This root occurs fifty-one times, all in verbal
forms. Of these, all but nine appear in the Pen-
logical Re~·iew 12:311-16. Kittel, Gerhard, "'M!;a
tateuch, thirty-one in Lev alone, and twenty-one
in the LXX and Hellenistic Apocrypha," in
inLev 13-15. ltalsoappearsinArabic('"toknead,
TDNT, II, pp. 242-45. Morgenstern, Julian,
stamp") and Akkadian ("tread down'"). In He-
'"Biblical Theophanies," Zeitschrift für As-
brew it means '"to full," that is '"to make stuffs
syriologie. 25:139-193: 28:15--60. Richardson,
TWB, p. 175. Von Rad, Gerhard, "'ii::i; in the clean and soft by treading, kneading and beating
them in cold water'" (KB, p. 422). Thus it isalways
Old Testament," in TDNT, II, pp. 238-42.
TDNT, II, pp. 238-47. THAT, I, pp. 794--811. used of clothing, "'to launder'" and never of
"'washing'" the body, where ralJ.a!i(rä/J.a$ which
J.N.0.
see) is used or of '"rinsing'" which is denoted by
shü(ap.
r,1,:;f (k"bedüt). See no. 943g. In all but one case (II Sam 19:24), washing is
associated with ceremonial cleanness. Both the
priests and the people were to be in clean clothes
944 :i;; (käbii) quench, pul out, be quenched,
when they appeared before God (Ex 19: 10, 14;
be pul out. (Asv and RSVsimilar.)
Num 8:7; 19:7). Involvement in the rituals which
käbii occurs twenty-four times, thirteen in the dealt specifically with atonement and death re-
prophets. The root also appears in Arabic with the sulted in ceremonial uncleanness and necessitated
same meaning. lt always relates to fire and to the washing the clothes (Lev 16:26, 28: Num 19:7, 8,
act of putting a fire out. lt is to be distinguished 10, 19, 21).
from dä'ak (q.v.), which has a similar meaning, The bulk of the references have to do with was h-
by the fact that dä'ak commonly refers to a lamp ing of clothes which have become contaminated in
which has gone out while käbii in more than half one way or another (28 times). Particularly impor-
of its occurrences refers to a fire which cannot be tant contaminants would be leprosy and related
quenched by anyone other than God (the fire re- maladies for, aside from the hygienic factor, these
ferring to his wrath). were evidently types of sin. This imagery is picked
Out of the six references to literal fire, five are up in Ps 51 (2 [H 4], 7 [H 9])andJer2:22 and4:14.
fires which do not go out. Of these. four refer to That David depicts hiss in as a contagious leprosy
lamps and fires in the temple (Lev 6:12-13 [H 5- in need of cleansing is further validated by his
6]; I Sam 3:3; II Chr ·29:7). This concern that petition that God use hyssop, the instrument em-
something not be quenched is reflected also in the ployed in cleansing a leper (Lev 14:6-7). Jeremiah
figurative usages where life (II Sam 14:7; 21:17) 2:22 and 4: 14 are significant because while speak-
and love (Song 8:7) are figured as fire. ing of the impossibility of washing out the stain,
The majority of the figurative usages relate to they proclaim the necessity of such cleansing. The
God's anger which no one but he can quench. In answer to this dilemma is found in Mal 3:2 in the
particular, the prophets speak in this way calling one who would appear as refiner's fire and fuller·s
for repentance, lest this "'fire „ break out (Jer 4:4, soap to deal with the sins of his people.
etc.). Similar language is picked up by Jesus con- J.N.O.

428
 950 M~~;,(kibsa), n;~;, (kisba)
947 *"I;~ (käbar) I, multiply, be in abundance. 948b :i,;~ (k'
biira) sieve (a net-like in-
(ASV,RSVsimilar.) strument), only in Arnos 9:9.
948c ,21:,0 (makber) netted cloth or cov-
Derivatives --~,iet,only in II Kgs 8: 15.
947a ti•~; (kabbir) many, mighty. 948d ti;;,r,, (mikbiir) grate. ASV, Rsv
947b t:i,~;, (kibra) distance. "grating ...
947c i;i~ (k'biir) I, already. Occurs
The root of this noun does not occur in verbal
nine times, only in Eccl.
form, but evidently it meant something like "to
947d ti;~ (k' bär) 11,Chebar.
intertwine." mikbiir appears six times, all in Ex,
This root and its derivatives occur twenty-four and all with reference to a grating, or grillwork,
times, only two of which are verbal. Both of which extended around the altar of burnt otfering
these verbal uses occur in the Hiphil in Job at its midpoint. lts function is unknown. On its
(35:16; 36:31). lt seems likely that they are de- four corners were rings through which poles were
nominative. The root meaning is "tobe much." inserted for carrying the portable altar of the
lt is perhaps tobe distinguished from riib (q.v.) tabernacle.
on the basis of its stress upon volume ("mighty J.N.O.
waters," lsa 17:12; 28:2) rather than number, but
this should not be overdrawn. The meanings are 949 io~;ii (kebes), ::i~;ii (keseb) lamb, sheep.
.imilar in Akkadian, Aramaic, and Arabic; cf. the '<.~svand RSVsimilar.)
Arabic expression Allah akbar, "Allah is great."
The word is used in both negative and positive This root and its derivatives occur 128 times in
ways. From the negative point of view its usages the Old Testament. Of these, only 17 do not
stress the vanity of greatness apart from God. occur in the context of sacrifice. kebes itself oc-
Job's comforters feel that Job's abundance of curs 106 times with only 6 of these being non-
words is vain (8:2; 35: 16). Similarly the mighty sacrificial. As might be expected, l05 of the total
men who stand up against God will be broken occurrences are in the Pentateuch, but Num has a
(Job 34:24) until they see their smallness (lsa high proportion of these: 60, with 26 in chap. 7,
16:14). 14 in chap. 28 and 23 in chap. 29.
Only God is the source oftrue might (Job 36:5). This root is attested in Akkadian, where it also
In his hand is abundance of power (lsa 17: 12), means "lamb,'' and in Arabic (kabsun) where it
justice (Job 34:17), and provision (Job 36:31). means "young ram." lt is interesting to note that
kbs is not attested in Ugaritic and that the com-
kabbir. Many, mighty, much, strong, most. Nine mon Ugaritic term for sacrificial lamb, 'imr, if it
occurrences, six of which are in Job. Commonly appears at all in Hebrew, only does so in a few
used adjectivally stressing the greatness of the priestly names. This may reflect a conscious re-
noun modified. pudiation on the part of the Hebrews of certain
kibra. A little way. This meaning is that de- Canaanite technical religious terms.
rived from the construction kibrat- 'ere$, lit.
"much of land," which is the way this word is 950 :,~~;, (kibsa), :i;iif;, (kisba) ewe lamb,
found in its three occurrences. The rendering "a /amb. Feminine form of kebes. In the sin
great way" which one would expect from the otfering a female kid or lamb was required
etymology seems contradicted by the contexts as (Lev 4:32; 5:6; 14:IO; Num 6: 14).
weil as the LXX. keseb seems tobe a metathesized form of kebes
k'bär. Chebar. (Asv and RSVsimilar; NIV"Ke- (cf. Ges 19n). However, it appears to be used
bar. ") A channel ofthe Euphrates which leaves it slightly ditferently in that it normally occurs in
near Babylon and returns near Warka (60 miles circumstances where a distinction is being drawn
south). The group of Judean captives among between the two kinds of animals of the flock:
whom was Ezekiel were settled along the Chebar sheep and goats. In only two cases (out of a total
(Ezk 1: 1; 3: 15). lt was here that Ezekiel had the of thirteen) is this not the case.
vision which shaped the rest of his ministry ( 1:1, Although the initial instructions for the sac-
3; cf. 3:23; 43:3, etc.). rifice (Lev 1-8) do not, for the most part, specify
J.N.O. that lambs must be offered as opposed to full-
grown sheep, it is clear from both preceding and
following materials that lambs (sheep less than
948 ,:i:, (kbr) II. Assumed root ofthe following. one year old) were important elements in the sac-
948a i•;~ (kiibir) something netted, either rificial system.
a quitt or a fly net spread over the f ace In four circumstances lambs were required: the
of a sleeping person (1 Sam 19:13, Passover observance (Ex 12:5; Lev 23: 12); the
16). sin offering (Lev 4:32, etc.); certain purification

429
951 w;i;,(kähash)
ceremonies (childbirth, Lev 12:6; leprosy, 14: IO; this is the promise of Mic 7:10, "He will subdue
Nazirites, Num 6: 12) and the morning and eve- our iniquities."
ning sacrifice. The number of lambs offered in the J.N.0.
daily sacrifice was increased at the new moon
(Num 28: 11) and during the great festivals (Num 952 1~:;i; (kibshän) kiln, for time or pol•
28, 29). lt was perhaps because the daily offering tery (e.g. Gen 19:28; Ex 19:18). Derivation
was a burnt offering that lambs came to be in- uncertain.
cluded along with rams and bulls as the burnt
offering on special occasions. Whatever the rea- ,;, (kad). See no. 953a.
son, this was in practice as early as the dedication
of the tabernacle in Num 7 and continued in force 953 ,,::i(kdd). Assumed root of the following.
as late as Ezra's return (Ezr 8:35). 953a ,;, (kad) jar (e.g. I Kgs 17:12;
As with all the sacrificial animals, the elements Eccl 12:6).
of perfection, costliness and substitution were 953b ,;,,::, (kidöd) spark (Job 41: 11).
primary elements in the sacrifice of every lamb. 953c i'::,i;, (kadköd) a precious stone,
lt was undoubtedly the association of lambs perhaps a ruby (Ezk 27: 16; Isa
with Passover, the sin offering and the daily sac- 54: 12).
rifice which led John the Baptist to proclaim that
Jesus Christ was ··the Lamb of God, which takes ,,,;, (kaddür). See no. 954b.
away the sin of the world" (Jn 1:29,36: cf. also i::,-:i;, (kadköd). See no. 953c.
Rev 5:9). Then too, lsaiah had already used this
imagery for the Suffering Servant who would 954 ,,::i(kdr). Assumed root of the following.
passively accept God's judgment for the sin of 954a ,;,,::, (kidör) onset, attack (Job
the people as a lamb (Heb seh) is led to slaughter 15:24).
(lsa 53:7). 954b ,,,;, (kaddtir) ball (lsa 22:18).
J.N.O.
955 r,::, (köh) thus, here. Demonstrative ad-
verb of manner, place, or time.
951 tU;;, (kiibash) subdue, bring into bondage,
keep under, force. (ASV,RSVsimilar.) 956 ri::i::, (käkii) thus, perhaps a more emphatic
Derivative ']orm than köh. Probably derived from
955.
951a IV,~(kehesh) footstool. Refers to
the footrest of Solomon·s throne 957 ri:,;, (kähii) /, be dim, darkened, restrained,
(II Chr 9: 18: cf. hädbm ). faint,fail. (ASVand RSVsimilar, except that
This verb and its derivative occur fifteen times RSVreads "blinded" instead of "darkened. ")
in the or. lt is evidently related to Akkadian Derivatives
kabiisu "to tread down," and Arabic kabasa "to
957a tr,:,::, (keheh) be dark.
knead, stamp, press" (cf. also Arabic kabasa "to
seize with the hand"). In the OT it means "to 957b tr,~~ (kehii) healing.
make to serve, by force if necessary." The root and its derivatives occur seventeen
Despite recent interpretations of Gen 1:28 times with the general idea of being weak, inef-
which have tried to make "subdue" mean a re- fective, or colorless. The idea of the eyes becom-
sponsibility for building up, it is obvious from an ing weak in old age is prominent. The cognate in
overall study of the word's usage that this is not Akkadian means "tobe weak" andin Arabic "to
so. käbash assumes that the party being subdued grow disheartened."
is hostile to the subduer, necessitating some sort
of coercion if the subduing is to take place. Thus keheh. Be dark, wax dim, smoke, heavy. An ad-
the word connotes "rape" in Est 7:8, or the con- jective occurring chiefly in Lev 13 ("'if the plague
quest of the Canaanites in Num 32:22, 29; Josh be somewhat dark," six times). Cognate evi-
18:1; I Chr 22:18. In II Chr 28:10; Neh 5:5; Jer dence seems to suggest "colorless" as a better
translation (Rsv "dim," NEB "faded").
34: 11. 16 it refers to forced servitude.
Therefore „ subdue" in Gen 1:28 implies that kehä. Healing (,o.svand Rsv "assuaging.") Ac-
creation will not do man's bidding gladly or easily cording to Nahum 3: 19, Nineveh's destruction
and that man must now bring creation into sub- cannot be done away with.
mission by main strength. lt is not to rule man. J.N.O.
However, there is a twistedness in humanity
which causes us to perform such a task with 958 *rt:,;, (kähii) II, rebuke. Occurs only in
fierce and destructive delight. Try as we might, the Piel. in I Sam 3: 13, "he did not rebuke
we cannot subdue this. But it can be subdued and them."

430
959 ~::i; (kähan) minister in a priest's office, Zabud ·s father. Actually most Mssof the LXX omit
act as priest. Denominative verb. the word "priest" here and they could be cor-
rect. At least it is of interest that only these four
Parent Noun verses suggest that köhen may refer to a different
959a t,r:t:i (köhen) principal officer or chief kind of öffice.
· ruler, priest. Elsewhere in the OT, köhen reflects the more
959b :i~::q, (k" hünnii) priesthood. restricted concept of a minister for sacred things,
The verb kiihan occurs twenty-three times, especially sacrifice; cf. the functioning of Mel-
only in the Piel. lt is translated "minister in a chizedek and of Jethro, the first priests named
priest's office," "be priest," or "serve as priest" in Scripture (Gen 14:18; Ex 18:12; negative criti-
(RSV).
cism, by contrast, usually associates priestly
origins with the delivery of oracles, TDNT. III,
köhen. Chief ruler, priest. The underlying ver- p. 260). In the beginning men served at sacrifice
bal root of köhen does not appear in the or and is as theirown priests (Gen 4:3; Job 1:5), but already
of unknown etymology (KB, p. 424). In light of in Noah's time priestly ministration had become
its early secular usage, the idea of khn might be the responsibility of the patriarchal family head
of "serving as a minister" (cf. S. R. Driver, (Gen 8:20; cf. Gen 12:8; Job 1:5; Ex 19:22, 24 in
Notes on the Hebre»· Text of the Books of subsequent periods).
Samuel, pp. 284-85). Four summaries, pertain- In a sense, all Israel were the Lord's priests
ing to the time of the United Kingdom, mention (Ex 19:6; cf. Hos 4,6 on their rejection from
both Levitical high priests and, simultaneously, kihen "being a priest" to God). But at Sinai he
others who occupy a similarly designated office restricted legitimate priesthood to the family of
of köhen (1 Kgs 4:5; II Sam 8:18; 20:26; I Chr Moses' brother Aaron, of the tribe of Levi (Ex
18:16, 17). Zabud son of Nathan was "principal 28:1; 40:12-15; Num 16:17; 17:8; Cf. the evolu-
officer" under Solomon (1 Kgs 4:5, KJV). During tionary views of supposedly Canaanitish
the lapse between the earlier and later lists under serpent-worshiping Levites and bull-worshiping
David, the occupancy of this second type of Aaronites. T. J. Meek, Hebrew Origins, pp.
köhen office shifts from David's own sons (II Sam 119-47). Indeed, efficacious priesthood can exist
8: 18) to Ira the Jairite (20:26). This is doubly sig- only when it is established by the Lord (Num
nificant, for the former were necessarily non- 18:7, k''hünnii), for according to Scripture only
levitical, and their replacement by the Iatter sug- God or his official representative can accomplish
gests responsibilities adversely affected by the the atonement by which satisfaction is made for
intervening failures of the king's sons. kohen sin (Ps 65:3 [H 4]; Ex 29:36; A. B. Davidson, The
seems therefore to connote "confidential ad- Theology of the OT, p. 321). Aaron wore the
visor" (KD, Samuel p. 369); cf. the further de- names of the twelve tribes inscribed on his vest-
scription of Zabud as "king's friend" and of ments (Ex 28: 12, 21. 29) so as to bring them be-
David's sons as, literally, "the first ones at the fore God when he appeared to minister divine
king's hand" in the parallel passage (1 Chr 18:17; propitiation and reconciliation (v. 38). He con-
n.b., liberal criticism here dismisses Chr as a tinued to occupy his post. despite failure at the
later attempt to disguise an originally non-leviticai incident of the golden calf (32:4, 21).
priesthood, ICC, Samuel, p. 310). Shortly after the completion of the tabemacle
Another possibility may be considered in view (Ex 35-38, 40), including the elaborate priestly
of the overwhelming usage and the fact that in regalia (Ex 39; cf. Isa 61:10, as a bridegroom
Ugaritic also khn means "priest." All of these "decketh himself," kihen, marg., "deck as a
four verses may be differently interpreted. priest") and the revelation of God's laws of sac-
Not only does I Chr 18:17 lack the designation rifice (Lev 1-7), Aaron was consecrated as Is-
köhen for David's sons, the LXX of the parallel rael' s high priest and his four sons as priests ( Lev
passage II Sam 8:18 itselflacks it. The Hebrew of 8-9). Their primary function was to officiate at
II Sam 8: I 8 may be in error. As it stands it has the the new sanctuary (Deut 18:5) and pray on behalf
impossible reading, .. And Benaiah son of of the people (Joel 2: 17). They were also toset a
Jehoiada and the Cherethites and the Pelethites personal example of holiness (Deut 33:9). to "en-
and the sons of David were priests. · · quire of God" for oracles (see 'urim), and to
lra the Jairite (II Sam 20:26) who is mentioned teach the law (Lev 10:11; Mic 3: 11: Mal 2:7; even
nowhere eise may indeed have been a priest who traveling, II Chr 17:9). The latter two respon-
served David especially and personally as sibilities made it appropriate for the priests to
Abiathar had done (cf. I Sam 30:7). serve also asjudges (Deut 17:9). Soon after their
Finally, Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5) is also not men- appointment, Aaron's two older sons were slain
tioned elsewhere. He may have been a priest by God for violating their office (Lev 10:2). But
who served Solomon personally. Or the word descent from Eleazar and Ithamar, who re-
"priest" here could even refer to Nathan, mained, continued to be the basis upon which

431
960 tt;ii (koba')

Israel henceforth distinguished their divinely i:,;, (koal)). See no. 973a.
authorized priests (Ezr 2:62; I Chr 24). :i:,~ (k"wiyd). See no. 961b.
The OT priests were types of Christ (Heb 8: 1), ::i;,i, (kokäb ). See no. 942a.
who accomplished the ultimate propitiation for
the sins of the people (2: 17). Prophecy suggests a 962 ,~, (kul) contain, hold, abide, bear, nourish,
future reappearance of Levites (Jer 33: 18; Zech provide. (Asv, Rsv similar, except that Rsv
12:13; Ezk 4l:46ff); but the NT church exhibits a translates "endure" instead of "abide" or
universal priesthood of believers (1 Pet 2:5; Rev "bear. ")
5: IO; Jer 31:34).
Bibliography: Al, pp. 345-405. Payne, J. B., The primary meaning of this root is "to cc:•••n
Theology of the O/der Testament, Zondervan, as does a vessel." lt occurs thirty-eight time ..-.
1971, pp. 372--80.Richardson, TWB, pp. 210-11. The Qal stem occurs but once, with the remain-
TDNT, III, pp. 260-63. der in either the Hiphil or the intensive. In six
J.B.P. cases, it is not possible to distinguish the mean-
ings of the Pilpel from the Hiphil. The other nine-
teen occurrences, however, show the par-
960 13;;, (koba') helmet. (Asv and Rsv simi-
ticularized meaning "to provide with food." Evi-
lar.)
dently this reflects the causative function of the
Although T. H. Gaster has suggested that this Pilpel stem: "to cause to contain, supply."
is a loan word from Hittite (kupahi), (JAOS, 57, Examples of the primary meaning are found in
73ff., followed by KB2); more recently J. L. passages such as I Kgs 7:26, 38; 8:64; II Chr 4:5;
Palache (Semantic Notes on the Hebrew Lexi- 7:7 where the sizes of the molten sea and the
con, pp. 17, 40) has claimed that it is part of a bronze lavers in Solomon's temple are described
bi-consonantal family, kb, qb, gb which denotes in terms of the number of baths of water they
an upward or downward convexity. If this claim contain.
were correct it would help to explain the alternate Jeremiah then uses the word in a figurative
spelling ofthis word: qoba' (q.v.) which appears sense when h~ expresses the impossibility of con-
in I Sam 17:38 (note koba' in 17:5) and Ezk 23:24 taining within himself the Lord's fury which is
(koba' in 27:IO and 38:5; cf. also Ugaritic gb't like a burning fire (Jer 6: 11; 20:9). In a somewhat
"goblets. ") similar vein. Solomon remarks in his prayer at
koba' appears six times in the Old Testament the dedication of the temple that it is silly to think
(qoba' twice); two ofthese are in historical litera- of that house as containing God since the heaven
ture, the others in the prophets. In II Chr 26: 14 ofheavens cannot contain him (1 Kgs 8:27; II Chr
Uzziah is said to have gathered a considerable 2:6 [H 5]; 6:18).
armory, including helmets, while I Sam 17:5, in As a Iogical extension of the above meanings
describing Goliath' s armor, mentions his bronze are those which express the possibility or impos-
helmet. sibility of enduring (or containing) something
In the prophets, shields and helmets are men- (Prov 18:14; Joel 2:11; Arnos 7:10; Mal 3:2). Two
tioned with respect to the great armies (often of of these (Joel and Mal) express the impossibility
mercenaries, Ezk 27: 10) which surged across the of enduring God's wrath when he comes and are
near east in the Iron Age. The prophets en- reminiscent of Rev (6: 15, 16, etc.).
visioned such armies on the move again in the J.N.O.
end times (Ezk 38:5). Against the mighty of the
earth, and eaten away by sin inside, it would 963 ci::, (kwm). Assumed root of the following.
seem that God's people would be helpless. Yet
963a t:i,;•.;, (kima) Pleiades. (Asv and
God himself has entered the battle against op-
Rsv similar.)
pression and sin and stands forth victorious (lsa
59:17). Group of seven stars in the constellation
J.N.0. Taurus. The word appears in Arnos 5:8 and Job
9:9 and 38:31. In each of these places it is used in
961 *:i,;1 (käwa) burn, scorch, brand. Occurs connection with the creative power of God. In
only in the Niphal (lsa 43:2; Prov 6:28). view of his capacity to put the stars in place, both
ungodly living (Arnos), and the questioning of
Derivatives God's wisdom (Job) are inappropriate. (See also
961a •.;, (ki) burning, branding. Occurs mazzal(r)ot, 'äyish, and k''sil, which are used in
only in Isa 3:24. the same contexts to refer to stars or constella-
961b :i:,~ (k"wiya) burning, branding tions).
(Ex 21:25). J.N.O.
961c :iJ:;,~(mikwa) burned spot; burn
scar (Lev 13:24, 25, 28). ,,;~, (kumaz). See no. 990a.

432
 964 *ni (kun)

964 *ni (kün) established, prepared, made ready, references indicate it is God who will war on the
f,xed, certain, right. (ASV,RSVsimilar.) ungodly and they should prepare themselves as
best they can (cf. Job 15:23; Jer 46:14; 51:12,
Derivatives etc.). On the other hand, God has made prepa-
964a t,;;, (ken) /, right, true. rations as weil. These would include his creative
964b t,;;, (ken) II, thus, so. functions (Ps 147:8; Job 28:27; Prov 8:27) as weil
964c t,i::ir; (mäkon) place. as his judicial ones (Ps 7:11, 13 [H 12,14]; 9:7
964d t:iJi::i~ (m' kona) base. [H 8]; Prov 19:29; Zeph 1:7).
964e t:,~~::ii;, (tekuna) fashion. The meaning of a group of references which
964f tlj~ (kawwän) cake. speak of persons "preparing" their hearts to seek
the Lord (cf. I Chr 29:18; II Chr 12:14, etc.) is
This root occurs with its derivatives more than somewhat unclear. lt seems likely that the Rsv
288 times. Two hundred seventeen of these oc- rendering "set," in keeping with the several
currences are verbal, appearing in all stems but passages in Ps (cf. 57:7 [H 8) "my heart is fixed
the Qal. The Niphal and the Hiphil occur most [Rsv "steadfast"], 0 God") is more appropriate.
often. The root meaning is to bring something 3) As with the previous connotation, there is
into being with the consequence that its existence some ambiguity at the border between "prepare"
is a certainty. This latter is not so much in view in and "establish." This is especially true in God's
the cognate languages which seem to stress exis- creative acts. While Prov 8:27 says that God
tence, or the bringing into existence, of a thing. "prepared" the heavens, Prov 3:19 has him
With this meaning the root appears in Ugariti.c, "establishing" the heavens. Here come the spe-
Akkadian, and Arabic. cial overtones of certitude. They are implicit in
Five somewhat different connotations can be the very character of the biblical deity, a God
discovered in the usages of this root, all having who does not change (Ps 119:90). Because God
basic theological significance. These connota- has brought heaven and earth into existence they
tions move from provision through preparation are fixed forever (Jer 33:2). So the use of "estab-
and establishment to fixity and rightness. lish" is especially appropriate. The references
!) As noted above, the word as used in He- where this translation is appropriate may be di-
brew, rarely means simply to bring into being. So vided into three groups. All three of these have
rare is it, in fact, that BDB and KB suggest that royal overtones. God, as the divine king has es-
the root meaning is "tobe firm" (KB also adding tablished the heavens as his throne (Ps 103:19)
"straight"). However, evidence of the original and the earth as his dominion (1 Chr 16:30; Ps
etymology may be found in those occurrences 93: 1; lsa 45: 18). As the divine king, his work is
where something is said simply to have been accomplished through wisdom and understanding
formed or fashioned (brought into existence) (Jud (Prov 3: 19; Jer 10:12; 51: 15). This in itself leads to
12:6; Job 31: 15; Ps 119:73; Ezk 16:7). In none of the fixity of what he has done.
these is the idea of fixity or firmness in view, but 4) lt is the divine king who then guarantees or
rather of basic formation. Particularly in the sec- refuses to guarantee human kingship. Some
ond and third of these, God's role in forming the twenty-five times the word is used with reference
human body is significant. to the establishment of a dynasty. lt is made plain
Probably this same basic idea is involved that, in and of itself, no human line can be estab-
where the word is translated "to provide for" (cf. lished. Only by relation to the One in whom
II Chr 1:4; Job 38:41; Ps 65:9 [H 10]; 78:20; Prov kingship abides is this possible (Ps 89:37 [H 38],
6:8). Especially in question here is God's ability etc.). The culmination of this thought is found in
to provide food for his people and creation. At Isa 9:6 [H 7) where the kingdom ofthe Messiah is
numerous points it is difficult to know whether established by God.
certain usages should be translated "provide" or On a somewhat more human level, the book of
"prepare." lt seems likely that the several refer- Prov shows that establishment, on the throne or
ences in Chr to David's "preparing" materials elsewhere, is not possible apart from adherence
for the temple could just as appropriately be to the divine standards of righteousness (16: 12,
understood as referring to his "providing" such etc.).
materials. But the great test ofGod's kingship is the prob-
2) At any rate, however, it is clear that a very lern of sin. This problem is dealt with through the
significant group of occurrences must be trans- establishment of a people (Deut 32:6). The par-
lated with "prepare." In view of something in the ticular creation language of this verse is signifi-
future, certain things are set in order. Meal prep- cant. Redemption is a part of the total work of
aration (Gen 43: 16; Josh 1:II; Neh 8: 10) and mili- creation. Furthermore, God overcomes sin by es-
tary preparation (Josh 8:4; Ezk 7: 14; 38:7; Arnos tablishing his sanctuary in the midst of his people
4: 12) are two circumstances in which the word is (Ex 15: 17; Isa 2:2).
used in this way. In the latter case many of the 5) The sense of well-being which results from

433
965 ci:., (kos)
being under God's hand is best expressed in the folly which they have chosen. The result is as
final connotation. If our heart is fixed on God (Ps drunkenness; staggering (Isa 51:22) and shame
112:7, etc.) then we may be sure that he will es- (Hab 2:16). lt is the cup of the Lord's fury (Jer
tablish (also direct, order) our ways (Ps 37:23; 25: 15). lt was this cup which stood before
90:17; Prov 16:9). Apart from this kind of confi- Christ's eyes in Gethsemane (Mt 26:39).
dence, a person · s ways are temporary and shaky. Because of God's forgiveness through Christ
But with it there comes a certainty, a rightness the cup offered to us may be one filled with bless-
(Jer 23: 10, etc.), which imparts some of the glory ing and not curse (Ps 16:5; Ps 23:5). Human be-
of the infinite to the finite. ings must choose the cup they will drink: fury or
salvation (Ps 116:13).
ken /. Right, true. An adjective, occurring at J.N.O.
least twelve times, perhaps more often since its
usage is often difficult to distinguish from the fol-
lowing. Used in modern Hebrew for "yes." 966 cii (kös} II, a kind of owl (Lev 11:17:
Deut 14:16; Ps 102:7).
ken II. Thus, so. A widely used adverb ex-
pressing the realization of something previously 967 ,,, (kwr) I. Assumed root of the following.
spoken. Often coupled with prepositions such as
'al)are, 'ad, ·at and /". .967a ,, (kär) basket-saddle, only in Gen
T31:34, b'kar-haggämäl "in the
mäkön. Place. Occurs seventeen times, all but camel-basket," a sort of palankeen
one (Ps 104:5) referring to God's dwelling place, bound on the saddle itself.
either in heaven or the temple. 967b t,~,
(kür) furnace.
meköna. Base. Occurs almost entirely in I Kgs 967c ti•~ (kir) range (for cooking).
7, and always with reference to the ornate bases 967d tii~~ (kiyör) laver, pan.
designed to support the ten brass lavers in the kür. Furnace. (Asv and RSVsimilar.) A smelt-
Solomonic temple. er's furnace for the refining of metal. lt is only
t•k(mä. Fashion, store, seat. Occurs three used figuratively in the Old Testament, appearing
times, each translated differently: the "fashion" nine times. Three times it is used of Egypt, from
of the temple (Ezk 43: 11); the "store" of Nine- which Israel was delivered (Deut 4:20; I Kgs
veh's pleasant furniture (Nah 2:9 [H 10]); the 8:51; Jer 11:4). In these references there seems to
"seat" of God (Job 23:3). be no stress upon refinement, but merely on the
heat symbolizing aftliction. On the other hand,
kawwän. Cakes. Occurs twice, both referring the furnace of the exile is definitely depicted as
to an element used in the worship of the Queen of one of refinement (Ezk 22: 18, 20, 22) from which
Heaven (Jer 7:18; 44:19). Israel will once more emerge as God's chosen
Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 812-16. (lsa 48: 10).
J.N.O.
kir. Range (for pots). (ASV similar; RSV
"stove.") Evidently a platform which held pots
965 cii (kbs) I, cup. (Asv and Rsv similar.) over the cooking fire. Occurs in Lev 11:35 where
it is said to be unclean if an unclean animal dies
Of the four words usually translated "cup"
(gäbia', 'aggän, säp), kbs is the most common, on it.
occurring thirty-three times. gäbia' occurs next kiyör. Laver, pan, hearth, scaffold. (Asv and
most frequently with thirteen occurrences. kbs Rsv similar.) Apparently a pan-like construction,
seems to denote a drinking goblet, whereas having low sides (thus II Chr 6: 13, Solomon
gäbia' may (Jer 35:5) or may not (Ex 25:31) be stood on a bronze scaffold [Rsv "platform"I).
associated with drinking. An 'aggän is more of a Apart from the preceding, all other references
bowl, a )arger vessel; a säp also is !arger, like a have to do with a pan as such. The word appears
bowl, but it was used for drinking (Zech 12:2). twenty-three times, of which twenty have to do
Both Ugaritic and Arabic have cognate nouns for with the laver of the tabernacle or those of the
drinking cup from this root. temple. Whereas that in the tabemacle was for
Of the thirty-one occurrences, about ten speak the washing of the priests' hands and feet (Ex
of literal cups. Of these, five occur in Gen 40 30: 18), the ten lavers in the temple were for the
where Joseph interprets the dream of Pharaoh's washing of sacrifices (II Chr 4:6). The molten sea
cupbearer. lt is interesting to note that Joseph's (II Chr 4:2, 6) filled the function of the earlier
cup discussed in Gen 44 is gäbia'. laver. [lt is probable that the great sea also served
Sixteen of the figurative usages present the cup as a reservoir from which the basins were filled.
in a negative light. Primarily these relate to God's The basins were on wheeled stands so they could
judgment upon sinful nations (Jer 25:15). They be moved to the sea for filling then taken to vari-
now drink to the bitter dregs (lsa 51: 17, 22) the ous places for use. The priests doubtless did not

434
 970 ~!f (käzab)

wash in the sea which was a high structure. They small expanse ofwater. Furthermore the fact that
washed their hands and feet with the water of the the Ethiopian language is Semitic is a further in-
sea (cf. Ex 30:18-21). R.L.H.] dication of the connection. A number of other
J.N.O. possible solutions make it unnecessary to identify
Zipporah and the Cushite woman.
968 ,,, (kur) II, bore, dig, hew (meaning Although a number of suggestions as to the lo-
dubious). Occurs only in Ps 22:16 [H 17], c'ation of Cush in Gen 2: 13 have been put for-
and there with a medial aleph, kä'aru in ward, none has yet proven conclusive. The view
some few Mss. The LXX also has a verb of Speiser may be mentioned, however, that kush
orusso dig, for the MT ka'ari. The verb in sometimes equals Akkadian kashshu Cassites,
Ps 22:10 [H 17) may be an hapax kä'ar. The and refers to the mountain country east of
meaning "dig. wound. pierce"' would de- Mesopotamia. In this view, the river Gihon of
rive from the context and LXX. Gen 2: 13 ran into the Tigris-Euphrates valley
from the east (Speiser, E. A., "The Rivers of
Derivatives
Paradise" in Oriental and Bihlical Studies, Univ.
968a :i,,~ (m'körii), :i,1,~ (m"kurii) of Penna., 1967, 23-30. Also Harris, R. L., "The
Mist, The Canopy, and the Rivers of Eden,"
Torigin (place of diggi~g out?) (e.g.
Ezk 29:14; 21:35). JETS 11: 177-79).
In several cases, especially in the prophets,
968b :i,,~ (m'kerii) the name of a weapon Ethiopia is used in parallel construction as a
synonym of Egypt (lsa 20:3-5; Ezk 30:4; Nah
'(Gen 49:5).
3:9). This probably represents the dominance of
R.L.H.
Ethiopia (or, more precisely, Nubia) over Egypt
between 750 and 663 B.c. Terhakah was a notable
969 ~1ll (küsh) Ethiopia, Cush, Ethiopians. Nubian pharaoh who tried, unsuccessfully, to
(ASV'RSVsimilar.) block Sennacherib's westward expansion (II Kgs
Derivative 19:9; Isa 37:9). After 663 B.c. Egypt was indepen-
969a t,~,ll (kushi) Ethiopian.
dent of Nubia (Jer 46:9; Ezk 25:4, 5, 9). The
Ethiopian army ofZerah referred to in II Chr 14:9
kush refers to the region immediately south [H 8) ff. is somewhat puzzling in that no extra-
and east of Egypt, including modern Nubia, the Biblical evidence as yet supports the idea of this
Sudan, and the Ethiopia of classical writers (not !arge an Ethiopian force (one million) operating
modern Abyssinia). lt would begin at about the that far north in the time of Asa (c. 900 B.c.).
First cataract, where the Aswan dam now stands.
kushi. Ethiopian, Ethiopians, Cushi. Usually a
A satellite, and sometimes ruler, of Egypt. The
gentilic of the above (Cushite), it also appears
name derives from Egyptian ksh. Along with its
three times as a Hebrew proper name: 1) II Sam
gentilic (see below) it appears fifty-seven times in
18:21-32, a soldier appointed to run to David with
the Old Testament.
news of Absalom ·s death. Rsv translates "Cush-
As indicated in the table of nations (Gen 10:6-
ite." His apparent ignorance of the nuances of
8), Cush was associated with the southemmost
the situation may indicate that he was a foreigner
parts of the known world, falling in Egypt's
and that RSV is correct; 2) Jer 36: 14 great
sphere of influence. Other indications of this
grandfather of Jehudi, a Judean prince; 3) Zeph
view of Cush's extremity are found in the state-
1: 1, father of Zephaniah.
ment of extent of the Persian empire (from lndia
J.N.O.
to Ethiopia, Est 1: 1; 8:9) and in the promise that
exiles would return from beyond Cush (lsa 11:1;
Zeph 3:10; cf. Isa 18:1). To the lsraelites who in
:i-,~;:,
(köshärii ). See no. 1052a.
pride saw themselves located at the center of the
970 :l!~ (käzab) lie, be found a liar, be in vain,
world and also at the center of God's favor, the
Jail. (ASV'RSVsimilar.)
Lord (Arnos 9:7) said that the distant Ethiopians
were just as much his children. Derivatives
The conjunction of Cush with Sheba (in south-
970a t:lj;i ( käzäb) lie.
em Arabia, Isa 43:3; 45:14, etc.), statements of
970b :l!;i~ ('akz.äb) lie, a noun occur-
her mercantile wealth (Job 28:19; Isa 45:14) and
ring twice (Jer 15:18; Mic 1:14).
the fact that Moses' wife is called a Cushite (N um
12:1; but cf. Ex 2:21 where Zipporah is clearly This root and its derivatives occur forty-nine
Midianite) have all combined to lead some stu- times in the Old Testament. The basic meaning is
dents to believe that there was a Cush in Arabia. to speak that which is untrue and therefore false
However, a glance at a map will show that south- to reality. lt is often used in connection with
ern Arabia is only separated from Ethiopia by a shäw' "vanity, emptiness." In distinction from

435
971 iT:) (kzr)

words translated "deceive, lie," etc., käzab 'akzäri. Cruel. (Asv and RSVsimilar.) Occurs
stresses the actual act of lying. The cognate is eight times in Prov, lsa, and Jer. Twice in Jer
found in Aramaic, Arabic, and Akkadian. (6:23; 50:42) cruelty is defined as being merciless
Fundamental to the concepts of truth and and in Prov 12:10 even the mercies of the wicked
falsehood in the Old Testament is the understand- are said tobe cruel. The Day of the Lord, for the
ing that the God of Israel does not lie (N um 23: 19; wicked, will be one of cruelty (lsa 13:9).
Ps 89:35 [H 36)). He is faithful to all that he has
'akz"riyut. Cruel. Occurs in Prov 27:4 where
said and expects his followers to do the same.
This is why false witness was such a serious of- wrath is said to be cruel.
J.N.O.
fense (Prov 6:19; 19:5, etc.). Not only was aper-
son denying the truth, but he was calling the God
of Truth tobe a witness to his crime. 971.1 i:i·:, (köa/J) a small reptile, lizard(?) Oc-
An equally serious offense was false prophecy curs only in Lev 11:30.
in God's name (Ezk 13:6-9, 19; Mic 2: II, etc.).
Such prophecy was vanity because it was empty 972 *in:, (kähad) kick, conceal, cut off, cut
of any reality. d~wn, m~ke desolate. (ASVand Rsv similar.)
Because of man's alienation from God the This verb, which appears in the Nilhal, Pie!,
Truth, lying has become endemic to us (Ps 4:2 and Hiphil, occurs thirty-two imes in the Old Tes-
[H 3]). Having lied to ourselves about the true tament. lt means to keep something back, to re-
nature of our relation to God and thus lost the fuse to make it known. Since something which is
security of trusting him, we are forced into unknown has no independent existence, the verb
greater lies about life (lsa 57: 11). The essence of also denotes non-existence or effacement. There
wickedness then is a denial of faithfulness and are no known cognates in the other Semitic lan-
commitment, either to people or to facts (Ps 62:4 guages.
(H 51). Indeed, it becomes a commitment to lies In distinction from the other Hebrew words
(lsa 28: 17). By contrast, a faithful person will not rendered "hide" or "conceal" (/Jiibä', (äman,
lie (Prov 14:5). siitar, and 'ii/am, which see), kii}Jad has to do
But trust in anything or anyone other than God with refusing to declare something. When some-
is vain-a lie (Job 41:9 [H I]; Prov 30:6). Indeed one was asked to report something, he was
käzäb "a lie" is probably used in Isa as a de- charged "not to hide anything" (Gen 47: 18; Josh
rogatory substitute for "idol" (lsa 28:15, 17, cf. 7:19; I Sam 3:17; II Sam 14:18, etc.). Similarly, if
also Am 2:4; Ps 40:4 [H 51). Lies can only de- a person was possessed of some special knowl-
ceive and fail one (Prov 23:3). lt is this which God edge, he ought not to keep it to himself (Job
was trying to demonstrate to Israel through the 15:18). Particularly was this so about the faithful
prophets. Israel's hope that she could get her character of God (Job 6:10; 27:11; Ps 40:10
temporal needs supplied without commitment to [H 11); 78:4).
God was a lie (Arnos 2:4) and the longer she The Hebrews were convinced that in the last
followed that road the more barren she became analysis nothing could be hidden, or kept from
(Hos 12:2). Her only hope was to accept God's God's knowledge: neither one's nature (Ps
redemption and return to reality (lsa 28:17; Hos 139:15), nor one's character (Ps 69:5 [H 6]; Hos
7: 13). Then she would discover freedom (Zeph 5:3).
3: 13) and fruitfulness (lsa 58: 11) in life as it was The word in the sense of cutting off or an-
meant to be (Ps 40:4 [H 5); 25: 10--13). nihilating is used by lsrael's enemies (Ps 83:4
käzäb. Lie, deceitful, false, lying, Leasing. (ASV [H 51) by the Lord against those enemies (Ex
and RSVsimilar, but use one of the other words 9:15; Ex 23:23; II Chr 32:21; Zech 11:8) and
instead of "leasing. ") A noun occurring thirty- against sinful Israel (1 Kgs 13:34; Zech 11:9).
one times, all but two (Jud 16:10, 13) in Ps, Prov, J.N.O.
and the prophets.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 817-22. 973 nn:, (k/J/J). Assumed root of the following.
J.N.0. 973a ti:ti!l (koa/J) strength, power, ability,
might, force, substance. (Asv and
Rsv similar.)
971 '1T!l (kzr). Assumed root of the following.
Capacity to act, understood both in physical
971a t'1T!lM ( 'akzär) cruel, fierce.
and figurative terms. The word, a noun, appears
971b r,iill (' akzäri) cruel.
126 times in the OT. lt is relatively evenly distrib-
971c tl'W".i!i'!.4 ( 'akz' riyut) cruel.
uted in its occurrences, the most in any one book
'akzär. Cruel, fierce. (Asv and Rsv similar.) being twenty in Job. lt also occurs twelve times
Occurs four times, all in poetic passages. Con- in Isa and Dan, and eleven times in Ps. The only
notes insensitivity and lack of compassion. cognate language in which this root appears is

436
 976 T;,(ki)

Arabic where it has the verbal idea "to batter that of dealing falsely with someone to that per-
down." son' s detriment. In such cases it is associated
In a static sense koa}J suggests the capacity to with treachery and robbery. In Lev 6:2 [H 5:21]
endure, as of a stone (Job 6: 12), but more com- deceiving a person in a matter of deposit or secu-
monly it expresses potency, capacity to produce. rity is a trespass, as is lying about something one
This may be expressed in sexual terms (Job has found (6:3 [H 5:22]). The prophets (especially
40: 16; Gen 49:3), or it may express the product of Hos [4:2; 7:3; 10:13; 12:IJ) forecast a grim har-
the earth's potency (Gen 4:12; Job 31:39; etc.), vest from the climate of deception and unfaith-
but usually physical strength is intended, as in the fulness in which Judah and Israel lived.
references to Samson (Jud 16:5; etc.). By exten- lt may be the idea of deception which lies be-
sion the word comes to connote general ability to hind those usages which KJVtranslates "submit"
cope with situations (Deut 8:17-18; I Chr 29:14; and RSV"cringe" (Deut 33:29; II Sam 22:45= Ps
Ezr 10:13; etc.). 18:44 [H 5]; 66:3; 81:15 [H 16]). Both BDB and
When applied to God, this term suggests that KB suggest that feigned obedience or fawning are
he is indeed omnipotent. His power is seen in involved here. The remainder of the occurrences
creation (Jer 10:12; 32:17; etc.), in the Exodus are translated by "deny." Here the idea is to fly in
events (Ex 9: 16; 15:6; etc.), in his capacity to the face of the facts (Gen 18:15;Job 8:18). Five of
subdue his enemies (Job 36: 19) and deliver his these references have to do with denying God. To
people (lsa 63: 1). As compared to his power, deny God is to live a lie. One may deny him by
human strength is nothing (II Chr 20:6; Job 37:23; forgetting what he has done (Josh 24:27), by
Ps 33:16; Arnos 2:14; etc.). The folly of relying despairing of his goodness, or forgetting one's
upon human strength alone is seen both in Job own need and living without dependence on him
and in the story of Samson. He is strongest who (Prov 30:9). One may deny him without ever in-
has discovered the finite limitations of his own tending to do so by leading a crooked and corrupt
capacities in the light of the limitless resources of life (Job 31:28; lsa 59:13). And if one doubts his
God through his Spirit (Job 36:22; Isa 40:31; Mic ultimate justice as applied to oneself, God is denied
3:8; Zech 4:6). (Jer 5:12).
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 823-24.
ka!tash. Leanness, lies, lying. (Asv and RSV
J.N.0.
similar.) A noun translated "lies" or "lying" five
times, "leanness" once.
974 ',J:1; (kii}Jal) paint (eyes). Occurs only in In four cases the idea of failing is involved. In
Ezk 23:40. Ps 109:24 the Psalmist complains that his body
"fails from fatness" (Rsv has "become gaunt").
975 ~J:if (kii}Jash) fail, be found liars, belie, In Job 16:8, Job sees his leanness as a sign of
deceive, deny, dissemble, deal falsely, God's judgment, and in Hab 3: 17 the writer says
lie. (Asv, Rsv similar, except that RSVhas he will trust God even if the olive crop fails (cf.
"come fawning," or "come cringing" in also Hos 4:2). One may not depend on either
place of "submit to. ") body or crops in place of God.
Derivatives ke!tash. Lying. Occurs once in lsa 30:9 where
975a i'WJ:l;i (ka}Jash) leanness. Israel, because of her refusal to trust God, is said
tobe a "rebellious people, lying (or false) sons."
975b WJ:1;, (ke}Jash) lying.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 825-27.
The word kii~ash which, with its derivatives, J.N.O.
occurs twenty-nine times in the Old Testament,
has an unusually )arge range of meanings. This 976 •;, (kf) as though, as, because that, but, cer-
might suggest two, or even three separate, but tainly, except, for, surely, since, that, then,
homophonous roots. However both KB and BDB
when, etc. (Asv and RSVsi~ilar.)
see only one root involved. BDB suggests the
unifying idea tobe "to disappoint" and thus, "to A particle expressing a temporal, causal, or ob-
deceive, fail, grow Jean." KB has no overarching jective relationship among clauses expressed or
meaning to suggest. The Hebrew usage seems to unexpressed. lt is perhaps related to the insepa-
stress the relational aspect of the word, em- rable preposition k' "like, as." The same parti-
phasizing the undependable nature of a person or cle used in similar ways is found in Ugaritic (k),
thing in a given relationship. The root is not at- Phoenician, Moabite, Akkadian (kl), and Arabic.
tested in any other Semitic language unless Al- lt occurs about 4250 times in the Old Testament.
bright' s suggestion (BASOR 83:40, n. 7) is cor- In Hebrew ki is used in four ways: to introduce
rect that Ugaritic tklJ (Gordon UT "shine") is a an objective clause especially after verbs of see-
metathesized form of k}Jsh. ing, saying, etc. and translated "that"; to intro-
In thirteen other places the prominent idea is duce a temporal clause and translated "when"

437
977 ,,:, (kyd)

(some of these are almost conditional clauses, 978.1 riic';,•:;,(kilappot) axe.

thus making "if' appropriate); to introduce a
causal clause, "because, for, since"; and with 979 ci•:;, (kfs) bag, purse (e.g. Deut 25: 13; Mic
'im to express the reason why some case might 6: 11).
not occur · ·except, but rat her.·· In all four usages
ki introduces a given which is the result of some
other fact or action or will influence some other ,,:;, (kir). See no. 967c.
fact or action. Some would add an asseverative ,i~•:;, (kishor). See no. 1052c.
usage giving emphasis to what follows. :i;,;, (käka). See no. 956.
Examples are as follows: (objective) "believe ,::i (ko/). See no. 985a.
that the Lord ... has appeared to you" (Ex 4:5);
(temporal) "when you buy a Hebrew ser- 980 M7;, (kälä') withhold, shut up, keep back,
vant ... " (Ex 21:2); (causal) "The earth is the refrain,forbid. (Asv, RSVsimilar.)
Lord's ... for he has founded it ... " (Ps 24: 1, 2);
(with 'fm) "I will not let you go, except you bless Derivatives
me" (Gen 32:27). 980a tM'?;;,,(kele') imprisonment.
J.N.O. 980b Mi,: (klw') Kethib, M'?:P (k'/i)
Qere, imprisonment (Jer 37:4;
•:;, (ki). See no. %Ja. 52:31). See kele'.
980c :i,:~ (mik/a) enclosure, fold.
977 ,,, (kyd). Assumed root of the following. 980d C;~~:;,(ki/'ayim) twokinds.
977a ,,:;, (kid) destruction. Derivation The basic meaning of this root is to restrict the
and meaning uncertain. Used only in flow or movement of a thing or person. The root
Job 21:20. appears in Ugaritic, Akkadian, Aramaic, and
977b 1ii•:;, (kfdon) dart, javelin (e.g. Ethiopic with similar meanings. In Arabic it
Josh 8: 18; Jer 50:42). means "to protect." lt is somewhat similar to
käla (q. v.) but distinct in meaning and apparently
,;,,:;, (kidod). See no. 953b. unrelated:
1ii•:;, (kidon). See no. 977b. käla' seems to indicate the interruption ofwhat
,;,,:;, (kidor). See no. 954a. is in progress or would naturally be in progress.
Thus, the windows of heaven were stopped up
978 1,,:;, (kfyun) kiyyun. (Asv similar, Rsv after pouring out the Flood (Gen 8:2). Similarly,
"kaiwan. ") the calves of the cattle pulling the cart with the
This word occurs once in the Old Testament, in ark were shut up from following them (1 Sam
Arnos 5:26, along with sikkut (q.v.). lt is evi- 6: 10). The only thing which can prevent the great
dently an Assyrian loan word, being the name of natural processes is disobedience (Hag 1:10).
one of the Mesopotamian star gods. skt and kyn Given the fallen nature of humanity, such dis-
both seem to denote the star god Saturn in the obedience itself must be restrained (1 Sam 25:33;
mythic literature of that region. Ps 119:101).
Both sikkut and kiyyun have apparently been The speaking of truth and praise to God ought
revocalized with the vowels from shiqqu~ not tobe stopped (Num 11:28, Ps 40:9 [H 10)). If
"abomination." This was one of several means they are not, then neither will God's mercies be
by which Biblical writers expressed their con- stopped (Ps 40: 11 [H 12)). If such intercourse
tempt for paganism (replacing Baal in names with with men and God is stopped, a nearly intolerable
boshet "shame" [II Sam 9:6), calling Bethel pressure will build up (Ps 88:8 [H 91).
"house of God," Bethaven "house of iniquity," kele'. lmprisonment. Always used in construct
after the golden calves had been established there with another word, chiefly bayit "house," in
[Hos 5:8], speaking of the "dung" of the pagans which case the construct is translated "prison"
instead of the "idols" of the pagans [Ezk 20:7, (1 Kgs 22:27, etc.). lt is one of several words
etc., gillulim, q.v.)), etc. translated by "prison" (e.g. mat(ara, masgär,
As noted in the article on skt, becoming sub- 'esur [all of which see)). While there may be
ject to the Assyrians involved worship of their slight differences in the connotations of these ac-
gods. Arnos here says that such action will result cording to the different root meanings, they seem
in the destruction of Israel. to be used interchangeably.
J.N.O. lt is of interest that imprisonment is not a pen-
alty under the Mosaic code. But it was well-
,;,:;, (kiyor). See no. 967d. known in Egypt, as Joseph found out, and it was
•';,•:;, (kilay). See no. 1366b. used by the Kings of Israel.
:,~•:;, (kfma). See no. 963a. J.N.O.

438
 c•~7:;,(ki/'ayim). See no. 980d. possible the usages of the two roots in the He-
brew Bible show little connection.
981 ::,, (klb). Assumed root of the following. The processes which are brought to an end
981a t::':,, (keleb) dog. may be either positive or negative. That is, some-
981b :~'7:;,(k'"{ub) basket, cage (Jer thing may be continually added to until it is füll or
5:27; Arnos 8: 1). complete, or something may be taken away from
until there is nothing left. The English word
keleb. Dog. The thirty-two occurrences of
„ finish" coincides very nicely with käla in that it
keleb are divided among four emphases, none of
too can have either positive or negative conno-
them positive. In eleven instances outright con-
tations.
tempt is involved. To treat someone like a dog
Processes which are brought to completion in-
was to treat them as worthless (1 Sam 17:43, clude the building of the temple (II Chr 8: 16,
etc.). Furthermore dogs were to be feared be- etc.), speaking (Gen 17:22, etc.), eating (1 Kgs
cause they were rapacious (Jer 15:3). As an ex- 1:41, etc.), drinking (Gen 24:19, etc.), offering
tension of these nuances, for one's body to be (1 Sam 13:10, etc.), harvesting (Ruth 2:21, etc.)
eaten by dogs was the ultimate in tragic ends to a and numerous others. There seems to be an em-
life. Finally, the barking of a dog is compared to phasis upon totality in these references. lt is not
the sniping of an enemy (Ps 59:6 [H 71). that a person simply came to a certain point in the
The expression, '"the hire of a dog" (Deut process and stopped, but that he or she carried it
23: 18 [H 19]) is commonly interpreted to refer out in füll. An example is found in Ruth 3: 18
figuratively to wages from male prostitution; but where Naomi tells Ruth that Boaz will not rest
some think that klb designates a type of Canaan- "until he has finished the thing." The noun käla
ite cultic personnel, and not a dog (See J. Gray, demonstrates the same point in that it must often
The KRT Text in the Literature of Ras Shamra. be translated "füll end" to differentiale it from
Brill, 1964, p. 64).
some other end which may be merely a stopping
J.N.0. place. On the other hand, to say that käla means
"to bring to perfection·· is somewhat misleading
982 :,7:;i (kala) I, accomplish, cease, consume, in modern English idiom. "Perfect" implies
determine, end, fail, finish. "without flaw" whereas "complete" does not
Derivatives address the question of flaws.
On the negative side something which is "used
982a t:,7; (käla) Juli end. up, vanished, spent, consumed" is also finished.
982b l'T?,;(käleh) failing with desire, The first three connotations occur chiefly in the
longing. Occurs only in Deut 28:32, Qal, while the fourth occurs often in the Piel. So
w''eneka rö'ot w'kälot 'alehem one's days can be spent (Job 7:6) as can one's
"while your eyes look and fail long- strength (lsa 49:4). Grass can dry up and fail (Isa
ingly for them."
15:6; 32: IO) and, through weeping, the eyes can
982c 1i•7:;, (killäyon) failing, pining (of also (Jer 14:6; Ps 69:3 [H 4]; 119:82, etc.). The
eyes, Deut 28:65); annihilalion (lsa
spirit and the soul, because of separation from
I0:22).
God, can pine away to the point of fainting (Ps
982d t:,7.;i~(mikla) completeness, 84:2 [H 3] 119:81; 143:7). Finally, the body itself
perfection, only in II Chr 4:21 in the must be consumed (Job 33:21; Prov 5: 11).
phrase miklot zähäb "perfections of
The idea of being consumed is most commonly
gold," i.e. purest gold. applied to violent destruction, often by war (Deut
982e t:,7~1'1(tikla) perfection. 7:22; I Sam 15: 18; Jer 16:4). In the biblical con-
982f tl"l•'?.;i~(taklit) end, perfection. text such destruction is directly connected to
982g t-'?;,· (k"li) vessel, utensil. one's relation with God. Those who forsake the
The basic idea of this root is "to bring a pro- Lord will be consumed (lsa 1:28) as will the terri-
cess to completion." The root occurs in all its ble ones and the scomers (Isa 29:20), the wicked
forms 237 times. Of these 206 are verbal. As a (Ps 37:20), and all his enemies (Ps 18:37 [H 38)).
verb it occurs with an intransitive meaning in the In such destruction God's wrath is accomplished
Qal stem 64 times. Transitively it appears in the (Rsv "completed," Ezk 5: 13; 7:8, etc.). So Israel
Piel 140 times. The two remaining occurrences as was commanded to consume the Canaanites
a verb are in the Pual. The root also appears in (Deut 7:22), Amalekites (1 Sam 15:18), and Sy-
Ugaritic and Akkadian. The fact that the Akka- rians (II Kgs 13:17). As a corrective to any temp-
dian root is kälü which would reflect an original tation to say that such commands are merely
kt' and that kälü has both the meanings "cease, projections upon God of the Israelite lust for bat-
end, finish" and "delay, hold back'" has tle, are the many more numerous references to
suggested to some that käla "cease" is a deriva- God's consuming an apostate Israel (Josh 24:20;
tive of kala' "hold back" (q.v.). While this is Jer 5:3; Ezk 22:31, etc., etc.). God's holiness

439
983 r,',:, (klh)

could no more be at peace with pagan Israelites used in serving these. Nebuchadnezzar, finding
than with pagan Canaanites. no idol in the temple to take into captivity, could
However, the consuming fire ofGod's anger is only take off this equipment as symbolic of its
not the last word. The truly faithful Israelites owner (II Chr 36:7). However, God was not con-
were conscious of the fact that God would have trolled by the equipment, as Belshazzar was to
been totally justified in destroying Israel long be- discover (Dan .5:2).
fore he did, and that utterly (Ex 32: 10; 33½3; Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 3.59-62.
Num 16:21; Lam 3:22). That they were not con- THAT, I, pp. 831-32.
sumed was only because of his mercy (Lev 26:44; J.N.O.
Num 2.5:11; Ezk 20: 17). Even in the exile, when
destruction did come, a merciful God would not
983 :,',:, (klh) II. Assumedroot of the following.
make a "full end" of his own (Neh 9:31; Jcr 4:27;
983a t,~7~(kilya.) kidneys, reins. (Asv
.5:10; .5:18; 30:11, 46:28). If Boaz could not rest
similar. RSVtranslates with "heart,"
until he had finished the task of redeeming Ruth,
neither will God rest until he has accomplished "mind," or "soul" whenever KJV
and ASVuse "reins" as a figurative
his purpose ofredeeming all who will let him (Job
36: 11; Dan 12:7; Jn 19:28). tenn.)
Occurs thirty-one times in Hebrew as weil as in
kilii. Altogether, consume, consumption. This Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabic, Ethiopic, and Ugari-
noun form must be translated as an English verb tic. In all of these languages, the term refers to
in several instances in order to make the sense the twin organs located in the lower back, the
plain. lt expresses the limits of a thing or an idea. function of which is to filter impurities from the
Occurs twenty-two times. blood. With the fat they were of special signifi-
miklii. Perfect (Rsv "pure"). Occurs in II Chr cance in certain Hebrew sacrifices. When used
4:21 with reference to gold. Here the meaning figuratively, the term refers to the innermost as-
evidently is "unblemished." pects of personality.
Sixteen of the occurrences relate to sacrificial
tiklii. Perfection. Occurs once in Ps 119:% practices: twelve occurring in God's instructions
where the author makes a- pun saying that he has and four in statements of the fulfillment of the
seen the end (qe.$) of all completeness (tikla). commands. Animals given for the peace, sin, and
taklit. End, perfection, perfect. The sense here trespass offerings, as weil as those offered for
is of totality rather- than of being unblemished. A consecration of the priests, were to have the
noun occurring five times, three of which are in internal fat, the kidneys, and the caul above the
Job. liver removed and burned on the altar (Ex 29: 13,
22; Lev 3:4, 10, 1.5;4:9; 7:4; 8:16, 2.5; 9: 10, 19).
k"li. Armor, bag, carriage,furniture, instrument, No clear reason for the removal is specified in
jewels, sacks, stuf/, thing, tools, vessel, weapons. the Scripture, nor has any been forthcoming as
(Asv and RSV similar.) A noun denoting the yet from cognate studies. Suggestions have in-
equipment, containers, tools, etc., appropriate to cluded: fat was a special delicacy reserved for
a given service or occupation. KB takes k'li to God and since the kidneys are usually encased in
be from the otherwise unattested root kii/a. III, fat they belonged to him (ISBE, III, p. 1797);
"to contain." The word occurs 319 times. perhaps because of their density and color they
As is evident from the variety of words used to were associated with the blood (IDB, III, p. 9f.).
translate k '/i, the translators have used English Furthermore it might be suggested that there was
words appropriate for the situations involved. an understanding of the vital connection of the
Thus a soldier's equipment will be armor or kidneys with the purity of the blood. On the
weapons (Jud 18:16) or even baggage (1 Sam whole, the first suggestion probably has the
17:22). A musician's equipment will be an in- fewest difficulties. The idea of the special deli-
strument (1 Chr 1.5:16), whereas a builder's will cacy of the fat and kidneys is apparently born out
be a tool (1 Kgs 6:7). Finely worked items of gold by Deut 32: 14 where the choicest wheat is called
and silver are called jewels (Gen 24:.53; Num "the fat of the kidneys of wheat" (RSv"with the
31:.50-.51)or vessels (II Kgs 12:13 [H 14]), de- finest of the wheat"). (Cf. also lsa 34j;6.)
pending on the context. Twice (Job 16:13; Lam 3: 13) death and destruc-
One hundred seven of the occurrences have to tion are spoken of as arrows slashing into the
do with the equipment of the tabernacle and the kidneys. If a near eastern warrior could be fired
temple. The KJV conmonly uses "vessels" or on from the rear, he was very vulnerable. Here
"furniture" as the translation in these instances both writers are claiming that God has sur-
(as does ASV)while RSVuses "utensils." The tenn rounded them and overcome them with his
does not refer to the main items in the sanctuary superior strength.
such as altar or lampstand, but to the equipment In two other places the kidneys are used as a

440
 985 ',7~(käla/)
figure for the entire body. The psalmist (139:13) "beauty." The translation "perfect" only ap-
says that God has possessed his "body" from the pears when the root is so associated (5t. in
beginning, having clothed it in the womb. On the Ezekiel [4t. with ref. to Tyre], once in Lam 2:15
other hand, Job (19:27) testifies that when his and Ps 50:2, both of which refer to Jerusalem as
"body" is no more, he will still have eyes to see the "perfection of beauty."
God. (NEB contests this rendering, rather con-
köl. All, every, any, whole, none. A very com-
necting the phrase to the next line and reading,
mon particle, occurring about 5400 times. Of
"My 'heart' failed me when you said.")
these all but about 800 are in a genitive relation
The remaining nine references all use kidneys
with the following word, signifying thus, "the
as a symbol of the innennost being. This is prob-
whole of something." lt is commonly translated
ably so since in dismembering an animal the kid-
"all" if the following word is plural, and "every"
neys are the last organ to be reached. In this
if the word is singular and without the article. lt
usage it is frequently paralleled with heart (as it is
can also have a suffix attached to it: · 'the whole
at least once in Ugaritic). Jeremiah seems to be
of it, all of it." This particular formation may
emphasizing this innermost idea when he says
then follow a given noun, stressing the aspect of
that the religion of the wicked is superficial, on
totality (II Sam 2:9). lt can also be used in this
their lips, but far from their kidneys (12:2). The
way with the noun understood, as does Isaiah
idea that the wicked would prosper grieves the
when he expressed the corruption of the entire
heart and kidneys of the psalmist (73:21), but
people by saying, "All of it loves a bribe" (1:23;
they rejoice in the writer of Proverbs when his
cf. also 9:17 [H 16]). In some contexts it denotes
son speaks right (23: 16). Five times in Jer and Ps
"all kinds of," "of all sorts." Thus Eliezer took
the importance of inner religion is stressed when
with him "all ofthe good thing ofhis master" i.e.
it is said that God tries the heart and the kidneys
"a great variety of good things" (Gen 24:10; cf.
(Jer 11:20, etc.).
Lev 19:23).
J.N.0.
köl can also stand by itself, or absolutely, to
express "everything." The sense in which "all"
:,?~ (kalla). See no. 986a. is to be taken must be gathered from the context
Mi',:, (k'lo'). See no. 980b. (cf. Jer 9:3). When used with the article it refers
.:i~,:i,(k'lüb). See no. 981b. to somethingjust mentioned (Lev 1:9; etc.), or, in
:,7~~;,(k'lülfi). See no. 986b. a wider sense, to the whole of creation. Such
passages as Ps 103:19; 145:9 and Jer 51: 19 use
this construction when expressing the idea of
984 n':i.:i (klfJ). Assumed root of the following. God's lordship over all things.
984a M7# (kelafJ) firm or rugged
strength (Job 5:26; 30:2). kälil. Perfect, whole, wholly, all. A noun used
both adjectivally and verbally. lt occurs flfteen
times expressing totality, both of accomplish-
•'r;, (k'li), •7; (kelay). See nos. 982g, ment and of destruction.
1366b. kä/;l the substantive is used in three ways, all
:,~'7:p(kilyfi). See no. 983a. closely related and having to do with wholeness,
li•,:i (killäyon). See no. 982e. or completeness. Four occurrences relate to
',•7~(k"li/). See no. 985b. beauty, and, as noticed above, are translated
with "perfect." That which is wholly beautiful is
said to be perfectly beautiful. Israel is spoken of
985 ,i;,;(käla/) /, perfect, make perfect. (ASV,
in this sense (Ezk 16:14). Her beauty is that ofthe
Rsv similar.)
chosen bride of the Lord, but she has prostituted
Derivatives that beauty with other lovers so that the final
985a ti,·:, (kol) all. result is destruction and the mocking question
recorded in Lam 2: 15 "is this the city men call
985b t',•i;,; (kälil) perfect.
the perfection of beauty?" So also the term is
985c t',i',:;,~ (miklol) most gorgeously.
used ofTyre and her king (Ezk 27:3 and 28: 12; cf.
985d t':i7;:,i;(maklul) all sorts of things.
also verbal usages in 27:4, 11). All ofthese usages
985e t':i7;:,~(mikläl) perfection.
remind the reader that perfection of beauty apart
Except for the particle köl "all," which occurs from submission to the Lord may finally be more
upwards of 5000 times, this verb and its deriva- of a curse than a blessing.
tives occur 21 times, 8 of which are in Ezekiel. Three occurrences have to do with making an
The root meaning is "to be complete, whole." entire object of one color, namely blue. Two
The verb is perhaps denominative since it ap- times one of the high priest's garments, the rohe
pears but twice, both in Ezk 27 (v. 4, 11). Both of of the ephod, is referred to (Ex 28:31; 39:22), and
these verbal usages are associated with the third reference (Num 4:6) is to the cloth

441
986 -,-,:, (kll)

which was to cover the ark when it was being "spouse. ") Denotes the circumscribed relation-
moved. ship of a woman who is sworn to one's seif or
The remaining occurrences of kiilil (eight) refer one's son. lt may refer to a bride or to a woman
to total consumption. Of these, six refer to the long married, like Tarnar (Gen 38: 11) or Ruth
whole burnt offering, while of the remaining two, (Ruth 1:6). The root is presumed to be kl/, but
one (lsa 2: 18) speaks of God's utter destruction this is not certain. In Akkadian kallatu is a "re-
of idols, and the other (Jud 20:40), of a whole city served one" and in Ugaritic klt refers to goddess-
going up in smoke (Asv and Rsv; KJV"the flame of es (51:1.16; 4.54) or human beings (1175.2) who
the city ascended'"). are reserved to the gods. Joel 2: 16 refers to the
The usual word for the burnt offering (Lev 1) is fact that the bride was "closeted."
'6/a (q.v.). This offering was the chief sacrifice, In this sense nine of the references have to do
being offered both daily and at every great festi- with sexual irregularity involving the daughter-
val. lt dealt not so much with specific sins as it in-law or bride. Anything which breaks the sanc-
did with the general alienation of man from God tity of the created order of relationships is sternly
and the need for continual sacrificial atonement if forbidden (Lev 18:15, etc.). Though Judah and
holy God and fallen man were to live together in Tarnar out of deception on the part of both en-
fellowship. From the Gospels (Jn 1:29) to the Re- tered into an incestuous relationship, a crime
velation (21 :9, 14, 22, 27) Christ is seen tobe the worthy of death according to the Law of Moses
fülfillment of this sacrifice, in particular, and all (Lev 20:12), God's grace overruled their sin so
the sacrifices in general. that Perez, the offspring of that union, became
When kalil is joined with ·o/a (1 Sam 7:9; Ps part of lsrael's royal lineage (Gen 38).
5 I: I 9 [H 21J) it is emphasized that unlike the Seven occurrences are in Ruth where the stress
other offerings, where certain portions belonged seems to be upon the fact that the relationship
to the offerer or to the priest, the burnt offering can become something much more than simply
belonged wholly to God. At least once (Deut official as God's providence works through it
33: 10; 13: 16 [H I 71, RSV)kalil is used by itself as (e.g. 4: 15).
"whole burnt offering ... This emphasis upon to- The Song of Solomon six times in ten verses
tality seems to indicate that atonement can be (4:8-5: 1) refers to the beloved as the bride (and
achieved by God alone and that only through a sister). In the context the point seems to be that
total surrender and consumption of the sacrifice she is a lovdy enclosed garden reserved for her
as seen finally in Christ. husband alone.
The joy of the consummation of the marriage
miklöl. Most gorgeously, all sorts of ar-
agreement is dwelt on in Jer and lsa. Jeremiah
mor. There is little agreement over the correct
says three times that because of judgment such
translation of this word. The fact that it occurs
festal scenes as marriages will be stopped (7:34;
but twice (Ezk 23: 12; 38:4). does not ease the
16:9; 25: 10). But that is not the final word. The
problem. In both cases it is used in contexts de-
prophet foretells the day when such joys will be
scribing the splendid appearance of military men.
restored (33: 11).
A literal translation would seem to be · · clothed
lsaiah sees redeemed Israel as God·s chosen
fülly ... But clothed in what? Rsv has · "in füll ar-
bride, responsive to him alone, decking herself
mor" in both cases, while NEB gives "in füll
with jewels and a robe of righteousness in prepa-
dress" for 23:12 and "all fülly equipped" for
ration for his coming (49:18: 61:10). In that day,
38:4. ASVduplicates the KJV.
says lsaiah, God will delight over her as a bride-
makliil. All soits of things. Occurs once in Ezk groom over a bride (62:5). lt is evident that this
27:24 describing the wares of Tyre·s clients. Asv imagery provides the prototype for the figure of
translates "choice wares,'" RSV "choice gar- the Church as the Bride of Christ in the New
ments," NEB "gorgeous stuffs." BDB suggests Testament (Rev 2 I :2).
"thing made perfect."
k"hilä. Espousal. Occurs once in Jer 2:2 where
mikläl. Perfection.Occurs once in Ps 50:2 God remembers the love which Israel professed
"Zion, the perfection of beauty" (cf. Lam 2: 15). to him in the early days of the covenant in the
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 828-30. wilderness. lsrael's agreement to serve God only
J.N.0. is compared to a young girl's oath to know no
other man as her husband (cf. kalla "daughter-
in-law, bride").
986 ',',:, ( kl/) II. Assumed root of the following. J.N.O.
986a t:,',:, (kal/a) daughter-in-law.
986b t~~~',; (k''/üla) espousal. 987 c:7:, (ka/am) be ashamed, confounded, re-
kallä. Daughter-in-law, spouse, bride. (ASVand proached, hurt, be put to shame, be put to
Rsv similar, except that Rsv does not use confusion, blush.

442
 990 l~:, (kmz)
Derivatives "I~;, (kikkiir). See no. 1046c.
987a :,~7:, (k''/immii) confusion, dis- rm~'?;, (k' limmut). See no. 987b.
honor, reproach, shame.
987b rm~~;, (k''/immut) shame. Occurs 988 :oir;,;(kiimah) faint (Ps 62:3).
oniy in Jer 23:40.
i~;, (k"mö ). See no. 938.
kälam denotes the sense of disgrace which at-
tends public humiliation. In thirty cases the root 989 ~i~;, (k''mbsh) Chemosh. (ASV and RSV
is used in parallel with bosh ··to be ashamed" similar.)
(q. v .). Any distinction between the meanings of
the two roots is therefore small. However, when God of Moab, referred to eight times in the Old
kiilam appears by itself it does not often have the Testament and known from contemporary Assy-
idea of disgrace which comes through a failed rian inscriptions, as weil as the Moabite Mesha
trust (a prominent element in bösh). Rather it is a Inscription. [ Chemosh in the form kamfshu is
more general disgrace resulting from any kind of now reported to be attested in the Ebla tablets
humiliation. The fact that the Arabic cognate (R. Youngblood)J.
means "to wound'" suggests the idea of a Little is known about the character or worship
"wounded" pride. of Chemosh. lt is striking that the Moabite king,
kiilam seems to refer to 1) wounding of the Mesha, in his inscription on the famous Moabite
body, 2) wounding of the spirit through public stone thanking Chemosh for deliverance from Is-
humiliation, and 3) wounding of the spirit be- rael, uses language which is very reminiscent of
cause of defeat and captivity. that used in the Bible to praise Yahweh (cf. also
The first usage is supported by two references, Jud 11:24). lt is possible that Moab, long und er
both in I Sam 25 (7, 15) where Nabal"s men are the domination of Israel, had appropriated some
said not to have been "hurt" by David. of her conceptions about God or that such hon-
An example of the second kind of usage is orific expressions were common in the ancient
found in I Sam 20:34 where Saul is said to have near east.
done shame (or hurt) to David by maligning his lt is clear from the Bible that the influence of
character to Jonathan. Other examples of such the worship of Chemosh also went in the other
undeserved humiliation are: .. I hid not my face direction. Along with Ashtoreth (Astarte) of
from shame and spitting" (lsa 50:6; cf. also Num Sidon and Milcom of Ammon, Chemosh had
12:14; II Sam 10:5). Tobe charged with wrongdo- been given a worship center on the outskirts of
ing brought its own shame (Jud 18:7), whether the Jerusalem by Solomon (1 Kgs 11:7, 33). These
charge was correct or not. So Boaz told his were probably part of Solomon's system of al-
workers not to shame (or reproach) Ruth for liances with these countries. The worship centers
gleaning among them (Ruth 2:15), and Job"s remained influential for some 300 years until de-
"comforters·· feit it necessary to shame Job for filed by Josiah (II Kgs 23: 13).
mocking God (Job 11:3; 19:3). In two aspects, the separation between Yah-
There were some kinds of activity by whlch a weh and Chemosh is clear. One is the idolatry of
person ought tobe humiliated even without being Chemosh. So long as he was represented by an
reproached for them. Prostitution was one of image he was subject to this world. He could go
these and the prophets charged the Hebrew into captivity (Jer 48:7) and Yahweh could not.
people with religious prostitution. (Even the As an embodiment of this world he could only fail
Philistines were embarrassed by the Hebrews' Moab as lsrael's bulls had failed her (Jer 48:13).
actions according to Ezk 16:27.) However, the Furthermore, Yahweh, as the giver oflife, for-
people had not even the grace to blush (Jer 3:3; bad human sacrifice. lt is clear that Chemosh,
6:15; 8:12). Therefore, the prophets promised like the other ancient near eastern deities, ac-
that shame would come from another quarter: de- cepted, and may have demanded, such sacrifice.
feat and captivity. lf they would not be embarras- Milcom (or Molech) with whom Chemosh seems
sed and ashamed because of their sins, they to be identified in Jud 11:24 was clearly such a
would be so because of their helplessness (lsa blood-thirsty deity and is condemned as such by
30:3; Ezk 32:30). the writers of Scripture.
However, Israel will not finally be ashamed Bibliography. Cross, F., and Freedman, D.,
through God"s punishment, but rather through Early Hebrew Orthography, American Oriental
his goodness. According to Ezekiel (16:54, 61, Society, 1952, p. 39, n. 13.
63; 43: 10-11) it is when God, in undeserved J.N.O.
grace. restores Israel and defends her (cf. lsa
54:4) that Israel will become truly ashamed ofthe 990 T~:i (kmz). Assumed root of the following.
way she has treated him. 990a n~i:, (kumaz) tablets. (Asv "arm-
J.N.O. , Jets," marg. "necklaces"; Rsv

443
991 l~!) (kmn)
"armlets," "beads," NEB "pen- the word may be related to an Egyptian root (cf.
dants.) KB p. 442). This would be very appropriate in
lt is clear from the context in which this word
view of the interrelations between Canaanite and
Egyptian religions. The word is used in old
occurs that it is some kind of ornament (Ex 35:22;
Num 31:50). Further precision is not possible. In Aramaic but does not appear in Ugaritic which
both cases they are part of freewill offerings to uses the root khn. Albright argues that the word
God. refers to eunuch priests-which, of course, were
J.N.0. forbidden in Israel (Deut 23:1 [H 2]; Albright,
FSAC, p. 234).
991 ,~, (kmn). Assumed root of the following. J.N.0.
991a 19;,~ (mikmän) hidden stores (Dan
11:43). i•".)~; (kimrfr). See no. 994a.
l# ·(ken). See nos. 998a, 999a, 964a,b.
991b ,~; (kammön) cumin.

992 er;;, (kämas) store up (Deut 32:34). 997 *:iJ;i (känii) givejlattering titles to, surname,
be surnamed (ASVand RSVsimilar.)
993 *ir;;, (kämar) I, yearn, be kindled, be black Occurs four times, only in Pie! and Pual (Job
(Asv similar, Rsv instead of "be black" has 32:21-22; Isa 44:5; 45:4). Twice Eliphaz says he
"be hot. ") does not know how to give false titles. In Isa God
promises that in the Restoration, lsrael's title will
The root meaning is to be warm, hot. Three of
be a truth, not a misnomer.
the four occurrences (Gen 43:30; I Kgs 3:26; Hos
11:8) all of which are Niphal express the emo-
tions offilial attachments, in the latter case those :,i; (kannii). See no. 999b.
,;,~ (kinnor). See no. 1004a.
of God for his people.
J.N.0.
998 l)' (knn) I. Assumed root of the following.
994 ,~, (kmr) II. As.sumed root of the follow- 998a i1# (ken) foot, base, place, ofjice,
estate. (ASVand RSVsimilar.)
ing.
994a i•".)~; (kimrfr) darkness, gloomi- A noun from a theoretical root knn "tobe firm,
ness (Job 3:5). substantial." lt denotes the physical base or foun-
dation of something (especially the bronze laver).
995 ,~, (kmr) III. Assumed root of the follow- The remainder of the occurrences refer to a per-
ing. son' s position or office.
995a ir;;,~ (mikmär) net, snare (lsa J.N.O.
51:20).
995b ,~,r;(makmör) net, snare (Ps 999 ,,, (knn) II. Assumed root ofthe following.
141:IO, 11). 999a l# (ken), =:~ (kinnim), cp
995c ?'l'.')~;l~ (mikmeret) net, fishing (kinnäm) gnat, gnats, gnat swarm.
',iei (Hab 1:15). Meaning dubious.
995d r,,~,~
n;·,
(mikmörel)
'üsa 19:8).
net, fishing 999b :,i; (kannii) support (of tree), i.e.
root, stock (Ps 80: 16).

996 ,~·:, (kömer) priest, idolatrous priest. (ASV 1000 c;;, (kiinas) gather, collect, wrap (in a
and Rsv similar. RSV always translates cover, Hithpael).
"idolatrous priests. ")
Derivative
This word occurs three times in the Old Testa-
ment: II Kgs 23:5; Hos l0:5; Zeph 1:4. All ofthese
1000a tc;;,~ (mikniis) always plural mik-
niisayim, trousers.
refer to priests who had led Israel in idolatrous
worship. The references cover the broad spec- kiinas occurs eleven times in the 01, seven
trum of pagan influences in Hebrew religion: bull times in the Qal, three in the Piel, and once in the
worship in North Israel, Baalism in Judah and Hithpael.
fertility rites on the "high places." One usage of känas refers to David's gathering
The root meaning of the word is not known. people in order to prepare for Solomon's con-
Mowinckel, in an article which appeared in ZA W struction of the temple (1 Chr 22:2). In a similar
38:238f. suggested that it was drawn from the root vein Esther sent word to Mordecai to gather to-
kmr l "to be warm, hot." If this were so komer gether all the Jews who were in Shushan (Est
would mean "the excited one" and would refer to 4: 16). The power of God is extolled (Ps 33:7) in
the dervish aspect of pagan worship. However, gathering the waters ofthe seaas though in a heap.

444
 Nehemiah 12:44 records the appointment of men k' na'an is the name of either a person or a
to collect offerings, tithes, and portions of the territory. Most of its ninety occurrences are in
harvest for priests and Levites. Israel is warned the Pentatuech (thirty-nine in Gen). The expres-
that God intends to gather them to und ergo the fire sion "land of Canaan" occurs sixty-two times.
of his anger (Ezk 22:21). Isaiah likens Israel's Canaan, one of the sons of Harn, is first men-
untenable international position to a man whose tioned in Gen 9: 18. He is Iisted as the father of
bed covering is so narrow that he cannot wrap Sidon, Heth, and nine other peoples including
himself in it (lsa 28:20). Jebusites and Amorites (1 Chr 1: 13). The curse
upon Canaan which destined him to be a servant
miknäs. Trousers or drawers (for priests) (KJV,
to his brothers (Gen 9:25, 27) likely pointed for-
Asv, RSV render similarly, breeches). This noun
occurs only in the dual (miknäsayim). lt is found ward to the later subjugation of the inhabitants of
Canaan at the hands of the Israelites in the times
five times in Ex and Lev and once in Ezk 44: 18.
of Joshua and the Davidic monarchy. The name
Trousers were ordered by God in the interests of
ofthe land may derive from this forbear, or there
decorum, and were made of linen to absorb pers-
may be in Gen 10:15-18 a play on the word "Ca-
piration.
naan" which is identical in sound with the name
C.L.F.
of Noah's grandson. Speiser derived the word
"Canaan" from a word for purple dye found in
1001 l)J; (käna') be humbled, subdued, brought
Nuzi. (The Greek word for Phoenicia, phoinix,
down, low, under, brought into subjection.
(Asv, RSV similar.) means purple.) Later study makes this unlikely.
Maisler and Albright argued for an original mean-
Derivative ing "purple merchant." Millard, following
Landsberger, claims that derivation from a pur-
1001a M~;; (kin'ii) bundle, pack. Oc-
ple color is impossible, but is not able to offer a
curs only in Jer 10:17, "pack your
fully defensible origin. See the bibliography for
bundle (and take it) out ofthe land."
references.
This verb occurs thirty-six times. lt denotes In such expressions as "inhabitants of Ca-
bringing a proud and recalcitrant people or spirit naan" (Ex 15:15)or"kingsofCanaan" (Jud5:19)
into subjection. The only cognate is found in the population of a territory is in view. The "lan-
Arabic where the root means •· to fold (the wings of guage ofCanaan" in Isa 19:18 is the Hebrew lan-
a bird)." guage though there were also other dialects.
No thoroughgoing distinction is possible be- Canaan, as an Egyptian administrative district
tween käna' and the two other words 'änii and in the second millennium, comprised Palestine
shäpel which are most commonly translated "be and southern Syria. Biblically, Canaan consists
humble." However, slight distinctions may be of the land west of the Jordan and is distinguished
drawn: ·ana seems to stress the aspects of forcible from the area east of Jordan (Num 32:29-33;
humiliation (including rape), whereas shäpel con- 35: 14; Josh 22:32). Though its extent is variously
trasts height and lowness. käna · compares domin- described in the Bible, the land of Canaan
ion and subjection (Ps 106:42). broadly includes the area from the wilderness of
Eighteen of the occurrences refer to military Zin in the south to Rehob at Lebo-hamath in the
subjection, most ofthese being nations which bad north, a distance of approximately three hundred
oppressed Israel or at least threatened to do so. miles, yet as the excavations at Ras Shamra have
But Israel's God has made them subject to her shown, Canaanite culture actually extended
(Neh 9:24, etc.). along the Syrian coastline as far north as Hamath
Ofthe eighteen references to a spiritual submis- itself. lts western border was the Mediterranean
sion, fifteen relate the actions of a king in submit- Sea and its eastern border the Jordan river (Num
ting himself and his nation to God (1 Kgs 21:29, 13:2; 17-33; 34:2-12; cf. Gen 10:19). More nar-
etc.). The emphasis is upon a proud and indepen- rowly considered, Canaan referred to the coastal
dent spirit abasing itself. strip, especially the northern section which was
Two key references are Lev 26:41 and II Chr known also as Phoenicia (Num 13:29; Josh 5: 1).
7: 14 which indicate that so long as a person, or In Israel' s early history, the Canaanites inhabited
nation, is arrogant and self-sufficient, God can do the coastlands and plains, and the Amorites the
nothing for them. hills(Num 13:19;Josh5:I; ll:3;Jud l:27ff.).
J.N.O. Canaan was an inhabited land (Ex 16:35; cf.
Josh 5: 12). The patriarchs lived there (Gen 31: 18;
1002 w;-f (k'na'an) I, Canaan. 37: 1). The territory when referred to as the "land
of the Canaanites" is described as a "land flow-
Derivatives ing with milk and honey" (Ex 3:8; 13:5), an ex-
1002a N1m, (k'na'anf) Canaanite. pression which signifies the fertility and abun-
1002b tiit~~· (k"na'an) II, merchant. dance of the land. Located in Canaan were the

445
1003 :,,~ (knp)
cities of Hebron (Gen 23:2, 19), Shechem (Gen ites through weakness or misplaced mercy or
33:18), Luz (or Bethel, Gen 35:6), Mamre (Gen some other reason. They reaped a bitter harvest
49:30), and Shiloh (Josh 21:2). Once Canaan is in the sacrificing of their own innocent children
referred to as the "land of the Philistines" (Zeph (Ps 106:35-38). Albright says that archaeological
2:5). evidence fully supports the claim of the moral
A few Scriptures give a negative evaluation to degradation of the Canaanites before the Hebrew
Canaan. Isaac admonished Jacob not to take a conquest (FSAC, pp. 231-5, 281). The Canaan-
wife from the daughters of Canaan (Gen 28: 1, 6; ites who lived on the plain are tobe distinguished
cf. 36:15). Israel was also instructed, "You shall from the Amorites who were hill people (Num
not do what is done in the land of Canaan" (Lev 13:29; Josh 5:1). One view holds that Canaanites
18:3). A later author complained, however, that were urbanized Amorites (Kenyon).
Israel disobeyed and "sacrificed to the idols of The term k'na'ilni is generally used collec-
Canaan" (Ps 106:38). tively but may occasionally refer to an individual
The land of Canaan takes on a theological (cf. king of Arad, Num 21:1). The term can also
character not only as "the land in which they (the mean "merchant" (q. v. Canaan, II). In Zech
patriarchs) dwelt as sojourners" but as the land 14:21 ASVrenders "Canaanite" and Rsv "'trader,"
which is God's gift (Ex 6:4). Canaan is the land in a context where the ancient versions favor the
which the Lord gives to Israel (Num 13:2). God meaning "trader" since the sanctity ofbowls and
said to Abraham, ··1 will give to you and to your pots in the coming age will make exchange at the
descendents after you ... all the land of Canaan temple unnecessary.
for an everlasting possession" (Gen 17:8). This
k•na'an II. Trailer, merchant. (Asv renders
covenant with Abraham is referred to in Ex
"traffic"; Rsv "trading," "trade.") Since the
5:22~:8, a significant passage which summarizes
Canaanites were known for their trading exper-
God's intentions with Israel in response to
Moses' inquiry. lt is part ofGod's intention that tise, it is not always clear whether the term refers
to a race or to the trading profession (cf. various
Israel dwell in Canaan, the place of abundance,
translations ofZeph 1:11; Ezk 16:29; 17:4 where
and to this place she returns following the Exile.
considerations of poetic parallelism make "trade"
God desires good for his people. Canaan is given
the preferable reading). The Irade, originally in
Israel for a possession (Lev 14:34; Deut 32:49)
red-purple wool, led to the use of "trader" as
and for an inheritance (1 Chr 16:18= Ps 105:11).
a general term, quite without stigma (cf. Prov
Many interpret lsa 11: 10-12 to say that all the
31:24).
dispersed Jewish remnant is to be regathered to
A stele of Amenophis II (c. 1440 e.c.) demon-
their ancestral land under the lordship of the
strates the antiquity of this usage. From this
messianic Root of Jesse.
Maisler concludes that the term denoted the
"merchant plutocracy" ofthe coastal and trading
k•na'llni. Canaanite(s) refers either to the
centers of Syria and Palestine (see bibliography).
descendants of Canaan or to the inhabitants of
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "The Role of
Canaan and sometimes to merchants (see
the Canaanites in the History of Civilization," in
k'na'an II).
The Bible and the Ancient Near East, ed. G. E.
One of Simeon's descendants had a Canaanite
Wright, Doubleday, 1965, pp. 427-28. Kenyon,
mother (cf. Gen 46:lO=Ex 6:15~an example of
Kathleen, Amorites and Canaanites, London:
intermarriage that kept Israel from remaining an
Oxford University, 1966. Maisler, B., "Canaan
ethnically "pure" race.
and the Canaanites," BASOR 102:7-12. Millard,
Those who inhabited Palestine before the con-
A. R., "The Canaanites," in Peoples of Old Tes-
quest were known as Canaanites (Gen 12:6).
tament Times, ed. D. J. Wiseman, Oxford:
Their destruction had been ordered by God and
Clarendon, 1973, pp. 29-52.
they were listed as dispossessed by Israel (Josh
5:1; 11:3; 13:4). Israel's failure to obey fully
meant that Canaanites continued to live among
•;v,~;,(k' na'ilni). See no. 1002a.
the Israelites (Josh 16:10; Jud 1:27-33). The
1003 1:)):, (knp). Assumed root of the following.
Canaanites were immoral in their practices, as is
1003a tri~; (känäp) wing, winged, border,
clear both from Scripture (Ex 23:23-24) and from
corner, shirt. (Asv, RSVsimilar.)
literature found since 1929 at ancient Ugarit.
Negative evaluations of them were already ex- Occurs 107 times: Ezk 26; Ps, 12; I Kgs, 10;
pressed in the time of the patriarchs (Gen 24:3; II Chr, 10. Appendage of a bird with which it flies,
28:8). Israel was therefore directed to demolish denoting speed as well as protection. The word
their idols, refrain from covenant with them (Ex occurs in Arabic, Akkadian, Aramaic, and Ugari-
34: 11-16) and destroy them lest they pervert ls- tic with the same meaning. No verbal prototype
rael's pure religion (Deut 7:l-5ff.; 20:17-18). Ac- for the noun is known; the verbal usage which
tually the Israelites did not destroy the Canaan- exists (only once, yikkänep, lsa 30:20) has de-

446
 1004 ,~:, (knr)

nominative meanings (hide, enclose, assemble) immanent in it. The fact that he is elsewhere said
based on the uses of the noun. to ride on the wings of the wind may support such
Only ten of the occurrences of this noun liter- conjectures. However, apart from more explicit
ally refer to a bird. Of these ten references, in at biblical statements they must remain in the realm
least eight "wing" is used to qualify "bird" (cf. of conjecture.
Gen 1:21 "every fowl of a wing"). Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 833-35.
Many more references use the term figura- J.N.0.
tively, most of these referring to God and most
having a positive connotation. The deliverance 1004 "\), (knr). Assumed root of the following.
from Egypt is twice described in terms of God 1004a t"\Ü:;J (kinnbr) harp.
bearing his people upon eagle's wings (Ex 19:4; 1004b trr,~:;i (kinneret), rii"\):;J (kinarbt)
Deut 32: 11). But mostly he is seen as sheltering Chinneret. ·
his own beneath his wings as a hen does her
kinnör. Harp. (Asvand RSV similar.) A musical
chicks (Ps 17:8; Ruth 2:12). Commonly some
instrument having strings and a wooden frame.
statement of God's proven trustworthiness is re-
Commonly associated withjoy and gladness. The
lated to the statement of an intent to seek shelter
word seems to be of Indian derivation, there
under his wings (Ps 36:7 IH 81, "How excellent is
being an Indian stringed instrument called a kin-
thy loving-kindness, 0 God, therefore the chil-
ntira. The word itself, if not the entire instru-
dren of men put their trust under the shelter of
ment, seems to have come into the Hebrew vo-
thy wings"). Malachi 3:20 speaks of the Sun of
cabulary via Hittite .(cf. KB, in loc ). Probably the
righteousness rising with healing in his wings.
kinnor was a lyre rather than a true harp. Lyres
Evidently this is an appropriation of the winged
are pictured in a number of ancient paintings and
sun disc symbol which is used throughout the
ancient near east as a manifestation of the deity's sculptures.
Although most of the references to harps de-
protection. The appropriation of this ancient
pict them in a cultic context, about six references
theme in a prediction of Christ is very significant.
indicate that it was a general accompaniment for
He alone is the true manifestation of God's be-
recreation and relaxation. lts accompaniment
nevolence and he comes to heal (not merely pro-
was common in feasts (Gen 31:27), presumably
tect) those who cast away their pride through fear
played by dancing girls (lsa 23:16).The kinnor is
ofGod.
the first musical instrument mentioned in the
However those wings which offer deliverance
Bible.
and security to those who fear him, can bring
BothJob (21:12) and Isa(5:12) declare that it is
terror to those who defy him. Jer 48:40; 49:22 tel1
the wicked who have times of rejoicing and glad-
that God will spread his eagle's wings over Moab
ness, and both contemplate the injustice of this.
and destroy them, just as an eagle may swoop
Most of the references show the harp in a reli-
upon a hapless rabbit. In Isa 8:8 Assyria is the
gious setting. lt and other instruments charac-
eagle overshadowing Judah (cf. also Ezk 17:3, 7).
terized the sons of the prophets (1 Sam 10:5: Ps
The remaining figurative usages speak of the
49:4 [H 5]; cf. I Sam 16:23). After the prevalence
speed of wings. The wind is said to have wings
of the harp and other instruments in the rejoicing
(II Sam 22: II , etc.). Three of the six occurrences
over the ark's return (II Sam 6:5; I Chr 13:8),
deal with God's riding on the wind. Money is said
instrumental music seems to have come into its
to have wings (Prov 23:5), as does gossip (Eccl
own in Israel's worship (1 Chr 25:1, 3, 6). Study
10:20). The lovely passage in Ps 139:9 speaks of
of the joyous psalms associated with harps shows
the wings of the morning being unable to outstrip
that the steadfast love, faithfulness and justice of
God's care.
the Creator-Redeemer were central to lsrael's re-
The exact origin of a separate set of figurative
joicing.
usages is difficult to determine. Here the word
Bibliography: Best, H. M., Huttar, D.,
either means the flowing hem of a robe or the "Music, Musical Instruments," in ZPBD.
ends of the earth. Perhaps the similarity of the
Sellers, 0. R., "Musical Instruments of Israel,"
robe to wings, and then the "end" of the robe to
BA 3:33-48.
the ends of the earth accurately describes the
transference. kinneret, kimlröt. Chinnereth, Chinneroth.
The remainder of the references to känäp have Lake in northern Palestine significant as a bound-
to do with either the cherubim over the ark, or ary point for the land of Israel. The NIV spells
Ezekiel's visions. lt is tempting to see in these it with a ""k" to avoid a common mispronuncia-
numerous occurrences some theological state- tion. lt is known as the Sea of Galilee or Gen-
ments concerning Yahweh, especially in the light nesaret in the New Testament. Occurs four times
ofthe winged seraphim in Isa 6:2. lt may be that with the ending---eth and three times with---oth.
the wings of his messengers speak of his ability to The name appears in Egyptian topographical
transcend his creation and yet be at any moment lists. No Semitic etymology has been agreed

447
 upon. Albright suggests a connection with the who either placed a person on, or removed him
goddess of the lyre, Kinnar in Ugaritic (YGC, from, the throne. Many ofthese are related to the
p. 144). establishment of the Davidic line, and of these
In Num 34: 11 Chinnereth is given as one ele- the vast majority relate to Solomon's accession
ment in the eastern border of the land of Canaan. (1 Kgs 1-2). The frequent Statement that God has
In Josh 12:3 the westernmost border of Sihon's "established" (kun, q.v.) someone's throne fur-
territory was designated as the Jordan Valley ther indicates that royal stability, wherever it is
from the Sah Sea to Chinneroth. In Deut 3: 17this found, is a function ofGod's sovereignty.
same designation is given for the western side of The book of Prov on several occasions em-
the territory which was given to the half tribe of phasizes that no throne is established by force,
Mannaseh, and the tribes ofGad and Reuben (cf. but rather through mercy, justice, and righteous-
also Josh 13:27). ness (Prov 16:12; 20:8, 28; 25:5; 29:14). But, of
As in New Testament times the region just course, the immediate question is: according to
west and north of the lake (roughly the same as whose standard? For the Hebrew this was not a
the territory of Naphtali) was called by the same difficult question. lt is plain that the true King by
name as the lake. So Ben-Hadad of Syria is said whom all humans, even kings, are judged is the
at one time to have captured all Chinneroth Heavenly One. Study of kisse' as it relates to
(1 Kgs 15:20). There was also a city in Naphtali of God bears this out. His throne is established
the same name, provisionally identified with teil forever (Ps 93:2; 103:19; Lam 5:19). lt is fixed in
el-'oreimeh (Josh 19:35). the heavens (lsa 66:1; Jer 3:17) as weil as in his
J.N.O. chosen place, Jerusalem. The pronouncements
from his throne of judgment are altogether true
:,,~;, (kinneret). See no. 1004b. and right (Ps 74:8 [H 9]; 89: 14 [H 15)). Nowhere
is the dichotomy between the fallible human king
1005 :,1;i (k'' m'it) associate, colleague (Ezr and the infallible divine king more clearly brought
4:7). out than in I Kings 22. Here Jehoshaphat and
Ahab sit on their splendid royal thrones to re-
1006 K!;I~ (kese') Juli moon (Prov 7:20; Ps ceive Micaiah's prophecy (v. 10). But Micaiah
·s,
:4). reports that he has seen God sitting on his throne
and that he has given a word of doom concerning
1007 K,;;,;,(kisse') seat, stool, throne. (Asv, RSV
their royal enterprises against Syria (v. 10). God
is the king of Israel and Judah (cf. also Jsa 6: 1)..
similar.)
This dichotomy is forever resolved in the Mes-
Occurs 136 times, ofwhich 34 are in I Kings, 17 siah. As the Jsraelites looked at the long string of
in Jeremiah and 15 in Chronicles. Of these occur- sorry kings visited on them, and as they com-
rences, all but 7 refer to royal or divine thrones. pared these with God's perfect standard they
In all cases it is a seat of honor. The identical root came to long for that Son of David who would
appears in Ugaritic (ks') and Akkadian (kussu < rule them, and the world, out of love and not
Sumerian GU. ZA), while both Aramaic and selfishness, with equity and not partiality (lsa 9:7
Arabic show an additional r: karsa' (Aramaic), [H 6]; 16:5; Jer 22:11-23:6; Zech 6:13). The tes-
kursiyu (Arabic). Perhaps a loan word. timony of the NT is that he has come and that all
As mentioned above, the basic idea ofthe root creation waits breathlessly for his coronation day
seems tobe "seat ofhonor" (Ehud, Jud 3:20; Eli, when he will assume his throne forevermore.
I Sam 1:9; 4: 13; 18, etc.). The one possible excep- J.N.O.
tion to this is found in the description of the
prophet's chamber (II Kgs 4: 10) where KJV sim-
ply translates ··table and stool" (Rsv "chair"). 1008 n;,J (kasä) I, cover, conceal, hide. In a
In the usages translated by "throne" the few places used in the sense of "forgive."
minority have to do with literal thrones. These (Rsv, NASB and NIV similar.)
are either descriptions of thrones (1 Kgs 10:18;
Ezk 1:26, etc.) or statements concerning kings Derivatives
sitting on specific thrones for matters ofjudgment 1008a ~,c; (kasuy) outer covering of the
(Est 5:1; Jer 1:15; etc.), affairs of state (1 Kgs tabernacle. Used only in Num
22: IO), or royal honor (II Kgs 25:28). 4:6, 14.
The great bulk of the references to throne take 1008b tl'llC1 (k' sut) covering.
the term figuratively. Thus to sit on the throne of 1008c tn1;1;,~(mikseh) a covering.
the kingdom was to rule the kingdom, or in some 1008d l"lel~I? (m'kasseh). In form, this
cases, to begin to rule the kingdom (cf. I Kgs word is a Pie! participle and in its
16:11, etc.). Of the eighty-seven figurative us- four usages can be handled as an
ages, at least forty-seven indicate that it was God active noun, "that which covers."

448
 1011 ,,;,; (käsal)
The usual usage of the verb käsii I is the literal ',•Qi (k• sil). See no. 101 lc,e.
meaning "to cover." Frogs covered Egypt (Ex l"\~',~c, (k' sflut). See no. 101 ld.
8:6 [H 21). The pillar of cloud covered the taber-
nacle (Num 9: 16). 101 1 ',c:,;, (käsal) be f oolish.
lt is also used more generally to mean "con-
ceal" (Gen 37:26; Prov 10: 18, KJV "hide") or Derivatives
"overwhelm" (Prov 10:6, 11, NIV "overwhelm"). 101 la t',Q:;, (kesel) confulence, hope.
In Gen 7:19-20 the hills were "covered;" the 1011b t:,~~:i, (kislii) confuJence,folly.
Hebrew does not specify with what. The NIV 1011c t',•cf (k' sfl) 1, fool, dullard.
specification of water goes beyond the Hebrew. 101 ld tl"l~',•c;, (k•sflut) stupidily.
The Hebrew may merely mean that the moun- 101 le t',•cf (k'sfl) II, constellations, Orion.
tains were hidden from view by the storm.
kiisal the verb occurs once, in Jer 10:8, where
lt is probably the meaning "hide" that leads to
idol worshipers are called foolish. The Arabic
the sense, forgive. In the well-known verse, Ps
cognate seems to have an original meaning "tobe
32:1, "cover," kiisa (Qal) is paralleled by "for-
sluggish," referring to that which is thick, plump,
give" (näsä'). The word is used in v. 5 in the
or fat (BOB). From kiisal come a number of
sense of "hide." Psalm 85:2 [H 3] is very similar
derivatives.
and has the same parallel (näsä'). This sense also
occurs in Neh 4:5 [H 3:37) where the parallel is k"sil 1. Fool, dullard. This noun, except for
"blot out" ( mähii). In Prov 17:9 and 28: 13 the three occurrences in Ps, is found only in Prov and
meaning is likely "conceal" (so NIV in the latter Eccl. In Prov three words are rendered fool, k• sf/
verse). The contrast is to confess or to make referring to the dull or obstinate one, referring
known. lt is probably too much to found an oT not to mental deficiency, but to a propensity to
theology of forgiveness on these verses in Ps and make wrong choices. 'ewf/ refers to moral in-
Nehemiah. lt has been argued, more on the basis solence, and näbäl to the boorish man of mean
of käpar "atone" (q.v.), which some translate disposition.
"cover," that the 0T sacrifices merely covered Folly and fool are opposite to wisdom and
sin until it was dealt with de facto on the cross. wise. k• sf/ refers to a way of life that is enticing
This view of course has the truth that the blood of to the immature, but can lead to destruction and
bulls and goats could not pay the price of sin in ruin. Qohelet sums up the argumentation for
the oT. But it seems that we should say that the either wisdom or folly by stating that wisdom ex-
oT sin was indeed forgiven by God on the basis of cels folly as light excels darkness(Eccl 2: 1-13).
the final sacrifice to come. The OTsacrifices were Involved in this conclusion is that wisdom leads a
symbolic and typical but the forgiveness was person on the right path to the brightness of the
real. At least, the other words näsä' (take away), füll day while folly entices one to the way that
miihii (blot out), sälah (forgive), etc. imply a real leads into darkness (Prov 4: 18--19).
forgiveness so that sins were removed to an im- We note the kind of choices which the k' sf/
measurable distance (Ps 103:3, 11-12). makes. His eyes are unable to see any proper
k•söt. Covering. Used only eight times, most of way or conduct. He may roam the earth seeking
these referring to clothing. But note Gen 20: 16 it, but miss it completely. Apparently he does not
where "covering of the eyes" ( 'enayim) is taken concentrate on what is right (Prov 17:24). The
by the NIV as "to cover the offense" (probably fool imagines that he can buy wisdom when actu-
reading 'ewönim). ally he has no inclination for it (Prov 17: 16). He
takes no delight in understanding (Prov 18:2),
mikseh. A covering. This noun refers mostly to hates knowledge (Prov 1:22), and therefore does
the leather (KJV badgers' skins, NASB porpoise not choose the fear of the Lord (Prov 1:29). The
skins, NIV hides of sea cows) covering ofthe taber- end of the fool's complacency is destruction
nacle. Once it refers to the covering of Noah's (Prov 1:32).
ark. Does this mean that the ark had a protective The fool is a serious menace to the community.
roof of animal hides? Associating with a fool, who has a twisted sense
Bibliography: Girdlestone, SOT, pp. 135-38. of values deprives one of knowledge (Prov 14:7).
R.L.H. He can cause serious problems to his fellow man,
for he actually enjoys doing wickedness (or
lewdness; Lev 18: 17; Prov 10:23). A fool's utter-
1009 :,c:, (ksh) II. Assumed root of the follow- ances bring strife and involve him in blows with
ing. his adversaries (Prov 18:6). Anyone who be-
1009a 1"1!:I:;,
(keset) band, fillet. friends him will be destroyed (Prov 13:20). Par-
ents of the fool suffer greatly. His mother is
1010 n;,; (käsah) cut off or away, a plant (Ps grieved with him (Prov 10: 1) and his father can
80:17; Isa 33:12). never have any joy over him (Prov 10: 1; see also

449
1012 i7~~(kislew)
Prov 17:25; 19:13a). Yet for his part, the fool 164-65. Toy, C. H., Proverbs, in ICC. Walker,
despises his mother (Prov 15:20). W. L., "Fool, Folly," in ISBE, 11, pp. 1124-25.
THAT, 1, pp. 83fr-37.
kesel. Confulence, hope. Confidence and hope L.G.
relate to trust (or lack of it) in God (Prov 3:26; Job
8: 14). As folly, it is identified as evil (Eccl 7:25)
1012 ,,i;i;;i (kislew) Chislev. The ninth month
and applied to the person whose way of life is to
of the Babylonian calendar. Used only in
live for this world only (Ps 49:13 [H 14]). In five
the post-Exilic books Zech 7: 1; Neh 1:1.
other usages, kese/ is rendered "flanks" (Lev
For other months see !Jodesh, no. 613b.
3:4, 10, 15; Ps 38:7 [H 81).
kislä. Confulence, folly. The fear of God was 1013 cl;l;i (käsam) shear, clip (Ezk 44:20).
Job's confidence (Job 4:6) while at the same time
a people who have experienced the peace ofGod Derivatives
are not to turn back to folly (Ps 85:8 [H 91). 1013a r,~!!i;;i (küssemel) speit.
1013b *C!;,".'l;;i(kirsem) tear off. Occurs
k0 silut. Foolish. Describes Folly, in opposi-
only in the Pie!, in Ps 80: 14 "boars
tion to Wisdom (!Jokma), personified as a wo- from the forest tear it off. · ·
man. Sexual immorality, characterized as
k' si/ut, is contrasted to Wisdom who calls the
ri9!!1;;i (küssemet). See no. 1013a.
immature to a life of rectitude.
k•sil II. ConstellaJions (lsa 13:10), Orion 1014 Cl;l;, (käsas) compute (Ex 12:4).
(Job 9:9; 38:31; Arnos 5:8). (ASV and Rsv sarne.)
The relation to k'sil is uncertain, since in the Derivatives
Job and Arnos passages, k'sil refers to a specific 1014a =~~ (mekes) computaJion, propor-
star, while in Isa the plural k'silehem "their con- ·tion tobe paid, tax (Num 31:28).
stellations" is used more generally. 1014b :ii;i:;il? (miksa) computaJion ( =
In Job 9:9 the LXX translates k"sil as „ Hes- number, Ex 12:4; = valuation,
perus" (related to the rnythological Evening Star, worth, Lev 27:23).
therefore, the West). The Vulgate does the sarne.
In Job 38:31, "loose the bands of Orion" (KJV), 1015 tici;, (käsap) yearn for, long after (with
the LXX is sirnilar, · ·opened the barrier of Orion.'' /', Ps 17:12; Job 14:15).
The Vulgate here reads Arcturus for Orion.
There are differences of opinion concerning the Derivative
astral groups. Arcturus is used differently in the 1015a tt\!;'?, (kesep) silver, money.
versions: in Job 9:9 Arcturus is used to render the
group 'äsh but the LXX translate "Pleiades," and In the Niphal stem it means yearn for (Gen
31:30); be ashamed (Zeph 2:1, so KB, BDB, GB,
the RSV and NASB "the Bear." Arcturus is used in
ZOR.). With lö'. it means be shameless. (Same
the LXX for the astral kima (Job 9:9), but in 38:31,
Pleiades is used for kima. The Vulgate uses trace connection with kesep "silver" as the pale
Arcturus for k'sil. In Isa 13:10, "the stars of meta!; hence Middle Hebrew hiksip, become pale
with yeaming.)
heaven and the constellations thereof," the plural
k' si/ehem, is rendered by the LXX, "for the stars kesep. Süver; (süver) money. Kesep refers to
of heaven and Orion." silver as freshly mined and smelted (Prov 25:4;
There are other possibilities. Targurn Jonathan 26:23; Ezk 22: 18); as material for vessels, trum-
renders k' sil as "giant" in Job 9:9 and 38:31. For pets, idols (Gen 44:2: 24:53; Num 10:2; Ex 20:23;
lsa 13:10 the Targum reads, "the stars of the Isa 2:20). lt is often used with numbers to indicate
heavens and their titans." In modern usage the shekels of silver (with sheqel or sh'qälim omitted;
Arabic designation for the constellation Orion is Gen 20: 16; 45:22). lt is also used with rninas (Ezr
al gibbar, modern Hebrew gibbor "the strong 2:69) or talents (Ex 38:27; 1 Kgs 20:29; 1 Chr 19:6).
one. lt may be used for price (of sale, Lev 25:50).
Bibliography: Blanck, S. H., "Folly," in IB, Silver is found as native meta! in some mines in
II, pp. 303-304. Fraenkel, J., "Astronomy," in Greece. lt was also extracted from its ores by
Encyclopedia Judaica, I, p. 795. Greenstone, smelting with lead. The lead-silver alloy was
Julius, Proverbs, Jewish Publication Society. purified by heating and burning off the lead as
1950. Harris, R. Laird, "Proverbs," in WBC. oxide. The impurities are skimmed off. There are
"Hesperus," in Oxford Classical Dictionary. frequent OT references to the refiner's fire and the
Kidner, Derek, Proverbs, Inter-Varsity, 1964. dross of silver (Ezk 22: 18-22).
"Orion," in Oxford Classical Dictionary. "Ori- Silver was the usual standard of trade. Two
on, the Pleiades, the Hyades," in Larousse En- shekels was the price of a ram in Moses' day (Lev
cyclopedia of Mythology, Prometheus, 1959, pp. 5:15). Silver coins were used in Greece as early

450
 1018 :,~~ (kiipa)

as 670 B.c. There are no clear references to silver Moses wamed the lsraelites that if their descen-
coins in the OT, but the Persian gold daric may be dants, after having been in the promised land,
mentioned in Ezra 8:27. corrupt themselves by making graven images in
Bibliography: Bowes, D. R., "Metallurgy," any form, the Lord will be deeply vexed at them.
in ZPEB, IV, p. 210. Archer, G. L., "Coins," in He calls heaven and earth to witness that God in
ZPEB, I, p. 903. his vexation will make them to utterly perish
G.L.A. from off the earth (Deut 4:25). Moses speaks also
of his fear of God when God has been aroused to
1'1!?~
(keset). See no. 1009a. a highly vexed state (Deut 9: 1--8).And when God
has been continuously and deeply provoked,
1016 Cl'; (ka'as) be vexed, indignant, angry, vexed, grieved, much is required to quiet the
wroth, be grieved, provoke to anger and heart of God. E.g. king Mannesseh provoked
wrath. (Asv, RSV similar.) God so deeply by his pervasive involvement in
idolatry (cf. II Kgs 21: 1-26) that when Josiah at-
Derivatives tempted reforms, the Lord was not appeased.
1016a tel,'~ (ka'as) vexation, grief. Judgment had to fall upon Judah (II Kgs 23:26), a
1016b ivl'~ (ka"as) vexation. Dialectical judgment which destroyed many of the people
and removed the nation from the promised land.
variation of ka ·as.
This judgment, in keeping with God's justice is
The root meaning of ka'as is to vex, agitate, not contrary to divine love. Rather, it is an ex-
stir up, or provoke the heart to a heated condition pression of divine love which has been offended,
which in turn leads to specific actions. This term, rejected and deeply grieved. Divine love suffers
as weil as the synonyms for anger and wrath ( 'ap, long; it also defends itself and removes the ob-
fJ.ema,qa!jap, and 'ebra; see discussion of jects of its vexation and sorrow.
synonyms at qa!jap) are used anthropomorphi-
ka'as. Vexation, provocation, anger, wrath, spite,
cally and anthropopathically of God. They refer
grief, sorrow (Asv and Rsv have "provocation"
to God's inner seif as vexed and provoked by
in place of "wrath'").
rebellion or sin. The term when applied to God,
This noun is not used of God in quite the same
implies that man can affect the very heart of God
way the verb is. Rather it speaks of what man
so as to cause him heat, pain, or grief to various
does in relation to God.
degrees of intensity.
Man vexes and provokes God to anger. This
In the Qal stem the verb is used five times to
act of man is referred to a number of times:
indicate the state of vexation in men. Thus, king
Jeroboam provoked God by his sinful provoca-
Asa was vexed or exasperated when he was re-
tions, i.e. calfworship (1 Kgs 15:30) as Israel did
buked by the prophet Hanani (II Chr 16:10);
later with her idolatries, which are called "pro-
likewise Sanballat when he saw builders at work
vocations" (Ezk 20:28). This emphasizes the fact
on the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 4:1 [H 3:33]).
that man vexes God; man, created and called to
From these instances we may gather that the
please and glorify God, when he falls into sin,
state of vexation is not normally proper for a true
gives him a deep agitation of heart.
child of God. In fact, Eccl 7:9 teaches that the
Man also is a source of vexation to his fellow-
child of God should not be hasty in spirit to be
men. Peninnah provoked Hannah to vexation and
vexed, because such vexation rests in the bosom
caused her much grief(I Sam 1:7, 16). A foolish
of fools.
son produces vexation or grief for his father
God is said not to continue in this state ofvexa-
(Prov 17:25). Adversaries, physical and spiritual,
tion when his jealousy is quieted (Ezk 16:42). In-
are a source of vexation and tears for the righ-
deed, vexation is not an abiding attribute of God.
teous (Ps 6:7 [H 8]). Thus sinful man, by nature,
Yet, his people may provoke him to anger and
tragically fails to live in peace and happiness with
wrath by their unfaithfulness. Because God is
his fellow men as God commands him to do.
holy and loving he will only share himself with a
Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 838-41.
people whom he has bound to himself in coven-
G.V.G.
ant love, and whom he has taken to himself for
fellowship and service. He never shares himself
with the profane and wicked. Hence when his ivl'~ (ka'as). See no. 1016b.
covenant people become unfaithful to him, he, by
virtue of his holiness and jealous love (Ex 34: 14), 1017 q;i (kep) rock (Jer 4:29; Job 30:6).
is provoked to anger and wrath against them.
Thus he may be deeply vexed, agitated, pained,
or grieved by disobedient Israel. This is the gen- q~ (kap). See no. 1022a.
eral burden of the forty-five passages in the OT in
which the Hiphil stem of the verbis used. E.g., 1018 ~~;, (kiipii) subdue (Prov 21:14).

451
1019 ',pf (kapal)

iicf (k' por). See nos. 1026a,b. Derivative

c•,;if (k'pis). See no. 1021a. 1020a l~f (kii.piin) hunger, famine (Job
i•,;if (k' pir). See no. 1025a. 5:22; 30:3).

102I cc, (kps ). Assumed root of the following.

1019 ',p;,(käpal) fo/Jl something double, double 1021a c•,;i;i (käpis)rafter, girder(?). Oc-
over (Ex 29:6; 28: 16; 39:9). Niphal: be curs only in Hab 2: 11.
doubled (over, Ezk 21: 19, of two ways at a
crossroads). (Arabic kiflun "double"; 1022 tic, (kpp). Assumed root ofthe following.
Akkadian kapiilu "to coil, twist. ") 1022a tt\;, (kap) the palm of the hand,
Derivatives hand (opened or turned upward so
as to expose the hand, in contrast
1019a ',~;, (kepe/), t:l''i''r';,
(kiplayim) a with yad "hand" in general,
·double (Job 41:13 [H 51), i.e. the whether open or closed in a grasp
doubled thickness of the croc- or fist); flat of the hand, sole of the
odile's hide). The dual kip/ayim re- foot (Gen 40: 11; II Kgs 4:34; Lev
fers to a double portion (of chas- 14:16; Gen 8:9; Josh 3:13). Also
tisement, lsa 40:2). "handful" (of meal, II Kgs 17:12).
1019b t:,?!:P:;:ir,, (makpe/a) Machpelah 1022b :i,:ii (kippa) branch, leaf.
(perhaps Double-cave?).
kap. Palm ofthe hand. kap is also used ofhands
Name of the cave purchased by Abraham for spread out in prayer (Ex 19:29; lsa 1:15). lt may
Sarah's burial, and later for himself and for also refer to a pan or concave vessel (Ex 25:29;
Jacob, in the northeastern field ofHebron belong- Num 4:7); or the hollow of a sling (1 Sam 25:29).
ing to Ephron son ofZohar, the Hittite (Gen 23). Not used as extensively as yad nor so much in the
lt was purchased for four hundred shekels of various extended usages of that word (e.g., yad
silver. The location faced Mamre (v. 19). also means "strength, force"). In Ugaritic kp is
(The transaction has been much discussed. lt used to refer to the amputated hands ofthe enemy
has been treated as a typical oriental bargaining apparently used in body count (UT 19: no. 1286).
match with Abraham as a semi-foreigner ending This gruesome usage is not clearly witnessed in
up having to pay a !arge figure. M. Lehmann (see the oT, but may be suggested in Jud 8:6, 15.
bibliography) held that here we have an example G.L.A.
of Hittite law. Abraham asked for only the cave.
But Ephron insisted that he take the whole prop-
erty and thus Ephron divested himself of feudal 1023 ic,f (käpar) I, make an atonement'. ~ke
responsibilities to his overlord. Speiser (in AB, reconciliation, purge. (Denommat1ve
Genesis, pp. 171-73) doubts that Ephron was a verb.) This root should probably be distin-
member of the distant Hittite nation. He thinks guished from kiipar ll "to smear with
rather that Ephron was a non-Semite who could pitch."
more readily be persuaded to seil to an alien like Parent Noun
Abraham. At least it is agreed that four hundred
shekels was dear. 1023a t,~-, (köper)
·eure favor.
I, ransom, gift to se•
The tomb of Machpelah shown to tourists
today was built in Herodian times, as its lower 1023b t,~; (kippür) (used in the plural
masonry testifies. Over that was built a church, kippürim) atonement, used espe-
now a mosque. The site therefore has been iden- cially in the expression "day of
tified since before the dispersion. lt may be the atonement."
authentic place. See the article by H. G. Stigers 1023c tl"l'.'l!ll;l (kappöret) place of atone-
(see bibliography) who assisted in the Harnmond ·ment; KJV, "mercy seat."
excavations at the teil ofancient Hebron. R.L.H.] The root kiipar is used some 150 times. lt has
Bibliography: Lehmann, M., "Abraham's been much discussed. There is an equivalent
Purchase of Machpelah- and Hittite Law," Arabic root meaning "cover," or "conceal." On
BASOR 129:15-18. Stigers, H. G. "Machpelah," the strength of this connection it has been sup-
in ZPEB, IV, pp. 26-28. posed that the Hebrew word means "to cover
G.L.A. over sin" and thus pacify the deity, making an
atonement (so BDB). lt has been suggested that
the oT ritual symbolized a covering over of sin
1020 1p; (kiipan) be hungry, hunger. Occurs until it was dealt with in fact by the atonement of
only in Ezk 17:7, kiipna 'al "stretched Christ. There is, however, very little evidence for
hungrily." this view. The connection of the Arabic word is

452
 1025 ,c:, (kpr)

weak and the Hebrew root is not used to mean kappöret. Mercy seat. This noun is used
"cover." The Hebrew verb is never used in the twenty-seven times and always refers to the gol-
simple or Qal stem, but only in the derived inten- den cover of the sacred ehest in the inner shrine
sive stems. These intensive stems often indicate of the tabemacle or temple. lt was from above
not emphasis, but merely that the verb is derived the mercy seat that God promised to meet with
from a noun whose meaning is more basic to the men (Num 7:89). The word, however, is not re-
root idea. lated to mercy and of course was not a seat. The
word is derived from the root "to atone." The
köper. Ransom. Every lsraelite was to give to Greek equivalent in the LXX is usually hilaster-
the service ofthe sanctuary the "ransom" money ion, "place or object of propitiation," a word
of half a shekel (Ex 30: 12). Egypt, in God's sight, which is applied to Christ in Rom 3:25. The trans-
was given as a "ransom" for the restoration of lation "mercy seat" does not sufficiently express
Israel (lsa 43:3). This word "ransom" is parallel the fact that the lid of the ark was the place where
to the word "redeem" (pädii, which see) in Ps the blood was sprinkled on the day of atonement.
49:7. There is a waming that a man guilty of mur- "Place of atonement" would perhaps be more
der must be killed-no "ransom" can be given in expressive.
exchange for his life (Num 35:31). The word is R.L.H.
also used in a bad sense as a "bribe" which
wrongly purchases favor (1 Sam 12:3).
From the meaning of köper "ransom," the 1024 ic,;, (käpar) II, cover over with pitch.
meaning of käpar can be better understood. lt This denominative verb is used only in
means "to atone by offering a substitute." The Gen 6: 14 in the waterproofing of the ark.
great majority of the usages concem the priestly The cognate word is used in the Babylo-
ritual of sprinkling of the sacrificial blood thus nian flood story.
"making an atonement" for the worshipper. Parent Noun
There are forty-nine instances of this usage in
Leviticus alone and no other meaning is there 1024a iQi (köper) II, pitch. A noun,
witnessed. The verbis always used in connection from which the above verb was doubtless de-
with the removal of sin or defilement, except for rived. Pitch, bitumen, asphalt was used in early
Gen 32:20; Prov 16: 14; and Isa 28: 18 where the antiquity as an adhesive to hold inlays into
related meaning of "appease by a gift" may be statues. lt was a logical material for caulking
observed. lt seems clear that this word aptly il- the ark as specified both in the Bible and the
lustrates the theology of reconciliation in the OT. Babylonian flood story.
The life of the sacrificial animal specifically sym- R.L.H.
bolized by its blood was required in exchange for
the life of the worshipper. Sacrifice of animals in 1025 ii,!) (kpr) III. Assumed root of the follow-
oT theology was not merely an expression of ing.
thanks to the deity by a cattleraising people. lt 1025a ti•i,:, (k' pir) young lion.
was the symbolic expression of innocent life 1025b ,i·:, (köper) III, name of a plant
given for guilty life. This symbolism is further ·(henna?, Song 1: 14; 4: 13). Deriva-
clarified by the action of the worshipper in plac-
tion uncertain.
ing his hands on the head of the sacrifice and 1025c ,~;, (käpär) village. Derivation
confessing his sins over the animal (cf. Lev 16:21;
uncertain. An element in the NT
1:4; 4:4, etc.) which was then killed or sent out as
name "Capemaum."
a scapegoat. 1025d i!;I·:, (köper) IV, village. A var-
kippür. Atonement. kapporet. Mercy seat.
·iant of käpär. Possibly the same as
the plural in Neh 6:2.
These two nouns are derived from the verb as
used in the intensive stem: The first is used today k"pir. Young lion. That the word specifies the
in the name of the Jewish holiday yom kippur age ofthe lion is doubtful. To distinguish between
"day of atonement" (used only in the plural in the different words for Iion is difficult. Cf. läbi'.
the OT) which was the tenth day of the seventh Often it is used in parallelism with 'aryeh
month, Tishri. This solemn day was the only day "lion" (the generic term, usually an adult). In
of fasting prescribed for Israel. lt was celebrated Ezk 19:3, the k'pir leams how to catch prey.
by a special sin offering for the whole nation. On Occurs frequently in narrative, prophetic books,
that day only would the high priest enter within and poetry. Other words for lion are läbi', layish,
the inner veil bearing the blood of the sin offering sha!Jal and sha!Ja~. lt is difficult to distinguish
(cf. Heb 9:7). A second goat was released as an between these words. Some may refer to age,
escape goat to symbolize the total removal of sin some to prowess, etc.
(see 'azä'zel "scapegoat"). G.L.A.

453
1026 iti~ (kpr)
1026 ic::, (kpr) IV. Assumed root of the follow- g•·dola "and he gave a great feast for
ing. them."
1026a ii!:I;, (k''pbr) /, bowl (1 Chr 28;
E·zr 1:10; 8:27). Derivative
1026b iic;, (k"por) II, hoarfrost (Ps 1035a :i,;, (kera) afeast (II Kgs 6:23).
147:16; Ex 16:14; Job 38:29).
1036 :~,;, (k'rub) Cherub.
riii:l1 (kappöret). See no. 1023c.
The name of various representations of angelic
1027 *iu,; (käpash) make bent, press or bend beings which are represented as part human, part
together. Occurs only in the Hiphil (Lam animal. Usually used in the plural, cherubim. The
3: 16). English, cherubims, uses a superfluous pluraI
ending.
1028 iil'l~1 (kaptor) 1, the island of Crete. In The derivation of the word is dubious. The Ak-
Egyptian spelled k-f-t-y(w); Akkadian kap- kadian cognate verb means, "to bless, praise,
tara; Ugaritic k-p-t-r. Homeland or at least adore" (CAD). As one of the characteristics of the
a staging center of the Philistines (Arnos cherubim was adoration of God, this derivation
9:7; cf. Deut 2:23; Jer47:4). The gentilic is would appear suitable.
kaptöri "Cretan." (At Mari spelled ka-ap- Cherubim are mentioned first as angehe guard-
taru-u.) ians of Paradise lost (Gen 3:24). Next they appear
as winged figures of pure gold facing each other
1029 iil'l~1 (kaptor) II, a capital on top of a and overshadowing the atonement cover (Nrv. the
pillar (Arnos 9:1; Zech 2:14). (2) A knob KJVis mercy seat, Ex 25:20). They were also a
or bulb on the lampstand (Ex 25:31; 37: 17). prominent figure in the decorations of the taber-
(Apparently derived from the name of nacle curtains (Ex 26: 1, 31). Nothing is said here
Crete, as the place from which such of their shape except that they had faces, presum-
omamentations were first imported.) ably human, and wings. Significantly, Ex 25:22
G.L.A. says that God will speak with men from above
(me'a/) the atonement cover from between (mib-
1030 ,, (kar) pasture. Derivation uncertain. bin) the cherubim (so also Num 7:89). lt is as-
sumed by Albright et a/. that the iconography
1031 i:i (kör) ameasure, usuallydry. Equal to represented Yahweh standing on the cherubim as
a homer, therefore 10 ephahs (q.v.). the storm god of Syria, Hadad, is represented as
standing on a sacred bull (W. F. Albright, "What
1032 *l:,:,i::, (krb/) be-mantle or bind around. Were the Cherubim?" in The Biblica/ Archae-
Occurs only in the Pual, in I Chr 15:17, ologist Reader, l, p. 95). Indeed, in most places
"bemantled with a robe of byssus." the RSVtranslates the phrase "dwells (at) the
cherubim" (no preposition is expressed) as "on"
1033 :i,;, (kära) /, dig, excavate; dig through. (II Sam 6:2; II Kgs 19:15: I Chr 13:6; Ps 80: 1 [H 2];
99: 1; Isa 37: 16). In these places the NASBsupplied
Derivatives "above," the KJVand NIV"between" in line with
1033a :i,;, (kära) cistern or weil. the use of bin in Ex 25:22.
1033b :i::,;,~(mikreh) pit-of salJ(?) Only In Solomon's temple, cherubim were widely
Zech 2:9. used for decoration (1 Kgs 6:29, 32; 7:29). In the
1033c :i,;,~ (m'küra), :i,~::,~(m'küra) most holy place he made two !arge cherubim of
origin. olive wood overlaid with gold. These cherubim
faced forward with their two inner wings touching
The object ofthis verbis usually a pit, trench, or above the ark and their two outer wings touching
cistem. lt is used figuratively for entrapping aper- the walls of the shrine. Thus the wingspread of
son with an evil plot or strategem (Prov 16:27). In each was fifteen feet. Presumably the original ark
the Niphal it means "be dug" (Ps 94: 13). There is a with its two solid gold cherubim was under these
different root, kära. meaning "to trade in" (a )arge touching wings.
commodity), do business in; buy (Job 6:27 with In Ezekiel's symbolic or millennial temple,
'a/, with dir. acc .. Deut 2:6; Hos 3:2). cherubim were used fordecoration (Ezk 41: 18-20,
G.L.A. 25) but no ark with its cherubim are mentioned.
The cherubim of the decorations each had two
1034 :i,; (küra) II, get by Irade, Irade. faces, of a man and of a lion, facing in opposite
directions. The easiest way to understand this is to
1035 :i,; (kära) III, give afeast. Occurs only hold that the cherub was standing upright with
m II Kgs 6:23, wayyikreh lähem kera faces turned right and left something like the

454
 1042 '!?'4'
(karmel)
Hapsburg eagle, but certainty is not possible. 1039 cf::,,;, (karkös) saffron (Song4:14).
There is no need to suppose with Albright and
many that they were sphinxes. ri,n;, (karkara). See no. 1046.
More detail can be gleaned from the vision of
Ezk 1 which is mentioned again in 9:3 and chapter 1040 Cj~ (käram) tend or dress vineyards or
10 and in 11:22. There the cherubim stand as vines. A denominative verb.
corner posts ofthe structure bearing the throne of
God. They had a human body a,ndhands (1 :5; 10:7) Parent Noun
but the feet went straight down like a calf- 1040a tc:,;, (kerem) vineyard.
without the human ankle and toes. These
cherubim had four wings. Two covered their Vineyards are mentioned over ninety times in
bodies in modesty, two were extended upward so the OT, first in connection with Noah (Gen 9:20).
that their tips touched the wings ofthe cherubim at Grape growing was and still is an important part of
the other corners. The seraphs (fiery ones) of lsa 6 Palestinian farming. The "grain, new wine, and
seem tobe similar creatures. They had six wings oil" were the three prominent products ofthe field
using the extra two to tly on God's errands. The (see tirösh). Grapes were trodden to make juice
description of Rev 4:6-8 has features reminiscent for wine and also were dried to make raisins which
of both Ezk and lsa. The cherubim of Ezk 1 had were widely used, to judge from Abigail's gift to
four faces-of a man, lion, ox and eagle. Why David (1 Sam 25:18; cf. II Sam 16:1). Treading the
these four we do not know. lt may be that they winepress became .a forceful figure of divine
represented birds, tarne animals, wild animals and judgment (lsa 63:3; Rev 14:19). The grapes of
men in attendance before God. Their four faces Palestine were part ofthe proof ofthe productivity
were so placed that the structure could travel east, ofthe land (Num 13:23), especially significant be-
west, north and south with lightning speed and cause Egypt did not specialize in grapes.
always go face forward with no steering Vineyards were not tobe picked clean, but glean-
mechanism. The intersecting wheels (Ezk 1:16, ings were tobe left for the poor (Lev 19:10). Fa-
NIV) looking something like a gyroscope had the mous is Naboth's vineyard, his patrimony which
same result. That these cherubim bore the throne he would not part with, but which Ahab secured to
of God is perhaps the reason that the temple his own destruction.
cherubim are called a chariot in one verse (1 Chr Israelis God's vineyard (lsa 5:lff.; Jer 12:10).
28: 18) though the reference is obscure. In the God gave it special care, but it yielded bitter fruit.
theophany of Ps 18:10 [H 11] parallel to II Sam "He looked for justice, but saw bloodshed; for
22: 11, the imagery is that God "mounted the righteousness, but heard cries of distress" (lsa
cherubim and tlew, he soared on the wings of the 5:7, NIV). Vineyards are part of the figures of
wind" (NIV). plenty and peace in the millennial day (lsa 65:21;
Evidently the representation of these high Arnos 9:13). The vine is also used in the precious
angelic beings varies from place to place, but they NT figure, •·1 am the vine, you are the branches"
are regularly near the throne of God engaged in (John 15).
worship and service. R.L.H.
Bibliography: Albright, W. F., "What Were
the Cherubim?" in The Biblical Archaeologist 1041 ',tn;, (karme/) I, plantation, garden-Iand;
Reader, l, p. 95. Acomb, D. E., "Cherub," in garden-growth, fruit,· orchard.
ZPEB, I, pp. 788-90. Woudstra, M., The Ark of Often a garden planted between rows of fruih
the Covenant from Conquest to Kingship, Pres- bearing trees (lsa 10:18; Jer 2:7; Jer 48:33; of a
byterian and Reformed, 1965, pp. 68-77. garden-like forest (lsa 37:24) or of a stand of
R.L.H. stately cedars (II Kgs 19:23). Also of a kind of
food, whether made from fruit or from mashed or
r,u,•,;, (k"ritut). See no. 1048a. compacted kernels forming a paste (Lev 23:14;
1037 ,.,::, (krk). Assumed root of the following. 2:14).
1037a '!'J'".l=i'!:1
(takrik) robe. Occurs in 1042 ',~".l;l (karmel) II, a promontory just below
the phrase w''takrik bu~ w''argä-
'ilaifa (fertile and fruitful, Josh 19:26: I Kgs
man "a purple rohe of fine linen"
18:19); a mountain town on the west of the
(Est 8: 15).
Dead Sea (Josh 15:55; I Sam 25:5).
1038 ::,::,-,::, (krkb). Assumed root of the follow- The Carmel range is prominent and famous. lt
ing. forms today the harbor of Haifa, which, however,
1038a ::i·::,-,;,(karköh) arim(Ex27:5;38:4) was blocked by marshes in former times. The
referring to the ledge of an altar. southcm boundary of the fertile valley of Es-
Middle Hebrew, a bowl. draelon, it stretches back about thirteen miles to

455
1043 ,,~,~ (karmfl)

the southeast attaining a height of 1742 feet. tion, but the attitude. The word may give a clue,
Megiddo, situated by a pass through the range, however, to ancient positions used in prayer and
was the scene of crucial battles in the past. There worship. Other words are qädad, bow the head,
Thutmosis 1II won a famous victory and Josiah shä}:iä (properly }:iäwa)the most common word
met his death at the hands of Pharaoh Necho. for bow in worship.
The Carmel area has been inhabited since very R.L.H.
ancient times. The caves of Skhul and Tabun and
others in the Wadi el-Mugharah have yielded the 1045 01.'".11(karpas) cotton or fine linen (Est
important skeletons of "Carmel Man." First 1:6).
dated about 130,000 years ago they are now dated
by Carbon 14 at about 35,000. The presence of
1046 *i'j; (kärar). Occurs only in the Pilpel,
Neanderthal features mixed with modern features
was a surprise and possibly suggested the restudy m 'karkar "dancing" (literally whirling,
of Neanderthal man which has concluded that he only in II Sam 6: 14, 16).
was erect and modern in many ways (cf. Albright, Derivatives
W. F., The Archaeology of Palestine, rev. ed.,
1046a t,;, (kar) lamb.
Pelican, 1961, p. 55; for the dating, see Time and
Stratigraphy in the Evolution of Man, publ. 1469, 1046b t:i,n:;, (kirkiira) beasts.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1046c tif:;, (kikkiir) round disk.
1967, p. 20.). kar. Lamb, ram, captains. (ASVand RSVsimi-
Bibliography: Baly, D., Geography of Pales- lar.) This word, which occurs thirteen times, has
tine, Harper, 1957, especially pp. 152-53. Mare, no clear verbal root in Hebrew. Similar nouns are
W. H., "Carmel," in ZPEB, I, pp. 754-55. found in both Akkadian and Ugaritic. lt refers to
R.L.H. lambs raised for slaughter but not necessarily in a
cultic setting. Three times in Ezekiel it refers to
1043 ',•~".11 (karmil) crimson, carmine. battering rams.
kirkärä. Swift beasts. (Asv and Rsv "drom-
0Q".l:;l (kirsem). See no. 1013b. edaries," NIV "camels. ") Appears only in lsa
66:20 relating the swift modes of travel by which
1044 11:q,(kära') bow down, kneel, sink down to their former captors will hurry the Jewish exiles
one's knees, kneel down (to rest, of an ani- back to the homeland.
mal), kneel in reverence, before God or a G.V.G.
king (Ps 22:30; 72:9).
kikkär. Round disk; district; loaf of bread. This
Derivative noun carries three different meanings. ( 1) A round
disk: of a leaden lid (Zech 5:7); of a disk of gold or
1044a 1/'j;\l (kera') leg. Always used in
silver bullion, usually weighing one talent (II Sam
the dual and always of legs of an
12:30; I Kgs 10:10); as a unit from which smaller
animal. Once used of the hopping
legs oflocusts, etc (Lev 11;21). objects are made (Ex 25:39; I Kgs 9: 14; the talent
weighed c. 75 pounds or 34.3 kilograms). (2) A
The verb means to bow down, but is applicable (circular) district, territory, used especially ofthe
both to bending in general and to bowing in wor- Jordan Valley (Gen 13:10; I Kgs 7:46), or of the
ship or obeisance (thirteen times). lt clearly refers district of Jerusalem (Neh3:22; 12:28).(3) A circu-
sometimes to kneeling. At least in II Kgs 1:13 the lar loaf of bread (1 Sam 2:36; Prov 6:36). (The
captain went down on his knees. Also, in Jud 7:6 kikkiir as a talent weighed 3000 shekels.)
the majority of Gideon' s army got down on their G.L.A.
knees to drink. Job 4:4 refers to the knees, "you
have strengthened the feeble (bowed) knees." 1047 ivi:, (krs). Assumed root of the following.
But the word can be used more generally. lt 1047a ivjf (kiires) belly (Jer 51 :34).
refers to an animal's crouching to rest (Num 24:9).
lt also refers once to a woman bending in labor
1048 r,'jf (kiirat) cut off apart of the body, e.g.
pains (1 Sam 4:19). The Hiphil more often refers
head, hand, foreskin; cut down trees, idols;
figuratively to bringing one low. cutout, eliminate, kill; cut(make)acovenant.
lt is a natural picture that one who falls on his
knees in obeisance also bends his back. This ap- Derivatives
parently is the connotation ofthe word as used for 1048a trmi•i:;, (k' rftüt) dismissal.
the posture of worship. lt does not mean to fall 1048b tr,;r,,,' (ke rütot) beams.
prostrate on the ground; it means to fall on the
knees and bow in worship. Cognates are found in the Akkadian verb kariitu
The important thing, naturally, is not the posi- "to cut off" and verbal adjective kartu "cut up,"

456
 1050 ,w;,(käshal)
as weil as in Tigre where the verbal equivalent ported by parallels in classical antiquity (cf. R.
means "to bring to an end." Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im AT,
In addition to the literal meaning of this root, 1896, pp. 44f; e.g. Livius I, 24), and in Israel's
"to cut off"' (Ex 4:25; I Sam 5:4) and "to cut world (e.g. E. Kutsch, kiirat b'rit "eine Verp-
down" (1 Kgs 5:20; a "woodcutter" in Isa 14:8) flichtung festsetzen," F. S. Eiliger, 1971 [Rem.
there is the metaphorical meaning to root out, 26]). An eighth-century treaty reads, ·· As this calf
eliminate, remove, excommunicate or destroy by is cut to pieces so may Mati'el be cut to pieces"
a violent act of man or nature. lt is sometimes (Sefireh, l,A). God's covenant with Abraham in-
difficult in a given context to know whether the volved the redemptive history of the world. And
person(s) who is "cut off'' is tobe killed or only so the Creator of the universe binds himself
excommunicated. Verses like Gen 9: 11, "Neither through this theophany-ritual to an unconditional
shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters of a promise ratified by blood. The binding is sym-
flood" clearly refer to destruction, but Ex 12:15 bolized by the smoking furnace and flaming torch
appears to refer to exclusion from the community. passing between the pieces of the slain victims.
An interesting passage which illustrates the diffi- Perhaps it was a symbol that ultimate fulfillment
culty in deciding whether the word is literal or would come only when the God-man as an inno-
metaphorical in usage is Num 11:33. Did the Lord cent victim bore the curse of a broken body in
strike the lsraelites with a plague before the meat behalf of those who have broken the Covenant.
of the quails was chewed (literally "cut off'') or
k0 ritut. Dismissal, divorce. lt seems very likely
was it while they were still eating quails before the
that this word is related to the root kiirat. The
quails ceased to come or were removed?
word is used only a few times in the OT(Deut 24: 1,
The most important use ofthe root is "to cut" a
3; Isa 50:1; Jer 3:8).
covenant b'rit (q.v.). The word here is pregnant
with theological meaning. A covenant must be cut k 0 rutöt. Beams hewn and cut off (I Kgs 6:36;
because the slaughter of animals was a part of the 7:2, 12).
covenant ritual (Speiser, Genesis, in AB, p. 112; Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 857--60.
BA 34: 18). Genesis 15 is a significant passage in E.S.
this regard. The Lord made (cut) a covenant with
Abram (v. 18) involving a mysterious ceremony. r,;r,.,, (k'rütot). See no. 1048b.
Animals were cut in half and the parts laid oppo- ::lW;r/ (keseb). See no. 949.
site each other. E. Kutsch (THAT, I, p. 859) says
that this ritual does not mean (a) the union of the 1049 :,~;, (kiisii.) be sated, gorged with food.
two contracting parties (Gen 15:18)designated by Occurs only in Deut 32: 15, "you grew
the flame's passing through between the two fat, became thick, were gorged."
pieces (so C. F. Keil) because this meaning does
not fit in Jer 34: 18 (J. J. P. Valeton, ZA W 12:227): ',•w;, (kashshil). See no. 1050a.
(b) the "mystical-sacramental unification" of the
two partners (B. Duhm, Das Buch Jeremia, 1901,
p. 284; J. Henninger, Biblica 3:344-53, esp. 352f.),
l050 ,w;,(kiishal) stumble, toller, stagger
(usually from weakness or weariness, or
because in Gen 15:18 and Jer 34:18 only the sub- in flight from attackers).
ject ofthe be rit goes through, not the partner; (c)
neither "the purification" of the one who goes Derivatives
between the halves of the animal (cf. 0. Masson, 1050a ',•w;, (kashshil) ax (perhaps as
"A propos d'un rituel hittite pour Ja lustration an instrument for felling trees) only
d'une armee," Revue de l' Histoire des Religions, Ps 74:6.
137:5-25), nor(d) that to this one is communicated 1050b ~i,W:P (kishshiilon) a stumbling, a
the living power released by the death of the ani- calamity.
mal in order to increase his capabilities (W. R. 1050c t,;~,c (mikshol) a stumbling, a
Smith, Die Religion der Semiten, 1899, p. 243; E. st~;,,bling block.
Bickerman, "Couper une allinace," Archives 1050d :i7w;,r;(makshelii.) decay, ruin.
d'histoire du droit oriental, 5:133-56; F. Horst,
Gottes Recht, 1961, p. 309) because neither of The verb is usually used of physical falling, but
these interpretations finds support in the context numbers of times the figurative use of failing or
(D. J. McCarthy, Treaty and Covenant, 1963, pp. ruin occurs (Ps 64:8 [H 9]; II Chr25:8). However,
55ff.). Rather it depicts the self-destruction ofthe the root is rarely used in the sense of the NT
one making the contract in an analogous way: that skandalidzö "cause one to fall into sin." The
the fate ofthe animal should befall him in the event nearest to this is Mal 2:8 where the priests by
that he does not keep the b'rit (so already Rashi their teaching "have caused many to stumble"
and today the majority of interpreters). This (N1v). In Jer 18:15 it says the idols made the
meaning is suggested by Jer 34:18 arid is sup- people "stumble in their ways," but here the fig-

457
1051 *ti~; (käshap)

ure is the frequent one of a path representing the 1052 "IW~ (kasher) be right and proper to (in
path of life. Proverbs 4: 16 says the wicked cannot ·the eyes of, Est 8:5); to prosper (Eccl
sleep "till they make someone fall" (NIV) which 11:6). Cf. Akkadian kasaru "succeed";
probably, like Jeremiah, refers to stumbling in kishron is: skill; success (Eccl 2:21; 4:4);
the path of life. lt is perhaps from this figure that advantage (Eccl 5: 10). (Medieval Hebrew
the idea of causing someone to stumble into sin kosher = "right and proper," i.e. accord-
arose in the NT and in the Syriac usage of this ing to the rules of ritual purity.)
root.
Derivatives
mikshöl. Stumbling-block, means or occasion
1052a :i,~il (koshara) singing. Cf. UT
of stumbling: Lev 19:14; Isa 57:14: obstacle,
19: no. 1335.
cause for guilt, occasion of stumbling (Job 7:19;
1052b ii-i~;, (kishron) success.
14:4; Ezk 7: 19; 14:4). Or: defense of the heart
(1 Sam 25:31); $Ur mikshol "a rock of offence."
1052c "litv•;, (kishor) distaff.
G.L.A.
R.L.H.

7i',f;, (kishshalön). See no. 1050b. 1053 :lt\~ (katab) write, record, enroll.
Derivatives
1051 *tiW~ (kashap) use witchcraft. Denomi- 1053a :lJ;I;, (k"tab) writing, document,
native verb. edict. Only used in exilic and
Related Nouns postexilic books.
1053b r,~:r,;, (k" töbet) a mark, perhaps a
1051a ~w;,
(keshep) witchcraft. ·tatioo (Lev 19:28).
1051b te,~~ (kashshap) sorcerer. 1053c :l~~~ (miktab) writing, the thing
written.
This verb and its related nouns mean the same
as the Akkadian kasapu and the Ugaritic k(JJ katab is the only general word for "write" and
(sorcery). lt occurs six times, in the Pie! stem it is widely used. Curiously, it is not used in
only. The participial form is used five times. Genesis. Moses wrote on a scroll God's curse on
The pharaoh of the exodus had those who prac- the Amalekites (Ex 17:14). God himselfwrote the
ticed this variety of the occult in his retinue of Ten Commandments (Ex 31: 18). Moses also is
advisers (Ex 7:11). They are grouped with the specifically said to have written the Book of the
hakamim (wise men) and har{ummim (magicians, Covenant (Ex 24:4), the Sinai legislation (Ex
q.v.). 34:27), the names of the leaders of the tribes
These sorcerers were outlawed in Israel. In Ex (Num 17:2-3 (17-,18]), the wildemess itinerary
22:17 the feminine form appears (m'kashshepa) (Num 33:2), the law "from beginning to end"
and in the long !ist of Deut 18: 10 the masculine (Deut 31:9, 24) and Moses' final song (Deut
(m 'kashshep ). The penalty was death. 31:22, 24). lt is quite possible that the general
Among the sins of King Manasseh was witch- references of Deut 31:9 and 24 refer to the whole
craft (II Chr 33:6). This is the only occurrence of of the Pentateuch (cf. Deut 28:58--0!; 29:20-21)
the finite verb form. although critical scholars refer it only to Deut-
Another occurrence of the participle is in Dan and question even that.
2:2. Like the pharaoh, King Nebuchadnezzar References to writing abound in the rest of the
summoned his "sorcerers" along with his oT. Joshua wrote (Josh 24:26), a young man
"magicians" (J:iar{ummim), enchanters ('ash- wrote for Gideon (Jud 8: 14, NASB, NIV), Samuel
shapim, q.v.), and Chaldeans (kasdim). wrote the constitution of the kingdom-and oth-
Malachi saw these sorcerers being judged in ers, prophets, kings, scribes and common people
the end along with adulterers, liars, and oppres- wrote as weil. lt appears from the many refer-
sors of widows, orphans, and foreigners (3:5). ences in I and II Kgs that the court records of
both Israel and Judah were written, preserved
keshep. Witchcraft, sorcery, soothsayer, spell.
and available. The series of such notations begins
This masculine noun occurs six times in the oT,
with Solomon (1 Kgs 11:41) and goes to the
always in the plural (II Kgs 9:22; lsa 47:9, 12; Mic
breakup of the kingdom under Jehoiakim (II Kgs
5: 12 [H II]; Nah 3:4 twice).
24:5). Similar records were kept by the Babylo-
kashshäp. Occurs only once, Jer 27:9, "sor- nian kings and some have been discovered
cerer." (Wiseman, D. J., Chronicles of the Chaldean
Bibliography: Davies, T. W., Magie, Divina- Kings, British Museum, 1956). Fortunately for
tion, and Demonology, 1898, reprint, KTAV, Mordecai such records were also kept by the Per-
1969. sian kings. Like modern minutes and records,
R.L.A. they apparently made dry reading (Est 6: 1-2).

458
 1059 t'\t,,;i(kätep)
The enigmatic references to the Book of Jasher tograph to Alphabet, rev. ed., 1954. HIOT, pp.
may possibly be explained as referring to similar 201-207. White, W., in ZPEB, V, pp. 995-1015.
records. The word Jasher (like Jeshurun, Deut R.L.H.
33:26) is probably a poetic name for all Israel.
The Book of Jasher may thus have been a record r,;:fr,; (k"töbet). See no. 1053c.
book of the events of Israel in the pre-monarchy r,•i,:, (k'' til). See no. 1062a.
days as the annals of the kings of Judah and of
Israel were in later days. lt is mentioned only in 1054 ',r,:, (kt/). Assumed root of the following.
Josh 10: 13 and II Sam 1: 18. lt bears no relation to 1054a ',:,:, (kote/) wall of house.
the apocryphal book of the same name.
According to R. K. Harrison, Wellhausen still 1055 *oi:,; (katam) I, only Niphal: be stained,
in his day held that the Hebrews did not write be defded. (Aramaic k"tam; kitmä, a
before the times of the monarchy (HIOT, p. 201 ). stain: Syriac k" tarn "be defiled." Akka-
Such a view seems odd today, but it reminds us dian katamu "to cover. ")
how little archaeology was really known one
hundred years ago. Writing began among the 1056 or,:, (ktm) II. Assumed root of the follow-
Sumerians shortly before 3000 B.c. and at about ing.
the same time in Egypt. There was a wealth of 1056a tor-,:,~ (miktiim) miklam. A tech-
literature by Abraham's day and Moses, trained nical term w'h.ich appears in Psalm titles. Mean-
in the learning of the Egyptians, surely could ing unknown. For related terms, see sela.
write Egyptian, Akkadian and Hebrew, possibly
This term is used in six Psalm titles, always
also Hurrian and Hittite.
linked with /''diiwid "of" or "belonging to David"
Some have argued that although writing was
(Ps 16, 56--59). All six are psalms oflament and four
available it was little used among the Hebrews
of the headings have historical references to
who have left us few examples of their writing in
David's struggles with the Philistines (56), Saul
comparison to the nearly one million clay tablets
(57, 59) and the Arameans (60). lf it comes from a
found in Mesopotamia and the abundant inscrip-
root "to cover" (cf. Akkadian katämu). miktäm
tions and papyri in Egypt. Actually, we do have
could mean a "song of covering" or "atone-
sporadic Hebrew writing scattered from Solomon
ment." Another view understands the term to
to Ezra. We have very little after Ezra until the
mean an · ·engraving, ·' such as an inscription on a
Dead Sea Scrolls. One possible explanation for
stone slab, perhaps with gold letters (ketem =
this is that the Hebrews who used alphabetic
gold). For other such terms see selii.
script wrote on papyrus and leather. These mate-
rials are weil preserved in Egypt (and the Dead
H.W.
Sea caves), but soon deteriorate in the Palesti-
nian rainy season. 1057 O!)~ (ketem) gold.
F. F. Bruce rightly emphasizes that the He- Apparently this word is of Nubian ongm.
brews in Palestine had a great advantage over the Egyptian spells k-t-m.t in syllabic writing, imply-
Egyptians and over those in Mesopotamia who ing a loan word. But cf. Akkadian kitimmu
wrote on clay tablets. The Hebrews had an al- "goldsmith". See Ps 45:10: Job 28:16, 19: lsa
phabet. Whereas one must know several hundred 13:12: Prov 25:12; Dan 10:5.
signs to read Akkadian and also a )arge number to G.L.A.
read Egyptian, the Hebrews only had to learn
twenty-two. Says Bruce, "lt is worth noticing 1058 i1'1:l (ktn). Assumed root of the following.
that it was the alphabet that made it possible for 1058a tr,_~l'\~ (kuttönel) tunic, a long shirt-
all classes tobe literate; its invention is therefore Ukegarment, usually of linen (Gen
a landmark of great importance in the history of 37:3; II Sam 15:32; Jsa 22:21).
civilization," and, we may add, in the spread of
the knowledge ofGod's word ( The Books and the Adam's was made offur (Gen 3:21). Also worn
Parchments, rev. ed., 1963, p. 30). Harrison by women (II Sam 13:18; Song 5:3). Worn es-
draws a significant conclusion, "lt is no longer pecially by priests (Ex 28:4; 29:5; 39:27; Lev 8:7;
necessary to assume that an extended period of 10:5; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:69). (Cf. Akkadian kitinnu
oral transmission is a necessary prerequisite to or kitintu, a linen garment made from kitü linen;
the written form of many if not all of the oT the Aramaic kittunä' is the same as the Hebrew.)
documents as is common in liberal circles" The word was borrowed by the Greek )'.LtciJv.
(HIOT p. 209).
Biblwgraphy: Bruce, F. F., The Books and ritr-i;i, (küttönet). See no. 1058a.
the Parchments, 3d ed., Revell, 1962. Cerny, J.,
Paper and Books in Ancient Egypt, Ares, 1977. 1059 eir.,; (kätep) shoulder, shoulder-blade, side
Driver, Godfrey R., Semitic Writing: From Pie- or slope (of a hill).

459
 (Distinct from 1:1;:;,~ sh 'kem which includes 1061 tti!'.1;1(kätash) pound, pound jine, bray.
neck and shoulders.) ·or man: I Sam 17:6; Deut Occurs only in Prov 27:22, 'im-tiktosh
33: 12; of refractory beasts: Neh 9:29; of butch- ·et-hii' ewfl bammaktesh "if you pound the
ered meat: Ezk 24:4; shoulder-piece of ephod: Ex fool in the mortar."
28:7; mountain-slope: Num 34: 11; supports of the
bases for the lavers beside the temple: I Kgs 7:30. Derivative
G.L.A. 1061a ttir;i;i, (maktesh) mortar (Prov
27:22).
1060 *"l!:11 (kätar) surround (Pie)); sur-
round (with hostility, Hiphil). 1062 !'IN (kätat) crush to pieces, crushjine.
Derivatives Derivatives
1060a ,;:,~ (keter) crown (Est only). 1062a l'l~l'.'lf(kätit) beaten, pounded jine,
1060b *"1!:lf (kätar) to crown. Denomina- in a mortar, costly.
tive verb. 1062b :,~;~ (m' kittii) crushed fragments
1060c l'l'.'.)!'.1·:.,
(köteret) capital of a pülar. (lsa 30: 14, only).

l'l'.'.)!'.1il
(koteret). See no. 1060c.

460
1063 7 (/') to, a1, in, in reference to, of, by
etc. In recent translations, occasionally
"from."
Even though Hebrew possessed, at least in its
later stages, a !arge number of prepositions, many
prepositional functions remained concentrated in
the four prefixes; b', k', /', and min. Ofthese, /'
' mtroduced: .. Blessed be Abram 'by' God" (Gen
14:19). From a purely descriptive perspective, the
direct object of some verbs is marked by /'' "with
which your enemies shall distress you" (Deut
28:53; i.e. "make distress 'for' you") and "save
us" (Josh 10:6; i.e. "make deliverance •for' us").
This is common in Aramaic.
Used with infinitives, it may indicate purpose
most nearly corresponded to the Indo-European
("for bearing," Eccl 3:2), result (" 'so as to' walk
dative case. (The present article relies very heav-
ily on the BOB entry.) ... and 'to' fear," Deut 8:6), an infinitive ofrefer-
/' may indicate direction, either of physical ence ("do not go far 'in reference to' going," Ex
8:28), or an objectival infinitive ("began ·to' mul-
movement ("that I may go 'to' my country" Gen
30:25) or of personal attention or attitudes. The tiply," Gen 6: 1).
Psalmist asked God to attend "to" him (Ps 55:2 There is an additional meaning of /'' suggested
[H 3]). The Psalmist also affirmed that his soul from Ugaritic and now accepted by many in He-
would not be deserted "to" Sheol (Ps 16:10). God brew, the meaning "from." Gordon says that the
mocked "at" rebels (Ps 2:4; RSV "have in de- most interesting feature of Ugaritic prepositions
rision. "). is the meaning "from" for both band 1 (UT 10:1).
lt may indicate the direction or result of a trans- He alleges that Ps 84: 11 [H 12], also Josh 2:4
formation or change. God's fashioning of Adam's where "from the tribes of Israel" with /'' is par-
rib "into" a woman (Gen 2:22) and the expres- allelled by 4:4, "from each tribe" with min. Da-
sions, "who put bitter 'for' sweet and sweet 'for' hood gives other examples from the Pss (Psalms,
AB, III, p. 394). Holladay's Lexicon does not
bitter" (lsa 5:20) are clear examples. A process
offer this usage, but does admit an emphatic and
might endow a given object with a new character
asseverative use in agreement with Dahood.
or rote. Plant life was designated as being man's
"forfood" (Gen 1:29). The Levite took on service
"for a priest for Micah" (Jud 17:13). 1064 M''(/ö') not, no.
lt expresses location both in space and in time. lö · was the primary Hebrew term for factual
Spatial location is exemplified in such phrases as negation in contrast to 'a/ which typically de-
"at the door" (Gen 4:7) and "at Michmash" (lsa scribed potential negation. Other negatives
10:28); temporal location by such phrases as "in functioned less frequently for factual negation
times oftrouble" (Ps 9:9 [H 10])and "in the spring (e.g. 'ayin, bal and h'/i). This article will, first,
of the year" (II Sam 11:1). examine the major syntactical functions of lö',
A very numerous and vaguely defined body of and, secondly, study some theologically signifi-
usages is grouped under the heading, "reference." cant negations expressed by this term.
In these usages, the meaning of /" is best regarded Major syntacticalfimctions. lö' negates factual
as something rather vague like "in reference to" statements in all time frameworks. lt serves to
with the exact meaning derived from the context. negate omnitemporal. general statements. The
Abraham requestedofSarah, "Say, 'in reference happy man does not walk in the counsel of the
to' me" (Gen 20: 13). A census could be conducted ungodly (Ps 1: 1). Further, he is likened to a tree
"'in reference to' (i.e. "according to") fathers· whose foliage does not wither (vs. 3). lt negates
houses" (Num 1:2). past Statements (·' I did not call, · · I Sam 3 :6), pre-
lt can indicate possession as in "the man 'of' sent statements ("l am not a prophet," Arnos
you" (1 Sam 2:33) and "your sons" (II Kgs 10:30; 7: 14 [many would take this as past time, but there
lit "sons 'to' you"). Such a construction, "my are plenty of other possible illustrations. R.L. H. 1),
own possession" (Ex 19:5; lit. "possession ·to' and future statements ("lt will never be inhab-
me"), expresses God's special relation to his ited," Isa 13:20). lt is used in emphatic future
people within the requirements of the covenant. negations ("Surely, you shall not die,·· Gen 3:4).
/' may express the construct relation in cases in lt negates adjectival attributes such as "a son,
which a construct chain would be grammatically not wise" (Hos 13:13) and ··a way, not good" (Ps
awkward or impossible. lt is especially useful if 36:4).
the writer wished to keep the possessed item in- lt may be used in an emphatic negative com-
definite (e.g. "two slaves ·to' Shimei" meaning mand: "You shall not kill" (Ex 20:13). Fora mil-
two of Shimei's slaves, I Kgs 2:39). der negative, ·al with the jussive is used. The
The subject of passive verbal ideas may be thus Hebrew imperative is never used with a negative.

463
1065 :M', (/'b)

lo' is used in negative final clauses as in Ex 28:43. is thus described (Jer 12:5). The Sodomites are
"So that they not (i.e. ··lest they") bring guilt." described as physically wearied from searching
lo' followed by /' with an infinitive states that for Lot's door (Gen 19:11). Physical weariness is
something cannot or must not happen (e.g. "He sarcastically attributed to Moab from much activ-
could not drive out," Jud 1: 19, and "We must not ity in idolatry (lsa 16:12; cf. Prov 26:15).
mention," Arnos 6: 10). As a negative adverb, it Psychological weariness expresses several at-
may indicate denial or refusal (Jud 12:5). Like titudes. On Job's part, discouragement (Job 4:5)
English "not" it may indicate a question: .. And and annoyance (Job 4:2) are thus described. Dis-
should I not pity ... ?" (Jon 4:11). Double nega- gust is also indicated by /a'ii when the Egyptians
tion occurs (Zeph 2:2). are said tobe too "tired" to drink the corrupted
/o' is used in several negative compounds: waters of the Nile (Ex 7: 18) and when God is
b'/o', without; hti/o', not so?; wälo', and/ifnot; depicted as "tired" ofthe Hebrews' insincere re-
k'/o', as though not; /'/o', without; and 'im lo', ligious rituals (lsa 1:14). As a poetic figure weari-
if not. ness describes the land struck by drought condi-
Some theologically significant negations. tions (Ps 68:9 [H 101).
Philosophers have long referred to language of Often the idiom of "being weary" with some-
negation in describing the transcendent attributes thing serves as a dramatic, poetic way of assert-
of God. Biblical negations using lo' frequently ing that there is an objectionable excess of what
describe God. God transcends humanistic causes weariness. The Hebrews were wearied by
models: "God is not a man" (Num 23: 19). God so "too many" pagan, religious advisors (lsa 47: 13).
transcends human capacities, especially man's Attempting to hold in God's message of wrath
moral capacities, that men cannot see God and was too much for Jeremiah to bear (Jer 6: 11).
live (Ex 33:20). God is immutable; his character God himself was weary from too much relenting
does not change (Mal 3:6). God's unchanging (Jer 15:6).
faithfulness is spoken of, most particularly in re-
t•lä'ä. Toil, hardship (RSV "hardship," "ad-
gard to his covenants (Ps 89:33-34). God's near-
versity"). The primary reference is to that which
ness ("not a God afar off," Jer 23:23) implies his
produces weariness. lt refers to the wilderness
omnipresence. God is not confined by finite (or
hardships of the Hebrews (Ex 18:8; Num 20: 14),
infinite) space (1 Kgs 8:27). Nor is God bound by
the troubles of the restored Hebrew community
time (Ps 102:27 [H 28]). God's holiness is shown
(Neh 9:32), and the judgments which God
in that evil cannot exist in his presence (Ps 5:4-5).
brought upon his sinful people (Lam 3:5). Corre-
There are other negations worthy of notice.
Several describe the powerlessness of idols: they spondingly, insincere religious services were
are impotent (i.e. "They are not able") in the called a source of weariness for God (Mal 1:13).
time of captivity (lsa 46:2); they cannot move A.B.
from their place, do not answer, and cannot save
(lsa 46:7). Finally, in the Davidic covenant, the 1067 1Qtt7(lä'a() cover. Occurs only in II
Hebrews will someday be settled in the land not Sam 19:5, "the king covered his face."
to be disturbed or affiicted again (II Sam 7: 10).
Neither shall God's covenant faithfulness turn IQM7 (la'(). See no. 1092a.
from the Davidic dynasty (II Sam 7: 15).
On occasion there is uncertainty as to whether 1068 ia,ci, (/'k). Assumed root of the following.
/o', not, or lo, to him, is intended in the Hebrew 1068a t'!ltt71; (mal' äk) messenger, repre-
text (e.g. Job 13:15; KJV"Yet will I trust him," sentative.
i.e. "to him," and Rsv "I have no hope"). Con- 1068b t:i;M?l? (m''la'kii) work, business.
text, versions, and general theology must be re- 1068c tr,~,t'71;(ma/'äküt) message, only
lied on in such cases. only in Hag 1:13.
mal'äk. Messenger, representative, courlier,
1065 ::11,ci,(l'b). Assumed root of the following. angel. "Messenger" is an inadequate term for
1065a :i;~7~ (tal'übii) drought (Hos the range of tasks carried out by the OT ma/'ak.
13:5). These were 1) to carry a message, 2) to perform
some other specific commission, and 3) to repre-
1066 :itt? (lä'ii) be weary, grieved, offended. sent more or less officially the one sending him.
There were both human and supematural
Derivative m'lä'kfm, the latter including the Angel of
1066a t.itt?l;I(t'lä'ii) toil, hardship. Yahweh (i.e. the Angel of the Lord).
lä'ii refers either to physical or psychological Human messengers. The human mal'äk could
weariness and is used in poetic figures based be a message bearer (Gen 32:2). The kinds of
upon both. The physical weariness of the runner messages varied. They may have announced

464
 1069 CM', (/'m)

good news (1 Sam 6:21), threats (1 Kgs 19:2), or could refer either to the activity of working, the
requests (Num 20:14: 22:5: Jud 7:24). However, requisite ~kills of work, or to the results of work.
the term was applied to courtiers or retainers sent In contrast to terms like 'amal and yäga· which
for other purposes. They could spy (Josh 6:25) or emphasized the toilsome. laborious side of work,
kill (1 Sam 19:11: II Kgs 6:32). David sent "'mes- this term emphasized work as involving skill and
sengers" to summon Bathsheba (II Sam 11:4). benefits.
The m" lä 'kim could serve as diplomatic repre- All work was banned both on the weekly Sab-
sentatives (Jud 11:12-14: II Sam 5:11: I Kgs bath (Ex 20:9-10) and on the festal Sabbaths (Lev
20:2). 16:29). God himself ceased from working on the
Men, particularly the prophets, could serve as Sabbath day (Gen 2: 1-2).
God"s messengers. For the prophets, the term Turning to specific usages of m •·/a 'kii, it could
implied official representation of God as weil as refer to a particular task or project at hand (Neh
message bearing (II Chr 36:15-16: Hag 1:13). 5: 16) or it could refer to one 's routine or habitual
David is called an "angel/messenger of God." A work, i.e. one's business (Gen 39: 11; Prov 18:9).
possible interpretation is that David represented lt referred to the king's business (l Sam 8: 16) and
God in that he represented some particular divine that of the royal bureaucracy (l Kgs 9:23).
attribute: innocence (1 Sam 29:9), wisdom "'Work" referred to skilled craftsmanship
(II Sam 14: 17), or hoped-for graciousness (II Sam when God endowed men with supernatural skills
19:27). In lsaiah, God"s messenger is seen in for the skilled work of the tabemacle (Ex 31 :3:
weakness (lsa 42: 19). Rsv, "'craftsmanship"), and Solomon imported
Supernatural messengers. (This section deals Phoenician craftsmen for the skilled work of the
only with the term mal'äk, not with the broader temple (l Kgs 7:14).
area of angelology.) Supernatural messengers The resulting products of work, both skilled
represented the same general range of functions and unskilled, were described by this term.
as human messengers. Message-bearing might be Moses looked upon the skilled "work „ of the
central (Zech 1:9: 5:5). More often they per- tabernacle (Ex 39:43). Or it could refer to prop-
formed some particular commission such as erty in general without regard to special skills or
guarding a human effort like the search for value (e.g. I Sam 15:9, "all that was despised"
lsaac's bride (Gen 24:40) or protecting the He- for "every despised work"; cf. also Ex 22:8, 11).
brews in· the wilderness (Ex 23:20). They exe- Bibliography: Funderburk, G. B., "Angel,"'
cuted judgment (II Sam 24:17: Ps 78:49), deliv- in ZPEB 1, pp. 160--66.
ered (Gen 19:12-17), and protected (Ps 91:11). A.B.
A special function of supernatural messengers/
angels is that they, by their very presence, pre- 1069 CM'? (l'm). Assumed root of the following.
sent an aspect of God's glory (Gen 28: 12-17: cf. 1069a tl:IM7 W'öm), l:liM'? (/"'öm) na-
angels in lsa 6, Ezk 1, Rev 4:6-8, and the tion(s), people(s). · (ASV and Rsv
cherubim in the Holy of Holies). In addition they agree.)
join in active praise to God (Ps 148:2; cf. lsa 6:3 ).
The Semitic root (as seen in Arabic /a'ama
The Messenger/Angel <d.Yahweh. This figure "assemble") suggests that the meaning of the
has the same general range of functions as other word is togetherness, i.e. the common people
messengers. He brought messages, good (Gen considered as a whole. The word is also found in
16:10--13) and threatening (Jud 5:23). He per- Ugaritic, (UT 19:no 1346) Girdlestone (Synonyms
formed specific commissions of judgment (II Kgs of the 0/d Testament, Eerdmans, reprint, 1975,
19:35; Ps 35:5--6) and deliverance (Gen 22: 11: Ps p. 257) translates /'"öm as "race." However, it is
34:7 [H 8 ]). He could aJso be called the "angel of used to refer to peoples in their varied walks of
God" (Jud 13:6, 9, cf. v. 3 ), though this title is not life (Ps 44:14 [H 15]; Prov 11:26).
exclusively his. He alone had the ministry of In Gen 25:23, Rebekah is told that two nations
intercession with God in behalf of men (Zech (göyim) are in her womb and two f•· 'ümmim are
1:12; 3:1-5). to be separated from her. One /'" öm is to be
There has been extensive discussion of his stronger than the other. lsaac·s progeny would
identity. He seems to be God, since those who consist of two distinct types of people, each iden-
see him marvel that they have seen God (Jud tified by their unique quality. In Gen 27:29 'am-
13:21-22) and he speaks for God in the first per- mim appears as a near-synonym for /' 'ümmim.
son (Gen 16:10; Ex 3:2, 6; Jud 2:1). He is iden- The thought expressed is that people, in unified
tified with the pre-incarnate Christ on the groups and reflecting varying characteristics, are
grounds of similarity in functions, especially the to express homage to Abraha01's grandson.
intercessory function noted above. In Ps, /'''am is used in synonymous parallelism
m•lä'kä. Work, business, craftsmanship, goods, with goyim (44:2 [H 31) and 'ammim (Ps 7:7
property. Like the English "'work," m'"/ä'k<i [H 8]). In Ps 67 all three terms express the Psal-

465
1070 "'' (lb')
mist's desire that all men, of whatever relation- the most inclusive term for them since, in the
ship or characteristic, praise the Lord. In Prov Bible, virtually every immaterial function of man
and Jsa, parallel phrases indicate that the term is is attributed to the "heart."
qualified by its synonyms, but the thrust of the Very few usages of leb refer to concrete, phys-
term remains: all people in their definable groups. ical meanings. The death accounts of Nabal
This clearly suggests the unity and the diversity (1 Sam 25:37) and Joram (II Kgs 9:24) likely refer
of humanity. to the physical organ. The physical organ defined
G.V.G. the location of Aaron's breastplate (Ex 28:29).
Psalm 38:9 probably refers to the beating of the
physical organ. Physical "innemess" is ex-
:i', (leb). See no. 1071a. pressed by "heart." The deeps congealed "in the
heart of' the sea (Ex 15:8) and the fires of Sinai
1070 ic:, (/b"). Assumed root of the following. rose "to the heart of' Heaven (Deut 4: 11). The
1070a •;', (/'"bi) lion. Occurs only in Ps usage of "heart" for a divinely given vital princi-
57:5 in phrase napshi b' tok /' bä' im ple may best fit Job 34:14-15 ("ifhe take back to
and Nah 2:13, lib"ötäyw. himself the heart he gave," writer's paraphrase).
1070b M~;', (/"biyä') lioness, only in Ezk By far the majority of the usages of leb refer
19:2. either to the inner or immaterial nature in general
1070c tic•;', (/äbi') lion (often "'lioness" or to one of the three traditional personality
in RSV). functions of man; emotion, thought, or will.
In referring to the inner nature. leb may con-
The Akkadian cognate is labbu (from an origi-
trast some relatively obscure or less visible as-
nal lab'u?), Ugaritic lbu, Arabic labu'at., possi-
pect ofman's nature with the more public side of
bly the source of Greek leon. his being. lt may be regarded as an inner reflec-
läbi' often serves as a symbol ofthe violence of tion of the outer man (Prov 27:19; Rsv "mind").
men (Gen 49:9; Num 23:24); the violence of God Dream consciousness may be meant when the
in judgment (Hos 13:8); desolation (lsa 30:6). heroine's "heart" was awake though her body
God's great power overwhelms even the mighty slept in the Song of Songs (5:2). Statements such
lion (Job 4: 11). Other words for lion include as "Why does your heart carry you away?" (Joli
k'pfr, 'äryeh, layish and shalJal. 15:12) contrast the heart with the remainder of
A.B. the person. However, in other contexts, "heart"
expresses the totality of a man's nature and
1071 *:,7 (läbab) ravish (Piel), become in- character, both inner and outer (1 Kgs 8:23; Ps
telligent (Niphal). Denominative verb. 9:1 [H 21).
Closely related to the above is the usage of leb
Parent Noun as an emphatic personal term (cf. similar usage of
I07la t:', (leb), :;', (lebäb) heart, nepesh, 'e$em, etc.) The plagues are sent, not
understanding. just upon Pharaoh, but upon Pharaoh's heart (Ex
1071b t:,:', (/ibba) heart. 9:14). Thus, Jacob's stealing of Laban·s heart
1071c t:i;;', (/'biba) bread. might emphasize Laban as the object of Jacob's
l071 d t:;,i? (/ibbeb) cook bread. Denom- actions rather than Jacob's suhtlety (Gen 31:20;
inative verb, occurring only in the cf. Rsv, "Jacoboutwitted Laban"'). Similarly, the
Piel. breastplate of judgment on Aaron·s heart may
emphasize Aaron as the bearer of judgment as
läbab occurs as a denominative verb from leb weil as a bodily location (Ex 28:29). A variation
(Song4:9). Translated "ravished my heart" (KJV,
of this usage is "heart" as reflexive: "Refresh
Rsv) and "made my heart to beat faster" (NASB). your hearts" for "Refresh yourselves" (Gen
BDB suggests "encouraged." 18:5) and "strengthen your heart" for "streng-
"Become intelligent" suits the single Niphal
then yourself (with food)" (Jud 19:5).
usage (Job 11:12).
The whole spectrum of emotion is attributed to
leb, lebäb. Heart, understanding, mind (also the heart. Examples of positive emotions are the
used in idioms such as "to set the heart upon" following: Hannah's heart rejoiced (1 Sam 2:1) as
meaning "to think about" or "to want"). should the hearts of those who seek the Lord
Concrete meanings of leb referred to the inter- (1 Chr 16:IO). Love may be centered in the heart,
nal organ and to analogous physical locations. as when Delilah complained that Samson's heart
However, in its abstract meanings, "heart" be- was not with her (Jud 16:15). Absalom gained for
came the richest biblical term for the totality of himself the loyalty of the Hebrew nation by steal-
man·s inner or immaterial nature. In biblical lit- ing their hearts (II Sam 15:6). The joyful excite-
erature it is the most frequently used term for ment from the news that Joseph was alive made
man's immaterial personality functions as well as Jacob's heart faint (Gen 45:26). Reception of

466
 1074 i:, (Ibn)
comfort is seated in the heart as in the idiom "to 11:13). The heart is described as the seat ofmoral
speak to the heart" (Gen 34:3; Isa 40:2) for "to evil (Jer 17:9).
comfort." Personality dispositions may be considered as
As for negative emotions, grief is "evil of more or less permanent personality pattems.
heart" (Neh 2:2; Rsv "sadness of heart"). Some typical dispositions located in the heart are
David's regret or bad conscience at cutting Saul's generosity ("generous heart"; Ex 35:5), pride
garment is expressed as "his heart struck him" ("his heart became high"; II Chr26:16), and faith
(1 Sam 24:6; cf. II Sam 24:10). God's regret at ("the heart made firm"; Ps 78:8).
creating man is cente_red in God's heart (Gen 6:6). libbä. Heart (KJV, Rsv), rage (KB). Unique
The broken heart accompanies being oppressed
form of unclear meaning (Ezk 16:30). Perhaps a
(Ps 34: 18 [H I 9]). Contempt (II Sam 6: 16), envy
variant of leb.
(Prov 23: I 7), and anger (Prov I 9:3) are all
functions of the heart. t•bibä. A kind of bread. Perhaps pancakes
Idioms relating the heart to fear and bravery (BDB) or heartshaped (KB) bread (II Sam 13:6,
·are so numerous as to deserve separate treat- 8, 10).
ment. Fear is expressed as follows: The heart
libbeb. Pie! denominative verb for cooking the
may "go out" or "leave" (Gen 42:28; KJV,Rsv,
/'bibii. bread (II Sam 13:6, 8).
"fail"); it may "fall" (1 Sam 17:32: Rsv, "fail").
Biblwgraphy: "Heart," JewEnc. Pedersen,
To remove courage is to hinder the heart (Num
Johs, Israel, its Life and Culture, vol. II, Oxford,
32:7, 9). Fearoccurs when the heart "deserts" its
1959, pp. 102-S. TDOT, III, pp. 606-11; VII, pp.
owner (Ps 40:12 (H 13); KJV,"fails") or "melts"
908-13; IX, pp. 626-28. THAT, I, pp. 861-66.
(Josh 14:7). Trembling of heart may represent
A.B.
emotions ranging from the complete demoraliza-
tion ofGod's people under judgment (Deut 28:65;
cf. I Sam 28:5) to Eli's anxiety over the welfare of :,:::i:::i,(/'bibii).
See no. I071c.
the ark of God (1 Sam 4:13). On the other hand :ii~' (/abbii). See no. I077b.
the "heart of a lion" speaks of courage (II Sam w;:::17(l"büsh). See no. I075a.
17:10).
Thought functions may be attributed to the
heart. In such cases it is likely to be translated as 1072 *1:l;7 ([aha!) thrust down, out, or
"mind" or "understanding." To "set the heart away. Occurs only in the Niphal (Hos
to" may mean to "pay attention to" (Ex 7:23) or 4:14; Prov 10:8, IO).
to "consider important" (II Sam 18:32). Creative
thought is a heart function. Wicked devices origi- 1073 •:::i', (/"bi) lion. A form from /b' q.v.
nale in the heart (Gen 6:5). The RSVtranslates N~:, (/'bfya'). See no. I070b.
"which came upon Solomon·s heart" as "all that N~~7 (labt). See no. I070c.
Solomon had planned" (II Chr7:ll).
Wisdom and understanding are seated in the 1074 1:::i, (Ibn). Assumed root of the following.
heart. The "wise heart" (1 Kgs 3:12; Rsv, "wise 1074a t,:::i, (laban) white.
mind") and "wise of heart" (Prov 16:23) are 1074b *t1;~ (laben) be white. Occurs only
mentioned. This idiom can be so strongly feit that in the Hiphil.
"heart" virtually becomes a synonym for such I074c t:,~;i'7 (/" banii.) moon.
ideas as "mind" (II Chr 9:23; Rsv) or "sense" 1074d t:il':::i', (/'bönii.), :ili:::i', (/'bonii.)
(Prov 11:12; RSV).The heart functions in percep- 'Jr~nkincense. ' ·
tion and awareness as when Elisha's heart (i.e. l074e t1il;i'7 (/"banon) Lebanon.
Elisha's perceptive nature; Rsv "spirit") went I074f :,~;'7 (libneh) poplar. Occurs only
with Gehazi (II Kgs 5:26). As the seat of thought · ,n Gen 30:37; Hos 4:13.
and intellect, the heart can be deluded (lsa 44:20; 1074g t:il:='7 (l'benii.) brick.
Rsv "mind"). 1074h 1;S' (/aban) make bricks. Denom-
The heart is the seat ofthe will. A decision may - inative verb.
be described as "setting·· the heart (II Chr
12:14). "Not of my heart" expresses "not of my
1074i 1;7r;, (malben) brick mold.
will" (Num 16:28). The "hearts" of the Sheche- The Semitic root Ibn referred to a range of light
mites inclined to follow Ahimelech (.lud 9:3). colors including: the white of snow, the light
Removal of the decision-making capacity is de- brown or creamy color of fresh wood and manna,
scribed as hardening the heart (Ex IO:I: Josh the grey of the moon, the white of yogurt
11:20). Closely connected to the preceding is the (Lebanese Arabic}, and, finally. either the white
heart as the seat of moral responsibility. Righte- snow caps of the Lebanon mountains or their
ousness is "integrity of heart" (Gen 20:5). Moral light colored limestone. The Hebrew derivatives
reformation is to "set one's heart arighf' (Job vary in their individual theological overtones.

467
1074 1::l',(Ibn)

läbän. White. Describes goats (Gen 30:35), lt could also symbolize luxury and sensuality
peeled wood (Gen 30:37), manna (Ex 16:31), (Song 3:6; 4:6, 14).
horses (Zech 1:8; 6:3), milk (Gen 49: 12), and the
infection of leprosy (Lev 13). lts theological sig- 1°bänön. Lebanon. Generally refers to the
nificance is relatively limited. As the color of Lebanon mountain range more or less coinciding
with the present Mount Lebanon. In OTideology
leprous infection, it may represent corruption
"Lebanon" was important both as apart of the
and death. Zechariah's white horses, particularly
promised land and as a literary symbol for such
in comparison with the white horse of Revelation
(6:2), may signify military conquest. In contrast, ideas as majesty, power, or grandeur.
the white garments advocated by the Preacher Lebanon in O/d Testament History. From early
accompany a restrained hedonism (Eccl 9:7-9). times Lebanon, or part of it, was included in the
In Gen 49: 12 the whiteness is probably descrip- promised land (Deut 1:7: Jud 3:3). The Lebanese
tive and refers to prosperity and abundance. coast, Phoenicia, up to and including the land of
the Gebalites (i.e. Byblos) is listed in the prom-
läben. Be white. A denominative verb derived ised but unconquered lands (Josh 13:5). Hebrew
from läbän. lts major theological motif relates military and commercial activities in the Lebanon
whiteness to moral purity. The cleansing which (1 Kgs 9: 19; II Chr 8:6) were probably confined to
God brings to the sinner makes the sinner white the foothills of Mount Lebanon bordering the
as snow (Ps 51:7 [H 9]; lsa 1: 18). The cleansing of Beqaa Valley. The Lebanon range provided
martyrdom also makes white (Dan 11:35). A cedar wood for building the Old Testament tem-
fourth (in the Hithpael) has been translated both ples (II Chr 2:8; Ezr 3:7).
reflexively (Dan 12:10; RSV "make themselves
white"; and passively (KJV "made white "). While Lebanon in Literary Symbolism. Lebanon and
either translation is grammatically defensible, the its cedars were symbols of greatness in popular
latter translation avoids the misleading sugges- proverbs (II Kgs 14:9), folk tales (Jud 9: 15), and
tion that such moral cleansing comes by self- in the more literary imagery of the prophets. The
reformation. The white tree branches of Joel 1:7 Assyrian is said to have indicated the magnitude
represent the judgment accomplished by voraci- of his conquests by boasting that he had pene-
ous locusts. trated Mount Lebanon (II Kgs 19:23). God's
greatness is shown in that God planted the cedars
l•bänä. Moon. A poetic term for the moon (cf.
(Ps 104:16) andin the manner in which the Leba-
yäreal:r). lt is used in poetic figures both for non skips or leaps at the sound of his voice (Ps
beauty and for glory. As a figure for beauty it 29:5). Yet God's power is such that he can also
describes a beautiful maiden (Song 6: 10). The in-
destroy those cedars (lsa 10:34). The mighty
creased light of the moon symbolizes the miracu-
cedars are used elsewhere as appropriate sym-
lous glory of the coming golden age (lsa 30:26).
bols for proud, arrogant men (Ezk 31:3). They
On the other hand, the glory of the moon will be may also symbolize flourishing prosperity (Ps
superseded by God's glory which is to be re- 92: 12).
vealed in that same age (lsa 24:23).
The Lebanon region also served as a poetic
image for the mysterious and romantic, as nota-
l0 bönä, l"bönä. Frankincense. A resin from the
bly in the Song of Solomon. lt is used in romantic
hark of trees of the genus Boswellia. As the
entreaties (Song 4:8, 11, 15; cf. 3:9). lts connota-
amber resin dries, white dust forms on the drops
tions may have been a factor in naming one sec-
or tears of frankincense thus giving rise to its
tion of the Solomonic palace the House of the
Semitic name. In biblical times most frankincense
Forest of Lebanon" (1 Kgs 7:2).
came either from or via Sheba in southern
Arabia. lt was a major item in the ancient luxury l'benä. Brick. Most usages of this term occur
trade in spices. in contexts showing the toil and futility of human
In the oT it is significant as one of the ingre- effort. A sarcastic, poetic doublet emphasizes
dients of the holy incense (Ex 30:34) and as part that the Tower of Babel, an archetype of futile,
of the cereal offering (Lev 2: 1; KJV "meat offer- human effort, was built ofbrick (Gen 11:3). Futil-
ing"). The frankincense seems to have held a ity is seen again when the apostate Ephraimites
high degree of sanctity since all the frankincense under judgment defiantly boast that they will re-
was included in that portion of the cereal offering build the fallen bricks of Samaria (lsa 9:9).
given as God's memorial portion (Lev 6:15). lt Brick-making characterized the Hebrew toil in
was excluded from the cereal offering for Egypt (Ex 5:6-14). In light of the above, the brick
jealousy (Num 5: 15). lt was also sprinkled on the used by Ezekiel for an object lesson (4: 1; KJV
shewbread (Lev 24:7). Frankincense seemed to "tile") may conceivably have emphasized the
be such a characteristic element in the sacrificial futile toil of the Jewish defense effort. A variant
system that the term could be used to represent form of this word refers to the surface beneath
the entire system (lsa 43:23; Jer 6:20). God's feet in theophanies (Ex 24: 10), a surface

468
 1077 ~:,', (lhb)

which elsewhere is referred to as the firmament The richest level of usage is using clothing as a
(riiqia'; Ezk 1:26). poetic figure for abstract qualities. God wears
Bibliography: "Lebanon," in ZPEB. Van majesty and strength as garments (Ps 93: 1). God
Beek, Gus, W., "Frankincense and Myrrh," in is challenged to put on strength, i.e. to use his
The Biblical Archaeologist Reader, vol. II, pp. power (Isa 51:9). God clothes himself in righ-
99-126. teousness, salvation, vengeance, and fury in pre-
A.B. paring for judgment (lsa 59: 17).
Men may be "clothed" in various qualities.
:,)::i', (/ibneh). See no. 1074f. Job was clothed in righteousness (Job 29: 14).
,;-~;~ (/'biinon). See no. 1074e. Salvation (II Chr 6:41) and strength (Isa 52: 1)
may be worn. Men were clothed in the Spirit for
specific purposes (Jud 6:34; I Chr 12: 19; II Chr
1075 IV~~ (/iibesh) dress, be clothed.
24:20). Negative qualities like shame (Ps 35:26;
Derivatives cf. Job 8:22) and cursing (Ps 109:18) also were
tw-,:::17
(/'bush), !V;l? (/'büsh) gar- worn like clothing.
1075a The most significant figure of this sort is the
ments, apparel. ...
one likening God's imputed righteousness to
1075b tiv~=,~ (malbush), iv~71; (mal-
clothing. The individual's own good deeds are
bü;h) vestments.
filthy rags (lsa 64:6; cf. Joshua in Zech 3:3) which
1075c tl"l\i;':71'1(tilböshet) garment.
God removes and then clothes his own in salva-
liibesh and its derivatives show three levels tion and righteousness (lsa 61: 10). Then, like
of usage: 1) being clothed, 2) being clothed as a Joshua in Zechariah's vision, men clothed in
sign of rank, status, or character, and 3) poetic God's righteousness can stand before God.
figures likening abstract qualities to clothing.
J•bush. Garments, apparrel. This and other de-
In addition to simply referring to clothes as
something to be put on (Song 5:3), clothes may rivatives cover the same general range of mean-
reveal something about the wearer. David's ings as the verb. /' bush may refer to the formal
vestments of an office (II Kgs 10:22). lt could
daughters showed both their royal status and
refer to literal clothing representing grief (Ps
their virginity by their clothing (II Sam 13:18).
35:13), luxury (II Sam 1:24), glory (Ps 45:13
The purple of Ezk 23 :6 was intended to show
[H 14]), and transitoriness (Ps 102:26). lt was
nobility or royalty. The king's favor, and result- used as a poetic figure for abstract qualities like
ing positions, were marked by special clothing for strength and dignity (Prov 31 :25).
both Joseph (Gen 41 :42) and Mordecai (Est 6: 11).
Clothing could reveal sensuous luxury (Jer 4:30) tilböshet. Garment. V sed once likening ven-
or prosperity (Prov 31 :21). A change in garments geance to a garment (lsa 59: 17).
will typify the holiness needed to enter the Holy malbush. Vestment, garment. Used to refer to
of Holies of Ezekiel's future temple (Ezk 42: 14). literal clothing such as royal livery (1 Kgs 10:5)
Professional offices could be revealed by garb and priestly garments (II Kgs 10:22) and as a po-
such as the prophet (Zech 13:4) or the warrior etic figure for abstract qualities. Red-stained
(Ezk 38:4). garrnents symbolized vengeance (lsa 63:3) and
Occasions of grief were marked by the wearing certain fine garments showed luxurious glory
of special clothing. Garments of widowhood may (Ezk 16:13).
be the best known example (Gen 38:19). Mourn- Bibliography: Sandars, N. K., tr., The Epic
ing (II Sam 14:2; Est 4:1) and repentance (Jon of Gilgamesh, Penguin, 1964, pp. 97, 102-4.
3:5) could be marked by wearing special clothing. THAT, I, pp. 867~9.
In Zechariah's vision Joshua's sinful state is re- A.B.
vealed by his filthy garrnents (Zech 3 :3; see be-
low). The poetic figure describing Job as 1076 J°', (log) a liquid measure, about one-half
"clothed with worms" (Job 7:5) showed Job's Liter (Lev 14). There were probably
unhappy state. seventy-two logs in one bath (bat, q.v.).
When God clothed Adam and Eve in skins
(Gen 3 :21), he provided a rich symbol of their 1077 :::i:,', (lhb). Assumed root of the following.
new status. These garrnents are generally inter- 1077a t:::ii'.17(/ahab) jlame, blade.
preted as showing the need for sacrifice through 1077b t:i;:;t?, (/ehiiba) jlame, tip of wea-
the need to kill the animals to provide the skins. pon.
However, the conversation between the 1077c t1"1?,1'7W (sha/hebet) jlame.
Mesopotamian hero, Gilgamesh, and Utnapish-
tim suggests that the wearing of skin clothing lahab. Flame, blade, point. This terrn refers
might also symbolize all the frailties of fallen either to the flame of fire or to the tip or blade of a
human life. weapon probably due to the rough similarity in

469
l 078 ;ir,', (lhg)

appearance between the two objects. The Arabic 26: 18, "like a madman shooting fire-
lahiba means "bum with thirst." The Akkadian brands" (Niv).
Ja'bn means "fever." The Aramaic shaphel form
shalhel is "bum (up)." 1081 ~ 0 ? (/aha() kindle, burn.
lahab refers to the tips or blades of daggers
(Jud 3:22), spears (Job 39:23; "point of spear" Derivative
rather than "flashing spear" as in Rsv), and 1081a 11:1
0 ';, (/aha() flame, blade(?).
swords (Nah 3:3).
lt denotes the flames from Leviathan's mouth /aha( may refer to literal burning, or it may be
(Job 41:21) and the literal flames of an altar on used as a poetic figure to describe God's judg-
which the angel ascended to Heaven (Jud 13:20). ment. The Akkadian /a'aru means "consume
The "crackling of a flame" is one of the noises of with fire." The Aramaic /' hat means "con-
invasion (Joel 2:5). sume," "burn up."
A supematural "flame of fire" will be among Some typical examples of lahat in the sense of
God's great judgments at the end of history (Isa literal burning are: the burning of Korah's fol-
29:6; cf. Isa 30:30; 66: 15-16). lowers (Ps 106:18; cf. Num 16), the burning of
mountain forests (Ps 83:14 [H 15]), and of trees
lehäba. Tip (of weapon),flame. Once describes (Joel 1:19). The breath ofLeviathan kindled coals
a weapon tip, that ofGoliath's spear (1 Sam 17:7). (Job 41 :21 [H 13]). lt refers to the burning behind
In all other usages, it serves as a poetic figure the invaders mentioned in Joel (2:3). Once it re-
for some human or divine act. The "flame" from fers to the way in which lightning bums up Go~•s
Sihon symbolized military conquest (Num 21:28; enemies (Ps 97:3) and it describes as "flamirlg"
cf. Jer 48:45). Anger was described as a "fire of the fires which serve God (Ps 104:4).
flame" (Hos 7:6; Rsv "flaming fire"). The In purely figurative usages, it describes men as
"flame" represented dangers from which God "burning" in their desire to destroy others (Ps
would protect his people (Isa 43:2). 57:4 [H 5]; cf. RSV "greedily devour"). lt de-
God's judgment was repeatedly likened to a scribes divine attributes and acts such as God's
flame. The "flame" is associated with God's anger in burning the foundations ofthe mountains
judgment upon his own sinful people (Isa 5:24), (Deut 32:22). Evil-doers will burn as chaff in the
on Egypt during the Exodus (Ps l05:32; Rsv great coming day ofjudgment (Mal 4:1 [H 3:19)).
"lightning that flashed"; literally "fire of The verb may even describe God's own people as
flame"), and the Negev (Ezk 20:47; RSV"blazing burning in God's judgment (Isa 42:25).
flame"; Hebrew lahebet shalhebet, see below).
God' s "holy one" will someday be a flame of lahaj. Flame, (blade?). Used once (Gen 3:24)
judgment upon God's enemies (lsa 10:17) as will where it is usually translated as "flaming" (liter-
God's people also (Ob 18). God's very presence ally "flame of the sword"). However, the over-
is symbolized by a "fire of flame" (lsa 4:5; Rsv, lap in meaning between "flame" and "blade"
KJV "flaming fire").
(cf. lahab) suggests that "blade" (of a sword)
The overlap between the meanings "blade" deserves consideration as a possible interpreta-
and "flame" raises the possibility that at some tion.
point the image of the voice as a flame of fire (Ps A.B.
29:7) and the image ofthe tongue as a sword (Rev
19:15) were originally the same image. 1082 *Cl0? (laham) swallow greedüy. Occurs
only in the Hithpael, in Prov 18:8, mit-
shalhebet. Flame. Used as a poetic symbol, lahamim "bits greedily swallowed" (see
twice of judgment (Job 15:30; Ezk 20:47) and also Prov 26:22).
once as a symbol of jealousy (Song 8:6). Appar-
ently this was derived from a shaphel form from 1083 it1? (Iahen) on this account, therefore
the root lahab. See the Aramaic form cited (Ruth 1:13).
above.
A.B. 1084 :i1;1::,'i(lahaqii) band, company (I Sam
19:20). Meaning and etymology dubious.
l078 J:,', (lhg). Assumed root of tbe following.
1078a .20 , (lahag) study, i.e. devotion 1085 ~', (/u), H~', (lu')would that, I wish, per-
to books (Eccl 12:12). haps. A Hebrew particle used to mark
several kinds of potential constructions.
1079 :i:;t? (/äha) languish, faint (Gen 47: 13). 1085a "''" (/u/e') if not, unless (e.g., Jud
14:19; I Sam 25:34).
1080 *:11',:,17(lih/eah) amaz.e, startle. Occurs lu marks three degrees of personal desire or
-~~ly in the Hithpalpel participle in Prov agreement: wishes, entreaties, and statements of

470
 1089 :,i', (lwh)

assent. lt also marks two types of potential Bibliography: ··Levi," in ZPEB. Albright,
clauses: "perhaps" clauses and conditional W. F., Archeology and the Religion of lsrael, 5th
clauses. ed., pp. 106, 203.
When used to express a wish, it may be trans- A.B.
lated "would that" or "I wish." Abraham's de-
sire that lshmael might live before God (Gen l088 ~? (läwa) II,
17:18) and Joshua's rhetorical wish that the He- (Hiphil).
brews had remained beyond the Jordan (Josh 7:7)
are both marked by this particle. Combined with This may be a specialized usage of läwa
other devices to indicate potentiality, it may ex- (supra). In contrast to the purely economic sig-
press a very strong wish (1 Sam 14:30). In Ab- nificance of borrowing and lending in modern
raham 's petition that the Hebronites would hear life, these acts were endowed with a special
him (Gen 23: 13), lü serves as a particle of en- theological significance in the OT. Only once is
treaty. Finally, it marks Laban's agreement with borrowing referred to as a primarily economic act
Jacob's proposition on wages (Gen 30:34). in the borrowing of the restored Hebrew commu-
When introducing pure potential clauses, it nity to raise money for paying taxes (Neh 5:4).
may be translated as "perhaps" as when Jo- Also, the borrower and the lender are once re-
seph's brothers speculated that Joseph might ferred to as one of several pairs expressing all
hate them (Gen 50:15: RSV "it may be"). When classes of society (lsa 24:2).
accompanied by a statement of consequence. i.e. Remaining usages reflect the special theologi-
an apodosis, the lü clause becomes the protasis cal and moral perspectives of the OT. The Hebrew
of an unreal conditional sentence. "If the Lord was not permitted to receive interest for loaning
had meant to kill us" (Jud 13:23)and "if Absalom to another Hebrew (Ex 22:24-25). [Another view
were alive" (II Sam 19:7) are good examples of (reflected in KJV) is that interest on loans was
this (cf. Job 16:4: Ezk 14:15). allowed but not excessive interest (usury). In de-
A.B. fense ofthis position, E. A. Speiser shows that in
the surrounding cultures a loan was discounted
1086 Mi? (lo') not. Alternative form of M·, with interest paid in advance. The thing prohib-
(q.v.). ited in Akkadian sources and in the biblical laws
was additional interest after a defaulting debtor
1087 Mj? (läwa) I, join, be joined. was enslaved. See the fuller discussion and refs.
Used once in the Qal (Eccl 8:15): the remaining under neshek. R.L.H.] Willingness to lend was a
usages are in the Niphal. läwa refers to the join- sign of righteous graciousness (Ps 112:5). Some-
ing of an item or person to someone or something times, the expectation or obligation of concrete
eise. Most significant theologically is its usage to repayment may be so remote or inappropriate
refer to foreigners who join themselves to God's that "lending" becomes almost synonymous
people as converts. with "giving" (Prov 19:17; note also "loan" and
In general usage it refers to the way in which "give" as parallel in Ps 37:26).
hedonistic pleasures "stay with" a man (Eccl The want or poverty which leads to borrowing
8: 15); also it is used for joining in a military al- is said to indicate the absence of God's blessing
liance (Ps 83:8 [H 9]), the conjugaljoining ofhus- (Deut 28:44), while the ability to grant a loan
band to wife (Gen 29:34), and the joining of the characterizes a God-given prosperity (Deut
Levites with Aaron for service at the tabernacle 28: 12). Inability to repay debts shows the futility
(Num 18:2-4). of the wicked (Ps 37:21). Finally, Scripture ob-
As a term referring to conversion it describes serves that the borrower is a slave to the lender
those who, impressed by God's work in restoring (Prov 22:7).
his people, willjoin themselves to the Hebrews in Bibliography: "Loans" in JewEnc.
the worship and service of God, i.e. will be A.B.
spiritually converted (lsa 14:1). Others will join
themselves to God as a result of some divine
judgment (Zech 2: 15: cf. Est 9:27). Such Gentile
1089 n,, (lwh)
ing.
III. Assumed root of the foUow-

converts are assured that they will not be sepa- 1089a ~,? (liwya), n:·,(loya) wreath.
rated from God's Covenant (lsa 56:3--6). Some- Occurs in the phrase liwyat f)en,
day God's repentant people will (re)join them- referring to the instruction of par-
selves to a true covenant relationship to God (Jer ents (Prov 1:9), and to the work of
50:5). Wisdom (Prov 4:9).
This usage of läwa to reflect religious dedica- 1089b "hti~,?(liwyätän) large aquatic ani-
tion supports the notion that the name "Levi" mals, may be crocodile (Job 41:1
expressed the religious dedication of the tribe of ASV marg.), serpent (lsa 27:1), or
that name to the Lord' s service. whale (Ps 104:26), usually rendered

471
1090 T~,
(/Ctz)

.. Leviathan" (consistently in KJV, supposed to cause eclipses when wrapped about

ASV, and Rsv). the sun.
Negative criticism holds that the writers of the
/iwyiitiin appears six times in the OT, as a literal Old Testament had a real faith in these creatures.
animal, a figure for Egypt (Ps 74: 14), and a figure But that the oT authors actually believed in such
for sinful mankind in general (lsa 27: 1). mythology should be roundly denied. However,
Derived from a root attested in Arabic, lwy "to some have held that the references to Leviathan
twist" (liwyti "wreath," Prov 1:9), liwyiitiin is as many-headed in Ps 74: 14 and to its serpent
reflected in Ugaritic ltn, a monster called Lotan. character in Job 3:8 may be allusions to the cur-
Biblically, however, it appears only with other rent mythological themes (cf. Smick, bibliog.).
beasts: niihiish "snake" (lsa 27:1), or tannin Albright calls this a proper demythologizing by
"!arge reptile" (Ps 74: 13-14). the biblical authors (YGC, pp. 183-93).
Yahweh overawed Job by confronting him with Bibliography: Kissling, N. K., .. Antecedents
his invincible creature liwyiitiin (Job 41 [H of the Medieval Dragon in Sacred History," JBL
40:25ff.]). Clearly the Nile crocodile, with scaly 89: 166-77. Payne, J. B., Theology of the Older
hide (vv. 7, 15-17 [H 40:31; 41:7-9]), terrible Testament, Zondervan, 1971. Pfeiffer, C. F.,
teeth (v. 14 [H 6]), and swift swimming (v. 32 [H "Lotan and Leviathan," EQ 32: 208ff. Smick, E.
24]), it is described poetically, i.e. "his sneezes B., "Mythology and the Book of Job," JETS 13:
flash forth light ... out of his nostrils smoke goes 106.
forth" (vv. lS-21 [H 10-13]), but not mythologi- J.B.P.
cal. Other hyperbolical comparisons follow: "he
spreads out like a threshing sledge on the mire; he
makes the depths boil like a pot" (vv. 30-31 [H
22-23], NASB)]. In the Psalter (cf. rahab [q.v.] in 1090 11, ([Ctz) turn aside, depart.
Isa 51 :9-10) the power of the crocodile becomes a
natural symbol for the troops of Egypt, over- Derivatives
thrown by the Lord at the Red Sea: 1090a trm, (/iizCtt) deviation, crookedness.
Thou didst divide the sea ... 1090b n,'
wood.
(/Ctz) almond tree, almond
Occurs only in Gen 30:37,
Thou breakest the heads of Leviathan
Thou gavest him tobe food to the people inhabit- referring to the rods which Jacob
ing the wildemess (Ps 74:13-14). stripped.

Perhaps here liwyiitiin refers to the corpses of The verb /Ctz occurs in the Qal, Niphal, and
Hiphil stems. The Qal imperfect is used in Prov
Egyptian soldiers that were washed up on the
3:21, as Wisdom instructs her son not to let sound
shore before Israel (Ex 14:31).
wisdom and discretion "slip from sight" (NEB).
Elsewhere liwyiitiin swims in God's "sea,
Maintaining such a focus assures him of life and
great and wide," a creature "whom Thou hast
formed to play therein" (Ps 104:25-26), presum- grace. .
In Prov 4:21 Wisdom encourages her hsteners
ably a Mediterranean whale or dolphin (NBD, p.
to heed her words and not let them slip out of
729). Yet unlike the hostile beasts in the some-
what parallel "Hymn to the Sun," composed by mind (NEB; literally, do not Jet them depart from
your eyes). In this passage /Ctz occurs in the
the reform pharaoh Akhenaten, Leviathan et al.
wait humbly upon God (v. 27) as mankind's "fel- Hiphil imperfect. .
In the four following examples, ICtz occurs m
low pensioners" (C. S. Lewis, Reflections on the
the Niphal participial form. Two passages use it
Psalms). The noun liwyiitiin may also designate
figuratively of crooked or devious ways (Prov
serpents, such as might be roused by snake-
2: 15; Prov 14:2). (Note NEB "double-dealer" in
charming magicians, who were also reputed to
14:2.) Isaiah 30: 12 also denounces those who
impose curses (Job 3:8; cf. Num 22:5-6).
rather than trusting in the Word of God, trust in
"Leviathan" thus comes to denote a swift sea
serpent, slain of God, to symbolize his es- oppressive and devious practices of their own
chatological "punishing the inhabitants of the scheming. In so doing, however, they draw the
earth for their iniquity" (Isa 26:21-27:1). judgment of God. _
Finally, Prov 3 :32 uses the word figurat1vely of
Many scholars identify the oT leviathan with
a crooked, perverse person who is detested by
such mythological monsters of chaos as Lotan of
the Lord.
Ugarit or Tiamat and Kingu of Babylon. Its
crushed heads in Ps 74: 13 (assumed to be seven) läzut. Deviation, crookedness. Proverbs 4:24,
are equated with those of seven-headed dragons the only passage that uses the word figuratively
(illustrated in IDB, III, p. 116) slain by Baal urges men to put away l'zCtt s'piitayim the "de-
(Scripture substituting the name Yahweh), and its viation of the lips," i.e. perverted talk.
aroused coils in Job 3:8 with those which were W.C.K.

472
 1093 ~')7
(/ewi)

1091 ni', (lwl:i). Assumed root of the following. plagues ofGod. In four other nontheological con-
1091a ti:r,', (/ita/:1) tablet, plank, board. texts it is used as an adverb, secretly, softly
(Ruth 3:7; Jud 4:21; I Sam 18:22; 24:5).
A cognate of the Akkadian ltum or Sumerian
Bibliography: Vergote, J., Joseph en Egypte,
c1su. u 5 UM, lüa/:1appears over forty times in
1959, pp. 66-73.
the oT. Since Sumerian uses the determinative for
W.C.K.
wood (GIS), we may suppose that originally tab-
lets were made from wood. Any such wooden
tablets have long since perished. The first known 1093 .,, (/ewi) Levi.
tablets consist of pictographs on clay, found in
Iayer IV B of Uruk (cf. D. J. Wiseman, lllus- Derivative
trations from Biblical Archaeology, Eerdmans, 1093a t-i', (/ewf) Levite, denoting a mem•
1958, pp. 10-11). /iia/:1, however, can refer to · ·ber of the tribe of Levi.
writing surfaces of stone (the tablets of the Ten Levi was the third son bom to Jacob by Leah,
Commandments in Ex 24: 12; 34:28), the wooden
his less-favored wife (Gen 29:34).
planks of the tabemacle (Ex 27:8; 38:7) or of a
Levi, progenitor of the tribe of Levi, to_okpart
ship (Ezk 27:5), and the meta! plates on the base
in a distinctly odious incident (Gen 34). His s1ster
of the lavers in Solomon·s temple (1 Kgs 7:36).
Dinah had been raped by Shechem, son of the
/üah is also used figuratively. Men are told to
Canaanite Hamor. He would be permitted to
write God's commandments on the "tablet of
0

marry her if he and his whole city would consent

[their] heart'' (Prov 3:3; 7:3). The sin of Juda~,
to be circumcised. This they did, but while they
ironically, is engraven on the „ tablet of _th~ir
were still recovering from the operation, Simeon
hearts" (Jer 17:1). The prophet Habakkuk 1s m-
and Levi went and slew all the mal es of the city
structed to write the vision on a billboard(?) so (Gen 34:25-26).
that it will be plain for a messenger to read and
Jacob was so indignant over this deed that he
run (Hab 2:2).
still remembered it on his deathbed. lnstead of
The stone tablets handed to Moses were the
blessing Levi, · he predicted that both it and Si-
work of God and the writing of God (Ex 31:18;
meon would be scattered in Israel (Gen 49:7).
32:16; 34:1); yet God employed Moses, as a sec-
While this curse turned out tobe the eventual end
ondary agency, to write the words he wanted on
ofSimeon's identity in the land ofCanaan, Levi's
the tablets (Ex 34:27, 28). This is in keeping with
descendants by faith turned it into a blessing.
other biblical statements which attribute to God Their scattering became the occasion for minis-
directly what is accomplished through the ~g~ncy tering on behalf of the Lord to all Israel. God
of men. Ultimately, all must and does ongmate
adopted this tribe as his own inheritance in lieu of
and end with God (e.g., the crucifixion, Acts
the firstbom male of every household (Num
2:23).
3: 11-13).
Just as Moses is commanded to record the bat- No other information is given about the man
tle with the Amalekites as a memorial for young
Levi or his tribe until the family went down to
Joshua (Ex 17: 14), so Isaiah is told to write the
Egypt. The historicity of their sojoum in Eg~pt
prophecy against dependence on Egypt "on a
tablet and note it in a book" (lsa 30:8). These may be attested in part by the nmi:iberof Egyp~1an
names among the Levites: Meran, Moses, Phme-
texts with such others as Jer 36 document the has, and Hophni (mrry '"beloved"; mss "bom
process of inspiration.
of," according to some; Jp-n/Jsy '"the bronze-
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., Semitic Writing,
colored one, and /Jfnr "Nubian").
rev. ed., London: 1954, pp. 16, 79--80.
An unnamed descendant of Levi married an
W.C.K.
unnamed Levite woman who bore Moses, Aaron,
and Miriam (Ex 2:lff.). The reference to Amram
1092 to,', (lii{) wrap closely, envelop.
and Jochebed in Ex 6:20 "giving birth" to Moses
Derivatives and Aaron is typical of biblical genealogies. The
immortalized ancestors are frequently credited
1092a 11:17 (/ä{), toM7 (/a'() se~recy.
with bearing the children of subsequent genera-
1092b toi', (/öl) envelope, covenng. Oc-
tions. (Note the language ofGen 46: 15, 18, 25.)
curs only in lsa 25:7.
There were 8,600 descendants offour brothers or
lät. Secrecy, mystery. Used in Ex 7:11, 22; 8:7 cousins, ofwhom 2,750 were between the ages of
[H3], 18 (H 14) in the plural with the preposition 30 and 50 years (Num 3:17-20, 27-28; 4:35-37).
b' to refer to the enchantments or secret ans Obviously, the record implies that there are more
(Rsv) practiced by Pharaoh's magicians than four generations connecting Levi and
(hartümmfm, a name borrowed from an Egypt1an Moses; this Amram was not Moses· actual father,
~ord hry-tp '"chief lector-priest") in their at- who remains unnamed (Ex 2:1).
tempt to keep up with Moses' and Aaron's Aaron becomes the high priest in the line of the

473
1094 ,~, (lul)

Levites who showed their fidelity in Ex 32:26-29. In the hierarchical order of the cultures, the
Aaron in turn hands the office to his son Eleazar Levites take second place after the Aaronite
(Deut 10:6) and he hands it to his son Phinehas priests as compared with other lsraelites. Ac-
(Jud 20:27, 28). Then the high priesthood is trans- cording to the Mosaic legislation, some of the
ferred from the line of Eleazar to the Aaronic line Levites' duties included bearing the ark (1 Sam
of lthamar in Eli (1 Chr 24:3: I Sam 2:22, 28). Eli's 6:15; II Sam 15:24), performing various services
sons are too wicked to deserve this pre-eminence in the tabemacle (Ex 38:21; Num 1:50-53), and
(1 Sam 2:27-36), so in Solomon 's day Abiathar is ministering to Aaron and his sons (Num 3:9;
deposed and the Aaronic Zadok takes over as 8: 19). David placed them in charge of the liturgi-
predicted by the "man ofGod" in I Sam 2:27-28, cal music (1 Chr 15:16, 17, 22) and ofpolicing the
35: I Kgs 2:26-27, 35). temple (1 Chr 9:26; 26: 17). In the time of Ezra,
they taught the people the Law (Neh 8:7--8; cf.
lewi. Levite. Despite strong disclaimers to the Deut 31:25).
contrary, it is evident that the tribe of Levites But most important of all, the tribe of Levi was
was descended from the ancient Levi. Levi was to serve as a substitute for the firstbom of all
Jacob's third son by his wife Leah (Gen 29:34). lsraelite males (N um 3: 11-13). Scripture thereby
Since Leah was competing with her prettier sister resists the analogical deduction (hence a waming
Rache! for Jacob's attentions and affection, she in other areas such as double predestination) that
named her son Levi, adding the wordplay, "My would demand human sacrifice, since all the
husband and I shall surely be united [or joined]." firstbom of the earth belong to the Lord. lnstead
The Lord alluded to this remark when he in- of human sacrifice, God once again accepted a
structed Aaron that he and his sons would bear substitute; this time one Levite for each firstborn
the responsibility for the sanctuary and the male in Israel.
priesthood, while the tribe of Levi was joined to Bibliography: Cody, Aelred, A History ofO/d
him to assist him in carrying out these duties Testament Priesthood, Pontifical Biblical Insti-
(Num 18:1-2). Note how the NEB translation of tute, 1969. MacRae, A. A., "Numbers," in NBC,
these verses distorts the Hebrew distinctions in pp. 166-67. Orr, James, The Problem of the 0/d
the text so as to favor a critical interpretation! Testament, London: Nisbet & Nisbet, 1909, pp.
The Wellhausen theory insists that division of 180-92. TDNT, IV, pp. 239-41.
the priesthood into priests and Levites derives W.C.K.
from the reform of Josiah (621 e.c.) at the ear-
liest. Wellhausen claimed that the high priest was
ri•,,(/iwya).
i~:ji,
See no. 1089a.
(/iwyütün). See no. 1089b.
still unknown even to Ezekiel, for the first actual
reference to such a division is Ezk 44:6ff. where
the services of the temple and altar are assigned
1094 ,1, (/ü/) shaft or enclosed space with steps
or ladder. Occurs only in I Kgs 6:8,
to the sons of Zadok.
Why then is the high priest expressly men- üb' lülim ya ·a/ü.
tioned in II Kgs 12:10: 22:4, 8; 23:4 and possibly 1095 ,,,, (/w/w). Assumed root of the follow-
in II Sam 15:27? Why does Deut 18:1--8 make
ing.
such an obvious distinction between the "priest"
ministering at the sanctuary (vv. 3-5) and the
1095a •71, (lülay) loop.
"Levite" otherwise occupied (vv. 6--8)? Even the
phrase "the priests the Levites" (Deut 17:9, 18;
M,~,
•,·;,
(/ü/e').
(/ü/ay).
See no. 1085a.
See no. 1095a.
18:1: 24:8; 27:9; Josh 3:3; 8:33: Jer 33: 18, 21 [note
reverse order in v. 21]; Ezk 43:19; 44:15; II Chr
23: 18; 30:27) only implies that all priests are Le-
1096 i1, (lün), i•'7 (/in) lodge, spend the
night.
vites, not the reverse. In Hebrew the limiting
word is always placed after the word it limits, Derivatives
hence the phrase means "the Levitical priests."
1096a tii,~ (mülon) lodging place, inn.
(Note the Rsv wrongly inserts "that is" between
the phrases "the Levitical priests „ and "all the 1096b ri;1,~ (m'/üna) lodge, hut. Oc-
curs only in lsa 1:8; 24:20.
tribe of Levi" (Deut 18:1). The Levites are not to
be equated with the priests on the basis that the U sually lün is used of men lodging for the night in
terms used to describe the Levites' duties in Deut some place. Thus Lot graciously invited the two
18:7 are the same as those used of priestly duties, angels, who had come to destroy Sodom (Gen
i.e. "to minister in the name" (cf. 18:5 of priest, 19:2), to lodge with him. Jacob spent the night at
17:12; 21:5) "to stand before" (cf. I Kgs 10:8, Bethel (Gen 28: 11). But more interesting illustra-
etc.). These terms are used of priestly duties, but tions of the use of the word are figurative: Ps 30:5
so are they used of subordinates like young [H 6] says, "Weeping may endure for a night, but
Samuel (1 Sam 2:11, 18; 3:1). joy comes in the moming.' · The theological usage

474
 110l :in', (11:,h)
emphasizes the brevity of God's anger as op- abuse (Ex 16:7--8; Num 14:27, 29). In the final
posed to the life-giving power of his abundant analysis their murmuring was always against God
favor. who commissioned the leaders of the people. The
Righteousness lodges in a faithful city (lsa murmuring, of course was not without reason,
1:21), while the man who fears the Lord dwells at namely, hunger or thirst in the desert, or an ap-
ease (Ps 25: 13). Indeed, he who listens to Iife- parently unattainable goal. But they sinned be-
giving reproof will abide among the wise (Prov cause they doubted God and cast aspersion on his
15:31). Proverbs 19:23 says it succinctly: "The justice, goodness, and power.
fear of the Lord is life indeed [emphatic lamed], Noeldeke suggests that a double 'ayin root,
and he who has it shall abide satisfied." The con- Inn, or (on the basis of an interchange between
verse is likewise briefly stated: "Man being in lamed and resh,) rnn "to cry aloud." But no
honor does not endure; he is like the beasts that evidence exists to support either idea. Even KB's
perish" (Ps 49: 12 [H 13]). connection with Arabic l(y)m "to blame"
The best verse of all is Ps 91: 1. "He who likewise fails. Whether in the Niphal or Hiphil
dwells in the secret place of the most High shall form, the verb means to express resentment, dis-
abide in the shadow of the Almighty." satisfaction, anger, and complaint by grumbling
in half-muted tones ofhostile opposition to God's
mälön. Lodging place, inn. There are eight
leaders and the authority which he has invested
references to lodging places such as the one cho-
in them.
sen by Joseph's brothers as they returned from
The true nature of this murmuring is seen in the
Egypt (Gen 42:27; 43:21). The most famous is the
fact that it is an open act of rebellion against the
one where Moses and Zipporah stopped for the
Lord (Num 14:9) and a stubborn refusal to be-
night on their way back to Egypt. There God
lieve God's word and God's miraculous works
sought to kill Moses (affiict him with a fever or
(Num 14:11, 22, 23). Thus the right attitude in
disease?) because he had failed to circumcise his
real difficulty is unconditional acceptance and
son (apparently because of Zipporah's protesta-
obedience. God's own must never stand in judg-
tions, Ex 4:24).
ment upon him.
In other cases, it is the prophet who longs for
some sort of camp in the wilderness so that he tetunnä. Murmuring. Always used of Israel's
can leave his people, because their sins are loath- murmurings (pi. const. noun) against the Lord:
some (Jer 9:2 [H 1]). In lsa 10:29 the approach of an act of rebellion, disbelief, and disobedience to
the Assyrian king and his nightly stopovers are duly constituted authority (Ex 16:7, 9, 12: Num
noted with fear. Indeed, a proud Sennacherib 14:27; 17:5, 10 iH 20,251).
boasted that he would enter Lebanon's remotest Bibliography: Coats, George W., Rebellion in
campground (II Kgs 19:23: cf. Isa 37:24). the Wilderness, Abingdon. 1%8, pp. 21-28.
The feminine form m''/ünii also occurs. lt re- THAT, I, pp. 870--71.
fers to a hut or cottage in a vineyard (lsa 1:8) built
for the watchman of the crop. An eschatological 1098 l)1', (/üa'), llll? (/ii'a') l,swallow,swal-
passage states that the earth will reel to and fro low down.
and totter like a cottage (lsa 24:20). Notice then,
both its proverbial fragility and isolation. Derivative
W.C.K. 1098a l)', throat. Occurs only in
(/ö'a)
Prov 23:2, "and you will pul a knife
1097 11', (/ün) murmur, rebel (against). to your throat" (to restrain oneself
from overindulgence in food).
Derivative
1097a t:,i7l:' (t'lünnii) murmuring. 1099 l)1', (/ü'a), lll/7 (/ä'a') II, talk wildly.
Except for Josh 9:18, a reference to lsrael's
displeasure with J oshua · s handling of the Gibeon-
r1, (/ü!f). See no. 1113.
ite lie, all occurrences of the verb lün are to be
1100 w1', (lüsh) knead.
found in six chapters in the Pentateuch: Ex 15,
16, 17; Num 14, 16, 17, each with the preposition
'a/ "against." In each case the subject of the
rm', (/ii::,üt).See no. 1090a.
n', • (/ah). See no. 1102a.
murmuring is all of the congregation of Israel.
i:r~ (/e~/J). See no. 1102b.
Numbers 16: 11, however, may refer only to
Korah (cf. 16: 19). The object of their verbal as-
1101 :,n', (//Jh). Assumed root of the following.
saults is usually Moses and Aaron (Ex 16:2; Num
1101a +-n', ({'/Ji} jaw, cheek.
14:2): occasionally, Moses is singled out (Ex
15:24: 17:3: Num 14:36) or Aaron (Num 16:11): at This noun occurs twenty-one times in the or
other times the Lord himself is the object of their and is attested in the Ugaritic II]_,.(e.g. UT, 16:II

475
1102 nn, (IIJIJ)
Aqht: 1:29-30 tbq IJ:,tni$h "who will shut the jaws not only Israel, but also the elements of nature
of his detractors"). (Josh 10:11; 24:7; Jud 5:20). Nevertheless, the
The most famous jawbone appears in Jud 15: Israelites must also join the battle and fight with
15-17, 19. Samson uses it to slay or vanquish (see the Lord. Even though their land has been
näkii) one thousand men, and thereby names the deeded to them as an inheritance, they must con-
place Ramath-le\,i, "hill of the jawbone." quer it in battle (Ex 23:27-33). Bauernfeind
In Job 41:2 [H 40:26], God reduces Job to comments: "Nevertheless, neither their equip-
thoughtful silence while asking him if he is capa- ment (Jud 7:2ff; I Sam 14:6; 17:45, 47) nor their
ble of taming Leviathan (poetic name for a numbers (Jud 7: II Sam 24: lff; Ex 30: 12) turned
crocodile) by putting a hook through itsjaw. But the scale. lt was Yahweh who went before them
God is able to put the hook in its jaw and in the (Jud 4:14; Deut 20:4; II Sam 5:24), gave them
jaw of tannim, an aquatic figure for the Egyptian courage (1 Sam 30:6) and took it from their foes
Pharaoh (Ezk 29:4) and in the jaw of Gog (Ezk (Ex 15:15-16; 23:27f) by miracles (Josh 10:11:
38:4). He will put a bridle in the jaws of the 24:7: Jud 5:20: by terror, I Sam 14:15). To him
people of the nations (lsa 30:28) but take it from and him alone belonged the praise (Ex 14:4, 18;
the jaws of his own so that they may eat (Hos Zech 4:6)" (TDNT, VI, p. 508).
11:4). Israel constituted the "armies of the Yahweh"
While men like Micaiah, the true prophet of the (Ex 12:41) whose troops had tobe holy (lsa 13:3).
Lord, may be smitten on the cheek by false Even the lsraelites' weapons and campgrounds
prophets like Zedekiah (1 Kgs 22:24; II Chr 18:23) had tobe holy if the Yahweh was to camp with
and Job may be verbally smitten on his cheeks by them (Deut 23: 10-15; lJ Sam 1:21; lsa 21 :5). Thus
his miserable comforters (Job 16: 10), God will "if it had not been the Lord who was on our side,
deliver the last blow to the enemies· cheeks (Ps when men rose up against us, then they would
3:7 [H 8)). Men will even smite with a rod the have swallowed us up alive" (Ps 124:1-3 [H 4J;
leader of Israel on the cheek (Mic 5: 1 [H 4: 14]). 118:10-14). "Fight against those who fight
The Servant ofthe Lord, the Messiah, will volun- against me, 0 Lord" (Ps 35:1). But lsrael's trust
tarily submit his "back to the smiters and [his] must be in the Lord. warn the prophets, not in
cheeks to those that pluck out the beard" (lsa horses, chariots, weapons, or men (cf. Deut
50:6), but he too will emerge triumphant. 17:16--17: I Sam 17:47; Isa 31:1-3: Hos 8:14).
W.C.K. Israel itself was subject to attack from God if
they flaunted his laws and indulged in sin. Arnos
cm,', (/"J:,üm). See no. 1104b. 2: 14-16 comes very close to describing all-out
warfare against Israel. Isaiah 63: 10 states
explicitly that when the lsraelites rebelled against
1102 MM'?(IJ:,J:,). Assumed root of the following.
the Holy Spirit, God became their enemy and
1102a M';>(/a!1) moist, fresh, new. fought against them.
1102b t:';> (/eaJ:,) moisture,freshness. There is yet coming a time when God will fight
once more: this time against all the nations which
•r,', (/" J:,i). See no. 1IO!a. have attacked Israel (Zech 14:3). Yahweh has de-
creed the death of the beast and the end of his
1103 ir.', (/ähak) Liek (e.g. Num 22:4; 1 Kgs power (Dan 7: 11. 26: 8:25: 11:45). God will per-
-18:38).· sonally put on the breastplate of righteousness,
helmet of salvation, suit of vengeance, and coat
1104 Cl!J7 (/ii.f:,am) l,fight, do battle. of zeal as he judges the enemies from the nations,
until the fear of him is spread from east to west
Derivatives (lsa 59:17-19).
1104a tc:M', (/ähem) war (?). Only in Jud lä!iem. War(?). This word appears only in J ud
5:8. . 5:8 and is usually translated "then was there war
1104b 01M', W!1üm) intestine,bowels(?). [atj the gates ... Others read it as "then was there
1104c t:i~r;t?~ (milf:,ämii) battle, war. barley bread" or "the barley bread was ex-
The most significant usages of the verb läf:,am, hausted." The first is probably tobe preferred.
which occurs 171 times, pertain to God's role in mil!iämä. Battle, war, Of the 319 occurrences
lsrael's wars. When God calls Israel to arms of this noun, our interest centers on the battles in
against an enemy, it is because of the enemy·s which Yahweh was involved. While much has
moral degradation (Deut 7:4, 16. 25: 20:18, etc.). been made of the concept of "holy war"
In such conflicts, it is the Lord who does battle popularized by von Rad, the demure of men like
on Jsrael's behalf(Ex 14:14, 25: Deut 1:30; 3:22; A. Weiser must be raised. There is greater
Josh 10:14, 42; Jer 21:5; Neh 4:14; II Chr 20:29). breadth to the concept than simply the fulfillment
In doing so, Yahweh often calls into his service of an ancient sacral ordinance.

476
 I I05 ci:,7(la~am)
True, Yahweh is a "man ofwar" (Ex 15:3) and whole staff of bread" (Ps 105:16; lsa 3: 1; Ezk
his name Yahweh $''bä'ot, "LoRD ofhosts" does 4: 16; 5: 16; 14:13; Arnos 4:6). This was the princi-
on occasion reflect the fact that he is ple announced by Moses in Lev 26:26: God
commander-in-chief of Israel' s armies (1 Sam would send increasingly severe judgments on any
17:26, 45). David acknowledged that "the Lord nation that refused to walk in righteousness be-
saves not with the sword and spear: for the battle fore he brought the ultimate calamity. Even
is the Lord's" (1 Sam 17:47). And there was a worse than a famine of bread was famine of the
book containing "the wars of the LORD" (Num Word of God (Arnos 8: 11) both of which resulted
21:14). However, not every battle was a war of from the same cause: compounded sin.
/Jerem wherein everything in the captured city Sadly enough, even though God was richly
was devoted to destruction. supplying Israel with her grain, fine flour, oil, and
Further, many of Israel's wars were fratricidal honey (Ezk 16:19), she, like the adulterous
wars between the tribes (Jud 19-21) and even Gomer, insisted on running after her lovers, not
selfish wars of aggression (II Sam 24; I Kgs 22; realizing that God had been the source of those
Jud 17). Israel also fought defensive wars (Num gifts (Hos 2:5, 7~ [H 7, 9-IO]).
31; I Sam 11-17; 28-30; II Sam 5, 8) and offensive What could the few righteous like Habakkuk
wars (Num 21:21-35; Deut 2:26-3:17; Josh do when they saw their nation headed for such
6-12). disaster as a result of hardened and entrenched
Just before Yahweh makes "wars to cease" sinfulness? He would "rejoice in the Lord" and
(Ps 46:9a [H 10]) and forever destroys the im- "joy in the God of [his] salvation" even though
plements of war (Ps 46:9b [H 10]; lsa 2: 1-5; Mic outwardly he was shaking with fear and the fields
4: 1-5) the nations shall raise their arms against yielded no food ('oke/), (Hab 3:17-18).
Israel and their Messiah, but to no avail (Ps 2; Ps There is another kind of bread, wine, and milk
45:3ff. [H 4]; Zech 14). that can be bought without money or labor. Men
Bibliography: Al, pp. 247--07. Gross, H., may have it if they repent and seek the Lord (lsa
"War," in Sacramentum Verbi, III, pp. 958--0!. 55: 1-7). Jesu_s later calls himself the true bread
Pederson, J., Israel: lts Life and Culture, vols. from heaven just as the manna in the wildemess
III-IV, Copenhagen, 1940, pp. 1-32. von Rad, was "bread from heaven" (Ex 16:4ff.). Even
G., Studies in Deuteronomy, Regnery, 1953, pp. Elijah was fed food by God's ravens when there
45-49. TDNT, VI, pp. 507-11. was none to be had (1 Kgs 17:6). At other times,
W.C.K. God provided grain by sending visions and lead-
ership in Joseph (Gen 41:54, 55; 43:25, 31, 32;
45:23; 47: 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20). Both spiritual and
1105 Cll:!7(/ä/Jam) 1/, use as food, eat.
physical bread come from the Father of all good
Derivative gifts.
The dough which the lsraelites took with them
1105a tcri, (/e/Jem) food, bread, grain.
from Egypt was unleavened, because they had to
This noun occurs 296 times in the oT. But leave in haste (Ex 12:34, 39). Note, however, Lev
"man does not live by bread alone, but by every 23:17. The Pentecost wave loaves were to be
word that proceeds from the mouth of the LORD" baked with leaven! So leaven cannot always be a
(Deut 8:3). Man is not what he eats! principle of evil. The "bread of wickedness"
Yet all food is the gift of God. He planted the (Prov 4: 17) or the "bread of deceit" (Prov 20: 17)
garden of Eden and caused all the trees to grow is always obtained by wrong and results in bitter-
which were good for food (ma'akäl, Gen 2:9). ness of life. No better is the "bread of adversity"
Likewise the Psalmist asserts that God "caused (lsa 30:20), which spells times of persecution, or
the grass to grow for the cattle and vegetables for the "bread eaten in secref' (Prov 9:17) with the
the service of man: that he may bring food from seductress, for the act of adultery will poison a
the ground ... and bread which strengthens man's whole life.
man's heart" (Ps 104:14-15). Yes, he "gives food There is a better day coming when God will
to all flesh" (Ps 136:25); to the hungry (Ps 146:7) restore the bread and grain to its creation-state.
and to the beasts and young n,vens (Ps 147:9). The heavens and the earth will flow with abun-
God himself even instructs man the a:1 and prin- dance as man enters into that "Rest" of which
ciples of agriculture: how to prepare the ground, Canaan with its promised fruitfulness ("a land of
how to sow the seed in rows or to broadcast oth- wheat and barley, vine and fig trees and pome-
ers, and how to harvest each after patiently wait- granates, a land in which you will eat bread with-
ing the appointed number of days (lsa 28:24-29, out scarcity, in which you will lack nothing,
note grain in v. 28). (Deut 8:7-9) was an eamest or down payment.
Man must never presume that this "staff" on Nature will erupt in uninterruptible, delicious
which he leans will always be available, regard- productivity (Joel 3:18 [H 4:18); Arnos 9:13-14:
less of how he acts. God can and did "break the lsa 55:10-13; Ezk 47:6--12).

477
 Bibliography: Heaton. E. W., faeryday Life charmers (note Ps 58:5 [H 61). Their mouths are
in O.T. Times, Scribner·s, 1956, pp. 81--87; 97- usually full of reptile-like poison.
115. Richardson, TWB. pp. 37-38. Ross. J. F .. Just as bad are those who whisper together
IDB. II, pp. 307-308. (Hithpael) to devise evil (Ps 41 :7 [H 8]; see also
W.C.K. David's whispering serpents, II Sam 12: 19).
la-.ash. Whisper, charm. In Isa 3:20, the
1106 rr:t? (/ä/J.a$) squeeze, oppress. garishly attired women wear amulets or charms,
Derivative perhaps as protection against snakes or demons.
Professional enchanters (lsa 3:3) attempted to
I 106a trr:t'i (/a/J.a.~) oppression, distress. charm serpents (Jer 8:17; Eccl 10:11) as part of
No more graphic word picture of the meaning lsrael's decline into magic and divination. Some
of lä/J.a$ in its nineteen examples can be given have conjectured that thes.e charms may have
than that of Balaam's donkey squeezing up been serpent-shaped earrings (why not leg-
against the wall and thereby crushing Balaam's bands?) since the words rabbä'ot and nizme-
foot (Num 22:25a, 25b: II Kgs 6:32). hä'äp in lsa 3:21 are words for finger-rings and
The word finds its most important usage in the nose-rings.
realm of ethical theology. lsraelites were not to When God's chastening came upon Israel, they
oppress foreigners or strangers (Ex 22:21 [H 20]: cried out to God with whispers of prayer (lsa
23:9), for they once had been strangers in Egypt. 26:16); Ugaritic lbst "whispers" (UT 19:no.
that great oppressor. Oppressive treatment was 1373). This does not appear tobe an incantation.
strictly forbidden to all and to Israel in particular. Bibliography: Davies, T. Witton, Magie, Di-
Israel experienced a whole wave of oppressors 1·ination and Demono/vgy Among the Hebrews
during the period of the judges (Jud 1:34; 2: 18: and their Neighbors, KTAV, 1969, pp. 50-53.
4:3; 6:9: 10:12: I Sam 10:18). But the Lord sent W.C.K.
deliverers in each situation. Later he sent op-
pressors, (the king of Syria and others; II Kgs 1108 =·, (/ö() myrrh.
13:4, 22) against Israel on account of sin (Arnos
6: 14). =7 (/ä(). See no. 1092a.
Other nations will face their oppressors (lsa
19:20), too. But God always hears the cry for 1109 MtQ', (/(). Assumed root of the following.
mercy and deliverance. and he will lhen fight 1109a M~~'? (/"/ä'ti) a kind o/ lizard
daily against those oppressors (Ps 56: I [H 2]). (Lev 11:30).
la"a~. Oppression, distress. Almost all of the 1110 IV~?(/ä(ash) hammer, sharpen, whet.
eleven instances of this word deal with the op-
pression of Israel by her enemies. One exception 1111 M?~7 (/ay'/ti ), ',•';, (/ayi/) night.
is the expression for a prisoner·s rations, "the
bread of oppression and the water of oppression •· Unlike the Egyptian Hymn to the Atem in
(1 Kgs 22:27: II Chr 18:26). lsaiah 30:20 says that which the night is dreaded because the sun (Aton)
the Lord sends physical privations (in a seige has gone home, the OT insists that the darkness
here?) but there will still be left a Teacher, and and night were crealed by God (Gen 1:4, 5: Ps
ears 10 hear the exhortation, .. This is lhe way, 74: 16). During the night God is awake, providing
walk in it' · (lsa 30:21 ). The word is usually trans- for the beasts of the forest (Ps 104:20-22) and
lated in the 1.xxby thlipsis "tribulation." protecting men from pestilence (Ps 91 :5~). In-
W.C.K. deed the very alteration and regularity of day and
night is the result of God's covenant with each
(Gen 8:22: Jer 33:20, 25) and thus each succeed-
I 107 !Vr:t?(/ä/J.ash) whisper, charm.
ing day and night is a reminder of God · s faithful-
Derivative ness to his other covenant with Abraham and
David (Jer 33:21-26). To God, the night is as
1107a trvi::-;,(/a~wsh) a whispering, charm-
bright as the day (Ps 139: 11-12).
ing.
Of all the 242 occurrences of this word, the most
lä!wsh is found in Aramaic and rabbinical He- memorable night was the one in which God de-
brew with 1he sense of "to hiss as a serpent." livered his people from slavery. (Ex 11:4; 12:12,
Thus the word may be a dialectal variant of 29). lt is annually recalled in the passover. In-
nä/J.ash, since nun and lamed are of similar sound structive, in this connection, are the three days
(cf. the verb laqa!1 where the / acts like an n; the and three nights of I Sam 30: 12. Verse 13 plainly
verb ··10 oppress." lä~W$or nd/J.a$:and the noun says, "Today is the third [day]." Therefore it
"room," lishkti and nishkti). may be concluded that the expression is a stereo-
God will not listen to the prayers of serpent- typed formula which applies when any part of

478
 1115 ,,7(läkad)
three days is involved, not an affirmation that 1113b :i;•7~ (m ,./i.yti) satire, mocking
seventy-two hours have expircd (cf. our Lord's poem (Hab 2:6), jigure, enigma
three days and three nights.) (Prov 1:6).
Elsewhere the night appears as a time of trial.
Fools scorn and mock at sin (Prov 14:9) and
weeping, suffering, and communion with God
judgment (Prov 19:28). The scorner (Qal partici-
(lsa 30:29: Job 7:3; Ps 6:6 [H 7]; 77:2 [H 3): Isa
pial form) himself may be described as proud and
26:9; Ps 1:2: 42:8 [H 9J: 77:6 (H 7]: 88:1 [H 2]:
haughty (Prov 21 :24), incorrigible (Prov 9:7), re-
92:2 [H 3): 119:55).
sistant to all reproof (Prov 9:8: 15: 12), and hating
W.C.K.
any rebuke (Prov 13: 1). Wisdom and knowledge
easily elude him (Prov 14:6).
1112 r,•7•7(/i/it) Lilith. So despicable is the scorner that he may be
labelled as odious to all men (Prov 24:9). There-
A female goddess known as a night demon who fore he must be avoided (Ps 1: 1) by all who would
haunts the desolate places of Edom (lsa 34:14). live godly lives. Further, he should be punished
The ruin of Edom is so complete that only by hitting so that the easily pursuaded naive fool
wildcats, satyrs, and Lilith will stay there. may benefit from the lesson (Prov 19:25; 21: 11).
In late rabbinic literature, she is depicted as a One good way to remove contention from a group
creature with wings and long, flowing hair. No is to eject the scorner, and then. ··strife and re-
doubt she personifies the night or sunset. proach will cease" (Prov 22:10). A prepared
In Ugaritic literature she receives sacrifices judgment awaits all such scorners (Prov 19:29),
(UT 23:7) and is invoked in a hymn (UT 104) for their trademark of life has been "to delight"
which calls her "the veiled bride" (klt.mk[ktmt)) in their scorning (Prov 1:22). They shall be
and "our lady" (b/tn). The former epithet she brought to nothing and consumed (lsa 29:20).
shares with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar. Thal the particular type of wickedness of the
Actually, these night spirits are to be corre- scorner is pride is suggested by Prov 3:34. Here
Iated with the male Lilis. This masculine form the scorner is contrasted with the humble. In this
covers both male and female genders, as verse the LXX renders "scorner" by "proud"
explicitly stated in one of the many references which is followed in the NT Jas 4:6 and I Pet 5:5.
contained in the Aramaic Magical Bowls (see Cf. Prov 21 :24. Dahood points out a parallel of
Cyrus H. Gordon, Archii· Orientalni, 6:322). She this word with "evil" in the Karatepe I inscrip-
appears as La-le in Linear A and as lly in a tion (Psalms, l. in AB. p. 2).
Phoenician incantation from Arslan Tash. Isaiah Among the various mockers and scorners are
in his reference does not encourage worship or wine (Prov 20: 1), the proud (Ps 119:51). the king
respect for this demonic deity. The name may be of Samaria's henchmen (Hos 7:5), and Job's
used symbolically to depict a desolation. (Cf. KJV friends (16:20).
.. screech owl.") As a Hiphil participle, the word means an in-
Is it not possible also that what was a night terpreter, such as Joseph used to fool his brothers
demon in the pagan culture was just a night crea- (Gen 42:23). The interpreters in Isa 43:27 are the
ture (so NJV), perhaps a bat or owl, in Israel? The teachers of Israel. God's priests and prophets
pagan with his animism fills realities with spirits. who have sinned by refusing to give out Goct·s
Cf. Hebrew reshep "pestilence" with Ugaritic word as he first gave it. In II Chr 32:31. the word
rshp the "god of pestilence" and Hebrew yiim represents ambassadors or representatives of
"sea" with Ugaritic the ··god who is Prince Babylon.
Sea ... So lilit might have been a real creature The most interesting text is Job 33 :23. Elihu
demonized in the surrounding culture. speaks of God graciously teaching men through
Bibliography: Leuillet, Rene and Xavier the discipline of suffering the more perfect path
Leon-Dufour, "Night," in DBT, pp. 346--47. For of the Lord. Then God sends an angel, i.e. a mes-
a picture of Lilith, see Henry Frankfort, Art and senger otherwise known as an interpreter, am-
Architecture of the Ancient Orient, 1958, pi. 56. bassador, or even a mediator to show man what
p. 56. is right.
W.C.K. Bibliography: Harris, R. L., "Proverbs." in
WBC. p. 560.
W.C.K.
1113 r'? (/i$) scorn.
Derivatives 1114 tu•", (/ys/i). Assumed root of the following.
1113a li~7 (/ii$Oll) scorning (Prov 1:22). 1114a t:i•7 (layish) lion. See lahi" for
Occurs in phrase 'anshe lii$8n other words for "lion."
"men of scoming," i.e. scorners
in lsa 29:8: 28: 14. 1115 .,,7(/akad) capture, seize, take.

479
 Derivatives Hebrew uses the same root for both words be-
1115a i;;,'? (/eked) a taking, capture. Oc- cause all leaming and teaching is ultimately to be
curs only in Prov 3:26, in phrase found in the fear of the Lord (Deut 4: 10; 14:23;
w'shiimar rag/'kii millaked_. 17:19; 31:12, 13). To leam this is tocome toterms
1115b rii::,';,Q (malkodet) a catching in- with the will and law of God.
--~,;,;ment,i.e. a snare, trap. Occurs In other instances, men are trained in ways of
only in Job 18: 10, in phrase mal- war (1 Chr 5: 18) sometimes by the use of song (Ps
küdto ·a/e natib. 60: English heading [H 1]; Jud 3:2; Song 3:8).
Micah envisions a time when men will no longer
Most of the 121 uses of läkad deal with men leam warfare (4:3; Isa 2:4).
capturing or seizing towns, men, spoils, and even No one, however, has taught the Lord or acted
a kingdom (1 Sam 14:47). lt is used figuratively of as his counselor (lsa 40: 14). Rather, anyone who
the entrapment of men who are caught in snares knows anything has leamed it from him, the
of all sorts laid by their enemies (Jer 5:26; 18:22; source of all truth.
Ps 35:8). In Prov 5:22 the wicked is captured with
the cords of his own sins. Likewise, in Ps 9: 15 limmud. Taught. The taught ones in lsa 8: 16
[H 16] the heathen are seized in the very net are the Lord's disciples who know his law. The
which they hid to capture others. They are cap- Servant ofthe Lord, however, has the tongue and
tured by their pride, haughtiness, and the words ear of the learned (lsa 50:4). Therefore all Israel' s
of their lips (Ps 59: 12 [H 13]; Prov 6:2; 11:6). children await the messianic era with joy, for all
This word also serves as a figure of divine will be taught by the Lord (Isa 54: 13).
judgment. The Stone of Stumbling will cause talmid. Scholar. Only one oT passage, I Chr
many to stumble, fall, be broken, be ensnared, 25:8, uses this word. There "the small and the
and be captured (lsa 8: 15). When God shakes the great, the teacher and the scholar" are included
foundations of the earth, just prior to the Millen- in the selection of the twenty-four divisions of
nium ("many days" of Isa 24:22), the ungodly priests. In rabbinical times, the teacherofthe law
shall be seized in the trap (lsa 24: 18) as were was called the talmid Rabbi and his pupils were
those who drunkenly mocked the prophet's mes- known as talmidim, i.e. apprentices. Yet in
sage (lsa 28: 13). When God moves in judgment, another sense, all Israel were talmidim, appren-
husband and wives (Jer 6: 11), scribes and wise ticed to the torah of God. The Jewish Talmud
men (Jer 8:9) along with Moab (Jer 48:7, 44) will gets its name from this root.
be included.
Others are ensnared by a woman (Eccl 7:26) or malmed. Oxgoad. Judges 3:31 is the only pas-
are caught in the "cords of aflliction" (Job 36:8). sage which notes that Shamgar slew (or van-
W.C.K. quished? cf. näka) six hundred Philistines with
this iron-tipped instrument attached to a long
1116 ir;7 (/ämad) learn (Qal), teach (Piel). shaft used to goad the ox as it plows. Meta!
weapons were scarce because the Philistines held
Derivatives a comer on the market (1 Sam 13: 19-22), hence
1116a t•mi,';, (/immud) taught. the amazing deliverance which God granted by
1116b ti;,7~ (malmäd), i~7r; (malmed) the hand of this otherwise unknown judge.
oxgoad. Bibliography: Rengstorf, K. H., .. Man-
1116c ti•~7ti (ta/mid) scholar. thano," in TDNT, IV, pp. 400-405; pp. 426-41.
THAT, 1, pp. 872-74.
As one of the twelve words for teaching in the W.C.K.
oT, lämad has the idea of training as weil as
educating. The training aspect can be seen in the iQ';, (/'mo). See':>, no. 1063.
derived term for "oxgoad," malmed. In Hos ,~~? (/' müd). See no. 1116a.
10: 11 Ephraim is taught like a heifer by a yoke ~r'';,· (/oa'). See no. 1098a.
and goad. The Ugaritic lmd means "leam/teach"
and /amädu means "leam" in Akkadian. 1117 *::i:,,7(/ä' ab) jest. Occurs only in the
The principle use of this verb is illustrated in Ps Hiphil, in II Chr 36: 16, "they mocked
119. Here is repeated the refrain, "Teach me thy God's messengers" (NIV).
statutes" or "thy judgments" (vv. 12, 26, 64, 66,
68, 108, 124, 135, 171). At the request of king 1118 Jl.'7 (/ii'ag) mock, deride.
Jehoshaphat, a group of men went out and taught
the book of the Law in the cities of Judah (II Chr Derivatives
17:7, 9). 11!Sa tJl,'7 (/a'ag) mocking, derision.
While Greek uses two different words for "to 1118b Jl/7 (/ii'eg) mocking, adjective.
leam" (manthano) and "to teach" (didasko), Occurs only in Ps 35: 16, and possi-
each having its own content, goal, and methods, bly Isa 28: 11.

480
 I 124 nt;,7(läqa~)
Among the seven Hebrew terms for blasphemy so much nonsensical talk, God would pay them
(see below) and slander is this one, occurring back in their own currency in Assyria. Such is the
eighteen times. Various subjects of this verb in- import of Hos 7: 16. In return for the "rage," i.e.
dicate its range of meaning. the defiant Speeches of lsrael's princes who
The wicked mock the poor and thereby insult openly disavowed the Lord, God would !et the
their divine Maker (Prov 17:6). Their wicked eyes same Egyptians to whom they appealed for help
mock their fathers (Prov 30:17). They delight in turn on them in derision. One turncoat deserved
laughing at such servants of God as Job (Job another!
21 :3), Jeremiah (Jer 20:7), Asaph (Ps 80:6 [H 7]), W.C.K.
Nehemiah (Neh 2: 19), the Jews (Neh 3:33), and
Hezekiah 's mailmen (II Chr 30: 10). 1119 lli? (/ä'az) speak indistinctly, unintelli-
Men who mock God's servants and message gibly. Occurs only in Ps 114:1, ·am lö'ez
will ultimately be mocked in turn: delivered into "a people speaking unintelligibly."
the captivity of people who speak with what
seems tobe a stammering or mocking tongue (lsa 1120 *~li? (/ä'a/) swallow (greedily). Occurs
33: 10). only in the Hiphil, in Gen 25:30, hal'iteni
The source of this kind of judgment is God. ··Jet me swallow."
The classic text is Ps 2:4. The Lord will mock
those rebels who say of God the Father and his 1121 :,~P,7 (/a'anii) wormwood.
Messiah, "Let us break off their bands and cast
off their cords." God will laugh at the heathen; he lll/7 (/ii'a' ). See no. 1099.
will have all of them in derision (Ps 59:8 [H 9]).
Likewise, Wisdom joins God in laughing at the 1122 ic', (lpd). Assumed root of the following.
calamities of the coarse and hardened fool; she 1122a t,,,i,, (/appid) torch.
mocks when their fear comes (Prov l :26) just as
The flaming torch, like the pillar of fire, the
"the virgin, the daughter of Zion" mocked the
lamp in the tabernacle, and the glory of God, sig-
proud, boastful Sennacherib (II Kgs 19:21; Isa
nified the holy, awesome presence of the Lord
37:22), when God delivered her. moving among his people. Thus God moved as a
flaming torch between the divided pieces to con-
la'ag. Mocking, derision. The Psalmist com- firm his covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:17) and
plains that God has made Israel a reproach appeared in flashes of lightning on Sinai (Ex
(/Jerpii), a scorn (qeles), and a derision to every-
20:18; cf. Ezk 1:13). When Zion is finally deliv-
one around them (Ps 44: 13 [H 14J; see also Ps ered, her salvation will be like a burning lamp (lsa
79:4). The same is said of the two sisters Samaria 62: 1) and her governors like a torch of fire (Zech
and Jerusalem: "Thou shalt be laughed to scorn 12:6).
and had in derision" (Ezk 23:32). This derision W.C.K.
which is directed at Jerusalem in particular will
come from the nations that surround her (Ezk ,,,, (/appid) See no. 1122a.
36:4).
Compare läshan "to speak against,.. rägal
•;ir', (lipne). See no. 1780b.
"spy out," "slander" (going about as a busy-
body), rägan "to murmur," to backbite," dibbii
1123 l'I~? (/iipat) twist, turn, grasp with a twist-
ing motion.
"defamation," $ä/Jaq "to laugh at," "deride,"
qälas "to scoff at."
The phrase halla'ag hashsha'anannim "the ii:r7 (/ä$on). See no. 1113a.
scorn of the nonchalant" (Ps 123:4) is not as
"impossible" grammatically as Briggs thought it 1124 Mi?? (/äqa/J) take (get, fetch), lay hold of
was; as Dahood has reminded us, it needs no (seize), receive, acquire (buy), bring, marry
emendation. The article is often present on the (take a wife), snatch (take away).
construct state in Phoenician and Hebrew con-
struct chains. These mockers are either the hea- Derivatives
then opposition or Israelite rogues whose air of 1124a tii1;17 (/eqa/J) learning.
independence makes them despicable to God 1124b ,:ti~',r; (malqoa/J) I, booty, prey.
and men. 1124c ,:ti;,~r; (ma/qoa!J) II, jaw. Occurs
ThP. most controversial passage (at least in its only in Ps 22: 16 in phrase u/"shoni
application in the NT, I Cor 14:21) is Isa 28: 11. müdbäq malqo/Jäy · · my tongue is
God will speak to Israel with "stammering lips," made to cleave to my jaws (i.e.
i.e. in captivity the language of the foreign cap- gums)."
tors will appear to be unintelligible gibberish. 1124d Cl~tli?7t? (melqä!Jayim) tongs, snuf-
Since Israel had regarded the prophetic word as f ers.

481
1125 =1?7
(/äqa()

l 124e Mii'~ (miqqalJ) a taking, receiv- texts where the word describes bodily assump-
ing. Occurs only in II Chr 19:7, tion into heaven. We refer to Enoch 's disappear-
miqqalJ-shölJad "a taking of a ance when God "took" him (Gen 5:24) and
bribe." Elijah's assumption in a whirlwind (II Kgs 2:3,
1124f :ir,1rr;(maqqälJil) ware. Only in 10-11). In the light of such physical assumption,
Neh 10:32, hammaqqiilJot "'(their) it is not unreasonable to question whether there
wares. may be other similar uses. Elijah, whose body
was assumed, used läqalJ to refer to death at the
This root is used over a thousand times in the hands of his enemies "they seek my life, to take
or, often taking its nuance from the words with it" (1 Kgs 19:10, 14; cf. also Prov 24:11). Just the
which it is used. As in English one can take ven- opposite meaning appears in other places where
geance (Isa 47:3) or receive disgrace (Ezk 36:30), God is the subject and a rescue from dying or
and God receives (accepts) prayer in Ps 6: 10 distress is in mind. So Ps 18:16 [H 17) says, "He
where it is used in parallel with shäma' "to hear" sent from on high, he took me; he drew me out of
(cf. Job 4: 12). A similar parallel exists between the deep waters." But there are at least three
läqalJ "snatch" and gänab "steal" (cf. Job 4:12; contexts where more than merely saving a per-
Jer 23:30-31: Jud 17:2). In the passive stems son 's life appears tobe in the mind ofthe Psalm-
(Pual and Niphal) the usage "be taken, carried ist. Psalm 49 presents a stark contrast between
away" (1 Sam 4: 11) or "be brought" (Gen 2: 15) the end of the wicked and the end of the right-
suggests that such "taking" is against the will of eous. The wicked "die like beasts" (vv. 12 [H
those taken. These basic meanings are also found 13], 20 [H 21]) without any hope of immortality,
in postbiblical Hebrew, Aramaic, Moabite, "that he should live forever" (v. 9 [H 10)). The
Phoenician, Arabic, Ugaritic, and Akkadian. Psalmist, however, has a triumphant faith that
In addition to the common meanings of läqalJ "God will redeem him from the power of Sheol,
there are a number of extended uses, some of for he will receive (/äqa!J take, snatch) me" (v.
which have theological significance. The "take" 15 [H 16)). lf the Psalmist is talking about being
aspect of the word may extend, in some contexts, rescued from death for a few years when he
into the meaning "select" and/or "summon." knows he too must die like the beasts, then the
According to Deut 4:34, God "took" (selected) Psalm has no point. Psalm 73: 23-25 [H 24-26)
Israel from among the nations (cf. also 4:30; also contrasts the wicked with the righteous and
I Kgs 11:37; Josh 3: 12; 4:2). In Job 41 :4 [H 40:28] once again a faith that reaches beyond this life is
the leviathan is "taken" (selected) as God's per- centered around the word läqalJ. · ·Y ou will guide
manent vassal who. has a binding covenant with me with your counsel and afterwards receive
him. "Summon" would fit equally weil in some (take) me to glory" (v. 24 [H 25)).
of these contexts. BDB (pp. 543, 546) finds
leqalJ. Teaching, learning, persuasiveness. This
"summon" for läqalJ in Num 23:11, Jud 11:5,
word occurs nine times, in four of which it is the
and I Sam 16:11. One should be careful with the
object of yäsap "to add more, increase" (Prov
semantics here because "take or fetch" also
1:5; 9:9; 16:21, 23). As with the root meaning
makes sense, but this is true of many of the
"take, seize," the "grasping" is with the mind
nuances of this word. An interesting but vexing
and hence "perceiving" is the nuance prominent
usage of this type occurs in Ps 75:2 [H 3J. The
in this derivative. Note some of the words with
translations differ considerably. The KJVrenders which it is paired: bfnil "understanding" (lsa
it, "When I shall receive the congregation," RV
29:24), IJakiim "wisdom" (Prov 1:5; 9:9) and
"When I shall find the set time," Rsv "I ap-
toril "instruction, law" (Prov 4:2). In Prov 7:21
point," NASB ··1 select." M.Dahood's "summon"
leqalJ means "the persuasiveness" of a harlot.
makes good sense here, "I will summon the as-
But in Prov 16:21 the word is used in a good sense
sembly, I willjudge with equity"(Psalms, II, in
of a teacher's persuasiveness.
AB, p. 209).
Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 875-78.
Twice Jeremiah uses läqalJ for the "taking up"
W.C.K.
or "use" of words. In 23:31 he speaks against the
false prophets who "use" (Rsv, NASB) their
1125 t:11?1(/äqa() glean, pick, gather up.
tongues as if the Lord had inspired them. In 29:22
the exiles "use" a curse formula based on the Derivatives
demise of certain false prophets.
1125a ~i''? (/eqe() gleaning.
Fire from God is described with a reflexive use
1125b tt:1~~7~(yalqü() wallet, bag.
of the root liiqalJ in Ex 9:24 and Ezk 1:4. The
explanation that the fire seizes, enfolds upon it- The objects of this verb vary as much as the
self is not entirely satisfactory. subjects, e.g. they gather stones (Gen 31 :46),
Perhaps the most theologically interesting manna (Ex 16:4-5, 26), money (Gen 47:14), grain
usage of läqalJ centers around the two clear con- (Ruth 2:3, 7; Isa 17:5), fallen grapes (Lev 19:10),

482
 1131 iw7(lashan)
arrows (1 Sam 20:38), firewood (Jer 7: 18), food God · s signs of immediate blessing is the rain (Joel
off the ground (lud 1:7), or a bunch of ruffians 2:23).
(Jud 11:3 ). Not only men, but also occasionally Proverbs uses the appearance of the spring
animals gathered (food, Ps 104:28). clouds preceeding the lalter rains as a simile of
A theologically important verse is Lev 19:9 the king's favor (Prov 16:15).
(see also 23:22) in which Israel is warned not to Bibliography: Baly, Dennis, Geography of
reap the corners of their fields or gather the glean- the Bible, Harper, 1957, pp. 51-52, 99.
ings of [the] harvest. The gleanings were tobe left W.C.K.
for the poor and the resident alien, as illustrated
in Ruth 2:15-18; cf. Lev 19:10: 23:22b. 1128 it0';, (/shd). Assumed root ofthe following.
lsrael's final restoration to her land is depicted 1128a ,~7 (/iishiid) juice, juicy or dainty
by lsaiah under the figure of grains picked up bit (Num 11:8: Ps 32:4).
after being threshed by the Lord's judgment:
"And you shall be gathered one by one, 0 you iit07 (/iishon). See no. 1131a.
sons of Israel" in that day (lsa 27: 12).
leqe,. Gleaning. Only found twice (Lev 19:9: 1129 it0'? (/shk). Assumed root ofthe following.
23:22). as discussed above. 1129a t:,f~? (/ishkii) room, chamber.
yalqu,. Wallet, bag. This hapax legomenon is Most frequently this word designates the three
found in I Sam 17:40. lt is the word for David's tiers of rooms or cells allocated to priests, sing-
shepherd's bag into which he had placed five ers, and keepers of the temple (Ezk 40:17, 38,
smooth stones. So far the word is unattested 44-46: 41:10: 42:1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12). During the
elsewhere. time of Ezra and Nehemiah, the term was used of
W.C.K. storerooms (Ezr 8:29; Neh 10:38-40) and per-
sonal chambers (Ezr 10:6; Neh 13:4, 5, 8, 9.) In
1126 ;,i?7 (/iiqaq) lap, lick. Jer 36: 12, 20, 21 it refers to the scribe's room in
the palace.
One of the most theologically important pas-
1127 t0;,', (/qs h). Assumed root of the following. sages is Jer 35:2, 4. Jeremiah was commanded to
1127a !Oi??(/eqesh) after growth, i.e. take the Rechabites to a room connected with
spring crop. Occurs only in Arnos Solomon's temple and offer some wine to them.
7: 1. They went but refused the wine out of deference
1127b tt0i;,';,I;' (malqosh) latter rain. and obedience to an old command given by one
1127c !Oi?7 (/iiqash) take the aftermath, of their forefathers. Jeremiah learned that obedi-
i.e. take everything (Job 24:6). ence to God was indeed possible if men could
Probably denominative from steadfastly obey merely human laws.
leqesh. In Samuel's day there was another room con-
malkösh. Latter rain, spring rain. The !alter nected with the high place (biima) where he par-
rains occur during March and April, while the took of a sacrificial meal with Saul, king-elect
former rains (q. v .) begin the season of rain, usu- (I Sam 9:22; cf. v. 19).
ally including severe thunderstorms, in the sec- nishkä. Chamber. A late word, doubtless a
ond half of October to November (or even as late by-form, with a similar-sounding letter inter-
as January in a bad year). The !alter rains of change (1 and n). lt was used also of rooms for
March and April are desperately needed for the individuals (Neh 3:30; 13:7) and storerooms (Neh
coming harvest, hence Job's description of his 12:44).
miserable comforters in a marvelous simile (Job W.C.K.
29:23). If this rain fails, it is obvious that God is
displeased with his people: .. I also withheld the 1130 CW', (/eshem) a precious stone in the high
rain from you when there were only three months priest's breastplate (Ex 28:19; 39:12). NIV,
to harvest" (Arnos 4:7: Jer 3:3). RSV, NASB translate "jacinth ...
But if all is weil between God and his people.
then "he will give the rain for [theirl land in its
113I iw7 (/iishan) slander. Denominative
season, the early rain and the !alter rain so that
verb.
[they] might gather in [theirj grain and wine and
oil" (Deut 11: 14; Jer 5:24). When God returns to Parent Noun
his people, it is like the coming of the latter and
I 13I a t,it07 (/iishön) tongue.
former rains upon the earth, proclaims Hosea
(6:3). God invites men to ask him for rain at the Only two examples of the denominative verb
time of the latter rain and he will send it copiously appear. Psalm 101:5 wams that God will silence
(Zech 10: 1). In fact, when men repent, one of all who privately slander their neighbors and

483
1132 n.n,Uth)
P~ov 30: 10 cautions against disparaging a slave to (lsa 28: 11; cf. Jer 5: 15, "a nation whose language
h1s master lest the speaker be ill-spoken of in you do not know").
turn. Most presumptuous of all are the false
läshön. Tongue. This word occurs 117 times in
prophets (Jer 23:3 !). They cry "peace, peace" in
the 01. The God-given organ of communication a move to seek popularity (23:16ff.). But they fail
with one's fellowman and God, the tongue is to distinguish their own dreams from real
shown tobe at once the source of much good and prophecy (23:28ff.), and they plagiarize and per-
evil. A few passages refer to the physical tongue, vert the burden of the Lord (23:36ff.). Con-
e.g. of men lapping (Jud 7:5), thirsting (Lam 4:4), trariwise was the reluctance of Moses who com-
and dumb (Job 29:10; Ps 137:6; Ezk 3:26) or of plained that he had a heavy tongue (Ex 4: 10) even
animals such as dogs (Ex 11:7), crocodiles (Job though Stephen testified that he was mighty in
40:25), and adders (Job 20: 16). By extension it words and deeds (Acts 7:22). Moses' words did
carries geographical meaning such as the not, then, refer to a speech impediment, but
"tongue" of land which protrudes into the Dead rather to a certain type of quickness in debate.
Sea (Josh 15:2, 5; 18:19; lsa 11:15) or a tongue- God's solution was a promise to be with his
shaped wedge of gold (Josh 7:21, 24). tongue and tosend him another tongue, Aaron.
However, most attention is focused on the The tongue of a righteous man, however, is
misuse of the tongue, Ps 52 (especially vv. 2, 4 valued as highly as choice silver (Prov 10:20).
[H 4, 6]) being the classical teaching passage. When wise men speak they bring health to their
Here Doeg, the Edomite, used his tongue deceit- listeners (Prov 12:18); they use knowledge in a
fully to lead Saul to destroy the priestly house of proper manner (Prov 15:2). Wisdom and kindness
Ahimelech (1 Sam 22:7ff.). But Ps 51 stands as an characterize the tongue of the virtuous woman
example of the proper use of the tongue, singing (Prov 31 :26). Not a thought, answer, or word on
ofGod's righteousness after experiencing cleans- the tongue is unknown to the Lord (Ps 139:4;
ing from sin (v. 14 [H 16]; see also Ps 126:2). Prov 16:1-2; II Sam 23:2).
The tongue is the agent of many evils: subver- In the future day of the Lord, the deceitful
sion (Prov 10:31), slander (Prov 17:4), flattery (Ps tongue will not be found among the remnant
5:9 [H 101), mischief and trouble (Ps 10:7), arro- (Zeph 3:13); even the tongue of the dumb will
gance (Ps 12:4 [H 51), hurt to others (Ps 52:2 shout for joy (lsa 35:6).
[H 41), and falsehood (Prov 17:4; 6:17; 12:19; Bibliography: Surgy, Paul de, "Tongue," in
21:6; 26:28; Ps 78:36; 120:2-3; Mic 6:12). lt can DBT,p.533.Behm,J.,"g/össa,"inTDNT I p.
721. ' '
be like the tongue of a viper (Ps 140:3 [H 41), a
bow or arrow (Jer 9:3 [H 2], 8 [H 7]), a sharp W.C.K.
sword (Ps 57:4 [H 5]; 64:3 [H 4]; Hos 7:16), a
razor (Ps 52:2 [H 4]). The tongue can be used as a 1132 nri', (/t/J). Assumed root of the following.
weapon (Jer 18:18) because "life and death are in 1132a Mtf~71? (meltä/Jii) wardrobe, wear-
the power of the tongue" (Prov 18:21). All such ing apparel, Occurs only in II Kgs
use of the tongue is ultimately directed against 10:22.
God, for while it violates mostly the ninth com-
mandment, it is accompanied by an arrogance
and boasting that usurps the place of God (Hos 1133 iri', (/tk). Assumed root of the following.
7: 16)._God will teach all who mock his message 1133a '!!!)?. (/etek) barley measure of un-
and m drunken stupor complain about the certain size thought to be half an
prophets' wearisome „ watch your p' s and watch homer-five ephahs. Occurs only
your q 's," with "another tongue": foreign exile in Hos 3:2. (ZPEB V, p. 917.)

484
 c~,~r; (ma'abüs). See no. IOb. raham's time it was thought tobe impossible for a
one hundred-year-old man to father a child (Gen
1134 iM~ (m'd). Assumedrootofthefollowing. 17:17). But God miraculously provided Isaac, the
J 134a "hM~ (m' 'öd) exceedingly, much, child of promise.
/orce, abundance. A significant prophecy was given in Gen 15:13.
Israel was to be in bondage for four hundred
This term is used three hundred times in the OT,
years and indeed they were. According to _Ex
mainly as an adverb. Infrequently, it is used as a
12:40, the exact time was four hundred and th1rty
substantive, e.g. Deut 6:5, "You shall love the
years. If there is a round number here, it is in Gen
Lord your God with your whole heart, with your
15:13.
whole soul, and with your whole strength." Thus
In one place it appears probable that the word
it was said of King Josiah, the likes of whom
"hundred" (with consonants m'h) is a mistake
Israel had never seen before, that he turned to the for "cubit" (with consonants 'mh). The porch of
Lord with bis whole heart, soul, and strength,
Solomon's temple is said to be 120 (supposedly
according to the whole law of Moses (II Kgs cubits, so Rsv). But this would be 180 feet, an
23:25).
impossible height. Some MSS of the LXX her~ read
lt is found in many combinations, all express-
20 cubits the same height as the holy of hohes. lt
ing the idea of exceeding (e.g. Gen 1:31, in which seems pr~bable that there has been a metathesis
the Creator calls his creation exceeding good) or
of the Jetters, and some LXX witnesses have pr~-
very greatly (e.g. Ex 1:7, where this term is used
served the original reading. The same metathes1s
twice in describing the prolificacy of the lsrael-
occurs in a Qere/Kethib variation in Ezk 42: 16.
ites under the band of God). An eschatological passage, lsa 65:20, says that
McBride observed: "The three parts of Deut in the new heavens and new earth "the child shall
6:5: /ebäb (heart), nepesh (soul or life), and
die an hundred years old, but the sinner being an
me 'öd (muchness) rather than signifying different
hundred years old shall be accursed." Whether
spheres ofBiblical psychology seem tobe ~eman- verses 20-25 are a part of the description of the
tically concentric. They were chosen to re1~orce
new heavens and new earth, or are a subpara-
the absolute singularity of personal devotion to
graph as Buswell claims (Systematic Theology,
God. Thus lebäb denotes the intention or will of
II, p. 517), is debatable. E. J. Young, however,
the whole man; nepesh means the whole seif, a
argues that death will not deprive either the
unity of flesh, will, and vitality; and m' '?dac-
young child or old man of his days (lsa 65:20a).
cents the superlative degree of total comm1tment
to Yahweh." (See bibliography.) Neither will longevity be unusual, for a person
who dies at the age of one hundred years will be
The NT struggles to express the depth of the
considered just a baby or a sinner who has been
word m' 'od at this spot. In the quotation in Mk
cut down very early. Cf. NIV: "He who dies at a
12:30 it is rendered "mind and strength," in Lk
hundred will be thought a mere youth; he who
10:27 it is "strength and mind," in Mt 22:37 sim-
fails to reach a hundred will be considered ac-
ply '"mind."
cursed."
Bibliography: TDOT, IX, pp. 617-37.
Bibliography: Green, William Henry, "Pri-
W.C.K.
meval Chronology," in Classical Evangelical
Essays in O.T. Interpretation, Baker, 1972, pp.
1135 :ia;t~ (me'a) hundred.
13-28. Young, E. J., The Book of /saiah, III,
This noun occurs 583 times, usually in state- Eerdmans, 1972, p. 515.
ments reporting ages of persons, census results, W.C.K.
or the measurements of various objects.
The longevity of the antediluvian and postdilu- '1'-'1' (ma'away). See no. 40c.
vian fathers (Gen 5 and 11) has caused much Cl~M~ (m' 'um). See no. 1137a.
comment. However, it is clear that these hun-
dreds of years (the maximum being %9 years,
1136 :,9~M~ (m''üma) anything.
reached by Methuselah) were real years, for God
intended to show to all that mankind was built for Used thirty-two times, usually in negative sen-
immortality. Nevertheless, the effects of sin tences. Ecclesiastes 7: 14 has God setting pros-
began to take their toll on man's physical being. perity alongside aversity so that men can find
Thus his life span grew shorter and, con- nothing apart from himself (cf. 3: 11). Balaam pro-
sequently, the period of procreation. By Ab- tests in Num 22:38 that he has no power to do

487
1137 cn,c~
(m'm)

anything apart from the word of God. Often refusal to release Israel from bondage (Ex 8:2
m•'uma is a euphemism for something bad, such [H 7:27]; 9:2; 10:4). lt is also used ofZedekiah's
as the thing Abraham was about to do to Isaac refusal to surrender to the Babylonians (Jer
(Gen 22: 12, "Do not do anything to the lad,") or 38:21).
the thing Ammon waited to do to Tarnar (II Sam
me'en. Refusing. Only found in Jer 13:10, of
13:2, "He thought it difficult to do anything to
her"). rebellious Israel who kept on refusing to listen to
God's word and worshiping other gods.
W.C.K.
W.C.K.
CiM9 (ma'ös). See no. 1139a.
1139 Ctc9 (ma'as) I, reject; despise.
iiM9 (ma' ör). See no. 52f.
Derivative
ljM0 (mö'zen). See no. 58a.
1139a CiM9 (mä'ös) refuse. Occurs
,;1,C; (ma'iJkäl). See no. 85d. only in Lam 3:45, "offscouring and
refuse you make us."
r,~;~; (ma'iJkelet). See no. 85e.
Examination of some seventy-three uses of this
r,~:,ll; (ma'iJkölet). See no. 85f. verb reveals that men despise the Lord who is
MJ91,C; (ma'iJma,ra). See no. 117e. among them (Num 11:20) and thus merit God's
rejecting them (Hos 4:6). When Israel requested
i91_C; (ma'iJmar). See no. 118e.
Samuel to appoint a king over them, they rejected
the Lord (1 Sam 8:7; 10:19).
1137 CIMC(m'm). Assumed root of the follow- Wicked men do not despise evil (Ps 36:4 [H 5]);
lng, they just reject the knowledge of God (Hos 4:6),
1137a tc~MC (m'um), =~i= (mum) defect, the Iaw of the Lord (Arnos 2:4; Isa 5:24; Jer 6: 19)
blemish. the word of the Lord (1 Sam 15:23, 26; Isa 30: 12;
This word denotes any physical defect, such as Jer 8:9), the righteous decisions of God (Ezk 5:6;
was not found in Daniel and his three friends 20:13, 16), the covenant made with Abraham
(Dan 1:4ff.) and in the man who would be God's (II Kgs 17:15), the statutes of God (Lev 26:15;
priest (Lev 21:17ff.), or any moral defect (Job Ezk 20:24), and the disciplinary chastening ofthe
31:7; 11:15; Deut 32:5). The epitome of un- Lord (Prov 3: 11). In fact, they have totally re-
blemished men was Absalom (II Sam 14:25); of jected the "Stone" which has now become the
women the Shulamite maiden (Song 4:7). "capstone of the building" (Ps 118:22).
Animals offered as sacrifices to God had to be Especially reprehensible in God's eyes is Is-
without spot or blemish (Lev 22:20, 21, 25; Num rael's externalized religious practice. God hates
19:2; Deut 15:21; 17:1). To offer anything less and despises their feast days and offerings since
would be to disobey God and disregard the obvi- they come to him without any genuine affection
ous teaching that man's substitute for his sins had (Arnos 5:21).
itself tobe totally blameless. God rejects men who do not listen to him (Hos
W.C.K. 9: 17). However, he will never reject them totally,
for that would break his covenant (Lev 26:44).
1138 *ltl9 (ma'i!n) refuse. Used only in the God has chosen the seed of Abraham, his ser-
Piel. vant, and he will never cast them away (lsa 41:9).
In fact, as long as God keeps his covenant with
Derivatives day and night (Jer 33:25) so long will he refrain
1138a 'h!'.19(ma'i!n) refusing. from rejecting his covenant made with David and
1138b titc~ (mi!'i!n) refusing. Levi (Jer 33:24). He will not despise the seed of
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and David (Jer 31:37;
Especially significant are those occasions
when Pharaoh (Ex 4:23; 7:14; 10:3) or Israel re- 33:26). True, Ps 89:38 [H 39] does seem to con-
fused to obey God's commands. They simply tradict this strong affirmation by saying God has
"refused to walk in [God's] law" (Ps 78: 10). Is- indeed rejected his anointed (cf. II Kgs 17:20; Jer
6:30; Ps 78:59, 67). This statement, however, re-
rael also refused to repent (Hos 11:5; Jer 3:3; 8:5)
fers only to individual participation and not to the
or to receive instruction (Jer 5:3; 9:6 [H 5); 11:10;
abiding promise which remains open to all who
Zech 7:11). Only once is God ever said to have
refused: he refused to give Balaam permission to will believe.
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 879-92.
curse Israel (Num 22:13).
W.C.K.
mä'en. Refusing. This verbal adjective ap-
pears four times in the oT, three times in the 1140 *Ctc9 (ma'as) 11,flow, run. Occurs only
phrase 'im-ma'i!n 'attii i'shalli!a/J., of Pharaoh's in the Niphal (Job 5:7; Ps 58:8).

488
 l 144 ,~~ (mgd)

:'!Q~~(ma'apeh). See no. 143a. :,91:i~ (m'busa). See no. 216b.

,/:i~~(ma'llpel). See no. 145e. p1:1~ (mabbua'). See no. 1287a.
:'!;7Q~~(ma'ape/yii). See no. 145f. ,n:i~ (mibhär). See no. 23 ld.
riQ~~ (ma' llpet). See no. 152a. ,,ri;~ (mib}Jor). See no. 23 le.
t:11~ (mabbät). See no. 1282a.
H~~c (mibtä.'). See no. 232a.
1141 *i~9 (mä'ar) pain,prick. n~~~ (mibfa}J). See no. 233e.
This word appears four times, in the Hiphil r,•i•';>:;i~(mablfgit). See no. 245a.
stem. Once it is used figuratively of Jsrael's op- :i,:i~· (mibneh). See no. 255c.
pression by their neighbors (Ezk 28:24), who are ,;~~ (mib$är). See no. 270g.
likened to "pricking briars and scratching Mj!;)~ (mibra}J). See no. 284c.
thorns." In the other three passages, it refers to a Mi?~;I? (m"bash'/ot). See no. 292b.
malignant (?) or rotten (?) mold associated with
leprosy (q.v.) (Lev 13:51-52; 14:44). 1143 J~ (mag) soothsayer, magician.
W.C.K. This loan word from Akkadian mahhu · · sooth-
sayer" occurs only twice, and that in -one chap-
:i,~~ (ma'aräb). See no. 156e. ter, Jer 39:3, 13. One of Nebuchadnezzar's pr-
:'l'iHC(m'"era). See no. 168a. inces was "Nergal-Sharezer the Rab-mag" (Rsv).
:i5,~9 (mäbdälii). See no. 203b. This was Neriglissar, the husband of Amel-
Hi:19 (mäbo'). See no. 212b. Marduk's sister (the one Jeremiah called Evil
:i;1:i1?(m'buka). See no. 214a. Merodach, son and successor to Nebuchadnez-
zar). Neriglissar killed Evil Merodach and be-
came king in his place.
1142 ,1:=r,,(mabbCtl) jlood. Nergalsharezer's position was one of high mili-
tary rank. He was chief soothsayer (rab mäg) in
A technical term reserved for the watery catas-
the operations against Zedekiah during the seige
trophe which God brought on the earth during the
of Jerusalem.
days ofNoah. That event was so weil known that Bibliography: Thomson, R. C., in Cambridge
mabbül usually occurs with the definite article
Ancient History, II, Cambridge, 1960, p. 217.
(except in Gen 9: 11, 15). mabbul is used only W.C.K.
once outside Gen 7-11. Psalm 29: 10 says that
"the LoRDsits upon the flood, indeed, the LORD i,i,;~~ (migbälot). See no. 307d.
is enthroned king forever." lnstead of Baal, the
Mi!J;~~ (migbä'ot). See no. 309c.
god of storm and thunder who according to the
Ugaritic myths defeated yam the sea god, the
1144 "!JC (mgd). Assumed root ofthe following.
Lord's voice is heard in the thunder, and it is he
1144a t,~~ (meged) excellence.
who reigns over the destructive forces of nature,
in this case the storm so beautifully described in 1144b :i;;~~ (migdäna) choice or excel-
lent thing.
Ps 29.
All attempted etymologies for this word have meged. Excellence. Only eight passages in
failed because of linguistic difficulties. A few of three chapters illustrate the usage of meged. lt is
the suggestions have been: the Akkadian root nbl always an evaluation of the gifts of nature as
„ to destroy," Akkadian abübu from the alleged being choice, excellent or beautiful, and preci-
wabübu "cyclone," Akkadian bubbulu, biblu, ous. Song 4:13, 15, 16 lauds the excellent fruit;
bibbulu "inundation," which is the best sugges- only Song 7:13 [H 14] uses the word meged by
tion yet. But it also fails since the term is not used itself. Deuteronomy 33: 13, 14, 15, 16 bless the
in any of the Akkadian flood stories. Hebrew ybl Lord for the choice things from the heavens,
"to flow, stream" or nbl "waterskin" have also moon, hills, and earth. lt appears to be a eulo-
been suggested. But these suggestions are not gistic word which sees the beauty of all things
linguistically supported and appear to be parents as God's gifts to lovers (Song) and to the tribes
to the unwarranted thought that mabbül refers to of Joseph (Deut).
a "heavenly ocean" or a "heavenly store of W.C.K.
water in jars."
While God himself brought the waters of the ',i"!JC (migdol). See no. 315g.
flood on the earth because of man's sin (Gen ,,~~- (migdäl). See no. 315f.
6:17; 7:6), afterward he covenanted never again :i;;t~~ (migdänii). See no. 1144b.
to destroy the earth with water (Gen 9: 11, 15). :i,1J~ (m''gura). See no. 330d.
Thus God's own can be certain that the earth will iiJC (mägor). See no. 332a, 330c.
endure until the desired eschaton comes. :i,.!~~ (magzerii). See no. 340d.
W.C.K. ,~~ (maggäl). See no. 1292a.

489
1145 ,~~ (mägar)
M7~1? (m'gil/ii). See no. 353m. flected in Ugaritic UT 16:Text 75:11:47-48 "like
:,~~1, (m'gammii). See no. 361b. clothing was the abuse of his brothers, like ves-
,~i, (miigen). See no. 367c. ture the abuse of his kinsmen" (after M. Da-
,~i, (miigan). See no. 367e. hood).
:im~ (m'ginnii). See no. 367d.
midda. Measure, measurement. The measur-
r,~ij~~(mig'eret). See no. 370b. ingline used to measure God·s future dwelling
:,~~~ (maggepii). See no. 1294b. place (Zech 2:5; Ezk 40:3, 5: 42: l<r-19), it was
also used to take the measurement of the walls of
1145 ,~r, (miigar) cast,throw,toss (Ezk21:17:
Jerusalem (Neh 3:11, 19ff.), a house of size or a
Ps 89:45).
man of size (Jer 22: 14; I Chr 11:23; 20:6), and the
size ofthe tabemacle curtains (Ex 26:2, 8 etc.). lt
M?~l?(m•·gerii). See no. 386e.
is of some interest to note that the tabemacle
M~?~1?(migrä'ii). See no. 384a.
curtains were four cubits (six feet) wide-just the
:,~,~~ (megriipii). See no. 385b.
width of a standard Egyptian loom. The word is
W?~1?(migriish). See no. 388c.
used of time in Ps 39:4 [H 51: "Lord make me to
,r,, (mad). See no. I 146a.
know mine end and the measure of my days,
,;".11?(midbiir) 1, II. See nos. 399k, 1. what it is; !hat I might know how frail 1 am ...
Note also its use of God's wisdom, the measure
1146 "ljl, (miidad) measure.
of which is longer than the earth and broader than
Derivatives the sea (Job 11:9).
1146a t,r,, (mad) measure. W.C.K.
1146b t:,;11? ( middii) measure, measure-
1147 M"IO (middii) tribute. A loan word from
ment.
'the Akkadian mandattu, middii occurs
I 146c ,r,,r; (memad) measurement. Oe- r
only in Neh 5:4.
curs only in Job 38:5.
1146d ii,o (miidbn) ~tature. Occurs
M;l1?(middii). See no. 1146b.
~nly in II Sam 20:21.
U sually mädad, which occurs fifty-three 1148 M"lO (mdh). Assumed root ofthe following,
times, refers to measuring lengths or distances. lt doubtless a by-form of miidad.
is used heavily in Ezk 40---47, which supplies 1148a l"ll, (miidü) MJ".fr,,
(madweh) gar-
measurements for the millennial temple which, ment. Occurs in II Sam 10:4; I
according to many, is tobe built during the mes- Chr 19:4.
sianic era (see also Zech 2:6).
But there are imponderables which are beyond ,,i, (miidü). See no. I 148a.
the capacities of man's measurements-like the :i,,o (madweh). See nos. 41 Ic, 1148a.
oceans of the earth. But God can measure these tri'~~(maddüa!J ). See no. 1304a.
easily (lsa 40:12). He can also count the mul- ,;,7; (miidön). See nos. 426c, 1146d.
titudes offuture Israelites, although their number ~,"Ir,, (maddüa' ). See no. 848h.
would appear to be as the sand of the sea (Hos :i,,,o (m'dürii). See no. 418c.
I: 10 [H 2: 11). The innumerable stars of heaven M~".f~(mid~1eh). See no. 420b.
and the sands of the sea indeed become models of MJ'"l1?(m"dinii). See no. 426d.
the increase of Jacob and the security they enjoy
under God (Jer 33:22: 31 :27).
As God will increase the people, so he has
t.',~·
-
mo,o (madmenii). See no. 441b.
(maddä' ). See no. 848g.
l"\~j°O (möda'at). See no. 848f.
measured out to them certain territories (Ps 60:6 M?i?".lr,, (madqiira). See no. 449a.
[H 8]: see also 108:7 [H 81). As he prepares his Mt:1".fr,, (madrega). See no. 452a.
judgment, he stands and measures the nations ,,,o (madräk). See no. 453b.
with his disceming eye (Hab 3:6). w','io(midräsh). See no. 455a.
mad. Measure, and then what is measured, a
cloth garment. The portion of Judah·s measure
1149 MI, (mii) what?
(used figuratively) from the Lord is to be scat- This frequently-occurring interrogative pro-
tered because they have forgotten their Lord (Jer noun is most significant when associated with the
13:25). This word usually denotes a priest's gar- word "name." "What is your name? .. is not a
ment (Lev 6:3), a soldier's fighting garb (1 Sam question which inquires after a person ·s family or
17:38: 18:4; II Sam 20:8), or just an outer garment personal name: it endeavors to find what charac-
(1 Sam 4:12; Jud 3:16). lt is also used figuratively, ter or quality lies within or behind the person. To
as in Ps 109:18, which says that some men use ask for simple identification, one would say in
cursing for their outer clothes. The simile is re- Hebrew, "Who (mi) are you'?"'

490
 1152 *"'\0~ (mähar)

Thus, the "man" who wrestled with Jacob wine" (lsa 1:22). Keil and E. J. Young point out
asked him in Gen 32:27 [H 281, "What is your that this semantic development is paralleled in
name?" When he responds, "Jacob" (sup- other sources, e.g. Latin, castrare vinum and
planter), the "man" (called an angel in Hos 12:4 French, couper du ,·in. So much water has been
[H 5 J) says that it is now „ Israel" (Prince of added to the wine that its character has been
God). weakened. The Aramaic word and the Hebrew (if
In Prov 30:4, Agur asks who has ascended to that also means "circumcise") is doubtless a by-
heaven and then descended? Who has gathered form of the root miil "to circumcise" (q.v.).
the wind in his fists? Who has bound the waters W.C.K.
in a garment? Who has established the ends of the
earth? What is his name? What is his son's name? ~'mo (mahalak). See no. 498a.
The speaker is not asking for God's name. ,~;b (mahaläl). See no. 500b.
Rat her, he seeks to know its character and ri,ib~::,r; (mahaliimbt). See no. 502c.
meaning. :i"ICM~ (mahiimöra). See no. 509a.
Accordingly, the question which Moses antici- :,~i;,6~ (mahiipeka). See no. 512d.
pates from his enslaved brethren, "What is his ri;,~::ir; (mahpeket). See no. 512d.
name?" (Ex 3: 13), corresponds to our discussion
above. The lsraelites will wish to know 1152 *"l::tr; (mähar) 1, hasten, used only in
Yahweh's character and qualities which will en- the N iphal and Pie!.
able him to prevail over the difficulties they face.
So Moses reveals just what the name Yahweh Derivatives
(YHWH) means: He is the God who will dynami- 1152a t"l:ir,, (maher) /, speedy, swift (ad-
cally and effectively meet their need. jective).
Finally, notice that God brings the animals to 1152b t,:,r,, (maher) 11, quickly (ad-
Adam to see "what" he will call them (Gen 2: 19). verb).
As Motyer says, "Verse 20b indicates that qual- 1152c t,•:,i;:, (mahir) quick.
itative issues are present'' (p. 18, fn. 46). Other 1152d t:i?:ili' (m'' hera) haste.
significant passages in which ma is associated
The feet of wicked men hasten (mähar) to shed
with persons include Ex 16:7-8; Num 16:11;
blood and practice evil (Prov 1: 16; 6: 18: lsa 59:7).
II Sam9:8;11 Kgs8:13;Job7:17: 15:14;21:15;Ps
But God will come and bear prompt or swift wit-
8:4 [H 5]; 144:3; Song 5:9; Isa 45:10; Lam 2:13:
ness against their sorcery, adultery, false swear-
Ezk 19:2. lt is associated with impersonal items
ing, poor wages to employees, and poor treat-
in ten passages: I Kgs 9: 13; Zech 1:9, 19 [H 2:4);
4:4, 11; 5:6; 6:4; Est 9:26. ment of the widow, orphan, and stranger (Mal
3:5). To emphasize the swiftness of destruction,
Bibliography: Buher, Martin, The Revelation
Isaiah symbolically names his second child "has-
and the Covenant, Harper & Row, 1958, pp.
ten prey, hurry spoil" (maher-shalälhashbaz, lsa
48-55. Motyer, J. A., The Revelation of the Di-
8:1, 3), for God is now prodding on the Assy-
vine Name, London: Tyndale, 1959, pp. 17-24.
W.C.K. rians, the ax in his hand, to accomplish his
punishment on Israel. In a later day he would
bring that bitter and impetuous nation,
1150 *:i::ti; (mähah) linger, delay.
Babylonia, to do the same thing (Hab 1:6).
This word, in the Hithpalpel stem, occurs nine Eliphaz lectured Job that God takes the wise in
times. But only in two passages does it carry their own craftiness and that the plans of schem-
theological significance. In Ps 119:60 the Psalmist ers are dissipated (?) (Job 5: 13) only to have God
affirms that he has not delayed, but rather has- heave the first part of his words back on him in
tened to observe God's commandments. Ha- Job 42:8 (hence the quotation formula in I Cor
bakkuk 2:3 encourages the prophet to wait for the 3: 19).
vision, since it has an appointed time. lt may This verb usually has an adverbial meaning
seem to delay, nevertheless it will not tarry, it when it is linked with another verb, e.g. "they
will come. quickly forgot his works; they did not wait for his
W.C.K. counsel" (Ps 196:13). Distress, however,
prompts the prayer, .. 1 am in trouble, hear me
:,01:io (m''luima). See no. 486a speedily" (Ps 69: 17 [H 18]; 102:2 [H 3]; 143:7: cf.
,;:ii;' (mähir). See no. 1152c. 79:8).
maher /. Hastening, swift, speed. One of the
1151 ,::ii; (mäha/) circumcise, -weaken.
two occurrences of the adjective is important
The Aramaic "cognate," m •·hat, means to cir- theologically. Zephaniah 1: 14 warns that the day
cumcise, but in Hebrew the word appears only of the Lord is very near and it comes with great
once and that in a figuarative sense, "to cut speed especially for those who are unprepared or

491
1153 i::r~(mähar)
who sigh for it as a panacea for all their troubles cubine. Note also the penalty for violating a girl's
(cf. Arnos 5:18-20). virginity (Deut 22:29). (See the contrast between
wedding money and marriage, and refusal ofmar-
maher II. Quickly, speedily. God expresses
riage and penalty to a seducer in Ex 22: 16-17
surprise at how quickly men have turned away
[H 15-16]).
from him to build the golden calf (Ex 32:8; Deut
Jacob paid in services for his marriages to Leah
9: 16; cf. Jud 2: 17). If Israel continued to do evil,
and Rachel (Gen 29:15-30). David performed a
they would quickly perish altogether from the
valiant deed in battle for Saul's daughter, Michal
land (Deut 4:26) and God's anger would destroy
(1 Sam 18:25-27), just as Othniel did for Caleb's
them suddenly (Deut 7:4). But if Israel would
daughter (Josh 15:16). Hamor's son, Shechem,
faithfully follow the Lord, they would quickly de-
was willing to pay any sum to Jacob for his
stroy the Canaanites in a major sweep through
daughter Dinah (Gen 34: 11).
the land (Deut 9:3). Some of the nations, how-
Apparently the father was allowed to enjoy the
ever, would be put out by God little by little so
use of the wedding money, but it would revert to
that the land would not be overrun with wild
the bride at her father's death or if the death of
beasts (Deut 7:22; cf. Jud 2:23).
One proverb wams, "Do not go hastily to a her husband reduced her to poverty. What eise
could have prompted the complaint ofRachel and
debate, you may not know what to do in the end"
Leah that their father Laban had ''devoured their
(Prov 25:8).
money" after having "sold" them (Gen 31: 15)?
mähir. Quick, prompt. "Do you see a man di- The Babylonian law called for the fiance to pay
ligent in his business? He shall stand before to the girl's father or sometimes to the girl herself
kings" says Prov 22:29. In its description of the the tirbatu, a sum varying from one to fifty
Davidic throne, lsa 16:5 includes prompt justice shekels of silver. According to Assyrian law, the
as one of its characteristics. tirbatu was given to the girl either as a compensa-
tion for her loss of virginity or as insurance in the
m•hera. Haste, speed. In Ps 147:15 the word
event that her husband died. Even today among
m' herii is used to show that the Lord's word runs
Palestinian Arabs the fiance pays a mahr to the
swiftly on the earth, while lsa 58:8 promises that
girl' s parents.
in return for acts of mercy to others, one's health
Bibliography: AI, pp. 26-29. Gaspar, Joseph
will spring forth speedily. Meanwhile, do not fret
W., Social ldeas in the Wisdom literature of the
over evildoers, for they shall quickly be cut down
Old Testament, Catholic University of America
like grass (Ps 37:2).
Press, 1947, pp. 7-15.
W.C.K.
W.C.K.

1153 -,:,~ (mähar) II, acquire by paying a pur- :"!?tlt,1~ (mahatal/ii). See no. 251 la.
-~hase price. Denominative verb.
1153a -ri;:t~ (möhar) wedding money.
1154 ,~ (mw). A paragogic syllable, attached
The verbal form occurs only twice, in Ps 16:4 to :;, ~. 7, so as to form independent
and Ex 22:16 [H 15]. The text of Ps 16:4 is dif- words, i~~. i~~. i~7-
ficult. lt may mean that "sorrows shall be multi-
plied [for all] who hasten after another god" or
who exchange (by paying a price, BDB). ':>Hi~(mb'/). See no. 1160.
The fiance who gives wedding money is not
thereby presenting gifts to the family or the girl. 1155 :t;M (mb'äb) Moab.
These are to be clearly distinguished as in Gen
34: 12. The gifts were presents and rewards for Derivative
accepting the proposal of marriage, but the wed- 1155a t~;l$i~ (mb' äbf) Moabite.
ding money was given in addition to these (cf.
Lot's son by his elder daughter (Gen 19:37). He
Rebekah's case in Gen 24:53; also Gen 29:24, 29;
became the father of a nation which settled east
Josh 15:18-19; I Kgs 9:16).
of the Dead Sea after God dispossessed the pre-
möhar. Wedding money, bride price. There are vious inhabitants (Emim) because of their un-
only three instances of this word in the Scrip- righteousness (Deut 2: 10-11). Moab attempted to
tures: Gen 34: 12; Ex 22: 16; I Sam 18:25. The hire Baalam to curse Israel (Num 22:3, 4, 7, 8, 10,
möhar was a sum of money or its equivalent, 14, 21, 36; 23:6, 7, 17; 24:17) and practiced rites
which the fiance paid to the girl's father as a of religious prostitution connected with sacrifices
compensation to the family. lt was not, strictly to the dead (Num 25:lff.; cf. Ps 106:28). The
speaking, the purchase price, but the customary prophets directed these messages against Moab:
wedding mon~y. Exodus 21:7-11 illustrates the Arnos 2:1-3; lsa 15-16; Jer 48; and Ezk 25:8-11.
outright purchase of a maidservant to be a con- Their god was Chemosh.

492
 1158 =i~ (mot)

mö'äbi. Moabite. Although the deuteronomic melt, shake, or wave with corn (Arnos 9: 13, NEB).
code prohibited a Moabite from entering the con• See mo( "totter" for synonyms.
gregation of the Lord even to the tenth generation Bibliography: Cathcart, Kevin J., Nahum in
(Deut 23:3 [H 41), Ruth, a Moabitess, believed in the Light of Northwest Semitic, Pontifical Bibli-
the Lord and became the wife of Boaz and thus a cal Institute, 1973, pp. 52, 96, 104. McCarthy, D.
forebear of King David and the Messiah (Ruth J. "Some Holy War Vocabulary in Joshua 2,"
1:22; 2:6; 4:10). David conquered the Moabites. CBQ 33: 228-30.
They rebelled after Ahab's death finally gaining W.C.K.
independence (II Sam 8:2; II Kgs 3:4-27).
[The Moabite Stone gives Moab's side of this 1157 ,,c(mwd). Assumed root ofthe following.
campaign. lt says that Moab served Israel "all 1157a t,•r,,i, (tamfd) continuity.
the days of Omri and half the days of his son,
Most frequently this word is used in an adjecti-
forty years." This has recently been interpreted
val genitive construction with 'öla for the con-
to mean "half the days of his grandson," i.e.
tinual whole burnt offering made to God every
Joram as given in II Kgs 3. The servitude would
morning and evening (Ex 29:42; Num 28:6, 10,
then include the reign of Omri (twelve years),
15, 23; Ezr 3:5; Neh 10:34; cf. Ezk 46:15, every
Ahab (twenty-two years), Ahaziah (two years)
morning; and the continual minl:,.ii, Num 4:16;
and part of Joram (six years). Overlapping years
Neh 10:34; Lev 6:13. The word is used alone to
would make the total forty (see D. Cross and N.
designate the daily burnt offering in Dan 8: 11-13;
Freedman, Early Hebrew Orthography (Ameri-
11:31; 12:11. Numbers 4:7 refers to the "bread of
can Oriental Society, 1952, p. 39). R.L.H.)
continuity" meaning the bread that was always
Bibliography: Bartlett, J. R., "The Moabites
there.
and Edomites," in Peoples of OT Times, Oxford:
Clarendon, 1973, pp. 229-58. Van Zyl, A. H., The word is also used adverbially in connec-
The Moabites, Brill, 1960. Wiseman, D. J., "The tion with the cult to denote constancy in cultic
duties (e.g., Aaron's breastplate, Ex 28:29-30).
Moabite Stone," in ZPEB, IV, pp. 267~8.
Some passages, however, stress constancy of
W.C.K.
personal devotion, e.g., Hos 12:6 [H 7], "Turn to
your God; keep mercy and justice and wait on
your God continually." The Psalms likewise
1156 J~C (mug) melt. urge, let bis praises continually be in your mouth
(34:1 [H 2]; 71:6), hope continually in the Lord
So great in power is the Lord, that the earth (71: 14); !et God' s truth continually preserve you
melts when he touches the land (Arnos 9:5). The (40: 11 [H 12]); !et prayer be made to him continu-
mountains and hills totter, tremble, and shake at ally (72:15), and keep his law continually
the sound of his voice (Nah 1:5; Ps 46:6 [H 7); Ps (119:44). lsaiah promises that the Lord will con-
75:3 [H 4]). As all the forces of heaven and earth tinually guide those who respond to the social
fought on the Lord's side iu the past, so in the needs about them as evidence of true spirituality.
day of the Lord's future, final triumph even na- lndeed, "Seek the Lord and his strength, seek his
ture must tremble at his approach. face continually" (1 Chr 16:11).
If Arabic mäga "surge, be in tumult, totter" is
W.C.K.
to be connected with our Hebrew root, then
"tremble" might be a better meaning especially 11'jiC (mbda'), See no. 848e.
since it is paralleled by r'sh "shake" in Nah 1:5.
lt serves as a figure of helpless, disorganized ter-
1158 t:1ic (mor) totter, shake, slip.
ror in the OT. Cathcart points to Jer 4:24 to sup-
port this rendering: "I saw the mountains, and lo Derivatives
they were quaking, and all the hills rocked to and
1158a tt:liC (mo() shaking, pole, bar of
fro." But in Mic 1:4 and Ps 97:5 the hills melt like
yoke.
wax. Therefore there must be a combination of 1158b t:,~ic (mo(ii) pole, bar of yoke.
ideas: trembling and melting.
God also can soften the earth with showers (Ps This verb, which occurs as a figure of speech
65:10 [H 11) and cause a man's possessions to referring to great insecurity, can also denote de-
dissolve (Job 30:22). pendability and certainty when used of God and
Regularly this melting is a figure for the panic- prefixed with a negative.
stricken condition which God's judicial acts When mo( is used with rege/ "foot," it speaks
cause in the heathen: Canaan (Ex 15:15; Josh 2:9, of the foot slipping or sliding in a time of calamity
24), Philistia (1 Sam 14:16; lsa 14:3!), the earth (Deut 32:35; Ps 38:16 [H 17); 94:18). In Ps 82:5
and its population (Ps 75:3 [H 4]). this verb depicts general disorder on the earth:
However, there is a final day coming when the "all the foundations of the earth are slipping." lt
mountains shall flow with new wine and the hills also is used to refer to the instability of dead idols

493
1159 ,~~ (mftk)

mounted on platforms that are liable to topple and figs from Canaan (Num 13:23). Concerning
over or be picked up and carted off by a con- the meaning of mö( in Ps 55:22 [H 23], M. Da-
queror. Isaiah has much sport urging idolatrous hood suggests that the word connotes stumbling
Israel to make sure their gods will not be moved into the netherworld (i.e. into the jaws of death).
(lsa 40:20; 41 :7). In Ps 66:9 it may even be a poetic name for the
Two millennial psalms affirm that "the LoRo underworld, "Who has kept us among the living
reigns," therefore the inhabited world (lebe/) and has not put our foot in the quagmire." While
cannot be moved (Ps 93: 1, I Chr 16:30: Ps 96: 10). the idea of the netherworld may be overdrawn,
Since the Lord also laid the foundations of the the idea of stumbling is not. Nahum 1:13 says, "I
earth, it will not totter forever and ever (Ps will break his yoke" (shiibar and mo(ii); cf. also
l04:5). Jer 28: 10-12: Lev 26: 13; Ezk 30: 18. Probably the
Not as much can be said for the kingdoms of mö( is strictly speaking the bar across the ani-
this world: they were moved when the Lord said mals' necks which becomes a name for the whole
so (Ps 46:6: note parallel verb müg "to melt''). In yoke.
a dramatic passage, Jsaiah pictures the earth reel- möJä. Pole, bar. This feminine noun also is
ing to and fro like a drunkard or a little vineyard used for bars or staves to carry the ark (1 Chr
hut, ( m ,.lünii, see miilon) in a violent storm. lt 15:15) or figuratively the yoke of oppression (Lev
convulses, reels and shakes violently (lsa 24: 19- 26:13; Jer 27:2: 28:10, 12, 13; Jsa 58:6, 9; Ezk
20) as God's hand moves injudgmentjust prior to 30: 18; 34:27). The most colorful and theologically
the "many days" (millennium'?) of lsa 24:22. significant passage is in Jeremiah. The false
David spoke poetically of the earth being split prophet Hananiah dared to break Jeremiah's real
and trembling in need of God's healing when it yoke (a symbol of impending Babylonian bon-
was shaking (Ps 60:2 [H 4 ]), but this is probably dage) only to find himself confronted with
to be classified with Ps 46:2 [H 31 which allows another real yoke of iron and a sentence of immi-
that even if the earth heaves (mür) and the nent death which occurred two months later.
mountains slip into the heart of the seas, God will lt is probable that here belongs Prov 24: 11:
still be our refuge and strength. As these passages "Rescue captives from (preposition /amed) death,
and Ps 82:5 show, the verb refers to the sudden, and do not restrain the rods from (preposition
unexpected and disastrous shaking of the solid lamed) killing."
earth. Since this inconstancy is against the order Bibliography: Dahood, M., Proverbs and
of creation, it is associated with God's wrath. Northwest Semitic Philology, Rome: Pontifical
The power of his wrath is evident in such cosmic Biblical Institute, 1963, p. 51. Psalms/, in AB,
disorder. pp. 78-79. --, Psalms//, in AB, pp. 38-39.
Righteous men are unmoveable and secure, for W.C.K.
they have the Lord as their Rock and Salvation
(Ps 62:2 [H 31. 6 [H 71: 112: 6; 15:5; 16:8; 21:7 1159 '!rn'~ (milk) be low, depressed, grow
[H 8]; 30:6 [H 7]). God gives them a hand on the poor (e.g. Lev 27:8: 25:47).
pathway of life so that their footing does not slip
(Ps 17:5). The enemy of the righteous will have 1160 ',1Q (mu/) I, ',iQ (möl), ?Ni~ (mö'/)
no cause to rejoice in his being moved (Ps 13:4 front, in front of.
[H 51), for he trusts in the salvation of God.
Such assurance is strengthened even more by 1161 ?1~ (mü/) II, circumcise, /et oneself be
the everlastingly secure covenant which God circumcised, be cut off (a few forms may
made with Abraham and David. The promise is be taken as from ',7~).
unconditionally maintained in perpetuity for all Derivative
who will participate by faith. While the moun-
tains may move (mtish) and the hills shake, 1161a t:,71~ (mü/a) circumcision.
God's loyal love will never move (müsh) and his The use of the verb in the or begins in Gen 17.
covenant of peace (the new covenant, the Ab- Here the Lord confirms his covenant with Ab-
rahamic and Davidic covenant) will never shake raham recorded in Gen 12:1-3. The practice of
(lsa 54: 10). See also müsh "depart, remove" and cutting off of the prepuce of the penis was a prac-
müg "melt, shake." tice used even before the time of Abraham (Old
Kingdom Egyptian tomb art and hieroglyphs
möJ. Pole, bar (of the yoke), shaking. The Egyptian Grammar, A. H. Gardiner, p. 448). lt
word mo( is used of shaking and therefore of a was probably used as it is to this day as a puberty
carrying pole that shakes as the bearer walks. rite marking the passage of a son to the privileges
In three passages, it is used of a carrying pole of manhood, a rite sometimes accompanied by
such as the one used to carry the tabernacle fur- licentious overtones. The operation was per-
nishings (Num 4: IO, 12) or the one used by the formed on a boy about thirteen years old. God
spies to carry back the grapes, pomegranates, revealed to Abraham that he was to use this

494
 I 164 *·w~(mür)
shedding of blood as a sign of the covenant with of being a bloody husband because of circumci-
Abraham. In the OTGod ordered the child to be sion. The context makes very clear the impor-
circumcised on the eighth day of his life, re- tance God placed on circumcision as a sign of
moving it from a puberty rite to a sign with God's covenant with his people. Even Moses the
strictly religious significance. This infant circum- lawgiver was not free to neglect circumcising his
cision seems to have been unique in antiquity. son. To do so was tantamount to a denial of the
Modems have proved the practice has hygienic covenant.
value but there is no place in the oT where this Bibliography: TDNT, VI, pp. 73-81.
point is made. E.B.S.
Since the practice symbolized God's covenant
with Abraham and his descendants, it is from the l"lj';>i0 (moledet). See no. 867f.
various aspects of this covenant that circumci- :~~0 (musäb). See no. 1455b.
sion derives its spiritual significance. To those in ,010 (musäd), icic (mösäd). See nos.
the OTwho took its meaning seriously, it was the ·875dJ. •
mark of submission to the sovereign will of God. i~10 (musäk). See no. 1492b.
As so often happens with religious symbolism, '1!;,iC (moser). See no. 14Jf.
the Hebrews eventually used this sign of a deep '1010 (musär). See no. 877b.
spiritual reality as an end in itself and wrongly iµic (mö'ed). itri0 (mö'äd). See nos.
made of it an automatic entry into the kingdom 878b,e.
of God. :i,v1c (mu'äda). See no. 878d.
The prophets became aware of this perversion rir;10 (mu'äp) . . See no. 1581a.
and preached against mere circumcision of the M:tl!iC (mö'esa). See no. 887b.
flesh, that is, circumcision not accompanied by :i~v10 (mu'äqa). See no. 1585b.
living faith. Jeremiah spoke of the circumcision N;iic (möpet). See no. 152a.
of the heart. He said, "Circumcise yourselves to
the Lord, and take away the foreskins of your 1162 r,c (mw~). Assumedrootofthefollowing.
heart, you men of Judah"(Jer 4:4). But long be- 1162a ri0 ( mo~) chaff.
fore Jeremiah the people had been wamed of this
<langer. Indeed, Jeremiah was quoting Deut Hli0 (mö~ä'). See no. 893c.
10:16. The use of the verb in Deut 30:6 proves the :;10 (mil$äb). See no. 1398d.
statement above, that circumcision symbolized ;,;10 (mil$äq). See nos. 897b, 1895c.
the deepest spiritual reality of the Hebrew reli- l"li'.;10 (mil$eqet). See no. 897c.
gion. The verse says, "The LoRD your God will
circumcise your heart and the heart of your off- 1163 *;,10 (muq), ;,~~ (miq) mock, deride.
spring, so that you will love the LORDyour God Occurs only in Ps 73:8, probably in the
with all your heart and with all your soul, that Hiphil.
you may live ... In Mt 22:36-40 our Lord in-
structed the Pharisees that this was indeed the i;,i0 (moqed). See no. 901b.
greatest commandment and the sum and sub- ~;,i0 (mbqesh). See no. 906c.
stance of all the law and prophets. The verse in
Deut clearly teaches that true circumcision was a
1164 *'11C (mur) change, exchange. Used in
work ofGod in the human heart-the spiritual life
the Niphal, Hiphil and Hophal only.
God creates in his people. This is precisely the
teaching of the apostle Paul in Col 2: 11 where Derivative
speaking of the full deity of Christ he says, ·· In
1164a m,101'\ (1" mura) exchange.
whom also ye are circumcised with the circumci-
sion made without hands, in putting off the body This verb appears in thirteen passages of scrip-
of the sins of the flesh by the circumcision of ture which deal with various topics. In Mic 2:4,
Christ." (Cf. also Rom 2:28-29 and 4:9-12.) Be- Gog will spoil and change the portion of his
cause baptism and circumcision both symbolize people because of their sinfulness. Psalm 46:3 af-
the regenerative work of God which always in- firms in a hyperbolic phrase, "though the earth
cluded cleansing from sin and love for God, some be altered," that God is still our refuge and
segments of the church baptize their infants just strength. In Ps 15:4, the man who abides by his
as God instructed the OT saints to circumcise swom word and does not change is the kind of
them. Others in church do not stress this analogy man whom God will establish, but as for those
and so baptize only those who profess faith in who sin against him increasingly, he will change
Christ after reaching the age of discretion. their glory into shame (Hos 4:7). When Israel
worshiped the golden calf, they thereby changed
mulä. Circumcision. This noun is used only their glory (i.e. their glorious God) into a bull that
once, in Ex 4:26, where Zipporah accused Moses eats grass (Ps 106:20). Israel did what no other

495
I 165 J,i~ (moräg)
nation ever had done. The nations never changed Moses went into the camp (Ex 33: 11). Later, the
their gods (which were not, after all, gods at all). Lord instructed Joshua that the book of the law
But Israel changed their glory for that which did was never to depart from his mouth; he was to
not profit at all (Jer 2: 11). meditate on it day and night (Josh 1:8).
A group of texts deals with vowed offerings. When Israel attempted to enter Canaan pre-
Once they have been dedicated to the Lord, they sumptuously, after having accepted the unbeliev-
may not be changed good for bad or vice versa. If ing majority report of the spies, the ark of the
there is an exchange however, it and the ex- covenant of the Lord did not depart from the
change shall be holy to the Lord (Lev 27: 10 [four camp (Num 14:44).
times]; 27:33 [three times]). lsaiah's use of the term is theologically signifi-
cant. While the mountains will depart (lsa
t•mura. Exchange, recompense. Two passages 54:IOa), God's covenant ofpeace made with Ab-
merit attention. Job 28: 17 says that wisdom can-
raham and David, and the new covenant of
not be attained in exchange for jewels of fine
Jeremiah will not be removed (lsa 54: IOb; 59:21).
gold. Ruth 4:7 records the ceremony of land re-
lt is permanent! IfGod's ordinances with the sun,
demption and exchange when Boaz married Ruth
moon, and stars depart, then his promise with
on the quitting of all claims by a closer relative.
Israel will do likewise (Jer 31:36). As of this writ-
W.C.K.
ing, however, the sun, moon, and stars continue
to shine and therefore his covenant promise to
1165 J?iC (moräg) thresher. Israel continues.
A piece of farm equipment made of a plank In the final day when the Lord appears a sec-
platform. Holes were bored in the bottom of it, ond time, he will remove the iniquity of the land
through which protruded sharp stones or metal (of Israel) in one day (Zech 3:9). So magnificent
points. lt was drawn by one or two animals and will be his appearing that the Mount of Olives will
weighted down by stones or by the driver as he split and one half will remove itself to the north
drove it over stalks of grain. Araunah gave such a and the other half to the south (Zech 14:4).
piece of equipment to David to use as the wood Men who trust in the Lord will be like trees
for his sacrifice on the future holy site (II Sam planted by a river; they will not cease yielding
24:22; I Chr 21:23). fruit (Jer 17:8).
According to Isa 41: 15, however, God will W.C.K.
make Israel his threshing sledge to harvest his
judgment in the eschaton. 1168 W~C (müsh) II, feel (e.g. Gen 27:21; Ps
häru~ was another type of thresher or disc har- 115:7; Jud 16:26).
row made of iron. lt occurs in a parable (lsa
28:27). Arnos mentions it as an instrument of de- :~ic (moshäb). See no. 922c.
struction and uses it as a figure of brutality which :,~~;~ (moshä'a). See no. 929d.
incited the wrath of God (Arnos 1:3).
Bibliography: Corswant, W., Dictionary of 1169 r,~c (müt) die, kül, have one executed.
Life in Bible Times, Oxford University Press,
1960, pp. 279~0. (See the figures in IDB, IV, Derivatives
p. 391, fig. 67; p. 636, fig. 60.) 1169a r,_i,~ (mäwet) death, dying, Death
W.C.K. (personifred), the realm of the dead.
,,ic (moräd). See no. 909a.
1169b
1169c
r,i~,; (mämot) death.
l"Ttll~l;I(t' müta) death. Occurs
only in phrase b' net' muta "chil-
1166 :,iic (mora) razor (Jud 13:5; 16:17; I dren of death," i.e. those worthy of
'sam 1:11). death and appointed to death (Ps
79:11; 102:21).
:,?iC (mora). See nos. 907c,d.
müt may refer to death by natural causes or
MjiC (moreh). See nos. 910b,c.
W?iC (moräsh). See no. 920d. to violent death. The latter may be as a pen-
alty or otherwise. The root is not limited to the
death of humans although it is used predomi-
1167 W~C (müsh) /, depart, remo11e.
nantly that way.
This term appears twenty times in the OT. lt is This is a universally used Semitic root for dying
first used to describe the pillar of cloud and the and death. The Canaanites employed it as the
pillar of fire (the sign of the presence of God in name of the god of death and the netherworld,
the Israelite camp) which never left its place in Mot (cf. ANET, pp. 138-42). In Hebrew it is oc-
front of the people day or night (Ex 13:22). casionally used metaphorically as when Job
Joshua did not depart from the tabemacle while speaks of the death of wisdom (12:2). But the

496
 1169 rm~(mut)

literal demise of the body in death is usually in ing of Sheol as Shown by lts Parallels," JETS
view. Ezekiel reminds us that God has no plea- 4:129-35.
sure in the death of men, for his purpose was and This passage in Isa 38: 18 leads us to the OT
is that they live (18:32). The normative OTteach- statement that "The earth the Lord hath given to
ing about death is presented in Gen 3:3, where the children of men, but the dead praise not the
God warns Adam and Eve that death is the result Lord" (Ps 115:16bf.; lsa 38:11; Ps 6:5; 30:10;
of rebellion against his commands. Since God's 88:llff.). Bultmann notes "Afterdeath, then, the
purpose for our first parents was never ending righteous are outside the infinitely important
life, the introduction of death was an undesirable sphere of life in which cultic relationship with
but a necessary result of disobedience. The phys- God is maintained" (TDNT, II, p. 847). How-
ical corruption of the human body and the con- ever, he is mistaken when he extends this line of
sequent suffering and pain brought about by the thinking to conclude: "Death and its kingdom are
Fall were only the obvious symptoms of death. outside the stream of power which has subjected
Death is the consequence and the punishment of all the kingdoms oflife to itself' (ibid.). We have
sin. lt originated with sin. A grand theme of the shown elsewhere (see ~ayyfm) that God is the
0T is God's holiness, which separates him from Lord of life and death and that he will conquer
all that is not in harmony with his character. death.
Death, then, in the OTmeans ultimate separation In the Mosaic ceremonial Iaw corpses were
from God due to sin. And sin is any rebellion or considered unclean-another indication of the OT
Jack of conformity to his holy will. All men then, attitude toward death as an intruder and the re-
in a sense, are what the Hebrews would call b' ne sult of sin. The Canaanites on the other band
miiwet "sons of death"; that is, they deserve to "normalized" death through the myths of the
die because they are sinners. This and a related "godly Mot" who like other gods was subject to
term ( 'ish miiwet "man of death") are used (Ps appeasement. The Canaanites had rituals which
79: 11; 102:20 [H 21]) of the people of God in cap- included bodily mutilation and sacrifices for the
tivity who must look to him for deliverance from dead. The lsraelites were forbidden to practice
impending doom. such rituals (Deut 14:1). The law of Moses was
In Ugaritic (ANET, above) the god Mot was a also designed to protect Israel from one of the
well-defined figure who ruled the netherworld, a vilest effects which the '' normalization'' of death
land of slime and filth. He fought with Baal, the had on the Canaanites, and that was child sac-
god of fertility for which he suffered the displea- rifice.
sure of EI, head of the pantheon. Baal, as the
For everything that is detestable to the LORD
provider of fertility, rain, etc., was a hero god to
they have done for their gods,
the Canaanites and as such his cult became a dis-
even to burning their sons and daughters
tinct snare to the Israelites. The same is not true
in fire for their gods" (Deut 12:31).
of Mot, so he was not mentioned in the OT, al-
though some claim to find occasional references Because of its view of death oT revelation
to him. M. Dahood (Psalms, in AB, XVI, XVII, places a high premium on life. A long life is con-
XVIIa) attempts to read Mol into the Psalmist's sidered a great blessing (Prov 3 :2) and an im-
references to the foe, but he is not convincing. mortal life the ultimate in blessing (Ps 16:11; 21:4
Jeremiah in one case personifies death, describ- [H 5]; 73:23-26). The Canaanites feit the latter
ing it as one who comes in through the windows belonged only to the gods (ANET, p. 151, vi).
(9:20). What may be clearer is the use of miiwet Contrary to the opinion of many moderns, the
"death" as referring more broadly to the realm of OT teaching that requires capital punishment for
the dead. In Isa 38: 18 we read: premeditated murder arose out of a high view of
life, not a low view. The same is true of God's
"For Sheol cannot praise you,
order to destroy those people who were com-
death cannot celebrate you;
mitted to the detestable practices mentioned
they that go down into the pit cannot hope
above. Psalm 106:34-38 explains why this is so:
for your truth."
Because Israel did not destroy these peoples they
There is certainly room for difference of opin- learned their practices and sacriflced their own
ion here, for the place Isaiah has in mind could be sons and daughters to demons.
either the grave or the realm of the dead. lt would Bibliography: Heide!, Alexander, "Death and
appear that Job 38:17 which says, "Have the the Afterlife in the OT," in The Gilgamesh Epic,
gates of death been revealed to you?" is a clearer University of Chicago. Richardson, TWB, p. 60.
reference to "death" as the realm of the dead. THAT, I, pp. 893-96.
Other passages that may be taken this way are: E.B.S.
Isa 28:15, 18; Hos 13:14; Hab 2:5; Ps 6:5; 49:14 [H
15]; and article läqa~; Prov 7:27; Job 28:22, etc. itii~ (motär). See no. 936g.
But see sh''ol and R. L. Harris, "The Mean- mn~(mizbea~). See no. 522b.

497
1170 .:IT~(mzg)

1170 ;m~ ( mzg). Assumed root of the following. 1175 -,,o (mzr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
1170a JJ~ (mezeg) mixture, i.e. mixed ing .
. wine. Occurs only in Song 7:3, in 1175a -,;,1?(mäzor) net. Meaning dubi-
phrase 'a/-yelJsar hammazeg ous.
"(that) never Jacks blended wine."
:i:,y~ (mizreh). See no. 579a.
1171 l'ITO (mzh). Assumed root ofthe following.
1171a MV? (mäzeh) sucked out, empty 1176 r,i-,JI'; (mazzärot). Occurs only in Job
(Deut 32:24; lsa 5:13). 38:32. Meaning dubious. Perhaps it refers
to a particular star or constellation. See
nr? (mäzu). See no. 534b. mazzälot.
:imo (m'zuza). See no. 535b.
1fü;' (mäzon). See no. 539a. M?T~(mizrä/J). See no. 580c.
-,;,1?(mäzor). See nos. 75a, 543c. 11?!~ (mizrä'). See no. 582f.
i'?T~ (mizräq). See no. 585f.
1172 Mt~ (mezalJ) girdle. Probably a loan lj~ (mealJ), r,'0 (möalJ). See nos. 1l81a,b.
word.
1172a tt•T~ (m'zialJ) girdle. Occurs only 1177 Mtff?(mä/Jä') strike (=clap the hand, e.g.
in Job 12:21, "loosen the girdle of Isa 55:12; Ezk 25:6).
might," i.e. weaken them, make
them defenseless by ungirding. M~r;,r.,(malJbe'). See no. 588a.
M·:11,:,i,(malJbö'). See no. 589a.
.i'.7yr.,
(mazleg). See no. 552a. M?11j~ (m'IJabb'ra). See no. 598k.
Z'lj~i'.'11.'
(malJberet). See no. 598j.
1173 r,i,!7;) (mazzälot) constellalions. (Asv r,;q~ (malJtibat). See no. 600b.
"planets," Rsv similar.) r,:,:ir,rr.,(ma/Jligöret). See no. 604d.
Appears in II Kgs 23:5 and Job 38:32. The Ak- 1178 :ii,9 (mälJa) 1, wipe, wipe out.
kadian cognate refers to the phases of the moon,
but the usage of the term in Judaic writings indi- Almost all of the thirty-three occurrences of
cates that zodiac constellations are being referred this verb are theologically significant. lt is first
to in Hebrew. In Kings the word is used with found in the flood narrative. Every living thing on
reference to the pagan worship of the stars with the face of the earth that breathed was blotted out
all such worship's astrological significance. In (Gen 7:22-23) including all human beings, except
Job it is used with kima k!sil and 'äyish (the eight. mä/Ja figures prominently in the prayer in
Pleiades, Orion and the Bear, all ofwhich see), to which Moses begged God to forgive the sin Israel
indicate God's creative power and the folly of incurred when they worshiped the golden calf.
questioning his wisdom. „ If not, blot me out of your book," prays Moses
G.L.C. (Ex 32:32-33). lt bad been God's intention to blot
out lsrael's name from under heaven (Deut 9:14),
M,PT~(m'zimma). See no. 556c. as repeated in Deut 29:20 [H 19) (see also Ps
-,;or~ (mizmor). See no. 558c. 69:28 [H 29)). Whether he regards it thus as a
stain (as in Ps 51:3, 11) or a debt in a ledger (as in
M?~T1.' (mazmera). See no. 559c.
Col 2:14) is not known with certainty. But he was
Z'ljl_?!~(m • zammeret). See no. 559d.
.,.'T~ (miz'är). See no. 571b. willing, as was the apostle Paul, to be accursed
for the sake of his brethren.
1174 .,,o(mzr) I. Assumed root of the follow-
Note that erasures in ancient leather scrolls
were made by washing or sponging off the ink
ing.
rather than blotting. "Wipe out" is therefore
1174a t-,J~I'; (mamzer) bastard, child of
more accurate for the idea of expunge.
incest.
When God did move in judgment, he wiped
Only found in Deut 23:2 [H 3), it is used of an Jerusalem as one wipes a dish, wiping it and turn-
illegitimate child who is refused entrance to the ing it upside down (II Kgs 21:13). During the time
congregation of the Lord until the tenth genera- of the judges, the entire tribe of Bertjamin was
tion. Zechariah 9:6 may refer to an individual, but almost blotted out (Jud 21:17).
more likely it figuratively depicts the mixed popu- The sinner prays as David did that God will
lation of Ashdod. lt is possible that the Deut ref- blot out, i.e. erase bis transgressions and in-
erence also refers to a child of mixed paren- iquities (Ps 51:1 [H 3], 9 [H 11)). God does so for
tage-Hebrew and pagan. his own sake and remembers those sins no Ionger
W.C.K. (lsa 43:25). Thus sins which loomed as a thick

498
 1183 rtt~ (mä~a~)

cloud were blotted out (lsa 44:22). While God is 11;,7~1;(ma/_1/'qöt). See no. 670g.
omniscient, these sins he deliberately remembers 117~7; (mal_llat). See no. 655 or no. 623h.
against us no longer. The reverse action can be
seen in Ps 109:14, and Neh 4:5 [H 3:37]. 1182 ri'Hr;r,tr.i
(ma/_lllmii'öt) curd-like. Occurs
mä/_lii is also used to describe the lifestyle of an only in Ps 55:21 [H 22). Perhaps min com-
adulterous woman who eats, wipes her mouth, parative plus l_lem'ii "curd" (q.v.).
and protestingly claims that she has done no
wrong (Prov 30:20).
Then there is the case of the jealous husband ir;ir:,,; (mal_lmad), i"o,:ir;i (ma/_lmöd). See
who suspected his wife of adultery. As part of the nos. 673d,e.
psychological ordeal to which she was subjected ',r.,nr;i (mahma/). See no. 676b.
in the presence of the Lord, the woman had to 11:rcn,;(m~hmeset). See no. 679d.
drink bitter water into which curses written on a :ii6~ (ma/_lll.neh). See no. 690e.
scroll had been wiped in order to determine her ;,~~r., (ma/_lllnaq). See no. 697a.
innocence or guilt. (Num 5:23). :,!?':11;1
(mal_lseh). See no. 700b.
Finally, lsa 25:8 proclaims that God will wipe cicnr., (ma/_lsom). See no. 702a.
away tears from all faces. ,;c~r;i (ma/_lsor). See no. 705e.
W.C.K.
1183 ri:ir; (mä/_la$) strike, wound severely.
1179 Mr;t'? (mäl_la) II, strike. Occurs only in
Num 34: 11, ümäl_lii 'al-ketep yam-kinneret Derivative
"and (the border) will strike upon (i.e. 1183a tri:,r;i (ma/_la$) severe wound.
reach to) the shoulder of the Sea of Kin-
neret." This word is weil attested in Ugaritic poetry. lt
is found in the oT in parallel pairs with itself (Ps
Derivative 110:5-6), with $m/_l "to annihilate" (Ps 18:39-41;
note that the two verbs mäha$ and sämal_l, both
1179a •r:,~ (m'/_li) stroke. Occurs only
in the first person singular, form an inclusion as
1n Ezk 26:9.
in Ugaritic poetry), and with kly "to annihilate"
(II Sam 22:39; Ps 18:38-39). The blow denoted by
:-9~M~(m 'hügii). See no. 615b.
mä/Ja$ is generally lethal and decisive, as Jael's
was to Sisera (Jud 5:26).
1180 Tinr; (mäl_loz) city. Loan word from the
The Lord will smite kings of many countries in
Akkadian ma~äzu "city." Occurs only in
the day ofhis great wrath (Ps 110:5-6). In fact, he
Ps 107:30.
does so even now to all who continue to walk in
their sins (Deut 33:11; Ps 68:21 [H 22)). Hence,
',inr; (mäl_löl). See no. 623g.
the kingdom of the ungodly can expect increasing
mnr., (mahazeh), MTMO (mehezii). See
hostilities until the final deliverance of God
·---n~s.633f,g. ·~. .
comes in the end (Hab 3: 13). God smites and he
heals; "neither is there any that can deliver out of
1181 nno (m/_1/_l). Assumed root of the follow-
his hand" (Deut 32:39). Even Eliphaz recognized
ing.
this (Job 5: 18). No picture of God moving in his
1181a i:,~ (meal_l) fatling.
vengeful justice is more vivid than Ps 68:23
1181b !j'r., (möa/_l) marrow.Occurs only
[H 24], which portrays God smiting his foot in the
in Job 21:24, where it symbolizes blood of his enemies (who have come against a
prosperity.
revived nation of Israel in the eschaton). There is
1181c *:,nr., (mähii). Verb derived from a possibility that this verse may be explained by
',';ioa/_l. Occurs only in the Pual, in
Ps 58:10 [H II] where the verbis wash (rä/_la$)
lsa 25:6, sh''miinim m'mü/_läyim
the feet in blood. The ancient versions read
"fat pieces full of marrow."
"wash" also in Ps 68:23 [H 24].
•r:,~ (m' /_li). See no. 1179a. ma'1aii. Severe wound. Only lsa 30:26 uses this
:,•nr., (mihyii). See no. 644b. word. The Lord will heal the blow of the wound
,~n0 (m'.hir). See no. 1185c. that came to his people. This will take place in
:i76~ (ma~a/ii), :i?,r,tl;I(ma/_lllleh). See "that day" when the moon shall be as bright as
nos. 655c,b. the sun and the sun shall be seven times more
:,?1'.'1'?
(m'/_lil/ii). See no. 660f. luminous than it is now.
•~':>qr.,
(mal_la/üy). See no. 655d. Bibliography: Fisher, Loren, Ras Shamra
ei7pr;i(mal_laläp ). See no. 666d. Para/leis, I, Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1972,
:,:r7nr., (mahaläsii). See no. 667b. pp. 80, 227, 257-58.
11~,~~ (mahalöqet). See no. 669d. W.C.K.

499
1184 i'tlr, (mä/:laq)

:::i;,:,r; (malJ$eb).See no. 718a. One of the great tragedies in Israel was that the
:iJt:r9 (me/Je$ii). See no. 719d. rulers judged for reward, the priests taught for a
ri•ir,ir; (ma/Jö$it). See no. 719e. price or reward and the prophets divined for
money (Mic 3:11). Contrariwise, the pagan
1184 i'l:t7; ( mälJaq) annihilate. Occurs only in Cyrus, whom God raised up, released the cap-
Jud 5:26. tives of Israel for no price or reward (lsa 45: 13).
This is the opposite of Antichrist who will divide
,1?1;9 (melJqär). See no. 729b. the land for personal gain (Dan 11:39).
W.C.K.
1185 ,n~ (mlJr). Assumed root ofthe following.
1185a tir,r; (mälJär) tomorrow. :,~?r,11;(malJärä'ii). See no. 730b.
1185b tri,n~ (mohorät) the mo"ow. :,~'.'1r,11;
(ma/Jöreshii). See no. 760d.
1185c t,.;~~ (m'' JJir) hire, price. l'i?til?(mohorät). See no. 1185b.
mä!u'ir. Tomorrow. Occurring fifty-two times, l'\ivr:,r;(malJsop). See no. 766b.
mä/Jär is seldom used substantively, e.g. ··to- :i;,~r,rr.,(ma/Jöshäbii). See no. 767d.
morrow is the new moon" (1 Sam 20:5). In other '!!WM~ (mahshiik). See no. 769d.
passages it is used adverbially: "Let us eat and :,r-in~(mahtii). See no. 777a.
drink, for tomorrow we die" (lsa 22:13) or "To- :i~b~ (m'' ~ittii). See no. 784g.
morrow the Lord shall do this thing." M?'\M~ (mahteret). See no. 783a.
Of theological interest is the use of mälJär to lj~~~ - (ma(b~a~). See no. 786e.
mean in future time, e.g. Ex 13:14 and Deut 6:20, :i,i; (ma((eh), :,~~ (mi((ii), :,I?!?(mü((eh).
·' When in time to come your sons ask you ·' See nos. l352b,c,e.
(NEB). In Josh 4:6, 21 memorial stones were set so :i1~1;(marweh). See no. 794a.
that in future days when the children asked what '?•~~ (m"{il). Seeno.1186a.
they meant, the answer could be given. Similarly,
the transjordanian tribes feared that the time 1186 ,~~ (m[/). Assumed root of the following.
would come when they would be cut off from the 1186a '?•~~ (m'fi/) wrought metal rod.
heritage of Israel, so they also erected a memorial Occurs only in Job 40: 18, m'ril
(Josh 22:24, 28). Laban and Jacob looked forward bärze/. This phrase refers figura-
not just to the morrow in the sense of the follow- tively to the bones of the hippopot-
ing day, but to time that would come (Gen 30:33). amus.
Significantly enough, none of the prophets used
this phrase to designate the eschatological era.
Proverbs warns against boasting about what li~~~ (matmon). See no. 81 Ja.
one will do on the morrow (Prov 27:1). Neither 1,1~~ - (ma((ö'). See no. 1354c.
should one promise to give tomorrow to a C~~r, (ma('iim). See no. 815b.
neighbor when he has it to give right then and l'll:tO~~ (mi[pa!Jat). See no. 818d.
there (Prov 3:28). God is in charge of our tomor-
rows, therefore we must be hesitant to plan as if 1187 ,~r; (mä(ar) rain. Denominative verb.
the future were entirely in our hands.
mohörät. Tomorrow. The most interesting fea- Parent Noun
ture about this feminine noun is that "on the 1187a t,~I? (mä{är) rain.
morrow of' means after (Lev 23:11, 15, 16; Num
Genesis 2:5 states that the Lord "had not
33:3; Josh 5: II). Twice the preposition /' is used caused it to rain on the ground.'' The garden was
before mähorät to mean "on the morrow" (Jon watered by a "mist" or, better, a "river" (Har-
4:7; I Sam 30:17). ris, R. L., "The Mist, the Canopy and the Rivers
m•ltir. Hire, price. Relation to above root un- of Eden," JETS 11:177--80). These statements
clear. This word is used only fifteen times in the explain why there were no "plants of the culti-
oT. Deuteronomy 23:19 prohibits bringing the vated land" (perhaps thorns arising from rain ac-
price of a "dog" (male prostitute) into the house tion) or "herbs of the cultivated land" (perhaps
of God. Isaiah 55: 1 describes the free offer of cereal grains? cf. Gen 3: 18).
God's salvation as being without money and Destructive rain from God feil on the earth in
without price. Wisdom cannot be purchased with the flood of Noah's day (Gen 7:4). God rained
gold, not at any price (Job 28: 15). In a similar down hail on the unbelieving Pharaoh (Ex 9:23),
vein, Prov 17:16 asks why put a price (tuition'?) and fire and brimstone on Sodom and Gomorrah
into the hand of a fool to get wisdom (an educa- (Gen 19:24). He will yet rain down great
tion) when you know he has no hean (motivation) hailstones, fire, and brimstone on Gog and his
in it? hordes in that great concluding battle of history

500
 1188 ,r_,(may)

(Ezk 38:22). Such a prospect is in view for all the earth; he makes lightnings with rain, and brings
wicked (Ps 11:6). the wind out of his treasures" (Ps 135:7; Jer
The connection between man's spiritual condi- 10:13; 51:16).
tion and the amount and timing of the rainfall is Bibliography: Baly, Denis, The Geography of
seen in passages like Arnos 4:7. When man's the Bible, Harper, 1957, pp. 41-52.
heart is right with God, he graciously gives the W.C.K.
command to the clouds and they refresh the earth
(lsa 5:6), just as he graciously rained manna on l"!?~r.'l (ma((ära). See no. 1356a.
Israel in the wildemess (Ex 16:4; Ps 78:24).
1188 •r,i (may) water, Cl'r,'l (mayim) waters.
mäJär. Rain. The rain (in some thirty-eight
references) is never to be taken for granted by Found only in the plural form, it occurs some
mankind; it comes from the hand of God (Ps 580 times. The theological importance of water
147:8; Job 5:10; 28:26; 36:27) in amounts propor- may be discussed in terms of its historical, ritual,
tionate to the spiritual condition of the inhabi- metaphorical, and eschatological aspects. The
tants ofthat land (Deut 11:ll, 15 [H 14]. When scarcity of water in Palestine explains the numer-
men love the Lord their God and serve him with ous references in the OT to man· s quest for water.
all their heart and soul (Deut 11:13), he sends rain
Historical Aspects
on their land in its regular season (Deut 11:14;
28: 12). But when they turn and go after other The waters of heaven and earth were created
gods, the rain is shut off in heaven. Men and by God. In an all-embracing summary, Ps 104
beasts languish (Deut 11:17) and the land is relates that God created the waters in the clouds
turned into powder and dust (Deut 28:24). Thus (v. 3) and on the earth (v. 6). He controls their
the condition of the promised land was itself a boundaries (vv. 7-9), appoints springs to break
witness to the spiritual life of the people. out on the earth (v. 10), and rain to fall at his
lt may be noted that the Bible does not support bidding (v. 13), thereby fructifying the earth and
the fanciful cosmology often attributed to it. The gladdening the heart of man (vv. 11-18).
"windows of heaven" (Gen 7: 11) are more accu- Many liberal critics draw a crude picture of
rately translated "sluice gates" (cf. !Ja/Ion and biblical cosmology in which the „ waters on high"
the reference there to 'drubba). The Hebrews are held back by a solid firmament, being permit-
knew from observation that rain comes from ted to fall to the earth through "windows" (see
clouds (lsa 5:6; I Kgs 18:44). the drawing after S. H. Hooke in ZPEB, I,
The prophets pointed to the rain as a sign for p. 395). Actually, this is a strange mixture of mis-
the people ofGod's anger or favor (lsa 5:6; 30:23; translation and misuse of poetic imagery. The bib-
Arnos 4:7; Zech 10:1). Rain that feil during the lical account depicts Elohim creating the upper
wheat harvest was a sign of God's judgment, for waters, the watery clouds of heaven, and the
it came out of season and at the worst moment lower waters by the word of his mouth (Gen 1:7,
possible (1 Sam 12:17-18). Solomon prayed that 9). An "expanse" (rather than the Greek and
God would open the heavens, closed by the Latin derivative "firmament") was created be-
people's sin, after they had called upon him in tween the two bodies (Gen 1:6). No idea of hard-
prayer (1 Kgs 8:36; see also II Chr 6:27). Elijah ness, dome-like effect or solidity is attached here.
had just such a prayer ministry (1 Kgs 18:1). In- Rather, as in Ezk I and 10, it is merely a separat-
deed at the very juncture in history when Israel ing expanse. Neither are the lower waters, espe-
chose to worship Baal the storm god (1 Kgs 16- cially the "deep" of Gen 1:2 (t'hom) tobe con-
:31-32), Elijah appeared with the warning, nected with any primeval deep or mythological
"There will be neither dew nor rain these years monster of chaos. t•hom is a good Canaanite
except by my words" (1 Kgs 17:1). word for the sea, cf. Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 2537)
Waiting for the rain became proverbial: like a just as the "waters under the earth" (Ex 20:4;
man waiting for the rain with his mouth held open Deut 4: 18; 5:8) are not necessarily infernal, but
wide (Job 29:23). lt is also used in similes: the simply water below the shoreline in which men
Messiah will come down like rain on the mown can fish. Likewise the "windows of heaven"
grass (Ps 72:6). He will dawn on them as the ten- (Gen 7: 11; 8:2) are metaphorical representations,
der grass shining after the rain (II Sam 23:4). In for on other occasions these same "windows"'
that day a tabernacle will provide shelter from the pour forth grain (II Kgs 7:2), blessings, perhaps
storm and rain (lsa 4:6). shekels (Mal 3: 10), and trouble (lsa 24: 18). (See
Rain accompanied by thunder was sent on the 'drubba in article on /Ja/Ion.)
Egyptians as a sign of supernatural power during God is also the regulator and dispenser of all
the plagues (Ex 9:33-34; cf. Deut 11:10). There the waters: he causes the rains to fall "in time"
are three occurrences of the statement, "He (Lev 26:4; Deut 28:12). He opens the floodgates
causes the vapors to ascend from the ends of the injudgment (Gen 7:17-20) and closes them (Gen

501
1188 ~~ (may)
8:2-3). But even the normal flow of rivers (Num ordeal when he announces (8:14; 9:15 [H 14];
24:6) and the presence of wells and springs (Gen 23: 15) that all Israel is due to drink "bitter" or
16:14; Ex 15:23, 27) continue tobe his concem. "poisoned" water.
His ability to provide water was proved by the Water also plays an important role in the ritual
provision of water in the wilderness. performed in the case of an unsolved murder.
One of the factors controlling the dispersement Those living closest to the scene of the crime
and availability of water is the conduct of man. were required to wash their hands over a sac-
Water is withheld from covenant breakers, law- rificed heifer (Deut 21: 1-9) in order to cleanse the
less and disobedient peoples (Lev 26: 19; Deut area, which probably gave rise to the custom of
28:23; Arnos 4:7; I Kgs 18:18), but given washingone's hands in innocence (Ps 26:6; 73:13;
graciously as a sign of the blessing of God to that cf. Mt 27:24).
nation or city which obeys the voice of God. The oT never encouraged "refreshment" (or
This divine mastery and ownership is demon- "pouring out water") for the dead as some would
strated in the flood of Noah's day (Gen 7), the argue from Deut 26: 14; I Sam 7:6; Jer 16:7.
Red Sea deliverance (Ex 15:1-18), the Jordan Neither did it connect water with magic, for Deut
River crossing (Josh 3:16; 4:18), and Elijah's 18:9-14 is clearly against all such practices.
crossing of the Jordan (II Kgs 2:8). Thus the Joseph's cup of divination (Gen 44:5) is a case of
waters of the Red Sea distinguish between the deception to fool his brothers based on the
people of God and hardened idolaters, while the idolatrous practice of hydromancy.
waters of the Jordan recognize the authoritative
command of its ruler's messengers. Likewise Metaphorical Aspects
water sprang from the rock for a thirsty nation at
Water is an element in many metaphors. The
the word of God's servant Moses (Ex 17:1-7;
desire for God, he who is the source of "living
Num 20:1-13; Ps 78:16, 20; Isa48:21).
water" (Jer 2: 13), is like a deer's thirst for water
Ritual Aspects (Ps 42: I [H 2)). Consequently, all who drink of
him (lsa 55: 1-2) are "like a watered garden and
Various ritual ablutions were performed to like a spring ofwater, whose waters fail not" (lsa
symbolize inner moral purity, preparation for 58: 11) or like trees by the river of waters (Ps 1:3;
meeting or worshiping God, and innocence. Jer 17:8). Apart from God, man is like a dry,
Ritual washing was required in the case of ordina- waterless land doomed to die (Ps 143:6).
tion (Ex 29:4; Lev 8:6), the high priest's prepara- In the realm of marriage, sexual enjoyment
tion for the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:4, 24), with one's own wife is likened to drinking "living
leprosy (Lev 14:5-7, 50-52), sexual emissions water" from one's own weil (Prov 5:15; Song
(Lev 15:13), and contact with a corpse. While the 4:15), while harlotry involves drinking "stolen
rites in theselelves were powerless to bring about waters" (Prov 9: 17).
inner moral purity, they signified one's prior Other figures depict a fearful heart as melting
inner state of purity and his sense of God's holi-
and becoming water (Josh 7:5), the knowledge of
ness.
God as wide and broad as the waters of the seas
There is one use of water in a kind of
(Hab 2: 14; lsa 11:9), and death as the spilling of
psychological ordeal (Num 5: 11-31) which has no water (II Sam 14:14; Ps 22: 14 [H 15)). Distress is
known parallels in the ancient near east. That is likened to much water (II Sam 22:17) or deep
the trial of jealousy. (A true ordeal in the near
waters (Ps 69:3, 15).
east involved physical danger from which an in- Great rivers symbolize imperial powers that
nocent person was supposed tobe delivered, e.g. can swamp other nations; thus the Euphrates (lsa
being thrown into a river. In the Middle Ages, 8:7) and the Nile (Jer 46:7-8). God used these
handling hot iron or walking through fire was "rivers" to punish his people.
supposed to be a test of innocence. The Bible
contains no examples of this kind of ordeal.) Eschatological Aspects
If ajealous husband suspected his wife of adul-
tery (there being no witnesses), he could bring When Israel is restored to their land in a new
her before the priest. He (the priest) then sprin- exodus, God will again miraculously refresh his
kled dust from the sanctuary floor over a vessel people by watering the old desert (lsa 35:6-7;
of water, thereby making it "bitter water." The 43:20) and by changing the land into a garden
woman was required to repeat a formula of showplace (lsa 41:17-20), although some hold
curses which the priest wrote on a scroll and then that this passage refers metaphorically to the
washed into the bitter water. No doubt the result- spiritual refreshment of his people. Paradise will
ing effect on the woman's body, after she drank be restored when a river from the temple in
the water, was psychosomatic, God using the Jerusalem will flow down toward the Dead Sea.
mind and emotions to produce the signs that indi- The trees lining its banks will be a source of life
cated guilt or innocence. Jeremiah refers to this and healing (Ezk 47:1-12; Zech 14:8).

502
 1191 r~ (myn), ,,~ (mwn)

In the coming messianic era, God will grant 1190 ,;,•~ (mikal) brook (meaning dubious).
rain in its season (Ezk 34:26) so that thirst and Occurs only in phrase mikal hammiiyim
want are forgotten (lsa 49: 10; Jer 31:9). The Lord (II Sam 17:20).
will "sprinkle clean water" on the restored tribes
and they will be purified of all their filthiness
Jl91 i•~ (myn), ,,~ (mwn). Assumed root of
(Ezk 36:24-25).
Bibllography: Harris, R. L., "The Bible and the following.
1191a t,•~ (min) kind.
Cosmology," JETS 5:11-17. Reymond, Philippe,
"L'eau, sa vie, et sa signification dans l'Ancien 1191b t:,;~~l,'I (t'munii) likeness,/orm.
Testament," Supp VT, 1958. Richardson, TWB, min. Kind. The word min occurs in thirty-one
pp. 27~0. TDNT, VIII, pp. 317-22. passages (chiefly Gen 1, 6, 7; Lev II; Deut 14),
W.C.K. thirty ofwhich belong to Moses' Pentateuch. The
other one is Ezk 47: 10.
1189 •~ (mi) who. The etymology of min cannot be established
Whereas mii "what?" inquires after the with certainty. Ludwig Koehler would have it
character or quality of things and sometimes per- come from the noun t'munii "form" with some
sons, mi "who?" usually refers to persons and such meaning as "to think out" or "to invent."
seeks only the identity, ancestry, or some exter- Skinner's International Critical Commentary on
nal fact. Genesis rejects this line of reasoning and selects
mi is used with personal association in thirty- rather an Arabic root meaning "to split (the earth
six passages, e.g. Gen 24:65 in which Rebekah in plowing)," with the resulting idea of dividing.
asks Eliezer, "Who is this man walking toward Three significant grammatical points are noted
us?" He answers, "lt is my master." Pharaoh by Barton Payne: 1. min is always used with the
asks Moses and Aaron, "Who precisely is to preposition /' "to" or "in respect to, according
go?" (Ex 10:8). The reply is, "All" (Ex 10:9). to" and thereby provides specification or, in
David, astounded by the announcement ofGod's Driver's phrase, "technical enumeration." 2.
grace to him, cried out, "Who am 1, 0 Lord min always occurs in the singular form even
Yahweh and what (mi) is my house (dynasty)?" though English translations sometimes render
(II Sam 7: 18). Other passages demonstrating the it as plural (Ezk 47: 10, KJV). But it is in fact a
same idea are: Ex 15:1J; 32:26; Deut 3:24; 4:7-8; collective noun giving the generic form in each
5:26; 20:5-8; Jud 9:28, 38; 10:18; 21:5, 8; 1 Sam case. 3. min always is followed by one of five
18:18; 25: 10; II Sam 7:23; 22:32; II Kgs 6: 11; 9:5; suffixal pronominal endings. Affixation of these
1 Chr 17:21; Job 5:1; 34:7: Ps 24:8, 10; 25:13; endings strongly suggests that each form has his,
34:12 [H 13]: 89:48 IH 49]: lsa 48:14; 50:1; Ezk her, or its own generic group to which it belongs
27:32. by order of the creator.
Some believe that Ex 3: 11; II Chr 2:6 [H 5] and Some have argued that when God created min,
Gen 33:8 are exceptions to the rule just an- he thereby fixed the "species." This is a gratui-
nounced. However, Moses asks in Ex 3: Jl, tous assumption because a link between the word
"Who am I to go to Pharaoh?" Apparently .he is min with the biologist's descriptive term species
just claiming to be a nobody. He is not referring cannot be substantiated, and because there are as
to his character, but rather to his ancestry. many definitions of species as there are
Likewise Solomon asks in II Chr2:6 [H 5], "Who biologists.
is able to build [God] a house?" and "Who am 1 In light of the distinctions made in Gen 1, such
then?" His ancestry in light of the greatness of as the distinction between herbs and grasses
the task is nothing. He assumes a stance of humil- which are, however, members of the same dass
ity, as did his father David (II Sam 7: 18). When (Angiosperms), it is possible that in some cases
Esau asks Jacob, "What (mi) was all that com- the biblical term min may indicate a broader
pany of yours that I met?", he refers only to its group, such as an order. Elsewhere, in Lev 11:14,
size, not its potential or character. When Mic 1:5 15, 16, 19, 22 (four times), 29, min appears con-
asks, "What (mi) is the transgression of Jacob?" sistently as equivalent to nothing broader than
and "What (mi) are the high places of Judah?" it genus. However, Lev 11:4 "the falcon after its
is calling only for an identity or list of sins and kind," and 11:16 "the hawk after its kind," refer
high places; their character and meaning is trans- to divisions within the order Falconiformes, yet
parently evil. both have subdivisions called min. Likewise, as
Bibliography: Motyer, J. A., The Revelation Payne points out, the Iocust, bald locust, cricket,
of the Divine Name, London: Tyndale, 1959, pp. and grasshopper all belong to the order Orthop-
19-20. tera and the locust, bald locust, and grasshopper
W.C.K. belong to the family Acridiidae, but again each
has its subdivisions called min (genus?).
:)~•~ (metab). See no. 863a. God created the basic forms of life called min

503
 which can be classified according to modern 1194c ri,,~~(mimkeret) sale. Occurs
biologists and zoologists as sometimes species, ~-~ly in Lev 25:42.
sometimes genus, sometimes family or order. 1194d ri,;i~ (m'kera) swords.
This gives no support to the classical evolutionist
view which requires developments across king- One of the central teachings of the OT is that
dom, phyla, and classes. God, his people, and ·the real estate which he
gave to them belonged together. Since God re-
temuna. Likeness, form. A nocturnal appari-
mained the sole owner of the land, he attached
tion of a spirit with an undiscemible form (Job
certain conditions to the lsraelites' occupation of
4: 16). In Num 12:8, Moses witnesses the
similitude of the Lord, i .. e., his passing-by glory it. One condition was that the land was not to be
sold permanently (Lev 25:23). If someone be-
(see Ex 33:22; also Ps 17:15ofthe Psalmist's wish
came so poor that he had to seil his property, his
to see God when he awakes). Elsewhere men are
nearest kinsman was to redeem it (Lev 25:25). If
wamed against making images in the likeness of
he had no kinsman, and never recovered suffi-
anything which God created (Ex 20:4; Deut 5:8;
4: 16, 23, 25). cient means to buy it back himself, it remained in
the hands of the purchaser until the year of
Bibliography: Payne, J. Barton, "The Con-
Jubilee. In that year, the seventh seven, every
cept of 'Kinds' in Scripture," JASA 10:17-19.
family was to retum to its ancestral possession.
TDNT, I, pp. 181~2.
The law of Jubilee was the first land reform in
W.C.K.
history.
Selling fellow lsraelites into slavery was pro-
1192 l"~ (my.)"). Assumed root ofthe following. hibited (Ex 21:16; Deut 24:7; Joel 3:3 [H 4:3];
1192a l'~ (me.)") squeezer, i.e. oppres- Arnos 2:6; Neh 5:8; Zech 11:5). They could,
sor (lsa 16:4). however, seil themselves, i.e. their services and
1192b l''~ (mi.)") squeezing, pressing, work, but their servitude was terminated in the
wringing (Prov 30:33). seventh year (Deut 15:12) and in the year of
Jubilee, when all servants went free (Lev 25:39,
;,•~ (mfq). See no. 1163. 40, 47, 48, 50; Deut 15:12; Jer 34:14). Also in the
,~•~ (mishiir), ,;~•~ (mishor). See sabbatical year debts were cancelled (Deut
nos. 930e,f. 15: 1-3).
,rw~ (mitiir). See no. 936h. The Lord sold his people into the power of
:::iiTM~I;
(mak'ob). See no. 940b. their enemies when he became displeased with
,::i:;,~(makber), ,;:;,r; (makbiir). See them (Deut 32:30; 28:68; Ps 44:12 [H 13]; lsa
nos. 948c,d. 50: 1; Ezk 30: 12). Actually, the lsraelites sold
Ml~ (makka). See no. 1364d. themselves: for nothing! But God would yet re-
rii;i~ (mikwa). See no. 961c. deem them without money (lsa 52:3). I Sam 12:9
ii:::l7i' (miikon). See no. 964c. spells it out, "When they forgot the Lord their
God, then he sold them ... , " which happened
repeatedly during the time of the judges (Jud
1193 '!1~7:'(miikak) be low, humiliaJed (Ps 2:14; 3:8; 4:2; 10:7).
106:43; Eccl 10:18; Job 24:24). Joseph was sold by his brothers to the lshmael-
ites who in turn sold him into Egyptian slavery
ri7:;,~(miklii). See nos. 980c, 982d. (Gen 37:27, 28, 36; 45:4). But when Joseph re-
',i',;,~ (miklol), ',7;,r; (maklü/), ,7:;,~ vealed his identity to his astonished brothers he
(mikläl). See nos. 985c,d,e. said, '"Be not grieved, not angry, with yourselves
r,7::,r;(makkolet). See no. 85g. that you sold me here, for God sent me ahead of
i~i'~ (mikmii.n). See no. 991a. you to preserve life" (Gen 45:5) and more point-
ri-,~:;,~(mikmeret), ri-,~:;,~(mikmoret). edly in Gen 50:20, "'You devised it for evil but
See nos. 995c,d. God planned it for my good."
c~:;,~ (miknii.s). See no. 1000a. Esau sold his birthright (Gen 25:31, 33). Thus
c;i~ (mekes). See no. 1014a. he forfeited his right to be the chief heir for a little
rib.::,~ (mikseh), r,i,:,~ (m'kasseh). See soup. The Nuzu tablets (c. 1500 e.c.) witness two
· ~os. 1008c,d. ...- ' other cases of men yielding inheritance rights to a
ri7~:;,r;(makpelii). See no. 1019b. younger brother for some immediate temporal
consideration.
1194 '1~7:'(miikar) seil. One passage uses the verb figuratively, "buy-
ing the truth and selling it not" (Prov 23:23).
Derivatives Perhaps the lsraelite king, Ahab, illustrates that
1194a ti;i~ (meker) merchandise. passage, since "he sold himself to work wicked-
1194b t,~6~ (mimkär) sale, ware. ness" under the instigation of his pagan wife,

504
 1195 N~~ (mäle')

Jezebel (1 Kgs 21 :20, 25). Unfortunately, the Even more significant is the use of this term to
same could be said for all Israel (II Kgs 17:17): represent the omnipresence ofGod: "Do not I fill
completely committed and sold out to accomplish heaven and earth? says the Lord" (Jer 23:24). He
wickedness ! is not only universally present and fills the whole
earth with his glory (Num 14:21; Ps 72: 19; Isa
meker. Value. Used in four passages, only
6:3), but he is also locally visible by his glory
one of which is significant here. Proverbs 3 I: 10
(kabod) in the cloud which fills the tabemacle
mentions the "virtuous wo man," who has a
(Ex 40:34-35; I Kgs 8:10-11: lsa 6:1; Ezk 10:3;
value far above rubies. The reason is apparent
43:5; 44:4).
from the description given of her in the context.
This term is also used ofGod's ability to finish
mimkär. Safe, ware. Most of the passages a work begun or accomplish a word promised.
using mimkar deal with the sale or things sold as The Piel form of m/' seems to emphasize the ful-
collateral and how one goes about redeeming fillment of utterances.
them in the yearofJubilee (Lev25:14, 27, 29, 33, Men fulfill their words when they practice
50; see also Neh 13:20). idolatry as they said they would (Jer 44:25).
Biblwgraphy: Vaux, R. de, AI, pp. 164~6; When Solomon expelled Abiathar from his
175-77. Harris, R. L. Man: God's Eternal Crea- priesthood, Eli's words were fulfilled () Kgs 2:27)
tion, Moody, 1973, pp. 137-38. just as Jeremiah's words were fulfilled by the
W.C.K. seventy-year exile (II Chr 36:21). God acted to
fulfill his word spoken to David when he built the
,;,,;, (makkiir). See no. 1368f. temple (1 Kgs 8:15, 24; II Chr 6:4, 15). God will
:,-,:,~ (mikreh), :,-,:,~ (meküra). See also act to fulfill the counsel and petition of his
~os. 1033b,c. ' ·' Messiah (Ps 20:4, 5 [H 5, 61).
',iw:,~ (mikshol), :i7w:,r;, (makshela). Von Rad lists other theological terms that show
See nos. 1050c,d. how the Lord's prophetic word functioned in his-
:,r-,:,~ (miktiib). See no. 1053c. tory: "does not fail" (/ö' -niipal Josh 24:45 [H
:,~~~ (mekitta). See no. 1062b. 43]; 23:14; I Kgs 8:56; II Kgs 10:10); "it will be
er-,:,~ (miktam). See no. 1056a. established" (qüm, I Sam 1:23; 15:11, 13; II Sam
wb~~ (maktesh). See no. 1061a. 7:25; I Kgs 2:4; 6:12); "it comes to pass" (bo',
Josh 23:15); cf. also Ezk 12:25, 28, 'Thus has
the Lord Yahweh spoken: None of my words
II 95 N'i~ (male') be full, to fill.
will be delayed any longer; the word which I
Derivatives speak is performed, says the Lord, Yahweh"
( Theology of the O/d Testament, II, p. 94).
1195a N'i~ (mäle') fullness, that which
The Pie! form of mäle' is also used to denote a
fills.
period of time, i.e. number of days (Gen 29:27-
I 195b tN1,~ (m'lö') fullness.
28), years (II Chr 36:21) or length of gestation
I 195c :it('i~ (m"/e'a) fullness, full pro- (Job 39:2) which must be completed. Con-
duce.
sequently, the emphasis is not to be placed solely
1195d :it(~~ (millü' a) setting of jewel. on the predicted word, but also on the faithful
I 195e Ni,~ (mil/ü'), N~~ (millü') set-
God who will achieve, perfect, and do what was
ting, installatwn.
said: The time between the prediction and its ful-
I 195f riN?~ (mille't) setting, border, rim.
fillm:ent contains significant happenings which
Meaning dubious. evidence this same powerful and faithful God
Examination of249 occurrences ofthis verb (in who continues to fill chronological time (chro-
the Qal and Niphal) reveals that it can have either nos) with opportune moments (kairoi). This be-
a spatial signification or by extension the impor- longs generically to that final achievement of all
tant theological concept oftemporal signification. that the word promised (cf. NT pleroun, Heb.
The spatial signification is found in Ex 10:6, the kala, Gr. teleö, Heb. täman, Gr. teleö). lnterest-
locusts filling the houses, Joel 3:13 [H 4:13], the ingly enough, Moule, citing J. A. Fitzmyer, says
winepress füll of juice, and II Kgs 4:6, the widow that "Qumran literature lacks both the fulfillment
pouring oil into empty vessels until they are full. formula found in Matthew and also the 'pattem'
The temporal signification is seen in the com- in the use of the Old Testament ... [found] in the
pletion of a fixed time, e.g. the days of Rebekah's New Testament ... (and] scarcely any examples
pregnancy, which were fulfilled when she gave of the use of m/' in a phrase referring to the con-
birth (Gen 25:25), the seven days that had firmation or completion of God's promises or
elapsed, i.e., ended, were full after the Lord plan" ("Fulfillment-Words in the New Testa-
struck the Nile (Ex 7:25), and the three weeks ment," p. 309).
which were completed while Daniel fasted (Dan In figurative expressions, the earth is often
10:3). portrayed as füll ofviolence (Gen 6:13; Mic 6:12;

505
1196 *n7r;(mäla~)

Jer 23: 10; 5 I :5: Ezk 7:22) and sometimes as full of 1197 n7~ (mii/a/J) II, salt, season. Denomina-
the glory, mercy, goodness, and knowledge of tive verb.
the Lord (Ps 33:5: 119:64; Isa II:9; Hab 3:3). The
land can be filled with sin (Jer 16:18: Ezk 8:17). Parent Noun
'"To fill one's hand" (with sacrifices) is '"to con- 1197a tni;>~ (mela/J) salt.
secrate" one·s service (1 Chr 29:5: Ex 32:29) or a 1197b :ir;,';>~(m '/e/Jii) saltiness, ba"en-
priest (Jud 17:5). Likewise to fulfill the desire of a ness.
man is '"to satisfy" him (Ex 15:9). 1197c t:11\:!r;
(mallüa/J)mallow, a plant
which grows in salt marshes (Job
m'lö'. Fullness. lt means '"what fills up" a
30:4).
large number. Gen 48: 19 has Jacob predict that
Joseph's son Ephraim would become a multitude
1197d nrr; (ma/lä/J) mariner.
of nations or as the NEB has it, '"a whole nation in Only three passages use this denominative
themselves" just as lsa 31:4 speaks of a mass or verb. According to Lev 2:13, the meal offering is
muttitude of shepherds. to be seasoned with satt. In Ex 30:35 the ingre-
Most frequently this word is used with land and dients used in compounding incense were to be
speaks of the fullness or the entire contents be- satted (KJV, '"tempered together").
longing to the Lord (Deut 33: 16; Ps 24: I) or to the Nowhere does there occur the aspect of enter-
threatening invader (Mic 1:2; Arnos 6:8 [i.e. of ing into friendly relations by eating bread and salt
the city]; Jer 8:16; 47:2; Ezk 12:19; 19:7). But together. Arab society to this day retains such
when Isaiah witnessed the vision of his call, the expressions as "there is satt between us'" or '"I
whole earth was full of his glory (lsa 6:3). love you as I love salt."
The Lord claims all the inhabited world (tebe/) The third passage is Ezk 16:4, which uses a
as his own along with all of its contents (Ps 50: 12; Hophal perfect and infinitive absolute to describe
89: 11 [H 12]; 98:7; lsa 42: 10; 1 Chr 16:32). In- a newbom baby being rubbed or washed with
deed, even the sea is invited to sing and roar in salt. Probably this is merely to cleanse and heal
praise to the Lord with all of its contents (Ps the child rather than to establish any covenant [of
96:11). salt] between the newbom and God. We may
The other significant theological usage occurs hope the satt solution was dilute!
in the reference to the homer-full ofmanna stored melalt. Satt. Various uses of salt are men-
in the presence ofthe Lord, in the ark (Ex 16:33). tioned in twenty-eight passages of the OT. lt was
Bibliography: Childs, Brevard S., '"Prophecy
obtained from !arge quarries located on the
and Fulfillment," Interpretation 12:259-71. southwest side of the Dead Sea (Gen 19:26; Ezk
Moule, C. F. D., '"Fulfillment-Words in the New 47: 11; Zeph 2:9). In Job 6:6 it is mentioned as a
Testament-Use and Abuse," NTS 14:308ff. condiment. Salt and oil were always mixed with
Fitzmyer, J. A., '"The Use ofExplicit O.T. Quo-
the meal offering (Lev 2:13). Ezekiel 43:24 notes
tations in Qumran Literature and in the NT,"
that the priest will cast salt on the bumt offerings
NTS 7:297ff. Richardson, TWB, pp. 87-88.
of the millennial age. The incense offering, the
THAT, I, pp. 897-99. symbol of public worship to God, must also be
W.C.K. "seasoned with satt" (Ex 30:35). Some hold that
salt in these offerings represents that which pre-
'!11;'71;(mal'äk), ri1,1;t7r, (ma/'iikut). See vents putrefaction, while honey and leaven do
nos. 1068a,c. not prevent it and were excluded for that reason.
riM,~ (mille't). See no. l 195f. Others point out that the use of satt as a preser-
1~71; (malben). See no. l074i. vative is not clear in the Bible. The bumt offer-
IUU\?1; (malbush). See no. 1075b. ings, at least, were not to be kept and incense
:ir~· (millii). See no. 1201a. does not putrefy. Therefore the use of satt in
M1\;,~ (millu'). See no. l 195e. these offerings may be a matter of seasoning or of
1)1\:>r,(mallua/J). See no. 1197c. dedication, for salt was an item of value. Honey,
:i;,1',~ (m' lukii). See no. 1199d. on the other hand, does not easily putrefy.
li?~ (mälon). See no. 1096a. The term "covenant of salt" is applied to the
perpetual statute by which revenue was to be
given to the priests (Num 18:19), and to the co-
I 196 *M7~ (miila/J) l, tear away, dissipate. venant established with David whereby he was
Occurs only in the Niphal, in Isa 51:6, accorded an everlasting reign over Israel (II Chr
shiimayim ke'äshän nim/ii/Ju "the heav- 13:5). These relationships are thereby designated
ens will vanish like sm~ke" (NIV). as irrevocable and binding (see also Lev 2: 13).
The preservative qualities of salt are perhaps
Derivative seen in the prophet Elisha's using it to purify the
1196a M71?(mela/J) rag (Jer 38: 11-12). spring at Jericho (II Kgs 2:20-21), though the ef-

506
 1199 '!l'.i'r;
(mälak)

ficacy here was miraculous. On the other hand, Parent Noun

salt was scattered over the site of a city devoted 1199a t'!I;~ (me/ek) king.
to God for destruction (Jud 9:45) which thus be-
1199b tM~7~(malka) queen.
came the symbol of barrenness and desolation
1199c tri;;,;~ (m'/eket) queen.
(see also Deut 29:23 [H 22]; Job 39:6; Zeph 2:9). 1199d M;n',7?(m''lüka) kingship, royalty.
Bibliography: Corswant, W., A Dictionary of
l 199e ri~::,7~ (malküt) sovereign power.
Life in Bible Times, Oxford University Press, 1199f M;?I'?~ (mamläkti) sovereignty.
1960, pp. 233-34. Ross,J. F., "Sah," in IDB, IV, 1199g ri~:,?'?~(mamläküt) sovereignty.
p. 167. 1199h t'!17.~ (mölek) Mokch, a pagan god.
W.C.K.
1199i t1',J-•~7~ (malki-$edeq) Mekhizedek.
M9r;,7~
(mi/lJ,ämti). See no. 1104c. Since Semitic nouns are usually derived from
verbs, the reverse is always a signal to look to the
noun for the essential meaning. mälak, though
1198 *l:l'i'9(mäla!) be delivered, escape (Niphal): employed over three hundred times, appears only
deliver, save (Piel). ASV and RSV similar. in Qal and Hiphil stems (except for one Hophal,
eoe "slip away." Dan 9: 1). The meaning of the Qal (over two
Derivative hundred times) is always "to reign," i.e. to be
and exercise functions of a monarch, whether
1198a l:l7.~(mele() clay (jlooring). RSV male (king) or female (queen).
mortar. Occurs only in Jer 43:9, The normal sense of the Hiphil of mälak would
an object lesson of the coming de- be to cause to be king (or queen) and such is the
struction of Egypt. case-"make king, cause to reign." This can be
mir is one word of the duster that includes the act of inauguration by anointing (II Sam 2:9;
gä'al, yäsha', nä$al. pala( and shälom. These 5: 17) or anointing and crowning (II Chr 23: 11). lt
words are translated in the LXX by several Greek can also be the act of God or men in exalting a
words: sözö (including diasözö and anasö.:ö) man to such an office, the ceremony not being
about seventy times, hryomai eight times, and considered (1 Sam 15:35; I Kgs 12:20). The
exaireö five times. This distribution suggests that Hophal, employed only once, at Dan 9: 1, seems
they have similar meanings with somewhat dif- specifically to indicate that Darius was not re-
ferent emphases. garded by the author, Daniel, as supreme
Although mälar may denote escape from court monarch of the Medo-Persian empire but rather
services to see one's relatives (1 Sam 20:29) or was made (passive voice) sub-melek at Babylon,
deliverance of the needy from affliction (Job an important but secondary, city and area of the
29: 12), the most prominent facet of meaning is of realm.
deliverance or escape from the threat of death,
either at the hands of a personal enemy (1 Sam melek. King. Since the Bible was written
19:11; 23:13) or anational enemy (II Sam 19:10), when sovereignty (seat of authority) in civil gov-
or by sickness (Ps 107:20). ernment was viewed somewhat differently than it
The usual emphasis is on the role ofYahweh in is today, officials and functionaries whom men
deliverance (particularly parallelling the LXX today would designate by other titles (comman-
hryomai; Ps 116:4; 107:20: 22:5 [H 6]). His salva- dant, governor, chieftain, etc.) are regularly
tion is for the righteous (Prov 28:26; Job 22:30) designated melek. That thirty-one columns, av-
but his judgment on sin cannot be escaped (1 Kgs eraging about eighty-five entries per column, are
19:17; Arnos 2: 14-15). Deliverance is possible devoted in Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee
only for those who call on him (Joel 2:32 [H 3:51). Concordance to this word is an indication of its
He is the protecting, delivering God. By contrast, prevalence in the OT.
escape is not found in the strength of a horse (Ps melek is simply the most common word for
33:17), the might of another nation (lsa 21:6), chief magistrate and is similar in meaning to sev-
riches (Job 20:20), or in one·s own understanding. eral other words usually translated lord, captain,
Biblwgraphy: TDNT, VII, pp. 971-73, 978- ruler, prince, chief and such like: nägid, nädib,
80; VI, pp. 998-1003. näsik, näsi', qä~in, rözen (always pi.), sar (very
G.L.C. frequent). As nearly as can be determined, none
of these terms is consistently employed in the
Hebrew Scriptures to designate a well-defined of-
M?"?'?(m'/f/a). See no. 1202. fice. Conclusions based on the use of one or
Mf'?'?(m' li$ti). See no. 1113b. another of them are precarious, as for example
that nägid always designates Gentile rather than
1199 '!l'i'r;(mälak) I,be, become king or queen, Israelite magistrates or the other way around.
reign. Denominative verb. The essential theology of the oT with reference

507
1199 '!17)?(mälak)

to melek (king) is not to be obtained merely by mately the same meaning (BDB in loc.). The He-
examining the over 2500 occurrences of the brew idea was shared everywhere in oriental an-
word. Rather we must examine the OT idea of tiquity.
magistracy, i.e., of civil authority. Underlying all We must guard against assigning consistent
civil society was consuetudinary, i.e. common or technical meaning to melek, even when clearly
customary law. No state then (including the literally intended. lt can mean emperor (of an
Mosaic) or now could operate by statutory laws empire) as in the case of Nebuchadrezzar king of
alone. Furthermore, civil govemment was the Babylon (Jer 46:2), or one of an emperor's vas-
rule of magistrates. They were rulers (sarim) in a sals as in the case of Jehoiakim, king of Judah
greater sense than are rulers in the West today. (Jer 46:2) or the chieftain of a tiny city-state such
For though responsible to statutory law and to as the Canaanite and Philistine towns (e.g., Gen
custom, part of the custom was to rely simply on 14:2-8; 20:2; 26: 1, 8; many times in Josh). One of
decisions of the magistrate-for whom there are a joint-rulership or, possibly, triumvirate stich as
many designations (see above)-to supply what- we now know Belshazzar to have been (Dan 5: 11,
ever leadership, control, and support people ex- Aram. equivalent to Heb. here) or a subordinate
pected from their govemment. Govemment, govemor of a province as Darius ruler over Baby-
therefore, in a degree much greater than in any lon under Cyrus emperor of Persia (Dan 5:30)
Western land, was rule by just (hopefully) men might likewise be called melek.
rather than by laws that were just. Two important related matters must be noted.
Proverbs 8: 15-16 supplies a locus of materials 1. The place of kingship in Israel. There was
for our search for a theology of the king or su- no magistrate called King in Israel in earliest
preme magistrate: "By me [wisdomj kings reign, times. Civil authority was wielded in patriarchal
And princes decree justice. By me rulers rule, times by tribal elders, in early years of the set-
And nobles, even all the judges of the earth." tlement, by village and tribal elders. During the
The least definite is king, the first. Let the four time of the shöph •·tim (usually, but misleadingly,
others amplify the idea of kingship. "Princes" rendered "judges") there were temporary char-
(singular rözen) occurs only six times, always in ismatic (in the proper sense: by divine gift) heads
poetry. B y reference to a cognate Arabic word it of tribal alliances. But ancient ideas of monarchy
is understood to mean one who is "weighty, usually (but not invariably) associated dynasty
grave, firm of judgment"- incapable of being with kingship. The books of Samuel teil the story
shaken, of majestic repose, dignified in speech of the first effort, against the express will of God,
and action as befits one invested with great to establish a permanent national monarchy.
power. "Rulers" (särim), a common word Though dynasty was desired by the house of
means head man, one of recognized authority in Saul, Providence prevented it. But kingship had
whatever realm he operates ("powers that be," been anticipated in Mosaic Law (Deut 17:14-20;
Rom 12: 1). There is no metaphor when leading 28:36) and God established David and his dynasty
merchants are denominated princes (särim, lsa forever over Israel. As Bright says, "The theol-
22:8). Certain angels are called särim (Dan 10:13, ogy of Davidic kingship is best seen in the royal
21). "Nobles" (sing. nadib) is one inclined to- psalms [Royal psalms include: Ps 2; 18 (II Sam,
ward liberality, of noble character, hence also of eh. 22); 20; 21; 45; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144:1-
position. "Judges" (sing. shöpet < shäpat q.v.) 11), which, though they cannot be dated pre-
is perhaps the most comprehensive term for one cisely, are allpreexilic and for the most part rela-
who exercises civil authority, whether executive, tively early. lts classical expression, however, is
judic'ial, or legislative. A sixth word, nägid is a in the oracle of Nathan (II Sam 7:4-17), a piece
favorite name for Hebrew kings, twice occurring in undoubtedly developing an ancient nucleus (cf.
Prov (8:6; 28: 16), means one who stands in front. also II Sam 6; I Kgs 8). lt is also found in the old
These are the main oT ideas about kings and poem of II Sam 23:1-7, ascribed to David him-
other rulers. Though rulers were tobe benign, the self. The tradition is by no means incredible: cf.
idea of democracy, that authority moves from 0. Procksh, "Die letzten Worte Davids"
people to rulers, is difficult to find in the Bible. (BWANT, 13 [1913], pp. 112-125); A. R.
Rulers were thought to be constituted by divine Johnson, Sacral Kingship in Ancient Israel (Car-
authority rather than human. To come before the diff, University of Wales Press, 1955, p. 15)-
judge was to come before God (Ex 22:8, 9 [H 7- where there is further bibliography. The sub-
8]). lt is to be observed that in Ex 22:9 [H 8], stance of this theology is that Yahweh' s choice of
'elöhim must be rendered magistrates (pi.) rather Zion and the Davidic house is etemal (Ps 89:3 [H
than God (sing.), for the verb yarshi'ün is Hiphil 4]; 132:11-14): though kings might for their sins
third person masculine plural of räsha' "to con- be chastened, the dynasty would never be cut off
demn." (II Sam 7: 14-16; Ps 89: 19-37 [H 20-38]). The king
The term melek appears in modified form in ruled as Yahweh's "son" (Ps 2:7; II Sam 7:14),
almost every Semitic language with approxi- his "first-bom" (Ps 89:27 [H 28]), his "anointed"

508
 1199 ~,~ (mälak)

(Ps 2:2; 18:50 [H 51] [H 7]; 20:6). Because he was malkä. Queen, except for twice in plural at
established by Yahweh in Zion, no foe would Song 6:8-9 always of foreigners, sometimes ap-
prevail against him (Ps 2: 1-6; 18:31-45 [H 32-46] parently head of state (1 Kgs 10:1), more fre-
[H 8-13]; 21:7-12; 132: 17 f.; 144:10 f.); on the quently a king's consort (Est 1:9; 2:22). In the
contrary, foreign nations would submit to his rule case of females: Athaliah,(11 Kgs 11:3; II Chr
(Ps 2:7-12; 18:44 [H 45Jf.; 72:8-11). The Davidic 22:12), Esther (Est 2:4), Vashti (Est 1:9), and
covenant developed the pattem of the patriarchal Nebuchadnezzar's consort (Dan 5: 10), the cir-
covenant, in that it was based in Yahweh's un- cumstances vary the meaning. In the former the
conditional promises for the future [See G. E. usurping, murderous grandmother employs
Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the power illegitimately. The latter exercised no civil
Ancient Near East (The Biblical Colloquium, power at all, being only the favored consort of the
1955)]" (John Bright, A History of Israel, melek. As a malkii, Esther had no monarchial
Westminster, 1959, p. 204). power but only such as her social position as
2. The relation of king and the national religion king's consort supplied. Of the thirty-three
and ritual (cult). As seen above, the king was a (thirty-five with Aramaic of Dan 5: 10) appear-
sacred person-he ruled in a divinely appointed ances of malkii, all save two (Song 6:8-9) refer to
estate and by divine authority (see also R. D. queens of foreign lands. The "queen" in oriental
Culver, Toward a Biblical View of Civil Govern- antiquity was not usually the king's wife and she
ment, Moody, 1975,pp. 41-55, 74-76, 87, 88, 123, was not usually a reigning person, so the name
129, 169, 170, 251). But he had no place in the for her position was not normally the feminine
priesthood. To intrude into that holy office was form of melek but rather ge birii, meaning great
regarded as grossest sin (cf. the case of Saul's lady (1 Kgs 11:19; 15:13; II Chr 15:16; Jer 13:18;
invasion of the priest's office, I Sam 13:1-14). 29:2). The "queen (m' leket) of heaven" (Jer
There is a school of radical biblical-historical 7: 18; 44: 17, 18, 19, 25) was a pagan female deity
thought which asserts that Israel's practice of worshiped at Jerusalem. The word may be a
kingship, being borrowed from the pagan proper name. (Also, rarely, siirii, and shegäl, are
neighbors (II Sam 8, esp. v. 20), involved also a used of kings' consorts).
pagan theory and a ritual pattem to express it,
m•leket. Infrequent difficult form indicating a
supposed to be common in the ancient near east.
certain pagan queen of heaven (Jer 7:18).
According to this view the king, being in theory a
divine king, became the central figure in an an- mölek. Molech (KJV, followed by most modern
nual new year festival, dramatically enacting the versions) or molek. The name found in the He-
dying and rising again (as the seasons) of the fer- brew Bible for the pagan male deity, presumably
tility deity. Therein the king ritually (as a sort of borrowed from lsrael's neighbors, to whom
pontifex maximus, high priest) re-enacted the apostate Israelites sacrificed infants in the valley
struggle of creation, subsequent victory over the of Hinnom immediately south of Jerusalem. The
powers of chaos, and a sacred marriage and then consonants, mlk, are the word melek "(divine)
re-assumed his actual throne. All this, it is said, king,'' while the vowels are those which the
was to ensure the spring revival of nature and the Masoretes, following immemorial custom,
fruitfulness of field and flock for another annual supplied from the Hebrew word boshet
cycle of the seasons, as weil as stable govem- "shame." Just what the synagogue reader, say in
ment for the year. This theory is stoutly main- Jesus' time, may have read-bosheth, melek or
tained with variations by a !arge number of molek-is hard to say. lt is even rendered
scholars (A. Bentzen, King and Messiah [Eng. moloch (µoÄ.ox.)in the LXX, which also renders it
tr., London: Lutterworth Press, 1955]; 1. Eng- "their king" (1 Kgs 11:7 [H 5)) and "the king
nell, Studies in Divine Kingship in the Ancient Moloch" (Jer 32:35 [H 39:25]).
Near East [Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksells, Molech ( = Milcam) was a favorite of the Am-
1943); S. H. Hooke, ed., Myth and Ritual [Lon- monites, worshiped by human sacrifice (1 Kgs
don: Oxford Univ. Press, 1933); The Labyrinth II :5; II Kgs 23: 10; Jer 32:35) but the god and the
[London: S.P.C.K., 1935]; G. Widengren, Sac- dreadful practice of infant sacrifice in his honor
rales Koenigtum im Alten Testament und im were carried by northem Canaanite (Phoenician,
Judentum [Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1955)). Punic) people throughout the Mediterranean
But though many of the psalms are alleged by area. Waltke (ZPEB, V, pp. 269-70) gives an ex-
these writers to reflect the annual ritual described cellent discussion and bibliography as also
above, the theory is really without a shred of bi- Helmbold (WBE, II, pp. 705-6). National Geo-
blical evidence and there are scholars who throw graphie provides a popular description of the
much doubt on the whole idea (See bibliography, Phoenicians and their worship of Baal-Maloch
especially Frankfort who points out that although (August 1974, pp. 166-67).
the king was deified in Egypt he was not in In biblical thought Moloch is connected
Mesopotamia, with rare exceptions.) forever with the ultimate in apostate worship of a

509
1200 *'!!77t
(mälak)

false me/ek by the people who should have wor- "Mount Moriah" to the crown (II Sam 24:18-25;
shipped only Jehovah "their king" [Milcam]. I Chr 21: 18-30). Perhaps Moses knew already
The two worst apostates among the kings of Is- something of "the place which the LORD your
rael and Judah, Ahab and Manasseh, promoted it God shall choose" for the central sanctuary
in the ravine later called Gehenna (NT) which be- (Deut 12:5). The book of Hebrews, building on
came the name thereby of etemal hellfire. See the announcement of Messiah's non-Aaronic
II Kgs 16:3; II Chr28:3; II Kgs26:6; II Chr33:68, priesthood in Psalm 110 elaborates the doctrine
vid. also Jer 7:31; 32: 15). Pious horror of the of our Lord's completely successful priesthood
practice, with lurid-perhaps accurate descrip- on this textual basis (Heb 6:20; 7: 1--8:13).
tion-is to be found in Jewish sources. David Bibliography: Bright, J ., A History of Israel,
Kimchi says the image of Moloch was of brass Westminster, pp. 204-207. Frankfort, H., King-
and was hollow. A fire was kindled within the ship and the Gods, University of Chicago, 1948,
idol. When the extended hands became hot, pp. 317ff. ---, The Problem of Simi/arity in
Moloch's priest taking the babe from its father's Ancient Near Eastern Religions, Oxford:
hand, placed it in Moloch's hands to the ac- Clarendon, 1951. TDNT, I, pp. 565-74; IV, pp.
companiment of drums to prevent the father from 568-69. THAT, I, pp. 908-19.
hearing the screams of his dying offspring (com- R.D.C.
ments on II Kgs 23:10).
For further study cf. YGC pp. 234-244. Al- 1200 *'!!7t; (malak) II, counsel, advise. Occurs
bright's view is that the mölech sacrifice was not only in the Niphal, in Neh 5:7, "I consulted
to a god molech, but was the royal sacrifice, i.e. with myself."
the extreme sacrifice of infants. lt was common
in Carthage. Albright gives credit to Israel's
higher standards for the diminishing of the prac- l"\j~,r,, (mal' ködet). See no. 1115b.
tice in her neighbor Phoenicia. ;,'.i;·•:;,';,r,,
(malkf-$edeq) See no. l 199i.
I"\~~~ (m e leket), l"\1~71'(malkiit). See
malki-iiedeq. Melchiz.edek. This name occurs rios.1199c,e. .
only in Gen 14: 18 and Ps 110:4. Formed from
melek "king" and $edeq "righteous," with the 1201 *l:,';o~ (malal) /, say, utter, speak.
transitional hireq yod. Whether it indicates a
construct (possessive) relation or the first per- Derivative
sonal singular pronominal suffix is a matter of 1201a tri?~ (mil/a) word, speech.
dispute. If the former were true, the name would
mälal occurs only on the lips of Sarah, Bildad,
mean "king of righteous [one?]"; if the latter,
Elihu, and a psalmist (Gen 21:7; Job 33:3; 8:2; Ps
"my king is righteous." "Salem" almost cer-
106:2) and only in the Pie!. lts major synonym is
tainly refers to Jerusalem. The geography of the
däbar(q.v.).
campaign in Gen 14 allows it. The similarity of
"Adonizedek," king of Jerusalem (Josh 10:1) millä. Word, speaking, speech, talking, by word,
supports it. Comparison with David, king of what to say, anything to say, answer, matter; in
Jerusalem (Ps 110:4), cements the connection the Aramaic of Daniel: thing, words, matter,
with Jerusalem. The appearance of Melchizedek commandment.
in the Bible is important theologically. lt lends milla occurs thirty-four times in Job, once in II
strong support for the notion that knowledge of Sam, twice in Ps, once in Prov, and twenty-four
the true God possessed by Noah and his sons did times in Daniel. There seems tobe no discemible
not die out. Monotheist Abraham (Gen 18:25) difference in usage between millä and däbär
forthrightly acknowledged Melchizedek as priest through milla might relate more to word as ex-
ofthe same 'et 'e/y{m "God Most High," whom pression and däbär as meaning.
Abraham worshipped (Gen 14: 18-20). We simply In the first three verses of II Sam 23 four words
do not know how many Melchizedek-like per- for speech occur including mil/a (v. 2), "his word
sons, under more stress than Lot (II Pet 2:6-8), was in my tongue." In Prov 23:9 "the wisdom of
survived the pervasive idolatry of the ancient thy words," mil/a is parallel with däbär (v. 8).
world. We inevitably think of Job. There were For the revelation of God (Ps 19) among the
the monotheistic-like views of the fourth century terms used is millä (v. 4), "words to the end of
e.c. philosophers of Athens and of Akhenaton, the world." The Psalmist in 139:4 says God's
youthful pharaoh of Egypt who lived a millen- knowledge extends to every word on the Psal-
nium earlier. Similar sentiments were expressed mist's tongue.
in Vedic literature. In the person of Melchizedek In Job (KJV) milla is "words" nineteen times,
we find evidence of an ancient near eastem tradi- "speech" or "speeches" six times, "speaking"
tion of true worship at Jerusalem long before twice, while "talking, byword, matter, anything
Oman the Jebusite transferred title of the rocky to say, answer, to speak, what to say" each

510
 1209 i7t(män)

once-all speaking ofthe arguments advanced by federacy that had captured Lot. The relationship
Job and his friends. seems to have been mutually beneficial-use of
In Daniel millii refers to the substance of the land in exchange for military support (Gen
dreams, the interpretation of dreams. or to vari- 14: 13).
ous official statements. decrees or verdicts. Of The site is usually identified with Rämat el-
the twenty-four references only seven are trans- Khalil (1:-!alul)about two miles north of Hebron.
lated by "word" or ··words." · while "thing" or just east ofthe main road. although the traditional
"things·· occur eleven times. ··matter" five and location of the Cave of Machpelah ··east of
"commandment" once. Mamre·· which became the patriarchal tomb
E.S.K. (Gen 23: 19-20: 25:9: 35:27: 49:30: 50: 13l. is in the
city of Hebron itself.
1202 ',';,r; (mäla/) 1/, ruh, scrape (Prov 6:13). Mamre was the place where Abraham received
the promise of lsaac·s birth (Gen 18: 1-15) and the
Derivative destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (cf. Heb
1202a :,7•';>1?(m'/fia) ear of wheat. Oc- 13:2). lt was not this event, however. that made
curs only in Deut 23:26. the site a holy place. Abraham had already built
an altar to Yahweh at his campground (Gen
1203 ',';,r; (mälal) lll, languish, wither, fade 13: 18).
(e.g. Job 18:16: 24:24). Bibliography: Mader, E., Mambre Ofaram
Rämat el-Halil), 2 vols., 1957. Vaux. Roland de.
1204 ',';,r; (mä/a/) IV, circumcise, a by-form Supplement au Dictionnaire de la Bihle, 1957,
of miil (Josh 5:2: Gen 17:11, Ps 58:8). cols. 753-758, figs. 542-43. Masterman, E. W.
G., "Mamre." in ISBE, III, pp. 1973-74.
,~,~ (milmiid). See no. 1116b. G.L.C.
r,{~r;,·r;(malküa/J). See no. 1124b.
Wii'',~ (malqüsh). See no. 1127b. iiiJ?7; (mamr<ir). See no. 1248k.
c•ri~i~ (melqä!1im). See no. 1124d. nw~~(mimsha!1). See no. 1255d.
:inl'I',~ (meltii/Jii). See no. 1132a. ',~~~ (mimshä/). See no. 1259b.
:,~~~~ (maltä'a). See no. 2513d. i'!f1?1?(mimshiil(). See no. 1261b.
C\lll:1~7;(mamtaqqim). See no. 1268d.
1205 *r'tr; (mäla~) be smooth, slippery. Occurs
only in the Niphal, in Ps 119: 103. miih- 1209 ii;, (män) I, manna.
nim/".1·11 'imriiteka '"how smooth (i.e.
pleasant) are your words to my palate." Manna was the basic food of the lsraelites dur-
ing their wilderness wanderings. lt occurred
1206 ,;7~ (me/~·är) guardian (Dan 1:11. 16). along with the miraculous provision of water and
A Babylonian title. meaning dubious. quail. The English spelling ··manna" is derived
from the LXX. In Ex 16:14 the Lxx reads --man"
1207 i'7r; (mälaq) nip,nipoff (Lev 1:15:5:8). but elsewhere "manna ...
Although manna played a crucial role in the life
r,i,~1?7; (mamRür<it). See no. 330e. of the lsraelites. the word appears only fourteen
,~~- · (memad). See no. 1146c. times in the OT, all but four of them occurring in
r,,6·~ (mäm<it). See no. 1169b. Ex 16, Num 11. and Deut 8. Manna is called the
"'.!1?~(mam;:er). See no. 1174a. "bread" from God Uehem. Ex 16:15). ••food"
"'.?J?~ (mimkär). See no. 1194b. from heaven (d'.RWI. Ps 78:24. Asv). and "angel's
r,i::,~~ (mimkeret). See no. 1194c. food·· (lel1em 'ahhirim. Ps 78:25). The translation
:i;i7~~ (mamliika). r,~:,71?7;(mamläküt). ··angel's food." while picturesque. is not accu-
See nos. 1199f.g. rate. The ASV "bread of the mighty" is prefer-
'!!!rl?I?
(mimsäk). See no. 1220b. able. There is no other instance of "angel" being
"'.1?1?
(memer). See no. 1248j. used to translate "ahhirim. .. Mighty „ or
"strong" is more usual, and fits the parallel
structure of the Psalm better. Possibly it could be
1208 i,c-,1?7;(mamre') Mamre, LXX Mambre.
"bread of God" using the word "ähir (q.v.) as a
This name first appears in Gen 13: 18 as the site surrogate for deity (cf. Jn 6:33).
where Abraham settled after his separation from The lsraelites ate manna from the middle of the
Lot. Genesis 14:13. 24. make it evident that at second month after the Exodus (Ex 16) until the
this time the area was not a town, but the per- day of their arrival in Canaan (Josh 5:12: Ex
sonal property of an Amorite named Mamre. He 16:35). Only the portion preserved by Aaron in
and his two brothers Eshcol and Aner had en- the tabernacle remained after that time. Accord-
tered an alliance with Abraham against the con- ing to Deut 8:3, 16, the purpose of the giving of

511
1210 ,~ (män)

the manna was to teach God·s people to depend eral occurrences of mn(m), both personal '"who"'
upon him and his words for their lives and their and impersonal "what." lt appears that män
needs. If the Word of God is his creative instru- ··what'' is a common Semitic word-not a ··popu-
ment in bringing the cosmos into existence (Gen lar etymology. (See also Huffmon. Herbert B ..
I :3ff; Ps 33 :6. 9). then here too what God utters Amorite Personal Names in the Mari Texts,
from his mouth is concretely realized. Man can Johns Hopkins, 1965, pp. 103, 231.)
only survive by depending on his saving creative Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 462--05.
Word. (Note the use of Deut 8:3 by Jesus in his G.L.C.
response to Satan·s temptation to turn stones to
bread in Mt 4:4 and Lk 4:4. John 6 develops at 1211 1~ (men) stringofharp (Ps 150:4).
length the role of Jesus as the true manna.)
There have been many attempts to identify
1212 1~ (min) from, out of, more than.
manna with some natural edible substance found
in western Sinai. The most widely held theory This ubiquitous preposition has cognates in
identifies the manna with a secretion from the Aramaic and Arabic, but is not found in Ugaritic.
tamarisk tree (Tamarix gallica). Certain types of There the meaning "from „ is found in the prepo-
insects puncture the bark and small. sticky. sitions b and /. In form, the preposition is often
light-colored drops of sap crystallize on the twigs attached to its noun with the nun assimilated and
or drop to the ground. In the cool of the moming. the next letter doubled (if it is not a laryngeal).
before the hot sun melts them, these sweet par- When used with light pronoun endings it is usu-
ticles can be gathered and eaten. There are obvi- ally reduplicated (e.g. mimmenni '"from
ous resemblances between this natural phenome- me").
non and the biblical manna: both appear in the The many usages may be briefly classified, but
morning "with the dew" (Num 11:9): the mate- various nuances will be adopted in translation.
rial looks like small white globules or flakes (Ex First "from ... With verbs of motion or separa-
16:14. 31: Num 11:7: the description "appear- tion: to go from, or tobe away from, i.e. without:
ance of bdellium" was interpreted by the rabbi's or away from in relation to some other spot or
as '"like pearls." LXX krystal/os): the taste is diredion, therefore: on the east or beside a city.
sweet. "like wafers made with honey and oil" Second. with other verbs, it means out of, e.g.
(Ex 16:31: Num II :8): and both substances melt out of Egypt. lt is used for material out of which
in the sun (Ex 16:21). something is made. Allied with this is the causal
However. there are also differences between force: to shake from the noise. or on account of
these two substances. Manna could be ground or our transgressions.
milled, baked or boiled (Ex 16:23: Num 11:8): the Third is the partitive min: He took some of. or
tamarisk secretion cannot be processed this way. even, one of. This last becomes anyone. a single
Only on the sabbath could the manna be kept for hair. etc.
more than a day without becoming wormy. The Fourth, used of time it usually means time from
tamarisk secretion occurs only for a few weeks in when, e .g. from antiquity. From of old can be
the summer. while manna was a daily provision used to mean in olden time.
for forty years in the Negeb as weil as western Fifth. min is often used in comparisons to
Sinai, suddenly ceasing when Israel entered Ca- mean more than, above, beyond, etc .. sometimes
naan. This suggests that in fact the manna was a too much for, too great for.
miraculous provision for the nation. Sixth. it may be prefixed to an infinitive in
G.L.C. which case its causal force or consequential
meaning comes out: because he knew. so as not
to give. lf the verb "to be" is understood: from
1210 1i; (man) II, what, who, whomsoever.
being king, i.e. not to be king.
Exodus 16: 15 contains the only use in the He- Like other Hebrew prepositions it is used in
brew 01 of the interrogative pronoun man. The many combinations. min plus 'ad means literally
KJV,ASV(marg), and RSV(marg) translate man-l11i" from ... to, or inclusively, both this and that.
as „ it is manna ... while KJV(marg) and the texts min combines with ·et "with." with / "to ...
of Asv and Rsv translate "what is it?" The com- Sometimes when the / precedes it practically
ment "they did not know what it was" indicates loses its own force and just means "when," i.e.
that the Asv and RSVtranslation is to be preferred time from when.
over the KJV.Most contemporary scholars follow band/ include the meaning "from" in Hebrew
BOB in identifying man as a late popular etmol- as weil as in Ugaritic. An interesting case of the
ogy of män "manna" based on the late Aramaic interchange is II Sam 22: 14, "He thundered from
usa;:e. män is not the common 01 word for the heavens ... which has min but bin the parallel
"what," but this usage is not unknown in the in Ps 18: 13 [H 14] but two verses later the situa-
second millenium e.c. UT 19: no. 1504 lists sev- tion is reversed. N. Sarna has remarked that this

512
 1213 :iJ7t(mäna)

usage of h for min was held by medieval Jewish translates mint 3 hci "in the same" (i.e. "in the
grammarians before Ugaritic was discovered blood of thine enemies"), ASV and RSV "their por-
("The lnterchangeability of the Prepositions tion" take the word as from this root.
Beth and Min in Biblical Hebrew," JBL 78:310- There may be some suggestion in this use of
16). lt is not so clear that 111i11 can mean "in," mänii that the power to number, count, or ordain
though Dahood argues that it does (AB. Psalms is a somewhat mysterious power. particularly
III, pp. 395-%). where !arge numbers are concerned, and is of
R.L.H. divine origin. The role of God in ordering the
universe and its creatures is evident in the refer-
l~ (men). See no. 1215a. ence to the stars (Ps 147:4) and the numbering of
:it~~~ (mangin{,). See no. 1291.1b. the descendants of Abraham (Gen 13:16). The
specific idea conveyed by (e.g.) the Jonah pas-
sages retlects this divine activity.
1213 :i;7i'(mänii) count, number, teil, appoint,
This perspective illuminates the statement in
prepare. I Chr 21: 1 that Satan provoked David to
Derivatives "number" Israel. lf "numbering" is, in fact. a
divine activity. Satan·s incursion into this field is
1213a t:,J~ (mänii) portion, part.
another of his attempts to usurp the divine pre-
1213b t:,~~ (mäneh) pound, maneh, mina.
rogatives.
1213c :,_~b (möneh) counted number,
[On thc other hand. according to thc supcrscrip-
time.
tion of Ps 30. this lament psalm may be as-
1213d t1"1;7? (m ,.niit) portion.
sociated with the dedication of the temple site. an
1213e t'J7? (111''ni) number.
event that took place in connection with the sin of
l213f liJ7i' (mänön) grief. numbering the people (cf. 1 Chr 21: 1). Here
The primary meaning in the Qal and Niphal is David confesses that he sinned in thinking and
"to count or number." The intensive stems place acting as though he had no need of the Lord: "!
heavier stress on the idea of appointing or assign- said in my prosperity. I will never be moved" (Ps
ing. mänii occurs in parallel with säpar (q.v.). 30:6 [H 71). There is also the possibility that
The root plus its derivatives occurs some fifty- David's sin was not merely counting the people,
five times, not counting six uses of the Aramaic but mustering them (päqad) for war (R. L. Har-
cognate m •·nä · or 111•· 1u1. ris. Man--Gud's Etemal Creation, Moody. 1971.
The normal use of the root in the Qal and p. 150-51). IU 11]
Niphal is in the context of arithmetical computa- All of the derivatives seem to reflect the con-
tions of various sort~. People (II Sam 24: 1), cept of numbering. i.e. rcckoning up the con-
money (II Kgs 12:11}, animals (Jer 33:13), stars stituent parts.
(Ps 147:4), days (Ps 90:12). dust (Gen 13:16), are
mana. Portion, part. This feminine noun iden-
all reckoned this way. 111ä11iican be used nega-
tifies the choice parts of the sacrificial animals
tively also, in the sense of an infinite number that
that were to be given to the pricsts and Levites.
cannot be computed (e.g. Gen 13:16: Eccl 1:15).
In other instances (e.g. Hannah, Esthcr, Nehe-
Twice the intensive use "reckon" or "assign a
miah), the distribution of "portions" indicates
place" is apparent in the simple stems. In lsa
the unity of the family or community. and em-
53:12. the Servant is assigned a place with sin-
phasizes the high regard the giver had for the
ners. In lsa 65: 12 the prophet puns on the name
recipient.
Meni, the god offate (q.v.). ··oestiny," with the
promise that God will "destine" idolaters to the mäneh. Pound. A unit of weight. BOB sug-
sword. gests that the original meaning may have been a
The idea appoint or ordain is usual in the inten- "specific part'' of another known weight. The
sive stems. Twice in Dan (1 :5, 10) and four times Hebrew unit was the equivalent of fifty shekels
in Jon (1:17 [H 2:1]; 4:6-8), inanimate things- (cf. Ex 38:25-26) or about one and a quarter
Daniel's food, Jonah's fish, the gourd. worm. and pounds. Ezekiel 45: 12 defines the value following
hot wind-are under the control of God. In Dan the old Mesopotamian usage at sixty shekels to
1:11 and I Chr 9:29, a hierarchy of authority is the mäneh, i.e. about one and a halfpounds. Ex-
identified by mänii as men or other creatures are cept for those in Ezk, alt uses of the term are of
given specific responsibilities. weights of gold or silver.
Dahood (in Psalms, AB, XVII). following the [The famous handwriting on the wall was the
Ugaritic example. identifies the mn of Ps 61 :7 [H enigmatic mene, mene, tekel. uparsin. lt is prob-
8] and mml' of Job 7:3 as Qal forms rather than as able that Belshazzar was puzzled not because he
Piels. However he retains the sense of appoint could not read it, but because the writing could
rather than the more usual Qal idea of computa- be taken various ways. lt could be simply de-
tion. Similarly, although in Ps 68:23 [H 24]. KJV nominations of weight (i.e. money). A mina. a

513
1214 nm (mnh)

tekel (Aramaic of shekel), and (the conj. "u") J;:t;~ (minhä!f). See no. 1309a.
smaller pieces (Aramaic pi. for peres, half). But :i,:i,~(minhäril). See no. 1316b.
what would this mean·> lt could be taken ver- ,;,~ · (män/Jd). See no. 1319c.
bally, one who counts, weighs, and those who tri,~ (mänöa/J). See no. 1323e.
divide. The last word could be a play on the Per- 1\;~ (mänön). See no. 1213f.
sians then attacking. Belshazzar was mystified cii,~ (mänbs). See no. 1327a.
and terrified until Daniel told him the full and ,;,~ (manbr). See no. 1361a.
fateful interpretation. See article Mene, mene, :"!?iJ~ (m''nbra). See no. 1333c.
tekel uparsin by D. J. Wiseman in ZPEB with ip~ (minziir). See no. 1340d.
Bibliography, IV, 184-5. R.L.H.J
1214 r,;~ (mn~1). Assumed root ofthe following.
m"nat. Portion. Identified by BDB as a late
1214a t:i,:,J~ (mi11~1il) meat offering, offer-
Aramaism. but mnth has been identified in the
ing, present, gifts, oblation, sac-
Ugaritic texts in the sense of a "portion" of the
rifice. (Asv uses "meal-offering."
sacrifice. RSVin II Chr 31 :3 translates the king·s
Rsv uses "cereal-otfering... Both
m'' nat as his "contribution" to the sacrifice. use "tribute. ")
Psalm 63: 10 [H 11J is paraphrased by RSVas "be
prey for jackals." The prayer here is not just for a Scholarly opinion is divided as to the root of
violent death and no burial. but rather for the min~1ii. Some trace this feminine noun to a verbal
wicked to be as a sacrifice for the wild beasts. root n~1h "to lead or guide." Most, however,
posit a Hebrew root mn~1 "to give ... Arabic
meni. Number. This is a hapax legomenon mana!Ja has the technical meaning "to lend
which occurs only in lsa 65: 11. The KJV derives someone something" (e.g. a she-camel, goat,
m"ni from manah, "count, number," etc., trans- sheep, or a parcel of land) for a limited period of
lating the text, "But ye are they that forsake the time so that the borrower can have free use ofthe
Lord, that forget my holy mountain, that prepare produce of the loan (e.g. the offspring, milk,
a table for that troop, that furnish the drink offer- crops, etc.), and then retum the original prop-
ing unto that number... (marg. ··a table for erty. The fruit then becomes a free gift. Snaith
Gad ... drink offering to Meni"). The ASVand sees no occurrence of the word in Ugaritic, but
Rsv translate the two words as proper names UT 19: no. 1500tentatively identifies at least one
"Fortune" and "Destiny." Jerusalem Bible sim- occurrences of m11~1in a tribute list (Text 137:38,
ply transliterates "Gad" and "Meni." not 137:28, as cited in UT) and another in the
While the general thrust of the text is clear- Anal/Baal Cycle in a parallel construction with
that Israel has tumed from Yahweh to idolatry "tribute" (AisWUS no. 1597 "gift," "tribute").
and is in table fellowship with idols, there is con- The word is used in secular contexts of gifts to
siderable diversity in the identification of the superior persons, particularly kings, to convey
deities in question. Some relate them to the sun the attitude of homage and submission to that
and moon (1.xx Dai111011iand Tyc/1n, two of the person. In I Sam 10:27. the lsraelites who de-
four Egyptian gods who presided over the birth of spised Saul "brought him no present'· (mi11~ui),
men. Othcrs suggest two of the planets. usually i.e. did not acknowledge the new king. Then. in I
Jupiter and Venus. worshiped in Babylon as Kgs 4:21 [H 5: 11, Solomon received tribute
Marduk. the god of the fate of the city. and (111i11lul)from the kings of the nations he ruled.
lshtar. the fertility goddess. (LXX uscs d11ro11about thirty times for 111i11~1a.)
Both namcs appear in the Mari texts wherc 11111 There are several other instances of this meaning,
appears to be related to a root meaning "to e.g. II Kgs 10:25: II Kgs 8:8-9: 17:4: 20:12: lsa
love ... In Ugaritic the personal name hn 11111y_1· 39:1.
from the root "tobe weakened" or "to lower:· The religious use of the term derives from the
is found. secular. Specifically, a minfui is a gift of grain,
These themes fit eithcr with Venus or the although Snaith seems tobe corrcct in saying that
moon. both inconstant heavenly bodics. since 111i11/u)originally meant gift or tribute, it
Bibliography: Alexander. Joseph Addison. could loosely be used in this sense even when it
C11111111e111ary011 1hc Prophecics of Jsaiah. Zon- took on specific cultic meaning. Of particular
dervan. 1953, pp. 445-47. Delitzsch. Franz, interest in this connection is the distinction be-
/saiah, II. Eerdmans. 1950. pp. 482--85. Muilen- tween ;eha/1 (q.v.) and 111i11~ui in I Sam 2:29:
berg. James. "Excgcsis: lsaiah 40---06" in IB. 3:14: and lsa 19:21: between •rifa (q.v.) and
Gordon. C. H„ UT 19:nos. 1496. 1502. 561. 571. mi11/1ain Jer 14: 12 and Ps 20:3 JH 4]: and between
Huffmon. Herbert B .. A111ori1c Pl'l'so11al Na111e.1· shelem (q.v.) and mi11~11i in Arnos 5:22. Cf. also
in 1he ,Hari frxls. Johns Hopkins. 1965, pp. 179, Gen 4:3-4. (Roth Abel and Cain offered a 111i11hä
231. to the Lord (Gen 4:4-5). But whereas it is said of
G.L.C. Ahel that he offercd the choicest portions of the

514
 animals to the Lord, an act reflecting his heartfelt Thus it is said that God withholds the fruit of
commitment to him, it is merely said of Cain that the womb (Gen 30:2) and the rain (Arnos 4:7).
he offered a min/Ja from the fruit of the ground. Man·s sins cause God to withhold these good
The Lord rejected this formality. Cain's lack of things from man (Jer 5:25), but he withholds no
true submission (note also his bloodless sacrifice) good thing from those who walk uprightly (Ps
issued finally in sinful hehavior (Gen 4:7f.). R .L.H.] 84: 11 [H 121). Thus he does not withhold the re-
These uses of min/Ja indicate that the term does quest ofhis righteous king (Ps 21:2 [H 3]).
not mean an animal sacrifice in the specific sense. A wise man withholds neither food nor any
The cereal offering is defined in Lev 2: 1-16 and good thing from the poor or those to whom it is
6:14-23 [H 7-16]. lt could be in the form of raw due (Prov 11:20; 3:27; Job 22:7; 31:16), nor cor-
grain in the sheaves, dry roasted grains coarsely rection from the child (Prov 23: 13).
crushed, ground into tlour (wheat only; barley G.L.C.
flour seems to have been reserved for the "jeal-
ousy offering" of Num 5:15, 25), or made into ':>w;i; (man'ul). See no. 1383c.
loaves or cakes and baked in an oven or panfried ':>~;~ (min'äl). See no. 1383d.
in oil. Frankincense and salt were also part of the l:l'~lm~ (min'ammim). See no. 1384d.
prepared min/Ja, but no leaven or honey was to
be added.
1mm>(m'na'anea'). See no. 1328a.
:,~~~~ (m''naqq(va). See no. 1412d.
The min/Ja, offered every morning and eve-
ning, was a holy offering, eaten only by the
priests, not shared with the worshipers. The idea
1217 :i\1/~~(m'nashsheh) Manasseh.
of atonement is not specifically present in min/Ja, In Gen 41 :51, popularly derived as a Pie! from
although that of propitiation certainly is. The of- näsha (q. v .) and equal to "cause to forget." This
fering of the new produce of the land along with is the name of four people and a territory. (The
ordinary leavened bread (Lev 23:16) indicates fifth person is obviously „ Moses" and the scribal
submission of the totality of the life of God's emendation of a supralincar "n" in Jud 18:30-31
people to the Great Suzerain. is an obvious attempt to dissociate such a good
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Three Techni- name from the idolatrous priesthood at Dan).
cal Terms in the Pentateuch," JSS 1:97-105. Manasseh was the elder son of Joseph, and
Pedersen, Johannes, Israel: lts L(fe and Culture, with his brother Ephraim substituted for Joseph
l'ols. 1/1and IV, 2d ed. Oxford: University Press, and Levi in the twclve-tribe territorial allocation
1959, pp. 330, 354. 368. 417f. Gray, George in the Promised Land. Nothing of Manasseh's
Buchanan, Sacriflce in the 0/d Testament, Ox- personal life is recorded in the OT, except the
ford: Clarendon Press, 1925, pp. 13-17. 47, 398- birth of his son Machir. [Note that in the ritual of
402. Kaufman, Yehezkel. The Religion oflsrael, Gen 48:5-20, Manasseh and Ephraim, Jacob's
University of Chicago Press, 1960, pp. 110-115. grandsons, were adopted so as to be legally his
Kraus, Hans-Joachim. Worship in !.l'rael, John own sons. Thereforc their descendants became
Knox, 1966, pp. 112-118. Richardson. TWB. pp. two tribes in Israel. The adoption is reminiscent
206-208. Snaith, Norman H., "Sacrifices in the of Nuzi Law. R.L.H.]
Old Testament," VT 7:308-17. deVaux, Roland. The !arge tribe descended from Manasseh oc-
Al. McGraw, pp. 225, 416-22. cupied two sections of the land, one in the Trans-
G.L.C. jordanian territory of Gilead between the Jabbok
and Yarmuk rivers, and the other in the territory
:irm~ (m''111i/11i). See no. 1323f. north of Shechem to Mount Carmel and Mount
•~c·(m''ni). ·sce no. 12D.
Tabor, including the strategic center of Megiddo
and much of the fertile Esdraelon Valley.
li?~~(min/eh). See no. 1370a.
One of the kings of Judah, son of Hezekiah,
and father of Amon, Manasseh reigned fifty-five
1215 7J~ ( mnn ). Assumed root of the following. ycars (696--642 B.c.). For the first ten years he
1215a 7~ (mh1) portion (Ps 45:9). was co-regent with his father. A loyal vassal of
Assyria (he is named as a tributary in "prism B „
of Essarhaddon·s !ist (ANET, p. 291!; cf. II Chr
1216 tJ;7i' (mäna') withhold, keep back, refrain,
33: 11), he introduced pagan worship practices
deny, keep restrain, hinder. (ASV and RSV
into Judah (II Kgs 21). He became a legend for
similar, but Rsv adds hold, hold back,
cvil. and the cause of judgment on the land, al-
refuse.)
though 11Chr 33: 12-13 indicates that he repented
Found only in the simple tenses where most after a period of exile in Assyria. To date, there is
references imply that the right or power to with- no extant extrabiblical evidence on this latter
hold something belongs ultimately to God or his point.
representative. The two other men named Manasseh are Israel-

515
1218 C~ (mas)

ites listed in Ezr 10:30. 33 as having taken foreign :iQ~ (massa). See no. 1223b.
w1ves. :,11?~ (masweh). See no. 1472b.
G.L.C. :,~1cr;,(m'suka). See no. 1475a.
MQ~· (massfl~z). See no. 1374a.
r.;~ (111•·11111). See no. 1213d.
1220 "T;l1i')(mäsak) mingle, mix. (Asv and RSV
1218 C~ ( mas) tribute, tributary, levy, taskmas- similar.)
ters, discomfited. (AS\' .. taskwork ... RSV Derivatives
.. forced labor, .. --vassal. .. )
1220a (mcsek)
1-,1:)~ mixture. RSV well-
The root of this word is unknown. although · mixed.
some attempt has been made to derive it from 1220b t,c~~ (mimsak) drink-offering,
mäsä „to melt, grow fain1.·· There is a possible , mü:ed wine.
link in lsa 31 :8 (KJV „discomfited;" marg ... be for
melting ... or „ tribute .. ) or in the general concept This verb occurs only five times and its deriva-
that those under tribute are „ weak ... KB cites tives once and twice respectively. The root has
Egyptian ms ··bearer ... becn identified in Ugaritic (UT. 19: no. 1509). As
Of the twenty-three uses of this term. all but is frequently the case with seldom used words.
three (lsa 31 :8; Lam 1: 1: Est 10: 1) occur earlv in the general meaning is obvious from the context,
the literature. - but there is considerable diversity in the under-
The institution of tribute or corvee involves in- standing of the precise inflection intended by the
voluntary. unpaid labour or other service for a author. Two broad categories have been pro-
superior power-a feudal lord. a king, or a for- posed for this word group.
eign ruler (Ex 1: 11: Est 10: 1; Lam 1: 1). In Gen Four of the five uses of mäsak are associated
49: 15. Jacob· s blessing on Issachar identifies him with drinking (_myin „wine, .. Prov 9:2. 5; slzekär
as bowing to ··tribute ... In Egypt. the lsraelites „strong drink„ or „beer," lsa 5:22; slziqquy
find themselves in that position (Ex 1: 11). "drink." "refreshment." Ps 102:9 [H 101). Ac-
The subjugation of the Canaanites by Israel cording to lsa 19: 14. God has mixed within Egypt
after the Conquest was by means of mas (e.g. a "spirit of confusion ... and thus it staggers as a
Deut 20:11: Josh 16:10: 17:13). Under David drunken man.
there was an organized government department mesek. Mixture. (Ps 75:8 [H 9]. Rsv --well-
charged with keeping the mas functioning mixed wine.")
(II Sam 20:24).
During Solomon·s reign. mas was extended to mimsiik. Drink offering, mixed wine, spiced
include lsraelites as weil as foreigners and war wine ("EB), Libation (Prov 13:30; Isa 65: 11).
prisoners (1 Kgs 5:13-14 [H 27-28J and the paral- Traditionally, these nouns have been understood
lels in Chr: but cf. 1 Kgs 9:22) in the labor force to mean some kind of mixed drink. usually wine
necessary to carry out Solomon·s extensive with spices or honey (e.g ... cocktails,'' William
building programs (1 Kgs 9: 15). This unpopular McKane, Prm·erbs, p. 393. This, ofcourse, is an
measure, and Rehoboam·s refusal to moderate it. anachronism. Cocktails are mixtures of distilled
was the immediate cause of the secession of the liquors with other liquids. Before the Arabs dis-
ten tribes and the establishment of the northern covered distillation in the Middle Ages, there
kingdom. were no highly alcoholic drinks). Dilution with
Bibliography: Mendelsohn. 1., --on Corvee water is mentioned late in II Macc 15:39. (Cf. Mt
Labor in Ancient Canaan and Israel." BASOR 27:34; Mk 15:23.) In Isa65:II. an „oblation" for
167:31-35. -·--• --state Slavery in Ancient Meni (q. v.) is paralleled with setting a sacrificial
Palestine," BASOR 85:14-17. table for Gad. This juxtaposition of sacrificial
G.L.C. terms is also found in Prov 9:2, 5 where Wisdom
invites participation in her banquet.
Apart from these two uses in Prov, all three of
c~ (mas). See no. 1223a. these words are negative-the folly of the drunk-
::ll?~ (me.rnh). See no. 1456c. ard, the unavoidable wrath of Goct·s bitter judg-
,~i;:~ (ma.1):er). See no. 1462c.
ment poured out on evil.
r.:,;c~ (masgere!). See no. 1462d. Delitzsch (F. Delitzsch. lsaiah. I, p. 361) trans-
"f;i~ (massad). See no. 875g. lated mäsak as "poured out." Dahood (Psalms
11,,i;:r;, (misd'"rim). See no. 1467c. in loc.) and Scott (R.B.Y. Scott, Proverbs, AB,
XVIII, p. 24) have followed this concept. To
1219 •:·11;,r;i(mäsa) melt, dissolve. Occurs only "pour out" or "drain to the bottom'" makes ex-
in the Hiphil. mflsa may be a by-form of cellent sense in all eight uses of these words.
mäsas. G.L.C.

516
 1224 "l~~ (miisar)

,c~ (mäsäk). See no. 1492a. emotional distress. They are doubtless by-forms.
:,?~!'; (masseka). See nos. 1375c. 1376a. In most cases. therc is some outside force that
causes the ··melting' · e.g„ fear of a ruler (II Sam
1221 ~,i;,~ (misken) poor, poor man. 17: 10), of a more powerful army (Josh 2: 11: 5: 1).
at bad news (Deut 1:28: Ezk 21:7 [H 12[). at sor-
This word occurs only in Eccl 4:13: 9:15-16.
row and fear of death (Ps 22: 14 1H 15[).
Some scholars argue that m''siikkän in Isa 40:20
A couple of times 111äsas is used __of garbage:
and miskaniit in Deut 8:9 are incorrectly pointed the uncollected manna that "melted m the heat
in the MT and ought to be considered with mis-
ofthe sun, and the "refuse" left after the destruc-
ken. Similarly some argue that misk''n(it (q.v.) is
tion of Amalek by Saul (1 Sam 15:9). these, too.
also the same word. Probably a loan word, cf.
under the power of outside forces. .
Akkadian muskenu. The Arabic word miskin The predominant feature in several cases 1s the
··peasant" has been borrowed into Italian and
presence of Yahweh as the God of power. In his
French.
presence the mountains themselves d1ssolve (Ps
The paucity of uses of misken makes it difficult
97:5: Isa 34:3: Mic 1:4) and the nat,ons are power-
to draw precise conclusions on the meanmg of
less before him (Nah 2: 11: cf. Jud 15: 14).
the word, although the general meaning is obv,- Physical sickness causes · · melting· · of the flesh
ous in the contrast between the poor man and the
(lsa 10: 18) but some commentators posit a root
king in Eccl 4: 13. The LXX helps some. The Greek
näsas "tobe sick" for this form.
penes is used of the man who does not ha~e_ex- Similarly, temes in Ps 58:8 [H 91 seems to fit
tensive possessions. and must ""'.orkfor h1s hvmg.
this interpretation. particularly if the te.xtual var-
The "rich" man (p/oytos) can hve on h1s mco~e
iant sh/.:/1r/(käläh "be consumed·· for shahb' hil
without working. This is the disctinction drawn m
is correct. (Cf. lsa 10: 18 where this combination
the Eccl passages. Often the line between these appears in parallel.)
two classes of people is indistinct. On the other Bibliography: McCarthy, D. J., ··some Holy
hand, however, the ptächos is the destitute War Vocabulary in Joshua 2 ... CBQ 33:228-30.
mendicant-the man who is so poor he cannot
G.L.C.
work. There is a clearcut Iine between this class
of people and the Greek penes. In Mt 5:3, the
"poor in spirit" are the spiritual beggars-so v~,: (massa'). See no. l380a.
poor they cannot work for spiritual gai_n. In_~s~ ivi;,~ (mis'ädl. See no. 1525a.
66:2, however, 'äni is used for "poor m spmt ,~i;:~ (misped). See no. 1530a.
and refers to one who trembles at God·s word. Nil)!;)~ (mispb'). See no. 1529a.
See also 'ebwin, 'äni. da/, and räsh. n,i;,~ (mispä/:1). See no. 1534d.
Bibliography: AI, pp. 68-79. Gordis, Robert, ,,;,~ (mispär). See no. l540f.
Koheleth: The Man and His World. 3d ed .. 1%8,
p. 243. TDNT, VI, pp. 885-915, 37--40, 318-32, 1224 '1Q7; (mäsar) deliver up, offer.
esp. 319-25.
The verbis used only two times in the or. both
G.L.C. of them in the account of the holy war against
Midian (Num 31). The first one, v. 5, says ··there
r,iai;,~ (misk'nöl). See no. 1494a. were 'delivered· (Rsv, ··provided") out of the
thousands of Israel, a thousand of every tribe ...
1222 l'll:J0~ (miskenüt) poverty, scarcity (Deut
The meaning here is obviously, ··to assign, ap-
·s; 19).
portion. count. · · Some have suggested an emen-
dation of the Hebrew text from ll'ayyimmäs'' rti to
r.,c~ (massekel). See no. 1376b.
:,~·cc
(m'"sil/ä). See no. 1506d.
ll'a_1·yisäp•·rli on the basis of the LXX· s l'xerithme-
san. The suggested change is quite unnecessary.
,i~~i;(mas/u/). See no. 1506e.
The second use is in Numbers 31:16. "Behold,
,~i;,r; (masmer). See no. 1518b.
these caused the children of Israel ·10 commit'
treachery against the Lord ...
1223 CIQ7; (mäsas) dissolve, melt.
Of special interest is the possible connection of
Derivatives this root with the · · Masorah „ which is the ap-
paratus built around the Hebrew text of the OT to
1223a Cl!'; (mas) despairing (Job 6: 14).
fix its traditional divisions. pronunciation, and
1223b :,c~ (massa) despair.
mode of public recitation. This work was done by
1223c Cl~~ (temes) melting (away).
the Masoretes, who were Aramaic speaking Jews
The scarcity of uses of mäsa and mäsa makes of Babylonia and Palestine, between A.o. 700 and
it difficult to distinguish clearly between the two the end of the tenth century.
verbal forms, since both are used in similar con- lf „ Masorah," then, is to be derived from
texts, combining the concepts of physical and mäsar "to deliver," it is that which is handed

517
1225 r,~~ (missat)

down from generation to generation: the text of 1227 :itm ( m ·h). Assumed root of the following.
the Bible. Others have suggested that Masorah is 1227a t:,~~ (me"eh) inward parts, bowels.
from the root 'asar „lo binct,·· i.e. something 1227b :,\"?? (mä"<l) grain (of sand).
which is bound and gathered: the detailed in-
structions for reading affixed to the text. Still a The noun me•e!z is used thirty-two times in the
third suggestion is that Masorah is built off the m, always in the plural. me'im. The KJV most
verb miisar but with the primary meaning of "to often retains the translation "bowels" but the RSV
counf' (Ben-tJayyim). opts for a more euphemistic translation unless the
Bibliography: Ben-1:-layyim. Z.. .. md.wJril word is used in a passage with the literal sense of
umäsöret ... Lefonenü 21 :283-92. Wildeboer. G. the intestines.
msr, ZAW 29:73-74 and ··Das Verbum msr. With three or four exceptions the noun is as-
ZAW 29:219-20 vs. Bacher, W .... A Contribution sociated with persons, both male and female.
to the History of the Term ·Massorah'," JQR Twice it is used in connection with the great
3 :785-90 and „ Das Verbum msr · · ZA W sea-monster, the "belly" of which was the tem-
29:218-19. porary underground abode of Jonah, and the
V.P.H. place from which he prayed (Jonah 2: 1-2). Twice
the noun is found in phrases connected with God's
"\/?~ (mösiir). See no. 877b. emotions: lsa 63: 15... Where is your zeal (qin"a),
r,:,b7?(masöret). See no. 14le. your strength (g'blirli), your compassion (hiimon
me'ekli) and your mercies (ra~1iimfm) toward
1225 !'\~~ (missat) sufji.cient, sufji.ciency. me' 1 .. (cf. also Jer 31 :20 [H 191 with the phrase
hamü me·ay parallel to rehem 'äraho.mennu).
This translation is based primarily on the
Most often, as we have indicated. the word is
common Aramaic word. lt is found but once in
used of persons and crosses genders. lt may be
the 01. Deut 16: 10, .. Thou shalt keep the feast of
used of man: Job 30:27 (Job): II Sam 16: 11: 17:12
weeks unto the Lord thy God with a 'tribute · of a
(David): II Chr 21:19 (Jehoram): II Chr 32:21
free will offering of thine hand" (KJV). The wor-
(Sennacherib): Gen 15:4 (Abraham). In the fol-
shiper is to bring whatever offering his means
lowing passages it refers to women: Ps 71 :6: lsa
allow (cf. v. 17 in the same chapter). The etymol-
49: 1 (my mother): Ruth 1: 11 (Naomi): Gen 25:23
ogy of the word is uncertain.
(Rebekah). Frequently when referring to a
V.P.H.
woman me·eh is paralleled with heren ··womb."
There are thrce major ways in which the word
-:ir,o~ (mistor). See no. 1551c.
is used. First. the word may be used literally, to
"lt11;)~ (mistär), "il'\I;)~ ( mist('r). See
refer to one's internal organs, the bowels, the
nos. 1551d,e.
,;v~ (ma"biid). See no. l 553f.
stomach. Thus, Ezekiel (Ezk 3:3) is told to eat
and digest the roll which God has shown him (and
:i:w~ (ma'äbeh). See no. 1554b.
nu''eh is parallel to heren). in his "belly" and
-:;P.~ (ma'iibiir). See no. 1556h.
"bowels." Cf. also Ezk 7: 19 (parallel to nepesh).
,~v~ (ma·ga/). See no. 1560. In II Chr21:15 (twice), 18-19 there is a reference
to the horrible disease with which the Lord
1226 il/7? (mii'ad) slip, slide, give away.
afflicted Jehoram. the Judean king, in his "bow-
The root is found nine times in the 01 if we els ... This must be some kind of an abdominal
include in Ezk 29:7 the reading w'"/ia"ämadtii as disease, perhaps a violent case of dysentery with
a metathesis for w•·him"adtii and thus read "and or without prolapsus of the bowel.
make all their loins/thighs 'shake ·" instead of The second way in which me'eh is used is to
"stand." Fourofthe nine uses ofthis verb are in refer to the reproductive organs. both male and
Psalms (18:36 [H 371= II Sam 22:37: Ps 26: 1: female. Hence, more than simply digestive or-
27:31: 69:23 IH 241). The first three of these are gans are involved. We are now thinking in terms
used in a context suggesting security ( .. my feet of the reproductive system, the male and female
did not give away .. ) as a result of confidence in sexual apparatus (Gen 15:4: 25:23: Ruth 1:11;
God. Proverbs 25:19 speaks of a "broken tooth II Sam 16:11: 17:12: II Chr 32:21: lsa 48:19).
and a 'palsied' foot." I Samuel 15:32 says that The third way in which me'eh is used is in a
Agag came to David "totteringly." figurative, metaphorical sense to denote the seat
Bibliography: Talmon, S., .. I Sam. xv:32b: A of emotions. We have already noted this above in
Case of Conflated Readings, · · VT 11: 456--57. connection with God·s compassion (lsa 63: 15 and
V.P.H. Jer 31 :20). Thus. lsaiah in his lament over Moab
quivers with his whole being (me'eh), and his
i,P.~ (ma'adän). See no. 1567d. inmost seif (qirbi, lsa 16: 11). Jeremiah cries out,
ri,~ji/~ (ma'iidannut). See no. 1649a. „ My anguish, my anguish" (Jer 4: 19). The author
-::,v~ (ma'der). See no. 1571a. of Lam expresses similar emotion (Lam 1:20;

518
 1230 ',~~ (mä'a/)

2: 11). David hides God's law within his ··heart" of God·s patience with the wicked and the begin-
(Ps 40:9). The term is used to express the affec- ning of judgment: Ps 37: 10: Isa 10:25: 29: 17: Jer
tion feit by the bridc for her lover (Song 5:4). 51:33: Hag 2:6. In the seventh passage (Ex 17:4)
Incidentally, this figure of speech extcnds into Moses remonstrates with God that the people
the NT. "Put on ... bowels (splaRchna) of "are almost ready" to stone him. We may also
mercy" (Col 3:12). "lfthere be any consolation note the frequency (nine times) with which the
in Christ ... if any bowels and mercies" (Phil interrogative particle is prefixed to m ,, ·af to form
2: 1). questions. most of which arc rhetoricaI in nature.
The metaphorical use of organs of the body For example ... 1s it a small matter that you have
was more common in antiquity. Hebrew uses the taken my husband')" (Gen 30:15: cf. Num 13:18:
liver (käbM, sometimes mispointed kiih<>d 16:9, 13: Josh 22:17. etc.).
"glory") in expressions of joy. the kidneys A frequent phrase with this word is kim'a/,
(k''/ayöt) for affections. the heart (/c•h) for both literally, "like a little" (eighteen times). In most
affections and mind and the abdominal organs cases the translation will be derived from the con-
(me'fm) for compassion (see the various terms). text. Thus. (1) "a little longer. almost, all but'':
In English the word "heart'' is used for most of Gen 26: 10: Ps 73:2: 119:87: Prov 5: 14: (2) "soon,
these expressions, and "heart" is a fair transla- shortly. straightway": Ps 81: 14 IH 15J: Job 32:22:
tion of most of these words. Therc is. of coursc. II Chr 12:7 ("in a little while"): Ps 2:12
no problem in the Hebrew use of an organ to ("quickly"): (3) "very few. a handfur·: Ps
express a feeling. The Bible no more teaches that 105: 12: Ezk 16:47: Isa 1:9.
compassion resides in the abdomen than moderns V.P.H.
think it resides in the ehest. The Hebrew simply
reflects the common linguistic usage (not in- ~9~1-'~(111a·afüpä). See no. 1606a.
vented by the Jews) whereby mental and emo- •i:~ (m' 'i). See no. 1577e.
tional states are designated by organs the emo- ,,r:,~ (m' 'i/). See no. 1230b.
tions affect in some way. i~\/i,, (ma·yan). See no. 1613a.
V.P.H.
1229 ''ll-'7t(mä'ak) press, squeeze.
Jii:r; (ma'öRl. See no. 1575b.
The verb appears three times in the 01. possi-
Tii.'7t (mii'<i::J. See no. 1578a.
bly four (see discussion of Ezk 23:21 below): (1 l
iii.'7t (ma'<in). See no. 1581a.
Lev 22:24, "You shall not offer unto the Lord (an
iiwr; (mü'tip). See no. 1583b.
animal whose testicles) are "bruised" (mii'ük),
'1ii.'1; (mä'br). See no. 1588a.
crushed (kät1itL broken (niit1i4). or cut (kärtit)":
1228 t:1l,'7t(mü'a!) be small, diminished. probably all referring to methods of castration;
(2) I Sam 26:7 ... Saurs spear was · stuck/pressed'
Derivative in(to) the ground": (3) Ezk 23:3, "there their nip-
ples were ·handled' (m<,.äkti ). there their virgin
1228a tt:il,'~ (m' 'a() little.
breasts were fondled." This is an allegory of
The verb is used twenty-two times in the m. Jerusalem and Samaria depicting their inter-
eight times in the Qal. once in the Piel (Eccl 12:3). course with Egypt. involving idolatry.
and thirteen times in the Hiphil ("to bring to Ezekiel 23:21 h. the expression "for your
nothing, decrease, diminish"). lts meaning is young breasts" might better read "to fondle your
fairly weil established by the number of times it is young breasts" by changing the preposition
used in juxtaposition to its antonym riiba "be- /''ma'an to read "lim'ök" (Qal infinitive con-
(come) much/many/great'' (Ex 16:17-18: 30:15: struct) or /ima'ek (Piel infinitive construct).
Num 26:54: 33:54: Jer 29:6). V.P.H.
m„a,. Little, few, small, appears onc hundred
1230 ",l,'~ (mä'a/) transgress, commit a trespass,
and one times in the 01. The basic meaning of
m'' 'at is seen in the following passages: Gen
act unfaithfully.
30:30, "lt was little you (Laban) had before 1 Derivatives
(Jacob) came": 47:9. "The days ofmy pilgrimage
1230a t-:,::~ (ma·a/) trespan·.
have been few and evil": l Sam 14:6, "There is
1230b t',•v~ (m'"il) rohe.
no restraint to the Lord to save by many ( rab) or
by few": Deut 7:7, "You were the fewest of all mä'al occurs thirty-five times, always in the
the people": Ps 8:5 IH 6], "You have made him a Qal stem. lt occurs most frequently in II Chr and
little less than God, .. and so forth. in Ezk. Among the prophets. only Ezekiel uses
m'' 'a/ is joined with the word '6d to form the this word (excluding Dan 9:7).
expression '6d m' 'a/ "a little while ... lt occurs In almost all the biblical references mii'al is
seven times, six of these imlicating the cessation used to designate the breaking or violation of re-

519
1230 ',l)~ (mä'al)

li~ious law as a conscious act of treachery. The accusative to the verb mii'a/. Thus. we meet a
v1c11magamst whom the breach is perpetrated is phrase, "lf a man commit (mä'a/) a trespass
God. As we shall see. an almost formulaic phrase (ma'a/) ...
1s mä"al ma·a/ h''yhwh ··10 commit a tresspass
_m'''il. Robe, cloke, mantle. This type of cloth-
agamst the LORD.. (Lev 6:2 iH 5:211: Num 5:6:
mg may refer to part of the priestly vestments
Josh 22:31: I Chr 10:13: II Chr 12:2: 26:16: 28:19,
worn by the high priest to cover the ephod. Like
22: 30:7). A variant, in the first person. is mä'al
a shawl there was a hole in the middle, hence to
m1(a/ hi „to commit a trespass against me·· (Lev
be pulled over the head. lt was also worn by men
26:40: Ezk 14:13: 20:27: 39:23. 26).
ofrepute: Samuel, I Sam 28: 14 (in Sheol at that'):
There are a few instances where the root is
Saul, I Sam 24:5: David, I Chr 15:27: Ezra, Ezr
used in contexts in which God is not the object.
9:3: Job. Job 1:20 (and David"s daughters, II Sam
There are three of these. (1) Prov 16:10: the
13:18). For figurative usages cf. Isa 59:17: 61:10:
mouth of a king transgresses (\·im'a/) not in
Job 29:14: Ps 109:29. The relationship of m'"il to
judgment: (2) Job 21:34 (Job to the three comfor-
ma·af is uncertain. One suggestion is to relate the
ters): how can you comfort me since in your an-
!<leas . of. "covering· · and „ acting unfaithfully""
swers there is falsehood? (Pope, in AB, Joh,
1.e.. smning m secret or under cover, on the anal-
··sheer fraud .. : JB. ··nonsense"'): (3) Num 5: 12.
ogy of Hebrew bi.f;{ad "to act treacherously·· and
27. lt is these last verses from Num that furnish
he!-(e_d:·garment„ (Palache: see bibliography).
the best clues as to the nuance behind the word
B1blwgraphy: Palache, J. L.. Semantic Notes
mü"a/. Numbers 5:12 says. ••if a man·s wife go
on the fiebre\\' Lexicon, Leiden: Brill, 1959, esp.
as1de (fo/ti). and commit a trespass (mä"a/)
p. 10. Porubcan. S .. Sin in the Old Testament:
against him. ·· Verse 13 continues. "'and a man lie
Aloisana. Herd er. 1963, esp. pp. 30--31. THAT, J.
w1th her carnally„ lt is obvious. then. that to
pp. 920-21.
··commit a trespass"' means to act unfaithfully. to
V.P.H.
break a contract. The general idea is defection or
unfaithfulness. Our English word "'perfidy''
would come perhaps closest of all.
7l)~ (m11'a/), ,pr,, (ma'a/), :,?.1/7.'
. (ma'äleh). See nos. 1624i,j,k.
Occasionally the root is applied to the faithless
acts of individuals, private citizens as in the case
'71/7.'(ma'aläl). See no. 1627e.
Cll,I~ (me'im). See no. 1640c.
of Achan (Josh 7: 1: 22:20: I Chr 2:7). but mostly
royal figures (Saul: I Chr 10: 13: Ahaz: II Chr
,~1/7.'(ma'iimiid), ,~f~ (mo'ömäd).
See nos. 1637d,e.
28: 19: 29: 19: Uzziah: II Chr 26:16, 18: Manasseh:
11Chr 33: 19: Zedekiah: Ezk 18:24). Most often it
:,~~1/7.'(ma'ämiisa). See no. 1643a.
t:•:,r,,11r,,
(ma'ämaqqim). See no. 1644e.
is an indictment against the nation of Israel from
wilderness times (Num 31:16: Deut 32:51) down
:,_wr,,(ma'iineh). :i:11~ (ma'ana). See
nos. 1650f, 1651b. ',-
to the postexilic ministries of Ezra and Nehemiah
(Ezra 10:2. 10: Neh 1:8). lt is the cause of Judah's
:i;;11r,, (ma·a.yebd). See no. 1666f.
exile (Ezk 39:23: Dan 9:7). In one instance a for-
i;l/7.' (ma'ä.~iid). See no. 1668a.
"\i~l/1; (ma'ä.i·ör). See no. 1675d.
eign ruler (Shishak) enters Jerusalem because of
"\;l)~ (ma'ä.yiir). See no. 1675e.
lsrael's "'transgressions .. (II Chr 12:2). This
:,i'-1/1; (ma'aqeh). See no. 1679a.
word does not describe the sins of unbelievers
but of believers. covenant peoples, those who
~t?l/1;(ma'äqiish). See no. 1684c.
"\l)I; (ma·ar). See no. 1692d.
"'break faith"' with their suzerain. Thus, Ezk
18:24 pronounces the principle, "'When a righte-
:r:1111;(ma'äräb). See nos. 1686c, 1689b.
ous man turns away from his righteousness and
:i,v~ (m'"iirii). See no. 1704a.
commits iniquity ( "äwe/) ... in his trespass that he
,,111; (ma'aräk). See no. 1694c.
has committed (mü'a/) and in the sin he has
ri:rwr; (ma'ärekel). See no. 1694e.
c,111; (ma'iiräm). See no. 1588d.
sinned U1ii/ii') he shall die ...
Of the many words for sin in the or, mä'al is
:i;,111; (ma'arä}·a). See no. 1702c.
used most frequently in a parallel phrase with
:,~•111;(ma'äseh). See no. 1708a.
f1ii/ii' (q.v.) "to sin, miss the mark": Lev 5:15,
"\W~t; (ma'äser). See no. 171 lh.
21: Num 5:6: II Chr 33:19: Ezk 14:13: 18:24.
:,iPWl/1; (111a'i1sha11qa). See no. 1713e.
I)~~~ (mipgä'). See no. 1731b.
There are a number of words used in the LXX for
mä'a/. Interestingly. in Ezk the word used most
M,1; (mappä~i), r:,pr; (mappüah). See
nos. 1390a,b.
prominently is parapiptö "to trespass"' while in
r'~~ (mepi}·). See no. 1745a.
Ezra and N ehemiah the word is as1111thet(>"to
7~1; (mappä/). See no. 1392b.
default. deflec~ ... There is no equivalent pattern
m translat1on m Chronicles.
:ii;c7~~ (mip/ii'a). See no. 1768c.
:ifi'~~ (miplagga). See no. 1769d.
ma'al. Trespass. The noun is used twenty-nine :,7pr; (mappelti). See no. 1392d.
t1mes. of which twenty instances are as a cognate ~?~~ (mipla(). See no. 1774e.

520
 1232 :, 17, (mä~·a)

r.::i:',c~ (miple~et). See no. 1778b. 32:10: Jer 23:11: Ezk 22:30: Hos 9:10: Ps 17:3:

l"\,~~
iv-~i:,~ (miplän.
(mappe/et).
,~~~ (mip'äl).
See no. 1777b.
See no. 1392e.
See no. 1792c,b.
89:20 iH 211: Job 33:10: Neh 9:8.
For additional meanings of ma~a· in the Qal
stem we might note the following: (1) "reach,"
l'l!r,l (mapp,•~), r;r,i (mappa~). See no. "can you reach the perfections of the Al-
1394c. b. mighty?" (Job 7: 11): "they were unable to reach
'i,?!;:~ (mip4iid). See no. 1802g. the door" (Gen 19:11): (2) "overtake, .. "your
l'?C~ (mipra~·). See no. 1827a. hand overtook your foes .. (Ps 21:8 iH 9]): "the
r"li''."l!;:~
(mipre4et). See no. 1828. pangs of death overtook me .. (Ps 116:3): "trouble
iv~i;:~ ( mipriis). See no. 1831a. and anguish have taken hold on me" (Ps
n~if~~ (mipsä'iI). See no. 1841b. 119:143): (3) "to happen to/to befall, .. "why has
MI;!~~ (miptä/J), 1:,!'i~r,l (maptea/J). See all this happened to us?" (Jud 6: 13).
nos. 1854e.f. The Niphal stem also produces in certain cases
11;1~~ (miptiin). See no. 1858b. the translations. .. overpowered,.. "caught ...
1'~ (me~·). See no. 1192a. "captured ... Thus, Jer 50:24: 0 Babylon ... you
are caught and seized (lapa.O: "a thief ... if he
be caughf' (Prov 6:30-31 ): "if a thief be caught
1231 N;7:' (mii~ii ·) find. breaking in .. (Ex 22: 1). This is also seen in cases
where the Niphal participle (han-nim~a·) is used.
There are approximately 450 usages of this root So, Jud 20:48 the phrases "all that they found„
in the OT. Most of these are in the Qal stem and "which they found„ mean prefernbly "until
(Gerleman, 306 times: but according to Koehler the last ·captive ·.. and "all the ·captured'
Baumgartner. KB, p. 553b, 310 times.) As we
cities... In addition to these technical uses,
shall see. although its basic meaning is · ·to find„
mä~ä· in the Niphal is often simply a synonym for
(in the LXX, mostly euriskein), mäsii' also as-
häva "tobe": I Sam 9:8, "[ have here at hand,"
sumes other shades of meaning. The Niphal stem literally, "there is found in my hand" (BDB 594b:
ofthis verb appears 141 times (Gerleman) or 135 2a-f).
times (KB). Once again, the expected translation Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Northwest
would be the passive of the Qal, "to be found ... Semitic Philology and Job, .. in The Bihle in Cur-
But such translations as "overpowered, .. "cap-
rent Catholic Thought. ed. J. L. McKenzie, New
tured," and "apprehended" are also discover-
York: Herder and Herder. 1962. pp. 55-74. esp.
able. Note that in the LXX the translation of p. 57. lwry, S., whnm(: "A Striking Variant in
ma~·ä' is often not euriskö but something like
IQJs•" in Textus 5:34-43. THAT, I. pp. 922-24.
haliskomai "be caught. held.''
Y.P.H.
The evidence of related languages is helpful.
Hebrew mä~a· is tobe related to Aramaic m''(ä' ::i;r,i(maHöh), ::i;~ (miLHäh). See nos.
"to reach, attain" (the word in BA for "find" is 1398c,d.
s''ka/J); to Ethiopic ma(a ··to come, arrive":
and to Ugaritic m;a/m!fll "to reach .. (UT 19: no.
n;;~ (miHöha), n;;r.i (ma.i·~eba). See
nos. 1398f,g.
1524). ,;~ (m''~tul). See no. 1885c.
There seems tobe, then. sufficient grounds to
establish for mä~ä · in the Qal stem not only the 1232 :i;7:' (ma.ra) drain (out).
meaning "to find„ but also "to come upon. meet.
reach ... As a generalization. we may say that The verb is used seven times in the 01, four
whenever mii!fa' is used to describe a result fol- times in the Qal and three times in the Niphal.
lowing a time of "seeking„ the translation is "to Sometimes the verb describes the literal draining
find." Thus, Deut 4:29, "if you seek (bä4ash) the of blood from a bird offered in sacrifice (Lev
Lord. you shall find (mäiä') him." Cf. Jer29:13: 1:15: 5 :9) or the draining/squeezing of water from
Song 5:6. · ·seek (därash) the Lord, while he may a fleece (Jud 6:38).
be found (mä~ii') (lsa 55:6): cf. I Chr 28:9: II Chr Three times the verb is used figuratively to de-
15:2: "they shall seek (Jä~wr) me early, but shall scribe the enemies of God who have drunk from
not find (mä.ra') me .. (Prov 1:28). the cup ofhis wrath down "to the last drop": lsa
We may add to this !ist the copious references 51:17: Ezk 23:34: Ps 75:8 iH 91, "Oh, how they
to finding favor (!Jen) in the eyes of another (God will drain it to the dregs." Dahood renders this
or one's fellow man): Gen 6:8: 18:3: 19:19: 32:5 verse, "Oh, how its dregs (i.e. ofGod's cup) will
(H 6): 33:8, 10, 15: 34:1 L 39:4: 47:25. 29: 50:4. be drained, the wicked of the earth will drink the
The idea obviously is to gain acceptance or to win last drop.' · This rendering changes the MT yim~ü
approbation. The phrase occurs approximately (Qal active) into yum~ü (Qal passive). The last
forty times in the 01. part of Ezk 23:34, cited above, indicates what
There are twelve instances in which the subject consequence befalls the wicked who drain this
of mä~·ä' is God: Gen 18:26. 28. 30: 44: 16: Deut cup. In remorse and revulsion they smash the cup

521
 as the cause of their downfall and tear off their Job 31:35: Rev 7:3, 4; 13:16; 14:1: 22:4. This
breasts as the peccant members through which might shed some light on Jer 3:3 when Jeremiah
they have sinned. A graphic picture ! says of his audience, .. You have a whore's
The final use of this verb is in Ps 73: 10 again to forehead," rendered by JB as "you have main-
describe the wicked, .. waters of abundance are tained a prostitute ·s bold front... Could
'drained· by them ... The meaning is obvious Jeremiah's accusation, however, be a reference
enough. The wicked are so voracious that they to some trademark on the head of a prostitute, as
swallow the ocean, leaving nothing for others (an is used today to mark the castes of lndia?
effective hyperbole). lt is unnecessary to connect
mii,!)ä. Greaves, found only once in the OT,
the verb here with Ugaritic mH, .. to suck'" as
1 Sam 17:6, "And Goliath had ·greaves' ofbrass
Dahood has done (Psalms, in AB, in loc. ).
upon his legs." Greaves are the armor which pro-
V.P.H.
tected the front of the leg below the knee.
Bibliography: Blau, J., .. Etymologische Un-
:i;i; (ma.ml). See nos. 1234a, 1400a. tersuchungen auf Grund des palästinischen
:i7:,~~ (mi$hälä). See no. 1881a. Arabisch, .. VT 5:337--44, esp. p. 342. On mi$hii:
iitQ (mäsöd) I. II. See nos. 1885d,e. Galling, K., Biblisches Real/exicon, Tübingen:
:i,,ir? (m~$iidä) l, II. See nos. 1885g,i. J. C. B. Mohr. 1937, pp. 89-90. idem., "Goliath
:iiir., (miswä). See no. 1887b. und seine Rüstung," Supp VT 15:150-69, esp.
:iS~:tr., (,r;'sö/a). See no. 1889b. pp. 163--05.
;,,ir;i· (mä.r~1ql. :i.;,,:m(m ,.$iiqii). See V.P.H.
nos. 1895d,e.
;,,ic (mä$iiq). See no. 1896a.
ii:r~ (mä.rör). See no. 1898a. n•tc (m'"siah). See no. 1172a.
rmti; (maHiit). See no. 1400b. :i,:tb (m'"sü/{I). See no. 1889c.
:,;i~ (m'-~il/a). See no. 1919e.
c;i:i~':!t7?
(,.;niltayim). See no. 1919f.
1233 nie (m$~1). Assumedrootofthefollowing.
1'1!:))':!t~
(mi$nepet). See no. 1940c.
1233a tn;~ (me$ah) brow,foreheail.
1233b t:i,:i;c (mi$h{l) greaves.
11;i;"(maHii'). See no. 896e.
,~;~ (mi{äd). See no. 1943d.
mei,a!). Brow, forehead. The substantive ap- ,~;~ (mi{är). See no. 1948c.
pears thirteen times in the OT, five of which are in :,~;~ (mi~peh). See no. 1950b.
Ezk (3:7, 8 jtwice], 9: 9:4). The etymology ofthe ii!:l~I; (ma$pbn). See no. 1953d.
word is uncertain. One suggestion is to relate it to
the verb $ä/J.a~1"tobe bright, dazzling," on the
1234 rtr;i (mii$U$) drain out. Occurs only in
analogy of Arabic ~-abaha "to shine, .. .rabäh
"morning, .. and .rabäh "forehead .. (Blau: see lsa 66: 11, tiimO$$Ü w'hit'annagtem "(that)
you may drain out and delight yourselves.''
bibliography).
The most interesting uses of me$ah are in the Derivative
Ezk passages, plus one from Jeremiah. God says
1234a t:i;r; (maHii) unleavened breail, un-
to Ezekiel (3 :7) that all Israel is stiff of forehead
leavened cakes.
(hizqe me$a/J.) and hardhearted (q" she leb). The
phrase "stiff/strong of forehead" suggests, A feminine singular noun from the root mä$U$,
perhaps, the picture of an animal, an ox or ram, which occurs frequently as the plural maHbt
butting its head. But in the next verse (3:8) God (forty-four times). In the LXX and NT, it is azuma.
says that he has made the prophet's forehead This quickly prepared bread was offered at ordi-
stronger than the foreheads of his foes. That is to nary meals to unexpected guests (Gen 19:3; Jud
say, God will not only give him hardness equal to 6: 19-21; I Sam 28:24). The lsraelites, departing
that of his foes, but that he promises Ezekiel to hastily from Egypt, did not have time to wait for
make him harder for the truth than the people are bread to rise (Ex 12:39).
against it. There may be here an intentional play U nleavened cakes were offered in sacrifice
on the prophet's name which means "may God when Aaron and his sons were consecrated to the
harden/strengthen"' from the verb l}.äzaq. Cf. priesthood (Ex 29:2), with the cereal offering
also 3:9. (Lev 2:4-5), with the peace offering (Lev 7: 12),
In Ezk 9:4 God orders a divine agent to go and upon completion of the Nazirite vow (Num
through Jerusalem and put a mark on the 6: 15, 17, 19). The bread was carried in a basket
forehead of the men who deplored and disap- (Ex 29:23; Lev 8:2, 26: Num 6:15, 17). The Le-
proved of the filth practised in the city. The word vites assisted with the offering (I Chr 23:27-29).
for "mark" is taw, the last letter of the Hebrew After the sacrifice, the remainder of the cereal
alphabet, which in the old Canaanite script was offering was eaten by the priests (Lev 6: 16;
written X. Cf. also Gen 4:15 ('bt): I Sam 21:14; 10:12). At the time of Josiah's reform, priests of

522
 1235 C''j~~ (mi,ffayim)

the high places ate unleavened bread among their dulating linc of development. Times of innova-
brethren (II Kgs 23:9). tion. greatness. cxpansion are followed by times
Because Israel had eaten unleavened bread on of regression. retrenchment. the rise of ccn-
the night when they left Egypt (Ex 12:8) and dur- trifugal movements and the cycle repeats.
ing the first stages of their travels (Ex 12:39). lt is difficult, almost impossible. to pinpoint
annually thereafter they ate unleavened bread common denominators in Egyptian religion
with bitter herbs at the Passover season whether throughout almost three millennia of develop-
the first or second Passover (Ex 12:14-20: Num ment. The gamut runs from a rampant polytheism
9: 10). Eaten with bitter herbs. it is called the to a solar "monotheism ... Their religion never
bread of affliction (Deut 16:3 ). Originally earmarked to everybody' s satisfaction a supreme
Passover, a one-night celebration. was distinct God. Was it Atum or Re or Horus or Amon-Re'?
from the feast of unleavened bread. being the fol- No one would deny. however, that one charac-
lowing seven days. But both days may be re- teristic of Egypt's religion was the emphasis on
ferred to as Passover or "the days of unleavened life after death. And yet this preoccupation with
bread. ·' The eating of unleavened bread began on death was not a morbid one. Mortuary texts are
the evening of the fourteenth of the month of inevitably gay and optimistic. The Egyptian con-
Nisan (Ex 12:15. 18: 13:6: 34:18: Lev 23:6: Num cept of the afterlife is also an intensely materialis-
28:17: Deut 16:3: Ezk 45:21) and continued for tic one. The next lifc simply continues this one.
seven days (Deut 16:8 gives six days with the This is why. for example. the body was mum-
seventh as a day of solemn assembly). Hence this mified because corporeal existence was the only
season was called the feast of unleavened bread existence acceptable to the Egyptian.
(/JaR hamrna~·.y<it. Ex 23:15: 34:18: Lev 23:6: In the or it is the patriarchs who first have
Deut 16:16: Ezr 6:22: II Chr 8:13: 30:13. 21: relationships with Egypt (Abraham. Gen 12).
35:17). Israel observed this custom at Gilgal This would correspond roughly with the twelfth
when entering Palestine (Josh 5:11). Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. The Joseph
J.P.L. story is obviously set in an Egyptian background.
even to the extent of the cycle itself being in the
-i;~ (mi'$11r). See no. 1973f. form of a short story in simple prose (an Egyptian
creation). However, from the time of Moses on.
the Bible generally casts the land of Egypt in a
1235 Ci'".!~~(mi$rayim) Egypt.
very negative position. lt is the oppressor of
The Hebrew word is of uncertain derivation God·s people. refusing to give Israel her libera-
but is related to the Akkadian name Mi.yr tion. lt is the prophets particularly who inveigh
( M11$11r) and the Arabic name Mi~·r for Egypt. In against Israel leaning upon Egypt. "Leave her
form, the Hebrew name for Egypt is in the dual, alone: she is under judgment and will topple „ is
indicating her two basic constituent divisions: their council.
Upper Egypt (Southern Egypt) and Lower Egypt And yet for all this denunciation of Egypt two
(the Delta area). The reason for the equation of passages in the or about her are extremely in-
upper with south and lower with north is because teresting. One. the saintly Judean king Josiah
of the northward flow of the Nile. The Egyptians died because he did not listen to the word of God
themselves referred to their land as t3wy "two from the Pharaoh Necho (II Chr 35:20ff.). Two,
lands" or Kemi '"Black Land ... this latter being a lsa 19: 16ff. anticipates the conversion of Egypt
reference to the lush. irrigated soil that ran along (and Assyria) to the Lord. "blessed be my people
the sides of the N ile. The name „ Egypt ... from Egypt'' (v. 25). Traditional foes will be recon-
Greek. possibly goes back to thc Egyptian phrase ciled under Goct·s blessings.
Hi-ku-Ptah. the "House of the Spirit of (the god) Bibliography: Gardincr. A„ Eg_,pt ,i( the
Ptah, .. an ancient designation for Memphis (bib- Plwruohs, New York: Oxford University, 1966.
lical Noph). Wilson. J.. The Culture of Ancient Egypt. Uni-
Briefly, Egyptian history may be conveniently versity of Chicago. 1956. Stcindorff, G. and
divided into and highlighted by the following im- Seele, K. C„ Whc11 t.:Ry111Rulcd thc t:ast. Uni-
portant periods: ( 1) The Old Kingdom/Pyramid versity of Chicago, 1942.
Age/third-sixth Dynasties (2700-2200 B.<.): (2) V.P.H.
The Middle Kingdom. especially the twelfth
Dynasty (2000--1800 B.c.): (3) The New Kingdom tii;i? (ma.)n'p).Sec no. 1972b.
or Empire Age, eighteenth-twentieth Dynasties i'i?. See no. 1237a.
(11111q).
(1570--1090 B.c.): (4) Thc Ethiopian period. espe- !1;ir!i? (maqqehel). See nos. 1409c.d.
cially the twenty-fifth Dynasty (715--063 !l.c. ): (5) ~"!;,~ (111ic1düsh). See no. 1990f.
Saitic/twenty-sixth Dynasty (633-525 B.c.): (7) ,~;,i? (maqhN). See no. 1991d.
Dynasty ofthe Ptolemies (306--30 B.c.). Generally :,,,,~ (miqweh). ). See
:,1;,~ ( 111iq11·ti
speaking. ancient Egypt's history follows an un- ~~s. 1994c, 1995a." ·

523
1236 ';,~~ (maqqel)

c:ii:,~ (mäqhm). See no. 1999b. 1: 16, .. he is to remove the crop with
ii:,~ (miiq<>r). See no. 2004a. its contents" (N1v).
M~~ (miqqa~1). See no. 1124e.
meri'. Fatling. m •·6' occurs eight times in the
•,t;i'~ (miq[iir). it;i'~ (müq(ar). See
OT. BDB (p. 597) lists this word under märä' II,
nos. 201 ld,e.
„tobe fat, well-fed" but does not document the
r,j~i'~ (miq[eret). See no. 201 lf.
verb in the OT. Some have suggested that m r ri' in
lsa II :6 read vimr'"ü: hence the translation of
1236 ,:,~ (maqqe/) rod, staff (e.g. Gen 30:37:
this verse in JB,..The calf and lion cub feed to-
Jer 1: 11). Derivation uncertain. gether. ..
In all but one of the eight passages. m •·rf' is
~7i'~ (miq/a(). See no. 2026a. used of cattle who were intentionally raised and
riv'7i'~ (miq/a'at). See no. 2031a. fed for meat for the purpose of sacrifice to God.
:,~i'O ( miqneh), :i;i'~ (miqnil ). See The Hebrew word is not concerned with the
nos. 2039b,c. species but rather with the quality of the animal.
t::ll?i'~(miqsam). See no. 2044b. The significance is that when one offers a sac-
Vli'~ (miq.yöa'), :,~'lli'~ (maq.yü'a). See rifice to his Lord, he offers his best and most
nos. 2057a, 2056b.
valuable.
Both David (II Sam 6: 13) and Adonijah (1 Kgs
1237 *:,t?r;, ( mäqaq) decay, rot,fester, pine away. 1:9, 19, 25) on festive occasions offered „fat-
Derivative lings" to the Lord. And yet the Lord rejects the
offerings of these same animals whenever sac-
1237a :,~ (maq) decay, rottenness (lsa rifice and external religious performance become
3:24: 5:24). a substitute for personal morality and integrity
mäqaq occurs nine times in the OT, eight (lsa 1: 11: Arnos 5:22). Ezekiel says that in addi-
times in the Niphal. once in the Hiphil. The verb tion to human flesh and the meat of other ani-
is used most often to describe those who „per- mals, the birds shall feast on fatlings in the day of
ish „ or --waste away„ because of their sins. God's judgment upon lsrael's enemies (Ezk
which dehumanize them: Lev 26:39, Ezk 4:17: 39:18: cf. Rev 19:17-18, 21).
24:23: 33:10. Sin sows its own seeds of decay. The only passage in which m •·ri' occurs in a
Similar to this is the judgment of God meted out non-sacrificial context is lsa 11:6.
10 those who attack Jerusalem in history·s great Bibliography: Aharoni, 1., .. On Some Ani-
eschatological struggle (Zech 14: 12, three times). mals Mentioned in the Bible," Osiris 5:461-78.
.. Their flesh will ·molder· ... their eyes will ·rot' Bodenheimer, F. S., Anima/ and Man in Bible
in their sockets: their tongues will · rot' in their Lands, Leiden: Brill, 1960. Brueggemann, W.
mouth ... Cf. also lsa 34:4. .. Fatling," in !DB, II, p. 246.
The basic meaning of the verb is discoverable V.P.H.
in Ps 38:5 (H 6) ... My wounds stink and are ·fes-
tering· because of my foolishness." :,~~~ (mar'a), :,~,~ (mar'eh). See
V.P.H. nos. 2095h,i.
riitV~j~ (m'ra·ashöl). See no. 2097f.
N,i'~ (miqra'). See no. 2063d. i:n~ (marbäd). See no. 2102a.
:,:,:,~ (miqreh), :i:,:;:~ (m''qareh). See Mll~~ (marheh). See no. 2103b.
· nos. 2068c J. r,•;,~ (marhft). See no. 2103d.
:,~:,~ (m''l/l'ril). See no. 2077d. l'll:~ (marbes). See no. 2109b.
:,rv:,~ (miqsheh ), :,rv:,~ ( miqshä) I, 11. i'll"::~ (marbeq). See no. 21 I0a.
See nos. 2086b,a: 2083b. Vüi~ (marJ?aa'). See no. 2117b.
,~ (mar), ,~ (mör). See nos. 1249a, r,i,~:~ (marR''/61). See no.2113c.
1248a,b. :ir;,nr; (marf!emä). See no. 2114b.
:,~~:I; (margl 3'ä). See no. 2117c.
1238 *N'~ (mänf> l,jlap (?). Occurs only in
the Hiphil, in Job 39: 18. --she (the ostrich) 1240 '1".lr;, (märad) he rebellious, rebel, revolt.
flaps away. she laughs at the horse and his Derivatives
rider. ··
1240a t,~~(mered) rebellion.
1239 Ni~ (mr') II. Assumed root of the follow-
1240b tr,i'i~r; (mardüt) rebellion.
ing. The verb is used twenty-five times in the OT. all
1239a ti-t•i~ ( m' ri') fatling. in the Qal stem. lt appears in Josh more often
1239b ni-ti~ (mür'il) crop or alimentary than in any other book (five times, 22:16. 18, 19
'canal, of bird. Occurs only in Lev [twiceJ, 29).

524
 1241 ,,.,~ (m''rödäk)

The verb märad may indicate either rebellion The second word, na'ä\\'at, is a Niphal feminine
against man (twelve times) or rebellion against participle of 'äwa "bend, twist." On the basis of
God (twelve times). The one passage open to the LXX. which for this word has korasiön. most
question in translation is Josh 22: 19 (KJv): "Rebel scholars have emended na'ä,rnt to na·arat
not against the Lord. nor rebel against us (tim- "girl." Hence. the translation. ··son of a rebel-
rödti). The Rsv reads this: "Rebe! not against the lious woman," or "son of a wanton" (JB).
Lord, nor make us rebels" (reading timridti for Bibliography: Driver, S. R .. Notes on the
timrödti). This is certainly possible in light of the Hehrew Text of the Books <f Samuel. Oxford:
following verse, v. 20, which is a reminder, from Clarendon, 1890. pp. 134-35. THAT. 1. pp. 925-
the Achan incident. that the sin of one implicates 27.
many more than just the individual who is the V.P.H.
immediate culprit. Hence, the translation of JB:
"Do not rebel ... or make us accomplices in re-
bellion ...
:i,~~ (mirda).
r.i"l~7' (mardül).
See no. 2121a.
See no. 1240b.
In those instances where märad signifies man 1241 .,,.,~ (m''rödäk) Marduk, the patron
rebelling against man it is always in reference to a
deity of the city of Babylon.
Judean king or the people of Israel trying to resist
the heavy yoke or the unwelcomed presence of a Marduk is mentioned in the Bible only in Jer
royal power. The one exception is Jeroboam 1 50:2. "Babylon is captured, Bel (bei) is dis-
who is condemned by his contemporary monarch graced. Merodach (Marduk) is shattered ... Note
in southern Judea, Abijah, for "rebelling" that here the name Marduk is paralleled by the
against Solomon (II Chr 13:6). In some instances word b(0 /, a transliteration of the 'Akkadian at-
the Bible describes this rebellion with ap- tribute of Marduk. belum "lord ... Apart from its
probation and sometimes with disapproval. Thus. appearance in Jer 50:2, the name of Marduk ap-
the Bible warmly endorses Hezekiah's actions pears only in the Bible in personal names such as
against the Assyrians: II Kgs 18:7. 20 ( = lsa 36:5). Merodach-baladan Mardukapal-iddina, Evil-
On the other hand, the actions of Jehoiakim merodach (Awel-Marduk), and Mordecai.
against the Babylonians (II Kgs 24: 1) and those of The origin of Marduk's name is unknown,
Zedekiah against the same foe (II Kgs 24:20 =Jer though several etymologies have been offered.
52:3: Ezk 17: 15: II Chr 36: 13) are seen as being in The form ofhis name in Sumerian is '1AMAR-UD
violation of God's will. Whether the rebellion is and in the earliest syllabic renderings (Old
being spoken of positively or negatively. it is, Babylonian) it is marutuk (ma-ru-tu-uk). The
obvious that what is meant by the term is rebel- translation would be, "The young bull/son of Utu
lion in the sense of an attempt to nullify or abro- (the sun-godl." Another possibility is that his
gate a covenant. on the part of the vassal. For name means "son of the storm,'' the picture
similar uses of the term cf. Gen 14:4 and Neh given of Marduk in texts being more akin to a god
2:19; 6:6. of storm. rain, lightning, and thunder, rather than
lf märad in an international political context to a solar figure (Jacobsen).
refers to disloyalty and disunity among nations in The vocalization of his name in Hebrew,
covenant then it is only natural to assume that it m''rödak is interesting (in the 1.xx it is marodak).
is in this context, i.e., the context of a broken Some have suggested a deliberate likeness to
covenant, that the term refers to man·s rebellion 'adönay "my lord." More likely, it could be a
against God (the five passages in Josh 22 for euphemistic vocalization, akin to m•· höräk "ac-
example). cursed."
For synonyms we may note the use of märad lt is commonly asserted that Marduk was
with: ( I) shüb: Josh 22: 16, I 8, 29; II Kgs 24: 1: (2) exalted to his position of supremacy in the
päsha ·: Ezk 2:3; 20:38: (3) mä'al: Josh 22: 16. 22: Babylonian pantheon when Hammurabi made
(4) mära: Neh 9:26: (5) qtim: II Chr 13:6: (6) Dan Babylon the political capital of southern Meso-
9:5. parallel to hä(ä', 'äwä. räsa· (all of which, potamia (eighteenth century B.c. ). although he
see). was known as a minor god as early as the third
millenium B.c. A case can be made. however, for
mered. Rebellion. Found only once once in
the view that it was not until the reign of
the or, Josh 22:22. parallel to nu(a/ "transgres-
Nebuchadnezzar 1 ( c. 1100 B.c.) that Marduk
sion, breach of faith."
actually became "king of the gods" (Lambert:
mardut. Rebellion. Used only in I Sam 20:30. see bibliographyl. Marduk was the son of Enki
Saul. charging his son Jonathan with subversive (Ea) of Eridu, the god of wisdom and the patron
activity in aiding David. hurls this approbrium at of the arts of magic. Marduk himself fathered
him: "Thou son of perverse rebellion." The Nabu, who, toward the end of the neo-
phrase has in most cases been emended. As it Babylonian period (sixth century B.c.).
stands. it is written be11-11a't11rnthammardtit. supplanted his father in popularity.

525
1242 :i,; (mära)

Marduk was the city god of Babylon. His tem- cally the rebellion of lsrael/Judah against God.
ple there was called f::-sa,;:-ila · "the house that Only on a few occasions is the nation not in-
raises high its head ... Adjacent to it was the fa- volved. These would be the five verses noted in
mous step-tower (ziggurat) E-Temen-an-ki. "the the above paragraph plus the reference to the
house of the foundation of heaven and earth." anonymous "man ofGod" who disobeyed God's
approximately ninety-one metres high. The tem- orders not to linger or eat at Bethel but to con-
ple·s great eastern portal, the holy door, bricked tinue immediately on his way. and as a result was
up the whole year. was opened on Marduk·s mauled and killed by a lion (1 Kgs 13:21, 26): also,
principal feast. the Akitu (New Year's) festival. in the third "suffering-servant" song (lsa 50:5),
On this day Marduk·s wedding with his bride. "! was not rebellious/made no resistance ... In
Sarpanitu. was celebrated by bringing their two Lam 1:18, 20 the confession of the .. !" is per-
statues together outside the city walls. By means sonified Jerusalem speaking.
of simulated sexual intercourse between the two, Not only does maralmeri refer to the rebellion
the land's fertility would be ensured for the com- of Israel. but primarily it refers to the rebellion of
ing year. Also at this feast the Enuma Elish (the Israel in the wilderness as God led her toward
Babylonian creation epic) was recited. Marduk, Canaan. Some concurrent references which
the hero of this story, is appointed by the gods to document such aberrant behavior are: Num
lead the fight against Tiamat, and after victory 20: 10, 24: 27: 14 plus numerous passages in Deut
fashions the universe from her body. such as 1:26, 43: 9:7, 24 inter a/ia. Elsewhere,
Though mentioned specifically by name only in there are a number of later books which at points
Jer 50:2, Marduk 's helplessness as god of Baby- are recapitulations of early Israelite history and
lon under the name of Bel is ridiculed in lsa 46: 1: this sin is cited: Ps 78:8, 17, 40, 56: 106:7, 33, 43:
Jer 51 :44: and especially Dan 14:1-22. lsa 63: 10: Neh 9:26 (upon entry into the promised
Bibliography: Jacobsen, T., "The Battle Be- land).
tween Marduk and Tiamat," JAOS 88:104-108. This sin of rebellion may be in word: Num
Lambert, W. G., · 'The Reign of Nebuchadnezzar 17:10 [H 251: 27:14, complaining: Ps 78:17ff.,
1: A Turning Point in the History of Ancient challenging and defying God to do the abnormal,
Mesopotamian Religion, .. in The Seed of Wis- to cater to their tastes and delicacies. Or, it may
dom. ed. W. S. McCullough, University of To- be a rebellion in deed: I Sam 12: 15, obedience to
ronto, 1964, pp. 3-13. Schott, A., "Die Anfänge man over God: I Kgs 13:21, 26, actions contrary
Marduks als eines assyrischen Gottes,·· ZA W 43: to God's clearly expressed will by a "clergy-
318-21. man": Jer 4:17, "your own behavior and ac-
V.P.H. tions": lsa 3:8, "their words and their deeds."
What is most often rebelled against is "the
~,.,~ (miirdäp). See no. 2124a. commandment/the word of the Lord," ('et) pi
(literally, "the mouth"). This is the most fre-
1242 ~,~ (marii) be rebellious against, dis- quent direct object of the verb mara: I Kgs 13:21.
·~bedient towards. 26: Lam 1: 18: Ps 105:28: Num 20:24: 27: 14, inter
alia.
Derivative mära is found in series or parallel with the fol-
lowing Hebrew words: (1) söri'r "stubborn":
1242a ~.,~ ( meri) rebellion.
Deut 21:18, 20: Jer 5:23: Ps 78:8: (2) 'ä.yah "to
The verb occurs forty-five times in the or most hurt. grieve": lsa 63: 10: Ps 78:40: (3) nui'an "to
frequently in the (historical) Psalms (ten times) refuse": Isa 1:20: Neh 9:17: (4) päsha' "to trans-
and eight times in Deut. Twenty-two times the gress": Lam 3:42: (5) nä"a!i "to scorn": Ps
verb is used in the Qal stem and twenty-three 107:11: (6) ~1ä/ä' "to sin": Ps 78: 17: (7) nasa "to
times in the Hiphil stem. In this latter case the lest": Ps 78:56: (8) märad "to rebel": Neh 9:26:
meaning or translation is something like "to pro- (9) mä'as "to reject'' and ~1älal "to profane":
voke (by defiance) ... Ezk 20:13: (10) meri parallel to hap~·ar. a Hiphil
With but five exceptions all uses of miiriilmeri infinitive absolute of pä.yar "to press ... perhaps
refer to rebellion against God. These five excep- here "arrogance, presumption": 1 Sam 15:23.
tions are: (1, 2) Deut 21:18. 20, dealing with
disciplinary procedures to be pursued by parents meri. Rebellion. Of the twenty-three usages of
with a stubborn (s,irer) and "rebellious" son: (3) this noun in the oT, sixteen are in Ezk. and pre-
Job 17:2 ... Are there not mockers with me and ponderantly these are in the phrase, "house of
my eye continues in their 'provocation/spite- rebellion" (in reference to Judah): 2:5, 6. 8: 3:9,
fulness"!" (4) Job 23:2, "My lament is still rebel- 26, 27: 12:2 (twice), 3, 9, 25; 17:12: 24:3: also 2:7
lious": (5) Prov 17:11, "The wicked man thinks and 44:6 for variations of this phrase.
of nothing but rebellion." Bibliography: THAT, 1, pp. 928-30.
The rebellion to which marii refers is specifi- V.P.H.

526
 1247 i'.,~ (mrq)
:i;:,-:i~(marhebii). See no. 2125d. r,~i•,~ (m''rirüt). See no. 1248i.
iiiQ (märöd). See no. 2129a. '!1'.")0
· (mörek).
0
See no. 2164c.
ci,~ (märbm). See no. 2133h. :=;-:il?(merkäb). See no. 2163e.
ri"i~ (merb~·). See no. 2137a. :,~~".\~ (markölet). See no. 2165c.
:i;w~ (m''rü.)·ii). See no. 2212b. :,~,0 (mirmii). See no. 2169b.
;,~,9 (mär11q). See no. 1246a. c~ic (mirmäs). See no. 2176a.
,;,9 (märbr). See no. 1248e. ~~~- (merea'). See no. 2186f.
1'.l~':i~
(marzea/J). See no. 2140a. Mil".\~ (mir'eh). See no. 2185b.
:,•~".!~ (mar'it). See no. 2185c.
1243 n:i9 (mära~1) rub. Occurs in lsa 38:21. M!?".li;(marpe"). See no. 2196c.
"let them take a cake of figs and rub it on iu!?,~ (marpes). See no. 2199a.
the eruption."
1245 *Tj9 (mära,r) be!make sick.
:=n,Q (merhäb). See no. 2143e.
The verb occurs four times in the or. Three of
;,~~~ (merhäq). See no. 2151c.
these (1 Kgs 2:8: Mic 2: 10: Job 6:25) are in the
ritr,,~ (mar/Jeshet). See no. 2152a. Niphal, and mean "to make sick," i.e. "sore" or
"grievous." So, "a grievous curse" q•·liilii nim-
1244 t:1ji; (mära() make smooth!bald, polish. re,ret, in I Kgs 2:8 and "grievous pain" /Jebel
The verb is used fourteen times in the OT in a nimrii,r, in Mic 2:10.
variety of contexts. Three times it refers to the The third passage, Job 6:25, is open to question
tearing out of one·s hair. either the hair on the as to its translation: "how •forcible' are right
crown of the head or the beard. Once, this action words" (KJV). This rendering gives to miira.y an
is indicative of the grief which Ezra feit upon his otherwise unknown meaning. Pope (in AB, Job,
discovery that his fellow Israelites had intermar- pp. 49, 55) translates, "how 'pleasant' are honest
ried with foreigners (Ezr 9:3). Two other times words," perhaps on the suggested relation of
this same action describes not grief but rather an nimr'',rit to 11imt•·,rit (Ps 119:103), "smooth,
act ofviolence (Neh 13:25), something Nehemiah pleasant. · · A third possibility is to read the
did to those who intermarried: and Isa 50:6, "I phrase as a question, "what is there sick in right-
(i.e., the suffering servant) gave my back to the eous words?" (Tur-Sinai) or "how are honest
smiters and my cheeks to them that ·tore· at my words bitter?" (Driver). The advantage of these
beard." In connection with these passages we last two suggestions is that they both retain the
may note the use of the same verb to describe the basic idea of miira,r as something undesirable.
condition of baldness (Lev 13, 40-41) in the con- The fourth use of this root is Job 16:3 (Hiphil):
text of leprosy diagnosis. Ezekiel 29: 18 says that "what ·emboldeneth' thee that you answer?'" or
the heads of thc people of Tyre were "made better JB, "what a plague-you need to have the
bald" by Nebuchadnezzar. This does not mean last word."
he tore out their hair: rather. the baldness was the Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Some Hebrew
result of carrying loads on their heads as corvee Words," JTS 29:390-96, esp. pp. 394-95.
labor gangs. V.P.H.
Besides the passage in Ezk 29: 18. the verb is
used five times more in that book: 21:9 [H 14]: ~i".I~ (mar,$ea'). See no. 2209a.
21:IO [H 15]: 21:11 [H 16]: 21:28 [H 331. Each .ri;i#-:i~(maq·epet). See no. 2210b.
case refers to the Lord's sword which is
"furbished/polished,'" ready to be given into the
1246 ;,j9 (märaq) /, scour, polish.
hands of the slaughterer, the Babylonians, to
execute judgment upon God's people. Derivatives
Finally, this verb is used to describe the ves-
sels of 'burnished' brass put into the Jerusalem 1246a ;,~,9 (mäniq) a scraping, rub-
temple of Solomon (1 Kgs 7:45). lt is employed in hing (Est 2:12).
lsaiah's oracle against Cush. the name of ancient 1246b ;,~"IQl'I (tamrüq) a scraping, rub-
Ethiopia. whose people are pictured (Isa 18:2. 7)
bing(Prov 20:30).
as "tall and bronzed." not "scattered and
peeled" as in KJ\'. 1247 ;,iQ (mrq) II. Assumed root ofthe follow-
V.P.H. ing.
1247a ;,,9 (märäq) juice stewed out of
meat, broth (lud 6: 19: Isa 65:4).
M•~~
(
•i~ (meri). See no. 1242a.
m ,.ri'). See no. 1239a.
:i;•~~ (m''ribii). See no. 2159c. Mi?':il?(merqii/J ). See no. 2215f.
•~•,~ (m''riri). See no. 1248h. .Ml'.'ii?':i~
(mirqa/Jat). See no. 2215h.

527
1248 "1j~ (märar)

1248 "lj~ (märar) /, be bitter, strengthen, be mar. Bitter, strong. Thirty-seven times in the
strong. OT. Most frequently the adjective is used in a
figurative sense, as is the verb, to describe an
Derivatives emotion, though a few examples of mar in a lit-
1248a t-i~ (mar) bitter. eral sense may be found. The Scriptures speak of
1248b "1~ (mör) myrrh. bitter grape clusters (Deut 32:32); bitter water
1248c t:i,i; (morrä) bitterness. (Ex 15:23); food in general (Prov 27:7), which,
1248d t:,,~ (möra) grief. though bitter, is palatable to the hungry (cf. lsa
1248e t-ii-i~ ( mdror) bitterness. 5:20).
1248f t:,-ii-i~ ( m •·röril) bitter thing. Of special interest in the literal category is the
1248g :i;~~ (m''reril) gall (only Job phrase „ water of bitterness" in N um 5: 18-19,
23-24. 27. Combined with dust and ink, and
16: 13)
1248h t-i•-i~ (m •·riri) bitter. hence decidedly unhygienic, it was used in an
1248i tri,,•,~ (m ,.ririil) bitterness. instance of investigation to determine whether a
husband's jealous suspicions of his wife's un-
1248j t-i~~ · '(memer) bitterness.
1248k +,;',~~ (mamrör) bitterness. faithfulness were correct or not. The idea is, of
12481 +,,,~~ (tamrur) bitterness. course, that often consciousness of guilt will pro-
duce somatic symptoms, the principle behind our
The verb märar is used fifteen times, always modern lie detector testing of suspected crimi-
with man as subject, never God, unless the verb nals. This investigation is sometimes called trial
describes an interpretation given by man to by ordeal, but that is not quite accurate. The trial
God's actions and will. For example, Job (and by ordeal, used in antiquity and up to the Middle
this root plus its various derivatives appear more Ages, required the accused to undergo obvious
frequently in Job than in any other oT book [ten physical <langer like walking through fire or being
timesl) complains: The Almighty has vexed my thrown bound into the river. The person who was
soul (27:2), Hiphil of märar. Similarly, Naomi unharmed was presumed innocent. Trial by
says, "Do not call me Naomi, call me 'Mara· for ordeal was common in Assyria, but the 0T used
the Almighty has dealt very bitterly with me" rather the more sensible rules of evidence we are
(Ruth 1:20). accustomed to. The "water of bitterness" is in-
lt is interesting to note that the Hebrews ex- deed more like a lie detector test as suggested
pressed tragic, unpleasant experiences in terms above. Only a woman who was innocent could
of the sense of taste. the bitter. Actually, we em- normally undergo this solemn ceremony without
ploy the same figure of speech in our English breaking down. The further effect, apart from the
language: lt was a galling experience: his actions unhygienic water, was caused by the providence
were not in very good taste, I thought: your wife of God punishing the guilty.
is always so tastefully dressed. As we have indicated, the more frequent use of
For the root marar we suggest not only the mar is a figurative one, to express the emotional
traditional translation „ to be bitter/embitter" but response to a destructive, heart-crushing situa-
also the translation "to be strong/strengthen." tion. Some of these situations are: (1) in the case
The reason for this is that in Ugarftic/Arabic/ of a woman, barrenness and sterility, 1 Sam 1: 10;
Aramaic the root mrr may mean one of "to (2) an unfulfilled death-wish, Job 3:20; (3) family
strengthen. bless, commend." In at least four oT turmoil, Gen 27:34: (4) the exploitation and dep-
passages this seems the preferable translation. rivation of minority peoples, Est 4: 1: (5) personal
Thus, Ex 1: 14 might better read not "they made suffering and hardship, Job 7: 11: 10: 1: lsa 38: 15;
their lives bitter," but "they strengthened their (6) a hostile and precarious situation, Ps 64:3
lives," i.e. the Egyptians. by imposing hard [H 4]; grief over the apostasy of believers, Jer
labor, only toughened the Hebrews. The context 2: 19; (7) the Lord· s judgment on unbelievers,
suggests this. Judges 18:25 refers not to "embit- Zeph 1: 14; (8) discontentment with lacklustre
tered men" but "tough men." Ecclesiastes 7:26 leadership, I Sam 22:2: (9) the thought of death, I
traditionally reads: "I found more bitter than Sam 15:32; (10) the crumbling of dreams and as-
death the woman whose heart is snares and piration, Ezk 27:30, 31.
nets." lt will be observed. however, that the au-
thor is not stressing a woman·s bitterness but her morrä. Bitterness, grie/. Used only in Prov
strength: hence, "I found stronger than death" 14: 10. "Only the heart knows its own grief." The
(cf. Song 8:6). Finally, Ezk 3: 14 reads, "I went in form of the word in Hebrew is unusual, with a
bitterness, in the heat of my spirit." But why dagesh .fc>rtein the resh.
should the prophet be "bitter" especially in light
of what he saw and heard in vv. 12-13') We mörä. Grief (in the sense of disappointmenl).
suggest the translation, "I went forth streng- Only in Gen 26:35, expressing lsaac·s chagrin at
thened by the fervor of my spirit. .. Esau·s decision to marry Hittite women.

528
 1254 :iw~
(mösheh)

maror. Bitterness, bitter herb. According to Ex l'l':;lWr;(maskit). See no. 2257c.

12:8 and Num 9: 11 the bitter herb was tobe eaten r.:,~~r,, (ma.fkörl'I). See no. 2264.1.
on Passover with the passover meal. At first the :i:,~~ (mifra). See no. 2288a.
bitter herbs signified the haste with which the :i~"l~r,,(masrepa). See no. 2292d.
meal was prepared (Ex 12:8) and later Jewish tra-
dition saw in the bitter herb a reminder of the 1251 r.j~r,, (masre() pan, dish (II Sam 13:9).
bitter treatrnent to which the Jews were subjected
in Egypt. Cf. Lam 3: 15. :,i.v~ (mashsha). See no. 1424a.
~iM~r,,(mashshä'<in). See no. 1425a.
m•rörä. Bitter thing, herb, poison(ous). In Job
r.iNi.v~ (mashshä'(JI), See no. 1425b.
20: 14 the word pictorally describes the viper·s :,7~~~(mish'a/ti). See no. 2303b.
venom. Cf. also Deut 32:32: Job 13:26: 20:25.
m•riri. Bitter, bitterness. Deuteronomy 32:24. 1252 r.jM,W~(mish · eret) kneading trough/bowl.
The reading in Job 3:5 is problematical. lnstead Flour would be mixed with water in this
of kaph plus the root märar what we most likely household vessel, mish'eret, which already con-
have is the root kämar II, '"to be dark, .. and tained fermenting dough. They were small
hence the translation, "O 'Eclipse· terrify it (i.e .. enough that they could be wrapped in one·s cloth-
the day of my binh)." ing and transported on the shoulders ( Ex 12:34)
m•rirut. Bitterness. Only in Ezk 21:6 [H 11J. with even the warrnth of the body helping the
process of fermentation. The frogs filled these
memer. Bitterness, grief. Only Prov 17:25, vessels in one of the plagues in Egypt, Ex 8:3 [H
parallel to ka ·as "sorrow ... 7:28]. Cf. also Deut 28:5, 17. The word may be
mamrör. Bitterness. Only in Job 9:18. related tos'' 'iir "leaven ...
V.P.H.
tamrur. Bitterness. The best known verse in
which this word appears is Jer 31: 15 (=Mt 2: 18). r.i:r:;:i~~(mishb''söt). See no. 2320b.
Cf. also Jer 6:26 and Hos 12:14 [H 15]. "\lW~· (mashber), "\l!U~ (mashbär). See
Bibliography: Dahood, M., ··Qoheleth and ~OS.
2321c,d, ' .-
Recent Discoveries, .. Bib 39:302-18, esp. pp. r.;w~ (mishbät). See no. 2323e.
308-10. Gordon, C. H., UT 19: no. 1556. :,piv~ (mish,:eh). See no. 2325b.
Michaelis, W., "Pikros," in TDNT, VI, pp.
122-25. On mör "myrrh": Van Beek, G. W., 1253 :,'f~ (mäsha) draw.
"Frankincense and Myrrh," BA 23:70-95.
This verb appears only three times in the 01.
---, "Frankincense and Myrrh in Ancient
One is in the passage dealing with the giving of
South Arabia," JAOS 78: 141-52.
V.P.H. the name Moses, Ex 2: 10. The other reference is
II Sam 22:17 (and its parallel in Ps 18:16 [H 17]):
"(the Lord) draws me from deep waters ...
1249 "\"\~ (mrr) II. Assurned root of the follow-
ing.
1254 :it;i~ (mösheh) Moses.
1249a ,r,, (mar) drop. Occurs only in
lsa 40:15, goyim k''mar midd''/i The important verse surrounding the naming of
"nations (are) like a drop (hanging) Moses is Ex 2: 10. lt reads: .. She called his name
from a bucket." Moses (mösheh): and she said, because I drew
him ( m •·shitihu) out of the water. .. In Hebrew the
:i,j~ (m''rera). See no. 1248g. proper name "Moses" is a Qal active participle
r.pwj~ (mirsha'at). See no. 22221. (masculine/singular) of the verb masha "to draw
Nf1' (massä'). See nos. 142ld,e. (out), .. and hence is to be translated as "drawer
Ni.vr,,(massö'). See no. 1421f. out" or "he who draws out." Morphologically.
r.~!fr,, (mass•·er). See no. 1421h. the form of the name is what one would expect
::i~if~ (misgäb). See no. 2234a. from a type of verb such as miishii. variously
"lii.vr,,(massör). See no. 1423a. described by Hebrew grammarians as "final
weak," "tertia injirma." "lamed he" and so
1250 :i,1iv~ (m ,. .ü'ira) measure. Derivation forth. Thus, one encounters the verb banii "'to
uncertain. build" and böneh "builder" in the same pattern.
lt should be clear that the etymology given in
iviiv~ (mäsos). See no. 2246b. Ex 2: 10 is not intended to be a precise philologi-
~i,if~ (misl:,äq). See no. 1905f. cal explanation, as is the case with most of the
:,~~ifr,, (mas(ema). See no. 2251a. onomastica of the Old Testament. lf such were
:,~~~ (m''silka). See no. 2241a. the case, we would expect the name given to the
',•::,ifr,,(maski/). See no. 2263b. infant by the daughter of Pharaoh to be, not

529
1255 M~~ (mäsha~)
mosheh "he who draws out,"· but miishüy „ He 1255c tn•w~ (mäshia!1) anointed one.
who is drawn out," i.e., a participle that is pas- 1255d iiiuo~(mimshah) expansion (Ezk
sive in form. -28:14). Meaning uncertain.
This does not mean then that the explanation of The verb mäsha!1 with its derivatives occurs
the name given in Ex is misleading. Nor should
about 140 times. lt is most frequent in the Pen-
we go to the extreme of denying the historicity of tateuch and historical books: in the prophets it is
the event by suggesting that such a story rose as
found as a verb only twice with its religious con-
an etiology of the name. i.e., that the story was notation of sacred anointing (lsa 61: 1: Dan 9:24 ).
fabricated to ans wer someone 's query. "why was miishah could refer in everyday usage to such
our great ancestor called mosheh'?" The answer acts as n:ibbing (mäshalJ) a shield with oil (lsa
is that the name "Moses" is like many others a
21 :5), painting (mäsha!1) a house (Jer 22: 14), or
pun, a word play based on asson~nce. The name
applying (mäslwlJ) oil to the body !~mos 6:6).
is explained not because Moses 1s denved from
Used in connection with rehg1ous ritual.
mäsha but because it resembles it in sound.
miishah involved a ceremonial application of oil
For further clues some have looked to the to item·s such as the tabernacle, altar or laver (Ex
spelling of Moses in the Septuagi_nt. There. the
40:9-11 ), or even the sin offering (Ex 29:36).
Greek form is mörses. Ancient wnters explamed
More frequently mäshalJ is used (or the cere~o-
this as either "sa~ed (yses) from the water (mö)"
nial induction into leadersh1p ofüces, an act1on
or "taken (ses) from the water (möy)."
which involved the pouring of oil from a horn
The consensus today is that "Moses" goes
upon the head of an individual. Easily the most
back to an Egyptian root ms "child," mss "tobe
frequent mention of 111iisha!1is with kings such as
born." ms appears as a personal name in Egyp-
Saul and David of Israel (II Sam 12:7: but note
tian but is better recognized as the second part of Hazael, an Aramaean, I Kgs I9: 15). The high
theophoric names: Ahmose: Ah is born:
priest was anointed (Ex 29:7: Num 3?:25) and s_o
Ptahmose: Ptah is born, taking mose as the Egyp- were other priests (Ex 30:30). Tw1ce there 1s
tian old perfective of the verb mss. This Egyptian
mention of anointing a prophet (1 Kgs 19:16; lsa
root definitely appears in the Bible in the names 61: 1).
"Rameses" (ra'amses. Ex 1: 11) and "Ramses"
There is a fourfold theological significance of
(ra'm" ses, Gen 47:11: Ex 12:37: Num 33:3, 5). In
miishah. First. to anoint an individual or an ob-
Egyptian the form is R'-ms-sw, "Re is he that
ject indicated an authorized separation f<?rG?d'.~
hath borne him," the active participle mas fol- service. Moses anointed Aaron "to sanct1fy h1m
lowed by the pronoun se "him ...
(/'qadd"shö, Lev 8:12: cf. E~ 29:36 for the a!:
Linguistically, the problem is to account for
tar). Note the expression "anomted to the Lord.
the relationship between the sibilants s in Egyp- (1 Chr 29:22). mäshalJ, while representing a pos1-
tian and sh in Hebrew. The problem is removed
tion of honor. also represents increased respon-
by the demonstration that Egyptian_ ~ritings ?f sibility. Both Saul and David are called to ac-
Semitic names show mostly s for Sem11Icsh (Gnf- count for their sin with the reminder, "I (the
fiths, pp. 229-30).
Lord) anointed (miishalJ) you king" (1 Sam
Bibliography: Cassuto, U., A Commentary
15:17: II Sam 12:7). Secondly, though the agent
on the Book of Exodus, Jerusalem: Magnes
might be the priest or prophet, writers spe~k of
Press, 1967, pp. 20-21. Cole, R., "Exodus," in
anointed ones as those whom the Lord anomted
Tvndale O.T. Commentaries, Inter-Varsity,
(e.g. I Sam 10:1: II Sam 12:7). Such lang~age
1973, pp. 58-59. Gardiner, A., "The Egyptian
underscores that it is God who is the authonzmg
Origin of Some English Personal Names, .. JAOS
agent: that the anointed is inviolable (I Sam
56: 189-97 ,esp. pp. 192-94. Griffiths, J. G., 'The
24:8ff.): and that the anointed one is tobe held m
Egyptian Derivation of the Name Moses," JNES
special regard (cf. I Sam 26:9ff.). Thirdly, one
12: 225-31. TDNT, IV, pp. 848-64.
may infer that divine enablement was understood
V.P.H.
as accompanying miishalJ. Of bot~ Sau~ and
David it is said in connection with their anomtmg
:,w~(mashsheh). See no. 1427b.
that "the Spirit ofGod came mightily upon him"
:,14;°0~
(m''shci'a). See no. 2339b.
:,;1~~ (m"shüba). See no. 2340e.
(1 Sam 10:6ff: I Sam 16:13ff.). Finally, in the form
miishiah miishah was associated with the com-
:,J1~~ (m' shüga). See no. 2341a.
ing pro~ised deiiverer, Jesus. Though this as-
=\wi;' (mäshci(). See no. 2344e. sociation with the term mäshalJ is not as preva-
lent in the OT as often supposed. the prospect of a
1255 nwi; (mäshalJ) anoint, spread a liquid.
righteous, Spirit-filled ruler is increasingly dis-
Derivatives cernible in the oT (cf. lsa 9: 1-7: 11:1-5: 61: 1).
1255a tnr;t~~ (mish/Ja) anointing oil. mashiati. Anointed, anointed one (ASV and RSV
1255b t:,r;i~i; (moshlJa) portion. similar). This word used as adjective and noun

530
 1255 n~~ (masha!J)
occurs about forty times in the 01, primarily in some psalms and other prophetic passages which
I-Il Sam and Ps. While it may designate an office can not refer to Jsrael's king or some contempo-
such as the high priest (Lev 4:3 ), mäshia~1 is al- rary situation, but must refer to Christ directly.
most exclusively reserved as a synonym for Thus the royal psalm 45:6 [H 7] by natural and
'"king" (melek, q. v .) as in poetry where it is in strict translation speaks of the king as divine and
parallel position with king (l Sam 2: 10: II Sam Ps 110:1-5 [H 2-6] refers to David's son as
22:51: cf. Ps 2:2: 18:50 [H 511; but cf. Ps 28:8 David"s Lord-and also says that this king is a
where "people" is a counterpart term). Striking priest, a thing not allowed in Israel. (True, II Sam
are the phrases '"the Lord's anointed" (mäshia/J 8: 18 seems to call David's sons priests in the He-
YHWH) or equivalents such as '"his anointed" brew, but there probably is a textual problem
referring to kings. Certainly a title of honor, the here. The Hebrew strictly seems to call Benaiah
expressions also emphasize the special relation- and the Cherethites priests. Actually, the LXX of
ship between God and the anointed. this verse and the Hebrew and LXX of the parallel
A much discussed point is the mention of in I Chr 18:17 do not use the word '"priest.")
Cyrus, a non-lsraelite, as the Lord's anointed There is warrant, therefore, for a direct messianic
(/imshi/Jo, Isa 45: 1). If mäshialJ is envisioned as reference on Ps 2. lndeed, v. 12 as normally
an ideal king, godly and upright, then the designa- taken would imply that men are exhorted to put
tion of '"anointed· · causes difficulty, for Cyrus their faith in this anointed son-surely not David.
was a worshiper of Marduk and other pagan lt is true, however, that the coming Son of
deities. Yet Cyrus was the Lord's appointee for a David is seldom called Messiah in the oT, but see
definite task. The Isaiah passage suggests that below. Many other designations are used
mäshia/J be understood as one singled out or (Branch, Shoot, Son of David, etc.). Even in the
'"chosen" (bü/Jar q.v.) for a task, characteristi- oss the use of the word „ Messiah" is ambiguous.
cally one of deliverance-a deliverance of Israel There is mention of a Messiah of Aaron and a
from their Babylonian captors returning them to Messiah of Israel, apparently two figures, a king
their homeland. and ·a priest, perhaps neither one the Messiah.
As for the king, that task centered on a righ- But also in the oss there is expressed in the Tes-
teous rule in the context of grace included in timonia and the Florilegium the hope of a coming
which was deliverance from oppression. Saul, great Figure not identified with their leader, the
the first king, in his first major encounter teacher of righteousness, nor called Messiah (ex-
exemplified the qualities of a mashialJ (1 Sam 11). cept once in the quotation of Ps 2:2), but called
He was Spirit-endowed, brought victory over the Scion of David, etc. (T. H. Gaster, The Dead
the enemy Amalekites, and extended life to a Sea Scriptures, rev. ed., Doubleday, 1964, pp.
group who, because of their action, deserved 297, 329, 334-39). The extensive use of the term
death (l Sam 11). Because of Saul's sin and gen- Messiah (Christ) as a title of the coming great
eral stance before God, it is David who becomes Son of David is primarily a NT phenomenon.
the archetype of the mäshia/J. R.L.H.j
The Psalm literature especially regards Not all who agree that the mashialJ is a refer-
mäshialJ as God's agent or vice-regent (as in Ps ence to Christ in Dan 9:26, also interpret
2:2). In this much discussed passage the first mäshialJ in the same manner in Dan 9:25, where
level of meaning may be that of an immediate the description is of a prince. lt should be
Israelite king, as the mäshia/J against whom, stressed, however, that the oT did employ the
since he is aligned with God, enemies strike in term mashia/J to designate the coming Savior,
vain. Even the promise that the ends of the earth Jesus.
be the possession of the mäshia/J fit the anticipa- The repeated claim that mäshia/J in the 0T
tions of Israel for their national king (Ps 72:8ff; Ps never refers to an eschatological figure, the Mes-
18:44--48). But from the NT we learn that the siah, hinges also for its validity on the interpreta-
meaning of mäshia/J in Ps 2 cannot be limited to a tion of Dan 9:26. While some hold that the
king about tobe enthroned, but is a reference to anointed one (müshia/J) '"who is to be cut off''
the unique vice-regent, Jesus Christ (Acts was Onias III (deposed as high priest 175 s.c.),
13:32ff; cf. Heb 1:5: 5:5). The so-called royal there is strong warrant on the basis of the context
psalms, including Ps 2 therefore, may be re- (v. 24) to regard the mäshia/J as none other than
garded legitimately as messianic, even though Jesus Christ.
some may refer initially to lsrael's monarch. The
Psalm statements underline the just administra- mishtiä. Anointing oil,· anointmenl. (ASV and
tion, the saving function and the universal rule of Rsv similar.)
Jesus Christ. Found only in Ex, Lev, and Num, mish/Jii re-
[This view of double reference or a typical ful- fers to the oil used in ritual anointing. The oil,
filment is doubtless applicable in some oT pas- prepared according to prescription (Ex 30:22ff.),
sages. lt is widely held, however, that there are was sprinkled (näzii) on officials and their gar-

531
1256 '~~ (meshf)

ments (Ex 29:21) but poured, yä!faq, on the head The following meanings are attached to the
of the high priest (Ex 29:7: cf. Lev 8: 10-12). verb mäshak in the Qal: (1) To draw in the sense
Described as holy, its application to tabemacle of ··to raise" (Gen 37:28, "They drew. and lifted
and its fumishings sanctified (qiddesh) these. ('äla) up Joseph from the pit." Jeremiah 38:13.
Priests who were anointed were restricted in ac- "So, they hauled up Jeremiah with ropes,'' again
tivity (Lev 21: 12: cf. Lev 10:7). The setting apart parallel to 'älii. (2) To draw in the sense of "to
of men and things to God's service is better un- extend, .. Ps 36: 10 [H 11]: 85:5 [H 6] have already
derstood and appreciated through the tangible been noted. Cf. also Ps 109: 12 and Jer 3 I :3, .. For
symbol in this instance. a fragrant oil. you have I prolonged kindness." (3) To draw in
the sense of "to draw in, associate with": Ps
mosh!tä. Portion. Apart of some offerings (i.e.
28:3, "Do not rank me with the wicked": Hos
peace offering, Lev 7:28-35) was reserved as
7:5, "He stretched out his hand (mäshak yiido)
a consecrated portion (mvsh~zii) to the priest.
with scomers" possibly means, "He associated
ASV, focusing on the priest renders / 1• mvsh~zii "by
with scoffers ... (See Gordon, UT 19: no. 1582 for
reason of the anointing·· (Num 18:8).
the phrase yd mlkt.) (4) To draw in the sense of
Bibliography: Ellison, H. L.. The Centrality
"to entice, allure, woo": Job 24:22, "He lures
of the Messianic ldea for the OT, 1953. Harris,
the mighty with his power··; perhaps also Job
R. L. "Psalms" in The Biblical Expvsitvr ed.
21 :33, "After him (the deceased) all men will fol-
C. F. H. Henry, Holman, 1973, pp. 435-452. J.
low ,' · if the phrase means that the surviving will
Jocz, "Messiah" ZPEB IV pp. 198-207. Payne,
seek consciously to imitate the deceased's life
J. B., The Theology of The O/der Testament,
style, rather than simply a reference to a funeral
Zondervan, 1962, pp. 257-84. Richardson, TWB,
pp. 44-45. TDNT, IX, pp. 496--527. procession. lnto this category we could also
place Hos 11:4, "I drew them with cords of a
V.P.H.
man": Jud 4:7, and at the level of human love,
Song I :4. (5) To draw in the sense of to draw on a
ii,~~ (mishf:zär). See no. 2369b.
weapon, a bow especially. I Kgs 22:34: II Chr
l'1'1'.l!f7;
(mashf:zit). See no. 2370a.
18:33: lsa 66: 19: or blow extensively on a musical
rir.wr; (mashf:zet), rir:it;f~(mishf:zat). See
instrument, a trumpet: Ex 19:13: Josh 6:5. (6) To
nos. 2370b,c.
i,i~W~ (mish{oa~1). See no. 2372b. draw in the sense of"seize" or "drag away": Ps
10:9 (possibly): Job 41: 1 [H 40:25]. Tur-Sinai in
r.~t(f~(mishtä/:z). See no. 2372a.
his commentary on Job, in a footnote on p. 335
,~t;f~ (mish{är). See no. 2374b.
says that "nowhere in the Bible does mäshak
1256 •w~ (meshi) a costly material/or garment,
= ·ctraw· but always like Arabic maska "to take
perhaps silk (Ezk 16:13). hold of, to snatch." The statement is highly de-
batable. (7) To draw, simply as a synonym for
"go/march" Jud 4:6, or "take" (Ex 12:21). (8)
r:i•w~(mäshia~1). See no. 1255c.
Finally we may note the phrase in Eccl 2:3, "I
sought in my heart ·to draw· (/imshok) my flesh
1257 '!!W~ (mäshak) draw, drag, seize.
with wine." The usual interpretation of this is
Derivatives seen in the rendering ofthis by the JB, ··1 resolved
to have my body cheered with wine ... Appeal.
1257a 'h!W~(meshek) a drawing.
however, for this translation can only be made to
1257b r,~~~ (mosheket) cord. Occurs
a passage in the Babylonian Talmud, Hagigah
Önly in Job 38:3 I, möshköt k' sil
14a, h'ly 'gdh mwskyn lbw s/ 'dm kmym, "mas-
"the cords of Orion."
ters of the Aggada (homiletic discourse) refresh
The verb appears thirty-six times in the OT with the heart of men Iike water."
a variety of nuances attached to it.
All but six instances of the verb are in the Qal meshek. A drawing, bag, pouch, price. This
stem. Three times the Niphal is used (lsa 13:22: segholate noun occurs only twice. (1) Job 28:18:
Ezk 12:25, 28) all with the meaning "prolonged." "The ·price' (or ·acquisition' according to Tur-
This is not, however, a distinctive use in the Sinai) of wisdom surpasses rubies ... (2) Ps 126:6:
Niphal. Thus, Ps 85:5 [H 6], "Will you prolong "He that goeth forth and beareth ·precious·
your anger to all generations?" and Ps 36:10 seed" (KJV). Though this is a time honored and
[H l lJ, "Continue your loving kindness unto traditional translation. a more preferable and
them that know you" (both in the Qal stem). Cf. exact one is, "though he went forth weeping,
Neh 9:30. Also, there are three uses of the Pual bearing/carrying a 'bag' of seed (nöse' meshek
(lsa 18:2, 7, "scattered" (KJV) and parallel to hazzära')." This Hebrew phrase can be con-
mära{, in KJV "peeled,'' but better "tall and nected with Arnos 9: 13, " ... the treader of
bronzed"): also, Prov 13:12, "Hope 'deferred' grapes shall overtake the strewer of seed
makes the heart sick ... (möshek ha;:.zära')." meshek. then, would be the

532
 1258 *',W7t
(mashal)

seed container carried by the sower. In several mäshäl. Proverb, parable, allegory, byword,
related languages the word mshk means "skin, taunt, discourse. Of great interest is the wide
leather,'' perhaps the substance from which such number of translations for this word in most En-
a pouch would be made. Gordis (see Bibliog- glish translations of the Old Testament. The sub-
raphy) translates the phrase in Ps 10:9 bmshkw, stantive appears thirty-nine times (eight times in
not "he catches the poor 'when he draws him · Ezk).
into his net'' but. "he catches the poor in his bag To translate mäshiil simply as „ proverb „
(h''mashkö)" parallel to reshet "net. trap." misses the wide sweep of the word. suggested by
Bibliography: Gordis, R .. "Psalm 9-10: A the many suggested translations. We are accus-
Textual and Exegetical Study," JQR 48: 104-22, tomed to think of a proverb as a short. pithy,
esp. pp. 116-117. On mäshak in Eccl 2:3, Corre, epigrammatic saying which assumes the status of
A. D., .. A Reference to Epispasm in Koheleth," gnomic truth. In the Old Testament, however,
VT 4:416-18. vs. Driver, G. R., ··Problemsand the word mäshiil may be synonymous with an
Solutions," VT 4:225--45, esp. pp. 225-26. On extended parable (and hence the frequent 1.xx
mesek, Köhler. L., "Hebräische Vokabeln II," translation parabole) (Ezk 17:2 and vv. 2-24:
ZAW 55:161-74, esp. pp. 161--62. 20:49 [H 21:51 and vv. 45--49 [H 21:1-51: 24:3 and
V.P.H. vv. 3-14). lt may refer to an extended didactic
discourse (Prov 1:8-19 for example). A person
(Saul, I Sam 10:12; Job. Job 17:6) or a group of
::i~t;:~(mishkäb). See no. 2381c. persons (Israel, Ps 44:14 [H 15]. may function as
ri,;,w~ (m'shakke/et). See no. 2385e.
a miishiil.
liW~.(mishkiin). See no. 2387c. In this last connection notice the verse in I Sam
ri;i~~ (mösheket). See no. 1257b.
10:12, "So the saying, ·ts Saul also among the
prophets?' became a proverb. ·· What is involved
here is the creation of a public example, in this
1258 *'?W7?(miisha/) I, represent, be like.
case the example of one, a royal figure, whose
Derivatives public antics were questionable. The "proverb"
1258a t',~;7? (mäshiil) proverb. would then be applicable to anyone charged with
1258b t'?W)? (mäsha/) II, speak in a prov-
unorthodox behavior.
In a similar vein. note passages which translate
erb.
mäshiil as "byword": Ps 44:14 [H 15]; 69:11
1258c t',W~ (möshel) I, like(ness).
[H 12]: Jer 24:9: Ezk 14:8: Deut 28:37; I Kgs 9:7:
1258d t',.!07?(m"shö/) byword.
II Chr 7:20: Job 17:6. In each of these verses
The verb occurs seven times. five times in the some kind of doom has, or will, come upon Israel
Niphal (Ps 28: 1: 49: 12, 20 [H 13. 21 !: 143:7; lsa or an individual. The result? God has made Israel
14:10). lnevitably the meaning is "to become a miishiil among the nations. Job has become a
like. to be comparable to ... The root appears miishiil to his counselors and acquaintances.
once in the Hi phil (lsa 46:5 parallel to däma) What can this mean? Much more is involved than
again with the meaning "to compare." and once simply scorn or derision. The point is that God
in the Hithpael (Job 30: 19) with similar force in has made Israel/Job a public example, an object
the translation. Iesson to their respective contemporaries.
In all of the above passages the two objects „ Look. observe, and see your own life und er my
compared assume a contrast that is in its nuance judgment, .. the Lord says.
derogatory and belittling. Thus. "I have become Analogous to these are the three times
Iike those who go down to the pit'' (Ps 28: 1). "To prophets are told to lift a miishiil. lsaiah against
whom will you liken me and make me equal?" the king of Babylon (lsa l4:4f.): Micah against his
(Isa 46:5). "I have become like dust and ashes" own people (Mic 2:4) and similarly Habakkuk
(Job 30: 19). (Hab 2:6). One might also add the passages in the
Exactly what the relationship, if any. of mii- Balaam narratives, .. And Balaam took up his
shal "to be like" to mäshal "to rule" is not miishiil (KJV discourse)" (Num 23:7, 18; 24:3, 15,
clear. As for cognate evidence it is sufficient to 20. 21. 23). In each of these instances there is an
note that the translation "to rule" is unique to object lesson painted. The haughty are humbled.
Hebrew, but the translation "to be like „ is com- Those to be cursed are blessed and vice versa.
mon in most Semitic languages. lt has been The first are last.
suggested that the Hebrew translation "to rule" A. S. Herbert has weil stated that in the Old
evolved from the mentality involved in the idea of Testament the "proverb"/miis/iii/ had "a clearly
sympathetic magic: that is. that symbolic action recognizable purpose: that of quickening an ap-
(here, ruling action) resembles the effects it prehension of the real as distinct from the wished
hopes to reproduce (Godbey). This association for ... of compelling the hearer or reader to form
has generally been discredited. a judgment on himself. his situation or his con-

533
1259 ,w~(mäshal)
duct ... This usage ... comes to its finest ex- that he had" (Gen 24:2). Direction of affairs of a
pression in the Parables of Jesus" (Herbert, !arge family as "firstborn-designate" is indicated
p. 196). by Joseph ·s version of the sheaves-at least so
his angry brothers interpreted the vision: .. Shalt
mäshal II. To speak in a proverb, prov-
thou indeed reign over us" (Gen 37:8). miishal is
erbialize. All of the examples of this verb are in
used of Joseph· s administration of Egypt as
the Qal stem (nine times) except for one use of
Pharaoh's prime minister. So Joseph claimed he
the root in the Pie!, Ezk 21:5, "Is he not a maker
had been made "a ruler throughout all the land of
of parables?"" (m"mashshel m"sh<ilim). Or, in
Egypt" (Gen 45:8); and his brothers agreed, "he
modern idiom, "He's always preaching."
is governor over all the. land of Egypt" (Gen
möshel. Like(ness). The noun occurs one time 45:26). The word occurs only once in Ex and
in the Old Testament, Job 41:33 [H 25]. "Upon there of the rule of law [very significant] over
earth there is not his like (the crocodile) ... citizens of the Mosaic, lsraelite civil common-
m"shöl. Byword. This is used only once, Job wealth "to seil her he shall have no power" (Ex
21 :8). The word is not in Lev or Num, but in Deut
17:6 and, in form, is the infinitive construct of the
verb m.fhal II. 15:6 · Moses asserts that the nation Israel shall
reign over other nations, under certain condi-
Bibliography: Godbey, A. H., "The Hebrew
Mä.Ml, .. AJSL 34:89--108. Herbert, A. S., "The
tions-some sort of national subservience to a
"Parable' (MÄSÄL) In the Old Testament," SJT superior nation-and twice he uses m<isha/, once
Qal perfect and once Qal imperfect. Context
7:180--96. Johnson, A. R., "''fl?" VTS3:l62-69.
seems to mean that the rulership is in being the
McKane, W., Prm·erbs. Westminster. 1970, pp.
lending nation rather than the borrowing one.
22-33.
Other instances, chosen somewhat at random,
V.P.H.
show that the supremacy ofrich people over poor
1259 ,wl?(m<ishal) III, rule, have dominion,
ones (Prov 22:7), of a fierce king over oppressed
people (lsa 19:4), oppressive rule of one people
reign.
over another (Jud 14:4: 15:11), leadership of a
Derivatives league or alliance of nations (1 Kgs 4:~21), the
rule of God in providence (Ps 89: 10 [H 91). and
1259a t',wc (möshel) II, dominion.
even the power of self-control (Prov 16:32) are
1259b 'WI?~ (mimshäl) dominion.
covered by the meaning of this word.
1259c t:,7!f~~ (memshälil) rule, realm,
There is no specific theology tobe drawn from
dominion.
the meaning of the word. Yet the passages cited
m<ishal occurs about eighty times in Qal, three and the seventy or so others not cited demon-
times in Hiphil. strate the importance of the principle of author-
mäshal usually receives the translation "to ity, the absolute moral necessity of respect for
rule," but the precise nature ofthe rule is as vari- proper authority, the value of it for orderly soci-
ous as the real situations in which the action or ety and happy living and the origin of all authority
state so designated occur. lt seems tobe the situ- in God, himself. Authority is of many degrees
ation in all languages and cultures that words for and kinds. lt has various theoretical bases. lt
oversight, rule, government must be defined in originales in God. Man has no authority at all as
relation to the situation out of which the function man but simply as God's viceregent.
arises.
möshel. Dominion. Derived frorn mäshal, like
This will be illustrated by examining in order
the first several appearances of mashal in the that word it is not always clear when sphere, geo-
graphical area of rule, is indicated and when the
Bible. The sun and moon are said "to rule over
the day and over the night" (Gen 1:18). They are bare fact of authority, sovereignty. lt appears
only twice, viz., Zech 9: I0, apparently in the
merely the most prominent luminaries over day
sense of geographical area (' ·sea to sea ... River
and night. Eve, standing for all wives, was given
to the ends of the earth ") and Dan 11:4 appar-
to understand that in the home the husband
ently in the sense of sovereignty ("dorninion
"shall rule over thee" (Gen 3: 16). Such leader-
wherewith he ruled"). Controversies about Mes-
ship as is appropriate-and it varies greatly-for
siah's predicted reign, whether referring to bare
a man to give his family is meant. Cain was told
fact of rule (sovereignty) or geographical area
by God that he ought to master sin in his life, · · Do
(sphere) will not be settled by the bare meaning of
thou rule over him" (Gen 4:7). Management over
this and cognate nouns and verbs.
all the material goods of a master, as his steward,
and management of all the personnel of the en- memshälä. Rule, realm, dominion. Though
terprise is indicated in the case of Abraham ·s used of God · s rule (sovereignty, Ps 145:13) and
"servant'' (EliezerofDamascus? Gen 15:2): "his realm of rule (Ps 103:22), also of man's rule
eldest servant of his house, that ruled over all (might, II Chr 32:9: sovereignty. govemrnent, lsa

534
 1263 rir; (mat)

22:21: Mic 4:8), there is no case where it is out- translate "the possessor of the goblet of my
rightly used of Messiah's memshälti. Four of the house" (Gordon).
seventeen occurrences relate to the prevalence of Bibliography: Eissfeldt, "The Alphabetic
the sun·s light by day and ofthe moon's by night Cuneiform Texts from Ras Shamra Published in
(Gen 1:16: Ps 136:8, 9). A theology of the king- ·Le Palais Royal D'Ugarit' Vol. II, 1957," JSS
dom of God, .. so earnestly sought from this word 5: 1-49, esp. pp. 48-40. Gordon, C. H., "Damas-
and others like it in form and meaning, apparently cus in Assyrian Sources," IEQ 2: 174-75. Snij-
cannot be derived from this quarter. ders, L. A., "Genesis xv-The Covenant with
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 930-32. Abraham," OTS·l2:261-79.
R.D.C.
i''i? (mashshäq). See no. 2460a.
r,7t;1~ (mishlaf:, ). See no. 2394d. Mi'Wi?(mashqeh). See no. 2452c.
t'!i,t;i~ (mishloaf:,). See no. 2394e. ',i;,~~ (mishqci/). See no. 2454b.
r,l'.!7~~(mishla~wt). See no. 2394f. 11i;,~7; (mashqop ). See no. 2458c.
MtpW~(m"shamma). See no. 2409f. ,~t;i-~ (mishqü/). See no. 2454c.
ir;~~ (mishmän), it;t;il',i(mashmän). See l'l':'btUr,,
(mishqe/et). See no. 2454d.
nos. 2410e,f. !J&~~ (mishqä' ). See no. 2456a.
lJ~tU~ (mishmä'). See no. 2412f. :i,~r,, (mishra). See no. 2464a.
l'l~~td~ (mishma'al). See no. 2412g.
"l~tU~ (mishmär). See no. 2414f. 1262 tUWt;.(mäshash) feel.
l'\~~t;,i~ (mishmeret). See no. 2414g.
:i,w~ (mishneh). See no. 2421c. The verbis used twelve times in the 01, three
:i;,i;i~ (m' shi.mi). See no. 2426a. times in the Qal (Gen 27: 12, 21, 22), lsaac·s "feel-
ing" of Jacob for purposes of identification. In
the Piel it appears six times with either the mean-
1260 l)tll~(msh'). Assumed root of the follow- ing "to grope" (Deut 28:29 [2 times!: Job 5: 14:
ing. 12:25) or "to search" (Gen 31:34, 37). Three
1260a 'VW~ (mish'i) cleansing. Occurs times the verb is used in the Hiphil with the basic
only in Ezk 16:4, "you were not meaning of "to feer· (Ex 10:21: Jud 16:26).
washed for cleansing. ·· Bibliography: Rüger. H. P., "Zum Text von
Sir 40, 10 und Ex 10, 21," ZAW 82:102-9.
',i!JtU~ (mish'ö/). See no. 2432b.
'VW~ (mish'i). See no. 1260a. :ii;,~r,, (mishteh). See no. 2477c.
W~~ (mish'än), W~i? (mash'en). See
nos. 2434a,b.
l'\)11tU~ (mish'enel). See no. 2434d. 1263 l'li? (mal) man.
:,r,i::i:i~ (mishpäha). See no. 2442b. One of the five words in Biblical Hebrew for
~~~~• (mishpän". See no. 2443c. ··man, .. the other four being 'ädäm. 'ish, 'envsh,
Q•!j~W~ (mishp"tayim ). See no. 244 lc. and geher. There seems to be no particular
nuance attached to this word as there is to some
of its synonyms, for example, 'ädäm "earth-
1261 i'lU~ (mshq). Assumed root of the follow-
ling": geber "hero." Jsaiah 3:25 uses mat paral-
ing.
lel with geher. Deuteronomy 2:34 and 3:6 distin-
1261a +;,w~ (mesheq) acquisition.
guish mat from the näshim "women" and tap
1261b ,,t~~ (mimshäq) possession. Oc-
"children" all of whom were placed under the
curs only in Zeph 2:9, mimshaq
ban by the lsraelites in the latter·s conquest of
f:,ärül"a place possessed by weeds ...
Sihon·s and Og's kingdoms.
mesheq. Acquisition, possession. ( Both transla- The substantive appears twenty-three times in
tions are conjectural.) The word appears only in the OT, most often in Deut and Job (six times
the difficult verse 15:2, "and the 'heir' is Eliezer each). The root is known both from Ugaritic and
of Damascus" (K.1v).The translation "heir" is Phoenician where the root mt means "lord, mas-
based on the hypothesis that the phrase ben- ter." The translation "lord, master" is not found
mesheq is "the son of acquisition," i.e. heir to- in Biblical Hebrew, but may possibly be
gether, with the refcrence in v. 3 to the "son of documented in non-Biblical Hebrew (Yadin). Of
my house" (likely Eliezer) as his heir. Another the twenty-three occurrences of the root in the
possibility is to connect mesheq with the verb Bible it is not impossible that some of them may
shäqaq "to rush." and translate "the attacker of be, in fact, derived from the verb müt "to die."
my house" (Snijders). Still a third possibility is to So Pope (Job in AB) reads Job 24: 12 "from the
relate mesheq to the verb shäqti ··10 drink" and city the dying groan" instead of the traditional

535
1264 „r,~ (mtg)

"from out of the city men groan ... The emenda- ,-,;:,r;(mätöq). See no. 1268c.
tion is from m''tim to melim. The second halfof
the verse would seem to support this, "the gasp 1265 r.r,i; (mä1af1) spread out. Occurs only in
of wounded cry out.··
lsa 40:22. 11·ayyimtä!u"m "and he spread
In the Bible the most interesting uses of mal them out.··
are those in which it is fossilized in expressions
like m''le mispär ··few" andin personal names Derivative
such as ··Methushael" (Gen 4:18) and ··Methu- 1265a Mljl;l~~ ('amtaf;al) sack (Gen 42-44).
selah" (Gen 5:21-22. 25-27).
The use of m ,.1e mispär "few ... is the most
prevalent use of mal. lt describes the minimal 1266 •r,~ (mätay) when.
fighting force available to Jacob (Gen 34:30) and
to Reuben his firstborn (Deut 33:6). The phrase This interrogative particle appears forty-three
times in the oT. most frequently in Ps (thirteen
may also refer to the sparse number of Hebrews
in Egypt before the Exodus (Deut 26:5: Ps times) and Jer (seven times). Twenty-one times it
105:12=1 Chr 16:19). Or. it describes a remnant follows the preposition 'ad to form the expres-
sion 'ad mälay "until when" or "how long'!"
of Jews that escape catastrophe (Deut 4:27:
28:62: Jer 44:28). How the phrase m''le mispär Such a construction is similar to the Hebrew 'ad
'än(ii) also meaning "how long'J" In a few in-
comes to mean "few" is obvious. lt means liter-
ally, ··men of number," i.e. numerable, as op- stances matay appears in a simple question ask-
posed to innumerable. and therefore "few ... ing for an answer with information: Ex 8:5: Neh
The translation ofthe name ofthe Bibte·s elder 2:6: Dan 8:13: 12:6. Preponderantly. however.
the word (or phrase) is used in a rhetorical ques-
statesman, Methuselah, seems straightforward,
"man of the spear/weapon" composed of the two tion urging appropriate action by the addressee:
(1 l by God himself, I Sam 16:1: Ps 82:2: (2) by
Hebrew words, mal "man" and shela!1, "wea-
pon" (and comparing the second element with man addressed to God, Ps 6:3 IH 41: 42:2 IH 31:
the Hebrew name Shelah in Gen 19:24: 11:14: 74:IO: 82:2: 90:13: 94:3: 101:2: 119:82, 84: (3) by
I Chr 1: 18). lt has been suggested (Tsevat) that man to his fellow man. Gen 30:30: I Kgs 18:21,
shela!1 has nothing to do with "spear" or any inter alia. Comparable in the NT is the phrase
heös pote (Mt 17:17: Jn 10:24: Rev 6:10).
other weapon but that this represents a divine
Bibliography: Jenni, E .. "mätay" in THAT.
name shala!1, the god of the infernal river of the
1, 933-36.
Canaanite population of Palestine and Phoenicia.
Thus Methuselah means "man of Shalal;i... Noth-
ing, however. militates against the traditional MJ:IM~ (matkiinef). See no. 251 lc.
translation. Mf1Jir."~ (m''ta/l'"öt). See no. 2516d.
Finally. we may note that the Hebrew mal de- Cl'!~ (m''t(im). See no. 2522e.
scribes disreputable or disadvantaged men. Thus.
lsa 41:14 says, "Fear not you worm Jacob and
1267 iM~ (mtn). Assumed root ofthe following.
you men of Israel. .. The latter part of this verse is
1267a tc•;:ii; (motnayim) loins, hips.
rendered by JB, "Israel. puny mite ... In Ps 26:4
the Psalmist expresses his dissociation from The word appears forty-seven tirnes in the
m'te-shäw'' "vain persons" KJV, (also Job 11:11). Bible with perhaps one instance of its use in ques-
Similarly, Job 22: 15 refers to m''le- ·awen "wicked tion (see the discussion below on Prov 30:31).
men. · · On the other hand, Job 19:19 refers to · · the Dahood (in AB. Psalms 1. p. 267) changes the
men of my secret" who have forsaken Job. The word division (and the vocalization) ofthe phrase
phrase "men ofmy secrer· means something like in Ps 44:19 IH 20]), him'qbm tannim "in the
"bosom friends ... Job (31:31) refers to the „ men place of the monsters/dragons" to b''möq mot-
of my tent" whom he had befriended. nayim, and translates the verse. "tho · you
Bibliography: Gordon, C. H., "The Authen- crushed us with festering of the loins and covered
ticity of the Phoenician Text from Parahyba, .. us with total darkness ... Like other words in He-
Orientalia 37:75-80, esp. p. 76. idem., UT 19: no. brew for parts of the body molnayim is dual in
1569. Tsevat. M .. "The Canaanite God Sälah." form. Compare similarly. ·v~nayim "ears, ..
VT 4:41-49. Yadin, Y., "A Hebrew Seal from yädayim "hands, .. raglayim "feet ... f;alä~ayim
Tell Jemneh ... Eret~-Jsrael 6:53-55. "loins" (parallel to motnayim in Isa 11:5).
V.P.H. Generally speaking, we may say that mot-
nayim, used in a purely physical or anatomical
1;1:~ (matben). See no. 2493a. sense, refers to the hips or lower part ofthe back,
i. e. the middle of the bod y. Some (see Held in
1264 JM~ (mt{?). Assumed root ofthe following. Bibliography) have objected to the translation
1264a Jr,'?(mete{?) bridle. "loins." Held argues for something like "ten-

536
 1268 i'%'1~(mätöq)

dons·· or "sinews" and says that Hebrew Proverbs 30:30-31 mentions in order (accord-
1110t11ayi111"refers to the strong musculature link- ing to KJv) the lion. greyhound. he-goat, a king.
ing the upper part of the body with the lower part The second one. greyhound. in Hebrew is :.ar~ir
and not· Loins· as such." For support of this note motnayim. literally "girt at the loins." Most
that in Job 40:16 h'motnäw "in his loins" is modern commentators prefer the identification
parallel to hishrin; bi/111i"in the muscles of his "cock ...
stomach" (not "in the navel of his belly" as in Bibliography: Held. M.. .. Studies in Com-
KJV).We also know that Akkadian mat1111means parative Semitic Lexicography ... in Studics in
"bowstring" and in Ugaritic 111111 was used in Honor of Be11110Landsherier On His Sc1·1•111y-
making composite bows. and thus a very strong fijih Birthdm·, University of Chicago. 1965. pp.
material. So then. the Ugaritic phrase mt11m 395-06, esp. p. 405. On Prov 30:31, Bewer. J. A„
h'qht ermeans ··tendons of the hoofs of a bull. ·· · 'Two Suggestions on Prov. 30:3 1 and Zech.
In a very few, if any, places is motnayi111 a 9:16:· JBL 67:61--62. McKane, W„ Proverbs.
symbol of the generative organs of mankind. and Westminster, 1970. pp. 260. 663--M.
hence a description of one·s descendants. (But V.P.H.
possibly so in Job 40: 16.) Thus. in the phrase in
Gen 35:11. ··And kings shall come out of thy
loins" the word used is bäläs (also I Kgs 8: 10; lf,~ ). See no. 1443b.
(111a11ä11
II Chr 6:9). Another word used 10 refer to the
"loins" as a seat of procreative power is _,·ärl'f.;. c•;i:,~ (motnayim). See no. 1267a.
"Which came out of the loins (,·arl'f.:) of Jacob"
(Gen 46:26: also Ex 1:5: Jud 8:30). But to repeat. 1268 ;,r,~ (mätöq) be sweet.
motnayim is not employed in such a context.
Primarily mot11ayi111is used simply to indicate Derivatives
the middle of the body. Ezkiel (47:4) saw the 1268a ;,m.,(mcteq) sweetness (Prov 16:
stream flowing from the temple rise. first of all. as 21: 27:9).
high as his knees. then as high as motnayim "his
waist." (Cf. also Ezk 1:27: 8:2.) Here is where a
1268b ;,r.,~(möteq) sweetness (Jud 9:11).
belt/linen cloth was fastened: 1 Kgs 2:5 (Joab and 1268c vir,~ (mätöq) sweet, sweetness.
David): II Kgs 1:8 (Elijah): lsa 11:5 (used figura-
1268d C'i'l'l~~ (mamtaqqfm) sweetness
tively and messianically): Jer 13: 1. 11-Jeremiah
is told (in a symbolic vision) to take the linen
(N~h8: 10: Song 5: 16).
loincloth he is wearing around his waist and bury A stative verb (on the pattern of qä/1111 "be
it in the hole of a rock by the Euphrates. The small") appearing eight times in the OT. all in the
intent of this is to show that Israel. whom the Qal stem except for Job 20: 12. "lf evil gives a
Lord had fastened as close to himself as a bell, sweet taste in his mouth" and Ps 55:14 !H 151,
had now broken away from her Lord and would "We used to take sweet counsel together ... Both
decay. From this part of the body a soldier·s are Hiphil.
sword was hung: II Sam 20:8; Neh 4:18 !H 12]. The precise <lefinition of this root is seen in its
When the Lord says (lsa 45: 1) that before Cyrus frequent juxtaposition. for purposes of contrast.
he will subdue nations "and strip the loins of to one of the Hebrew words for honey or hon-
kings" the latter phrase probably means to ren- eycomb. something quite palatable. Thus Ps
der the kings powerless by taking away their 19:19 [H III asserts God's judgments are
weapons from their bell. Here is where a scribe "sweeter than honey (d''hash) and the honey
hung his ink horn (Ezk 9:2-3. 11: "side" in KJv). that drips from the comb (nöpct ~tipim).'' A simi-
Several times people are told to "gird up their lar idea is expressed in Ps 119:103, although the
loins" that is. tie up the long lower garments word there for "sweet" is the verb mäla.y "be
around the middle of the body in preparation for smooth. agreeable ... In response to Samson·s
running (1 Kgs 18:46 with the verb sluinas ); or riddle the people say. "What is sweeter than
quick traveling (Ex 12: 11: II Kgs 9: 1: 4:29 with honey?" Ezekiel (3:3) says God's word was to
the verb f1äRar): and in a figurative sense (Jer him "as honey for sweetness" (cf. Rev 10: 10).
1: 17 with the verb 'ä::ar. Here "to gird up your Kindred ideas are found in Prov 16:24: 24: 13.
loins" means "brace yourself for action ... Com- lt should be recalled that honey ( d" bash) in the
pare in the New Testament the identical phrase in OT not only refers to bee ·s honey but also to date
Lk 12:35; Eph 6: 14: I Peter 1: 13 (osphys). syrup. There are at least two references, how-
The loins are the seat of strength (Job 40: 16: ever, to bee's honey: (1) Samson in Jud 14:8ff.:
Nah 2: 1 [H 2]). especially of male as connected (2) Jonathan in l Sam 14:24-30. Along with
with virility. but also of the female (Prov 31: 17). leaven it was banned in the burnt offering (Lev
To damage the loins is to weaken or render help- 2: 11). Naturally. its quality of sweetness caused
less (Deut 33: 11; Ps 69:23 [H 241). it tobe used figuratively for gracious and pleasant

537
1268 ;,r,~ (mätoq)

things including God's Word (Ps 19: 10 iH 111), fruit of an apple tree (Song 2:3): the light of day
the wisdom of the Torah (Prov 24: 13), and the (Eccl 7: 11).
speech of a friend (Prov 16:24). V.P.H.
Waters also might be sweet (Ex 15:25: Prov
9: 17): the lack of insomnia (Eccl 5: 12 IH 111):the r,i:,r; (mattal). See no. 1443d.

538
 THEOLOGICAL
WORDBOOK
OFTHE
OLD TESTAMENT
Volume 2
R. Laird Harris, Editor

Gleason L. Archer, Jr., Associate Editor

Bruce K. Waltke, Associate Editor

MOODYPRESS
CHICAGO
1269 MJ (nä') I (we) pray; now. That our adjective can signify beautiful is evi-
dent from Song 6:4 where it is parallel to väpeh.
Particle of entreaty or exhortation (e.g. Gen
This is especially clear since in this same book
12:13; Num 20: 10). An interesting example of the
use of this particle is found in Ps 118:25, hoshi'ä our adjective describes one's countenance (2:14,
nä' "O LoRDsave us·· (NIV).This cry was taken
parallel to 'äreb, pleasant, KB: cf. 7:6 (H 71). The
primary female voice retorts that although tanned
up at the time of the triumphal entry when the
crowd quoted the context also "blessed is he who by the sun and toughened by outside work (Song
comes in the name ofthe LORD(v. 26; Mt 21:9). 1:6), yet she is beautiful (Song 1:5; Jer 6:2).
The Greek hösanna is a transliteration of the He- Our adjective obviously means "suitable, be-
brew phrase "O save us," even including the fitting"' in several places. In Prov 17:7 it is said
phonetic doubling of the n of the particle nä'. In that it is unbefitting for a senseless foolish man
Lk 19:39 it is recorded that some of the Pharisees (KB; opposite to nägid, a well-bred responsible
called on Jesus to rebuke his desciples for this man; see nii,:ad) to make himself "important and
outburst, but he instead declared that if the disci- weighty in a shameless imprudent manner."
ples were quiet the very stones would speak. One Similar clarity arises from the parallelism of Prov
reason for the Pharisees· reaction, doubtless, is 19:10 where luxury is said to be unfitting for a
that in the OTthe cry "save us" is addressed to fool (Prov 26: 1).
the LoRD(YHWH). In the NT it is addressed to Two passages deserve further consideration.
Jesus, the Son of David. The Pharisees regarded First, Ps 147:1 where it is said that it is good ((ob)
this ascription of praise to Jesus as high blas- to sing praises to God, that it is pleasant (nä'im,
phemy, though they ascribed it to the ignorance not "God is gracious," RSV),and that praise is
ofthe crowds. Jesus accepted it as glorious truth. comely. The parallel with nä'im moves us toward
"lovely ...
R.L.H.
The other passage is Ps 33: 1 where RSVrightly
MJ (nä') II. See no. 1358. sharpens ASv "comely" to "befit!">"(Prov 17:7;
19:10; 26:1). The translations ofboth versions re-
1270 iic: (nö'd) skin, bottle, skin (e.g. Jud veal no parallel in our verse (although the im-
4: 19: l Sam 16:20). mediately following verses do). The parallelism
can be regained if one recognizes the vocative
1271 *:i~J (nä'ä) be beautiful, befitting. lamed before y''shärim (UT, 12:6, p. 109) and
translates, "O ye upright, praise is appropriate."
Derivative (See also Dahood AB "Psalms" I p. 201).
1271a t:i:)MJ (nä'weh) beautiful. L.J.C.
The verb nä'ä, which occurs only in the Pael,
denotes the state of being beautiful (cf. nä'weh), :i:,ic,(nä'weh). See no. 1271a.
or suitable. lt is applied to the hair of a beautiful :,~1 (nä'ti). See no. 1322a.
woman (Song 1:10; 1:5), and to the messengers
(the feet being pars pro toto) who in the eschaton
bear the gospel (so E. J. Young, The Book of
1272 C"J (nä'am) say. (ASVand RSVsimilar.)
lsaiah, Eerdmans: lsa 52:7). In Ps 93:5 it would Derivative
seem better to translate "befitting"' since the
1272a tct_t; (n''lim) utterance.
parallel idea is 'mn "faithful, steady"). See the
following synonyms: yäpa "to be or become This root is used exclusively of divine speak-
beautiful," and nä'am "be pleasant, lovely."' ing. Hence, its appearance calls special attention
The word occurs three times. to the origin and authority of what is said. The
verb occurs only in Jer 23:31. lt is possibly a
ni'weh, Beautiful, comely, suitable. Feminine
denominative verb. Many other words are used
forms are nä'wä and näwä (the latter indistin-
similarly ( 'ämar. däbar, etc.).
guishable from näwä "pasture"; see no. 1322a).
ASVand RSVsimilar (except Ps 147:1, see below). n•'üm. Utterance, orac/e. RSVand ASVsimilar in
This adjective denotes beauty or suitability. Syn- most instances. However, RSVsuperior in Num
onyms are tipä'rä "beauty, glory." rob"good, 24:3; II Sam 23: 1. This noun is pattemed after the
beautiful" (infrequently), f'bi "decoration, Qal passive participle (GKC, 50a). Our noun oc-
beauty," and nä'im "pleasant, delightful, lovely." curs only as a formula (accompanied by the sub-
Our adjective occurs ten times. ject) declaring the divine (or claim therefor, Jer

541
1273 t'i~~ (nä'ap)

23 :31: Ps 36: 1 [H 2 J, etc. J origin and authority of perhaps the idea of direct revelation from God
the message so described. Especially contrast ought tobe included, too.
massti" referring to a message of judgment. Bibliography: THAT, II, p. 1.
11'' ·11moccurs 360 times. all but twice in prophetic L.J.C.
contexts (Prov 30: 1: Ps 36: 1 [H 2]), only twenty
times outside the prophetic books. 167 times in
Jer. 83 times in Ezk. 23 times in lsa. 2 I times in
Arnos, 20 times in Zech.
1273 l'\!:C;(nä"ap) commit adultery.
The meaning of the noun appears clearly in Jer Derivatives
23:31 where God declares his opposition to false
prophets who add to their statements „ 11, .. ,,m... 1273a l'\IC (ni'iip)
Jer 13:27).
adultery (Ezk 23:43:
i.e. God said it. This basic meaning is equally
1273b l')H:,~; (na'iipüp) adultery (Hos
clear in Ezk 13:7 where God denounces the false
2:4, only).
prophets. declaring !hat they saw no true visions.
uttered lying divinations. and claimed divine au- This root represents "sexual intercourse with
thority when he had not spoken. In Jer 9:22 the wife or betrothed of another man" (KB). Our
[H 211 the prophet is commanded to preface his word should be compared with :.:änii, illicit
oracle with "this is a 11•··11mof Jehovah" "as a heterosexual relations but not necessarily in
distinctive word from God to banish all doubt of violation of the marriage vow, and the noun
the truth of the Statement" (KD. Jeremiah. 1. in. nukriyii, a foreign woman who was generally in a
Ioc.). Sometimes this formula is augmented by a lowered social position and in Prov 5:20: 6:24,
divine oath stressing the seriousness. etc„ of the e.g„ obviously a practitioner ofharlotry (cf. Rsv).
utterance (Ezk 20:3, 31: 33: 11 ). In the prophets Our root occurs thirty-four times.
the last half of this formula usually consists (lsa The importance of this root exceeds appear-
56:8) of some divine covenantal appellation. i.e„ ances since its use in the seventh commandment
the Lord and King (Jer 46: 18). The latter name is constitutes a basic constituent of social law and
especially significant in view of the arguments of its religious theological use unveils a major ele-
M. Kline. Tr<.'at_,· ,!f'th<'Great KinR (Eerdmans. ment in lsrael's religion.
1963). Many passages are not correctly rendered The seventh commandment (cf. R. J.
by either the RSVor AS\' (so. KD). The noun ought Rushdoony. Th<'/nstitules ,fBiblical Law (Nut-
to be rendered something Iike "an utterance of' Iey:Craig Press. 1973) requires sexual purity.
(Zech 12:1). "ajudgment: words against Israel; a This contrasts with the infidelity and promiscuity
revelatory utterance of Jehovah. ·· sanctioned and practiced by the official cultus of
The occurrences of our noun outside the pro- the rest of the ancient near east. The religion of
phetic books exhibit many interesting themes. Jehovah represents adultery as a heinous crime
One of the pivotal passages in the 01 is Gen againsl God (Job 31: 11 where adultery is in view.
22: 16. This is the only recorded conjunction of though the word na'ap is not used), man, and
this term and God's self-oath (cf. Heb 6:l3f.) in society: a breach of the marriage contract before
patriarchal history. The noun also introduces God, a dishonor done to God by placing man·s
Balaam ·s "scepter" prophecy (Num 24: 15ff). will above God's (Gen 2:24), a rebellious act done
David (II Sam 23:1) clearly recalls both ofthese with deliberation, needless (1 Cor 7:2), the high-
prophecies in form and substance (cf. KD. in est sort of theft. i.e. stealing a neighbor·s flesh, a
loc.). The 11•··11111 was as certain as divine debasing of the adulterer, making him a senseless
monergism. Of course, "eternal" attached to wild ass (Jer 5:8), a means of destroying one·s
Gou·s covenant is divinely conditioned as to its reputation (Prov 6:32-33), or impairing one·s
application (cf. KD. in loc .. I Sam 2:30). The spe- mind (Hos 4:11-14), etc. Consequently, under
cial significance of the divine oath sanctioning a Moses, adultery (even with an engaged girl, Deut
covenant is seen in the NT discussion concerning 22:23f.) merited death (Lev 19:20: 20: 10) whereas
the difference between the Abrahamic (Gai 3: fornication (cf. ;:äna) did not. Even desire for
Heb 6:16ff.) and the Mosaic covenants (Heb 7). another man·s wife was wrong (the tenth com-
The 11'' ·,,111 of Jehovah addressed to "my Lord mandment). The method of death was in some
( 'ädöni). · · in Ps I I0: 1 contains a covenant sanc- cases, burning (Gen 38:24), and more generally
tioned by an oath (v. 4: cf. Heb 7:21 ). lnterest- stoning (Deut 22:23f.: Ezk 16:38-40: cf. Jn 8:5).
ingly, in Ps 36:1 [H 21 "transgression" is the Divorce except for unfaithfulness (Hos 2:5,
claim of divine revelation. [But cf. ~1v, "An 11-12: Ezk 16:37-38: 23:29) was hateful to God
oracle is within my heart/concerning the trans- (Mal 2: 16) and in some circumstances expressly
gression of the wicked ... R.L. H. J Proverbs 30: 1 is forbidden (Deut 22: 19, 29). However, out of con-
a problematic passage and is explained by KD as cern for lsrael's hardness of heart this was miti-
showing !hat what comes from the heart (i.e. the gated (Deut 24: 1: Mt 19: 18). A woman suspected
words of Agur) are solemnly earnest. However. of adultery had to face a trial by ordeal (Num

542
 1274 'l'~J(nä'aJ)
5:11-31: cf. qänä' [perhaps not technically an use this figure to depict the sin of God's people
ordeal like the Assyrian practice of throwing an (Ezk 16:32ff: Jer 3:8f.; lsa 57:3).
accused person into the river to see if he would Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 729-32.
survive. There was no current physical danger in L.J.C.
the 01 ritual. There was a solemn oath in the holy
place which would be a severe psychological test l'\~C~~ (na'äpup). See no. 1273b.
for a guilty woman, and there was also threatened
a visitation ofGod"s providence. R.L.H.J). This is
both an act of mercy (she could be vindicated of a
1274 r~; (nä'a$) despise, abhor,
false accusation) and an institutionalization of Derivatives
woman·s commanded submission to man. Im-
modesty, seen as a needless inducement to adul-
1274a t:i;tc~ (n ,.. ä$ä) contempt ( II Kgs
19:3= lsa 37:3).
tery (II Sam 11:2), was forbidden (Ex 20:26: II
Sam l0:4-5). Godly men sought to discipline their 1274b t:i;tc.~(ne'ä$t:i) contempt, blasphemy
(Neh 9:18, 26: Ezk 35:12).
eyes (Job 3 I: 1: cf. II Pet 2: 14), and hence, their
minds (Mt 5:28). Prostitution was forbidden (Lev The ASV and RSV translate nä'a$ variously, with
19:29). Priests were commanded not to marry a the latter being superior at I Sam 2: 17, and in-
prostitute (21 :7). lf their daughters turned prosti- ferior at Ps 10:3, 13: 74:10, 18: II Sam 12:14.
tutes (temple?) they were to be executed (v. 9). Our root signifies the action or attitude
Sacred prostitution, homosexuality (Lev 18:22: whereby the former recipient of favorable dispo-
Deut 23: 18), bestiality (Ex 32: 19), and transvesti- sition and/or service is consciously viewed and/or
ture (Deut 22:5) were all forbidden as violations treated with disdain. Consider the following
of the sanctity of marriage (PTOT, p. 330f.). synonymous parallels: märt:i · 'to rebel against au-
Positively, marriage was to be observed both thority" (Ps 107:11): 'äbt:i "to be unwilling and
as an act (1 Cor 7:2) and as a structural institution disinclined toward obedience .. (Prov 1:30): säne'
(Eph 5:23). lt was honorable (Heb 13:4). Mates "to hate" (Prov 5: 12), not believing in the Lord
were to be chosen from the covenant community (Num 14:1), to forsake God ('äzah, lsa 1:4),
(Ex 34: 16: cf. II Cor 6: 14ff.: Heb 11:31: Mt I :5). mä'as "to reject," lsa 5:24, /Järap "to say sharp
Captive women became members of the coven- things, reproach, scorn" (Ps 74:10). For
ant community by virtue of marriage (Deut synonyms see mä'as. Cf. Akkadian na'ä$U "be-
21:13). Polygamy, implicitly forbidden in the cre- Iittle, despise" and Ugaritic 11'a$ (AisWUS
ation covenant, was probably forbidden in Lev 1731). Our root occurs twenty-nine times (Eccl
18:18. Marriage was covenantly constituted be- 12:5 is from nä$G$ with a pleonastic aleph).
fore God (Prov 2: I 7), required the husband's evi- God prophesies lsrael's utter apostasy in the
denced ability to support a family (Prov 24:27), face of overwhelming blessing (Deut 31 :20ff.).
and love for his wife (Prov 5: 15-19: cf. Eph 5:25). The rejection of the covenant will result in a re-
The theological uses add an instructive dimen- versal of divine favor (Deut 32: 19). The root con-
sion to covenantal theology. Contemporary noting the opposite of covenantal favor was
studies in the covenant demonstrate that biblical applied to judgment as a warning (Num 16:30)
covenants parallel ancient law treaties. Our word and fulfillment (lsa 1:4: Lam 2:6). God's longsuf-
reminds us of the fact that God relates to his fering (Rom 2:4) overlooked repeated rejections
people not only as sovereign king but as husband and scorning of his person (Num 14: 11: Ps 10:3),
(cf. qänä', etc.). This religious symbolical use of sanctions (Ps 10:13), counsel (Ps 107:11), and
nä'ap is attested in Lev 20:I0ff. (cf. 18:20ff.: Jer word (lsa 5:24). To the "despiser" nothing that is
23: 14) where it is aligned with Molech worship God's is considered holy (lsa 52:5: cf. lsa 1:4:
and profaning God's name (cf. Ezk 23:37). The Deut 31: 19). Thus, he not only "deprecates
prophets apply this figure in describing lsrael's God's power and ability to carry out his threats"
sin. Hosea depicts a connection between lsrael's but his contemptuous view of God leads him to
faithlessness to Jehovah and the dissolution of all prefer sin to God and to express this contempt in
social and religious ties: "where religious union conscious contempt of God (cf. E. J. Young, lsa
with Jehovah is not kept sacred, there no human 1:4). The eschaton will see the divine conquest of
marriage can be secure. Sensuality produces reli- oppressor and scoffer (cf. Jer 33:24: lsa 60:14).
gious whoredom and religious whoredom again n••a~ä. Contempt. This noun (II Kgs 19:3: Isa
issues into physical whoredom (4: 11, 14)" (Vos,
37:3 only) denotes the effect of divine nä'a$.
BT, p. 298). Sin is the want of conformity to the
Hence, Hezekiah describes lsrael's peril as a day
ideal of marriage affection and loyalty. Israel is
of trouble ~ärt:i, reproof 1oka}Ja1, and contumely.
condemned for disavowing God's claims as the
marriage lord. They have served other gods by ne'ä~ä. Contempt. This noun (Ezk 35: 12; Neh
practicing cultic and spiritual prostitution (4: 11- 9:18, 26 only) denotes the external result of
12). Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and lsaiah (limitedly) also human nä'a$ against God and/or his elect.

543
1275 i'l:'.9(nä'aq)
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 3---{). forth words (Gesenius, von Orelli, Kuenen,
L.J.C. Girdlestone, Oehler). 3) From an Akkadian root
nabii "to call," hence one who is called [by God]
1275 i't:<
1 (na'aq) groan (Ezk 30:24; Job (Albright, Rowley, Meek, Scott), hence one who
24: 12). feit called of God; 4) From an unknown Semitic
root (A. B. Davidson, Koehler and Baumgartner,
Derivative BOB, E. J. Young, Heinisch.) The latter view is
1275a :i;;,1;1;(n'"'aqd) groan, groaning favored by Hobart E. Freeman in his excellent
(e.g. Ex 2:24: Jud 2:18). book (An lntroduction to the OT Prophets,
Moody, 1%8, pp. 37-39). This paragraph is a
1276 *"11:<;(na'ar) abhor, spurn (Lam 2:7: Ps very brief summary of Freeman's treatment.
89:40). Occurs only in the Pie!. The essential idea in the word is that of autho-
rized spokesman. Interpreters have found the
basic thought, not in the etymology, which is lost
1277 *K;; (naba') prophesy. Denominative
in the dust of antiquity, but in the general usage
verb.
of the word and in three Pentateuchal loci.
Parent Noun The first locus follows the last of Moses' fa-
mous objections to being God's designated
1277a tK•:;i; (näbi') spokesman, speaker,
spokesman to the children of Israel and to
prophet.
Pharaoh (Ex 6:28-30) ... And the LoRD said unto
1277b :"11$~::l~(n" bii' ii) prophecy.
Moses. See, 1 have made thee as God to Pharaoh;
1277c :i1;1•:;i~(n''hi'a) prophetess.
and Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet. Thou
näbi'. Spokesman, prophet. The derivation of shalt speak all that I command thee: and Aaron
näbi' is a matter of controversy. The old thy brother shall speak unto Pharaoh" (Ex 7:1,
Gesenius Lexicon (ed. Tregelles), for example, 2). Whatever the origin of the word, therefore, a
derives this noun from the verb näba', "the ayin näbi' is a person authorized to speak for another,
being softened into aleph," and meaning to bub- for Aaron, speaking in Moses' place to Pharaoh,
ble up," "boil forth," hence, "to pour forth is Moses' näbi'.
words, like those who speak with fervour of mind The second locus follows an incident wherein
or under divine inspiration, as prophets and Aaron and Miriam had presumed to supplant
poets." Ewald, Haevemick and Bleek agree (see Moses as mediator of the divine revelation to
Samuel Davidson, lntroduction to the OT, II, themselves (Num 12: 1-2). The Lord himself then
p. 230) as does also Oehler(OTTheology. p. 363). intervened by declaring that Moses only would
For these reasons this group of authors have sup- hold direct conversation with the Almighty, that
posed that to utter revelations from God's spirit he would, however, communicate with prophets
(ecstatic speech) is the function of the näbf'. by dreams and visions (Num 12:4-8). What is left
The mood is said to be active. Other, older unstated, but is presumed and stated clearly
writers, including S. Davidson (ibid., p. 430), elsewhere (e.g. Jer 23), is that a genuine näbi'
have employed the same derivation and said could be such a spokesman for God only if God
the mood is passive, to receive God's speech and had genuinely given him a message (however
then to proclaim it, emphasizing the reception of obscurely) to speak.
divine communication by the näbi'. Most recent The third occurs just before the great legis-
scholarship tums the relationship of näbä' and lator' s death. In view of the end of "face-to-
näbi' around doubtless rightly, regarding the verb face" communications from God through Moses,
as denominative (BDB, TDNT, VI, p. 796). there was a formal announcement of the office of
The tendency has been away from regarding näbi' on a continuing basis. In this passage (Deut
the active idea of speaking ecstatically as the es- 18:9-22) Jehovah formally proscribed any traffic
sential meaning of prophesying: "Rowley ... with the bogus pagan mantic practices of Canaan
demonstrates [Harvard Theological Review, (Deut 18:9-14). Then having stated that a line of
38: 1-38] that the word näbi, though of uncertain prophets would speak (or write) with the same
etymology, cannot be used as an argument for the authority that Moses had spoken (and written),
ecstatic nature of the prophets" (Eissfeldt, "The he commanded the lsraelites to render the proph-
Prophetie Literature," in The OT and Modern et the same obedience (Deut 18:15, 18, 19) which
Study, ed. H. H. Rowley, Oxford Press, 1951, p. he had commanded them to give to Moses. Five
142). certifying signs of a prophet (Ps 74:9; cf. Mt
Actually the views of the derivation are four. 12:38; Acts 2:22) were announced as follows:
1) From an Arabic root. naba'a "to announce," 1) the prophet must be lsraelite, "of thy breth-
hence "spokesman" (Comill, Koenig, Eiselen, ren" (vv. 15, 18): 2) he speaks in Jehovah's
G. A. Smith). 2) From a Hebrew root, näbä' sof- name-"voice of Jehovah" (v. 16) "he shall
tened from näba' "to bubble up,'' hence pour speak in my name" (v. 19: cf. v. 20), death being

544
the penalty for false claims to so speak (v. 20, cf. at here. See the articles of this dictionary on
Deut 18:1 ff.; I Kgs 18:20-40); 3) supernatural ro'eh, IJözeh, häzön, and /Ja/am.
knowledge of the near future was to be a sign of Bibliography: TDNT, VI, pp. 798-828.
the authenticity of divine appointment (vv. THAT, II, p. 7.
21-22; cf. I Kgs 22; Jer 28, esp. v. 17); 4) the R.D.C.
prophet might perform some other miraculous
sign (see Deut 13:1 ff.; cf. I Kgs 18:24; and esp. v. 1278 ::i::iJ (nabab) hollowout (e.g.Jobll:12;
36) and 5) the final test is strict conformity to -jer 52:21 ).
(agreement with) the previously certified revela-
tions, by Moses at first and by the prophets to 1279 i::i~ (n'"bb) I, Nabu.
follow (Deut 13: 1-18). The fifth requirement is
emphatic, the entire thirteenth chapter being de- This hapax legomenon (lsa 46: 1) is the Hebrew
spelling of the name of the Babylonian god,
voted to it.
Nabu. Nabu was the protector of the sciences
Hebrews 1: 1-2, clearly declares that the entire
(which were in the realm of Enki-Ea), the patron
OT is a deposit of written oracles of the 11•· bi' im.
of the scribal art, and a god of wisdom (as was Ea
The word "prophets" is extremely important in
and Marduk). His spouse was Tashmetum
this text, for, "In the LXX nabi' is always trans-
("'hearing") and he was known to be '"wide of
lated prophetes; there is not a single instance of
hearing" (ready to hear). His symbol, a wedge on
any other word" (TDNT, VI, p. 812). Once in a
a pole, represented either the cuneiform script or
text wherein the ages-long work of the line of
a sighting instrument used in astronomy. His
authentic prophets is summarized, the oT uses
popularity grew steadily until ezidas (his tem-
the word ma/'ak "messenger," "angel." The
ples) could be found in every major city of Baby-
LXX gives the proper sense by using aggelos
(II Chr 36: 15). lon and Assyria. His major temple, however, was
at Borsippa (Birs Nimrod, ten miles south of
There are several questions of special interest
Babylon) to which the king would come yearly
regarding nehf'im in the 0T. 1) Who are the
(on the fourth of Nisan) to fetch him (i.e., his
"schools" or bands of prophets? 2) Were profes-
statue) and conduct him to Babylon to deliver
sional prophets attached to "shrines" and the
Marduk from the grip of the netherworld (this
temple in some manner comparable to the
ritual was known as the Akitu). The Babylonian
köhanim (priests) and if so, what were their
chronicles (c. 990 e.c.) report that Nabu "did not
functions? 3) Who is the person rarely designated
come" for nine years. Thus a complete administ-
as the king's seer /Jö::.eh(II Sam 24:11) or rö'eh
rative disruption is recorded. The fate of Nabu
(II Sam 15:27)? 4) In what sense are musicians
(rarely) designated n''bi'im? 5) Who were the parallels the fate of Babylon. Note Nebuchadrez-
zar (Nabu protect the son or the inheritance),
false prophets, usually also called n •·bi'im? 6)
Nebushazban (Nabu save me), Nebuzarada1,
How far are we to regard the prophets as enemies
(Nabu gave a son), and Abednego (servant of
of the lsraelite priesthood? Finally, how are the
Nabu?). Cf. n'hö, II.
so called "former" and "latter" prophets related
Bibliography: Roux, G., Ancient lraq, Cleve-
to the whole office of prophet and function of
land: World Publishing, 1964. Saggs, H. W. F.,
prophecy?
The Greatness that was Babylon, New York:
The reader may consult a truly immense recent
Hawthorne, 1962. Wiseman, D. J., "Nebo," in
and current literature in pursuit of answers. The
NBD, p. 872.
81-page article on JtQO<pl]TT]i;in TDNT is all rele- L.J.C.
vant. The bibliography alone is about two tightly
filled pages in size. lt can be said that after dis-
1280 i::i; (n"M) II, Nebo. (ASV and RSV the
counting the somewhat chastened oT higher criti-
·same.)
cism of the four authors (Rendtorff, Kraemer,
Meyer, Friedrich) the residue is exceedingly val- Our word is the name of a mountain located in
uable. The extremes of recent authors who have Moab (G. T. Manley, "Nebo,'" in NBD, p. 872).
sought to overturn more traditional, conservative lt might well be named in honor of the Babylo-
answers are generally rejected. The same may be nian deity Nab1i (cf. n''b<>).Our noun occurs ele-
said of the article "The Prophetie Literature" by ven times.
Otto Eissfeldt in The OT and Modern Study, There are two problems related to Mount
edited by H. H. Rowley and the relevant portions Nebo. First, its relationship to Pisgah and the
of Ancient Israel by Roland de Vaux. The excel- mountains of Abarim. The first appears to signify
lent and extensive article on "prophets and ··a ridge crowning a hill or mountain" and hence
prophesy'" by A. A. MacRae in ZPEB. IV, pp. represents more than one such prominence
875-903 should be consulted. The limited space ("Pisgah,'" G. T. Manley, in NBD, p. 1000)-
of this article allows no room for treating these Mount Nebo in Deut 3:27. The second term rep-
questions or sifting the extensive materials hinted resents the mountain range in which Nebo was

545
1281 M~~ (näba!J)

located (Num 27:12; Deut 32:49). The identifica- God who observes all (Job 28:24: Ps 33: 13) re-
tion of Mount Nebo is the second problem. Some wards the pious (Ps 102:19 [H 20]: 13:3 [H 41) 84:9
say this represents three different sites (cf. KD). iH 101)and wicked (Ps 10:14; Arnos 5:22) accord-
Others rightly identify it with one place (Manley, ing to his divine power (Ps 104:32).
"Nebo," op. cit.: W. Ewing, "Nebo, Mt.,"' in L.J.C.
ISBE, p. 2127). lt was from Mount Nebo that
Moses viewed the promised land just before he M•;; (näbt). See no. 1277a.
died (Deut 34: 1). In this area the sons of Reuben
built a city (Num 32:3; cf. NBD, p. 834). Later
the area was reclaimed by the Moabites and 1283 i;; (nebek) spring (Job38:16;28:ll).
against their treachery Isaiah (15:2) and Jeremiah
pronounced judgment (48: 1, 22). The descen- 1284 ,:iJ (nbl) 1. Assumed root ofthe following.
dants of the Israelite refugees from Nebo are 1284a t,:iJ (nebe/) /, skin bottle; jar,
listed among those who returned from the exile ·pitcher.
(Ezr 2:29) and who married non-Israelite women 1284b t,;; (nebe/) II, psaltery.
(Ezr 10:43).
nebel /, Skin, skin bottle, jar, piJcher. A con-
L.J.C.
tainer for liquids. nebe/ is also used to refer
figuratively to the clouds (Job 38:37).
1 (n'' bu'il).
:,1$~:i See no. 1277b.
nebel //. Psaltry, viol. Because of its bulging
resonance-body at the lower end, it may be re-
1281 n:i: (nabah) bark (of dogs, Isa 56:10, lated to nebel · ·skin, skin-bottle."
-~nly). . The nebel is the Greek equivalent of a harp or
lyre. lt was an instrument of twelve strings which
were plucked with the fingers (Josephus, An-
1282 *t:i;lJ (nabat) look, regard. Occurs in the
tiquities 7. 12. 3). lt was larger than the kinnör
Pie! and H.iphil.
··tyre" (q.v.), with a deeper tone. The lyre had
Derivative two arms with a box-shaped body (a Canaanite
version). David played such an instrument. lt
1282a t:i;~ (mabba() expectation (Zech
was the main instrument in the second temple
9:5: Isa 20:5--0).
orchestra. The nebel was the number two in-
The Asv and Rsv translate näba{ somewhat dif- strument and probably less costly than the kin-
ferently, with the latter inferior at Ps 10:14: I Sam nör. In the Mishnah 'äräkim 2:3, it is stated that
2:32. Our root represents that which one does there never were less than two harps or more
with the eye (Ps 94:9) embracing everything from than six in the orchestra. (Some would equate
a mere glance (I Sam 17:42) to a careful, sus- nebe/ with the Egyptian harp, a zither-type in-
tained, and favorable contemplation (lsa 5: 12: Ps strument with a wooden sounding box and with
74:20: 119:6, 15). lt is frequently paralleled to ten to twenty strings, standing up to four yards
ra'il "to see," and sometimes to ~äzil "to see," high, and plucked with the fingers.)
usually of prophetic "seeing," shur "to see, re- According to the Mishnah, the nebe/"s strings
gard," poetic, pänil "to turn toward, to see," were made of the !arge intestines of sheep (Kin-
and shäqii "to look down." Our verb occurs nim 3:6). There is also mentioned in Scripture the
sixty-nine times, only in the Piel and Hiphil. nebel ·asor, a slightly smaller nebel of ten
Fora fuller treatment of theological themes see strings. Since no representations of a nebe/ have
ra'il. Our yerb is used, both of man's looking come down from the biblical period, its shape can
to/upon God and God's looking upon man. In Ex only be conjectured.
3:6 Moses looks upon what he thought was the Three of the twenty-seven usages indicate its
divine essence. Later God says that Moses, un- use in godless revelry (lsa 5: 12), pagan worship
like all other true prophets, shall continue to look (lsa 14:11) and the diluted worship which Arnos
upon his form, i.e. he will be able to converse condemned (Arnos 5:23). lt was played by the
with him in a unique way (KD, Num 12:8: Jn bands of prophets (I Sam 10:5) and David used it
6:46; 14:7), No mere man, however, has ever for worship (II Sam 6:5). Solomon provided
seen the divine essence (cf. Ex 33: 18ff.). Men are harps for temple worship (I Kgs 10: 12). Oth-
to iook, i.e. fix their eyes on and thus guide their erwise, the nebel (and nebe/ ·asbr) were always
Jives according to the will of Jehovah as their used in worship(Ps 57:8 [H 9];81:2 [H 3]; eta/.).
only help (lsa 51:); 22: 1I: Ps 34:5 [H 6]), and on The important place afforded music in the wor-
his means, e.g. the covenantal framework (lsa ship of God shows that God responds favorably
51:2; Ps74:20), and his messiah(Zech 12:10). The to man's communication with him in music and
ungodly do not regard God's working (lsa 5:12), that God communicates to man not only cogni-
or appointed leader (Ps 22:17 [H 18]) properly. tively but also in his emotions.

546
 1285 ,;; (näha/)

Bibliography: Blumenkranz. B., "Music," in prophets. seeking the message from their own re-
Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 12, pp. 564---()6. sources. are foolish. Actually they have no mes-
Werner, E., "Jewish Music, .. in Dictionary ,f sage. no vision from God (Ezk 13:3).
Music, vol. IV, St. Martins Press. pp. 619-21. The näbiil has a closed mind. saying in his
Werner, E., "Musical Instruments," in 18, Vol. heart that there is no God (Ps 14:1: 53:1 [H 2]).
III, pp. 474-76. Finesmeyer, S. B., "Musical In- He insults God all day long in a continual round
struments in the Old Testament," in HUCA III, of uproar (Ps 74:22). David prayed to be deliv-
pp. 21-27. Seilers. 0. R .. "Musical Instruments ered from his transgressions lest the foolish. not
of Israel." BA 4:33-47. discerning his heart. insult the servant ofGod (Ps
L.G. 39:8 1H 91). The sons of a fool. referring to those
who learn from him, are ignoble. sons without
any name (Job 30:8). Abner·s death was lamented
1285 ':i;; (näba/) II, be senseless, foolish. as possibly that of a fool ( II Sam 3 :33 ). [Or it may
be that David asks if Abner died like a wicked
Derivatives man-a näbäl. implying that Joab, his attacker
had murdered the innocent. R.L.11. 1
1285a ti,::,; ( näbäl) fool. The näbäl, who should keep himself in retire-
1285b t:,7~; , n ,,häla) folly. ment because of his impiety. is a boor and makes
1285c m':i::,i (nabltit) immodesty, himself heard in public (Prov 17:7). The earth
shamelessness (Hos 2: 12, only). protests when a näbäl grows rich: such a one
The verb is used only five times, once to de- becomes arrogant and overbearing (Prov 30:22).
scribe one who exalts himself as foolish. Four The boorishness, a reflection of refusal to listen
times, in the Piel stem, it expresses disgust or to reason or to God (at the moment) is seen in
contempt, by a person who scorns the rock of his Nabal of whom his wife Abigail said, · 'he is such
salvation (Deut 32: 15), or treats his father con- a son of Belial that no one can speak to him „
temptuously (Mic 7:6). God makes vile the recal- () Sam 25:17). He is a n''bäla. because he rejects
citrant (Nah 3 :6). The prophet prays to fend off the fear of the Lord who could have given him
God·s wrath so that he will not disgrace the some wisdom.
throne of his glory (Jer 14:21). The derivatives
picture the full significance of the word. n''bälä. Folly, villainy, vile. 11•·bälu carries the
same meaning as nabal, i.e. a disregard for moral
näbäl. Fool. The noun näbäl is widely used in and spiritual claims. In every way, a n''bäla is
the wisdom Iiterature. In Prov. the term näbäl senseless. impious and a disgrace. and his actions
includes the concepts associated with k •·sil and are sinful folly.
'ewf/ (q.v.), and also emphasizes being ignoble n' bälu refers to sins of immorality. A request
and disgraceful, a downright boor. lnsensibility for homosexual relations was regarded as an act
to God, as weil as a moral insensibility. close the of folly (Jud 19:23-24). Premeditated rape was
mind to reason. stigmatized as a deed of folly ( II Sam 13: 12l.
Moses chided his generation, referring to them Amnon would be known as a nühäl in Israel
as 'am näbäl. a foolish people (Deut 32:6). who (v. 13). In fact, these vile deeds are known as
did not appreciate the Lord's benefits. Heathen folly (11' bälah, a disgraceful and sinful thing) in
nations are characterized as foolish, spurning or Israel, i.e„ violation of moral standard in Israel.
reviling the very name of the Lord (Ps 74:18). e.g. the violation of Dinah (Gen 34:7) or a brideg-
Therefore, Moses answered his generation's un- room·s statement regarding his wife's chastity
faithfulness by equating them with pagan (Deut 22:21: also Jud 20:6: Jer 29:23).
peoples. In fact, if they were to persist in their Achan·s theft of things under the ban was con-
foolishness (niibäl), they would be provoked to sidered a n''biilii in Israel (Josh 7:15). Nabal.
anger by an idolatrous, foolish (näbä/) people even according to his name. committed a sinful
(Deut 32:21 ). The insensitivity of God's people and disgraceful thing because he was a disgrace
required that they be shamed and hurt by their (1 Sam 25:25). N'' bülu can also refer to foolish
own foolishness. and impious language: Jsaiah assessed his genera-
The prophets have little use for the näbäl. tion as the niibül who speaks 11•·biilii. a play on
Isaiah pictured the kingdom where many an up- words to emphasize the state of being producing
side down state of affairs would be rectified. No the act (lsa 32:6: also 9: 17). Job's friend required
longer would respect and homage be paid to the atonement for their words and conduct with him.
fool, who speaks nonsense, his heart inclining Their actions against Job were considered folly
toward wickedness (lsa 32:5---()).He is churlish. (n''bii/a) against God himself (Job 42:8).
lacking spirituality. The man who gathers wealth Bibliography: Blanck, S. H., "Folly ... in 18.
unjustly, will lose it in the midst of his life. Such a pp. 303-4. Harris. R. Laird. "Proverbs ... in
person is a fool in the end (Jer 17: 11). False WBC. Kidner, Derek, Pro1·erh.f. Inter-Varsity,

547
1286 ~;~ (nähe{)

1964. Richardson, TWB. pp. 84--85. THAT. 11, Not to be properly buried is a sign of great
pp. 26---30. disgrace (II Sam 21: !Off.: I Sam 31: 11-13, etc.),
L.G. and even of divine judgment (Deut 28:26: cf. Jer
26:23: lsa 5:25: Jer7:23), etc. Restoration is fig-
1286 ,::,; (näbe/) wither. ured in terms of a resurrection (lsa 26:19).
L.J.C.
Derivative
1286a tri7:;; (n''be/a) corpse, carcass. m',~; (nab/üt). See no. 1285c.
The ASV and RSV translate this verb variously
with the latter being superior at II Sam 22:46 (Ps 1287 l:;l~ (näba') pour, gushforth.
18:45 [H 461; Job 14:18: lsa 1:30: 24:4: Jer 8: 13). Derivative
Neither is satisfactory at lsa 34:4 and 40:7--8.
Our word represents a state or condition of 1287a l,t~:.l~ (mabbü'a) spring of water
leaves when they are dried but still attached to (Eccl 12:6: Jsa 35:7: 49: 10).
the tree-parallel to dry grass (lsa 40:7--8) or a The ASV and RSV translate näba' variously, with
dry garden (lsa 1:30). For synonyms see yäbesh the latter usually superior. Neither is adequate at
""to be dI"y, wither," and Jänam "to be hard, Eccl 10:1 ("stink and pour fo11h"). Our root con-
barren." Compare nb/, the assumed root of the notes an uncontrollable or uncontrolled gushing
derivatives nebe/ ""skin-bottle, .. "jar" and ni•be/ forth as, e.g. the swollen waters of a wadi (Prov
""lute," also the root näba/ ""be senseless „ the 18:4: cf. näha/), the rush of words from a fool's
root for the derivatives näbäl ""foolish" and mouth (Prov 15:2: antonym, hägii, Prov 15:28).
n •·bäld „ senselessness ... KB lists all these de- There are many Hebrew words representing
rivatives under the one root näbel "wither ... Ac- "flowing" or "pouring" of various kinds and di-
cording to our analysis, nähe/ occurs twenty rections: mä::;a/-to flow, as of a river: nägar-
times. to run down, as of tears, blood, a sore, etc.:
The image of withered leaves about to fall yä$aq-to pour or cast, especially of molten
given by this verb or other dried up vegetation meta!: näsak-to pour out, especially a libation:
often serves as a figure of judgment. Divine om- nätök-to pour out, of fire, judgment, etc.:
nipotence enervates the mightiest nations of the shäpak-to pour out, perhaps the most general of
ea11h (lsa 34:4: cf. II Sam 22:46: Ps 18:45 [H 461). these words. Cf. old Aramaic nb' (KAI 38), "to
The wicked will most certainly face God·s judg- gush fo11h," and Akkadian namba'u (and nab-
ment (Ps 37:2). God will remove the vitality of ba'u) "bubbling spring" (KD). The verb occurs
Judah (lsa 1:30: Jer 8: 13), and Ephraim (lsa 28: 1). eleven times.
The godly will be enlivened by rivers of living In Ps 19:2 [H 3] näba' images the ""unin-
waters (Ps 1:3: cf. Ezk 47:12). Our verb also is terupted line of transmission" and ""inexhaust-
applied to the transitoriness of human life (lsa ible spring." the ""day" issuing in declaring
40:7--8) and human strength (Ex 18:18). God's glory (KD). The Psalmist prays that he will
n'belä. Corpse, carcass. ASV and RSV similar al- declare God's glodous deeds, i.e. parabolical ep-
though the latter is inconsistent at points, e.g. isodes (KD, Ps 78:2: 119:171). Ultimately the
Josh 8:29/Jer 26:23/lsa 5:25 (especially in view of ""transcendent goodness of God is the object of
Deut 28:26). This noun refers to a human or ani- universal, overflowing acknowledgment" (KD,
mal body devoid of life. lts synonyms are: peger, Ps 145:7). The wicked "pour fo11h" arrogance,
usually of human corpses (except Gen 15:11), boasting (Ps 94:4), piercing bitterness (Ps 59:7
g•· wiya (cf. gtipii, I Chr 10:12/1Sam 31: 12), of the [H 8]: cf. Prov 15:2. etc.). Of special interest is
body dead or alive (Gen 47: 18), mappe/ii (cf. Prov 1:23 where wisdom (v. 20) promises to pour
näpa/). Our noun occurs fo11y-eight times. forth its spirit (make known its words) on all will-
Corpses of men and animals are unclean and ing students. This is a spirit-enabling understand-
priests are forbidden to touch any corpse except ing and not a spirit-effecting regeneration, al-
that of near relatives (Lev 21: 1-3 ). The high though the NT combines the two ideas (1 Cor
priest and Nazirite cannot even do that much 2: 14). A still greater and qualitatively different
(Lev 21:11: Num 6:6--8-the word here is outpouring of the Spirit awaits the coming of the
nepesh). God prescribes a detailed rite for purifi- Messiah (Joel 2 :28 1H 3: 1]. shäpak).
cation if these restrictions are violated, or if one L.J.C.
unwittingly becomes polluted (cf. Num 19). Even
the land can be polluted if the body of an exe- 1288 :m (11gb). Assumed root of the following.
cuted person is not buried before the day is over 1288a +::,~;.(negeb) Negeb, south. (ASV
(Deut 21:23). Jeremiah notes that idols, being and RSV quite different with the lat-
"corpses" guilty of sin (?) pollute the land ter correctly rendering ""Negeb" at
(16: 18). the appropriate spots. RSV less de-

548
 sirable at I Sam 20:41: Ezk 40:2 ser trade routes. Cf. map in Y. Aharoni, The
where it emends.) Land of the Bible. Westminster, 1967, p. 40.
Later when Ezion-Geber became unusable, an
Thal our word represents a geographical area is adjacent port, Elath. was re-opened by Uzziah
clear from Gen 13:1 and Num 13:23 where the (1 Kgs 9:26: II Chr 26:2) to facilitate the copper
travelers are going north. A secondary meaning trade.
of our word is "south" (cf. Gen 13: 14). Cf. the The prophets predict a desolation (Jer 13:19:
following synonyms: yiimin (implying the eastern Ezk 20:46-47 [H 21:2-31), and ultimate renewal
posture in prayer, KB), temiin (root yiimin), yam (Jer 17:26; 32:44: 33: 13) of Judah and the Negeb.
and diiröm. The noun occurs 111 times. Bibliography: Cohen, S., "The Negeb," in
The ancient Negeb was an indefinitely con- IDB. Houston, J. M., "Negeb," in NBD, pp.
tained region approximately 4,520 square miles in 874-75. Glueck, N., BA 18: 2-9. McKenzie, J.
area. Its northern boundary extended south of L., Dictionary of the Bib/e, Milwaukee: Bruce,
the Gaza-Beersheba road due east of Beersheba 1965. Baly, P., The Geography of the Bihle,
to the Red Sea. Its southern boundary merged Harper, 1957. Glueck, The Other Side of the Jor-
into the highlands of the Sinai Peninsula. lt con- don, ASOR, 1940.
sisted (and still does) of quite broken country L.J.C.
upon which falls little rain (one to eight inches per
year). lts summers are hot and winters cold. 1289 *i~J (niigad) teil, make known. Occurs
Strong winds batter the terrain during both sea-
in the Hiphal and Hophal, only.
sons (cf. lsa 21: 1). The occurence of rain rapidly
transforms the wadis into overflooding torrents Derivatives
and its loess soil resists absorption (cf. Ps 126:4).
1289a t,~~ (neged) before.
A generous and shallow underground water table
1289b t"!•~; (niigid) ruler, leader, captain.
underlies the area. The terrain is not a desert
since it is amenable to limited grazing (cf. Gen This root basically denotes ··to place a matter
13:1--<>),
and undercontrolled conditions (a strong high, conspicuous before a person" (KB). The
central government to protect farmers from arabic nagada means "be conspicuous" and the
marauding Beduoins and assist them during the noun nagdun means ·•highland" Usually the
frequent droughts) can support farming in some "matter" was previously unknown or unknow-
areas. able to the object. The verb requires varying
The Negeb was not always settled. The translations depending on the context. The mean-
twenty-first to nineteenth centuries o.c. attest ing is further enlightened by considering the fol-
many villages whose destruction may weil have lowing synonomous parallels: 'iimar ··to say··
resulted from the razzia of Chedolaomer and his and shiima' "to make known" (Hiphil), Jer 4:5
allies (Gen 14). This devastation may also explain (cf. Ex 19:3: Deut 32:4: Isa 41:22, etc.): siipar
how Hagar lost her way when fleeing-known "'to report," Job 12:7-8: Ps 19:1 [H 2]: hin "to
land marks (i.e. cities) were destroyed (Gen understand," Jer 9: 12 [H 111:dibber "to speak,"
21:14). Also, the patriarchs apparently did not Isa 45: 19: and ya·a~ "to advise," Jer 38: 15. Also
journey into the Negeb after Gen 14, but re- giila and yiida'. Cf. Phoenician, ngd (KAI,
mained in the area of Gerar, Hebron, and p. 16). The verb occurs 363 times.
Beersheba which was unscathed by the invasion. Especially note Jud 14:12, e.g., where the verb
To date there is little archaeological evidence of nägad connotes "telling the solution" of a riddle
extensive Amalekite occupation at the time of the (cf. v. 12), and Ezr 2:59 "prove, give written evi-
Exodus (c. 1445 o.c.: however, cf. G. L. Archer, dence of."
A Survey of O/d Testament Introduction (Moody, Theologically, the verb is used of both God · s
1964), pp. 214-15, 220-21). Israel was repulsed and man's revealings. God brought things to
by these Amalekites (Num 14:44-45; Deut 1:44), men's attention (i.e. revealed) directly, through
but later Judah and Simeon invaded and occupied dreams (Gen 41:25: cf. Deut 13:1; 18:16; Acts
the area. Archaeology confirms extensive occu- 2: 17), prophecies (Gen 49: 1), and prophets (espe-
pation during the monarchical period. Saul de- cially Moses, Deut 4: 13). Such declarations being
stroyed the city of King Agag (l Sam 14-15). of divine origin, they carried divine authority
David fought the Amalekites (l Sam 30) and oth- (Deut 5:5). A prophet declared the divine purpose
ers in the various areas of the Negeb. As in the (lsa 19:12) andjudgment (lsa 21:2), indeed, what-
days of the patriarchs, so also during the early ever the mouth of the Lord declared (Jer 9: 12
monarchy the Negeb was occupied by various [H 11]). Other spokesmen bore an authority de-
ethnic groups (Gen 26:26--33: I Sam 27: 10: 30: 14). rived from the covenantal revelation (Deut 4: 13),
Under Solomon the Negeb produced copper (re- i.e. priests and elders (Deut 17:10-11), fathers
fined at Ezion-Geber) and had much trade (it was (Ex 13:8: Deut 32:7), and other leaders (cf. lsa
crossed by the "way to Shur," and several !es- 40:21). lt is the responsibility (Ps 42:2 [H 3]:

549
1290 :,~~ ( nägah)

71: 17: 145:4), and privilege (Ps 9: 11 [H 121:51: 15 The same holds true for his acts ofprovidence (Ps
[H 17]) of all men to make God's excellencies 31: 19 IH 201: cf. Rom 2:4). The word also occurs
prominent before the 01 church (Ps 30:9 [H 101) in legal (rfb, q. v. l contexts. Samuel calls the
and before the world (Ps 22:31 [H 32]). Such an people before God as a witness to his steadfast-
act constituted praise (Ps 30:9 IH 101) and ness (] Sam 12:3: cf. I Kgs 21: 13). God the om-
thanksgiving (Ps 92:2 IH 3]) and could be done in niscient judge clearly attests man's sin (Hos 7:2:
song (Ps 9:11 [H 121). God's greatest work. i.e. Ps 109:15), his desire (Ps 38:9 [H 10]: cf. Rom
the sovereign redemption of his people and the 8:27ff.) and all his ways (Ps 39:5 [H 61: 119:168:
declaration of justification by the instrument of Prov 15:11). His Messiah shall always sit before
fait h alone (e .g. Ps 40:6 1H 71) is to be declared to him vindicated and rewarded (Ps 89:36 [H 37]; cf.
all the nations (Ps 22:31 [H 321: lsa 48:20: 66:19: lsa24:23:61:ll).
cf. Mt 28:18ff.). The preposition occurs in the compound
Divine glory (Ps 19:1 IH 2]: 97:6) and righte- /' ne1;ed (used to emphasize neged [Ps 90:8: Jer
ousness (Ps 50:6) are made known and brought to 16:17, etc.!), i.e. toset before one as that which
prominence by the visible creation (cf. Rom determines one·s conduct (cf. II Sam 22:23: Ps
1:18ff.). 26:3: 36:1 [H 21). Also, /"neged is used like min-
God taunts unbelievers, challenging them to neged to mean "opposite" (e.g. Josh 5:3: Neh
have their "no-gods" reveal the dim past or dis- 12:9: cf. neged in Ezk 40:13; Neh 3:16, etc.). lt
tant future. i.e. all things (e.g. lsa 41 :22ff.). connotes "facing, prominently exposed to" but
Jehovah is the only eternally existent (lsa 43: 10), at some distance (near. Gen 21:16, or far, Ps
omniscient (lsa 44:7) God who had declared (lsa 38:l 1 [H 121). Finally, cf. k"ne1;ed, i.e. "as that
45:19; cf. Deut 4:29), does declare (lsa 42:9) and which corresponds to" (Gen 2:18, 20: cf. KD).
accomplish (lsa 43:12) his sovereign will (lsa
nägid. Ruler, Leader, captain. [lt is perhaps in
48:20). He reveals to man what he wants to be
this derivative that the idea of prominence, which
known and obeyed (Arnos 4: 13: Ps 111:6). There-
is in the root, comes to füllest expression. The
fore, rebellious man is inexcusable.
word is used almost fifty times and is applied to
leaders in several fields-governmental, military
neged. Prominently "before." ASV and RSV and religious. The word usually is singular and
often the same with the Rsv usually superior at refers to the man at the top, the king, the high
points of difference (cf. Ex 10:10: Ezk 40:13: priest, etc. But there are references to leaders
Num 2:2: Jud 9: 17, etc.) and infrequently inferior and captains in the army. The Messiah is called a
(Lam 3:35; Ps 38: 17). Both are inadequate at Ps nagid in Dan 9:25. R.L.H.]
52:9 [H III: 78:12: II Kgs 2:7. Our preposition Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 31-36.
retains the basic thrust of the root. lt is this con- L.J.C.
notation of prominence (being conspicuous) that
distinguishes the root from its synonyms, e.g.
1290 i'IJ; (niigah) shine.
mül, nöka!J (straight in front of), 'ümma (corre-
sponding to). lipne (cf. paniil. N.b. the phrase Derivatives
"before one's face" is paralleled to "in one's
1290a t:,,iJ (nögah) brightness.
own eyes" (lsa 5:21: cf. Ps 90:8), and is opposite
1290b n~:i~ (n''göha) brightness (lsa
to "secretly" (II Sam 12:12; cf. Ps 38:9 iH 101).
59:9, only).
The unique thrust of this preposition illumines
many passages (e.g. I Sam 15:30; cf. II Sam Our verb refers to a steady light given off by a
12:12: Josh 8:11). Our word occurs in covenantal lamp (Ps 18:28 [H 29]), the moon (Isa 13:10), a
contexts. God's law was tobe read before (i.e. so spark (Job 18:5), and a light shining in darlrness
all could hear) Israel (Deut 31:17; cf. Josh 8:35: (lsa 9:2 [H l]). For synonyms see 'ähal, hälal,
Ezr 8:3). Man's public covenants were enunci- ziihar, qiiran; and especially, yäpa' and zära/J
ated (1 Kgs 8:22) and fulfilled openly in that the (cf. Franz Schnutenhaus, "Daz Kommen und
entire community could witness the act. So Erscheinen in Alten Testament," ZAW 76: !Of.).
David (Ps 22:25 [H 261), and Iater the Messiah, Ugaritic attests ngh (AisWUS 1743). Our verb
promised the payment of vows. The reference occurs six times.
here is probably to the sh"lämim (the peace of- God's judgment (Joel 2:10; lsa 13:10; cf. Job
fering, the perfected Passover, the Lamb of God 18:5) and redemption (Joel 3:15 [H 4:15]) are fig-
himself. ured by the darkening of the celestial bodies (Joel
Public vowing embraces open declaration of 2:31: Acts 2:20). God's blessing is described as
God's word (Ps 119:46), and praise (Ps 138:1), "light shining on your path" (Job 22:28). God,
and hoping in his name (Ps 52:9 [H 11]). God's David's lamp, will brighten his darkness (Ps 18:28
word and attesting miracles were performed [H 29]). A good king as an earthly representation
openly and prominently before Israel. There was ofGod also shines brightly (II Sam 23:4). Ezekiel
no excuse for unbelief (Ex 34:10; cf. Ps 78:12). uses the root nägah to represent the glory of God

550
 (Ezk 1:4; 10:4). For lsaiah the regenerate who are music in Lam 5:14, but elsewhere it has the same
in the darkness of temporal suffering (lsa 50: 10) meaning as maniinti "mocking song·· (Lam 3: 14;
will be visited by a king who will be the source of Job 30:9). In Ps 69: 12 1H 131it is the song of the
true/etemal light (lsa 9:2 IH l]; Mal 3:20 !H 4:21: drunkards. In seven psalms 11•·Ri"'it appears in
Jn 1:9; 8:12; Lk 1:78-79). The nations will flock the title, indicating that stringed instruments
to him as he sits enthroned in the spiritual/etemal were tobe used (4:1: 6:1; 54:1; 55:1; 61:1; 67:1;
Jerusalem-in the church lor in the millennium or 76: 1; cf. Hab 3: 19). In the KJV the Hebrew is sim-
in heaven itself or all three! R.L.H.] (lsa 60:3; Heb ply transliterated "on Neginoth ... For other such
12:22; Rev 21:23: 22:5). God pledges himself to terms see se/ä.
make the righteousness of the elect go forth as H.W.
brightness (lsa 62: 1; paralleled to lappid
"torch").
1293 t.'~~ (11iiia') touch, reach, strike.
nögah. Brightness, shining. ASV and RSV the
same except Hab 3: 11. This noun refers to the Derivative
result of niiRah. lt occurs nineteen times. 1293a tt) ~-~ ( 11e1:a
·) stroke, plague, disease.
L.J.C.
The root llR' denotes that which pertains when
one thing (or person) physically contacts another.
1291 M~~ (näRalJ) push, thrust, gore (e.g. Ex For synonyms. see niif?ap. lts many connota-
21:28, 31-32; Deut 33:17). tions sometimes require different translations:
Derivative e.g. reach, strike, etc. The verb occurs 150 times.
The essential meaning of niiR<I' is "to touch."
1291a r:~~ (1w1a,:ä/J) addicted to goring lt can refer to a thing touching. i.e. contacting
(Ex 21 :29, 36). another thing (lsa 6:7: 16:8; Hos 4:2). a man con-
tacting a thing (Ex 19: 12), or coming into an area
,,~; (naifd). See no. 1289b. (Est 6:14), and God's touching a man (Dan 8:18)
Mt~' (n'Rfl1{l). See no. 1292. la. or a thing (Ps 144:5). Special attention should be
given to Ps 88:3 IH 41 where the Psalmist parallels
1292 1m (nil). Assumed root of lhe following. a "soul füll of troubles" and "life touching
1292a ,~~ (maRiii/) sickle (Jer 50: 16; Sheol" (cf. Leonard J. Coppes ... Sheol: What is
'joel 4: 13). it '!" Cm·enanter Witness, Feb 4, 1976. p. l4ff.).
Here the Psalmist. recognizing that God brought
1292.1 ,~; (navm) play a stringed instrument. about his condition, prays for him to change it
(cf. Ps 107:18). The word is used in a ritualistic
Derivatives context, viz. that things holy (belonging to God.
1292.la t:itJ~ (n''iina) music (o/ stringed Ex 19:13; Lev 12:4; Num 4:15) are not tobe
instruments), song, taunt song. touched by the unauthorized. Unholy things are
1292.lb :in~~ (ma11gf11ii) mocking restricted. too (Num 19: 16. 22; lsa 52: 11).
song (Lam 3:63 only). Perhaps this is because to touch something is to
extend one·s authority over it. Certainly God's
The verb näian occurs in conjunction with
explicit commandments regarding what may and
"song" or "singers" in Ps 33:3; 68:25 [H 26! and
may not be touched lawfully (Hag 2: 12) should
Isa 23:16. Psalm 68 seems to differentiale be-
obviate any suspicion of magic or animism. This
tween the singers and the musicians (niii"nim)
raises a question regarding Eve·s speech in Gen
with the tambourine-playing maidens. The harp
3:3. Was she exaggerating (KD) or merely report-
(/.:innbr) is the instrument being played in I Sam
ing'!
16:16, Ps 33:2-3, lsa 23:16. Psalm 33:2 also men-
The root is used hyperbolically in conjunction
tions the ten-stringed lyre. David played the harp
with the guilty deserving punishment (Qal. Jer
before Saul to help soothe the king when an evil
51 :9) and unholy rage (Hiphil. II Chr 28:9). Both
spirit came upon him, but his efforts were some-
are said to reach to heaven, i.e. tobe exceedingly
times unsuccessful (1 Sam 16:16, 18, 23; 18:10;
great (Ps 57:11 [H 121: 108:5 iH 61). ifnot infinite.
19:9). Elisha asked for a minstrel to play for him.
Another special use connotes cohabitation. So.
so the hand of the Lord would come upon him (II
Abimelech states he had not touched Rebekah
Kgs 3; 15). Hezekiah anticipated that songs would
(Gen 20:6). Proverbs says that whoever touches
be played at the temple to give thanks for his
(goes to and has relations with) an adulteress
healing (lsa 38:20). In Ps 33 :3 the psalmist wanted
shall be punished (6:29). Boaz instructs his work-
to play skillfully and shout for joy as he praised
ers not to "touch .. (Rsv, molest) Ruth (2:9).
the Lord.
The verb frequently means to extend authority
n'ginä. Music, song, taunt song. This noun re- over by claiming as one·s own, or inflicting a
fers to pleasant songs in Ps 77:6 [H 71 and joyful blow (fatal'l) upon (Jer4:I0. 18: Job 1:19; 5:19).

551
1294 l:'\~J
(nägap)

God forbids people so to touch his prophets Our root denotes a blow, usually divinely
(1 Chr 16:22), his people (Zech 2:8 [H 121),or his meted. which is fatal or disastrous. For
inheritance (Jer 12:14). These are holy and belong synonyms see naga'. Also note the parallels to
to him (cf. ritualistic use). God touches the our verb karar "crush fine" (Ps 89:23 iH 24]),
wicked with righteous judgment (Gen 12:17: and its effects, nus "flee" (Lev 26: 17), mut
32:25 [H 26): 1 Sam 6:9). However. the Psalmist "die" (II Chr 13:20), sickness (II Sam 12:15). Our
(73:14) and Job (19:21) complain against God's verb occurs forty-eight tirnes.
justice. Onlookers will consider the Messiah di- The verb is used in Ex 21 :22 of a blow deliv-
vinely and justly punished (lsa 53:4 ). God ·s touch ered with malice and potentially capable of caus-
often is beneficial. empowering one to service ing death (v. 35). If such a blow accidentally
(lsa 6:7: Dan 10:16: Jer 1:9). Always. God's lands on a pregnant woman causing prernature
touch is authoritative, whether he touches birth and not a miscarriage. no death penalty is
mountains (Ps 104:32: cf. Arnos 9:5), a sacrifice exacted (Rsv). This interpretation is supported by
(Jud 6:21: cf. II Sam 23:7), or men (1 Kgs 19:7: the proximity of "her fetus goes out" and "and
I Sam 10:26). there shall be no accident involving death" (cf.
KB, used in Gen 42:4 of accidental death), as weil
nega'. Stroke, plague/disease. This noun refers
to a physical blow, or to the punishment an over- as verses 23-25. So N1v: "and she gives birth
prematurely, .. footnote: Or, "she has a miscar-
lord gives a subject. God is usually the one who
metes out punishment and/or disease. The large riage ... This verse figures prominently in the bi-
majority ofthe usages occur in Lev 13 and 14 and blical teaching regarding abortion.
In several passages our root is applied to a se-
concem the contagious diseases there described,
cf ~ara·ar (KJV leprosy). Our noun has many rious striking of one·s foot on rocks. Wisdom
synonyms, e.g. neF(ep, ma,?gepa (from nagap guides one in walking sure-footedly (Prov 3:23).
"to strike/smite··i. emphasizing a more forceful lndeed God prornises angelic help in so protect-
ing the godly (Ps 91:12). Unfaithful Judah is
action and more serious result, deber. a general
summoned to repentance by the threat of the
word for plague or pestilence, makka, disease or
wounds resulting from punishment (see J. D. exile prophetically depicted as constant "stum-
Douglas. "Plague, Pestilence," in NBD. The bling, across dark mountains" (Jer 13:16). In the
eschaton all God's enemies will "stumble" over
noun occurs seventy-eight times.
the Messiah. the stone of stumbling ("' negep" is
As for the meaning "blow," this can be that
used synonomously parallel to mikshöl "stum-
which is exchanged in a controversy (Deut 17:8:
bling").
21 :5), or what a father gives his son as proper
punishrnent. Frequently, God is conceived as the
negep. Blow, plague, striking. ASVand RSVthe
Father who inflicts punishrnent. He states his in-
tention so to "father" David (II Sam 7: 14), all his same. Our noun usually connotes a mortal blow
children (Ps 89:32 1H 33 !), and all true believers or plague inflicted as divine punishment. Espe-
(Acts 15:16ff.: Heb 12:3ff.). Adulterers are espe- cially note lsa 8: 14. negep occurs seven times.
cially singled out for divine chastisement (Prov
maggepä. Blow, pestilence, defeat, plague. ASV
6:33) as are the kings ofGerar (Gen 12:17) and
and Rsv the same except at II Chr 21: 14 where the
Egypt (Ex 11:1). One cannot help thinking that to
former has a marginal reading which is clearly
God leprosy (sara'ar, q.v.) was not a "neutral"
preferable (cf. Ezk 24: 16). Our noun is frequently
disease, but was a form of punishment (Lev 13:
used of a blow, etc. (the effect of nagap) result-
14: cf. Num 12:10). Men will look on the Messiah
who vicariously bore divine punishment (lsa ing from divine retribution. However, this is not
necessarily the case (Ezk 24: 16). For synonyms
53:8). The people who knew ofGod's promise to
chastise might weil avoid those who are so disci- see nega·. Our word occurs twenty-five times.
The plagues of Egypt (termed both nef?ep and
plined ostensibly for their unrepented sin (Ps
ma{?gepa, Num 16:46fT., !H 17:l lfT.]) intended to
38: 11 !H 121). The chastened person can and
ought to beg God for forgiveness and relief (1 Kgs pierce Pharoah · s heart (Ex 9: 14) ultimately did so
in the form of the last plague (Ex 12:23). Memory
8:38: Ps 39: 10 1H 11J:Jas 5: 13ff.). He is both able
of that divine judgment on human rebellion was
and willing to comply (Ps 91: 10).
enshrined in the Passover (Ex 12:27), national
Bibliography: THAT. II. pp. 37-38.
memory (Josh 24:5). and legal system (cf. Lev
L.J.C. 26: 17: Deut 28:25). Israel. although constantly
warned. went astray repeatedly (e.g. Ex 32:25:
1294 l!l~~ ( nagap) strike. Num 14:42) and ultimately was smitten by God.
This rebellion required atonement for this ever
Derivatives present sinfulness (Ex 30: 12) and sin (Num
1294a tip; (ncgep) blow, plague. 16:46fT. IH 17:1lff.l). In the eschaton. however,
1294b t~~~~ (maF(gepa) blow, pestilence. God·s blows/plagues effect repentance on Egypt

552
 1297 ~ ~~ ( nägash)
(lsa 19:22), indeed, all God's enemies will either quietly endure it himself to accomplish salvation
repent or perish (Zech 14:12ff.). (lsa 53:7: cf. Ex 3:7). His suffering would elevate
L.J.C. the godly to rulers (oppressors as far as their
enemies are concemed, so KD, Zech 9:8: lsa
1295 *i~; (nägar) pour down (Niphal, Hiphil 14:2). They in turn would answer to peace and
only). (Asv and RSVsimilar with the latter righteousness (lsa 60: 17).
inferior at Lam 3:49. Both are inadequate The seventh year law directed creditors not to
at Ps 77:2 [H 3].) demand payment during that year (KD, Deut
15:2-3), except from foreigners (cf. Jsa 3:5).
Our verb describes the spilling of water onto
the ground (II Sam 14:14). lt is paralleled to gtilii L.J.C.
(q.v. Job 20:28), ytirad (Lam 3:4~9), and the
melting of wax before fire (Mic 1:4). For 1297 tli~; (niigash) draw near, approach. (ASV
synonyms, see niiba ·, etc. Our verb occurs ten and Rsv similar, the latter being preferable
times. at lsa 49:20; Mal 3:3; Ezk 9:6; and ques-
Our word is used in figures of mourning and tionable at Jer 46:3 (cf. Joel 3:9 [H 4:9]).
judgment. In II Sam 14:14 it is the people of Israel Our root signifies coming into very near prox-
who are said to be poured out (in mourning) like
imity to the object. Unlike its near synonym,
water upon the ground, i.e. near death. A similar
qtirab, it does not usually signify actual contact.
image occurs in Lam 3:49 of lsrael's mourning
For other synonyms cf. qärab. For cognates see
over the exile (ntigar and püg, i.e. the weeping
Ugaritic ng( and its by-form ngsh (UT 19: no.
does not cease). Could a proper translation of Ps
1611). Note nägas "press (burden) upon." The
77:2 [H 3] be "my soul (i.e. yad represents
root occurs 125 times.
power, strength, Ps 89:48 [H 49]) is poured out
The simple use of the root signifies proximity,
in the night and it does not cease" (Gen 45:26)?
i.e. near enough to touch (Gen 27:21; 29:10), eat
When applied to judgment our root speaks of the
(Gen 27:25), kiss (Gen 27:27), embrace (Gen
"pouring down" of the property of the wicked
48: 10). When used in a military context (cf.
(Job 20:28, this is their true inheritance, na/:za/ii),
qiirab) it is often accompanied by "to do battle··
and the mountains of the earth (Mic I :4, 6 )-as a (cf. Jud 20:23; I Chr 19:14). This is not always
result ofGod's wrath (Ps 75:8 [H 9]). Perhaps Ps
true, however. In Joel 3:9 [H 4:9] niigash by it-
63:10 [H 11] connotes "pouring over" the blade
self signifies being arrayed for battle (paralleled
(yad) of the sword: i.e. the ungodly are to die.
to 'iirak (q. v .), and is in conjunction to bö' (q. v .).
Edom receives judgment for mercilessly, re-
See I Sam 17:16, 40. The root can also represent
lentlessly killing God's elect (Ezk 35:5), while ls-
the actual engaging in battle and the result. So in
rael's sin evokes Jeremiah's righteous anger (Jer
Ezk 9:6 the elect being marked with a taw are not
18:21).
tobe slain (hiirag parallel to "a/ niigash). Israel
L.J.C. who proudly boasts that death (the sword) will
not overtake or meet them is condemned by God
1296 iu~;(niigas) exact, exert demanding pres-
(Arnos 9: 10). The sovereign covenant God, there-
sure. (Asv and RSVthe same except at I
fore, guides and controls the sword keeping the
Sam 13:6, lsa60:17; Dan 11:20.)
elect safe even in the midst of war (Ps 91 :7) and
Our root connotes the exertion of demanding punishing the wicked.
oppressive pressure for payment or Iabor. A near The root can be used of approaching a person
synonym is näsha'/ntishii (only the repayment of of exalted position with all the respect due his
money). The participle (taskmaster, slavedriver) position (Gen 43: 19; 45:4: II Kgs 5: 13). God says
is somewhat parallel to sarmas (Ex 1: 11) the that a king from his people would so approach
head of the corvee. The verb occurs twenty-three him in the eschaton (Jer 30:21). Men approach
times. God through his servants to learn his will (Jer
The essential meaning of our root is exhibited 42: 1: cf. the use of the ephod, I Sam 23 :9, and the
in Ex 3:7 where it signifies Egyptian "over- Jot, I Sam 14:38). This represents God as king and
seers." They were told not to supply straw to judge. Sometimes the line between approaching
Israel but to maintain the work output (vv. 10, the servant and approaching God himself is dif-
13). They beat the lsraelite "foremen" when ficult to discern (cf. Josh 14:6, 21: 1). Yet clear
Pharoah's demand was not met. Similar "oppres- examples of approaching God the judge are evi-
sion" is seen in the tribute (lsa 14:4: II Kgs 23:35) denced, i.e. coming into a courtroom prepared to
forcibly exacted (cf. Dan 11:20). A "boss" could argue a case (Gen 18:23). God summons men to
be equally demanding (Job 3:18: 39:7). Judah·s come and hear his pronouncement (Josh 3:9).
children would assume such a role (lsa 3: 12). The This image of a courtroom is used forcibly by the
Messiah would do away with all such oppression prophet Jsaiah to call Israel and the nations into
(lsa 9:4 [H 3]: Zech 9:8) although he would account (lsa 41:1, 21: 45:20-21). The servant of

553
1298 *N:9(nädä')
the Lord boldly proclaims God as his advocate building (1 Chr 29:5) and rebuilding (II Chr 35:8;
before his enemies. He has no fear of being pro- Ezr 1:6) of the temple elicited abundant voluntary
ven wrong (lsa 50:8). giving and sacrifice (Ezr 3:5) from God's people.
God sits as judge over his people (Josh 3:9), lnterestingly, Deborah commends the people
and he designates men to represent him in this (Jud 5:2) and leaders (Jud 5:9) of Israel for liber-
capacity (Ex 24:14: Deut 25:1). Elijah calls the ally and voluntarily offering themselves to God in
people into court as witnesses in his controversy the holy war. David addresses God concerning
with the prophets of Baal (1 Kgs 18:30). the freewill contributions toward building the
Men also are to approach God the great king temple, confessing that he owned everything in-
and judge as the great and holy savior. Hence our cluding their stewardship, and he was gracious in
word is used cultically. To approach God prop- accepting them (1 Chr 29).
erly requires purification (Ex I 9:22; 20:21: 28:43:
30:20: Lev 21:21) and appointment (e.g. Num n"däba. Freewill offering. This noun denotes
4: 19). Our word is used interchangeably with th at which is offered voluntarily. lt is used three
qärab I (q. 1·. ), representing both the presentation times adverbially to describe acts. Other words
of an offering to the priests (Lev 8: 14) and their translated "free" are IJinnäm, costing no money;
presenting it before God (Lev 2:8). Like Jeremiah näqii, having no guilt; and IJapash, not being en-
(12:2, qiirab), lsaiah (29:13) reports God's dis- slaved. Our word occurs twenty-six times.
pleasure at his people being close to him with The noun n 'däbii represents voluntary con-
their mouths, and far removed in their hearts. tributions (the objects of nädab) toward the
Malachi uses our word six times and always in building of the tabemacle and temple. In Ex 36
the sense of making an offering (e.g. 1:7--8). the people volunteered so much that Moses
The root, like qiirab 1, is used of sexual rela- asked them to stop giving! Furthermore, this
tions in Ex 19:15. noun represents sacrifice made "out of devotion,
L.J.C. not out ofprecept or promise" (Al, p. 417). Such
sacrifices are one of the three (the other two are
neder, voluntive, and tödii, thanksgiving otfer-
ij (nöd). See no. 1319a. ings) types of "peace" otferings (sh'' lämim). The
,; (ned). See no. 1301a. sh"lämim "symbolizes the reconciliation with
God that follows upon the atonement" (PTOT,
1298 *M?; (nädä') drive away, thrust aside. p. 386). As such it celebrates a state of favor and
Occurs only once, in the Hiphil (II Kgs blessedness arising from a proper relationship
17:21). with God. He prescribes and supervises the de-
tails of the entire proceeding, acting as host of the
fellowship dinner. The same beasts are appro-
1299 :j; (nädab) make willing, incite.
priate (although birds are excepted) as in the case
Derivatives of burnt offerings, but both male and female ani-
1299a t:,;,, (n''däba) freewill offering. mals (even those with minor blemishes) are also
1299b t:,,, (nädib) noble. allowed (Lev 22:23). The ritual embraces the
1299c t:,;•it (n"diba) noble deed. same steps as does the burnt offering. In the
n''däbii part of the animal (all fat around the in-
The root ndb connotes an uncompelled and testines, kidneys, and liver, as weil as the sheep's
free movement of the will unto divine service or tail) are tobe burnt on the altar. Another part (the
sacrifice. lt occurs in other Northwest Semitic breast or right leg) is symbolically presented to
dialects and in Amorite as a proper name. Cf. the God and eaten by the priests. The rest of the
Arabic nadaba ··call," "incite" and niiduba "be sacrifice is consumed within two days (Lev 7:16)
noble, willing." The synonym 'iibii is the by the suppliant, his family, and perhaps some
willingness (inclination) to do something under invited guests (underprivileged of the land), all of
obligation or upon request: rä~bn, a willing whom must be ritualistically pure (Al, p. 418).
which is pleasurable to the doer; IJapa~. a com- Several passages use our word in noteworthy
pliance suiting that which is fitting or a favorable ways. In Ps 68:9 [H IOJGod is praised for restor-
disposition: yii' al, an exertion of one's will to do ing his heritage by sending rain voluntarily. ln-
something. See ·awa, yä'ab, and /ä'ab. Our verb volved in this confession is the idea that the co-
occurs seventeen times. venant God, Jehovah, gave prosperity but not
The verb nädab occurs three times in the Qal because he was in any way bound to do so. The
and each time describes the inner state of those people had broken his covenant, yet he blessed
contributing to the construction of the taberna- them (Hos 14:4 [H 51). In Ps 110:3 the people are
cle. Such offerings were tobe one·s own goods the willing offering. In Ps 119:108 it is prayer that
and given voluntarily. The rest of the occurences constitutes such voluntative offerings. This un-
are in the Hithpael and, hence, are reflexive. The veils the persistent theme that God desires heart-

554
 1302 *:,'~ (nada)
feit obedience (I Sam 15:22: Hos 6:6) more than a cept is inherent in the Qal participial form "fugi-
multitude of sacrifices (Arnos 4:5). tive" (lsa 16:3; 21:14). The word also connotes
the idea of wandering, meandering, or straying
nädib. Noble, willing, inclined. This word pat-
(Job 15:23: Ps 55:7 [H 8]; Isa 16:2: Hos 7:13:
terned after the Qal passive participle is used as a 9: 17).
noun and as an adjective. The former denotes one The word is also used of the fluttering of the
who is either typified by voluntarily and freely wings of nestling birds in Isa 10: 14 with no clear
sacrificing and/or serving the deity, or who is re- reference to flight. In view of t;ie use of nädad in
sponsible for such activity. There are many near the sense offlight in Nah 3:17, it may be used in
synonyms and most of them have Akkadian or
lsa IO:14 in an associative sense. However this
Persian cognates, e.g. nägid "one who is con-
usage and the usage inherent in the noun form
spicuous," näsi' "one who is lifted up or pro-
(n 'ditd) indicate that directional movement is not
moted," näsik "one who is anointed" and,
essential to the meaning of the word.
hence, consecrated, sar"head official, captain."
T.E.M.
The usage of nädib attribute~ voluntary cultic
(I Chr 28:21: Ex 35:5, 22: II Chr 29:31) and/or
religious (Ps 51 : 12 1H 141)service to its noun. Our 1301 ,,, (ndd). II. Assumed root of the follow-
word occurs twenty-seven times. ing.
The noun nädib can refer both to common 1301a t,~ (ned) heap.
people (Ex 35:5) and overlords (I Sam 2:8) as ASV and Rsv the same except at Ps 33:7 where
those who do or should voluntarily serve God.
th e latter reads "bottle." Both emend the vowels
The latter are contrasted to the poverty stricken of the text at Isa 17: 11 to read the verb nad [root
(da/ and 'ebyon, I Sam 2:8). Their responsibility
nädad "to flee"] rather than our noun. If this
is emphasized when they are described as righ-
emendation, which is also followed by the NIV, is
teous (Prov 17:26) and contrasted with the fool valid, then our noun in its other five occurrences
(Prov 17:7). Their exalted material and social po-
always has reference to restrained or dammed up
sition is dependent on God (Ps I07:40), and,
waters.
hence, people are adjured not to trust in them but lt should be distinguished from gal a pile of
in God (Ps 146:3). Even Gentile overlords can be
stones, 'i a heap of stones forming a ruin or
so described (Ps 47:9 [H IO]).
waste, ·arema a gathering, a ruin-heap, and tela
n•dibä. Noble deed, noble bearing. This noun hill of ruins.
represents what a nädib does (Isa 32:8) or what is Gesenius-Buhl, BOB, and KB all posit two
ty pical of such a one (Job 30: 15). lt occurs three Semitic roots for the consonants ndd because in
times. Arabic the verb nadda meaning ··to flee" corre-
L.J.C. sponds to Hebrew niidad "to flee," and the
Arabic noun naddun denoting "high hill" is
probably related to our noun.
1300 ij; (nädad) /, deparl, flee, move, wander
abroad. Our noun is applied to the restrained waters at
the creation (Ps 33:7), to the waters of the yiim
Derivative süp when they piled up on both sides while the
1300a ,,,~ (n'' ditd) tossing, as during lsraelites crossed through it (Ex 15:8: cf. 14:22,
29), and to the Jordan River which stopped flow-
periods of sleeplessness (Job 7:4,
only). ing because they became dammed up at Adam, a
town on the Jordan River upstream from Jericho
Basic to the meaning of the root is the concept where the lsraelites crossed over at the time of
of motion, often with a directional sense, i.e. mo- the Conquest (Josh 3: 13, 16). The Jordan episode
tion away from a person or object. But that sense is a miracle of divine control of a possible occur-
does not obtain in every occurrence of the word. rence, since the region around Adam has geologi-
When used in the sense of "motion away cal conditions which could result in a landslide
irom" the word has several modes of expression capable of damming the river. Indeed, such a
depending on the form of the verb or the context thing reportedly occurred in 1227 A.D. (for sixteen
in which it appears. lt means "to flee"' in the hours), and in 1927 for two and one-half hours
sense of fleeing from the threat of <langer (Isa (cf. J. M. Houston, "Jordan," in NBD, p. 656).
10:31: 21:15: 22:3: 33:3: Jer 4:25: 9:9: Ps 68:12 The word is theologically important because it
[H 13]). In a metaphorical sense it describes the speaks of the LORD' s sovereign control over the
departing of sleep from the eyes (Gen 31 :40; Est creation as he achieves his will on earth.
6: 1), The meaning "depart" also obtains in the B.K.W.
Ugaritic cognate (UT 16: Text 52:93: 'nt 1.8).
In the Hiphil the word means ··expel" or
1302 *:," (niida) I, pul away, cast out.
"chase away" (Job 18:18: 20:8). The same con-

555
1303 :,i~ (ndh)

Derivatives Derivative
1302a t:i,; (niddii) jdthiness, menstruous, 1304a tn~"lO (maddCtalJ) enticement (Lam
set apart. - 2~14, only).
1302b :,i\J ( nidii) filthiness. Occurs
•only in Lam 1:8. The root ndh refers to the action of forcibly
driving or pushing something away. Cf. the
The verb nädii means "to exclude" (lsa 66:5), synonyms dälJii and dälJalJ which seem tobe _var-
and "refuse to think of' (Arnos 6:3). lt occurs iant (perhaps dialectical) spellings or denved
only in the Piel. Its synonym gärash is more roots. There is an Arabic cognate, however, for
widely used. The Ugaritic ndy is parallel to grsh both nädalJ and dä/Jii. Other synonyms are:
(UT 19:no. 1616; cf. Akkadian nadCt "throw, ne- gärash "to drive out of one's resting-place or
glect"). home," hence, to divorce; nädap "to push or
thrust away," i.e. what the wind does to chaff or
nidda. Filthiness, menstruous, put apart, separa-
smoke; nähag "to drive or guide people or ani-
tion, set apart, unclean thing. (RSV tr~ns~~t~s mal(s) to an intended destination"; pCt~"to scat-
"pollutions" in Ezra 9: II and "filthy thmg m
Lam 1:17; ASV "filthy thing" in Lam 1:17.) ter, disperse." Some antonyms of ?ur root are:
kinnes, qibbe~. and shCtb (all of wh1ch see). The
Derived from nädad by BDB but from nädd by
root occurs fifty-five times.
KB. In the legal literature the word is used The basic meaning of the root emerges in Deut
primarily to describe the ritual un~leanness _in- 19:5; 20: 19 where it represents the action of
curred by women during menstruauon or ch1ld-
swinging an ax, i.e. impelling something ~way
binh, two functions generally associated with
from one. David uses this same forceful figure
impurity incurred from bodily discharges or se-
cretions (Lev 12:2, 5; 15:19-20, 26). when he speaks about the disaster Absalom in-
tends to bring upon him (II Sam 15:14),. and
Everything on which a menstruous women
which the wicked intend to inflict upon the nght-
might lie or sit was pronounced ritu~ly unclean
(niddd). The impurity defined by th1s word also
eous (Ps 62:4 [H 6]; notice the use of dälJa, v. 3
extended to abnormal menstruation such as pro- [H 41). . .
longed or irregular periods (Lev 15:25, 33). Tue root also depicts the force of wmd blowmg
away a swarm of locusts (Joel 2:20). However,
Ezekiel applies the word to the menstrual
period in his description of the righteous. man the image most used with nädalJ is ~hat o~ a flock
who, among other things, does not have mter- of sheep. Sometimes the agent wh1ch dnves the
course with a woman during the time of her sheep away is not specified (Deut 22: l); some-
period (Ezk 18:6; 22: 10) (a law dependent on Lev times it is lions (Jer 50: 17; men, Isa 13:14; cf. Job
18:19). See also Ezk 22:10. 6:13). The agent can also be inept shepherds who
Metaphorically, the concept of the ritual im- are guilty not of negligence (so that the sheep
wander away) but of doing the opposite of what
purity of the menstrual period was us~d ~y
they are supposed to do (i.e. they scatter and/or
Ezekiel to describe the nature of Israel s sm
lead the sheep astray, Ezk 34:4; cf. Prov 7:21).
(36: 17). Basic to the metaphorical use of the term
So God warns his people against false prophets
is the concept of abhorrence inherent in the phys-
wh~ would drive them away from him (Deut 13:5
ical origin of the term. lt is used of useless cur-
rency cast into the streets like an abhorred thing [H 61). Such shepherds are tobe stoned, !nd~ed,
(Ezk 7:19-20). lt is applied to lsrael's most hein- if a whole city goes after such a one that c1ty 1s to
ous sins (Zech 13:1: Ezr 9: 11; II Chr 29:5). be destroyed (Deut 13:13 [H 14)). If the whole
nation is so led astray it will be driven off the land
The word is used in the technical expression
(Deut 30: 17) by God. Jeroboam (II Kgs 17:21!,
·· water of impurity." a purifying water used in
the ceremony of cleansing from the defilement of Ahab (II Chr 21: 11), and eventually all of Israel s
death (Num 19:9, 13, 20-21). leaders (Ezk 34:4) are condemned as poor
Bibliography: Harris, R. Laird, Man--God's
shepherds. Note the irony of Jer 27:10, 15! Israel
Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, p. 143.
is warned that they are not simply sheep, but are
T.E.M. responsible before God neither to be driv~n. as-
tray by false religion (Deut 4: 19)or false rehg1ous
leaders.
1303 :,i: (ndh) II. Assumed root of the follow- God is the great shepherd who will disown and
ing. expel the flock if they follow false under-
1303a :i,, (nedeh) gift (Ezk 16:33, shepherds (Deut 30: 17). They will be driven away
···only).
from his presence into the thick darkness (lsa
8:22) of captivity in a foreign land(s) where they
,~,~ (n'' dCtd). See no. 1300a. will be a taunt, etc. (Jer 24:9), eat unclean bread
(Ezk 4: 13), prefer death, and many will ~ie (Jer
1304 M'_:!J (nädalJ) impel, drive away, banish. 8:3). God promises, however, that he will only

556
 1308 "l'.'.I~
(nadar)

refine them and not completely destroy them (Jer Our root connotes the act of verbally conse-
46:28). The Great Shepherd will return his crating (devoting to the service) ofGod, i.e. vow-
purified flock (cf. the forty years ofwandering) to ing to perform (Gen 28:20ff.), to make an offering
these green fields (Palestine, Jer 16:15: cf. Ps 23) (Lev 27), or to abstain from something (Ps
once more (Deut 30:4) once they repent (cf. Neh l32:2ff.). Cf. especially 'äla. the general uttering
1:9; Ezk 34:16: Jer 29:14). Micah also employs of oaths and curses as part of that !arger catagory
this image in a clearly messianic context (4:6: cf. (cf. qälal), 'äsar "be bound or joined to or in"
Ps 147:2 [H 3)). God the Great Shepherd gathers (cf. 'esär/'issär ··bond," Num 30:2 [H 3], etc.),
and tends his tlock, but he also punishes their fJrm "to devote something to destruction," and
former oppressors (Jer 46:28), establishes his shäba' "make a statement or a promise" (with an
own forever in his grace (Zeph 3:19; cf. Jer 24:9; oath invoking God and pledging something valu-
lsa 11:12), and extends his grace beyond the able). Cf. Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 1618: AisWUS
physical descendants and ritualistically un- 1758), and Phoenician (KAI, p. 16) cognates with
blemished people of Israel (lsa 56:8). This good the same meaning. The verb occurs thirty-one
shepherd image is well-known from the teachings times.
of Jesus (Jn 10) and prefigures the function and
goal of the New Testament elder (Acts 20:17, neder. Vow, votive offering. RSV superior to ASV
28ff.; Titus 1:7, etc.). at•Lev 7:16; 22:18, etc., where the noun denotes
L.J.C. the thing offered. This noun represents either the
result of nädar, i.e. a vow, or the thing offered to
!l'".1
1 (nädib). See no. 1299b. fulfill a vow. For synonyms see nädab. Cognates
1305 1,
1 (nädän) I,
16:33. Vocalization
gift. Occurs only in Ezk
uncertain. Probably
for the noun occur in Ugaritic and Phoenician, as
for the verb (see above). The noun occurs fifty-
nine times.
related to the rciot nätan. neder occurs in the lists of sacrifices (e.g. Deut
12:6, 11) as a species of peace offering (Lev 7: 16).
1306 m (nädän) II, sheath. Only in I Chr A closer description occurs in Num 30:3 [H 4]
21:27, a Persian loan word. where to nädar a neder is to swear to God with
an oath (hishshiiba' sh'bü'a; cf. Ps 132:2) and to
1307 1m (nädap) drive away. (ASV and RSV
bind one's seif with what proceeds from one's
the same except at Prov 21:6.) mouth. A neder is something promised to God
Our verb represents what the wind does to verbally (Num 30:4 [H 5]). If one so promises he
chaff and smoke. lt is an action parallel with di- is obliged to fulfill/do his promise (Deut 23:22). In
vine scattering of enemies with the result that most cases, the context shows that the vow im-
they flee (Ps 68:2 [H 3]; cf. Jer 13:24). For plies a promised gift for sacrifice, not merely a
synonyms see nädafJ. The word occurs nine course of action as is implied in the English word
times. "vow." The biblical "vow" is always to deity,
The root usually occurs in figures of judgment. never a promise between man and man. Rash
Especially noteworthy is its appearance in Lev vows are tobe avoided (Prov 20:25: cf. Jud 11:30)
26:36 where the law is sanctioned with the threat as foolish (Eccl 5:4 [H 3]f.) in the füllest sense of
that lsrael's disobedience would result in rout be- that word. One is not bound, however, to make a
fore her enemies (cf. nus). The Psalmist employs vow (contract) with God, for not to do so is no sin
a similar image of the fate of the wicked before (Deut 23:23 [H 24)). A neder is a species of thank
divine judgment. Here God himself is the "'wind"' offering (made even by Gentiles, Nah 1:15
(Ps 1:4). David asks God to drive away his [H 2: I]) vowed (Ps 116:14, 18) in return for God's
enemies (Ps 68:2 [H 3]: note the parallel with wax favor (Num 21: 1-3) or as an expression of godly
melting before fire). lsaiah warns Egypt of zeal and devotion and in praise for answered
impending judgment by depicting the complete prayer (Ps 22:25 [H 26]). Happiness results when
destruction of the Nile and the foliage along its a vow is properly fulfilled (Job 22:27).
banks. Here our word appears between "'dry up" Almost anything that is not God's already (Lev
(yäbesh) and "'is no more" (lsa 19:7). Divine aid 27:26: note the development in the concept of
will render Cyrus a formidable sword/bow in tithing, Gen 31:13), or an abomination to him
God's hands (lsa 41:2). (Deut 23: 18 [H 19]-such as the wages of a male
L.J.C. or female harlot: cf. Prov 7: 14)--.<:anbe vowed. A
person can even vow himself to service, or be
1 (nädar)
1308 „'.:1 make a vow. vowed to service, and can be redeemed (or re-
deem himself) thus giving to God a value equal in
Derivative worth to his actual service, but being free to pur-
1308a t"l'.',; (neder), "l'.',; (neder) vow, sue his own life (Lev 27:2ff.). Clean beasts which
votive offering. fulfilled a vow were presented as votive offerings

557
1309 .lt!J(nähag)
unless they did not fulfill the requirements oth- ing that even in the Mosaic era love (Deut 6:4),
erwise specified in the law (Lev 27:9ff.; cf. and not pure legalism, best described true godli-
22:18ff.; nadab) in which case the offerer can ness. The Messiah is also bound by vow to offer
also present a second acceptable offering. Both himself a sacrifice for sin (Ps 22:25 [H 26]; cf.
animals, however, are holy (Lev 27:9ff.). One is Lev. 27:2ff.)-the only human sacrifice truly
sacrificed, the other becomes the possession of "acceptable" to God. All men are to come to
the priesthood. Unclean beasts may be redeemed God with their vows (Ps 65: 1 [H 2]; cf. lsa 19:21),
(Lev 27: l lf.). The regulations goveming vowing and what can they bring as a votive offering other
a house or houses, and land also appear in Lev than God's own lamb (Jn 1:29)?
27. During the wildemess wanderings (KD, Num Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 39-42.
15:3) the amount of fine flour and drink offering L.J.C.
to accompany the various kinds of animals poten-
tially constituting votive offerings was stipulated.
0: (noah). See no. 1320a.
The neder could be a bumt offering (Lev 22: 18)
or a peace-offering, in which case it was to be
eaten on either the first or second day (Lev 7: 16). 1309 Jm(nahag) l,lead,dri11e,guide.
For more details see nadab and sh'lämfm. Derivative
Both men and women could make vows. This
is tempered by an institutionalization of woman's
1309a J:,~~(minhag) driving, charioteer•
ing (II Kgs 9:20, only).
submission to man (Num 30:4 [H 5]). Yet it is
important to note that women could own prop- nahag denotes an orderly conducting of an
erty and be religiously responsible for themselves animal (or group of animals) or people to an in-
(Num 30:9 [H 101). The submission (Gen 2:2lf.) tended destination either by forcible driving or
sanctioned the family institution by emphasizing leading. This verb may be applied infrequently to
the importance of that union and relationship. inanimate objects (cf. Ex 10:13 etc.). For
After entry into Palestine the neder together with synonyms see especially, nä/Jii, "to lead, guide"
other stipulated sacrifices were to be consum- (Ps 77:20 [H 21]; Job 12:23), nahal ··to lead with
mated only at the designated central sanctuary care" (lsa 49:10), nada!J "impel, drive away,
(Deut 12:6, 11). banish," 'ashar (in Pie!) "to lead straight on"
To make vows was not a religious duty (Deut (KB), darak (Hiphil) "lead in the path of' (KB),
23:21-23 [H 22-24]). Such vows were acceptable and rä'ii "to shepherd" (including leading and
to God (Ps 50:8). He makes it clear, however, guiding a flock). The word occurs thirty times.
that he is not being fed or tended (Ps 50:9-13) as The word is used for herding cattle, sheep, etc.
paganism thought (cf. A. Leo Oppenheim, An- This can be the normal activity of a shepherd (Ex
cient Mesopotamia, University ofChicago, 1964, 3: 1; Gen 31: 18) whereby a shepherd "leads" the
p. 183ff.). Vows were supererogatory acts of de- flock by going before them (cf. lsa 40: 11; Jn
votion and love contracted either preceeding (Ps 10:4). lt can also refer to herding (driving) away
50: 14) or following divine blessing (Ps 116:17-18). booty (1 Sam 23:5; I Sam 30:22), or an animal as a
They were accompanied by joy (Nah 1:5 [H 2: 1]) pledge (Job 24:3).
and/or singing (Ps 61 :8 [H 91), and were accepta- Not only )arge groups, but a sing]e animal can
ble only if iniquity was not cherished in the of- be "herded," i.e. led (II Kgs 4:24), as the instruc-
ferer's heart (Ps 66:18; cf. Prov 7:14). tion of the Shunamite woman to her servant
There are at least two noteworthy special makes clear.
vows: the Nazirite (Num 6: 13ff; nazar„ q. v.) and People can be "herded." So Laban accuses
the /Jerem (Num 21:2; !Jrm, q.v.). Absalom be- Jacob of driving off his daughters as booty (Gen
gged leave of David's court to fulfill a vow 31:26; lsa 20:4)-unwillingly and by force. The
(II Sam 15:7-8). The depth of his deceit is shown verb also can represent the shepherd-like leading
by both his having lied and having lied respecting as a figure of the king's taking his army out to war
divine ordinances. Elkanah on the other hand, (1 Chr 20: 1; II Chr 25: 11). People are also herded
both conscientiously fulfilled his own vows in a less unwilling and less martial context (1 Sam
(1 Sam 1:21) and concurred with Hannah ·s (1 Sam 30:22).
1:11, 22-23; Cf. Num 30). Jephthah's rash prom- There are some passages where our verb is
ise of a human sacrifice is inexcusable, however applied to driving (i.e. forcible "herding") things.
low the level of his knowledge of divine law. One drives a chariot (Ex 14:25; II Kgs 9:20) or
Thankfully, it was tempered when he dedicated cart (II Sam 6:3). The Lord "drives" the winds
his only daughter to lifelong service in the taber- (Ex 10:13; Ps 78:26), his messengers (cf. Ps
nacle, as seems at least possible (Jud 11:30, 39; 104:3-4).
cf. KD). This verb is used of God's activity among his
The neder uniquely and concretely represents people. If they disobey, he will lead (drive, herd)
the love which conforms to divine pleasure show- them away to a foreign land (Deut 4:27). This

558
 1315 it9 (nähar)

principle stated in Deut 4:27 envisions all sub- •0 ~ (n'hi). See no. 131ld.
sequent "dispersions•· (KD), as does Deut 28:37.
This was especially fulfilled in the great exile 1312 *t:>:,•(näha/) Lead with care.
under Babylon. In the eschaton God's sovereign
power will so establish his kingdom that the Derivative
strength of the nations, i.e. their kings, shall be 1312a ,·,ri,(nahalo/) pasture (lsa 7:19,
"herded" (as booty!) to Jerusalem (lsa 60: l lff.). only).
God, the true shepherd (cf. nädafJ) herded his
Our root, which occurs in the Piel and
people during the wilderness wanderings (Ps Hithpael, denotes a shepherd's loving concemed
78:52). Under the monarchy the pious address
leading of his flock, especially those with young
God as he who led Joseph like a flock. The exile
(lsa 40: 11). For synonyms see nähag. The verb
elicited the painful cry "God led me and caused
me to walk in darkness" (Lam 3:2). In the escha- occurs ten times.
The basic meaning of nähal clearly emerges in
ton the role of "herder" simultaneously would
lsa 51: 18; Gen 33: 14; lsa 40: 11. The first passage
embrace carnivorous animals and their most
natural prey and would be filled by a little child parallels this root with "leading someone by the
(lsa 11:6). Later, lsaiah records that God himself hand, .. i.e. to lead someone who is helpless (cf.
Jud 16:26; lsa 42:6) or who needs to be guided
would be this mighty herder(lsa49: 10).
aright (cf. Gen 19:16; Isa 45: 1). Thus, Jerusalem,
L.J.C.
made drunk by God's judgment is helpless. The
second passage (Gen 33: 14) records Jacob' s re-
!3IO *J:,• (nähag) II, moan, lament. Occurs
quest to Esau that he be allowed to travel slowly
only once, in the Pie! (Nah 2:8).
and leisurely with his herds and children. Finally,
the root is paralleled with rä'a "to shepherd,"
1311 MN (nähii) wail, lament.
protectively gathering young lambs in one's
Derivatives arms, and carrying them in one's bosom. The
131Ia t,:,l (n 1• hi) wailing.
root specifically is connected :Nith what such a
shepherd does in leading pregnant ewes.
131lb :,,i,: ( nihva) wailing (Mic 2:4,
lt is this loving concerned shepherd-like lead-
1311c -~T ~~ly). .
(ni) wailing (Ezk 27:32, only).
1311d '0 (hi) wailing (Ezk 2: 10, only).
ing that typifies God's conducting his people to
Palestine (paralleled by näha. Ex 15:13). David
confesses that God gently leads him beside still
This verb refers to the wailing that accom- waters (parallel to "makes me lie down in green
panies mourning. Synonyms are 'äna "to la- pastures," Ps 23:2), and prays God's continued
ment, mourn ... Also see qyn. 'äbal, and säpad, care (Ps 31:3 [H 4 ), parallel to nä/Ja ). The escha-
which are used to refer to the various expressions ton will attest God's tender leading of his people
of formal and professional mourning which was (lsa 40: 11; 49: IO).
common in the ancient Near East. näha occurs The idea of tenderly leading extends to ten-
three times. This wailing was done by women or derly conducting, e.g. feeble ones on asses
other professionals (Jer 9: 18 [H 18); Ezk 32: 18; (II Chr 28:15), the weak through threatening
Arnos 5:16). enemies (II Chr 32:22), and the hungry through a
Divine prescription summons such activity ac- famine (Gen 47:17).
companying a funeral dirge in anticipation of the L.J.C.
forthcoming judgment on Israel (Jer 9:9-11,
16-21: 31:15). Micah enjoins a similar lamenting
over God's condemned but rebellious people
''N (nahälöl). See no. 1312a.

(2:4; Arnos 5: 16). This word is used of the mourn- 1313 cm (näham) growl, groan (e.g. Prov
ing for the divinely condemned multitudes of 5: 11; Ezk 24:23).
Egypt (Ezk 32: 18). Derivatives
n•hi. Wailing. Asv and Rsv the same except at 1313a c:,; (naham) growling (Prov
Jer 31: 15 where ASVis superior. Both are in- 19:12, only).
adequate at Mic 2:4 ("wail with a bitter wail- 1313b :i~:;9 (n'häma) growling (lsa
ing"). Our noun represents the result of näha. lt 5:30); groaning (Ps 38:9).
is difficult to distinguish this result from that of
'äna "lament'·. The noun occurs seven times. 1314 i'01 (nähaq) bray, cry (Job 6:5: 30:7).
Bibliography: AI, p. 60. Gregory, T. M.,
"Mourning,.. in ZPEB, IV, pp. 302-306.
Kitchen, K. A., "Burial and Mourning," in
1315 ,::i.(nähar) /, jlow, stream.

NBD, p. 170ff. Derivative

L.J.C. 1315a t,::,. (nähär) river.

559
1316 ,::9 (nähar)
nühar is used only four times and in the Qal. In light," nüru "a light.·• Arabic nahärun "day-
the OT it is only used figuratively of the conflu- light." nur of the same meaning is a by-form. KB
ence of nations. The most interesting passages suggests that nühar is the Aramaic form. Our
are the duplicates in lsa 2:2 and Mic 4: 1 when in verb occurs three times (so, KB).
the last days all nations will stream to God's tem-
n•härä. Light, daylight (Job 3:4 only). RSV and
ple in Jerusalem.
ASV the same. Our word signifies the first "rays"
nähär. River, stream. Used 120 times in the of the morning sun.
oT. The noun is found also in Ugaritic (Ais WUS L.J.C.
no. 1762), Aramaic, Arabic, and Akkadian. The
word is used many times to refer to the major
1317 *MU (nu') forbid, disallow.
rivers of the Bible lands. The Psalms use it more
generally for torrents of water in various similes. Derivative
The rivers of Eden are named and the two 1317a :,~m;i (t"nü'a) opposition (Num
!arger ones easily identified. The other two can
14:34; Job 33:10.
be inferred fairly weil. Speiser points out that
Gen 2: IO speaks of four river valleys going up nü' represents a negative reaction to a planned
from Eden to their headwaters. The streams ob- action. lt is parallel to lö' f:iarash ("he does not
viously flow into Eden and unite to go toward the keep silent," Num 30:5 [H 61), and heper (Hiphil
Persian Gulf (AB, Genesis, pp. 19-20; cf. also of pärar "to break, bring to nought"). A male
Harris, R. L., "The Mist, the Canopy and the head of a house can "forbid" a woman's vow
Rivers of Eden," JETS 11:177-79). (Num 30:8 [H 91), and God "breaks" man's plans
The Nile does not seem to be called a nühür (Ps 33: 10). The word occurs nine times, always in
but is named the y' 'ör which is an Egyptian loan the Hiphil.
word and is practically the name for the Nile and L.J.C.
its branches. The Euphrates is called the nühür
p' rat (the word Euphrates is just Greek for
1318 :m (nüb) bearfruit (e.g.Ps62:ll;Prov
"beautiful Parat") or merely nühür "The
River." The two upper tributaries of the Eu- 10:31).
phrates, the Balikh and the Khabur are called the Derivatives
"two rivers" in the expression Aram Naharaim.
1318a :iü (nöb) fruit (lsa 57: 19, only).
The Khabur is probably the river of Gozan
1318b :i•; (nib) fruit (lsa 57:19; Mal
(II Kgs 17:6). The streams of Damascus, Abana
1: 12).
and Pharpar are called rivers. Curiously the word
nühür is never applied to the Jordan. lt is just 1318c :i;m;i (t"nüba) fruit, produce (e.g.
lsa 27:6; Ezk 36:30).
"The Jordan."
In the expression for the extent of the promised
land it goes from "the River (nühür) of Egypt" to 1319 iu (nüd) wander; have compassion on.
"the great river, the River Euphrates" (Gen
15:18. B. Waltke ("The River of Egypt," in Derivatives
ZPEB, V, p. 121) argues that this means the Nile 1319a ,;, (nöd), il (nöd) wandering
and its branches, for nähär could not be applied of aimless fugitive (Ps 59:9).
to the small stream now called the Wadi el Arish 1319b i•; (nid) quivering motion of lips
southwest of the Gaza strip. However, nähär (Job 16:5).
does not seem to be applied to the Nile either. 2119c iilr; (mänöd) a shaking, wag-
Perhaps the question like other Near East bound- ging (Ps 44:15, only).
ary questions in modern times defies attempts at
nüd basically denotes a going back and forth. lt
settlement.
is applied to a physical movement or an attitude.
R.L.H.
Cf. Arabaic näda "move to and fro" (as the head
of one falling asleep). The two connotations of
1316 -,::9 (nühar) II, light, burn (as a lamp).
our word are evidenced by its parallels and
Derivatives synonyms. First, our word is parallel to nf:im (lsa
51:19) "to comfort," "be sorry for someone or
1316a -m,:,~(n' hära) light, daylight.
one 's seif," and f:iml (Jer 15:5) "to spare," "have
1316b :i,:,;t,, (minhüra).Occurs only in
compassion on." Secondly, cf. nüa' "wander
Jud 6:2. Meaning uncertain,
unstably," "move unsteadily," "wag one's head
perhaps "mountain cleft" (N1v).
mockingly" (Gen 4: 12). lt is important to note
This verb signifies "tobe light," "to shine" as that the root sometimes equals or is similar to
a lamp. Ugaritic attests nr (root, nyr, AisWUS nadad "to flee in disorderly retreat"; hence, it is
no. 1850), and Akkadian nawäru /namäru "to paralleled to nus "flee" (Jer 4:30) and con-

560
 1322 :-m
(näwa)

trasted to /Jiisti "take refuge" (Ps 11:1), and cf. 1322 :"!); (näwii) II, keep at home. Denomina-
Prov 27:8. Our verb occurs twenty-seven times. tive verb.
The basic meaning, to wander aimlessly and/or
homelessly, is seen in the curse God placed upon Parent Noun
Cain (Gen 4:12, 14). He was not only driven away 1322a t'W (näweh) I, pasture, abode of
from his parents, but was condemned to be an shepherd, habitation.
unstable person (nua') and a homeless wanderer 1322b M.); (niiweh) II, dwelling, abid-
(nud). That our root connotes aimless to and fro
(wandering) movement is clear from I Kgs 14:15
where it represents the action of a reed moved by
1322c :i,~
ing (Ps 68: 13, only).
(niiwa) pasture, meadow.

water. Another example is Isa 24:20 where it rep- The verb niiwti (Hab 2:5) signifies the state of
being in a näweh, from which noun it appears to
resents the unsteady wavering movement of a
have been derived.
drunk man. In Prov 26:2 it parallels a bird's "'fly-
ing" signifying its aimless flitting motion (cf. KD, naweh /. Pasture, abode of shepherd, habilation,
Jer 4:1). sheepfold. Neither the ASV nor the RSV
This to and fro movement is also typical of the adequately renders Zeph 2:6 where niiwa must
nodding of one's head "as a sign of pity that mean "folds" (it is clearly parallel to k' rot
sympathizes with one and recognizes the mag- "caves" (cf. James A. Pator, in ISBE, p. 2757),
nitude of the evil" (KD; Ps 69:20 [H 21]). and g' derti "fenced enclosure"). The noun
Whether or not this action was always under- niiweh appears to be a loanword, hence, it ex-
stood when this root appears is uncertain, but the hibits some unusual spelling variations. With the
attitude so symbolized is. The exile brings righ- exception of Zeph 2:6 (which is not the expected
teous and deservedjudgment on Judah and, hence, plural form of niiweh; cf. KD, on Ps 68:12 [H
none should nor would show them pity (lsa 51: 19; 13)), the plural includes the insertion of an aleph
Jer 15:5). Other nations judged by God receive as a vowel lengthener. The noun niiweh repre-
similar treatment, i.e. God declares that no one sents the place a flock is kept, hence, either an
should or would have pity on them (Jer 48: 17; open field or an enclosure. Synonyms are: 1)
Nah 3:7). Jeremiah says that the magnitude of g'derti ••fenced/hedged-in place" (cf. Zech 2:6);
Judah's punishment will be so great that it will be miqlti!miqlii' "place of restraint"; rebe!f "a place
fruitless to mourn nud for the dead king Josiah in to lie down"; 2) kar "grazing plot''; mir'eh "a
view of the calamities that will come upon his place for feeding sheep" (Isa 32: 14) or lions (Nah
successors (Jer 22: 10). Individuals in deep trou- 2: 11 [H 12]); mar'ft "pasturage" (perhaps a var-
ble are objects of sympathy (Job 2: 11; 42: 11; Ps ient spelling of mir'eh), and r''f "pasture" (1
69:20 [H 21)). The nodding of one's head may Kgs 4:23 [H 5:3] only). Cf. näwti, (probably from
connote astonishment (Jer i8: 16); even more nii' a "be beautiful") beautiful, comely (Jer 6:2).
forceful nodding connotes scomful rejection (Jer Our noun occurs forty-five times (perhaps also in
48:17; Ps 64:8 [H 9); cf. 22:8 [H 91), or deep Ps 69: 12 [H 13)).
mouming (Jer 31:17 [H 181). The noun niiweh represents an enclosure for
Our verb often signifies · 'tlight away from'' (cf. sheep (Zeph 2:6 which could be from niiwa !) This
nus, niidad). In Ps 11:1 David asserts that is where the herd lies down (parallel to rebe!f, Jer
Jehovah is his refuge and chides his enemies for 50:7; Isa 65: 10), a place of safety and protection
advising him to seek another refuge. Jeremiah (Prov 24: 15). This secure place of protection can
clearly uses our verb interchangeably with nädad represent (poetically) the peaceful tent of the
(cf. 49:30, 5; 50:3, 8). God teils his people (Lev godly (Job 5:24), the resting place ofthe righteous
26:17, 28; cf. Deut 28:7) that victory and safety (Prov 24: 15), the safe dwellings (eschatological)
depend on his presence, and that his presence of God's people (lsa 32: 18, note that rebe!f is
depends on their obedience (cf. nüs). This idea is used here also), and the messianic city of sac-
reflected in II Kgs 21 :8. David reminding God of rifices and unmovable tent (lsa 33:20).
the ancient promise prays that the evildoers will Our noun also represents the place where a
not be allowed to drive him away (into exile, KD; shepherd follows sheep (II Sam 7:8), causes them
Ps 36: 11 [H 12)). to lie down (Jer 33:12; Ps 23:2), where they can
L.J.C. feed (Jer 50: 19; Ezk 34: 14). This was usually
upon the hilltops (Jer 9: 10 [H 9]; Arnos 1:2), or in
the steppe (Joel 1: 19-20). But in the eschaton
1320 l"!U (nwh). Assumed root ofthe following.
food will be so abundant that farmland will be
1320a ci~ (nöah) eminency, distinction
used for grazing (lsa 65:10).
(Ezk 7:11, only). God's special/holy "pastureland/fold" for his
flock is Canaan (Ex 15:13; Ps 79:7; Jer 10:25).
1321 *l'i,. (niiwti) I, beautify. This verb oc- lnterestingly, Jerusalem (II Sam 15:25) particu-
curs only once, in the Hiphil (Ex 15:2). larly represents this place of divine provision (cf.

561
1323 r:iu(niialJ)

nüa!J, Deut 12:5). Even Jerusalem, however, is The verb has at least four important theological
only a figure of the true place of perfect protec- uses: a use pertaining to death; a spiritual, a mar-
tion and provision, God himself (Jer 50:7). Aban- tial, and a soteriological use.
donment of God results in abandonment by God The first use relates to rest in death as is seen in
and destruction of the prepared "pasturage/fold" Job 3: 13, 17 where Job bemoans his existence
(lsa 27: 10: 32: 18). Repentance effects restoration and Iauds stillbirth (cf. Prov 21:16). In Dan 12:13
to the blessedness of Canaan (Jer 23:3: 31:23, God teils Daniel he is to be dead at the end of
note the parallel to "mountain of holiness"; cf. days (KD).
E. J. Young, The Book of Jsaiah [Eerdmans, The psychological-spiritual significance emerges
1965] on Isa 33:20). Ultimately, divine sover- in Job 3:26 where Job complains that he was dis-
eignty will secure eternal provision for God's quieted (rägaz) and had no ease (shäqa() or
people. peace (shalwii). Proverbs 29: 17 advises correct-
L.J.C. ing one's son and he will give one psychological
rest, or (as the parallel puts it) delight to one's
soul. Spiritual rest (the absence of trouble) is
1323 lj1~ ( nüa!J) rest, settle down.
seen in lsa 14:3, 7 (cf. Prov 29:9), and most
Derivatives clearly in Isa 28: 12 (although this has clear
soteriological overtones). The only true place of
1323a tr,r:i: ( na/Jat) rest, quietness.
spiritual rest is God (miinüa!J, Ps 116:7).
1323b tlj; (noa/J) Noah.
The martial use entails God's promise (Deut
1323c r:in•; (ni/Jöa/J) quieting, soothing
12:10) and the fulfillment (Josh 21:44 [H 42]) to
(e.g. Gen 8:21; Lev 26:31).
defeat Israel's enemies and give them rest
1323d n~Jti (hanä/Jä) a giving of rest
(victory and security) in the land. Continued rest
(Est 2: 18, only).
(II Sam 7: 1) was contingent on their obedience
1323e tljil~ (mänoa/J) resting place.
(Num 32: 15). David, a man/instrument of war,
1323f tn~m~ (m'nü/Jii), n~.'.1?(m'nü/Jii) was not allowed to make a place of rest for God;
resting place, rest.
but Solomon, the king who reigned after God had
Our root signifies not only absence of move- established peace (i.e. a man of rest), was (1 Chr
ment but being settled in a particular place 22:9). God's martial sovereignty extended be-
(whether concrete or abstract) with overtones of yond Palestine (noa!J, Est 9:16). He was not
finality, or (when speakingabstractly) of victory, localized as other "gods" were. This figurative
salvation, etc. For synonyms cf. shäbat, connot- use occurs in Ps 125:3 where the "scepter of
ing the absence of activity (or, of a particular wickedness" would "not rest" (i.e. so as to con-
activity), shäqa( which connotes the absence of quer and rule) on the righteous. So, too, cf. Prov
disturbance from external causes, shälam, con- 14:33; Eccl 7:9; Zech 6:8; especially Num 11:25:
noting wholeness, i.e. the state of weil being, II Kgs 2:15; Isa 11:2.
and domi "quiet," räga' "tobe in repose." The The soteriological use forms around the theol-
root should be distinguished from nä/Jä "to lead, ogy of the sabbath. In Gen 2:2-3 shäbat (cessa-
guide" (KB). and nä/Jii, "to Jean upon" (KB) tion from Iabor) describes God's rest, but in Ex
which are often similar in form. Cf. Ugaritic nb 20: 11 nüa!J is used. Hence, man is not only to
(AisWUS 1772 nwh, UT 19: no 1625); Akk niihu. cease from his worldly pursuits (Ex 31: 12-17: cf.
The verb occurs 138 times. • lsa 58:13-14), but he is to enter into a state of
Basically the root nüa!J relates to absence of victory/salvation rest (Josh 1:13; cf. Deut 25:19).
spatial activity and presence of security, as seen, lt is only the presence and favor of God that
e.g. in the ark which "rested" on Mount Ararat makes this rest (as weil as martial rest) possible
(Gen 8:4), and the locusts "resting" on Egypt (Ex 33:14; cf. lsa 14:3, 7). True rest/salvation is
(Ex 10:14). The "security" has overtones of con- to be declared in the messianic age but there will
quest in Josh 3: 13. In the Hiphil the root moves in be an initial and climactic judgment on Israel in
two directions, the causative and the permissive. the form of preaching this rest in a foreign lan-
First, in the sense of "deposit," i.e. cause some- guage(s): cf. lsa 28: 12 (cf. RSV, and Deut 28:49,
thing (someone) to nüa/J. So, God "deposits" Jer 5:15: I Cor 14:21). However, God ultimately
man in the garden (Gen 2:15). Manna (Ex 16:34). will accomplish true rest for his elect people
the rods (Num 17:4 [H 19]), and baskets offruit through his Messiah (lsa 63: 14; cf. Heb 3:7-4: 13).
(Deut 26:4, 10) are "deposited" before God. The
second use is "to allow something (someone) to natiat. Rest, quietness. ASV and RSV similar
be at rest," i.e. to leave alone. So God Ieft the with the latter superior at Job 17:16 (where it as-
Canaanites alone (Jud 2:23), and David left sumes that the root is na!Jat, Ug n!Jt "to de-
Shimei alone (1 Sam 10:25). Our root is used in a scend" note the different laryngeal of the two
unique sense of "being confederate with" (lsa roots in Ug), and inferior at Prov 29:9. This noun
7:2). denotes a state either of motionless (Job 36: 16) or

562
 1327 c~,(nCts)
of inner peace, i.e. security, etc. (Eccl 4:6, 6:5). t'numii. is used in this literal sense. Slumber is
lt occurs seven times. The noun nahat "rest" is the condition of a man when God speaks to him in
the same as nahat "descend" which however a vision ofthe night (Job 33: 15). The root is paral-
comes from the root nahat. Cf. the similar pair lel to yashen "to sleep" (Ps 121:4), but here, with
shahat "pit'' from shuah and shahat "corrup- a negative, it is used figuratively of watchfulness.
tion" from shahat. God does not slumber or sleep. Isaiah 5:27 de-
scribes an invading army in the same way-it
nöa!J. Noah. The last of the antediluvian pat- neither slumbers nor sleeps. On the other hand,
riarchs, he was chosen by God to be an instru- the religious leaders of Israel (lsa 56: 10) are
ment of deliverance. Outside of Gen, the name
characterized as those who love to slumber, i.e.,
occurs in the genealogy of I Chr 1:4 and in con-
they are careless and neglectful of their duties.
nection with the flood as an illustration of the
Their task is to warn the people of coming
guaranteed continuance of eschatological bliss
<langer, but this they have failed to do.
(lsa 54:9); in Ezk 14:14, 20 Noah is an illustration
Twice the verb is used to denote the sleep of
of an ancient and proverbial righteous man. The
death. In the one instance (Ps 76:5), men have
etymology of the name is uncertain. In Gen 5:29
been rebuked by God and have fallen into sleep.
it is associated probably as a word play with the
In the second instance (Nah 3: 18), the rulers of
verb naham (comfort, bring relief), but it appears
the king of Assyria slumber or are dead. The verb
to be more directly related to nuah which as we is parallel to shakan "to settle down or abide,"
will see below connotes rest and salvation. Fora
which is used here of death.
fuller discussion of the word, the man, and his
ministry cf. T. C. Mitchell, "Noah," in NBD. t•numä. Slumber, slumberings. The basic use
of the noun in Prov is in a figurative sense of
mänöa!J. Resting place. ASV and Rsv similar laziness and inactivity (Prov 23:21; 6:10; 24:33),
with the latter superior at Ruth 3: I; Gen 8:9 but the literal sense of sleep or slumber is also
(however, cf. Deut 28:65). This noun denotes a found (Prov 6:4, there similar to Ps 132:4).
place of nuah (motionless, security) for animals
R.L.H.
or people, i.e. a place to settle down, a home. lt
occurs seven times. 1326 71l (min) propagate, increase, only in Ps
m•nu!Jä. Resting-place, rest. ASVand RSVsimi- 72:17.
lar with the latter superior at Mic 2: 10, inferior at
Ruth 1:9; lsa 11:10; Jud 20:43: Zech 9: 1, and both Derivative
are inadequate at II Sam 14:17. The noun may 1326a i'~ (nin) offspring, posterity.
denote either the place or state of nuah. lt occurs
twenty-one times. 1327 :m (nus) jlee.
m 'nuhii. describes the temporary place of rest
God sought out for the people of Israel (Num Derivatives
10:33), the more permanent place (Deut 12:9; 1327a teil~ (manos) refuge.
I Kgs 8:56; Ps 132:14), and the etemal soteriolog- 1327b :,~1l7? (m''nusii.). jlight (lsa 52:12;
ical resting place, i.e. heaven (Ps 95:11; cf. Heb Lev 26:36).
3-4).
nus denotes rapid movement away from some-
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 43-46.
thing or someone. lt usually connotes escape
L.J.C.
from real or imagined <langer (except Deut 34:7;
Jud 6:11; Song 2:17; 4:6). the basic image being
1324 t=1l (nu!) dangle,shake (Ps99:l,only). martial (cf. Lev 26:36). A near synonym is barah
"to flee, pass through." A second synonym is
nadad "retreat, wander, flee," connoting disor-
1325 :m (num) s/eep, slumber, bedrowsy. (AS.V
derly retreat or the result of a rout. ntis is paral-
and RSVsimilar, except for Nah 3: 18 where
leled with mala( "to escape" (in Niphil, e.g. I
the RSVtranslates "your shepherds are
Sam 19:10), the manner offlight, hapaz in Niphil,
asleep" instead of "thy shepherds slum-
to hurry away in fright (KB, Ps 104:7), and sabab
ber. ")
/'"ähor, turn back (Ps 114:3. 5). The root occurs
Derivatives 162 times.
lnterestingly. this verb is used in Jud 6: 11
1325a :,~1, (numii.) drowsiness (used
Tonly in Prov 23:21). (Niphil) to describe what Gideon did to his grain.
The emphasis here is on the idea of "escape,"
1325b t:ir;1,~ (t'numii.) s/umber, slumber-
i.e. Gideon beat out grain in hiding to hide it (i.e.
ings.
cause it to escape) from the Midianites. Also,
Although the primary meaning of the verb is to Elisha is told to flee Ahab's presence as if pur-
slumber or sleep, only the noun derivative sued by the sword (II Kgs 9:3).

563
1328 tm (nua')
When God fights, man and nature tlee. The tively small scale expressed by ideas such as
Egyptians seeing that the God of the plagues was shaking, reeling, or swaying. Or they can be on a
fighting for Israel were routed and tled before the geographic scale calling for meanings such as · 'to
closing sea (Ex 14:25, 27). God states the princi- wander about ...
ple clearly in Lev 26: 17 (cf. Prov 28: 1) noting that Examples referring to relatively small scale
victory depended on obedience (cf. niida/J). Dis- movements follow: the visible movement of
obedience would turn God against them and they Hannah's lips as she silently prayed (1 Sam 1:13),
would "tlee when there is none to pursue" (cf. v. the staggering walk or the wandering path of the
36; Deut 28:7). So, when the ark set forth, Moses blind man (Lam 4: 14), and the swaying of trees in
called on God's help and presence, crying "rise the wind (lsa 7:2). The term also applies to the
up (qum) 0 Jehovah, let thine enemies be scat- reeling of the earth under judgment (lsa 24:20)
tered, and let them that hate thee tlee before and to the shaking of buildings (lsa 6:4).
thee" (Num 10:35). This "war-cry" /prayer also lt refers to movement on a geographic scale
expresses Moses· joyous confidence and encour- when describing the wandering of people as
agement to the people (KD). This principle is homeless fugitives or vagabonds (Lam 4: 15) or
exemplified frequently in Israel' s victory over wandering to seek water in drought (Arnos 4:8) or
her enemies (cf. Jud 7:21-22) and her defeats (cf. to seek God's word (Arnos 8: 12). lt describes
Deut 32:36). Joab recognized this principle and Cain's punishment (Gen 4:12, 14; cf. also nud).
fled to the altar of the temple, but was killed be- Included in Cain's punishment, possibly as apart
cause the nature of his crime denied him asylum. of the total meaning of the term under discussion,
Israel trusts in Egypt, not God, and will go into is the status of the homeless vagabond as a per-
exile (lsa 30: 16-17; cf. Lev 26:8). She is reminded son outside the protection either of the law or of
ofher impending punishment with the implication any fixed social group (v. 14). Sinful rebellion
that now God is her pursuer (lsa 24:18; cf. Lev against God is described as wandering(Jer 14:10).
26:36). Furthermore, Isaiah prophesied the tlight In Joash 's parable .the meaning is unclear, but
of all nations (the covenant breakers) before the deliberate pun on swaying over the trees and
Jehovah (lsa 24:18; cf. Isa 31:8; Jer 46:5; 48:6, wandering to and fro among the trees as ruler
etc.). The war-cry/prayer of Num 10:35 is greatly may be intended (Jud 9:9, 11, 13).
expanded in Ps 68: 1 [H 2Jff. where Zion is de- nua' may refer to shaking as a sign offear. The
picted as the permanent locus of divine power shaking or trembling of the Jews at Mount Sinai is
and presence (cf. nuah). The condition sought in a clear example (Ex 20:18: "removed" of KJVis
this prayer especially will exist in the return (lsa probably incorrect). Ahaz' s reaction to the
35: 10) and the eschaton (51: 11) when God will enemy coalition may be another example (lsa 7:2;
put all enemies (esp. "spiritual," cf. niidah) to Asv "trembled"; Rsv "shook"). However, the al-
tlight. lusion could as weil be to Ahaz's inconstant
God's wisdom is lauded in Ps 104:7 as his creat- "wavering" of heart rather than to trembling.
ing words are recounted, especially his dividing Niphal usages are passive, referring to being
the waters. shaken in a sieve (Arnos 9:9) and fig trees being
moved by the wind (Nah 3: 12).
mänös. Refuge. ASVand Rsv similar with the
The Hiphil expresses the causative of the ideas
latter superior at Job 11:20; Jer 25 :35. This noun
discussed above. The causative of small scale
denotes the place of escape to which one tlees.
movement is seen when God "shakes" or "sifts"
Cf. mahseh, a place of shelter, mii'oz, place of
Israel in judgment (Arnos 9:9). Wagging, i.e.
strength, hence, of safety, and misgiib, inacces-
shaking, the head is a sign of derision (II Kgs
sible secure place, stronghold. The word occurs
19:21; Ps 109:25). Job desires the opportunity to
six times.
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 47-49.
express such derision at his friends (Job 16:4).
Shaking the hand is also a sign of contempt (Zeph
L.J.C.
2: 15). In light of general usage of the root, it is
better taken as "set to trembling" (Rsv) rather
than "set" (KJV,Asv) in Dan IO: IO.
The causative of "to wander" expresses both
1328 P~l (nua') shake, reel, stagger, wander,
God's making his people ··to wander to and fro"
move (Rsv, ASV "sway"). Causative
(ASV,Num 32: 13) and David's "making" lttai
stem, shake, sift, to make move.
wander about as a fugitive with David (II Sam
Derivative 15:20). This usage gives some support to the
translation "scatter" in Ps 59: 11 [H 12] provided
1328a PllllQ (m'na'anea') a kind of rattle
it is construed as ·' scatter as wanderers." On the
·fü Sam 6:5, only). other hand the RSVtranslation, "make to totter,''
Primary idea is of a repetitive, to and fro is equally good.
movement. These movements can be on a rela- Either of the causative ideas discussed above

564
 1333 ·m (nwr)
could yield the translation "move" in II Kgs 23:17), the male lamb ofthe trespass offering for
23:18. cleansing of lepers (Lev 14:12, 2 I ), and, finally,
A.B. the entire tribe of Levi (Num 8: 11). The verb nüp
alone describes the offering of the cereal offering
1329 i:iu (nüp) /, to perfume; to send (Hiphil). (ASV "meal offering") of jealousy (Num 5:25). In
nüp is used once in the Qal stem for sprin- some cases a ritual act of waving is clearly al-
kling perfume (Prov 7: 17). Hi phil used luded to as when Moses waved the wave offering
once for bringing rain (i.e. causing to in Aaron's hands (Lev 8:27). In other cases the
sprinkle; Ps 68:9 [H 10)). Cognate evi- Iiteral waving is impossible, as in the "waving"
dence indicates the existence of a distinct of the Levites. In such cases the significance of
root with the above range of meanings, but waving is lost and the terms mean "offering" and
its exact meaning in Hebrew remains un- "to offer" respectively.
clear for Jack of evidence. lf these terms have a characteristic, specific
A.B. usage, it occurs in repeated references to the
"breast of the wave offering" together with the
1330 l:lU (nüp) II, lift, wave, shake, wield. "thigh of the heave offering" as the priest's por-
tion of the peace offering (Lev 7:30; 10:14; Num
Derivatives 6:19-20; Note: The second ram of Aaron·s dedi-
1330a :,~; (napa) sieve (lsa 30:28, cation ritual-Ex 29:26-34; Lev 8:22-27, 31-
only). Meaning uncertain. 32-with its wave breast and heave thigh is also a
1330b t:,~m;l (t' nüpa) wave offering. peace offering since it, like the peace offering,
was eaten by the offerers). These portions are so
The Hiphil stem of this verb is used both as a
characteristically the priest's that they serve as
general verb for such ideas as lifting, waving,
the standard to which other priest's portions are
etc., and as a cultic term for presenting the
compared (Num 18:18).
"wave offering" (cf. similai usage of rum and
However, even in this usage, the terminology
t' rümti). Most of its usages are in poetic, legal, or
is not exact since the term "wave offering" once
ritual contexts.
includes both the breast and the thigh (Lev 9:21)
As a general verb, it refers to wielding tools.
and the things burned as the "offering by fire"
When it describes lifting a sickle to grain (Deut
(cf. Lev 3:3-4) and the right thigh may be in-
23:26) the root idea of waving the tool back and
cluded in the term "wave offering" (Ex 29:22-24;
forth is appropriately descriptive. However,
Lev 8:25-27).
applied to a tool for dressing stone (Ex 20:25;
11• nüpa occurs twice in non-cultic settings: in
Deut 27:5), the appropriateness of ··waving" is
the "shaking" of God's hand in judgment (lsa
less clear, and "lift" or "use" is sufficient. lt can
19:16) andin "the battles of shaking" (lsa 30:32)
describe shaking something in a sieve (lsa 30:28). where it probably refers to brandishing some
A prophet or holy man might wave his hand to
weapon.
heal (II Kgs 5:11). The hand might be waved in
A.B.
judging (lsa 11:15) or as a signal (lsa 13:2). Job's
raising of his hand against the fatherless (Job
31:21) could refer either to raising the hand as a 1331 eiiJ (nwp) III. Assumed root of the follow-
legal act in court or to taking hostile action. (The ing.
discussion of the cultic use of this term will be 1331a l:liJ ( nop) elevation, height (Ps
incorporated into the discussion of t'' nüpa be- 48:3, only).
low .) 1331b :it)~ (napa) height (Josh 12:23=
The Hophal is used once to express the passive I Kgs 4:11; Josh 11:2).
idea, "be waved" (Ex 29:27; Rsv "is offered"). 1331c MI'~ (nepet) height (Josh 17:11,
The Polei may have intensive meaning; "to only).
shake'' for "to wave" (lsa 10:32).
:i;il (nÖ,!'11). See no. 1399a.
t•nupä. Wave offering, offering, shaking. This
noun has two cultic usages: first, as a general
term applied to a variety of gifts and offerings 1332 *;:m (niiq) suckle, nurse. This verb oc-
and, secondly, as a specific term for those parts curs only once, in the Hiphil (Ex 2:9).
of the offerings which are designated for the of- Probably a by-form of yanaq.
ficiating priest.
As a general term it is applied to such diverse 1333 •m (nwr). Assumed root of the following.
things as gold (Ex 35:22), the "bronze of the 1333a t,~ (ner) lamp.
wave offering" (Ex 38:29; literal translation), the 1333b ti•; (nir)lamp.
sheaf of the firstfruits (Lev 23:11-15), the two 1333c t:,iiJC (m''nöra), :i, JC (m''nöra)
loaves offered on the Day of Pentecost (Lev · 1ainpstand.

565
1334 IQ~) (nüsh)

The words ner and nir refer to the small bowl- expectation of and preparation for Christ·s re-
like objects which contained oil and a wick to be turn.
lit to provide light (H. Porter, ··Lamp, [That the lampstand stands for the church also
Lampstand," in ISBE. p. 1825f.: A. R. Millard, in the NT must be granted (Rev 1:20). However.
R. E. Nixon, "Lamp. Lampstand" in NBD, the symbolism of the lampstand apparently is
p. 708f.). Cf. Ugaritic nr. AisWUS 1850. The double. Zechariah 4:6 strongly implies that the
lamp is of more than usual archaeological inter- lampstand symbolizes also the Spirit of God.
est, for the changing shapes of the lamps through Revelation 4:5 seems to build on this when it calls
the centuries is often a good index to the stratum the lamps the "seven spirits of God" (cf. Rev
being excavated. Our noun in its various spellings 5:6). That the seven spirits of God are not seven
occurs forty-nine times. different spirits, but the one Spirit seven-fold in
his perfection seems tobe proved by the position
menörä. Lampstand. Rsv "lampstand" is tobe ofthe seven spirits ofGod bracketed between the
preferred over ASV "candlestick." This mem- Father and the Son as a source of benediction in
preformative noun represents the stand upon Rev 1:4. R.L.H.)
which a lamp was placed (special "lamp place" ). L.J .C.
lt usually signifies the lampstand in the taberna-
cle or temple (exception, II Kgs 4: 10). lt occurs
forty-two times. 1334 rv~,(111ish) be sick (Ps 69:21. only).
The Lord directed Moses to put a lampstand
holding seven lamps in the Holy Place. These -:•1; (nibr). See no. 1340b.
seven lamps represent God's perfect (PTOT.
p. 362f.) leadership over his people. These
"lights" were to burn always being trimmed 1335 :-m (nii:.:ti) /, sprinkle. (Asv and RSVthe
morning and evening (Lev 24:2). While they were ·;ame except at II Kgs 9:33 [Rsv superior])
being trimmed the attendant was to burn incense and Isa 52: 15 [Asv superior: E. J. Young,
representing the prayers of God's people (Ex Studies in Jsaiah. II. Eerdmans. 1954, pp.
30:7--8: cf. qii(ar). In II Sam 21:17 (ner: cf. I Kgs 199-206)).
11:36), David's death is represented as the na::asignifies a spattering or (Hiphil) sprinkl-
quenching of lsrael's lamp. Hence, he is viewed ing of blood, oil. or water either with one 's finger
as the one who Ieads Israel into a blessed state (Lev 4:6) or a "sprinkler" (Lev 14:7). lt is dis-
(cf. nüa~1). David. in turn, confessed that tinguished from ~äraq, a heavier "sprinkling"
Jehovah was his lamp (II Sam 22:29), i.e. the one executed with the whole hand (Ex 9:8: 29:20-21:
who enlightened his path through darkness (cf. Jn Lev 4:6: however, Num 19:20-21 ). The verb oc-
3:20-21) and led him into a state of blessedness curs twenty-four times.
nüah; cf. Prov 13:9: Job 29:3).Psalm119:105 (cf. "Sprinkling" has reference to cleansing from
Pro~ 6:23) celebrates the word ofGod as the lamp sin (lsa 52:15: I Pet 1:2: Heb 9:13-14) to obtain
to the feet of the godly. Christian readers will ritual purity. lts primary significance derives
recognize this "leadership" of "word" and from its reference to "blood" sprinkling. This
"light" as a foreshadow ofChrist (Jn 1:1-13). As particular root is used with blood sprinklings
KD shows, Ps 132:17 uses "lamp" as a figure of which are lighter both as to how mu.:h blood is
the Messiah (it is parallel to the well-known fig- sprinkled and as to what is expiated (e.g. Lev 4:6:
ure "branch"). Thus, "lamp" is a symbol of 5:9: 14:7, 51: Num 19:4). Expiation for unwitting
God's personal leading (II Sam 22:29). through sin (Lev 4:6) and original sin (Lev 16:14) are thus
his word, through his chosen king and. ulti- interrelated and yet differentiated (i.e. by the re-
mately. through his messiah. God · s leader was to lationship between the "sprinkling" and the
le ad his people as a priestly nation. i.e. a nation "smearing·· cf. qäran). The prophesied servant
which was to lead all nations to God in worship. of the Lord although considered "impure" was
In Zech 4 the prophet speaks of a lampstand (i.e. to "expiate" the sins of the Gentiles (cf. E. J.
the oT church: cf. KD) attached to an uninter- Young op. cit.. lsa 52: 15)-this pronouncement
rupted and unceasing supply of oil (i.e. the Holy is quite important (Acts 8:32-37).
Spirit: cf. KD). The interpretation (v. 6ff.) applies Our root can also be used in contexts of ordina-
the figure to Zerubbabel (and his followers). but it tion. i.e. purification and consecration to divine
seems obvious that the figure extends weil be- service. As such. "sprinkling" can be done with
yond his day to the messianic era. indeed, cf. Rev oil (Lev 8: 11). oil and blood (Ex 29:21 ), and water
1:20. This symbolism underlies the NTstatements (Num 8:7: Mt 3:15).
that Christians are the light ofthe world (Mt 5: 14)
whose lamps are always to burn (Lk 12:35: Phil
2: 15) and shine before men (Mt 5: 16) leading the 1336 *:-m (nä;:,ti) II, spring, leap (Hiphil. lsa
ungodly to God and basking in a state of blessed 52:15).

566
 1340 "1!~(näzar)

1337 'm (naza/) flow forth!down. (ASV and RSV 1340b ti•1; (na::.ir) Nazirite, a consecrated
similar, with the latter better rendering person.
Prov 5: 15: Ps 78: 16: Song 4: 16: lsa 45:8. 1340c tii, (na:::ar) be a Nazirite. De-
Both are inadequate at Jud 5:5 ( .. the -~ominative verb, used only in the
mountains flowed down .. [meltedj), and Hiphil (Num 6).
Jer 9:18 !H 17]. 1340d ,m~ (min::.ar) consecrated ones,
•princes (Num 3: 17). Meaning un-
na:,al represents the flowing of water as in a
certain.
stream (Song 4: 16), or abundant rain (Deut 32:2).
As synonyms see nagar "to pour down," i.e. The basic meaning of na:::aris "to separate."
spill water on the ground: naba' "to pour/gush When the word occurs in the Niphal with the
forth ... i.e. as a swollen wadi, etc. The verb oc- preposition min it has the meaning „keep oneself
curs sixteen times. away from ... The verb is used in the sense of
The primary meaning of our root „to flow as a separation in Lev 22:2 where Aaron and his sons
stream" is used of weeping in mourning (Jer 9: 18 were commanded through Moses to keep away
[H 171: cf. nägar, Lam 3:49). The presence of from the holy offerings that were presented to the
fresh water is a result of divine blessing sover- Lord. These were portions ofthe sacrifices which
eignly dispensed (Ps 147: 18). The return (or es- were set aside for the use of the priests. But they
chaton) will see the land divinely transformed could not use them as long as they were ritually
from a desert wasteland to a land of flowing unclean (v. 3 ). The word is used in the same con-
streams. This is clearly a figure of divine blessing struction in the sense of separating from idols
(lsa 44:3). A wife (Prov 5: 15) or lover (Song 4: 15) (Ezk 14:7). lt bears the meaning "abstain from"
is described as a flowing stream, i.e. a source of when used with min in the Hiphil in Num 6:3
blessing. Sovereign control of water is also seen where it occurs in connection with the Nazirite
when Moses· striking the rock produced a stream vow of abstinence. The idea of separation is in-
of water (Ps 78: 16), tobe duplicated in the escha- herent in the use of the word without min in Lev
ton (lsa 48:21. parallel :::11b
). 15:31 where the Israelites were to be separated
The verb is used of rain which is sovereignly from uncleanness incurred as a result of certain
controlled (cf. Ps 147: 18) as an example of God's physical discharges.
support of Cyrus (lsa 45:8: cf. Job 36:28). Abun- When the word occurs with the preposition t•·
dant rain is also a result of divine blessing (Num in either the Niphal or Hiphil it connotes "sep-
24:7). aration to." lt is used in this way of consecration
lnterestingly, the presence of divine power in to Yahweh on the part of the Nazirites (Num
aid of lsrael's conquest "melted mountains." i.e. 6:2-3. 5---0,12) and of the consecration of the ls-
even the strongholds (perhaps, the gods· strong- raelites to Baal (Hos 9: 10).
holds?) of Jsrael's enemies (Jud 5:5: cf. nagar,
nezer. Separation, consecration, crown. The
Mic 1:4. 6).
basic meaning of the verbal root, i.e. separation.
L.J.C.
is evident in the noun ne::.erin a number of con-
texts. lt is used of the period of separation or
1338 CTJ (11:::m). Assumed root of the following. abstention that was part of the Nazirite vow
1338a tc_T_J (ne:::.em) ring. (ASV and RSV (Num 6:4-5, 7-9. 12-13. 18-19, 21 ). This negative
· · the same except at Hos 2: 13 [H 15]). aspect of votive abstention may be understood
Our word refers to a ring (usually of gold, Ezk more positively as consecration to God.
16:12) which was part of one·s (man. woman, or In Lev 21:12 the word occurs in the expression
idol: Job 42: 11: lsa 3:21: T. C. Mitchell. "Orna- ne:::er shemen mish~wt (consecration of the
ment:· in NBD, p. 913f.) ornamentation worn in anointing oil). This context prohibits defilement
nose or ears. These rings were signs of luxury, of the priest. for that would not be compatible
and as personal possessions were sometimes of- with the consecration symbolized by the anoint-
fered (cf. qärah:) to God (Ex 32:2: 35:22: Jud ing oil. The priest was to be separated from all
8:24). The word occurs seventeen times. which defiled. The same concept obtains in Num
L.J .c. 6:7 with reference to the Nazirite in the expres-
sion ne:::er 'e/ohiiyll' 'al r6'shö (lhisl "separation
1339 i'l.J (ne:::eq) injury, damage (Est 7:4, to God on his head .. ). In this context the Nazirite
only). was not to suffer defilement even for his family.
as long as he was separated ··10 the Lord" (v. 6).
1340 i1; (niizar) separaJe, consecrate (oneself). The ne:,er of his head is an evident reference to
his uncut hair which was the outward mark of his
Derivatives
separation (see also v. 9).
1340a t"\1: (nez.er) separation, consecration The word ne:::eris used in the sense of head
crown. gear in Ex 29:6: 39:30: Lev 8:9. Comparison with

567
1341 :ii,; (nä~ii)
Ex 28:36-38 shows that it was an engraved p]ate The context indicates that the vine was to be un-
which the priest wore over his forehead. lt desig- pruned during the sabbatical year and left to grow
nated him a consecrated person. of itself. This need not be seen as a metaphorical
The word ne::.er is used of a royal crown in extension of the Nazirite practice of letting the
II Sam 1:10: II Kgs 11:12: Zech 9:16: Ps 89:39 hair grow as an act of special devotion but may be
iH 40), 132: 18: Prov 27:24: II Chr 23: 11. understood in the light of the basic connotation of
In view of the fact that the long hair of a Nazi- separation inherent in the verbal root, i.e. the
rite was a nc0 ::.erdenoting his consecration, and vine was singled out in the sense that it was not
the head plate of a priest was a nezer denoting his pruned. KB translates the word "singled out,"
consecration. the word nez.er appears not to con- "withhold from cultivation."
note ··crown" in the primary sense. but crown in The specialized sense of the word, "Nazi-
the sense of the sign of one ·s consecration. This rites, .. refers to those who took a special vow of
could be one·s hair as weil as a headpiece. The abstention as an act of devotion to God. The spe-
ne::.erwas a sign of the king·s consecration to his cific aspects of the vow of separation are re-
office just as it was a sign of the Nazirite's con- corded in Num 6: 1-21, where the Nazirite is de-
secration to God. scribed as abstaining from grapes and various
products of the grape, refraining from cutting the
näzir. Nazirite, a consecrated person, sepa- hair, and avoiding the ceremonial defilement in-
rate (Rsv "prince" in Deut 33:16). curred when one touched a dead body.
The noun nä::.iroccurs most frequently in the Samson was a Nazirite to God (Jud 13:5, 7; 16:
OT in a technical sense referring to the Nazirites. 17). i.e. one who was separated to God because
The exact meaning of the word in its non- of the votive restrictions placed on him. When he
technical uses is somewhat clouded by the pau- violated his vow of separation, God left him in his
city of significant contexts. The word occurs in enemies· hands.
Gen 49:26 and Deut 33: 16 in parallel passages The Nazirites formed a group of dedicated in-
dealing with the blessing of Joseph. In the former dividuals, both men and women (cf. Num 6:2),
passage, the word niiz,r is translated "separate" who were spiritual leaders in their times. Arnos
in KJV,ASV,Rsv, but "prince" in NEBand NIV. In cites the Nazirites in parallelism with prophets in
the latter passage while AV and ASV translate 2: 11-12, showing how the benign influence of the
"separate ... Rsv and NEB and N1v translate the Nazirites was diminished in the context of the
word "prince." A similar disparity occurs in the disobedience of eighth-century Israel.
translation of the word niizir in Lam 4:7 where it Bibliography: THAT. II, pp. 50-52.
is translated ··Nazirites" (Av), "nobles" (ASV), T.E.M.
"princes·· (Rsv and NIV), "devoted ones" (NASB)
and "crowned princes" (NEB). The concept of
"prince · · is often derived from the related word ~: (nöah ). See no. 1323b.
ne::.er which has the clear connotation of
··crown" in a number of contexts. But this word 1341 :ir,; (niihli) lead, guide. (ASV and RSV
similar with the latter superior at I Sam
may have undergone a separate development, de-
riving the meaning ··crown" secondarily (see 22:4, I Kgs 10:26 [both of which evidence
a confusion of niihii and nüah; cf. ASV
ne::.er). lt is best to trace the meaning of nä::.ir
11 Kgs 18:11J, and inferior at Ps 67:4 [H 5).
from its verbal root nä::.ar from which the pri-
mary sense is derived. Our root represents the conducting of one
In Gen 49:26 and Deut 33: 16 the concept along the right path. For synonyms see niihag.
··separate" fits weil with the experience of Our root occurs thirty-nine times.
Joseph whose uniqueness was evidenced in his The root is sometimes synonymous with
early relationship with his brothers and his ulti- niiha,: "to herd" to a predetermined destination:
mate promotion to the illustrious position he en- e.g. lead away captive (Job 12:23), herd/lead a
joyed in Egypt. The context then permits some !lock (Ps 78:53, 72). Elsewhere it is equal to
measure of privilege in the word niizir. Thus the niiha/ ··to lead/guide tenderly:" e.g. Ps 3 I :3
word may be similar to the English word "dis- iH 4), to lead (niihii), and tenderly lead/guide
tinction" which not only bears the connotation of ( niiha/) out of trouble (cf. Job 31: 18).
· •ctifference ·· but also ··eminence." This under- God is often the one who "leads." So, Ab-
standing of the word allows for the connotation raham's servant reported God as his "guider"
· · princes · · or „ members of the privileged (Gen 24:27). In the Exodus this guidance was
classes,"" as the context of Lam 4:7 seems to re- manifested by the pillars of cloud and fire which
quire (however. the translation "Nazirites" is preceeded (led) Israel (Ex 13:21). The Psalms
not completely out of the question in that con- frequently recall how God led his people along
text). the right path and beseech him to do so again.
The word is applied to a vine in Lev 25:5, 11. This request is for far more than guidance. lt is

568
 1342 1,t!~ ( nähal)

that God be before them showing the way of biblical teaching on "inheritance ... Our summary
righteousness (Ps 5:8 !H 9]: 23:3). Moreover, the will be grouped around the inheritance God gives
pious are to be led by God's commandments the godly, the social and legal regulations govern-
(Prov 6:22) in conjunction with the integrity ofhis ing the land. Jehovah's possession, and God as
heart (Prov 11:3 ). The nations are obligated to the inheritance/heritage of the godly.
worship God because he will judge and govern The whole earth belongs to its Creator (Ps 47:4
(i.e. graciously guide, Ps 67:4 !H 5]: cf. 31:3 1H 5 J) and he so governs all things that Israel
!H 41) in the messianic kingdom. received his special possession (Deut 32:8f.: Ex
L.J.C. 15:17) the land fit for kings tlowing with milk and
honey (Deut 31 :20), the place representing true
C~M; (ni/Jüm). See no. 1344b. salvation (Deut 12:9: Cf. Heb 3:17--4:13, and
WIM~ (nii/Jush ). See no. 1349b. 111ia/J). Thus. the Bible represents God as the
"1'1'.'1~
(nii/Jir). See no. 1346c. great King (Jud 8:23: 1 Sam 12:12). the feudal
Lord (Deut 32:8) who sovereignly partitions his
1342 ,1:t; (nii/Ja[) /, inherit, possess. Denomi- land to man (cf. KD: lsa 49:8: 57: 13), and obli-
native verb. gates his subjects to render personal services. As
deVaux says, the widely spread ancient near
Parent Noun eastern feudal idea was in Israel transferred to
1342a t:,?r.r:(na/Ja[a) inheritance, heritage, the theological plane (Al, p. 164). Hence, he
possession. promised (Gen 12:7: Ex 32: 13), and gave Pales-
1342b :i,•n, (n'hilii) a musical term. Oe- tine (Josh 21:43ff., etc.) to Israel as a perpetual
' c~~s only in the heading of Ps 5. inheritance (Ex 32: 13) contingent upon obedience
Perhaps it is connected with /Jii/il to his law (e.g. Num 33:50-54). Little by little
"flute... May be the name of a God would drive out the inhabitants of Canaan
melody. (Ex 23:30). This gift, however, was to be con-
quered (Josh) by stages. Once inhabited, the land
The verb nä!Jal basically signifies giving or re-
was to be recognized as God's, and was to be
ceiving property which is part of a permanent preserved as holy by cleansing it (Deut 20: 16),
possession and as a result of succession. Some-
keeping it cleansed (e.g. Deut 21:23), and dedicat-
times the idea of succession is absent but the
ing it to God (Deut 26: 1ff.). Disobedience was
"possessing" carries with it a connotation of
sovereignly punished (Jer 16:9: 17:4). The escha-
permanence (e.g. Ex 34:9: Prov 14:18). A close
ton will see reoccupation of the land which is
synonym, yärash, connotes the idea of posses-
conceived either literally or in its spiritual reality
sion apart from succession (KB), but sometimes
according to one's viewpoint about the millen-
may embrace the latter idea. Cf. Ugaritic nfJI(UT
nium (KD: Ezk 47: 14: Isa 57: 13: cf. Heb 12:25-
10: no. 1633), and Phoenician n!Jl (KAI, p. 16): 29).
the Arabic nafJala means "give as property."
The division of the land by lot prior to its con-
Our verb occurs sixty times (including Ezk 7:24,
quest expressed divine sovereignty (Num 26:56)
which consists of parallel stichs and synonym-
as was well known in the ancient near east (Al,
ously parallels our root with yärash; cf. lsa 57: 13, p. 165). Fora brief summary of the laws govern-
etc.).
ing the partition and inheritance of the land, cf.
na~lllä. lnheritance, heritage, possession. ASV R. E. Nixon, "lnheritance," in NBD, pp. 562-
and RSVsimilar with the Rsv superior at e.g. Deut 63. For a treatment of the theological signifi-
4:20: 32:9: Mic 2:2: and those many passages cance, see R. J. Rushdoony, The Institutes of
where the idea of possession was conceived of as Biblical Law, Nutley, Craig Press, 1973. He
permanent and not entailing the idea of succes- treats offamily economics (p. 174ff.), responsibil-
sion (1 Sam 26: 19), and inferior at I Sam IO:I; Ps ity of firstborn including family responsibility to
78:55: Ezk 45:t; both are inadequate at Ex 15:17. care for single women (p. 179f.: also D. Leggett,
Our noun basically connotes that which is or may The Le1·irate and Goel /nstitutions, Cherry Hill:
be passed on as an inheritance (e.g. Gen 31:14), Mack 1974, limited primogeniture (p. 180f.),
that which is one 's by virtue of ancient right, and landmarks as representative of social, moral, and
that which is one's permanently. A near synonym spiritual inheritance (p. 328ff.: Hos 5: 10), indeed,
is moräshii, a possession, an inheritance. Cf. representative of life itself (pp. 166, 169; cf. KD:
y' rCtshshii, sometimes occupied, patrimony, Deut 19:14; 20:19-20).
possession: !Jeleq, a portion, that which is anal- God's special created, chosen heritage is the
loted part: miqneh, purchased possession: and people of Israel (Deut 4:20: Ex 34:9: cf. Acts
'a!Juzzii, landed property, that which is held in 15:16ff.: Eph 1:3-4). This blessed position (Ps
possession. Cf. Ugaritic nfJ/t "inheritance," UT 33: 12) was the basis for special petitions (Deut
19: no. 1633. The noun occurs 223 times. 9:26, 29: Ps 28:9) and confidence (Mic 7: 14, 18:
lnvolved in a study of this root is the extensive Ps 94: 14: cf. Ps 37: 18). Because God is their Lord

569
1343 _,m(n/J/)
they should not own/possess one another as Interestingly, the Pentateuch displays a consis-
property (Lev 25:47ff.; cf. KD; Isa 14:2: Zeph tent application of nal:,al (thirteen times) and
2:9). God also has special permanent rights over nahär (thirteen times) to extra-Egyptian
all tne nations (Ps 82:8; 2:8-9; cf. KD). waterways whereas inter-Egyptian waterways
The true spiritual heritage of the godly (Ps are consistently termed y' '(Jr (thirty times). This
1l,J-.:6f.:37:18; KD: Jer 12:14-17) was especially displays "not art but experience in the use of a
and figuratively represented by Aaron, the language which gives such skill as to attend to so
priests, and the Levites who had no property to small a thing in so extensive use without a single
dass on to their sons (however, note KD on Num mistake." ltems Slj.Chas this invalidate the weil
18:20f.), but who really had the greatest heritage known JEDP and variations (M. G. Kyle, ibid.).
or'all-the Lord himself (Josh 18:7: KD; Ezk Because the na~wl suddenly emerges and/or
47:22). disappears as raging torrents it symbolizes many
Bibliography: Cranfield, C. E. B., "Inherit," things, e.g. the pride of nations (lsa 66: 12), the
RTWB, p. 112-114. Easton, Burton, S., "Heir," strength of the invader (Jer 47:2), and the power
in ISBE, p. 1369. Foester, W., and Herrman, J., ofthe foe (Ps 18:4 [H 5]: 124:4). Even torrents of
in TWNT, III, pp. 757-86. Hirsch, F. E., oil do not please God if unaccompanied by jus-
"Inheritance," in ISBE, p. 1468. TDNT, III, pp. tice, kindness, and humility (Mic 6:7). The godly,
769-81. however, will be sated by the overflooding tor-
L.J.C. rents ofGod"s pleasure (Ps 36:8 IH 91). Thus, the
sh"lämfm (q.v.) truly have a spiritual significance
symbolical of the paradisiacal rivers of delight
1343 ,r:: (n~1/) II. Assumed root of the follow-
(KD: cf. Gen 2: 10) whose source is God (Jer
ing.
2: 13). The retuming exiles will find torrents in the
1343a ti,r:,; (nal:,a/) I, wadi, to"ent.
1343b ,r:,;(nal:,a/) II, palm tree (Num
desert (cf. Ex 17:3ff.: Num 20: 11). Of course, this
is not fully realized until the messianic age The
24:6, only). Meaning uncertain.
Book of lsaiah (Eerdmans, 1965) (lsa 35:6: cf.
natial /. Wadi, torrent, torrent valley, torrent, KD:Jer3\:9). TheKidronValley(G. W.Grogan,
river, shaft. This noun usually refers to a dry "Kidron," in NBD, p. 691: E. W. G. Master-
river bed or ravine which in the rainy season be- man, "Kidron, the Brook;· in ISBE, p. 1798)
comes a raging torrent, and/or the resulting tor- long associated with graves (II Kgs 23:6, 12: Jer
rent (J .B.S.S. Thompson, "River," in NBD, 26:23), and unholy defiled ground (e.g. I Kgs
p. 1098). The Ugaritic nbl (UT 19: no. 1636) and 15:13: II Chr 29:16: II Kgs 23:6) will be holy to
Akkadian nah/11 have the same meaning. lt can God in the eschaton (Jer 31:40). There the life-
also represeni a permanent stream or river (Lev giving waters will flow (Ezk 47:5-19: in v. 9 the
11:9: I Kgs 18:40). The occurence in Job 28:4 is "dual" either represents ··strong current"' (KD)
apparently hapax in meaning (cf. KB). or the Ugaritic enclitic me[Jl). Then neither the
Synonyms of ··torrent, river"' are: nahar "per- Nile nor the Euphrates will separate God's
manent watercourse·· (KB): y' ·or (Egyptianjrw) people from salvation (lsa 11:15: cf. nual:,).
"stream or channel," usually only of Egyptian L.J.C.
waterways: peleg, "irrigating canal": 'äpfq "in-
nermost deepest part of a valley flowing with
water" (KB). See also yubäl. ·ubäl. Synonyms of 1344 *Ci:t; (nal:,am) be sorry, repent, regret, be
"torrent-valley" are gay'· "valley"; ·emeq comforted, comfort. Not used in the Qal,
··vale," "(low-situated) plain": biq'a "valley- nal:,am occurs chiefly in the Niphal and
plain." Our word appears also as nal:,la (Ps Piel.
124:4, torrent; Ezk 47: 19: 48:28, brook). lt occurs Derivatives
139 times.
:'That our root designates torrents of running 1344a cr:,:i (nöl:,am) sorrow, repentance
water is clear from Deut 21:4; Arnos 5:24: Ps (Hos 13:14, only).
104:10: 110:7. All the streams mentioned (e.g. in 1344b c1r,; (ni~uim) comfort (lsa 57: 18),
the Elijah accounts) are these quickly appearing CO/"P,_assion (Hos 11:8).
and disappearing torrents. Among the better 1344c :,~i,~ (nel:,ämii) comfort (Ps
known wadis is the Brook of Egypt, or Wadi el- 119:50: Job 6: 10).
' Arish (M. G. Kyle, "Egypt, the Brook of," in 1344d C1Mll;I (tanl:,um) consolation (e.g.
ISBE, p. 523). This "brook" perhaps was the Jer 16:7: Isa 66:11).
dividing line between Egypt and Canaan (Num The origin of the root seems to reflect the idea
34:5). A second possible identification is the of "breathing deeply," hence the physical dis-
Shihor/Pelusaic Nile arm. Fora survey of the ar- play of one's feelings, usually sorrow, compas-
guments see K. A. Kitchen, "River of Egypt," in sion, or comfort. The root occurs in Ugaritic (see
NBD, p. 354. Fora list of all n'/Jä/fm, see KB. "to console" in UT 19: no. 1230) and is found in

570
 1347 ?Um(nl;sh)
oT proper names such as Nehemiah, Nahum, and Richardson, London: SCM, 1957, pp. 191-192.
Menehem. The LXX renders nf1m by both Turner, G. A., "Repentance," in ZPEB, V, pp.
metanoeö and metamelomai. 62---04.Richardson, TWB, p. 191. THAT, II. pp.
The KJV translates the Niphal of n!1m "repent" 59---05.
thirty-eight times. The majority of these in- M.R.W.
stances refer to God's repentance, not man·s.
The word most frequently employed to indicate 1345 ri::; (nä(ia.n urge (1 Sam 21:9, only).
man·s repentance is shtib (q.v.), meaning "to
turn" (from sin to God). Unlike man, who under 1346 ,m (11!1r). Assumed root ofthe following.
the conviction of sin feels genuine remorse and 1346a ilj~ (na!zar) a snorting (of horse,
sorrow, God is free from sin. Yet the Scriptures Job 39:20, only).
inform us that God repents (Gen 6:6---7:Ex 32:14: 1346b :,im ( nalu'ira) a snorting (Jer
Jud 2: 18: I Sam 15: 11 et al.), i.e. he relents or ·,r16, oniy).
changes his dealings with men according to his 1346c i•M, (nähfr) nostril (Job 41:12,
sovereign purposes. On the surface, such lan- ~~lyl. .
guage seems inconsistent, if not contradictory.
with certain passages which affirm God's im- 1347 ll,ir,; (nhsh) I. Assumed root of the follow-
mutability: "God is not a man ... that he should
ing.
repent" (1 Sam 15:29 contra v. 11): "The LoRD
1347a tll.ii,; (näf:,äsh) serpent, snake.
has sworn and will not change his mind'" (Ps
1347b ,i;,tfm(II e f11ishtä11) Nehushtan.
I I0:4). When näf:,am is used of God, however,
the expression is anthropopathic and there is not nä!läsh. Serpent, snake. This is the most
ultimate tension. From man·s limited, earthly, fi- common word for "snake." lt is found thirty
nite perspective it only appears that God's pur- times in the 0T, distributed from Genesis through
poses have changed. Thus the 0T states that God the minor prophets. lt is also known from the
"repented" of the judgments or "evil" which he Ugaritic nf:,s.
had planned to carry out (1 Chr 21:15: Jer 18:8: The first five occurrences of nä!1äsh are in Gen
26:3, 19: Arnos 7:3, 6: Jon 3:10). Certainly Jer 3 (vv. 1, 2, 4, 13, 14) and ofcourse refer to the
18:7-10 is a striking reminder that from God's creature that tempted Eve to disobey God. Paul
perspective, most prophecy (excluding messianic alludes to this incident in II Cor 11:3 and John in
predictions) is conditional upon the response of Rev 12:9ff. In all instances, including the LXX
men. In this regard, A. J. Heschel (The Prophet.1·. translation, the Greek word is ophis.
p. 194) has said, "No word is God's final ward. Opinions differ as to whether this was a satan-
Judgment, far from being absolute, is conditional. inspired snake or a name for satan himself (J. 0.
A change in man's conduct brings about a change Buswell, Systematic Theo/of?Y of the Christian
in God's judgment. .. Religion. !, Zondervan, 1962, pp. 264---05).Only
The second primary meaning of näfiam is "to naturalistic theology could hold that it was a mere
comfort" (Piel) or ··to be comforted'" (Niphal. snake referred to in myth or legend.
Pual, and Hithpael). This Hebrew word was weil nä!1äsh occurs in Ex 4:3: 7: 15. in connection
known to every pious Jew living in exile as he with Moses· rod turning to a „ serpent. .. Du ring
recalled the opening words of lsaiah's "Book of the wilderness wanderings of the lsraelites the
Consolation," naf:,amti 11af1amli ·ammf "Com- Lord sent "fiery serpents ... Numbers 21:6. 7, 9:
fort ye, comfort ye my people" (lsa 40:1). The Deut 8:15. and II Kgs 18:4 refer both to the
same word occurs in Ps 23:4, where David says plague and the bronze "serpent'' 11'f1iishtä11
of his heavenly Shepherd, "Thy rod and thy which Moses made. Normally the "serpent" is
staff, they comfort me." Many passages, how- something evil. But anyone poisoned with venom
ever, deal with being comforted for the dead could, by looking at the bronze "serpent." be
(II Sam 10:2: I Chr 19:2: lsa 61:2: Jer 16:7: healed. Jesus alluded to this episode in John 3: 14.
31: 15). People were consoled for a death of an As the object of faith resembled the curse in the
infant child (II Sam 12:24), teenage son (Gen case of the "snakes," so Jesus resembled the
37:35), mother (Gen 24:67). wife (Gen 38: 12) et cursed in that he took the form of a servant and
al. A mother might comfort her child (lsa 66: 13) was made in the likeness of man (Phil 2:7). There
but it is God who comforts his people (Ps 71:21: are at least two more noteworthy features of this
86:17: 119:82: lsa 12:J; 49:13: 52:9). God's account of Moses· bronze "snake ... First, the
"compassion ( nif:,tim. a derivative of 11f1m)grows word 11iif1äsh is almost identical to the word for
warm and tender" for Israel (Hos 11:8). "bronze" or "copper," Hebrew 11"/Jöshet (q.v.).
Bibliography: Girdlestone. Robert B .. Some scholars think the words are related be-
Synonyms of the 0/d Testamellf, Eerdmans, cause of a common color of snakes (cf. our "cop-
1956, pp. 87-92. Richardson, Alan, "Repent," in perhead"), but others think that they are only
A Theological Word Book of the Bible. ed. Alan coincidentally similar. From II Kgs 18:4 we can

571
1348 tut:9(niil:wsh)
assume that the bronze "serpent" became a relic, his brothers, still unaware of who he was, had his
a religious fetish, and that the people of God, cup in their possession. According to I Kgs 20:33,
acting Iike ordinary men, wanted to worship it. the servants of Benhadad "took as an omen"
The name given it was "Nehushtan," which may Ahab's use of the word "brother" in reference to
refer to the words nii/Jäsh (snake) and/or their king.
n' IJoshet (brass). But divination is outlawed in Lev 19:26 and is
Both Jeremiah and Arnos may be alluding to spoken ofwith condemnation in II Kgs 17:17 and
this desert incident when they threaten punish- 21 :6 (cf. II Chr 33:6). lt is in the !ist of forbidden
ment in the form of "serpents" (Jer 8: 17; Arnos occult practices of Deut 18:10.
5: 19; 9:3). Isaiah and Micah may have Gen 3: 14 in
na!tash. Divination, enchantment, omen, sor-
mind when they speak of licking the dust like a
cery (Berkeley Version) augury (JPS). The
"serpent" (lsa 65:25; Mic 7:17).
noun na/Jash is obviously related to the cognate
Both Job and lsaiah mention the leviathan
verb nä/Jash II. Numbers 23:23 has the word in
(q. v .) or dragon or crooked "serpent" in connec-
the singular, parallel to qesem (q.v.), indicating
tion with God's power (Job 26:13; Isa 27:1).
some variety of the occult. N umbers 24: l, also
Other characteristics of "snakes" receive part of the Balaam passages, has the only other
mention. Genesis 49: 17 seems to refer to a ser-
occurrence of nalJash. Because of the similarity
pent' s stealth; Ps 58:4, 140:3 [H 4]; Prov 23:32,
of na/Jash to nähäsh (q.v.) meaning "snake,"
Eccl 10:8, 11, Jer 8: 17, Arnos 5: I 9, and 9:3 to the
some make a connection to snakecharming. More
poisonous bite; Prov 30: I 9 to their climbing
contend that there is a similarity of hissing
ability on a smooth surface; and Jer 46:22 to the
sounds between enchanters and serpents and
hissing sound they make.
hence the similarity of words.
Three passages (Ps 54:4-5; Eccl 10:I 1; Jer
Bibliography: Liefeld, W. L., "Divination,"
8: 17) may refer to "snake" charming. Again, the
in ZPEB, II, pp. 146--49. Summers, Montague,
word nä/Jiish is similar to the word /a/Jash
The History of Witchcraft and Demonology, New
(enchantment or divination) in those passages (cf.
York: University Books, 1956.
nii/Jash). R.L.A.
Three or four people and one city have names
derived from this root: Nahash, the king of
1349 wn, (n!Jsh) III. Assumed root of the fol-
Ammon (1 Sam I 1:1, et al.); Nahash, the father
lowing.
of Abigail and Zeruiah (II Sam 17:25); Nahshon,
1349a tr, tim (n '~1öshet) copper.
the son of Aminadab and brother-in-law of Aaron 1349b w~·n{ (nähush) bronze (Job 6:12,
(Ex 6:23 et al.); Nehushta. the mother of king o~ly). .
Jehoiakin (ll Kgs 24:8); and the city of Nahash
1349c n~in~ (n'/Jusha) copper, bronze
(lr-riahash in most translations, I Chr 4: 12). Since
(e.g. Job 28:2; lI Sam 22:35; Ps
there are several identical roots, these names
18:35).
may not necessarily mean "snake" but perhaps
"diviner" (na/Jash) or "copper" (n'/Jöshet). n'!töshet. Copper, bronze, brass, brasen, brazen
Bibliography: TDNT, V, pp. 571-79. (steel, KJV Jer 15: 12). fe11ers. chain.1. This. the
R.L.A. common word for copper and its alloy, bronze,
occurs about 140 times in the oT. "Copper" is
an element rarely found in pure form. "Bronze"
1348 Wtl~ (nä/Jash) II, learn by experience, dili-
is an alloy of copper made with tin. Although
gently observe, divine, practice divination or
"copper" characterized the Bronze Age in Pales-
fortunetelling, take as an omen.
tine, it by no means disappeared from use during
Derivative the Iron Age (beginning in the 12th century e.c.).
Brass (copper alloyed with zinc) did not come
1348a +wt1; (na~iash) divination.
into extensive use until the intertestamental
The verb niifwsh is found only in the intensive period so far as our archaeological evidence goes,
stem (Pie!) and is definitely related to the noun but possibly the "fine copper" of Ezk 8:27 was
na/Jash meaning "divination" or "enchant- genuine brass (R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient
ment." Technology, VIII, p. 276).
The first occurrence of nii/Jash is in Gen 30:27, More than half the references to n' /Jöshet are
where Laban "learned from the omens" (Je) that in the sections describing the construction of the
Jacob's presence meant his blessing. tabernacle and the temple with the accompanying
Both in Gen 44:5 and 15 the doubly intensive furniture and utensils. Made of n' IJöshet were
form (infinitive absolute plus finite verb) occurs. the sockets (Ex 26:37), the vessels (27:3), the
There we learn that Joseph claimed for his grate and rings of the altar (27:4) and other pieces
brothers' benefit that he could "divine" with a of hardware and decoration, as weil as the over-
special cup and so knew secret things such as that lay of the altar (27:2). Perhaps most notable was

572
 1352 :,~J(näta)
Solomon's "brazen" sea (1 Kgs 7:23-27; cf. also used of "pressing down," i.e. levelling off,
II Kgs 25:13). furrows of ground (Ps 65: 10 [H 11]).
"Chains" or "fetters" made of n' höshet In two parallel passages (II Sam 22:35; Ps 18:34
bound Samson (Jud 16:21), Manasseh (II Chr [H 35)), we find a rare occurrence of nä!Jet. lt has
33: 11), Jehoiakim (II Chr 36:6), and Zedekiah (Jer been rendered "so that my arms can bend (i.e.
52:11). Goliath had a helmet, greaves, and shield press down, stretch, or string?) a bow ofbronze"
of n • höshet. (Rsv). Ugaritic evidence, however, suggests a
"Copper" in the natural state is mentioned in more literal rendering of "lowering" a bow of
Deut 8:9 and Zech 6: 1. bronze into the arms (cf. Kothar, the Canaanite
Several times the word is used poetically. The god of crafts, who "brings down" (ynhl) two
"brass" heaven of Deut 28:23 represents heat clubs to Baal, the earthly warrior below, so he
and rainlessness. According to lsa 60: 17 its value can fight Yamm; see UT 16: no. 68:11).
is between that of gold and wood. Lamenta- Biblical Aramaic uses n'het in the sense of "to
tions 3:7 describes grief as a heavy "copper come down" (Dan 4:13 [H 10]; 4:23 [H 20]),
chain." Various translations have "filthiness" (AV, "deposit, store" (something, Ezr 5: 15; 6: 1, 5),
Asv); "shame" (Rsv); "lust" (NAB);or other para- and "depose" (from the throne, Dan 5:20).
phrases for the strange use of ne}Joshet in Ezk lt is of interest to note that while the noun nahat
16:36. II is derived from nä/Jat, there is another noun
Bibliography: Bowes, D. R., "Metals and nahat derived from niiah "rest." In the same
Metallurgy," in ZPEB, IV, pp. 207-12. way there are two nouns sha/Jat I "pit" and
R.L.A. shahat II "corruption" from shiwh "dig" and
shähat "corrupt" (q.v.) respectively. This latter
noun is not recognized in the lexicons, though
1350 WMJ (nhsh) IV. Assumed root of the fol- usually so translated in the LXX.
lowing. M.R.W.
1350a 1'\WMl (n"höshet) lust, harlotry (Ezk
···16':36,only). Meaning dubious.
r,m (nahat). See no. 1323a, 135la.

mv.n;(n,/Jöshet). See nos. 1349a, 1350a. 1352 n~~ (na{ä) extend, streich out, spread out,
~~Wm(n• !Jushtän). See no. 1347b. pitch, turn, pervert, incline, bend, bow.
Derivatives
1351 rim (nahet) go down, descend. 1352a tn~r,, (ma{{a) below.
1352b tn~c (ma{{eh) staff.
Derivatives 1352c tn~~ (mi{{ii) bed.
1351a ritt~ (nahat) descent (lsa 30:30, 1352d tn~~ ( m ü {{ ii) spreading, outspread-
only). ing.
1351b 1'\Ml (nähet) descending (II Kgs 1352e t1"!~1?
(mü{{eh) that which is warped.
6:9, oniy).
The 215 occurrences ofthis verb, excluding de-
Because it is used in several verbal stems, rivatives, are translated some thirty-five different
nahet is rendered several different ways. Ug nht ways in the KJValone. The Asv and Rsv add other
likewise means "go down" (UT 19:170, 1635). renderings to this wide range of English ex-
Several passages clearly illustrate the basic pressions.
meaning of nahat or nahet the stative form. As a The root meaning of "extend," "stretch out,"
military term it means "to march down" (Qal) to is especially common in the Qal stem. Exodus
attack a city (Jer 21: 13), or "to lead/bring down" records that Moses "stretched out" his hand
(Hiphil) warriors for battle (Joel 3: 11 [H 4: 11]). lt (usually his rod is also mentioned) over the
is the wicked who "go down to Sheol" (Job waters of Egypt (Ex 7: 19), over the land of Egypt
21:13). The Psalmist says that God's hand de- (Ex 10:13), toward heaven (Ex 9:23; 10:21-22)
scended upon him (Ps 38:2 [H 3J). Cf. the "de- and over the Red Sea (Ex 14:16, 21, 26-27). A
scending (nahat) blow of his arm" (lsa 30:30). javelin (Josh 8: 18, 26) or a sword (Ezk 30:25) is
The verb nähet is also rendered "to penetrate, "stretched out" in the hand. A woman displays
sink into." David exclaims in Ps 38:2 [H 3]), "thy her haughtiness with an "outstretched neck" (lsa
arrows have sunk into me" (cf. the Ugaritic 3: 16). A measuring line is "stretched over" a city
epithet "the archer," for Resheph, the Canaanite (II Kgs 21:13; Zech 1:16; cf. lsa 44:13).
god of plagues. See Dahood, "Psalms," I AB, Although a man may defiantly "stretch forth"
p. 235). "A rebuke penetrates more deeply into his hand against God (Job 15:25), anthropo-
(i.e. makes an impression on) a wise man than a morphically, it is ultimately God's hand which
hundred blows into a fool" (Prov 17:10). nä/Jet is "stretches out" in judgment against man (lsa

573
1352 :,~~ (nä(a)

5:25; 23:11; 31:3; Jer 6:12; 15:6; 51:25 et al.). earth "below" (Jer 31:37). Sheol is located "be-
Likewise, it is by an ··outstretched" arm that neath" (Prov 15:24). mat{a is also used of one's
God redeems and delivers man (Ex 6:6; Deut age, as in I Chr 27:23: "David did not number
4:34; 5: 15; 11:2 et al.). those below twenty years of age." lts connection
niita is often used for both "spreading out" with the verb nätii becomes apparent when one
(i.e. "pitching"') one's own tent (Gen 12:8; 26:25; observes that the Hiphil ofthis verbis sometimes
35:21; Jud 4: 11; II Sam 16:22) and the tabernacle rendered "bow down" (cf. II Kgs 19:16; Ps 86:1;
of the religious community (Ex 33:7; II Sam 6: 17; Prov 22:17).
1 Chr 16:1). "To spread" a tent, figuratively, is to
be established as a people (Jer 10:20). "To
maiieh. Staff, stick, shaft, branch, tribe. This
derivative is found about 250 times. Although the
stretch out" the curtains of a tent, is symbolic of
term properly means "staff' or "rod," it is usu-
growth (lsa 54:2). nä[ii is also figuratively used of
ally rendered (some 180 times) "tribe." The ref-
Yahweh, the Creator, whose hands "stretched
erence is usually to one of the twelve tribes by
out" the heavens as a tent (lsa 40:22; 42:5; 44:24;
name. At first, apparently, each tribal ruler led
45:12 et al.). In addition, the root is used of the
"extending" (i.e. growing long) of shadows his group with a staff. This suggests that the
ruler's staff may have originally been a symbol of
(II Kgs 20: 10; Ps 109:23; 102:11 [H 12]; Jer 6:4)
the tribe (cf. Num 17:2-10 [H 17-25]) and eventu-
and the "stretching out" of a valley (Num 24:6).
ally betokened leadership and authority (cf. Ps
The root also occurs with the basic meaning of
110:2; Jer 48: 17). lt should be noted that mt yd
"tobend." A wadi "bends" (i.e. slopes, Num
"staff of the hand," is weil attested in Ugaritic
21: 15), the shoulder of an ass "bends down" with
literature (cf. UT 19: no. 1237). In the LXX, phyle
a load (Gen 49: 15), and one "bends down" (i.e.
is most frequently employed to translate the He-
tilts) a pitcher of water to pour a drink (Gen
24:14). The term is also used figuratively of the brew matteh.
A mat{eh was used as a support when travel-
"perverting" or "warping" of justice, the con-
ling (cf. Gen 38: 18, 25). The young warrior,
demnation of which lies at the heart of lsrael's
Jonathan, carried a staff (1 Sam 14:27, 43). The
law code (see Ex 23:6; Deut 16:19; 24:17; 27:19;
staffs of Moses (Ex 4:2, 4, 17; 7: 15, 17, 20 et al.)
I Sam 8:3; Isa 10:2; 29:21; Lam 3:35; Arnos 2:7;
and Aaron (Ex 7:9-10, 12, 19; Num 17:8 [H 23],
5: 12; Mal 3:5).
et al.) are best known because ofthe supernatural
A )arge number of other references employing
wonders associated with them. An interesting
niita carry the nuance of "turn," "incline," or
example, often misused, is the case of Moses
"decline." lt is used in the literal sense of "turn-
holding up the rod of God in the Amalekite war
ing aside" or "away," or "diverting" from the
(Ex 17:9, 11-12). lt is often supposed that Moses
path (Num 20:17; 21:22; 22:23, 26, 33; II Sam
was holding up his hands in prayer, but the con-
6: 10) or "turning toward" something (Gen 38: 1,
text says nothing of this. The power to prevail
16).
was in the rod of God, the symbol of his power.
But most usages are figurative. One's heart
Additional uses of mat{eh include the "shaft"
may "turn away" (i.e. shift its loyalty, apos-
tatize; cf. I Kgs 11:2-4, 9) or "be swayed" (II Sam of an arrow (Hab 3:9, 14). Another expression,
mat{eh /ehern "staff of bread" (cf. Ezk 4: 16;
19:14 [H 15]). On the other hand, one's heart
5:16; 14:13; Lev 26:26; Ps 105:16) may not refer
may be "inclined" to God and his commands
to the "bread-pole," as is commonly supposed.
(Josh 24:23: I Kgs 8:58; Ps 119:36). Also common
Since /ehern may mean "grain" or "wheat,"
is the expression "to incline the ear" (i.e. listen
maueh /ehern may simply be taken as "stem" or
obediently) in reference to men paying heed to
"stalk of grain" (see M. Dahood, Psalms, in AB,
God (Jer7:24, 26; 11:8; 17:23 et al.), God toward
XVIIa, p. 56). Ezekiel uses mat(eh for the branch
men (II Kgs 19:16; lsa 37: 17: Dan 9: 18), and men
of a vine (19: 11-12, 14). Especially in lsaiah, the
to the words ofasage (Prov 4:20; 5:1, 13; 22:17).
term is used as a symbol of oppression and judg-
The word niitii is used with the meaning "de-
ment (lsa 9:4 [H 3]; 10:5, 24; 14:5; 30:32).
cline" in reference to a shadow (II Kgs 20: 10),
day (Jud 19:8-9), and figuratively, of one's rapid mi"a. Bed, couch, litter. This word occurs
physical decline in life (Ps 102:11 [H 12]; 109:23). twenty-eight times. lt is attested in Ugaritic. King
Krt lay weeping on his bed after losing his entire
ma,,a. Below, beneath, downwards. This term family (cf. UT 16: Krt, I 30, p. 184). Usually the
used adverbially, often indicates that which is mit(ii was a place for "stretching out" or "reclin-
"below," "beneath," or "under" something, as ing" upon the floor where a mat or cloths were
opposed to that which is above (cf. Ex 26:24; spread out. The beds ofthe rieb, however, might
36:29; 27:5; 38:4; 28:27; 39:20). Something be pieces of furniture made of ivory (Arnos 6:4)
planted takes root "downward" but "bears fruit or gold and silver (Est 1:6), possibly located in
upward" (II Kgs 19:30; Isa 37:31). The heavens bed chambers (II Kgs 11:2). The mitta was used
are pictured "above," and the foundations of the for sleeping (II Kgs 4:10), for the sick or injured

574
 1354 :,~~ (näfa')

(Gen 47:31; 48:2; II Kgs 1:4, 6), as a portable Vines and vineyards are most frequently men-
litter (1 Sam 19: 15), and as a bier for the dead tioned as being planted (Gen 9:20; Deut 20:6;
(II Sam 3:31). 28:30, 39; Ps 107:37; Prov 31:16; Eccl 2:4; lsa
[There is debate about Gen 47:31 whether 37:30; 65:21; Jer 31:5; Ezk 28:26; Arnos 5:11;
Jacob leaned upon the top of his staff marteh as 9:14; Mic 1:6; Zeph 1:13). Many of these pas-
in LXX and Heb 11:21 or upon the head of his bed sages also emphasize the result of planting, that
miUii as the MT says. The general picture seems of eating, enjoying the fruit, or drinking the wine.
to favor the former. R.L.H.] Other objects of nä{a' include trees (Lev 19:23;
Deut 16:21), fruit trees (Eccl 2:5), olive trees
mü,,a. Stretching, spreading out (of wings).
(Deut 6: 11; Josh 24: 13), the tamarisk tree (Gen
Used only in lsa 8:8 for the invading Assyrian
21:33) the cedar (Isa 44:14; cf. Ezk 31:4), and
army "stretching out" its wings over the entire
gardens (Jer 29:5, 28). Many of these references,
land of Judah.
and others below, are included in contexts which
mü,,eh. Thal which is warped, bent, perverted. also mention the construction of houses or cities,
Used only in Ezk 9:9 of the perverseness (i.e. thus tying agriculture to Israel' s domestic life.
injustice) of the city of Jerusalem. The verb na{a' and its derivatives are often
Bibliography: AI, pp. 4--13. Girdlestone, used metaphorically of Yahweh, the one great'
Robert B., Synonyms of the Old Testament, Planter (cf. the participle no{ea' in Jer 11:17) in
Eerdmans, 1956, pp. 259--60. TDNT, IX, pp. Israel. One of the first anthropomorphic ex-
245-50. IDB, I, pp. 372-73. pressions in the or is in Gen 2:8; "And the LoRD
M.R.W. God planted a garden in Eden." He is also pic-
tured planting aloes (Num 24:6) and cedars of
Lebanon (Ps 104:16).
',•tQJ (nätil). See no. 1353b.
i,•=, (nätfa'). See no. 1354b.
God brought a vine, his people, out of Egypt
(cf. Ex 15:17) and planted it (Ps 80:8 [H 9]) with
1"!~~~~ (n'[ipii). See no. 1355c.
his own hand (Ps 80:)5 [H 16]); cf. Ps 44:2 [H 3]
among choice vines (lsa 5:2). Indeed, they were
1353 ',~1 (nä{al) lift, bear (e.g. Lam 3:18; Isa · · his pleasant planting" (lsa 5:7). Yet with all this
40: 15). care, God's vine became a wild vine (Jer 2:21).
He longed once again to call them "the shoot of
Derivatives my planting'' (Isa 60:21) for they were meant to
1353a ',~; (ne{el) burden, weight (of be the "planting of the LORD"(lsa 61:3). Before
·sand, Prov 27:3). this could be, however, God told Israel that they
1353b ',•~1 (na{il) laden (Zeph 1:11, must first be uprooted and exiled from their land:
only). "Thus says the LORD:"What I have planted I am
plucking up, that is, the whole land" (Jer 45:4; cf.
24:6). But this would not be a permanent trans-
1354 l.l~J (nä{a') plant, fasten, fix, establish.
plant, for God specified in his covenant with
ASV and Rsv similar except Rsv also uses
David, "I will appoint a place for my people Is-
"stretch out" (lsa 51:16); "replant" (Ezk
rael, and will plant them, that they may dwell in
36:36); and "pitch" (tents) (Dan 11:45).
their own place, and be disturbed no more"
Derivatives (II Sam 7:10; 1 Chr 17:9). Later, God's last word
through Arnos reiterated the promise: "I will
1354a 1.1~~(ne{a') plant, planting (e.g.
plant them upon their land, and they shall never
Job 14:6; lsa 5:7).
again be plucked up out of the land which I have
1354b l!'~J (na{fa') plant (Ps 144:12, given them" (Arnos 9:15; cf. Jer 31:28; 32:41).
only). God not only "plants" (na{a') Israel but he
1354c 1.1,r,,(ma{{ä') planting, plantation
also "plants" or establishes the nations (Jer 1: 10;
(e.g. Ezk 34:29; Isa 60:21). 18:9), the wicked (Jer 12:2), the heavens (Isa
The root nä[a' is used some seventy times. 51: 16), the ear (Ps 94:9), and reestablishes the
Most of the references occur in the prophets, wasteland (Ezk 36:36).
Isaiah and Jeremiah accounting for about thirty Other figurative uses of nä[a' include "pitch-
of them. The root is also found in Ugaritic litera- ing" tents (Dan 11:45) and "driving" nails (Eccl
ture. In ancient Israel where farming was widely 12:11). The Psalmist prays God's blessing upon
practiced, it is not surprising that the Bible men- his people by saying, "May our sons in their
tions about one hundred different varieties of youth be like plants full grown" (Ps 144:12).
plants, most of which were economically vital to Koheleth uses the figure of planting to illus-
that agrarian society. Because the act of planting trate the fact there is a time for everything, "a
was such a familiar scene, about thirty times the time tobe bom, and a time to die; a time to plant,
or authors use the root nara· figuratively. and a time to pluck up what is planted" (Eccl

575
1355 r\~J(nä(ap)
3:2). This Scripture was read at the funeral of contempt for Micah and his fellow prophets, im-
President John F. Kennedy. plying the idea of "rant" (cf. NEB) or "prate." In
M.R.W. Arnos 7: 16 nä(ap is placed parallel with the verb
näbä', and, as in the passages from Micah above,
appears to connote the idea that a prophet is
1355 1'11:lJ(nä(ap) drop, drip, distil, prophesy,
merely one who "goes drivelling on" (cf. NEB)
preach. against God's people. On two occasions Ezekiel
Derivatives is addressed by the Lord and told to „ drop" (Rsv,
"preach") his message against the south (20:46
1355a 1')~ 1 (nä(äp) I, drop (Job 36:27, [H 21:2)) and against the sanctuaries (21:2 [H 71).
only). In what seems to be a derivative of nä(ap, Job
1355b 1 (nä(äp) II, drops of stacte, a
1')~
36:27 uses the root for a drop of water.
gum resin of a shrub used in in-
cense (Ex 30:34, only). n•~ipä. Pendant. This noun is used of drop-
1355c tM~~IP~(n 'tfpil) drop, i.e. pen- shaped earrings (cf. nauafat, an Arabic word for
dant. earring) in Jud 8:26 and lsa 3: 19. In modern He-
brew, the word nä(ep is used of grapes hanging
The verbal root nä(ap occurs eighteen times. lt down from a duster.
is found almost exclusively in the poetical sec- Bibliography: Dahood, M., in Psalms II, pp.
tions of the OT. In two early pieces of Hebrew 13fr39. Girdlestone, R. B., Synonyms of the O/d
poetry (Jud 5; Ps 68), nä(ap is used three times of Testament, Eerdmans, 1956, pp. 239-40. Gor-
the clouds or heavens dropping water. In the don, Cyrus H., UT 19: no. 1763. Gordon, Cyrus
Song of Deborah, rain pours down and the earth H., Ugaritic Literature, Rome: Pontifical Bib.
quakes as Yahweh, in a mighty theophany, ap- Institute, 1949.
pears marching across the land, "LoRD, when M.R.W.
thou didst go forth from Seir, when thou didst
march from the region of Edom, the earth trem- 1356 ,; 1 (nä(ar) keep, keep guard, reserve,
bled, and the heavens dropped, yea the clouds maintain. (Rsv has "be angry" in Jer 3:5,
dropped water" (Jud 5:4). Yahweh, not Baal, is 12 and "keep his anger" in Ps 103:9; ASV
the real "Rider ofthe Clouds" (cf. Ps 68:4 [H 51). uses "retain" in Jer 3:5.)
lt is he who causes rain to drop on the parched
desert (cf. Ps 68:8 [H 91)and who alone is worthy Derivative
of Israel's song of praise. 1356a tri,~r., (ma(färil) M,~r.i (ma(färä')
The prophets describe future earthly blessings target.
to be bestowed upon the people of God, restored
The root nätar is often used in farming con-
to their land. lt will be a time when "the
texts ofthose who keep or guard vineyards (Song
mountains shall drip sweet wine" (Joel 3:18 [H
1:6; 8: 11-12; cf. Isa 5: 1-7 for a description of
4:18]; Arnos 9:13).
caring for a vineyard). lt is also used in the sense
The Wisdom Literature of the OT uses näfap
of keeping one's anger or wrath. The Lord
five times. Job pictures men who waited for his
"keeps wrath for his enemies" (Nah 1:2), yet he
words of counsel which "dropped" upon them as
promises not to keep anger forever (Ps 103:9; Jer
rain (Job 29:21-23). In Song of Solomon, the
3:5, 12; cf. Arnos 1:11). In Lev 19:18, a verse
bride's lips "drop sweetness like the hon-
which Jesus considered to be at the heart of the
eycomb" (NEB, Song 4:11), while her Iover's lips
oT law (cf. Mt 19:19; Mk 12:31), Israel is com-
"are lilies, distilling liquid myrrh" (5: 13). Her
manded, "You shall not ... bear any grudge
hands are also said to have "dripped with myrrh"
(näfar) toward the children of your people, but
(5:5). According to Prov 5:3,. "the lips of a you shall love your neighbor as yourself. ''
strange (i.e. loose or adulterous) woman drip
honey,'' an apparent reference to either kisses or ma"ärä, ma~~ärä'. Target, mark, prison
seductive speech. guard. This derivative sometimes means "tar-
In prophetic literature näfap is sometimes used get" or "mark." Job, in his suffering, alleges
ofthe one who speaks God's word to the people. figuratively that God set him up as his "target"
The idea of "prophesy" (Rsv "preach") is con- (Job 16:12). The writer of Lamentations com-
veyed by the Hiphil stem meaning literally to plains in a similar vein by saying that God "bent
"cause (words) to drop, drip, flow." Hence, in his bow and set me as a mark (ma(färä') for his
Mic 2: 11, the participle ma((ip (Av "prophet," bow" (Lam 3: 12). In I Sam 20:20 Jonathan says,
RSV"preacher") Stands as a synonym for näbi', "I will shoot three arrows to the side of it, as
the general tenn for prophet. nä(ap is found four though I shot at a mark" (ma(fära).
other times in Micah 2 in the sense of "proph- In Jeremiah's prophecy, ma(fära is frequently
esy'' or "preach" (vv. 6, 11). In this context, used in the expression "court of the prison/
however, the verb seems to carry a nuance of guard." Located inside the palace grounds of

576
 Zedekiah (Jer 32:2), the guard's courtyard was 1358 M'J (ny'). Assumed root of the following.
apparently an open area which served as a tem- 1358a MJ (nä') raw (of flesh, Ex 12:9,
porary stockade for confining prisoners during 'only).
the Babylonian attack of Jerusalem (Jer 38:28;
39: 14). Shut up in the court of the guard, ::•; (nib). See no. 1318b.
Jeremiah was given the freedom to receive i•; (nid). See no. 1319b.
visitors (32:8) and settle a legal matter of family :,:i•; (nida). See no. 1302b.
business (32: 12). In the courtyard he received r,n•; (ni/:,öal:,). See no. 1323c.
prophetic messages (33: 1; 39: 15), was given a i•; (nin). See no. 1326a.
daily food allotment (37:21), and was placed in a
miry cistem (38:6). ma(tärii also occurs in Neh 1359 ir.,•; (nisän) Nisan, first month (Neh 2: 1;
3:25 and 12:39. Interestingly, imprisonment is not Est 3:7). For other months, see hödesh,
a penalty used in the Pentateuchal legislation. no. 613b. ·
They had no prisons in the wildemess.
M.R.W. ri:r•J (ni~o~). See no. 1405a.

1357 W~~ (nä(ash) forsake, cast off, cast away, 1360 i•; (nir) /, break up, freshly plow (Hos
reject, leave, permit, spread out, spread 10:12; Jer 4:3).
abroad. (Other renderings: ASV suffer,join, Derivative
be loosed; RSV cease, abandon, quit, hang
loose, cast down, make a raid; ASV and RSV 1360a i•; (nir) the tillable, untilled or fal-
lie fallow, let fall, forgo, draw.) low ground (Hos 10:12; Jer 4:3;
Prov 13:23).
Derivative
1357a M?V't;i;
(n'(ishii) tendrilsofa vine(as 1361 "l'J(nyr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
spread out). ing.
1361a ii:r; (mänor) beam carrying the
There are forty occurrences of nä(ash in the OT. heddles in a loom (e.g. II Sam
About half of these uses carry the idea of forsake 21:19=1Chr20:5). Usedinsimileof
or reject; elsewhere, nä(ash frequently means a heavy spear.
leave, let alone or spread, extend. Only in Gen
31:28 does it mean permit (allow). i•; (nfr). See no. 1333b.
Often näfash is used of God forsaking or cast-
ing off his people (Jud 6:13; I Sam 12:22; I Kgs 1362 *M;,• (näkä') strike, scourge. Occurs only
8:57; II Kgs 21: 14; Ps 94: 14; Isa 2:6; Jer 7:29; 12:7; once, in the Niphal (Job 30:8).
23:33, 39). On the other hand, God (Deut 32:15;
Jer 15:6), David (Ps 27:9) or Egypt (Ezk 29:5) may Derivatives
be the object of nä(ash. The term is also used of 1362a M;,; (näka') stricken (lsa 16:7,
forsaking the tabemacle at Shiloh (Ps 78:60) and only).
of rejecting the teaching of one 's mother (Prov 1362b M;;,• (näke') stricken (Prov 15:13;
1:8, 6:20). 17:22; 18:14).
A person may leave (näfash) land by letting it 1362c l'IM·:,; (n'kö't) a spiee (Gen 37:25;
lie fallow (Ex 23:11) or forgo the harvesting of 43:11).
crops (Neh 10:31(32)). Animals (asses or sheep)
may be left alone in the sense of ceasing to care l'IM':i; (n'kö'I). See no. 1362c.
for them (1 Sam 10:2; 17:20, 28). Food may be
left, i.e., "dropped off' (1 Sam 17:22)or a tree cut 1363 i:,: (nkd). Assumed root of the following.
down and left behind (Ezk 3 I: 12). This nuance 1363a i;;,~ (neked) progeny, posterity
of dropping, falling, or casting down is used of the (Gen 21:23; Isa 14:22).
nations Egypt and Israel (Ezk 32:4; Arnos 5:2), of
quails (Num 11:31) andin the sense of dropping a 1364 *:,;,; (näka) smite, strike, hit, be.at, slay,
dispute (Prov 17:14). kill. Not used in the Qal stem: chiefly
The meaning of extend, spread out is used in used in the Hiphil.
the context of warriors in battle (Jud 15:9; I Sam
4:2; 30:16; II Sam 5:18, 22); also of an extended, Derivatives
i.e. drawn sword (lsa 21:15) and ofthe spreading 1364a :,;;,• (näkeh) stricken (II Sam 4:4;
of the shoots of a vine (lsa 16:8). 9:3; lsa 66:2).
M.R.W. 1364b :,;;,~ (nekeh) stricken (Ps 35:15).
1364c ib: (näkon) blow (Job 12:5,
•; (ni). See no. 1311c. ~nly).

577
1364 *:,;~ (näka)
1364d t:,f~ (makka) blow, sound, slaugh- be "smitten" (naka) or fallen (napa/) or
ter. wounded Uuilal) in battle. Thus when in Gideon ·s
battle 120,000 men "feil" (Jud 7: 10), it may only
Tht· root is used about five hundred times. But
mean that they were killed, wounded, or missing
one must not hastily infer that since niika is such
in action; 15,000 only were left as a fighting force.
a common OT root, society as a whole was satu-
So also in the war of Abijah against Jeroboam,
rated with war and violence. That warfare and
"They smote (niika) them with a great smiting
bloodshed did occur, sometimes with great fre-
(makka) and there feil (niipa/) wounded (hala/)
quency, must not be denied. Yet, the wide va-
500,000." (Cf. R. L. Harris, Man---God's Eter-
riety of ways in which the verb "to smite" is used
nal Creatiun, Moody, 1971, pp. 155-56).
throughout the oT is fitting evidence to warrant a
Of particular theological importance is the fact
somewhat different conclusion.
that God is often the subject of niika. lt is God
The verb naka is often used for "hitting" or
who "smites" people with blindness (II Kgs 6: 18)
"smiting" an object with one, non-fatal strike. A
and plagues (Deut 28:22, 27-28, 35). He brings
man may "smite" an animal such as an ass (Num
judgment upon man for his sin (I Kgs 14:15: Lev
22:23, 25, 27). He may "hit" a person on the
26:24), even death (II Sam 6:7). Likewise, nature
cheek (Ps 3:7 [H 8]: Lam 3:30) or in the eye (Ex
is under God's control for he, not Baal, "smote"
21 :26). Exodus records that Moses· rod "struck"
lsrael's vines and fig trees (Ps 105:33).
the river (Ex 7: 17), the dust (Ex 8: 16 [H 12]. 17
[H 13]). and a rock (Ex 17:6). One may be the makka. Blow, wound, plague, slaughter, de-
target of a flying object such as a stone from a feat (Rsv also has aftliction (Deut 28:59, 61:
sling (1 Sam 17:49), an arrow (1 Kgs 22:34), or a 29:22 [H 21J), sickness (Deut 28:59), and disaster
spear (1 Sam 19: 10; cf. 26:8). The root naka may (Jer 19:8; 49:17). Of the forty-eight occurrences
also refer to being "smitten in conscience" (cf. of makkii in the OT, two-thirds of them are trans-
David, when he cut offSaul's skirt, I Sam 24:5 [H lated in the LXX by the term plege (:11)..T]yiJ), from
61), and to the "clapping" ofhands before a king which the English term "plague „ is derived.
(II Kgs 11: 12). The word is used with four main nuances of
niika is also found in passages which describe meaning. First, it is used literally of a "blow" or
the beating of some object. A man may receive a "stroke" received in a beating or whipping (Deut
"beating" by another in a fight (Ex 2: 11, 13: Deut 25:3; Prov 20:30). According to OT law, the
25: 11). Nehemiah "beat" some of the Jews for number of strokes received in formal punishment
marrying foreign warnen (Neh 13:25). In Song of was limited to forty (Deut 25:3). The synagogue,
Solornon, the bride, searching for her lover however, eventually reduced this to thirty-nine
through the streets of the city, is beaten by the strokes (cf. II Cor 11:24). thirteen across the
watchmen (Song 5:7). The oT law apparently breast and twenty-six across the back (cf. TDNT,
allowed scourging for certain offenses (Deut IV, p. 516). The same ideaof"scourging" is used
25:2-3: cf. II Cor 11:24). Jeremiah the prophet, figuratively of the Lord of hosts who „ smote Mi-
however, was beaten by authorities although he dian" (cf. lsa 10:26).
was innocent (Jer 20:2: 37: 15). So also was the Secondly, makka. in certain contexts, is trans-
Suffering Servant who gave his "back to the lated "wound." lt is so used of King Ahab's
smiters" (lsa 50:6: cf. Mt. 26:67). Proverbs notes death. When the king was fatally struck by an
the importance of beating for the sake of acquir- arrow, the Hebrew historian graphically states,
ing wisdom and discipline (Prov 19:25: 23: 13-14). "the blood ran out of the wound into the midst of
The idea of "beating repetitiously" is likewise the chariot" (1 Kgs 22:35; cf. the wounds from
seen in the plague of hail in Egypt which "struck Goct·s arrows in Ps 64:7 [H 8]). Another king,
down" everything in the open (Ex 9:25). Joram, received battle "wounds" from the Sy-
In a !arge number of passages naka means to rians (II Kgs 8:29: 9:15: II Chr 22:6). The
.. slay," ··kill,.. .. strike dead.. (cf. A v „ slay ... prophets often use "wound" symbolically, de-
some ninety times). lt is used of murdering scribing that condition of God's people usually
another man (Ex 21:12: Josh I0:26etal.) whether brought about by the "'blow" of an enemy due to
intentionally (11 Sam 2:23) or unintentionally her sin (Jer 30: 14; cf. lsa 1:5-6). Although her
(Deut 19:4): ofa man killing a lion (1 Sam 17:35): wound is "grievous" (Jer 10:19: 14:17: 30:12: cf.
of a lion killing a man (1 Kgs 20:36): and of a Assyria in Nah 3: 19), even "incurable" (Jer
worm attacking a plant so as to kill it (Jon 4:7). 15:18; Mic 1:9), God will bring healing in his time
Another large group of passages uses the root (lsa 30:26: Jer 30: 17).
in the sense of "attack ·· and/or "destroy, .. the makkii. may also be rendered ··p(ague" or
object being a group of people (Gen 32:8 [H 9], 11 "affliction." In oT tirnes, plagues seem to have
[H 12]: Josh 8:21), a house (Arnos 3:15), and a been a kind of epidemic disease often sent as
city (Josh 10:28 et al.). punishment for sin. Once the Hebrew people left
This usage bears on the large numbers said to Egypt, God demanded obedience of them.

578
 1368 *,;,~ (näkar)

Should they disobey, God solemnly warned, "I terizes a place where the wicked man "deals per-
will bring more plagues upon you, sevenfold as versely" (lsa 26: 10). The term is used in Isa 59: 14
many as your sins" (Lev 26:21). A "very great as a synonym for "justice," "righteousness,"
plague" (makka) occurred in the wilderness as and "truth." Arnos, the prophet of socialjustice,
the people were gluttonously eating the quails lashes out at the unethical practices of those in
(Num 11:33). This plague may have been a severe Samaria by saying, ''They do not know how to do
stomach disorder. On the plains of Moab, just right" (3: 10). nokalJ is used about twenty times,
prior to the Conquest, God's people are again normally in prepositional or adverbial phrases. lt
threatened with affiictions, "severe and lasting," means "in front of, opposite," and is variously
if they fail to observe the law and revere God's rendered "over against," "before," "facing," et
name (Deut 28:59, 61). Several generations after al.
the Exodus, the Philistines were yet impressed M.R.W.
with the reputation of the God of the Hebrews
who "smote the Egyptians with every sort of 1366 ',;~ (niika/) be crafty, deceiJ/ul, knavish
plague in the wilderness" (1 Sam 4:8). (e.g. Mal 1:14; Num 25:18).
Lastly, makkii is used in the sense of "defeat,"
as when an army or people is smitten by "slaugh- Derivatives
ter" (1 Sam 4: 10; 14:30). Frequently the verb 1366a ',;~ (nekel) wiliness, craft (Num
niikii "to smite" is combined in a cognate con- · 25: 18, only).
struction with makka, resulting in the expres- 1366b •';>•;, (kUay ), •';>;, (kelay) knave
sion, "to make/smite with a very great" or "great (lsa 32:5, only), with nun elided.
slaughter" (cf. Josh 10:10, 20; Jud 11:33; 15:8; I
Sam 6:19; 19:8; 23:5; I Kgs 20:21 et al.). 1367 c;~ (nekes) riches (e.g. Josh 22:8; Eccl
Bibliography: IDB, III, pp. 821-22. Harris, R. 6:2).
L., Man-God's Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971,
pp. 155-56. TDNT, IV, pp. 515-19. 1368 *i;; (näkar) recognize, acknowledge, know,
M.R.W. respect, discern (not in the Qal).

1,::,~ (näkon). See no. 1364c. Derivatives

1368a i;_J(neker) misfortune, calamity
1365 M!lJ (nkh). Assumedroot of the following. .(Job 31:3).
1365a ti:i"::,; (niikoah) n;J (nökah) both 1368b t, 1~ (nekär) that which is foreign.
appear to be derivatives of the root 1368c t--:,~~ (nokrf) foreign, strange.
nkh meaning "be in front of'' (so 1368d ti;~ (niikar) treat as foreign. De-
BDB). moninative verb.
The word niikoah occurs eight times. lt is used
1368e :i-,;tt (hakkärii) look (or expres-
sion ?). Occurs only in Isa 3:9.
mainly as an adjective (straight, right, plain) and
as a noun (what is straight, right, uprigllt). Most
1368f i;~ (makkär) acquaintance, friend
(II Kgs 12:6, 8).
of the examples cited below illustrate that
niikoah primarily stresses the ethical quality of The root nkr carries several different mean-
life in actions involving both personal and na- ings. (BDB divides it into two verbs. KB treats as
tional morality. one, as we do here.) First, it conveys the idea to
niikoah is used adverbially in one instance (lsa "inspect" or "look over" something with the in-
57:2) meaning "straight forwardly." In this con- tention of recognizing it. Jacob invited Laban to
text, the righteous man dies in peace (shälom), "point out" (i.e. visually distinguish) his own
for he has walked a straight path through life. possessions from those of Jacob (Gen 31:32).
Several passages employ näkoah adjectivally. In Likewise, personal items such as Joseph's robe
II Sam 15:3 it stands beside the word "good" in (Gen 37:32) and Judah's signet, cord, and staff
reference to a legal case. Another occurrence (Gen 38:25) are inspected with a view to identify-
(Prov 8:9) states that words of wisdom "are all ing the owner of each.
straight to him who understands''; they are not The verb also means to "pay attention to" or
"twisted or crooked" (cf. v. 8). To give a "right" "take notice of' (someone). Ruth is surprised
answer in a legal matter is to give an honest or that Boaz "took notice" (nkr) of her when she
straightforward reply (Prov 24:26). was a foreigner (nokriyii; Ruth 2: 10, 19; cf.
Other verses treat niikoah as a noun. In Isa II Sam 3:36). In a number ofpassages nkr carries
30:10, the word is used of the "true" things re- the nuance of regarding someone with favor or
vealed by God to his prophets in contrast to the for good. Such is God's regard for the exiles of
illusions of other so-called prophets. The term Judah (Jer 24:5). The potential danger in "show-
"land of uprightness" (' ere~ n 'kohot) charac- ing attention" to someone is that partiality may

579
1368 *i;; (nakar)
result. Proverbs 28:21 states, "To show partiality quent occurrence is the nominal ben (han-) nekar
is not good." Hence judges are solemnly warned "foreigner" (Gen 17:12, 27; Ex 12:43 et al.), and
not to be partial ( nkr) in their judging (Deut 1:17; b e ne (han-) nekar "foreigners" (II Sam 22:45-
16:19; Prov 24:23). 46; Isa 56:6; 60: 10.
A third use of nkr is in the sense of "to recog-
nokri. Foreign, strange, alien; often as a noun,
nize" an object (which one formerly knew). A
"foreigner," "stranger." This term occurs over
man might observe another person and "recog-
forty times and has a variety of uses. The LXX
nize" him (cf. I Kgs 18:7; 20:41), sometimes only
mainly employs wJ..6tQLO<:;for nokrL Like nekar
by the tone ofvoice (I Sam 26:17). Jacob "recog-
above, nokri is normally translated "strange" or
nized" the blood-dipped robe as belonging to his
"stranger" in the AV, but "foreign" or "for-
son Joseph (Gen 37:33). Judah "recognized" (i.e.
eigner" in the RSV. A non-lsraelite is a "for-
acknowledged) his own signet, cord and staff
eigner" (Jud 19:12; I Kgs 8:41 et al.). The term
which resulted in his incrimination (Gen 38:26).
applies to a "foreign land" (Ex 2:22; 18:3) and
On the other hand, a person may fail to "recog-
"foreign (non-Israelite) women" (1 Kgs 11:1, 8 et
nize" someone because of darkness (Ruth 3: 14).
al.). In the book of Proverbs, "foreign (or
Job's comforters at first failed to "recognize"
strange) woman" (nokriya) becomes a technical
him because of his personal dishevelment (Job
expression for a prostitute or adulteress (Prov
2: 12). The aged Isaac did not "recognize" Jacob
2: 16; 5:20; 6:24 et al.). Sometimes nokri carries
because of the hairy animal skins on his hands
the ideaof"unknown," "unfamiliar" (Job 19:15;
(Gen 27:23). lt should especially be noted that in
Ps 69:8 [H 9]), or even "odd" or "surprising"
Gen 42:7, nkr occurs with two opposite mean-
(lsa 28:21). In modern Hebrew, nokri may stand
ings: Joseph "knew" (nkr), i.e. "recognized" his
for "gentile."
brothers, but "he treated them like strangers"
(Hithpael of nkr), i.e. "he kept his identity from näkar. Act or treat as strange,foreign, new; mis-
them" (see nkr II). construe, disguise, make unrecognizable. Al-
The root nkr is further used in the sense of to though BOB (pp. 648-49) lists this as a denomina-
"acknowledge" (with honor or recognition). A tive verb under nkr II, this root is probably not to
father must "acknowledge" the firstborn son by be distinguished from nkr l, "recognize, know."
giving him a double portion (Deut 21:17). Levi lt is likely, as KB (p. 617) posits, that the original
failed to "acknowledge," i.e. "he disowned" his meaning of "be strange, new, conspicuous" de-
brothers (Deut 33:9). Prophetically, Daniel says veloped to "be remarked, known."
of Antiochus, "Those who acknowledge him he In several passages nkr carries the idea of
shall magnify with honor" (Dan 11:39). Concern- shielding one's true identity from another. In
ing Israel, Isaiah writes, "all who see them shall Egypt, Joseph "acted as a stranger" to his
acknowledge them, that they are a people whom brothers, pretending not to know them (Gen
the LORDhas blessed" (Isa 61 :9). 42:7). Jeroboam's wife disguised herself, conceal-
In several passages nkr carries the idea of to ing her identity to Ahijah the prophet, thus "she
"distinguish" or "understand." When the people pretended tobe another woman" (1 Kgs 14:5-6,
saw the foundation of the postexilic temple being Rsv). Proverbs 26:24 says, "A man filled with
laid, they could not ·•distinguish" the sound of hate disguises it in his words" (cf. Scott, Prov-
joyful shouting from the sound of weeping (Ezra erbs, in AB, p. 158). Here is a different kind of
3: 13). An aparition appeared to Eliphaz in a vi- disguise. lt comes from the lips as a man speaks
sion but he could not "distinguish," i.e. "dis- things "foreign" to his mind.
cern" its appearance (Job 4: 16). The root nkr may also be translated "mis-
lt is significant that nkr is not used in the 01 as construe, misrepresent, judge amiss" as in Deut
a euphemism for the act of sexual intercourse as 32:27 (Rsv), "Had I not feared provocation by the
the root, yada' (q. v .) is often used. In Ugaritic, enemy, lest their adversaries should judge
however, nkr is used in the sense of "to know amiss."
sexually." One text reads, "The newlywed This verb also may carry the idea of "disfigur-
burned to lie again with his wife, to know (his) ing, making unrecognizable, treating (a place) as
beloved" (Keret IV. 28; I ii 49; cf. G. R. Driver, foreign or profane," a charge which J eremiah
Canaanite Myths and Legends, pp. 31, 33, 156). makes of the valley of the son of Hinnom in
Jerusalem (Jer 19:4).
nekär. That which isforeign. This derivative is Bibliography: Barabas, S., "Foreigner," in
usually rendered "strange" or "stranger" in the ZPEB, II, p. 590. Driver, G. R., Canaanite
KJV,but "foreign" or "foreigner" in the Rsv. lt is Myths and Legends, Edinburgh: T & T Clark,
used of a "foreign god" (Deut 32:12; Ps 81:9 1956. TDNT, I, pp. 264-67. THAT, II, pp. 66-68.
[H 10]; Mal 2:11 et al.), of"foreign altars" (II M.R.W.
Chr 14:3 [H 21), a "foreign country" (Ps 137:4),
and "everything foreign" (Neh 13:30). Of fre- ~".l~J(nokri). See no. 1368c.

580
 1375 '!IQJ(nasak)

1369 i,:,~ (n'köt) treasure (II Kgs 20:13; Isa Solomon with hard questions (1 Kgs 10:1; II Chr
39:2). Meaning and derivation uncertain. 9: 1); the chief of the eunuchs tested the appear-
ance of Daniel and his friends after they ate vege-
1370 :i,: (nlh). Assumed root of the following. tables for ten days (Dan 1:12, 14); false prophets
1370a :,~~~ (min/eh) gain, acquisition sometimes were the instrument for testing a man's
(Job 15:29, only). faith (Deut 13:3 [H 4]). Often, however, God is
the One responsible for bringing testings and trials
1371 ,0: (nml). Assumed root of the following. upon man. God delivered Israel by sending "great
1371a :i7r;,~
(n'mälii) ant (Prov 6:6; trials" upon the Egyptians (Deut 7: 19; 29:3 [H 2]);
30:35 only). but he later tested Israel by the Canaanite nations
(Jud 2:22; 3: 1, 4). Likewise, näsii is used when
1372 ,0: (nmr). Assumed root of the following.
God tested both Abraham (Gen 22: 1) and Heze-
1372a ,~; (nämer) leopard (e.g. Hos
kiah (II Chr 32:31). Such testing by God, how-
13:7; Hab 1:8).
ever, was not without intent. lt was to refine the
=~(nes). See no. 1379a.
character of man that he might walk more closely
in God's ways (Ex 16:4; Deut 8:2; Jud 2:22; II Chr
1373 :,~~ (näsii) test, try, prove, tempt, assay, put 32:31; Ps 26:1-3).
M.R.W.
to the proo/, put to the test. (Other render-
ings infrequently found: ASV adventure,
proveth; RSV make atest, Oltempt, venture, be 1374 l"!QJ (näsa~) pull or tear away (e.g. Prov
used to; ASV and RSV make trial.)
15:25; Deut 28:63).

Derivative Derivative
1373a :,~r,, (massiih) trial, test, proving. 1374a l"!~r,, (massä~) by turns, alternately.
U sed also as a place name (Massah) Meaning uncertain.
where the '"trial" over water hap-
pened in the wildemess (cf. Ex '!!'I;)~ (näsik). See nos. 1375b, 1377a.
17:1-7).
1375 '!!~J (näsak) I, pour out, pour, offer, cast.
In most contexts näsii has the idea of testing
or proving the quality of someone or something, Derivatives
often through adversity or hardship. The render-
ing tempt, used frequently by the AV and ASV,
1375a ip~ (nesek) drink offering, libation,
molten image.
generally means prove, test, put to the test, rather
1375b '!!'Cl (näsik) libation (Deut 32:38),
than the current English idea of "entice to do ',;,ollen image (Dan 11:8).
wrong." The verb näsii occurs 36 times in the or. 1375c :i;,!',lr; (massekii) libation, drink of-
In a number of passages näsii means to at- fering, molten metal, cast image.
tempt to do something. lt is used of attempting
or venturing a word which might offend the hearer The root nsk is mainly used for the "pouring
(Job 4:2), of venturing to touch one's foot to the out" of a drink offering or libation. and for the
ground (Deut 28:56), and oftrying to take a nation "casting" of meta! images. lt would appear (cf.
(Israel) from another nation (Egypt) (Deut 4:34). BDB) that this root should probably be distin-
In other contexts, näsii is used of testing various guished from näsak "to weave," and näsak "to
things such as armor and weapons (1 Sam 17:39) set, install." näsak "to pour out" occurs about
and pleasure (Eccl 2:1; cf. 7:23). twenty times.
The largest number of references, however, näsak is primarily used in connection with the
deal with situations where a person or a nation is OT drink offering or libation. (Correspondingly
undergoing a trial or difficult time brought about the word "libation" comes from the Latin term
by another. Though man is forbidden to put God libare "pour out a drink offering. ") The drink
to the test (Deut 6: 16), the or records that he did offering was originally established in the coven-
so. The wildemess place of Massah ("trial") be- ant community as an appropriate form of wor-
comes a byword in this regard, often combined ship, although it might also be perverted through
in a p)ay on words with näsii, "to try" (Ex 17:2, 7; the influence of heathen cultic ritual.
Deut 6: 16; 33:8; Ps 95:8, 9; cf. Deut 9:22). Those Before Israel settled in her land, the Canaan-
who put God to the proof in the wildemess would ites were accustomed to pour out drink offerings
not see Canaan (Num 14:22-23). The hymns of to their gods. Pagan fertility religion thought of
Israel reflect this defiant attitude (see Ps 78: 18, deities as resembling men in their need of both
41, 56; 106:14). food and drink. The Ugaritic root nsk is weil at-
On occasion, one man would try or put another tested in Canaanite literature (see G. R. Driver,
man to the test. Thus, the Queen of Sheba tested Canaanite Myths and Legends, p. 157). Thus on

581
 1 (näsak)
1376 '!TQ

one occasion, Baal, the Canaanite god of fertility al.), or other fermented drink (shekar Num 28:7).
and nature, commands, · 'Pour a peace-otTering in On at least one occasion water was "poured out
the heart of the earth, honey from a pot in the to the Lord" (II Sam 23:16: I Chr 11:18). The
heart of the fields" (Baal v. iii. 31-32; in Driver, phrase "ten thousands of rivers of oil" (Mic 6:7),
p. 87). The influence of these pagan libations coming in a context of priestly ritualism and
upon the purity of Israelite worship was met head bumt offerings, may also suggest the occasional
on by the prophets. They stemly rebuked lsrael's use of oil for the nesek. · 'Libations of blood'' (Ps
corrupt practice of pouring out drink otTerings to 16:4) were a heathen practice, nowhere condoned
idols (lsa 57:6; cf. 65: 11; Ezk 20:28). Just before in the oT.
the fall of the Southem Kingdom, God wamed During the time of Jesus, in accord with OTlaw,
through Jeremiah, "drink otTerings (nesek) have the weeklong Feast of Tabemacles included a
been poured out to other gods, to provoke me to daily drink otTering (cf. Num 29: 12 ff.). A priest
anger" (Jer 32:29; cf. 7:18 and 19:13). Even after would fill a golden pitcher at the pool of Siloam,
captivity, the Jewish refugees in Egypt continued walk in solemn priestly procession to the temple,
to follow their old heathen practices, countering and there pour out the water at the altar (cf.
Jeremiah's rebuke by insisting, ··But we will do W. Hendriksen, NT Commentary: Gospel Ac-
everything that we have vowed, buming incense cording to John, II, pp. 21-26). lt was in this
to the queen of heaven and pouring out libations context that Jesus proclaimed on the last day of
to her as we did ... in the cities of Judah and in the feast, "If any one thirst, Jet him come to me
the streets of Jerusalem" (Jer44:17; cf. 44:18-19, and drink" (Jn 7:37).
25). In the NT, Paul employs the oT imagery of the
Jacob was the first tobe referred to as present- "drink offering" in using the term spendomai
ing a drink offering (cf. Gen 35: 14). But it was not (Phil 2:17; II Tim 4:6). In both passages, Paul,
until after the Exodus from Egypt that the laws writing while imprisoned, literally states, "I am
goveming the nesek were established. As a rule, being poured out (as a drink offering)" for the
a drink otTering was to be presented along with sake of Christ. Just as the drink otTering was
bumt otTerings and cereal offerings (Ex 29:40; "poured out" at the altar, so the apostle is pre-
Lev 23: 13; Num 15:1-10). The amount of wine paredjoyfully to "pour out" sacrificially his own
was specified at one-fourth hin for each lamb blood in martyrdom.
(Num 15:5), one-third hin for each ram (15:6--7) The second (and far less frequent) use of the
and one-halfhin for each bull (15:8-10). Although root näsak is to "pour out" or "cast" molten
King Ahaz built a new altar according to a pagan images. Whereas the derivative nesek is trans-
design, he seems to have conformed to pen- lated "drink offering" almost exclusively (c. 60
tateuchal legislation by pouring out his drink of- times), the derivative massekii normally carries
fering at the time he offered his burnt offering and the meaning "malten image" (c. 25 times). Such
cereal offering (II Kgs 16:10-16). images were cast by pouring molten meta) into a
Daily, at the time of the moming and evening mold or over a frame (lsa 40: 18-20). Images were
bumt offering, a drink offering was to be poured cast of gold (lsa 30:22), the most noteworthy
out to the Lord (Num 28:7-8). A similar practice examples being Aaron's malten calf (Ex 32:4, 8)
was to be observed at each of the following and Jeroboam's molten calves set up at Dan and
feasts: Sabbath (Num 28:9), New Moon (Num Bethel (1 Kgs 14:9). Other images were of silver
28:14), Unleavened Bread (Num 28:24), First (cf. Ugaritic nsk ksp, "silversmiths" UT 19:
Fruits (Lev 23:13; Num 28:31), Trumpets (Num 1253), bronze, and iron. The worship of images
29:6), Day of Atonement (Num 29: 11), and cast of meta) is roundly denounced in both the
Tabemacles (Num 29: 12-39). In addition, the law (Ex 34:17; Lev 19:4; Deut 27:15) and the
nesek was apart of the religious ceremony which prophets (Isa 41:29; 42:17; 44:10; Jer 10:14;
ended the vow of the Nazirite (Num 6:15, 17). 51:17; Hos 13:2; Hab 2:18).
The intertestamental work, Ecclesiasticus, has - Bibliography: Driver, G. R., Canaanite
left us a description of the conclusion of the daily Myths and Legends, Edinburgh: Clark, 1956.
temple ritual of the high priest: "He held out his TDNT, VII, pp. 528-536. Woudstra, S., "Malten
hand for the libation cup and poured out the Image," ZPEB, IV, p. 270. Wright, G. E., Bib/i-
blood of the grape, poured its fragrance at the cal Archaeology, Westminster, 1957, pp. 107-20.
foöt (themelias-base) of the altar to the Most M.R.W.
High, the King of all" (Sir 50: 15, NEB).But some
verses suggest that the libation was poured out on
the altar, presumably over the sacrifice (cf. Gen 1376 '!!;; (näsak) II, weave (Isa 25:7; 30:1).
35: 14-on the pillar; Ex 30:9 not on the altar of
incense). Derivative
The liquid normally used for a "drink offering" 1376a 1i;;r; (massekii) woven stuf/, web
was wine (yayin, Ex 29:40; Num 15:5, 7, 10 et (lsa 25:7; 28:20; 30:1).

582
 1380 t.'Q1 (nasa')

1376b ri;;,!!;I~ (masseket)web of unfinished sail (made of "fine embroidered linen from
stuf/, on loom (Jud 16:13-14). Egypt") served as its ensign (nes). Possibly the
heraldic symbol of the city was actually embroi-
1377 ici, (niisak) III, set, install (Ps 2:6; Prov dered on the sail. The Encyc/opedia Judaica (VI,
-8:23). p. 1335) points out that murals on tombs indicate
Jewish ships bore emblems. In addition, the Tar-
Derivative gum speaks of colorful flags made of silk.
1377a i•i;,; (niisfk) prince (e.g. Josh The word nes is also used in the prophets in
13:21; Ezk 32:30). connection with the return to Zion. An ensign is
to be raised over the nations (lsa 62: 10) and they
1378 01;1; (niisas) I, be sick (lsa 10:18, only). will bring the sons and daughters of Zion back to
her (lsa 49:22).
lt is not surprising that lsaiah, the Christologi-
1379 *Cll;ll (niisas) 1/. Occurs only in the
cal prophet par excellence. personifies nes. He
Hithpoel, in Ps 60:6, "that it may be dis-
says "in that day the root of Jesse shall stand as
played," and in Zech 9: 16, "raised,"
an ensign to the peoples; him shall the nations
"prominent." Meaning dubious in each
seek" (11:J0; cf. 11:12). So lsrael's messianic
occurrence.
king will be lifted up (cf. Jn 3:14; Phil 2:9) that all
Derivative men might rally around him.
The Pentateuch employs nes four times. When
1379a tc,~ (nes) signal pole, standard, en-
the Amalekites were defeated (Ex 17:15), Moses
sign, banner, sign, sail. (ASV and
built an altar to commemorate the victory.
Rsv similar except Rsv uses warning
Realizing that the Lord was the Banner around
in Num 26:10.)
which Israel had rallied, he called the altar
In the oT, nes generally means a rallying point "Jehovah nissi" (the LoRDis my banner). Later
or standard which drew people together for some on in the wilderness, Moses lifted up among the
common action or for the communication of im- people a bronze serpent set upon a pole (nes)
portant infonnation. This usually happened on a. (Num 21:8-9). This rallying point of healing and
high or conspicuous place within the camp or life became a fitting object-lesson of something
community. There, a signal pole, sometimes with greater to some (cf. Jn 3: 14-15). nes is also em-
an ensign attached, could be raised as a point of ployed in Numbers in the sense of "sign" or
focus or object of hope. The tenn occurs "warning" (26: 10).
twenty-one times. In Ex 17:15, however, in the Bibliography: Encydopedia Judaica, VI,
AV and ASV, nes remains untranslated, occurring New York: Macmillan, 1971, pp. 1334-38. Vaux,
in the title, "Jehovah-nissi." Roland R. de, AI pp. 227, 251. ZPEB, I, pp.
People would rally together around a nes for 461-63. Yadin, Yigael, The Art of Warfare in Bi-
various purposes, one of the most important blical Lands, 2 vols., McGraw-Hill, 1963.
being the gathering of troops for war. The pro- M.R.W.
phetic materials particularly emphasize this use
ofthe standard. Isaiah 5:26 pictures God raising a 1380 111;1~(näsa') I, chiefly used in the Qal
standard among the nations, signaling Assyrian
stem, translated pull out, remove, sei out,
warriors for muster against sinful Israel. The sei forward, depart, journey. (ASV often
trumpet was often used as a war alann to sum-
prefers journey; Rsv also uses pluck up,
mon soldiers around the nes. Jeremiah says, move, migrate.)
"Setup a standard on the earth, blow the trumpet
among the nations for war against her" (51:27; Derivatives
see also 4:21; Isa 18:3). The Standard was usually
1380a 11Q~ (massa') pulling up, breaking
raised on a mountain or other high place (lsa
camp.
13:2; 18:3: 30:17). There, public proclamations 1380b 111;)~(massä') breaking out, quarry-
could be made (Jer 50:2). Soldiers deserting the ing (of stones).
standard in panic (lsa 31:9) signaled defeat. When
a standard was raised toward a city, it was a sign The root meaning "to pul! out tent-pegs," i .e.
for its residents to "flee for safety" before the to break camp (cf. Isa 33:20; also note Jud 16:3
attack (cf. Jer 4:6). where Samson "pulls up" two gateposts from the
On two occasions nes is used in the sense of ground), gave rise to the derived meaning of "to
"sail." In lsa 33:23 (cf. Mishna, Baba Bathra 5a) set out," or "journey"-the usual meaning of
the prophet addressed Zion as a ship, "Your this frequent verb. Ugaritic literature also attests
tackle hangs loose; it cannot hold the mast firm in this root (cf. UT 19: no. 1254; AisWUS no. 1803
its place, or keep the sail (nes) spread out." In herausreisen "journey forth ").
Ezk 27:7, Tyre is pictured as a sturdy ship whose The verb niisa' with its derivatives occurs

583
1381 l)C:,) (ns')

about 160 times. More than 80 percent of these 10:12). Moses recorded the itinerary of lsrael's
occurrences, however, are found in the Pen- joumeys "stage by stage ... according to their
tateuch, with nearly a hundred references in the starting places" (Num 33:1-2). The same nuance
book of Numbers alone. Considering the nature of joumeying gradually, stopping from place to
of the verbal idea, niisa' fits weil into the histori- place, is conveyed by niisa' in Gen 12:9 where
cal life setting of the Hebrews of this early Abram, having left Haran, "joumeyed on, still
period. Before the conquest, they were a primar- going toward the Negeb" (cf. Gen 11:2 where the
ily semi-nomadic, itinerant, tentdwelling people. term "migrate" seems tobe an appropriate ren-
As desert travellers, each moming they pulled up dering of niisa' ). niisa · is likewise used of
their tent-pegs, folded their tents, and set out shepherds who "wander" from place to place
with flocks and herds on the next stage of their with their flocks (Jer 31 :24).
joumey. Thus for the wandering Hebrews, the The Hi phil stem of niisa · sometimes means to
idea of "pulling up" or "breaking camp" (cf. "cause to set out" or "make start out." lt was
massa' in Num 10:2) led to the more common Moses who "brought Israel from the Red sea"
meaning of "setting out" (Num 10:6). In this re- (Ex 15:22; cf. LXX); but it was the Lord who
gard it is of note that Numbers 33 (Rsv) renders "caused the east wind to blow" (Ps 78:26; cf. Ex
niisa' "toset out" forty-two times in its list ofthe 14:21) and who "led forth his people like sheep,
various stages of lsrael's joumey from Egypt to and guided them in the wildemess" (Ps 78:52).
the border of Canaan. The Hiphil is also employed with the nuance of
In or times, "toset out" was normally to jour- to "remove" or "take (something) from its place."
ney and go travel somewhere. This then gave rise Ajug is "set aside" when it has been filled (II Kgs
to such expressions of hendiadys as "take your 4:4). Hope may be "pulled up," i.e. removed, like
joumey, and go" (Deut 1:7; 2:24). The patriarch a tree (Job 19:10). When stones are quarried, they
Jacob "joumeyed" about Canaan (cf. Gen 35: 16; are "removed from their place" (cf. I Kgs 5: 17
46: 1). The lsraelites "set out" from Elim, jour- [H 31]; Eccl 10:9). Hence the derivative massii',
neying to the wildemess of Sin (Ex 16:1). From the "'breaking (of stones)" or ··quarrying" (1 Kgs
Rephidim they "set out" for Sinai (Ex 19:2). 6:7).
Forty years later, "the people set out from their M.R.W.
tents, to pass over the Jordan" (Josh 3: 14). Occa-
sionally niisa' carries the nuance of"setting out" 1381 l)CIJ (ns') II. Assumed root of the follow-
in the sense of to "go forward" or to "go on- ing.
ward." When Israel fled Egypt and was suddenly 1381a l)lll~ (massii') missile, dart (Job
halted by the Red Sea, the Lord said to Moses, '41:18, only).
"Tell the people of Israel to go forward (niisa')"
(Ex 14:15). Later, Israel was instructed to "go i';IJ (niisaq). A form of siilaq, no. 1511.
onward"' (niisa') only when the cloud was taken
up from over the tabemacle (Ex 40:36-37).
1382 "!°iCIJ (nisrök) Nisroch. The Assyrian
People are not the only subject of niisa' ; other
god worshiped by Sennacherib.
things also are said to "set out" such as the stan-
dard of a tribe (Num 10:18, 22, 25), the ark (Num Nisroch is mentioned twice in Scripture,
10:35), the tabemacle (Num 1:51), and the tent of II Kgs 19:37 and lsa 37:38. These parallel ac-
meeting (Num 2: 17). counts indicate that after Sennacherib withdrew
In a number of passages, niisa' means to "de- to his own land from Jerusalem he was slain by
part," "leave," or "go back." lt is used of those his sons as he worshiped in the temple of N isroch
who have "gone away" to a nearby town (Gen his god (also cf. ANET, p. 288).
37: 17) and of a king who had "left" one city to The precise identity of the name nisrök has
fight at another (II Kgs 19:8). Sennacherib "de- long been a problem. lt is unknown in ancient
parted," i.e. retreated, from Jerusalem to Assyro-Babylonian literature. The LXX readings
Nineveh when he saw that his army was miracu- are varied (Esdrach, Esthrach, Asrach) provid-
lously decimated (II Kgs 19:36). Likewise, King ing little clarification of the matter.
Jehoram and his forces "withdrew," i.e. re- lt would appear that nisrök resulted from a
treated, from attacking Moab and retumed to scribal corruption of the name of some other de-
their own land (II Kgs 3:27). The rendering ity. The exact location where Sennacherib was
"struck camp" (NEB) for niisa' in this verse slain is not clearly stated, but one possibility is
seems open to question. that it may have been the city of Assur, the spell-
niisa' is also used in the sense of to "joumey ing nisrök being derived from the Assyrian god,
by stages." Headed for Sinai, the lsraelites Ashur.
· 'moved on from the wildemess of Sin by stages' · More likely, however, N isroch is a corruption
(pi. of massa' ; Ex 17:1). Later they "set out by of either the name Marduk or Nusku. Although
stages from the wildemess of Sinai" (Num Marduk was a deity of Babylon, the Nabonidus

584
 1389 "\tn (n'r)

inscription says that Sennacherib led „Marduk In other contexts the root is used to describe
away and brought (him) into Ashur" (ANET, words (Ps 141:6; Prov 15:26; 16:24; 23:8), knowl-
p. 309). Thus Sennache1ib may have been assas- edge (Prov 2: 10; 22: 18), good fortune or wealth
sinated in a temple of Marduk in his own land. (Job 36: 11; Ps 16: 11; Prov 24:4), the ways of
Nisroch may also be understood as a misspell- people (Ps 133:1), and wisdom (Pröv 3:17).
ing ofNusku, the name ofthe fire god ofBabylon Of special note are those passages where the
found in Assyrian inscriptions (see John Gray, root is used to describe God or his name. Psalm
I & ll Kings, pp. 694, 95); and IDB, III, p. 554. 135:3 (Av) declares, "Sing praises unto his name;
M.R.W. for it is pleasant ( nä ·im; cf. Rsv "sing to his
name, for he is gracious!"). See also Ps 147:1
rii,~IJ~ (n' 'urbt). See no. l389e. [H 2]. Note that the Arabic cognate, na'ima
c•,~IJJ (n''urfm). See no. 1389d. means "be pleasant," and its derived noun
c•i,,;'(nii'fm). See nos. 1384b, 1385a. ni' matun means "grace, favor." The Psalms
(27:4; 90: 17) also speak of the "beauty" (nö'am)
1383 ?P1 (nä'a/) bar, bolt, lock (e.g. II Sam ofthe Lord (cf. ASVand Rsv "favor"). lt is signifi-
13: 18; Jud 3:23). cant that this root is found as an epithet of Is-
rael's God, in the light of Canaanite mythological
Derivatives texts. Literature from Ugarit likewise uses the
1383a ',p~ ( na'a/)sandal, shoe (e.g. root n'm to describe the loveliness of two of its
Gen 14:23; Deut 25:10). leading deities, Anath and Baal (cf. Dahood, in
1383b ',p 1 (nä'a/) furnish with sandals. AB, Psalms, vol. I, p. 167; vol. 11, p. 327).
Denominative verb (Ezk 16: 10; II M.R.W.
Chr 28: 15).
1383c ':>w~r;,(man'ti/) bolt (Song 5:5; 1385 CIJJ (n'm) II. Assumed root of the follow-
Neh 3:8). ing.
1383d ',~~c (min'ä/) bolt (Deut 33:25). 1385a c•1,1;(nä'fm) singing, sweetly
sounding, musical (Ps 81 :3).
1384 ci;; (nii'em) I, be pleasant, sweet, delight-
ful, beautiful. 1,;P,~ (na'amiin). See no. 1384c.

Derivatives 1386 rtJJ (n'.)'). Assumed root of the following.

1384a cp·, (nö'am) pleasantness, beauty, 1386a ri:r1n (na'astis) thorn bush (Isa
kindness, favor. 7:'i9; 55:13) ..
1384b c•v; (nä'fm) pleasant, sweet, love-
ly, agreeable. r~:rP,~(na'ti.)'ü~). See no. 1386a.
1384c 1,;P,~ (na'amän) pleasantness (lsa
17:10). 1387 ip; (nä'ar) I, growl (Isa 51:38, only).
1384d c•t;,p~r,i (man'ammim) delicacies,
dainties (Ps 141:4). 1388 ipJ (nä'ar) II, shake, shake out or
The root with its derivatives is found twenty-
~ff (e.g. Neh 5: 13; Isa 33:9, 15).
eight times in the or. In Ugaritic literature the Derivatives
root is also weil attested, being the normal word 1388a ip: (na'ar) a shaking, scatter-
for „good." As a noun it is rendered "goodness, ing (Zech 11: 16).
charm, loveliness·· (see UT 19: no. 1256). 1388b ri,1,1, (n' 'örel) tow (as shaken
The root is used to describe people such as ·.·fr~m the flax when beaten, Jud
Saul and Jonathan (II Sam 1:23), David (the 16:9; Isa 1:31 ).
--sweet" psalmist of Israel, II Sam 23: 1), and his
friendship with Jonathan (II Sam 1:26). lt is used
1389 i1,1J (n'r) III. Assumed root of the follow-
of the physical beauty of two lovers (Song 1: 16;
ing.
7:6 [H 7]), of the nation of Egypt (Ezk 32: 19), and
1389a t,p~ (na'ar) boy, youth, servant.
of Issachar's portion in the land of Canaan (Gen
1389b ipJ (nö'ar) youth, early life (e.g.
49: 15).
Job 33:25; Prov 29:21).
The OT also uses nä'em and its derivatives to
1389c t.i,P,: (na'ara) girl.
characterize various concrete tenns as, for
1389d tC'".'IW~ (n''tirim) youth, early life.
example, the taste of bread (Prov 9: 17), location
1389e rii,~IJ~ (n' 'Ctrbl) youth, early life
of ground (Ps 16:6), and music of the lyre (Ps 81 :2
(Jer 32:30, only).
[H 31). In Zech (11:7, 10), nö'am (Av „Beauty";
Rsv „Grace") is the name given to one of the na'ar. Boy, lad, youth, servant, attendant. (KJV
staffs. also young man, child, babe [once]; ASVand Rsv

585
1390 M~J(napafJ)
same ranges, with servant more widely employed M'.'')11;(n'"oret). See no. 1388b.
in latter.) :,~; · (näpa). See nos. 1330a, 1331b.
While not all lexicographers agree, nä'ar likely
derives from nä'ar I, "growl." An Arabic cog- 1390 MQJ (näpa/:,) blow, breathe, sniff at; give
nate covers the range, "grunt, cry, scream, roar, up or lose (life); seethe.
bellow," plus more active connotations, "gush
forth, agitate." South Arabic derivative Tigre Derivatives
language of Ethiopia yields a verb: "instigate re-
bellion," noun: "mischief, revolt," which sheds
1390a n,~ (mappäl:,) breathingout, expir-
ing (Job 11:20).
helpful light on the incident of Elisha's tormen- 1390b tt,~~ (mappüal:,) bellows (Jer
tors who were attacked by bears (II Kgs 2:23-24). 6:29).
Assuming it likely that this !arge band of boys (42 1390c tt,1!:11'\(tappüal:,) apple.
were gashed by the bears, while still others must
The concept of blowing forcefully is the most
have escaped !) were teenage rowdies, the ASV
translation, "young lads," would be more appro- natural sense of this root, commonly used of
force ventilation for a fire, hence indicative of a
priate than either KJV "little children" or Rsv
"small boys." seething or boiling hot caldron in Job 41 :20 [H 12]
and Jer 1:13.
That na'ar affords a wide range of usage is
Perhaps the most significant use (of fifteen _oc-
evident from a sampling of its over two hundred
currences) is the giving of life-creation of man
occurrences. Whereas in Ex 2:6 it refers to the
(Gen 2:7) and revitalization of dry bones (Ezk
infant of few months, Moses (KJV "the babe
wept"), andin II Sam 12:16 to Bathsheba's baby, 37:9). By contrast, however, loss of life is indi-
the mature Absalom is called na'ar by his father cated in Job 31 :39 and Jer 15:9. A more dramatic
sense is found in Mal 1:13, where "sniffing" at
in II Sam 14:21 and 18:5. For the more technical
the name of God signifies a profaning of the name
or titular use, "servant, retainer," see II Sam
by offering invalid, unacceptable sacrifices.
16:1, where Zibah is called the "servant of
Mephibosheth." Thus, while reference to a mappua~. Bellows. The noun occurs once,
youngster of ages between weaning and (espe- denoting an instrumental derivative, " bellows."
cially) marriageable young manhood is primary In Jer 6:29 a strong figure for the smelting and
(puberty is implied in Gen 34:19, etc and early refining of meta! is employed, wherein bellows
childhood in I Sam 1:24 hanna'ar na'ar "the boy are used to fan the fire to an intense heat. ("'The
was a child"), the titular use of II Kgs 19:6, "the bellows blow fiercely to burn away the lead with
servants of the king of Assyria" ( =officials), and fire," NJV.)
"soldier" (1 Kgs 20:15ff.) must also be recog-
tappüa~. Apple. Relationship seems at first
nized. For Ugaritic meanings: guild members,
semantically strained, but the ideas of "breathe"
servitors, and soldiers, see UT 19: no. 445.
and "exhale an odor" are related. The by-form
na'Arä. Girl, maulen, young woman. This noun pual:, means both "blow" (ofwind) and "exhalea
usually refers to a marriageable but unmarried pleasant odor, be fragrant." As for the "apple,"
girl, emphasizing the youthfulness of the girl while admittedly the word "apricot" would be
(II Kgs 5:2). Yet the young widow Ruth is so more suitable in Prov 25: 11, "like apples of gold
designated (Ruth 2:6; 4:12) as is the Levite's in a network of silver," the true apple (Pyrus
concubine (Jud 19:3ff.) and a prostitute (Arnos malus) may be reasonably accepted in Song of
2:7). Marriageableness is implied in Gen 24: 14ff.; Solomon and elsewhere (see New Bible Dictio-
34:3, 12; Deut 22: 15ff, etc., virginity in Jud 21: 12; nary, p. 50).
Deut 22:23, 28, and elsewhere, and betrothal in M.C.F.
Deut 22 :25, 27. Parallel to the masculine "ser-
vant" we find "maid" (female attendant) in Gen ci•7•~;(n 'pi/im). See no. 1393a.
24:61; Ex 2:5, etc., and "gleaners" in Ruth 2:5,
etc. 1391 i1;1, (nöpek) a precious stone in priest's
n°'urim. Youth ("childhood" once in KJV ·breastplate (Ex 22:18) andin Tyre's mer-
only). This abstract (pluralized) noun lays stress chandise (Ezk 27: 16). RSV"emerald," NIV
on the early, immature but vigorous, trainable "turquois."
stage oflife, most often in the phrase "from one's
youth up." (See Gen 8:21; I Sam 17:33; I Kgs 1392 7CIJ (napal) I, fall, lie, be cast down, fail.
18:12; Job 31:18, the last instance denoting ex-
treme youth, in parallel with "from my mother's Derivatives
womb.") Also used figuratively of Babylon (lsa 1392a 7!;1~(nepel) untimely birth, abor-
47: 12, 15) and Judah and Moab (Jer 22:21; 48: 11). tion (Job 3:16; Eccl 6:3).
M.C.F. 1392b ,,r., (mappä/) refuse.

586
 1395 *to~J(napash)
1392c :,',1~ (mappala) a ruin (lsa 17:1). "'Nephilim" is safer and may be correct in refer-
1392d :,~10(mappela) a ruin (lsa 23:13; ring the noun to a race or nation.
T2.5:2). M.C.F.
1392e ri;,,; (mappe/et) a carcass (Jud
· i4:8), ruin (Ezk 31: 13), overthrow 1394 T!ll (napas) break, dash, beat in p~ces;
(Ezk 32: 10). -;verspread, scatter, disperse.
Besides the common physical action or occur- Derivatives
rence, a violent or accidental circumstance is
often indicated, as weil as expanded range of 1394a tl'!:l) (nepe~) driving storm (lsa
meanings by combination with prepositional 30:30, only).
specifiers. 1394b !'91"; (mappa~) shattering (Ezk
Occurring in verbal usage 365 times in the or, 9:2, only).
this word displays rieb variety of connotation. 1394c Tl?~ (mappe~) war club (Jer
Though something as simple as a falling wall may 51 :20, only).
be described (lsa 30: 13) or as literal as reporting Both etymologically and interpretively it is bet-
that "Ahaziah feil down through the lattice," ter to maintain that only one root is involved here
more often a much more specific or idiomatic use (so KB). (The semantic overlap becomes obvious
is involved. One may fall in battle (Jud 20:44), fall to the English speaker when he realizes that in his
into the hands of another (Lam 1:7), or fall by the own language the words "scatter" and "shatter"
hand ofan opponent (1 Chr 20:8). Damage, death, both derive from a common etymology.) For
or destruction are often designated by näpal, but example, where, in Dan 12:7, KJv says, "to scat-
far from exclusively so. A listing of some facets ter the power of the holy people," ASV has
of meaning with examples of occurrence would "breaking in pieces" and RSV,"shattering of." A
serve to demonstrate the range of usage. (Transi- similar translation variance occurs in I Kgs 5:9
tive force is expressed by the Hiphil stem.) [H 23], with KJv's "cause them (rafts of logs in
Observation of denotations of the verb root shipment) to be discharged" being rendered in
makes the rationale of the noun derivatives seif both ASVand RSV,"have them broken up."
evident. Twice occurring mappal speaks of One may thus be satisfied to see these as tran-
droppings or refuse of wheat (Arnos 8:6) and the sitive and intransitive senses, respectively, of the
hanging, fleshy paunch of the crocodile (Job one verb root, but at the same time it is evident
41:15). mappäla. or mappela. (lsa 17:1; 23:13; that in the latter case a semantic relationship may
25:2 only) means ruin of a devastated or decayed exist with the middle-weak root pü~ 'be dis-
city, while mappelet, besides "ruin, overthrow" persed, overflow; disperse·.
(Ezk 26: 15, 18 and elsewhere), designates a cut
down tree trunk (Ezk 31: 13) and animal carcass nepC!i, Tempest, driving storm (lsa 30:30, KJV
(Jud 14:8). "scattering," ASV "blast," Rsv "cloudburst").
M.C.F. This noun fails to afford a ready solution since,
again, the storm described can picture either a
1393 ',!,l (np/) II. Assumed root of the follow- bursting of clouds or a scattering (and dashing to
. ing. pieces!) of things on earth .
1393a t1:1•7•c,l (n' pi/im) giants, the Ne- M.C.F.
philim (Gen 6:4; Num 13:33,
only). 1395 *lliCJ (napash) take breath, refresh
oneself. This denominative verb occurs
While some scholars attempt to relate this term
only in the Niphal (Ex 23:12; II Sam 16:14:
etymologically to näpal I via the noun nepe/ "un-
Ex 31:17).
timely birth" or "miscarriage" (as productive of
superhuman monstrosities), a more likely recon~ Parent Noun
struction is the proposal of a root näpal II, akin
1395a ttli!:l) (nepesh) life, soul, creature,
to other weak verbs, pü/ II "be wonderful,
person, appetile, and mind are the
strong, mighty," päla' "be wonderful," and
more common of the twenty-some
even päla. "separate, distinguish," pälal "dis-
varieties of meaning utilized in KJV.
criminate." This pattern of semantically related
groups of weak verbs with two strong consonants (Asv conforms with these uses in a majority of
in common is a notably recurrent phenomenon in cases, while RSVdeviates freely, sometimes re-
Hebrew lexicography. Actually, the translation verting to "soul" where KJV has another ex-
"giants" is supported mainly by the LXX and may pression but more often replacing ··soul" with
be quite misleading. The word may be of un- words like "being,'" "person,'' any "one,'' "he"
known origin and mean "heroes" or "fierce war- who, "seif," "1/me," etc., and "appetite." Both
riors·· etc. The RSV and NIV transliteration revisions, in fact, make substitutions by using

587
1395 *tuQJ(näpash)
terms found in other passages in KJV.)The Ugarit- bread will be for their hunger" (Hos 9:4); "a
ic and Akkadian have cognates with somewhat righteous man cares for the needs of his animals''
similar breadth of meaning but both include the (Prov 12:10; cf. 10:3; 16:26). So also it can refer
meaning "throat." Arabic nafs includes "soul, to one's spiritual/volitional appetite, that is, "de-
mind, life, person, inclination, seif (as a reflexive sire" or "will"; e.g. "the enemy said, ... ·my
pronoun)" but does not mean "throat." For desire shall be gratified against them'" (Ex 15:9;
Phoenician-Punic and Old Aramaic npsh!nbsh cf. Ezk 16:27; Ps 27:12; 41:3); "then you shall let
see Jean, C. F. and Hoftijzer, F. Dictionnaire des her go according to her desire" (Deut 21:14; cf.
lnscriptions Semitiques de /'ouest (Leiden 1965). I Sam 2:35 [ofGod's will] 105:22). Abraham says
lt is common in Ianguage for a bodily part or to Ephron: "if it is your wish ... " (Gen 23:8).
organ to take on emotional or spiritual meanings, The desire of the wicked is condemned (Prov
cf. "heart" in both Hebrew and English. 13:2; 19:2).
Most ofthe KJVvariants referred to above are a About twenty times, however, nepesh is the
matter of closely related concepts, as synonyms subject of 'awa "to desire," "to crave." Here it
for creature, "living thing, beast, fish," for appe- is not the hunger/appetite/desire itself but that
tite, "heart, pleasure, desire, Just, discontent," which possesses the appetite, "the soul." A per-
and "will." While "any(one), man," and ··seif son, a soul, may crave physical food: "and you
(myself, etc.)" occur in KJV, the rendering of sa y, ·I will eat meat ,' because you desire [t • ·aw-
nepesh by the simple personal pronoun (often re- weh] to eat meat, then you may eat meat, accord-
flexive) is common only in RSVand other recent ing to the desire of your soul [b • kol- 'awwat nap-
translations. The seemingly contradictory mean- sh 'kii]" (Deut 12:20; cf. 14:26; I Sam 2:16). The
ing, "the dead, dead body," found a few times in compound can also speak of the sexual drive: "a
all three versions, will be analyzed in what fol- wild donkey accustomed to the wilderness, that
lows. sniffs the wind has passion [b' 'awwat napshiih]
The treatment of nepesh by C. Westermann [Qere and LXX], in the time of her heat who can
(THAT, I: 71-95) is valuable and should be com- turn her away" (Jer 2:24). So also it may denote
pared. one's spiritual/volitional desire for something.
The original, concrete meaning of the word Abner said to David: "that you may be king over
was probably "to breathe." The verb occurs all that your soul desires" (II Sam 3 :21; I Kgs
three times in the medio-passive Niphal stem 11:37). "The desire of the wicked soul is evil"
with the meaning "to refresh oneself' (Ex 23:12; (Prov 21: 10). "[what] his soul desires [ w• napsho
31:17; II Sam 16:14). The verb may be a de- 'iww'ta] that he does" (Job 23:13).
nominative from the substantive, but both an- The people of Judah desire God's justice:
cient and modern Semitic cognates do have a "Yes, LoRD,walking in the way of your laws, we
verbal form signifying "to breathe" (cf. Akka- wait for you; your name and renown are the de-
dian napashu "to blow, to breathe out"; (see sire of our hearts [ta'awat niipesh]. My soul
D. W. Thomas, "A Study in Hebrew Synonyms; yearns for you [napshi 'iwwitikä] for you in the
Verbs Signifying 'To Breathe'" Zeitschrift für night; in the morning my spirit Iongs for you.
Semitistik 10:311-14). The noun appears to de- When your judgments came upon the earth, the
note "breath" in Gen 1:30: "in which [i.e. the people of the world learn righteousness" (lsa
land creatures] is the breath oflife." The connec- 26:8-9; cf. Ps 119:20 and below for numerous
tion between nepesh and breath is also suggested passages where nepesh is used to express per-
by such statements as: "and [the Lord] breathed sonal yearning for someone and its inclination
[np~J into his [man's) nostrils the breath of life; and disinclination for someone).
and man became a living sou/'' (Gen 2:7); and One can also speak of the hungry or thirsty
"the nepesh [life/breath/soul] of the child re- soul: "For he has satisfied the thirsty soul, and
turned and he revived" (1 Kgs 21 :22). the hungry soul he has filled with good things (Ps
The case for an original, concrete mea•ning of 107:9; cf. Prov 19:15; 25:25; 27:7).
"breath" is also suggested by the use of nepesh Accordingly verb siiba' "to satisfy" occurs
to denote "throat" in Akkadian, Ugaritic, and often with nepesh: "The dogs are greedy
Hebrew; e.g., "therefore Sheol had enlarged its [ 'azze-nepesh = "strong of appetite"], they are
throat [NASB;"appetite" in Niv] and opened its not satisfied" (lsa 56: II; cf. 58: 10; Jer 50: 19).
mouth without measure" (lsa 5:14; cf. Hab 2:5); Especially in Ecclesiastes, the soul "craves,
"the waters have come up to my neck [N1v]" (Ps Jacks," or is "filled with good things" (Eccl 2:24;
69:2; cf. Jon 2:6). 4:8; 6:2, 3, 7, 9, and 7:28).
As in the cognate languages (cf. especially As Isa 26:8-9 suggests, the object ofthat which
Arabic) nepesh can refer to the appetite. Thus it the soul craves may be a person. The soul's thirst
may denote hunger for food: "You may eat or language may be directed toward God. The
grapes according to your appetite, until you are psalmist brings the two notions together thus:
satisfied" (Deut 23:24; [H 25]; cf. Ps 78: 18); "this "As the deer pants for the water-courses, so my

588
 1395 *tu~~(näpash)

soul pants for you, 0 God. My soul thirsts for "Pleasant words are ... sweet to the soul" (Prov
God, for the living God. When can I go and ap- 16:23). When filled with the sayings of the wise,
pearbefore God" (Ps42:1, 2 [H 2, 3J;cf. Ps63:2). the son will find that · · Knowledge will be pleas-
In addition to God's presence the soul may long ant to [hisJ soul" (Prov 2: 10). A disciplined son
for the law (Ps 119:20), salvation (Ps 119:81); his "will delight your soul" (Prov 29:17). Fully satis-
courts (Ps 84:3); etc. fied in the LoRDthe soul praises him [Ps 103:1, 2,
Thus nepesh occurs with many verbs denoting 22; 104:1, 35; etc.). But the wicked, having de-
··yeaming"; cf. the idiom he set his soul "to long pended upon themselves, praise. themselves (Ps
after, yeam" for someone, something (Deut 49:19).
24:15; Hos 4:8; Prov 19:18; Jer 22:27; 44: 14; etc.). lt also follows that the soul can be bitter. Fif-
The soul waits for [qwhJ the LoRD (Ps 130:5), teen times it occurs with the root miirar. With his
seeks [drsh) him (Lam 3:25); etc. health and well-being broken, Job complained:
Thus in numerous passages reference is made "The Almighty has embittered my soul'' (Job
to the inclination or disinclination of the soul. lt is 27:2). Provoked by her rival on account of her
frequently used in connection with "love." The barrenness, Hannah was one "bitter of soul"
maiden says to her lover: "Tell me, 0 you whom (märat nepesh) (l Sam 1:10; cf. Jud 18:25; etc.).
my soul loves" (Song 1:7; and repeatedly in Song Related to märar are many different expressions
3:1-4; cf. Jer 12:7; Gen 34:3). lt is used not only of sorrow with the soul. Jeremiah says to his
of the man-woman relationship, but also of the people: "But if you will not listen to it [the word
closest human friendships; e.g. of David and of God], my soul will sob in secret. .. " (Jer
Jonathan: "The soul of Jonathan was bound 13:17; cf. passim).
[qäshar] with the soul ofDavid, and he loved him In Isa 10:18 nepesh is employed alongside of
as his own soul." So also it speaks of man's love bäsä,:, "flesh"=physical body as a merism to
for God. The psalmist says: "My soul clings denote the whole person. lt is also used in paral-
[däbaq) to you" (Ps 63:9). lel with bäsär. NIV interprets this as a figure for
Here too belongs the important exhortation totality: "completely." "flesh" in Ps 63: 1 [H 2]
"to love" and "to serve" God with the whole for the same reason.
heart and soul (Deut 6:5; 30:6; cf. 4:29; 10:12; Since personal existence by its very nature in-
ll:t3; 13:4; 26:16; 30:2, 6, 10; Josh 22:5; 23:14; volves drives, appetites, desires, will, nepesh
I Kgs 2:4; 8:48= II Chr 6:38; etc.). Commenting denotes the "life" of an individual. As the object
on Deut 6:5, J. McBride noted: "The three parts of the verb shiib "to revive" "to restore"
of Deuteronomy 6:5: lebiib (heart), nephesh nepesh moves between the notion of "soul" and
(soul or life), and me'öd (muchness) rather than "life." Jerusalem laments: "Because far fromme
signifying different spheres ofbiblical psychology is a comforter, One who restores my soul/life"
seem to be semantically concentric. They were (Lam 1:16). The women of Bethlehem pray for
chosen to reinforce the absolute singularity of Naomi: "May he [Obed] be to you a restorer of
personal devotion to God. Thus, lebäb denotes life [nepesh), and a sustainer of your old age
the intention or will of the whole man; nepesh (Ruth 4:15; Ps 23:3; Lam 1:11; Ps 18:8; Prov
means the whole seif, a unity of flesh, will and 25: 13). What is meant in these passages is life
vitality; and m' 'öd accents the superlative de- which consists of emotions, passions, drives, ap-
gree of total commitment to Yahweh." While petites.
agreeing that these terms were chosen to denote lt also moves between these two notions with
the singularity of devotion, we would now under- the word IJäyii "to live." Abraham instructs
score nepesh as pertaining to the personal desire Sarah to say she is his sister "so that it may go
or inclination. weil with me on account of you and my soul may
For the tuming away of the soul from continue in life" (Gen 12:13; cf. Gen 19:20; 20:32;
someone/something. nepesh occurs with such lsa 55:3; etc.). But here it is also equivalent to
words as siine' "to hate'' (II Sam 5:8; lsa 1: 14 [of "seif." nepesh with the notion of "life" refers to
God's hatred]; Ps 11:5); gä'al "abhor" (Lev the "l" that hungers and is filled, loves and
26:11, 15, 30, 43 = of a fractured God-man rela- hates, is joyful and sorrowful, etc. lt adds an in-
tionship); qii!f "loathe" (Num 21 :5); etc. tensely personal element to the notion of seif.
Thus nepesh is frequently used in connection lndeed nepesh could be substituted with the per-
with the emotional states of joy and bliss. The sonal pronoun in these passages, but the intensity
Psalmist suggests the relationship between these of feeling would be lost.
ideas when he prays: "Bring joy to the sau/ of Accordingly, in some passages nepesh is best
your servant, for I long (l lift up my soul, napshf translated by "life," but "life" here denotes the
'essä') for you, 0 Lord (Ps 86:4). Not only can living seif with all its drives, not the abstract no-
the soul be joyful because its desires are met but tion "life" which is conveyed by IJayyim, northe
also because of its appreciation for the inherent other meaning of IJayyim which refers to a quality
worth of something which delights its tastes: of existence as weil as the temporal notion of

589
1395 *W~~ (näpash)

being (cf. the use of !Jayyim in Deut and Prov). "seif," or more simply by the personal pronoun.
Westermann noted that when nepesh occurs as Westermann says that it is best rendered by such
the subject of the verb it is usually rendered English equivalents in casuistic law, in the enum-
"soul"-desires, inclinations, etc.; as the object eration of people, in the general designation of
of the verb it is frequently rendered by "life"- people and as a substitute for a pronoun. An
the state of personal existence as over against example of its use in legal contexts with such
death. particles as 'asher or ki is: '"Now when anyone
Many passages refer to the "saving" of a [nepesh ki] presents a grain offering" (Lev 2: 1;
man's nepesh "life". In fact, almost all the verbs cf. 4:2; 5:1, 2; passim). Again, "But the person
within this semantic notion take nepesh as their who [w'hannepesh ·äsher] eats the flesh ... "
object: with näsal "and deliver our /ives from (Lev 7:20; passim). Similarly it has this notion in
death" (Josh 2:13; lsa 44:20; passim), with enumerations: "These are the people whom
mäla(: '"if you do not save your life tonight, to- Nebuchadnezzar carried away captive ... in the
morrow you will be put to death" (1 Sam 19:11): eighteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar 832 persons
cf. II Sam 19:6; passim); with /Jälas, "rescue my [nepesh] ... " (Jer 52:28, 29; Ex 12:4, passim). So
life" (Ps 6:5); with yäsha'. "he will save the lives also with reference to "people" "he [shall be
of the needy" (Ps 72: 13); etc. The psalmist is valued] according to the valuation of persons
confident that God will even "redeem" (päda) belonging to the LORD" (Lev 27:2; passim). As a
his life out of the grave (Ps 49: 15 [H 16)). In all substitute for a pronoun it frequently occurs with
these passages ·' life ·' is equivalent to the person. the pronominal suffix. Thus Lot said to the LORD:
lt has also this notion of saving the "That 1 [napshi = '"my soul"] may live" (Gen
"life" ="individual" in certain prepositional 19:19; passim). Although it appears to be an
phrases. Thus Elijah "ran for his life [ 'el napsho 1 equivalent of the personal pronoun, its intensive,
I Kgs 19:3); "take heed for your Jives (Jer 17:21); passionate sense peculiar to the word is always
etc. When one risks his life it is said that he takes present. A. R. Johnson speaks of it as "a pathetic
his nepesh into his hands (Judg 12:3: passim). (i.e. in the sense of deeply emotional) periphrasis
Then too, it is usually rendered "life" after for a pronoun" (The Vitality of the Individual in
verbs denoting "keeping" "preserving" '"sus- the Thought of Ancient Israel, 1964, p. 22).
taining" etc. Thus it occurs: with shämar "to A total of 755 occurrences of the noun nepesh
keep" (Deut 4:9); with sämak "to sustain" (Ps have been counted in the OT, and of these it is
54:6); with häsaq "to hold back [from the rendered in the Greek translation (Lxx) some 600
grave]" (Ps 78:50); etc. times by the psyche ('/'UX'I]). Of the 144 times it is
The nepesh "life" is most precious. Thus the used in the Psalms, over 100 of them have the
captain prays to Elijah: "O man of God, please first person suffix, "my soul." Thus in its most
let my life and the Jives of these fifty servants of synthetic use nepesh stands for the entire person.
yours be precious in your sight'' (II Kgs 1:13; cf. In Gen 2:7 '"man became a living creature"
1 Sam 26:21); etc. In some situations a monetary [nepesh]-the substantive must not be taken in
payment can be given for the life (cf. Ex 21:30; the metaphysical, theological sense in which we
30: 12). tend to use the term "soul" today. Precisely the
In the lex ta/ionis formula "life for life" same Hebrew expression (nepesh hayya)-
nepesh denotes the precious individual, the living traditionally rendered "living soul" occurs also
self(Ex 21:23; Lev 24:18; Deut 19:21; cf. I Kgs in Gen 1:20, 21, and 24. In other words, man is
20:39, 42; JI Kgs 10:24; etc.). here being associated with the other creatures as
Here too belongs Lev 17:11, one of the most sharing in the passionate experience of life and is
decidedly theological and distinctively meaning- not being defined as distinct from them. lt is true,
ful passages where the word nepesh is of major however, as Oehler points out that the source of
significance, and one which certainly defines the the nepesh of animals is the ground, whereas the
term as meaning life "for the life (nepesh) of the source of the nepesh of Adam is God.
flesh (bäsär) is in the blood." Here it is the Particular note should be taken of the an-
vitality, the passionate existence of an individual tonymous translation, '"the dead, dead body''
which is denoted. found in Lev 19:28; 21:1, II; Num 5:2; 6:6, II;
Then too it is frequently said that the enemy 9:6, 7, 10; etc. In these citations, "the dead"
threatens the individual's life. Thus it occurs as stands for nepesh by itself, while "dead body"
the objects of: bäqash "to seek" (Ex 4:19; renders nepesh/napshöt met. The latter indicates
passim); 'ärab "to lie in ambush for" (Ps 59:3 "a person (persons) who has died," the emphasis
[H 4)) etc. Sometimes God's destruction of the being on the personal identity of an 'individual,'
life, the individual is in view: "Do not take away so that in context the term nepesh by itself refers
my life with sinners" (Ps 26:9). to a dead individual, "one who has died," and
lt comes as no surprise, then, that in some con- the word itself does not really mean physical
texts nepesh is best rendered by "person," 'body.'

590
 The use of nepesh with reference to God is rare 1398b t:~u (n • $ib) pillar.
since God does not have the cravings and appe- 1398c t:;~ (maHäb) statwn.
tites common to man nor is his life limited by 1398d t:;t? (müHäb) post.
death. In addition to the passages already noted, 1398e m1;r,, (maHiiba) garrison.
we cite several more where the word is used to 1398f m1;r,, (miHäba) army.
express forcefully his passionate disinclination or 1398g t:i 1Jr,, (maHebä), ri;,r,, (maHebet)
inclination toward someone. The former is more pillar.
frequent. Thus he threatens: "Be wamed, 0
Jerusalem, lest 1/My soul be alienated from you" Since this root never occurs in the Qal, it has
(Jer 6:8); cf. Jer 5:9, 29; 9:8; 15:1; passim). On transitive force only in the Hiphil, "to set, sta-
the other hand his passionate love, delight and tion, erect, fix, establish. "The passive is ex-
inclination toward his servant is spoken of thus: pressed by the Hophal, "be fixed, determined."
"My chosen one in whom my soul delights" (lsa The broadest senses occur in the Niphal, "take
42:1). one's stand, stand firm" (the lauer by appoint-
lt must not be concluded from this study of ment to a station).
nepesh that the OT presents man as physical only. The basic sense of the N iphal stem of nii$ab is
There are other OT ideas to be considered in this weil illustrated in God's order to Moses to "stand
connection: (1) the oT teaching conceming the (i.e. station himself) by the river's brink" to meet
"spirit" of man; (2) the OT teaching conceming Pharaoh (Ex 7:15). Moses was also to "present
the heart (leb) ofman; (3) the subject ofthe image himself' before God on Mount Sinai (Ex 34:2). In
of God (see $eiern) in man; and (4) the picture as Ps 82: 1 God is described as "standing -inthe con-
given of man's relation to God. gregation" for administration of judgment. The
Bibliography: Briggs, C. A., "The Use of Niphal ptc. with the article occurs in Ruth 2:5,
npsh in the OT," JBL 16. 17-30. Becker, J. H., designating a certain servant "that was sei over"
Het Begrip Nefesj in het Oude Testament, 1942. the reapers. The Niphal is also used for stand
Buswell, J. 0., A Systematic Theology of the where the emphasis on straight up and firm
Christian Religion, Zondervan, 1962, vol. II, pp. (statuesque) is intended, whether of men (Gen
237-41. Seligson, M., The Meaning ofnpsh mt in 18:2), sheaves (Gen 37:7), or backed-up water
the Old Testament, 1951; cf. Widengren, G., (Ex 15:8). A firmness which implies health and
VT 4: 97-102. Murtonen, A., The Living Soul, strength is expressed by this ptc. in describing
1958. Lys, D., Nepesh, 1959. Johnson, A. R., sheep that are normal, in contrast to those "cut
The Vitality of the Individual in the Thought of off' from the flock or injured (Zech 11:16). Simi-
Ancient Israel, 1949. Wolff, H. W., Anthropol- larly, in Ps 39:5 [H 6] "every man at his best state
ogy of the Old Testament. Westermann, C., is altogether vanity" implies physical fitness,
"Naefaes" in THAT, II, pp. 71-95. Richardson, wholeness, soundness.
TWB, pp. 144-45. TDOT, IX, pp. 617-37. The passive sense of the Niphal is more evi-
B.K.W. dent in those cases where stand is equivalent to
"be stationed" by appointment or in fulfillment
of duty. Hence we find Samuel "standing as ap-
1396 N;,~ (nöpet) flowing honey, honeyfrom the
pointed over" ('ömed ni$$iib) the company of
·comb (e.g. Prov 5:3; Ps 19:11).
prophets, in I Sam 19:20. The participle is used as
substantive, "deputy, prefect," in I Kgs 4:5, 7,
M~~ (nepet). See no. 133lc. and 27 [H 5:7); 5:16 [H 30]; 9:23; II Chr8:IO. The
=•~~:-,~; (naptulim). See no. 1857c. usage in I Sam 19 indicates that the verb nii$ab
r.~ (ne$). See nos. 1405b, 1406a. has a more specific, technical connotation than
its synonym 'ämad.
The Hiphil yields a transitive force, as in Ps
1397 ac;; (nii$ii ·)fly (Jer 48:9, only). Prob-
78: 13, "he made the waters to stand as an heap,"
ably a by-form of nii$tl l. Gen 33:20, "he erected there an altar"; I Chr
18:3, "to establish his dominion by the river
1398 *::lJJ (nii$ab) stand (upright), be set (over), Euphrates." Setting or fixing a boundary, gate,
establish. or even trap is also within the range of the Hi phil
as weil as is an extended specialization-to set or
Derivatives sharpen a goad (1 Sam 13:21), apparently in the
1398a :;~ (niHäb) hilt of sword (Jud sense of making it right. Correspondingly, the
3:22, only). An identical form, oc- Hophal participle is used of the ladder of Jacob,
curring in I Kgs 4:5, 7; 22:47 [H 48] "set up on the earth," andin Nah 2:7 [H 8) the
is considered to be a Niphal partici- mistress (queen) of Nineveh is given the title or
ple used as a substantive, meaning epithet hüHab.
.. officer," "deputy.,. In considering this root, one must also take

591
into account the closely allied yä$ab 'station other standing stones were for a time wrongly
oneself, present oneself before' (used only in the indentified. lt is now known that many rough
Hithpael). stone columns, initially interpreted as cultic ob-
jects, were actually anormal feature of Middle
n•~ib. Pillar (once), garrison (nine times), of- Iron Age Israelite house construction. A sug-
ficer (twice) in all three versions, with RSV giving gested relationship or possible development of
in margin: "Prefect" at II Sam 8:6. cultic pillars into actual imagery and idols is also
The one place where the noun n • $fb is trans- inconclusive.
Iated "pillar" is in reference to Lot's wife (Gen While the two biblical occurrences cited above
19:26). The obvious intent here is to depict her as do refer to simple memorials, more often the
stopped, trapped, transformed as and where she ma$$ebä has religious significance. In Gen 28: 18
was, in a still upright posture, whether we as- Jacob's pillow becomes a "pillar," which he
sume the transfonnation into salt as instantane- anoints with oil, naming the place Beth-el, · 'the
ous or subsequent. (See Robert Boyd's interest- House of God." On his return to that place (Gen
ing analysis in his Teils, Tombs and Treasure, 35: 14) he set up another pillar, pouring out both a
Baker, 1969, pp. 85---86).Elsewhere this expres- drink offering and oil, because God talked with
sion is rendered "garrison" (Rsv using "prefect" him there and changed his name to "Israel."
in one instance), as mentioned above, or "offi- Previous to that, at the time ofhis agreement with
cer" (1 Kgs 4:19; II Chr 8:10). Laban (Gen 31:45), Jacob set up a stone pillar in
m~äb. Station, garrison (Asv and RSVreplace addition to the "heap of witness" directly as-
"station" with "office,"' in lsa 22: 19). Note that sociated with their agreement. In Ex 24:4 Moses,
in this and several other derivatives from the root besides the altar he built, erected twelve stones
n$b, the doubling of $ indicates the loss of the (pillars) representing the twelve tribes of Israel.
first radical, n, by way of assimilation to the sec- The above were legitimate uses of this object.
ond consonant. lt must be recognized that quite often the ma$-
$tbot mentioned in the Bible were of pagan cultic
m~b. Post. This term occurs in Isa 29:3 significance and as such were not only forbidden
(KJVmount, Asv posted troops, Rsv tower) and to Israel but called for destruction when found. In
also in Jud 9:6 (pillar, ASVmg: garrison), but the Ex 23:24 the expansion upon the Decalogue-
latter instance is taken as a Hophal participle near the conclusion of the so-called Book of the
form by most lexicons. Covenant--calls for action: Israel must "not bow
down to their gods, ... but ... break down their
m~äbä. Garrison. Occurs once only, in images" (Asv and RSV,"pillars," with a margin
I Sam 14: 12. (Koehler conjectures that this "obelisks" in the former). So too, in Deut
should be read in Zech 9:8 also, but see mi$$äba, 16:21-22, they are told, "Thou shalt not plant
below.) thee a grove ('asherä) ... neither shalt thou set
mi~äbä. Occurs only in Zech 9:8. KJVand ASV thee up any image." Nevertheless, later on in
follow Masoretic note (he has replaced original lsrael's history we read of Judah's sin, described
aleph), and so translate "army" (host), though in such tenns as, "they also built them high
Asv has "garrison" as alternative. Ji.sv gives places, and images, and groves" (1 Kgs 14:23).
"guard" as translation, from the suggestion of The Lxx uses stete to translate maHebä in all
BDB, "watch." the cited instances, with the exception of Ex
24:4, where lithos is employed. Other Hebrew
ma~bä. Pillar. The lexicons distinguish be- nouns rendered "pillar" in KJV,such as mis'äd,
tween the meanings "pillar," or "column," and mä$üq, and 'amüd, are completely free of the
(standing) "image," but both ASVand RSVtrans- religious or cultic associations described above.
late the word as "pillar" almost exclusively. (The Two instances where the Hebrew text notice-
KJVrendering "garrison" in Ezk 26: 11 is "pillar" ably avoids use of ma$$tbä are Joshua's "great
in the other two versions, for example.) stone ·' placed as a witness to reaffirmation of the
Some light has been shed, not yet clearly covenant between Israel and her God (Josh
enough, on the interesting term maHeba · 'pil- 24:26--27) and Samuel's 'eben hä'ezer, "Stone of
lar," by archaeological discoveries. lt has an ap- Help,'' which he erected in commemoration of
parent primary reference to cultic objects, though deliverance from the Philistines.
Absalom's memorial monument (maHebet) to Bibliography: Burrows, M., What Mean
himself (II Sam 18:18) may not have been for a These Stones? New Haven: ASOR, 1941, pp.
specifically religious purpose, as also that set up 210-12.
for Rachel's grave (Gen 35:20). Many ma$$ebot M.C.F.
have been found in Palestinian excavations.
While the famous ones at Hazor (BA 19, 22) and
at Byblos are clearly monumental and cultic, 1399 MJ; (nä$ii) I, fly (Lam 4: 15, only).

592
 1403 M'U (n.rl:z)

Derivative which fixes upon the sense of "outshine" or

1399a :i;i: (nb$a) plumage (e.g. Ezk "excel greatly," leading to the usage "take a
17:3; Job 39:13). lead, preside," and thence on to "act as over-
seer, superintendent, director." Such activity is
expressed by Piel inf. five times in Chr and Ezr
1400 •:i;; (nä$a) II, struggle. This verb oc- (e.~. I Chr 15:21), and the agent by the participle
curs only in the Niphal (e.g. Ex 21:22) and as m Hab 3:19 and fifty-five times in titles to
Hiphil (e.g. Num 26:9). psalms. With reference to the I Chr verse just
Derivatives cited, while the ASVand RSVuse of "to lead"
seems preferable to KJv's "excel," it is not dif-
1400a :i,r;, (maHa) strife, contention
ficult to recognize the logic of the older trans-
(lsa 58:4: Prov 13:10: 17:19). lators, as the very next verse specifies another
1400b rml~ (maHut) strije, contention individual as being the chief (sar,) of the Levites
(lsa 41: 12). and as the one who leads (yasör,) in the music
"because he is the one who understands (or is
1401 :i;J (nii$ti) 111,fall in ruins (e.g. Jer 4:7; skillful-Av)."
II Kgs 19:25=lsa 37:26. The interpretation "chief musician" or
"choirmaster" for the expression m 'nasseah in
1402 *MJJ (nii$a/:l) /, be perpetual, excel; be the psalm superscriptions cannot be far fr~m ~or-
overseer. Occurs in the Niphal and Pie!
rect, especially since its translation in LXX (te/os
stems. "end") has a use in classical Greek of "the last
Derivative highest station" in civil life: a magistracy, high
office. Some scholars have proposed an earlier
1402a trii~ (ne$a/J) I, strength, victory, per- psalter called the "Director's Collection " from
petuity. which thirty-nine Davidic, nine Korahite five
In contemplating a rationale for the wide range Asaphic, and two anonymous selections 'were
in ~eaning for this verbal root, and consequently made for the full Psalter (plus that found as
fortts nominal derivative, it is_perhaps suggestive Habakkuk 3), but this is only one of several
to observe how the sun, source of earth · s energy, theories proposed as explanation for the ter-
embraces and conveys the dual notions, light and minology. For other such terms see selti.
durability. F or these would seem to be the same
two qualities involved in our word, especially
n~atJ. A noun derivative, but often adverbial in
for~e. translated in the KJV by "strength,"
since its Arabic cognale means both "pure" (as
'"v1ctory," "perpetual," "forever" (also "al-
also in Ethiopic) and "reliable." ways," "constantly,") "never," "to the end."
Hence, nä$a/J denotes both "brilliance"
ASVfollows much the same pattem, with marginal
(yielding the connotations "preeminence, sur- altemates "victory, glory·· for "strength .. (Rsv
passing, glory, victory, leadership") and "endur-
settles for "glory"). For "perpetual," "everlast-
ance" (supplying "longlasting, perpetual"). BDB
ing" is sometimes substituted by ASV "unceas-
basically defines the verb as "be pre-eminent
ing" by RSV.The verb "endure" is an ~sv and RSV
enduring" and details distinctive usages fro~
variant for "constantly."
there.
Retuming to the noun form for the moment, 1:"hisdoubl~ nuance of the root may help ex-
plam the relat1on of lsa 25:8 with I Cor 16:9. The
then, one can grasp the difficulty of choice be-
OT is sometimes rendered, "He will swallow up
tween "strength" or "glory" (the problem being
death forever" (Rsv, NIV).The LXX is "death has
in the English distinctives, since the Hebrew ob-
prevailed and will swallow men up." lf ne$a/:lcan
viously embraces both at once) in references to mean "eminence" as weil as "forever," then the
divine attribute or Person, as in I Sam 15:29,
meaning "victory" can be defended. Indeed the
"and also the ne$a/J of Israel will not lie nor re-
new Hebrew meaning of the root is "conquer,
pent," or Lam 3: 18 (where the referent is human
prevail."
however), "my nesa/J and my hope is perished
Bibliography: Richardson, TWB, p. 274.
from the LoRD." The significance of the musi-
cians' title will be treated below. The various ren- M.C.F.
derings of the adverbial concepts, perpetual,
forever, constantly, etc., are simple and obvious 1403 MltJ (n$/:I) II. Assumed root of the follow-
derivatives of the ·endurance' concept, rendered ing.
~verbial by the prefixing ofthe Hebrew preposi- 1403a ni~ (ne$a/:l) II, juice of grapes (lsa
llon, 1-"to (the)." 63:3, 6).
Ver~ally, the one occurrence of the Niphal
stem, m Jer 8:5, speaks of "a perpetual backslid- ::i•;~ (n '$ib ). See no. 1398b.
ing," an enduring apostasy. lt is the Pie! stem "1•;~(n'$ir). See no. 1407a.

593
1404 *':,JJ (nä$a/) deliver, rescue, save. Does deliver, rescue, ransom." Two closely related
not occur in the Qal. roots are mäla( "be smooth, slip away." and
päla( "slip out, drop, escape. set free." Also
Derivative used with the sense of "rescue" are yäsha',
1404a :,":,J:, (hassäla) deliverance (Est Hiphil, "save": shiib "return": ~,äya Pie! and
',F14, only). Hiphil: "make alive, revive." and yätar, Hiphil,
"cause to surpass, survive."
The Qal stem of this verb does not occur in Biblwgraphy: THAT, II, pp. 96--98. TDOT.
biblical He brew. but an Arabic cognate confirms VI, pp. 999-1002.
the judgment that its basic physical sense is one M.C.F.
of drawing out or pulling out. While the Niphal is
invariably used with the force of "be delivered,
,;~ (nissän). See no. 1405d.
saved" or "to escape" (i.e. "deliver oneself':
literally, "tear oneself away"), the Piel may ex-
1405 r?J (nasas) I, shine, sparkle (Ezk 1:7,
press "strip off' (a garment), as in II Chr 20:25 -~nly) ...
(where the context indicates this sense) andin Ex
3:22, where the Hebrew warnen are ordered to Derivatives
spoil the Egyptians by "borrowing" really "ask-
1405a ri:ic•~ ( ni$<i$l spark (lsa 1:31,
ing for"' jewelry and raiment. The Piel also sig-
only).
nals "deliver" in Ezk 14:14, "Noah, Daniel, and
1405b l'.J (ne$) blossom (Gen 40: 10.
Job ... should deliver but their own souls ... only).
The predominant occurrence of this verb is in
1405c :i::tJ (nissa) blossom Isa 18:5; Job
the various aspects and moods of the Hiphil 'i5:33: ·Gen 40:10).
(causative: "make separate") and that generally
1405d 1'ltJ (nissän) blossom (Song 2:12,
with the sense of deliver or rescue. Nevertheless, , ~nly) ...
here too a physical snatching away or separating
1405e *l'iJ (11ä$G$) bloom, blossom. This
can be involved, as in the obvious instance oftwo
denominative verb occurs only in
sons fighting with "none to part them" (II Sam
the Hiphil (Song 6:11: 7:13: Eccl
14:6). An interesting idiom occurs in II Sam 20:6,
12:5).
where "escape us" is, Iiterally, "cause to re-
move our eye (from him)." And stripping or
1406 l'lJ (n.H) II. Assumed root of the follow-
snatching away overlaps the meaning "recover"
ing.
or "deliver'" in I Sam 30:22, since the reference is
1406a l'~ (ne$) bird of prey (hawk or
to spoil taken from the enemy, some of which
falcon: Lev 11:16: Deut 14:15: Job
was likely their own property originally.
39:26).
Quite often, however, a literal personal salva-
tion or deliverance (often physical but not with-
1407 "l'JJ (nä$ar) I, watch, guard, keep. The
out spiritual overtones or application) is in-
etymology of this root is illustrated in the
volved. The Hiphil imperative, not surprisingly,
Akkadian na$äru "watch over, protect ...
yields numerous prayer petitions such as, "De-
The Arabic cognate na„ara means "keep
liver me, I pray thee, from the hand of my in view," "look at."
brother." (Cf. Jud 10:15: I Sam 12:10: I Chr
16:35.) In Ps 7: 1 IH 2] ha$$ileni "deliver me, .. is Derivative
in direct parallel with h6shi'eni ··save me."
1407a "l'lJ (n.yyr) preserved (lsa 49:6,
Spiritual salvation through forgiveness of sins is
Kethib only).
certainly intended in Ps 39:8 IH 9], "Deliver me
from all my transgressions" (cf. " ... from This verb appears approximately sixty times.
bloodguiltiness," Ps 51:14 IH 16], ..... and Examination of the objects protected assists in
purge away our sins, .. Ps 79:9) and figuratively assigning to it a proper semantical range. First
implied by "deliver me out of the mire" in Ps material things such as agricultural or military in-
69:14 IH 15]. stallations (e.g. a vineyard, Job 27: 18: a fig tree,
A comparison of the distinctives of other He- Prov 27:18; fortifications, Nah 2:2) are guarded.
brew synonyms of the concepts "deliver, save, Those who are employed in these functions are
preserve, escape" will better delineate the called watchmen (Qal active plural participle
semantic range of our root n$1. (The one Ugaritic nÖ$'rim, Jer 31:6: II Kgs 17:9: 18:8). The Lord
occurrence cited in UT 19: no. 1688, means "to himself is regarded as a keeper or watchman over
get gifts from lsomeonej.") Very close in basic his vineyard Israel and over all men in general
concept are the three verbs (q.v.): gä'al "re- (lsa 27:3; Job 7:20).
deem, release, set free," /:läla$ "break away, Secondly in an ethical sense, the mouth (Prov
withdraw: deliver, set free," and päda "redeem, 13:3; Ps 141:3), one·s path in life (Prov 16:17), the

594
 1409 ~~J (näqab)
heart (Prov 4:23). and the tongue (Ps 34: 14) are obviously the prophet intends to refer to a key
guarded. descendant of David who epitomizes all that the
Thirdly, there is the concept of "guarding with Lord has promised to David (II Sam 7:lff.). The
fidelity." lt usually centers around observing the messianic character of this title is recognized in
covenant or the law of the Lord. The Lord him- the Targum, rabbinical literature, and the Qum-
self is the one keeping loyal love Uiesed) to ran material (cited in The Ne:;.er and the Submis-
thousands of generations (Ex 34:7). But mortal sion in Suffering Hynm from the Dead Sea
men are also responsible for observing the cov- Scrolls" edited by M. Wallenstein !Istanbul,
enant (Deut 33:9: Ps 25:10) and the precepts or 19571). The use made of this title by Matthew in
law ofGod (Ps 78:7: 105:45: 119:2. 22, 33, 34. 56. 2:23 to indicate why Jesus was called a Nazarene
69, 100. 115, 129. 145). Even the commands of is similar. Gundry sees for Matthew·s use a dou-
parents (Prov 6:20: 28:7) and the discipline of ble reason: the phonetic correspondence of this
wisdom (Prov 3:1, 21; 4:13; 5:2) require the same title in Jsa 11: 1 with the town of Nazareth as a
kind of faithful observance. play on words and the lowliness motif of lsa 11: 1.
God is spoken of as guarding from <langer or In keeping with the concept of corporate sol-
preserving a man's life (Ps 25:20; 40: 12: Prov idarity evidenced in other technical terms in this
24:12), the king (Ps 61:8), peace (lsa 26:3), Israel same messianic promise doctrine such as · · ser-
(Deut 32: 10; lsa 42:6; 49:8), the faithful and their vant," "seed." .yema~1"branch," etc., it is not
lives (Ps 31 :24; Prov 2:8). and knowledge (Prov unusual to see a use of neser which includes the
22: 12). The Lord also protects the righteous from believing remnant of lsr~el in Isa 60:21. The
this generation (Ps 12:8). trouble (Ps 32:7), the fulfillment of the Abrahamic-Davidic-New Cove-
secret plots of the wicked (Ps 64:2). and violent nant finds all the people righteous, the land pos-
men (Ps 140:2, 5). sessed forever and the "shoot „ of God · s plant-
Wisdom keeps those who do not forsake her ing. the work of his hands, glorified (cf. Jsa 61 :3).
(Prov 4:6). So discretion watches over her chil- Thus the many can be called by the name of the
dren (Prov 2: 11) and righteousness watches over One who epitomizes that group.
her (Prov 13:6). The other two references (1sa 14: 19 and Dan
In three instances, nä$ar is used of guarding in 11:7) are unrelated to the previous passages. In
the sense of "keeping secret. .. In lsa 48:6 it re- lsa 14:19, Babylon is called a "discarded
fers to hidden things previously not revealed by branch" (Rsv guesses poorly with "untimely
God. In two other passages the meaning is nega- birth" but includes in the margin "a loathed
tive. The "secret places" of sin where rebellious branch"). The Daniel passage uses our word to
Israel spends her nights incubating (i.e. sleeping refer to a royal power, here one of the Ptolemies,
with the idols in order to receive dreams about not of the messianic royal person to come from
the future, lsa 65:4) and the secret or crafty the line of David. The idiom is also connected
mindedness of a seductress (Prov 7: 10). with the word "root" as in lsa 11:1, ••from a
Another meaning is of keeping closed or block- branch of her roots shall one stand up. ··
aded cities under attack. In Jer 4:16. the Qal Bibliography: Gundry, Robert H., The U.1·eof
plural active participle seems to refer to the the OT in St. Matthew's Gospel, Leiden: Brill,
blockaders themselves, while in Ezk 6: 12(?) and 1967, pp. 97-104. Schraeder, H. H .. in TDNT,
Isa 1:8 it points to the besieged or blockaded city. IV, pp. 878-79.
Taken altogether, it is no wonder that lsaiah W.C.K.
calls the revived tribes of Israel in that es-
chatological era the preserved of Israel (49:6), for
they surely have experienced the constant pro- 1409 :lt?~ (näqab) pierce, bore; blaspheme; ap-
tection and preservation of the Lord. point.
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 99-100.
W.C.K. Derivatives
1409a t:li') (neqeb) technical term relating
1408 "1::t~ (1w) II. Assumed root of the follow- ·io jeweller's work.
ing. 1409b t:,;i'; (n'qeba) female.
1408a t,;, (ni'$er) branch, shoot, sprout. 1409c tl'l;;,r,, (maqqebet) /, hammer.
1409d tl'l~br,, (maqqebet) II, hole.
This noun, coming from an Arabic root mean-
ing "to be fresh, bright. grown green," appears The basic physical sense of the verb näqab is
only four times. demonstrated in the context of Joash · s temple
In lsa 11: 1, ni'$er is used in parallelism with repair project. The priest Jehoida bored a hole in
another technical term (in the messianic promise the lid of a ehest for contributions. Elsewhere,
doctrine), IJö/er "shoot." Since both are said to Haggai (1 :6) speaks figuratively of the futility of
go forth from the shöresh "root'' or line of Jesse, work which fails to honor the Lord, saying that

595
1410 ii'l (nqd)
the wages eamed have been placed into a bag 1410b ,~;,~ (niqqüd) what is crumbled or
with holes. easily crumbles, crumbs (Josh 9:5);
The other senses attributed to this verb in pas-
sages which themselves indicate different usage
constitute a striking demonstration of the seman-
1410c n,~hard biscuit or cake (l Kgs 14:3).
1 (n'qüddii) point or drop
(Song 1: 11, only).
tic flexibility of Semitic languages. The ingenuity
of modern lexicographers is indeed taxed. Does
the verb "pierce" mean, secondarily, appoint, 1411 i;,: ( nqd) II. Assumed root of the follow-
designate, name by way of the physical notion of ing.
ticking or marking an individual as distinctive (a 141la ii;,: (nöqed) sheepraiser,---dealer,
cognate Arabic noun means 'leader, chief), or is or -lender (II Kgs 3:4; Arnos
the select individual the one who · scrutinizes' 1:1).
and thereby distinguishes himself? The former
explanation seems the more satisfactory. But this
verb also translates curse, blaspheme. Is this so 1412 Mi;)J (näqä) be clear, free, innocent, deso-
because one is thereby distinguishing another as
late, cut off.
bad (so Koehler), or is there not a closer tie with
piercing, striking through? Some lexicographers Derivatives
(BDB) consider this last sense of näqab to be a
1412a +•;,: (niiki) clear, innocent.
different root naqab II, a by-form of the root
1412b tM•~; (näqi') innocent (Joel 4: 19;
qäbab "curse," found only in Num 22 and 23,
Jon 1:14).
but the reverse relationship could as likely be the
1412c +ii•;N (niqqäyon) innocency.
case.
1412d tr,~;,~~ ( m • naqqiyii) sacrijicial
Interestingly, this word is used in the Siloam
cups, bowls.
inscription for ·•piercing through," i.e. digging
the tunnel. The derivative m 'naqq(vii may provide the
key to the basic sense of the verb näqii. GB and
neqeb. The meaning of this noun, which occurs KB tie it to Akkadian naqü "offer a libation"
in Ezk 28:13, is uncertain. Suggestions include (plus Syriac noun "libation") and BDB cites the
"pipes" (KJV), "engravings" (Rsv), and "mines" Syriac verb "pour out, make a libation" and
(Holliday·s lexicon, following W. F. Albright in suggests that while the Arabic cognate means
BASOR, No. 110). "cleanse,'' the original sense was probably
"empty out,'' hence the uses "pour" and "be
neqebä. Female, female child, woman. Both
empty, clean."
the human (Gen 1:27 and elsewhere) and the ani- The root näqii with the meaning "to be clean,
mal (Gen 6: 19 and elsewhere) female is denoted
pure, spotless" is found in Akkadian, Arabic and
by n • qeba for descriptive reasons. (A different Aramaic. In Dan 7:9 IAramaic] the Ancient of
suggestion was offered, however, in ZA W 11, by Days is described as having hair "like pure
Schwally.) While in one case (Jer 31:22 [H 21]) (n' qe') wool." The derived juridical notion "to
the term n • qebii is used in contrast to geber
be acquitted," "to go unpunished" is found only
"man, hero," it chietly stands, whether with
in Hebrew.
human or animal referent, in contrast to zäkär From the basic notion "to be poured out" the
"male."
ward may derive notions with either favorable or
maqqebet /. Hammer. The meaning "ham- unfavorable connotations. lt has an unfavorable
mer" is uncontested: Jud 4:21 (Jael), I Kgs 6:7 connotation in lsa 3:26 "deserted she [the daugh-
(noise being absent from temple's construction), ter of Zion] will sit on the ground." The Rsv
lsa 44: 12 and Jer 10:4. For plural forms some change of the poetic figure from "deserted'"/
lexicons suggest a noun variant, maqqäbii. Opin- "desolate" to "ravaged" is an overtranslation
ions vary as to derivation ofthe name Maccabee. and destroys the imagery. The reference is to a
city having been emptied of its inhabitants. (See
maqqebet II. Hole, excavation, quarry. Occurs also Arnos 4:6 where the substantive niqyon is
only in lsaiah's call to Israel to consider their used for "cleanness ofteeth," a figure for lacking
humble origins (lsa 51: 1). food.) Here too we should discuss Joel 3:21
M.C.F. [H 4:21]. Surprisingly the NASB,which otherwise
slavishly follows MT, emends this passage
against G.R. Driver and C. van Leeuwen. Driver
1410 i;,: (nqd) l. Assumed root of the follow- renders the verse: .. And I will pour out its blood,
ing. which until now I have not poured out" (JThSt
1410a i;,; (näqöd) speckled (Gen 30:32; 39:402). N1v:"Blood which I have not pardoned I
31:8). will pardon." After considering other options

596
 1412 Mi;J;(näqii)

C. van Leeuwen concluded: "In any case the shall not be unpunished" (Prov 11:21), or used in
text ought not tobe emended to niqqamti II will interrogation: "should ye be utterly un-
be avengedl (against BHS and KBL 632b), a punished?" (Jer 25:29).
reading, not presupposed by the Lxx" (THAT, II. The release from obligation or from guilt/
p. 102). punishment [adjective or Niphal of nüqa] is often
Otherwise the word evokes favorable connota- presented as determined by [min I the LoRD.
tions. lt may be used to denote freedom from an Thus, the release of the Transjordanian tribes
oath. Thus Abraham says to Eliezer: "But if the from military service after the Conquest is said to
woman is not willing to follow you, then you will be "free of obligation before the i..oRD"
be free from this my oath" (Gen 24:8; cf. Josh (wih''yitem n"qiyyim meYHWH)" (Num 32:22).
2: 17. 20 where the adjective is used with the same So also the LORDalone is able to free one from an
notion). oath made in His name (Josh 2: 17-19). With re-
Of the forty occurrences of this verb the vast spect to the blood of Abner, David declares: "I
majority have an ethical, moral, or forensic con- and my kingdom are innocent before the LORD
notation. The fact that in the Pie! (transitivizing) [näqi ... me'im YHWHI (II Sam 3:28: cf. I Sam
stem it is synonymous with !itidaq Piel or Hiphil 26:9). In many passages the min is omitted but
(which see) should bear adequate testimony to its the thought remains the same. In Prov 16:5 "he
significance. ntiqii is found only once in the Qal [the proud] will not go unpunished" is parallel to
stem (an infinitive absolute modifying a Niphal), "an abomination to the LoRD" (cf. Prov II :21:
otherwise it is exclusively in the Niphal or Piel. 17:5). The point is underscored in Jer 2:35 where
This tends to reenforce the analysis: "poured Judah claimed innocence [niqqetiJ, but since this
out, emptied" yields "be freed, cleared, was not God's verdict he will enter intojudgment
cleansed, innocent." with her. In all these passages the verdict belongs
A political use of this word, namely, freedom to the LORDand he works out the course of judg-
or exemption from some obligation such as mili- ment in the destiny of those under his jurisdic-
tary service (Deut 24:5), serves to sharpen its tion.
forensic sense of being freed from punishment. In the case ofthe Pie! nqh it is always (with the
A husband is declared free from iniquity if, in exception of I Kgs 2:9) the LORD who is the
declaring his wife unfaithful, he follows the legal subject. Thus he is the one addressed in petitions
procedures before the priest (Num 5:31). for acquittal (e.g ... Acquit me of hidden faults"
This passage is instructive for it shows that (Ps 19:12 [H 131, or the One who does not leave
nqh is the opposite of ·awön (q.v. "guilty"). The the sinner unpunished (Ex 20:7; 34:7: Jer 30: 11;
passage reads: ··He shall be free from guilt 46:28; Job 9:28).
(w'niqqa ... me'äwön) but that woman will bear Likewise, in the case of the adjective when it
her guilt." In other passages, however, 'äwön is means "innocent" it is God who assumes re-
omitted. Thus Samson says after his father-in- sponsibility for the guiltless. Thus he holds him-
law has given his wife away to another man: · 'This self responsible for innocent blood (Deut 19: 10,
time I will be blameless [niqqeti)" (Judg 15:3). 13; II Kgs 24:4; Jer 2:34f: 19:3f; 22:3ff; passim).
Just as 'tiwön may refer to the act of sin, the Job, however, in a trough of pessimism, observes
punishment for the sin, or the state between the that God destroys the innocent with the guilty
act and the punishment "guilt," so also näqii can (Job 9:23).
refer to the release from the state between the Not only may the sinner himself be cleansed,
implied wrong and punishment="guiltless, inno- freed of guilt, acquitted or held innocent, but a
cent" or to the release from punishment = .. go place may be purged of the evil found in it. The
unpunished. ·· As an example of the first, in addi- ·cutting off of liars and perjurers from the land
tion to Num 5:31 and Judg 15:3, we may cite II spoken of in the vision of the flying roll (Zech 5 :3)
Sam 14:9: "And the woman of Tekoa said, "O would amount to a purging or cleansing of the
Lord, the king, the iniquity [he'tiwön I is on me land from evil.
and my father's house, but the king and his Perhaps the most highly technical of all uses of
throne are guiltless [adj. ntiqiJ. As an example of this expression is in regard to freedom or exemp-
the latter note: "whoever touches her [a tion from the obligations of an oath (Gen 24;8, 41)
neighbor's wifel will not go unpunished lyin- or from the effects of the curse inherent in the
näqeh l (Prov 6:29; cf. 19:5, 9: 28:20). Likewise trial of an accused woman, in which she is re-
Ex 21:19 legislates-"that when two men fight quired to drink the bitter water offered by the
and the one struck is still able to walk, then he priest (Num 5:19).
who struck him shall go unpunished Iw' niqqii]."
(The adjective may have this same force: cf. "the näqi, näqi'. Blameless, innocent, guiltless, free,
owner of the ox shall go unpunished [ntiqij" (Ex exempted, clean (o/ hands). (Both ASV and RSV
21:28). The word is sometimes negativized, of use "guiltless" three times in Josh 2 for KJV se-
course, yielding a strong reprimand: "the wicked quence "blameless, guiltless, quit." RSValso em-

597
1413 Ci?; (niiqam)
ploys "free" for "clear" and "free of obligation Vocabulary of the O T. New Haven: ASOR. 1948
to·· for "guiltless before" in Num 32:22. (section 54, p. 24).
The adjective naqi and its variant naqf' refer to Bibliography: Richardson, TWB, pp. 114,
persons declared innocent, free, or exempt from 127. THAT. II, pp. 101-105.
charges or obligations, or to innocent blood (that M.C.F. and B.K.W.
is. shed blood of an unoffending or innocent
party), as weil as ·clean hands,' a figure for inno- ,,r;,; (niqqud). See no. 1410b.
cent behavior. (See the familiar Ps 24:4.) l:li?~ (näqa(). See qu( no. 1996.
lt has the notion offreedom/exemption from an 'i?; (naqi). See no. 1412a.
obligation in the legislation for the newly married N'i?; (näqi'). See no. 1412b.
man: "He will be free from military service" ii'i?; (niqqay(m). See no. 1412d.
(Deut 24:5). Regarding Asa·s proclamation that ;,•;;,; (näqiq). See no. 1417a.
Ramah must be dismantled none was exempt
from the labor (1 Kgs 15:22). lt denotes freedom
1413 l:li?l (naqam) take vengeance, revenge,
from slavery in Gen 44: 10 where Joseph warned: ~venge oneself, be avenged, be punished (cf.
"With whom ithe stolen cupJ is found shall be my gö'el as the "avenger of blood").
slave, and the rest of you shall be free or inno-
cent. (The technical term for freedom from slav- Derivatives
ery is fwpshi.)
1413a tci;'; (nciqcim) vengeance.
Otherwise the adjective has the juridical notion
1413b "hi7:'i?~(n''qamii) vengeance.
of ··guiltless, blameless, innocent" (Job 4:7;
27:14; passim). Its use alongside of the "right- Although this root, including its derivatives, is
eous" is especially effective in Ex 23:7: ..... the only used about seventy times in the OT, it ex-
innocent and righteous slay thou not: for I will presses a truth that is theologically important, but
not justify the wicked ... Cf. the great declaration greatly misunderstood. Vengeance and revenge
of Goct·s character in similar terms in Ex 34:7. are ideas that would appear to have no good ethi-
One speaks of "the blood of the innocent'' idam cal validity whether coming from God or man.
hannciqi] or (mostly) of "innocent blood" ldam But such is not the case when the use of this root
naqi J where a guiltless people are threatened with is properly understood in its OT setting and NT
intentional homicide or murder (Deut 27:25; application.
I Sam 19:5) or in cases where their life is actually The concept of divine vengeance must be un-
taken (Deut 19:13; II Kgs 21:16; 24:4; passim). derstood in the light of OT teaching about the
Sometimes it is not clear whether the innocent holiness and justice of God and its effect on man
are being threatened or have been killed (Deut as a sinner. In terms of the presuppositions of
19:10). (For bloodguilt see dcim). some modern ·'Christian·' theologies, such a God
11ciqiin contrast to (cihar „ to be pure„ is not a of vengeance will be labeled unchristian and un-
cultic term; e.g. it is never found in the book of ethical. Understood in the full orb of biblical re-
Leviticus. The "clean hands" in Ps 24:4 speak of velation, balanced as it is by the mercy of God,
ethical purity and hence juridical acquittal. The divine vengeance is seen tobe a necessary aspect
nominal form niqqciyon may have a cultic sense of the history of redemption.
in Ps 26:6 because of the parallel line "! will go Study of the use of this root reveals that there
about Thine altar, 0 LoRD." But the same ex- are comparatively few cases where man is con-
pression in Ps 73: 13 denotes ethical purity. sidered a proper source of vengeance. Often man
is a secondary cause while God is the source (Ezk
niqqäyön. lnnocency, cleanness (of teeih).
25: 14). This is normally the case where the Israel-
Strongest ofthe five occurrences is Hos 8:5. God
ites avenge themselves on their enemies (Josh
taunts the rulers of idolatrous Israel 10:13). In Num 31:2-3, the lsraelites' wreaking
(" Samaria"), asking when and how they will ever
vengeance on the Midianites (v. 2) is equivalent
manage innocency. The figurative "cleanness of
to the Lord's doing so (v. 3). In some instances
teeth" (Arnos 4:6) implies a want offood to eat.
God instructs his people when such vengeance is
Remaining instances speak of "innocency of
called for in his behalf (e.g. Num 31). Other pas-
hands" or of "washing hands in innocency"-
sages warn men not to take vengeance in their
ceremonial purification representative of a pure
own hands (Lev 19:18; Deut 32:35). Even though
heart and honest conduct.
näqam is not used in Gen 9:6, capital punishment
m•naqqiya. The m'naqqiyii was apparently a is required for murder because man is made in the
golden bowl (some say "dipper" or "tube") image of God, and to take his life without divine
placed on the table of showbread and used for the permission is considered to be an offense against
drink offering. lt was important enough to be God as weil as man.
listed in Jer 52:19 as being taken to Babylon. For Most of the uses of näqam involve God as the
this last item, see James L. Kelso, The Ceramic source of vengeance. The classical passage is

598
 1416 t'li?J(naqap)

Deut 32:35, 41, "Vengeance is mine ... I will The OT institution of blood revenge was strictly
recompense them who hate me." God cannot be a legal matter to meet the need for justice in a
true to his character of holiness and justice if he tribal community where no central government
allows sin and rebellion to go unpunished. The existed to create a society where people could
prophets stressed "the day of the Lord's ven- live together without confusion. Governments
geance" (lsa 38:8: 61 :2: 63:4) as times in history have always avowed that their purpose is to ren-
when the Lord sets the record straight. This was der justice and punish wrongdoers (cf. The Pro-
Jeremiah · s view of the fall of Jerusalem. Since in logue to Hammurabi's Code in ANET). Blood
the course of history the record can never be to- revenge is still a pattern which exists in the minds
tally straight the prophetic eschaton or final day of bedouin-oriented people in the Near East. The
of the Lord's vengeance is called for. Such a day government of Jordan makes allowances for this
is in mind in lsa 63:1-6. Here God treads out the frame of mind in its judicial processes. Under
winepress alone and tramples his enemies in his such a system justice is to be meted out by the
wrath (Rev 19:75). Likewise in the NT retribution, closest relative of a murder victim. The cities of
a notion essential to its message, belongs essen- refuge were a refinement of this common law
tially to the future world rather than the present. practice, to provide justice in cases of man-
The Bible balances the fury of God's ven- slaughter (Num 35:9-28, etc.). These legal in-
geance against the sinner with greatness of his stitutions are based on that principle of absolute
mercy on those whom he redeems from sin. and equal justice summarized in "the law of the
God's vengeance must never be viewed apart tooth" (lex talionis). But the eye for an eye and
from his purpose to show mercy. He is not only tooth for a tooth principle ( Ex 21:23-25: Lev
the God of wrath, but must be the God of wrath in 24:19-20: Deut 19:21) was not meant to be
order for his mercy to have meaning. Apart from applied privately. lt was a judicial process und er
God himself the focus of the 01 is not on the divine sanction. Jesus is not rejecting the OT doc-
objects of his vengeance but on the objects of trine of just punishment when he teaches that this
his mercy, his special possession (s'·guta), his law was not meant as a rule for interpersonal rela-
very own people with whom he has an eternal tionships. The latter was a misapplication of it by
covenant. the Jews of his day.
There are two ways in which God takes ven-
naqam, n•qämä. Vengeance. These nouns
geance with regard to his people. First he
have no difference in meaning and are both used
avenges his people in the sense that he becomes
with a variety of verbs. God is said ··to take ven-
their champion against the common enemy (Ps
geance·· (lsa 47:3). "to return vengeance" (Deut
94). Secondly, as the covenant God, he punishes
32:41, 43), "to do (execute) vengeance" (Mic
those who break covenant with him. "I will smite
5: 14), "to come with vengeance" (lsa 35:4), and
you seven times, even I for your sins. And I will
bring a sword upon you, that shall execute the "to give out (execute) this vengeance" (Ezk
vengeance of the covenant" (Lev 26:24--25). 25: 14). This action often involves the shedding of
The 01 people are reminded that it is only God blood because blood has been shed (Ps 79: IO).
who can champion his own cause without error Bibliography: THAT. II, pp. 106--108.
(Deut 32:35). This verse is echoed by Paul in Rom E.B.S.
12:19 as he warns against a vindictive spirit on
the part of God·s people. lt is also used by the 1414 lJi?; (näqa') be alienated, estranged (Ezk
author of Hebrews to warn of the horror of com- 23: 18, only).
ing under the avenging wrath of God ( 10:28-31).
Because of the 01 expressions of just hatred 1415 *~i?; (niiqap) /, strike off. Occurs in the
against God's enemies who also sought to de- Niphal (lsa 10:34) and Piel (Job 19:26).
stroy his people (Ps 54) we tend to feel that the oT Derivative
teaches one must always hate his enemies. That
this is not true may be seen from Paurs quotation 1415a ~i'' (nöqep) striking off (lsa 17:6:
of Prov 25:21-22 in Rom 12:20. "But if thine 24: 13).
enemy hunger feed him,"' etc. The ancient He-
brews, like many modern Christians, misapplied 1416 ~l?~ (naqap) II, go around, compass, to
the doctrine of divine vengeance and used it as an round.
excuse for harboring vengeful feelings against Derivative
each other. In Mt 5:43ff. Jesus was rebuking this
misapplication and in such places as Mt 19:19 (cf. 1416a :i,;;,~(niqpa) encircling rope (of
Mk 12:31) he is really quoting Lev 19:18. ··You captive, Isa 3:24).
shall not avenge or bear a grudge against the chil- niiqap is used primarily in the Hiphil. "make
dren of your people but love your neighbor as or Jet go around." Days "run their course·· (Job
yourself, I am the LoRo ... 1:5), with men "taking turns" at hosting ban-

599
1417 ;,;,J (nqq)

quets. In the sense of surround, encircle, our Derivatives

verb is often paralleled with the more common
1421a :iN1Wl (n 'sü ·ii)
what is carried
siibab (see, for example, Ps 22:16 [17]). Hunting
'ab~ut (lsa 46: 1, only).
nets are cast, drawn around (Job 19:6) and Israel-
1421b tN'WJ (niisf') I, prince, captain,
ites are forbidden to shave or trim around the
ie'ader.
head (leaving a tuft of hair on top, emulating
1421c N'WJ (niisi') II, rising mist, vapor
pagan cultists-Lev 19:27), in some of the more
(e'.g. Jer 10:13: 51:16).
specific or technical uses of niiqap.
1421d tNt~ ( massii') /, Load, burden, Lift-
At the other extreme, a broad connotation re-
ing.
sults from the occurrence of this verb in lsa 15:8, tNW~ (ma.faii') II, burden, oracle.
142le
where a cry going around the borders of Moab
would imply "everywhere."
142lf N0~ (ma.ff) Lifting up (partial-
ity, II Chr 19:7).
M.C.F.
1421g :il$t~ ( mas.M ·ii) the uplifted
(cloud, lsa 30:27).
1417 ;,;,J (nqq). Assumed root of the following. 1421h triNW~ (mas'et) uprising, uplifting,
1417a ;,•;,J (naqiq) cleft of a rock. Only ·b~;den, portion.
~~ed with sela' "rock" (lsa 7:19 142li N•~ (ff) loftiness (figurative of
and Jer 13:4; 16:16). pride, Job 20:6).
1421j !'11'.ti;'
(s' 'et) exaltation, dignity
1418 ,i?~ (niiqar) bore, pick, dig (e.g. Prov (Gen 49:3), swelling (Lev 13:2),
30:17: Num 16:14). uprising (Job41:17).
Derivative The Qal form of this root is used almost six
1418a :i,i?i (n'qiirii) hole, crevice (Ex hundred times with basically three separate
33:22: lsa 2:21). meanings: "to lift up"; "to bear, carry, sup-
port": and "to take, take away." The root ap-
1419 !Vi?~ (niiqash) knock, strike (e.g. Ps pears in Ugaritic as n.f "lift, rise" andin Akka-
9: 17; Deut 12:30). dian as nasü. An additional sixty occurrences use
the Niphal, Piel, and Hithpael stems. There are
,; (ner). See no. 1333a. only two instances of the Hiphil stem, Lev 22: 16
and II Sam 17:13, the Iatter being textually dubi-
1420 ,~~ (nerd) spikenard.
ous. The total for all stems of this verb is 655.
The meaning "to lift up" is used both literally
This noun, occurring only three times in the and figuratively in many phrases. "To lift up the
Old Testament (all in Song, verses I: 12, 4: 13-14) hand" in taking an oath (Deut 32:40: Ezk 20:5, 6,
denotes the fragrant oily essence of the North 15 etc.), in doing violence (II Sam 18:28), as a
Indian- Nardustachys jatamansi, a perennial re- signal (lsa 49:22) and in punishment (Ps 10: 12).
lated to valerian. The name derives from a "To lift up one's head" in restoration to honor
Sanskrit verb, nalada ·exhaling a scent', and (Gen 40: 13, 20), in showing cheerfulness and in-
likely came into both Hebrew and Greek usage dependence (Job 10: 15: Zech 2:4: Ps 83:3), and as
via Persian niirdfn. a figurative expression for the lintels of the gates
In Solomon·s Song descriptions of both the of the city (Ps 24:7, 9). "To lift up one ·s face or
king and the bride are embellished by reference countenance" as an indication of a good con-
to this highly regarded scent, still used in lndia as science, confidence, favor, or acceptance
a perfume for the hair. Imported into the Holy (II Sam 2:22). "To lift up the eyes" often
Land in biblical times in sealed alabaster boxes, it pleonastically before verbs of looking or seeing
was reserved for very special occasions. Such an (Gen 13:10, 14), in love or desire to men (Gen
occasion was Mary's anointing of Jesus· feet at 39:7), towards God (Ps 123:1), and to an idol (Ezk
the dinner given to celebrate the resurrection and 18:6, 12, 15). "To lift up the voice," also used
restoration to the family circle of her brother pleonastically before verbs of weeping and crying
Lazarus. Its worth is evidenced in the same ac- (Gen 27:38: I Sam 30:4), and to indicate rejoicing
count (see John 12:3-5) by Judas· complaint that (lsa 24: 14). "To lift (anything) with the voice"
a pound of the ointment when sold could have such as the name of the Lord, (Ex 20:7), prayer
added some seventy-five dollars to his fund for (II 19:4; Jer 7: 16; 11: 14). a song (Num 23:7), and
the poor. reproaches (Ps 15:3). The heart "lifts one up"
Bibliography: W.E.S. Cooper, "Spikenard," thus inciting action (Ex 35:21, 26: 36:2), or pre-
in ZPEB. sumption and pride (II Kgs 14:10). lt is also in
M.C.F. this category of lifting up or taking up that the
first of three important meanings appears con-
1421 N~~ (niisa') Lift, carry, take. necting this word with sin. Men can take up, in-

600
 1421 i-t~;(nä.fri')

cur, or contract iniquity and sin by profaning the in or by the local assembly. Hence it means
Tabernacle (Ex 28:43: Num 18:22), by hating "lifted up, .. and thus ··elected. ·· Usually the
their neighbors (Lev 19: 17). by touching animal phrase "these are the ones chosen (or called)"
carcasses (Lev 22:9), or by profaning the offer- (Num 1: 16) is cited in support of this etymology.
ings of the Lord (Num 18:32). The term applies to any ruler of God's people
The second semantical category, of bearing or (Ex 22:28 [H 271). to the leaders ofthe congrega-
carrying, is used especially of bearing the guilt or tion (Ex 16:22: Josh 9: 15. 18: 22:30 etc.). and to
punishment of sin. Thus Cain complains in Gen Solomon (1 Kgs 11:34).
4:13, ··My punishment is greater than I can But the most significant use of the term is
bear. ·· The expression ··he shall bear his in- found in the writings of the prophet Ezekiel. Of
iquity"· occurs frequently (Lev 5: 1. 17: 7: 18: its thirty-six usages. no less than twenty refer to
Num 5:31: 14:34, etc.). This leads easily into the the future Davidic prince, the Messiah. While
idea of bearing the guilt of another by representa- Ezk 34:24 and 37:25 are clear. the remaining ref-
tion or substitution (Lev 10: 17) or of the erences to the eschatological prince in Ezk 44,
scapegoat (Lev 16:22). The root sahal, ··to bear a 45. 46, 48 are debated because he is portrayed as
burden·· in lsa 53: 11 is paralleled in the next having no priestly rights. offering a sin offering
verse by nasa· ··the Servant bore the sins of for himself (45:22). and having sons (46: 16).
many, .. as in lsa 53:4. Such debits could also be Charles Feinberg believes that he is a "future
passed from father to son on a temporal basis scion of David's dynasty who will represent the
affecting one·s earthly existence (Num 14:31, 33). Messiah governmentally in the affairs of the
But Israel was wrong in fatalistically applying it earth ...
to a continuing and necessary state of affairs,
especially on into eternity. as they had argued massä' /. Load, burde11, Lifting, bearing, trib-
(Ezk 18: 19-20), for the opposite is clearly stated ute. The word occurs thirty-nine times andin its
in Deut 24: 16. most natural setting refers to the load or burden
The third category stressed the taking away. upon the backs of such animals as the ass (Ex
forgiveness, or pardon of sin, iniquity, and trans- 23:5). mule (II Kgs 5: 17). and camels (II Kgs 8:9).
gression. So characteristic is this action of taking lsaiah identifies one such load as the dumb and
away sin, that it is listed as one of God's attrib- ineffective idols of the Babylonians. which were
utes (Ex 34:7: Num 14: 18: Mic 7: 18). Often this carted away as part of the captivity (lsa 46: 1-2).
form of näsä' is used in prayers of intercession, Perhaps II Chr 17: 11 belongs in this category,
e.g. by the messenger of Joseph ·s brothers (Gen "silver by the load," i.e. in great quantities, or
50:17), by Pharaoh (Ex IO: 17), by Moses for Is- ··carried or brought silver as tribute ...
rael (Ex 32:32: Num 14: 19), by Abigail for One of the most common usages of this noun is
Naboth (1 Sam 25:28), and by Saul to Samuel (1 found in Num4: 15. 19.24, 27, 31. 32,47, 49where
Sam 15:25). lt is used by Joshua in his farewell the Kohathites. Gershonites. and the sons of
address (Josh 24: 19). No doubt the classical ex- Merari are assigned to carry various parts of the
pression of this meaning is tobe found in Ps 32: 1. Tabernacle.
5. Sin can be forgiven and forgotten, because it is A debated passage is I Chr 15:22, 27. The trans-
taken up and carried away. lation of sarlrnmma.faä' as the leader of the
The passive, intensive, reflexive, and causa- music is indefensible. The root meaning is "to
tive ideas of the three basic categories are often lift," 1101 "to utter." Keil notes that the LXX.
seen in the other stems listed but without applica- Vulgate. and Luther (and wc might add the RSV.
tion to the doctrine of sin except perhaps for such NEB. NAB, NASB. NI\' and partially the JB) were
unusual instances as the Hiphil in Lev 22: 16. wrong in connecting the word for "burden" with
cause one to bear iniquity. singing: rather the context deals with bearing the
ark and ma.üä · is the normal word in that con-
näsi' /. Prince, captain, Leader, chief, ruler. lt text. This passage is to be equated with Num 4:
is used 128 times, 60 times to denote various II Chr 20:25: 35:3.
leaders of Israel (Num 1: 16, 44; chapters 2, 7, 34). In the class of figurative usages is the interest-
The same word denotes the non-lsraelite chief- ing Ezk 24:25 which uses a nominal verb. "the
tains of lshmael (Gen 17:20; 25: 16), the Midianite uplifting of their soul." to mean "their heart·s
leaders (Num 25:18: Josh 13:21). the Canaanite desire." i.e. that to which they are lifting up their
prince of Shechem (Gen 34:2), the prince of soul. lsa 22:25 contains a debated Messianic ref-
Egypt ( Ezk 30: 13), Meshech and Tubal ( Ezk erence to the "peg" or "nail." yätl'J. The bur-
38:2-3: 39: 1), and the princes of the earth ( Ezk den placed upon this "peg" will be cut down and
39: 18). will fall. Whether that burden is Shebna (David
Some, including Ephraim Speiser, (AB Baron) or Eliakim ( E. J. Young) is at issue, but
Genesis, p. 170) argue that niisi' designates an certainly it is a figurative reference to some
official who has been ··elevated" or "lifted up" crooked lsraelite official. This is similar to the

601
1422 * ~~; (näsag)
people being a burden (Num 11: 11. 17; Deut 1: 12; (Babylon), 14:28 (Philistia). 15: 1 (Moab), 17:1
II Sam 15:33; Job 7:20). The Psalmist even refers (Damascus); 19:1 (Egypt), 21:1 (Babylon), 21:11
to his iniquities as a weighty burden (Ps 38:4 (Dumah), 21:13 (Arabia), 22:1 (Valley ofVision),
[H 5]). and 23: 1 (Tyre). He also uses it in the midst ofhis
six woes in 30:6 (the beasts of the Negeb). These
massä' II. A burden, i.e. a prophetical specch
messages are all minatory in nature, although oc-
of a threatening or minatory character (Rsv ora-
casionally there is subjoined a rose-tinted prom-
cle). The word appears twenty-seven times, only
ise such as the one in lsa 19:\~25.
in prophetic contexts, with the exceptions of
Additional burdens deal with Nineveh (Nah
Prov 30: I: 31: 1.
1:1), Judah (Hab 1:1), Damascus (Zech 9:1),
Two different translations have been given to
Jerusalem (Zech 12:1), Israel (Mal 1:1), Zabad
this word from pre-Christian days. The earliest to
who murdered King Joash (II Chr 24:27), and
be commonly received was · "burden." This was
King Joram (II Kgs 9:25).
the view of the Targum of Jonathan, Aquila, the
Even the two passages in Proverbs are not ex-
Syriac version, Jerome (on Nah 1: 1), Luther,
ceptions. Agur's words in Prov 30: 1 are a heavy
Calvin Hengstenberg, and J. A. Alexander.
burden laid upon reason, which quickly turns to
However, others took it to mean "oracle," "ut-
exalting itself. This speech is mainly a rebuke,
terance," or "prophecy," positing a hypothetical
hence it is described as a "burden." Lemuel's
root näsä' "to utter" or "to receive." In this
word in Prov 31: 1 likewise is a "burden in which
camp can be listed the LXX, Cocceius, J. D.
his mother corrected him."
Michaelis, Lowth, and E. J. Young.
The most definitive argument supporting the mas'et. Uprising, uplifting, burden, por-
former translation is found in E. W. Hengsten- tion. There are seventeen occurrences of this
berg's Christology of the OT on Zech 9: 1 (III, pp. word.
339-43). The argument correctly notes that: Basically it refers to smoke which rises (Jud
1. The contents of these prophecies consist ex- 20:38, 40) or a signal which is lifted up (Jer 6: 1).
clusively of threatenings; 2. The word massü' is (Cf. the Lachish letter no. 4 line 10). The same
never followed by the genitive of the speaker, basic motion is found in the lifting up of hands in
such as n' ·um of YHWH, but is always con- prayer(Ps 141:2).
nected with the genitive of the object, e.g. the In line with the argument of massa' (prophetic
massa' of Babylon, of Moab, etc. Unless there speech, see above), it refers to the burden of re-
intervenes an additional item such as in Zech 9: 1; proach in Zeph 3: 18. The same thought is found
12: 1; Mal 3: 1 ("the massa· of the Word of the in Lam 2: 14. The predicted burden or calamity
Lord"); 3. The word massa' exhibits no exam- aimed at the imperial powers by the false
ples of a noun derived from nasa' in the sense of prophets never materialized.
"to utter"; and 4. even the so-called exceptions The most interesting meaning is a portion, gift,
of I Chr 15:22, 27 (see mas.fa' I); Lam 2: 14; Zech present, or contribution which is carried to
12: 1: and Jer 23:33ff. are proofs of this view someone eise. In Gen 43:34 it refers to the por-
rather than evidences to the contrary. tions given to Joseph's brothers from his table,
The proper rendering of Lam 2: 14 is that the but in II Sam 11:8 it is David's present given to a
false prophets "have seen vain burdens and cap- loyal and unsuspecting Uriah. The ten tribes of
tivities for thee"; not "vain and misleading Israel claim ten shares in King David as opposed
prophecies ... The predicted burdens and threats to the two shares of Judah and Benjamin (II Sam
of dispersion directed against the imperial powers 19:43 (the relative word nisse' t). Jeremiah is also
never materialized. The word maddü!Jim. can released and given a present or largess (Jer 40:5).
only mean "dispersions" or "captivities," so Arnos 5: 11 uses it for a forced gift or an unjust
therefore mas'ot must relate to the enemy. exaction or taxation. This is exactly what the late
Neither is Zech 12: 1 a passage of cheer. A simi- Phoenician use of the word means, payment or
lar point can be made in the Jer 23:33, 34, 36, 38 tax. Therefore, it was also applied to sacred
passage. The offense of the scoffers was not that payments or contributions (II Chr 24:6, 9; Ezk
they imputed the negative meaning of burden to 20:40).
massa' by which Jeremiah meant a cheerful Bibliography: Feinberg, Charles, The Proph-
prophecy, but rather that they poked fun at these ecy of Ezekie/, Moody, p. 258. Hengstenberg, E.
severe announcements of judgment from the W .. Christo/ogy of the 0/d Testament, Clark,
Lord. They asked, in a mocking tone, what new 1875, pp. 339-43. Richardson. TWB, pp. 85---S6.
burdensome word he had for the fine folks of THAT, II, pp. 109-16.
Jerusalem. But this all proves that they caught W.C.K.
the point: it was a burden, not just a prophecy or
utterance!
lsaiah uses this burden form for his messages 1422 *JiQJ (näsag) overtake, reach, take hold
against the foreign nations. lt occurs ot 13: 1 upon. Occurs only in the Hiphil.

602
 1425 *~~J (näshä')
In all the translations, "overtake" is the most conflation may be involved in the case of this
common rendering for näfoR, which is found homonymic pair.
only in the Hiphil stem. often occurring as a An interesting parallel to this latter suggestion
complement to rädap "pursue ... The lexicons is afforded by the common Semitic root hädal.
suggest an etymological association with the con- which in biblical Hebrew means "separate ...
cepts "attach, affix. entangle, seize ... lts seman- Whatever its connection with biblical Hebrew,
tic range in Hebrew. however, lays stress on at- the relationship of Ugaritic hdl "merchant" to
tainment, achievement, procuremcnt. The ac- Ethiopic (Tigre branch) hadla "change, ex-
quiring of wealth or possessions is in vicw, for change, barter" can easily be seen. Yet in
example, in several legal stipulations in Lev (see Ethiopic Tigrinya and Amharic hadda/11 means to
14:21: 25:47), and possession of joy is in view in "wrong someone, commit a sin." an apparent
lsa 35:10. semantic tie being found in the Tigre expression
Reaching a place is indicatcd in Gen 31:25, kar(/tir hadla ··change the lip" (= to break a
where Laban catches up with the flceing Jacob, promise). with an interesting lranian Arabic cog-
but attainmcnt of a good age is thc point of Gen nate meaning to lie or deceive. Some such rela-
47:9. Physical threat is implied by David's warn- tionship between the two näslul' roots in Hebrew
ing conceming Absalom (II Sam 15: 14), while a may have existed historically though now hidden
somewhat figurative adaptation occurs in refer- from our eye by lack of inscriptional evidence.
ence to blessings and curses, Deut 28:2 and 15. ( For still other approaches to the perplexities
M.C.F. of this root, reference should be made to the Col-
lected Writings of E. A. Speiser, Oriental and
:,~~~; (n'fo'ä). Sec no. 1421a. Bih/ical St11die.1·.p. 140, as weil as KB. where a
H•~; (nä.ff). Sec nos. 1421b, 1421c. relationship is seen to Akkadian räsl11i "cred-
•;,w; (n<i.foq). See fo/uq no. 2266. itor· · and Aramaic dialccts where rshy and rsh ·
have such meanings as ··1ay claim, take a loan ...
1423 -,~: (n.fr). Assumed root of the following. Speiser elucidates the ancient practice of usury
1423a "liW~ ( ma.~for) saw (1 sa 10: 15, by showing that loans were discounted with a
only). normal interest, the · ·usury' · consisted of a sec-
ond interest exacted after a defaulting debtor was
1424 H~; (näsha) /, Lend on interest or usury, taken into servitude. (Cf. ncshck.)
be a creditor. In the Qal, the sense of the participial form can
be either debtor or creditor by context, the
Derivatives
form er also by use of a prepositional object, as hi
1424a tHWl': (ma.1hshä') lending on interest "on, against me." In the Hiphil. the meaning is
'( Neh 5:7, only). regularly "to exact, act as creditor. ..
1424b t:,~~~ (mashslufä) loan.
mäshshä'. Vsury, debt (Rsv interest).
According to the context in which the verb
form occurs, a man either has a creditor or he mashshä'ä. Loan, debt. Both noun derivatives
can refer to either the loan, the debt incurred. or
acts as a creditor against another. He "makes
exactions" of the person indebted to him, often the interest (usury) charged. Nehemiah 10:31
in the heartless manner implied in the old term [H 321 adds an interesting procedural note, refer-
ring to the loan as "pledged by the hand."
"usury," the modern "loan shark." So serious a
matter was this reckoned to be that in a psalm M.C.F.
celebrating God's choice and care of David the
latter is characterized as one having divine pro-
tection against this abuse (Ps 89:22 [ H 231). See
1425 *Hf~ (11ä.1hü') II, beguile, deceive. Oc-
curs in the Niphal and Hi phil only.
also the verb näshak "bite" which has a usage
nearly synonymous to näshä ·. Derivatives
Psalm 55: 15 [H 16] presents a problem as to
1425a 1iM~I; (mashshä'{Jn) guile, dis-
whether to takc the sense from this root, render-
simulation (Prov 26:26, only).
ing it "let death exact upon them" (i.e. their
1425b 1'1iH1W~ ( mashslui ·bt) deceptiom
"debt to nature") or from niishä" "deceive,"
(Ps 73: 18: 74:3).
"let death come upon them suddenly, or un-
awares." Thal these two roots are distinguished Occurring just once in the Niphal stem, this
from one another in biblical Hebrew is clear, and verb is usee mainly in the Hiphil in the sense of
näshä' 1 relates to an Arabic verb "postpone, seil "lead astray, seduce. mislead, deceive, .. even
on credit'' whilc näshä' II relates to Arabic "re- for self-deception, as indicated in Jer 37:9 by
move." The second root is also apparently addition of "your souls ...
kindred with shiiw ·•wickedness, falsehood, van- The debate as to how to translate Ps 55: 15 [H
ity." Nevertheless a sort of morpho-semantic 161and the possible historic relationship in usage
603
1426 ~IP~
(näshab)

between this and the preceding verb (which see) n•shiyä. Forgetfulness. Occurs in a description
has already been discussed. of Sheol or Destruction (Abaddon), "the land of
The best known occurrence of this verb, of forgetfulness," i.e. oblivion (Ps 88: 12 [H 13]).
course, is in the famous passage in Gen 3 (at M.C.F.
v. 13), where Eve makes herdefense by shunting
the blame for her offense off to the deceptive
serpent. In all, this verb is employed little more 1429 :ituJ (nii.sheh) a vein or nerve in the thigh
than a dozen tim es in the OT, the concept of mis- ...(Gen 32:33). Relation to above roots un-
leading or deception being conveyed also by sev- certain.
eral other verbs or special idioms. An example of
the latter is the use of gii.nab "stear· in the sense
of stealing away hearts or persons. pii.tii · ·t1atter, •t;i; (n'' shi). See no. 1427a.
entice, deceive," rii.mii "beguile, deceive," and :,~~~ (n'shiya). See no. 1428a.
shii.qar "lie, deal falsely," given in decreasing :"li;)'t;i~ (n'' shiqii). See no. 1435a.
order of occurrences, are the other most fre-
quently found synonyms.
M.C.F. 1430 iw~(nii.shak) bite.
Derivatives
1426 :w~(näshab) blow (lsa 40:7; Ps 147:18; 1430a titu; (neshek) interest, usury.
Gen 15:11). 1430b t,w~
(näshak) lend Jor interest, US·
ury. Denominative verb.
1427 :,~~ (nii.shii) l, lend, be a creditor. Wherever the verb "to bite" occurs in its lit-
eral physical sense in biblical Heb, it has a snake
Derivatives or serpent as its subject. In the one case where
1427a •~J (n" shi) debt (II Kgs 4:7, men (false prophets) are the "biters," the RSV
only). translates paraphrastically, "when they have
1427b :iw~ (mashsheh) loan (Deut something to eat," as mentioned above (in Mic
15:2, only). 3:5). The Hab 2:7 reference is a similar case in
point. lt is in the context of the famous state-
ment, "the just shall live by his faith" that the
1428 :,~~ (näshil) II, forget, deprive.
unjust in Israel are asked, "shall they not rise up
Derivative suddenly that shall bite thee," paralleled by "and
awake that shall vex thee." But the ASVgives an
1428a :,~~; (n"shiyii) forgetfulness, obliv-
alternate in the margin which suggests "exact
ion (Ps 88: 13).
usury of thee" for "bite," with Rsv settling, quite
Because of the phenomenon of homonyms we simply, for "will not your debtors suddenly
have a translation problem in Job 11:6. Asv trans- arise?"
lates it, "God exacteth of thee," with marginal Interestingly, the modern Amharic cognate is
note, "or, remitteth (Hebrew "causeth tobe for- used not only of snakes but of dogs and other
gotten")." There is a probable Ugaritic cognate, mammals, and even of the bee. (While classical
given in UT 19: no. 1661 nn· ('I) and a sure Ethiopic has nasaka, the Amharic verb has a
Ethiopic (Tigre branch) one, nasä "vanish from consonantal metathesis to nakkassa.) One is led
memory,'· tanii.sä "forsake, forget." to suspect that the broader usage of this verb is
Interestingly also, in Jer 23:39 there is the em- the more primitive, since the noun "interest"
ploying of an absolute infinitive of a root näsha' preserves a sense of "biting off' a portion,
as modifier of our final-he root. Here the RSV whereas this is not the impression given by a
reads, rather, näsii' "surely lift you up," perhaps snake's bite.
on the strength offinding sin as the middle radical Synonyms for "bite" in Hebrew are such
in several ofthe cognate languages. But since this verbs as qära$ "pinch, snip, tear" (the Ethiopic
is a normal variant between Hebrew and Arabic cognate of which has a noun derivative · 'tariff,
(plus Ugaritic and Ethiopic), only some Aramaic customs"), bä/a· "swallow, eat greedily, de-
dialect occurrences would !end support to such vour" (with a beast as subject in Ex 7: 12), and
an emendation. the common term for "eat," 'iikal, also "con-
A rendering ofthe verb as ··deprive" occurs in sume." Samson calls the lion "the eater" (Jud
Job 39: 17, where in reference to strange behavior 14:14). Arabic writers employ the same epithet
by the ostrich the idea "deprived of her wisdom" for lion.
is expressed under the figure, "caused her to For other means of expressing the concepts as-
forget wisdom, ·· as though she really ought to sociated with payment or collection of "interest"
know better. ("usury" in KJv) see verbs näshä' and näshii

604
 1434 e'\WJ
(näshap)

with related derivatives. [With regard to the 1432 ',t;; (niisha/) slip ordrop off (Deut 19:5),
usage of the noun usury or interest, new study draw off (Ex 3:5), clear away (Deut 7:1,
has clarified the situation as expressed in Lev 22).
25:35-54. lt is often supposed that this passage
and the one in Deut 23: 19-20 forbids one Israelite
loaning on interest to another. lndeed, Israel was
1433 et;; (näsham) pant (lsa 42: 14, only).
constantly reminded to give to the poor, but, as Derivatives
pointed out by Speiser, Lev 25 cannot oppose the
1433a t:,~~~ (n' shäma) breath.
charging of interest for the passage speaks of
1433b tri9~hl:l (tinshemet) an animal.
enslavement of the debtor (Lev 25:39; Oriental
and Biblical Studies, Collected Writings of E. A. n•shäma. Breath (Asv, RSV both employ
Speise,, ed. by Finkelstein and Greenberg, pp. "breath" for "blast" and "inspiration," while
131-135, 140-141). He shows the terms neshek the former one replaces · · breath" with "life. ")
"usury" and marbit "increase," find excellent This noun, when used in reference to man,
parallels in tablets from Alalakh and Nuzi. There generally signifies the breath of life. lt is fre-
the arrangement is more fully known. Loans quently found in combination with rüah "spirit"
were made with the interest discounted at the and seems synonymous with nepesh (q.v.). In
start. A debtor might get only 80 shekels on a 100 KJVit is twice translated "spirit" (Job 26:4; Prov
shekel loan. This is the old use of the word 20:27). For Prov 20:27 some feel the mind or in-
neshek. When the loan came due, the man, if he tellect is denoted. In Isa 2:22 the reference to
could not pay, was seized (Lev 25:35 man, whose "breath is in his nostrils," is a figure
w"heh'zaqtii bö "and you shall seize him"). of man's frailty. Life itself is a fragile existence.
However, according to the surrounding practice The "breath of God" may refer to his creative
and also according to Lev, no further interest or activity (as in Gen 2:7), but it can also be a hol
increase (neshek or marbit) could be charged. If wind which kindles flame (lsa 30:33), a destruc-
a second interest as weil as slavery were exacted, tive wind (II Sam 22:l6=Ps 18:15 [H 16]; Job
the debtor could likely never work off the loan. 4:9), or even a wind cold enough to produce ice
The Levitical code further enjoins humane treat- (Job 37: 10).
ment ofthe brother thus enslaved. This was not a The fact that precise translation of this noun
feature ofthe legislation ofthe surrounding coun- must tluctuate in accordance with its contextual
tries. In short, interest was allowed, but unrea- usage is aptly demonstrated by the following in-
sonable interest (usury) was not. R.L.H.] stances. In the poetic expression of II Sam 22: 16
In the prohibatory statement in Deut 23:19-20 (paralleled by Ps. 18:15 [H 16]) nishmat rüah sig-
is the stipulation, not only "usury of money" but nifies "blast of his breath," while in Gen 7:22
of food or "anything that is lent upon usury" as nishmat-ruah hayim means "the breath of life."
weil. In the simplest of terms, what is denoted by breath here expressed by the combination · 'breath-
either the verb or nominal form is any excessive ing of breath." The concrete concept "breath-
increase made in the repayment of a debt, ing (that is, living) beings" is expressed by
whether the thing borrowed was money or oth- n' shäma in either the singular form (as in Josh
erwise. Remembering that the coinage of cash 10:40) or the plural (lsa 57: 16).
money as we know it was unknown until the
tinshemet. An animal. Swan and mole in KJv;
seventh century B.c., this imprecision in meaning ASV"homed owl" and "chameleon"; RSVhas lat-
is readily understandable. ter, but "water hen" elsewhere.
neshek. Usury (ASV,RSV"interest"). Relation- Used only three times, and that in connection
ship of this noun to the basic verb "bite" is sus- with dietary prohibitions, tinshemet denotes
tained by evident Ugaritic usage: ntk verb "bite" probably two members of the animal kingdom,
(of serpent), noun "interest." apparently so named for breathing or hissing
characteristics. Bible dictionaries should be con-
näshak. Denominative verb, favored as correct sulted under the English names given above, as
sense by ASV(margin) and RSVin some cases (e.g. weil as Flora and Fauna of the Bible (United
Hab 2:7) where KJVhas "bite." Translations are: Bible Societies).
KJV"!end upon usury," ASVand RSV.. !end upon/ M.C.F.
for interest."
Bibliography: Richardson, TWB, pp. 206-
208. 1434 ti~; (niishap) blow (lsa 40:24; Ex
M.C.F. 15:10).
Derivatives
1431 :,;,t;.1;(nishka) chamber, room, a rare by- 1434a l'\W~(neshep) twilight (e.g. Gen
form of lishka (q.v.). 3:8; Jer 13:16).

605
1435 :,~; (niishaq)

1434b 1'1~~;~
(yanshup) a bird (lsa 34: 11; restricted use first. The concept of "touch" oc-
Lev 11:17: Deut 14:16). A kind of curs where, in Ezk 3: 13, the prophet describes
owl? the touching ('kissing') of the wings of living
creatures in his vision, quite evidently the
cherubim whose wings touched as they stood
1435 i'!V~ (nüshaq) /, kiss.
under the platform on which rested the throne of
Derivative God.
The kiss was a very common convention in the
1435a :,l{•t;i~ (n'' shiqa) kiss (Song 1:2;
ancient near east, yet always of special signifi-
Prov 27:6).
cance. Kisses are given, for example, to the
The three places where a denominative (it is father, the. mother, the son, the brother, the wife,
assumed) homonym of this verbis used, it is ren- the father or mother-in-law, wives of one's sons
dered ··armed" (Rsv once „be bowmen") and (Ruth 1:9), and fellow countrymen (II Sam 15:5),
must be distinguished as a separate verb al- as well as a Iover (Song 8: 1, Prov 7: 13). The im-
together (nüshaq). Nevertheless, one can detect portance of a kiss in expressing love is seen in the
some association of the Arabic cognate nasaqa Proverb "an honest answer is like a kiss on the
„fasten together, be in array" with either or both lips" (Prov 24:26). But the kiss of a prostitute
the Hebrew verbs. lt may, in fact, be a clue to a should be rejected (Prov 7:13; cf. Lk 7:38).
common origin. Along with a kiss of affection there was a kiss
The expression „on your mouth all my people of respect: Worthy of particular note are
will kiss" in Pharaoh's elevation of Joseph to a Samuel' s kissing of Saul upon anointing him (1
position of high authority has occasioned various Sam 10: 1) and David's farewell to a loyal subject
translations and explanations. KJV renders the as he retumed from his brief exile across Jordan
phrase, .. according unto thy word shall all my (II Sam 19:39 [H 40)). A use of the kiss in false
people be ruled," with ASVsuggesting „order worship is indicated in I Kgs 19:18; Hos 13:2; Job
themselves" in the margin and Rsv adopting the 31:27. The latter case (moon-worship) is unique
latter in the text. Citing I Sam 10: 1 (mentioned in its reference to a kiss on the worshipper's
above) and Ps 2: 12 as examples of the kiss of hand: literally ... If I have kissed my hand to my
homage, S. R. Driver rejects "be ruled," but he mouth."
prefers "order themselves," since not all the Bibliography: TDOT, IX, pp. 124-27.
people could literally kiss Joseph. When we take M.C.F.
into account, however, that orientals would kiss
any object received from a superior as a sign of 1436 i'TV;(nüshaq) II, handle, be equipped wilh
respect and submission, it seems preferable that (e.g. I Chr 12:2; II Chr 17: 17). Exact mean-
we see this as an indication of the respect and ing uncertain.
obedience to be accorded the commands of
Joseph. "Mouth" does often indicate the actual Derivative
commands or orders in biblical Hebrew. We can 1436a i'W~(nesheq), i'W~(nesheq)
also view Ps 2: 12 in this light and thereby reject equipment, weapons (e.g. Ezk
the conjectural emendation involved in the Rsv 39:9; Job 20:24).
translation, "with trembling kiss his feet." Also
the command to "kiss the son" may be under-
stood to mean to "kiss the feet of the son" being
1437 ,w~(nesher) eagle.
derived from the custom of kissing a king's feet The KJVrendering ofthis noun in all twenty-six
as an act of homage, "a custom which is weil occurrences (plus the two times in Aramaic
known to us from Babylonian and Egyptian [n' shar] in Daniel). While ASVadds the margin
documents" (Artur Weiser, The Psalms, West- "great vulture" in Lev 11:13 and "vulture" in
minster, 1962, p. 115). Prov 30: 17 and Mic 1: 16, RSV"vulture" in the
Stahlin notes: "The or has nothing comparable text once only, for the Heb expression "sons of
to the cultic kissing of paganism" TDNT, IX; p. the eagle" (Prov 30: 17).
127. (See discussion under ben.) The translators have been satisfied that the
We find in its two occurrences portrayal of one term "eagle" is acceptable in the majority of ref-
genuine and one superficial sign of affection. The erences, wherein the finer traits of strength,
former is in the context of romantic love (Song swiftness, and care of the young are cited, but
1:2), while the latter speaks of the abuse of a where the eating of carrion or "baldness" (see
convention by one who has evil intent. "Faithful Mic 1: 16) is involved, a lesser breed ofbird seems
are the wounds of a friend; but the kisses of an to be in order.
enemy are deceitful (Asv "profuse")," says Prov Actually, not only did the Semitic languages
27:6. tend to lump the !arge soaring birds into one fam-
As for the verb, it is best to deal with the most ily but the Encyclopedia Britannica defines

606
 1441 *MN (niita/J)
··eagle'' as inclusive of several day-flying_birds of 1440 :r,: (ntb). Assumed root of the following.
prey comprising, along with hawks, harners and 1440a t:•r,: (nätib) path.
old world vultures, the family Acciptridae. 1440b ri:•n: (n'tibä) path, pathway,
The references to a renewing of youth by the 'tr~~eller.
eagle (Ps l03:5: lsa 40:31) may stem simply fro?1
nätib. Path, way. Some lexicographers have
the fact of its longevity, but it is seen by some m
taken natib as an adjective, perhaps meaning
relation to its fresh appearance in new plumage
"trodden.. (though a possibly cognate Arabic
following moulting. lt is also said that the old
verb means "swell, be prominent or protrude"),
eagle breaks off an overgrown beak and grows a used also substantively for a beaten path. In tak-
new one, moulting also during this process, and
ing such an approach, said lexicons then consider
the ancients held a popular belief that an eagle
the feminine form which occurs in Prov 12:28 to
could fly up to the sun, singe its feathers, then
modify "way" (derek), i.e., "a well-trodden
plunge into the sea to revive itself. way." Highly noteworthy is the fact that these
See "Birds of the Bible" in NBD and Flora two terms occur only in poetic (including the
and Fauna of the Bible (United Bible Societies). prophetic writings) passages. All five (or six-~ee
The superb protection and care of the Lord for above) occurrences of the shorter word are hm-
Israel is appropriately likened to that of a nesher
ited to Job and Ps, and the more widespread
(Ex 19:4-6; Deut 32: 11-13). Their nests are built n'tibä is found only in the Song of Deborah (Jud
on inaccessible ledges with great skill, and the 5), Job, Ps, Prov, and the writings of three
parent bird guards it with great ferocity some- prophets.
times by using its talons and beak. lt also takes The path or track referred to by nätib in Job
care of its young by shielding the nestlings from 28:7 and 41:32 (H 24] is a physical one, though in
too much sun and warming them when a cold the latter case it is produced on the surface of
wind blows, and feeding them until they are large water. A more figurative usage is found in Job
enough to fly. Then the parent stirs up the nest 18:10, where a trap is sei in the path of the
and lures the fledglings out of it for their first wicked, and in Ps 78:50, which describes God as
flight. Sometimes the adult birds hover over them smoothing a way for his anger to strike the Egyp-
and flutter encouragingly around them. When the tians. Psalm 119:35 affords an excellent example
poet, however, speaks of the nesher b~aring the of the use of this term, with a patently seif-
young, he is speaking phenomenolog1cally, for evident sense, "Make me to go in the path of thy
the fledglings only appear to be carried at times commandments; for !herein do I delight. ..
on a parent's wings but there is no reliable report Similarly, a n • tibä is a (foot-) path or way
of any bird actually flying with a smaller bird on which one travels physically or morally. This
its back. noun is often used in parallel with the more com-
David likened the speed of Saul and Jonathan mon and prosaic derek (q.v.) in the sense of a
to the nesher and may have had in mind the gol- course of life, especially one which is of God's
den eagle which pressing its wings against its appointment, as in lsa 42: 16. lt spe3:ks of moral
sides, power dives from great heights upon its character or action, either good (of w1sdom, Prov
victim usually taking it by surprise and striking it 3: 17; justice, Prov 8:20; light, Job 24: 13) or
dead in an instant with its powerful, sharp talons wicked (Prov 1: 15: lsa 59:8, such as that of the
(II Sam 1:23). Jeremiah wamed of a foe that adulteress. in (Prov 7:25). "Bypath" definitely
would approach with the speed of an eagle (Jer captures the sense of Jer 18:15.
4: 13; cf. Hab 1:8) and Job lamented that his days The closest synonym to these two terms would
go by like an eagle swooping on its prey (Job be 'örah, also poetic for path or way, while much
9:25-26). Timed by a stop watch a golden eagle more distinctive would be ma'gäl "track. ruf'
chased by peregrine falcons achieved a speed of and m • si/lci „ highway, embankment."
120miles per hour (A. Parmelee, All the Birds of M.C.F.
the Bible, 1969, p. 200).
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Birds in t_he
Old Testament," PEQ 68: 5-20. "Once Agam: 1441 *MN (nätalJ) cut, cut in pieces, divide.
Birds in the Bible," PEQ 90: 56ff. Parmelee, A.,
All the Birds of the Bible, 1969. Candale, G. S., in Derivative
NBD, pp. 154-57. 1441a tnN (netalJ) piece.
M.C.F.
Found only nine times in the OT, always in the
1438 r,w: (näshat) be dry, parched (e.g. Isa Piel (intensive) stem, this verb occurs with its
-41:17; 19:5; Jer 18:14). cognate noun (see derivative, immediately be-
low) in each of the cases where it is rendered,
1439 111'\W:(nisht•wän) letter (Ezra4:7; 7:11, simply, cut or divide. Conversely, wherever the
'· 0 ~iy). Probably a loan word from Persian. noun does not occur in the Heb text the transla-

607
1442 t'!!,N (nätak)

tion of the verbis expanded to "cut into pieces" cited affords a marvelous play on sounds and
as being its full intent. meanings. The repetitive, "As ... melted in the
midst ... so ... melted in the midst" has an
netah. Piece. ASV and Rsv have "piece·· in
added impressiveness because of the similarity of
every instance. and they employ for the over- the Hebrew terms for "melted" and "midst,"
specific "his pieces" (passim), "its pieces, piece though they are etymologically unrelated. Yet
by piece.'' or simply drop the possessive. These
when he goes on to say, · · I the LoRDhave poured
two versions also express piece by piece (Ezk out my fury upon you," he apparently intends to
24:6) more vividly. "piece after piece."
strike the attention of the listener by not employ-
Mainly used of animal (in only one case of hu-
ing the cognate verb nätak (elsewhere used many
man) carcasses, the notion of these words is
times for the pouring out of fury, wrath, or a
clearly that of dismemberment. Thus the account curse), but rather the synonym shiipak.
of the Levite's dividing the corpse of his abused M.C.F.
concubine into twelve parts for notification of the
tri bes is rendered by the Asv. Rsv · · he divided her, 1443 *1N (niitan) give.
limb by limb" for the expression "he divided her
according to her bones" in the original_ (Jud Derivatives
19:29). Sacrificial procedure is involved m the
1443a tc•J•r,J (n'tinim) Nethinim.
more common use of the term, as in Elijah's
1443b tir-,~ · (mattä11) gift.
0

preparations on Mount Carmel (1 Kgs 18:33) and

in a few references in Ex and Lev, but Saul also
1443c t.i:ri~ (mattiinii) gift.
1443d tl"\Fr;,-(mattat) gift, reward.
sent a message throughout the tribes, accom-
panied by the pieces of a slaughtered pair of Considering the extensive use of this verb,
oxen, while Ezekiel presents a vivid picture of some 2,000 times (mostly in the Qal stem), it is
the doom of Jerusalem by describing meat in a not surprising to find a great variety of meanings
caldron (Ezk 24:4, 6). given in translation. In addition to its basic and
M.C.F. most frequent sense of give, we find in the KJV
such renderings as set, commit, put, lay, fasten,
hang, make (to be something), appoint, suffer
:)'l"IJ (niitib). See no. 1440a.
(=allow), bestow, deliver, send, pay, turn,
C'?t1~(n'tinim). See no. 1443a.
thrust, strike, cast (lots): passive uses adding be
taken/gotten. Asv largely concurs with KJVbut
1442 tiru (niitak) be poured, drop (of rain), be with a tendency to simplify, replacing terms like
;,;elted or molten. "commit, strike, fasten" with "put" and "de-
liver" with "give." RSV,besides following the
Derivative last example cited under ASV,adds further variety
1442a t"!U'l:i (hittük) a melting (Ezk 22:22, by using "permit'' for "suffer," "place" for "de-
only). liver," "store" for "lay up," "attach" for "fas-
ten," and "spend" for "bestow (money)," etc.
The passage mentioning rain (II Sam 21: 10),
Phonetically speaking, this verb is unstable or
ASVrenders "be poured" and Rsv "fall upon,"
weak in the sense of its frequent loss by outright
with both of them changing "gather" to "empty elimi~ation or by assimilation to an adjacent con-
out" (money from a cash box, in II Kgs 22:9).
sonant of either one or both n's. An infinitive
Etymologically, the most revealing cognates form is tet, for example, while the Ugaritic cog-
are the Akkadian verb natiiku "tlow, drip"' and nate is ytn. This means that only the t is constant,
the Ugaritic ntk "pour" (UT 19: no. 1716). The
and even that is replaced by its voiced counter-
Hebrew usage is basically "pour forth, be poured
part in the Akkadian cognate, nadiinu. T~is d ~cf.
out, .. with a specialized sense found in the tran- Egyptian fr]di "give"'l) suggests a poss1ble lmk
sitivizing force of the Hiphil stem, where context
between this verb and the noun yäd "hand," to
calls for it, of ··melt." (Twice, also due to de-
which can be compared Ethiopic 'id, Arabic yad
mand of context, the passive Niphal is so ren-
and perhaps Egyptian djrt (in which language the
dered, in Ezk 22:21 and 24:11.)
familiar hieroglyphic symbol of a mitt-like hand
Such things as water (above), groans (Job
represents the letter d). Every meaning given this
3:24), divine wrath (II Chr 12:7; 34:25, etc.), and
verb can in fact be seen as a literal or figurative
curses (Dan 9: 11) are poured forth, andin an in-
action of the hand.
teresting figure for death Job asks God if he has The three broad areas of meaning of the verb
not indeed "poured me out as milk?" (Job 10:10).
niitan are 1) give, 2) put or set, and 3) make or
hittuk. Occurring only once (Ezk 22:22), this constitute. The other terms used in translation
noun "a melting" is translated "(As silver) is are extensions or variations of these. For exam-
melted" in all three versions. ple, give may be anything from physically hand-
Ezekiel's choice of words in the verse just ing a present, reward, person, or document to

608
 1446 fN (näta~)

another to the less tangible granting or bestowal 3:31), and still others lived in other cities, proba-
of blessing, compassion, permission, and the bly Levitical ones (Neh 7:72).
like. lnanimate objects may also ·•give"-as tree The term n • tinim is a variant of n • tunim, the
or land yielding fruit; birds, lions, and clouds "ut- latter used of the Levites as ·•given over" (both
ter" their appropriate sounds; even the wine by God and by the lsraelites) to the service of the
··sparkles" in the cup (lit., "gives its eye"). God tabernacle (Num 3:9; 8:16, 19). But not only is
himself is often the giver: of rain (Lev 26:4, Deut the vocalization of the word modified (apparently
11:14), ofgrass forcattle (Deut 11:15), as weil as a simple matter of vowel harmony in common
granting preservation of life (as a ··prize of war" utterance), the class designated by n'tinim is
Jer 45:5, Rsv) or sending the plague of hail on often specified as distinct from priests, Levites,
Egypt (Ex 9:23). The infrequent synonym yähab and porters (see Neh 10:28 [H 29]).
means "give," but it too connotes ··p]ace," Ezra 8:20 teils of the appointment of the
"put" when used of David's orders concerning Nethinim by David and the princes of Israel for
Uriah (II Sam 11:15). In Hebrew this verb yähab service of the Levites. They were assigned me-
is only used in the Qal impv., more broadly in nial tasks about the temple precincts, with only
Aram. the "descendants of Solomon's servants" com-
In its sense of put, place, set, appoint, nätan is ing lower on the social scale among returnees
in close parallel to the more specific terms sfm from exile, according to Ezra's listing (see 2:58).
and shft. This putting may be literal, as placing a The precedent, at least, for such perpetual con-
ring on the hand, a helmet on the head, or a pris- signment to religious servitude dates very early.
oner into the stocks. lt is so used in Deut 15:17, Moses gave orders concerning the captive
for putting the awl into (i.e. through) the ear into Midianites, that of the half designated for the
the door, thus pinning the ear temporarily to the people in general, one in fifty was to be given
door. More figurative uses include God's putting ··unto the Levites, that keep the charge of the
his spirit "upon" the Servant (lsa 42: 1), reproach tabernacle of Yahweh" (Num 31:30). And soon
upon sinful people (Jer 23:40), curses on enemies after, Joshua punished the wily Gibeonites by
(Deut 30:7), or his majesty above the heavens (Ps making them "hewers of wood and drawers of
8: 1 [H 2]). lmposition of the temple tax is treated water for the congregation, and for the altar of
in Neh 10:32 [H 33], laying a siege against a Jehovah" (Josh 9:27).
(model) city in Ezk 4:2.
mattän. Gift, in its five occurrences.
As for the third usage of this versatile verb, lsa
3:4 speaks of installing boys as their princes, Ex mattäna. This word also is nearly invariably
23:27 of making enemies ··backs,·• and Jer 9:10 gift, with both ASVand Rsv substituting bribe in
[H 10] of Jerusalem's being made ruinheaps. Prov 15:27 and Eccl 7:7 for contextual reasons.
n•tinim. Nethinims (corrected to "Nethinim'· mattat. Gift, reward, with idiom "gift of his
in ASV,but uniformly translated · 'temple ser- hand'' being rendered ··able to give, ·· similarly in
vants" by RSV,with occasional footnote: Hebrew all the versions.
nethinim ). Meaning, properly, "those given" (to An interesting passage using mattat is Prov
service of the sanctuary), either the ASVor RSV 25:14, in the Rsv, '"(boasts of) a gift he does not
rendering is acceptable. give.·· This cciuld imply that either he has failed
In the LXX n • tfnim is translated literally, ··the to keep a promise or has made a false claim to
given (ones)," but Josephus employed a Greek generosity. (Somewhat similarly, the apocryphal
term meaning "sacred slaves." That they were Ecclesiasticus contains a reference to mattän as
rather numerous is indicated by the fact that they "[life of] a beggar," a parasite, in 40:28.) Several
helped comprise a group of 392 servants who ac- names including Matthew, are derived from this
companied Zerubbabel to Jerusalem in 538 e.c. root.
(Ezr 2:58), and then later, at the request of Ezra, Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 117-41.
220 Nethinim accompanied 38 Levites from the
Jewish colony at Casiphia (Ezr 8: 16-20). Though, 1444 CN (nätas) tear or break down (Job
as mentioned above, Nethinim are carefully dis- 30:13, only).
tinguished from the Levites (being quite likely
aliens who became incorporated into the congre- 1445 *t.'N (näta') break, break down or out
gation of Israel), Ezra 7:24 shows they shared in (Job 4: 10, Niphal, only).
the tax exemption enjoyed by all priests and Le-
vites. 1446 TN (näta~) break I cast I throw I pull /
The fact of their living in a special quarter on beat down; destroy, overthrow; break out
Ophel near the water gate, which led to the Gihon (teeth). Since these equivalents are actu-
spring, may indicate that they carried water up to ally so close in significance, there is a
the temple mount (Neh 3:26). Not all Nethinim of rather free fluctuation of variants when it
Jerusalem lived in that quarter, however (cf. Neh comes to comparing the other English ver-

609
1447 i'N (nätaq)

sions. Typical is the substitution of "break as an ·attempt to purify God's people (6:29), while
down·· by ASVand ··tear down'' by RSVfor Bildad the Shuhite speaks of the confidence of
the "ovenhrow" of Deut 12:3. the wicked man being "rooted out" from his tent,
in Job 18:14.
Since this root is found mostly in the Qal stem
and only rarely in the Piel (intensive), it can be neteq. Scall (o/ leprosy) of the KJVand ASVis
assumed that the force is a strong one even in the replaced by "itch" or "itching disease" in the
former. The verb is generally employed quite lit- Rsv. Its occurrences in the Bible are limited to
erally, for pulling down of a structure such as an Lev 13:30-37 and 14:54. Designated as the major
altar, a house, a city wall, or a tower, but it lends symptom of "leprosy," its use here derives from
itself weil to figurative use also-for the breaking the idea of something which a sufferer desires to
of the power of a nation or destruction of the life scratch or tear away. Needless to say, this is
of an individual (Job 19:10). highly indicative of the likelihood that üT "lep-
ldeally suited to demonstrate contextually the rosy" was a condition distinct from the Hansen's
use of this verb is the familiar statement in the Disease that generally goes by that name today
commissioning of Jeremiah (in 1: 10) that he was (see ~ara'at). lt refers to any infectious disease
to „ root out, and to pull down, and to destroy, with symptoms of rash or itching such as
and to throw down ... measles, smallpox, etc., some of which were se-
M.C.F. rious, some not. For all, isolation was prescribed.
M.C.F.
1447 i'N (nätaq) draw out, pluck up, break, lift,
root out. 1448 '1N (nätar) l,springorstartup (e.g.Job
37:1; Lev 11:21: Hab 3:6).
Derivative
1447a t;,N (neteq) scall (of leprosy). 1449 *'1N (nätar) II, loose, let loose (hand), undo.
This forceful word paints the action in quite a While BOB and other lexicons in the Gesenius
few narratives and also furnishes some vivid fig- tradition distinguish this verb root from a nätar
ures. lts Arabic cognate, in addition to the equiv- "spring / stan up," KB treats the two senses
alent meanings "pull off, draw out,., has an under one listing. Since the root II isolated for
added sense, "shake." The noun derivative of treatment here occurs only in the Hiphil (causa-
this verb (below) is both limited and unpleasant in tive or transitivizing) stem, however, a once
use. common term may have with time become di-
A vividly literal usage ofthe verb nätaq occurs vided into two senses. A possible Arabic cognate
in the account of the attack of the lsraelites on natara "rend" (garment), "break" (bowstring)
the Benjaminites at Gibeah. The troops of the could relate to either a loosing or springing
former decided to pretend to flee in order to draw (snapping?).
them out from the city into the highways, where Setting free a captive (compare the semantic
they would be vulnerable (Jud 20:32). A simple development in the American colloquial "spring-
withdrawal ofthe soles ofthe feet onto dry land is ing a prisoner" .) is involved in Ps 105:20 and
described in Josh 4: 18, while the motion of draw- 146:7, while lsa 58:6 speaks of unfastening thongs
ing a ring off the finger is involved in Jer 22:24, a of a yoke, in parallel with pätah "open, loosen,
figure of God's rejection of the King of Judah. A free" wicked bonds. The parallelism is farther
favorite figurative expression among the proph- extended and reenforced in the latter verse by the
ets, ponraying the uprooting of the people for use of a couplet-"send" the oppressed free and
captivity, is the snapping of the tent cords (lsa "break" (see nätaq, above) every yoke. A dra-
33:20; Jer 10:20), and the picture of a relentless matically figurative force is found in Job 6:9,
army is enhanced by the mention of sandal where he prays thus for death, "that he would let
thongs which hold fast (unbroken) in Isa 5:27. loose his hand and cut me off."
Similarly, Eccl 4: 12 reminds us that a threefold M.C.F.
cord is not easily broken. Other figurative refer-
ences to broken bonds occur in Nah 1:13; Jer 2:20 1450 irq (neter) soda.
and 5:5, as weil as in the very famous context,
Ps 2:3. This word is a loan word from Egyptian and
There are still other places where this term af- not related to a root nätar. lt was the name for
fords an extremely vivid figure. "Pull them out the material collected from the alkaline lakes of
like sheep for the slaughter,' · crys Jeremiah Egypt. This valuable ancient chemical was widely
( 12:3) of the wicked in Israel, while Ezekiel de- used and its name borrowed into Akk. as nitiru,
scribes Jerusalem as a drunken harlot tearing at into Gk. as natron, into Latin as nitrum. From
her breasts (23:34). The concept of separation en- this word comes the chemical symbol Na for so-
ters into Jeremiah's use of the smelting process dium. Egypt was the source of soda for the world

610
 1451 Wt,J (nätash)

until Napoleon saw its value and offered a prize Not included in the above catalog are the ren-
which resulted in modern methods of synthesis. derings of niitash in Jer 18: 14, where the verb
In Old English two kinds of ·•niter" were dis- appears in the Niphal (passive) stem. The ASV
tinguished, soda niter and gun powder niter (po- says, "shall the cold flowing waters that come
tassium nitrate, a totally different chemical). from another place be forsaken. ·· (So translated
Modem English has changed the soda niter to due to parallel verb 'iizab, q.v. at the beginning
plain soda. The Av "niter" was doubtless intended of the verse.) ASVhas "dried up," and Rsv "run
to mean the soda niter used widely as a cleanser dry." Such a translation assumes a textual cor-
(washing soda, sodium carbonate). ruption by metathesis from niishat "fail" (i.e. be
Natron was used in ancient times in the em- dry, parched), a verb used in lsa 19:5 in parallel
balming process, as a cleansing agent and as an with /Jiirab and yäbash, both "dry up." The
ingredient in ceramic pastes, where powdered "plucking up" of a river is a possible figure,
quartz paste of the faience combined with the though a very strong one.
soda solution to make an attractive glazed surface lt is the idolatrous Asherim (KJV"groves") that
(sodium silicate with other silicates makes glass). are to be plucked up in Mic 5: 14 [H 13], but the
lt is as a cleansing agent that Jeremiah mentions term is mainly used with God as subject and na-
it (2:22), in parallel with börit, a vegetable alkali. tions or peoples as object: Deut 29:28 [H 27]:
Although the RSVprefers the LXX translation I Kgs 14: 15: II Chr 7:20: Jer 12: 14. The twelfth
"wound" in Prov 25:22 (possibly reading neteq, chapter of Jeremiah provides the key passage
q. v. above), the reference to vinegar on soda with (vv. 14-17) for the study of this verb, occurring
its violent effervescence and release of carbon here five of the thirteen times it is used by this
dioxide is a perfectly reasonable figure of incom- prophet. (Jeremiah employs niitash more than all
patibility. Some suggest lye in this verse, but vine- its other occurrences combined.) In Jer 1:10 the
gar on lye would have no visible result unless the usage is in parallel with näla$ "break / throw
lye were more pure than would be expected in down" (q.v.).
ancient times. Vinegar would have no more visi- The verb is used frequently with reference to
ble effect on lye than ordinary water would have. the Lord's work of destroying evil nations: of
R.L.H. Israel (Deut 29:28 [H 27]; II Chr 7:20) and of her
neighbors (Jer 12:14-15, 17). In the case oflsrael,
1451 W,N (niitash) root out, pluck up (by the however, he promises that after judgment he will
roots), destroy. (The last expression, pluck them up no more (Jer 31:28: Arnos 9:15):
found only once in KJV,with cities as ob- andin the case ofthe nations, he promises not to
ject, is rendered "overthrow," in ASV, carry out bis threat if they repent (Jer 18:7).
.. root out'' in Rsv.) M.C.F .

611
1452 :'ltll?(s'
'a) a measure of flour, grain, spiritual bankruptcy and harlotry, involving both
probably one-third ephah (q.v.; II Kgs 7: 1, priests and people.
18). For the evidence see AI, p. 200. See säbä'. Drunkard. The much debated crux
also Huey, F. B., "Weights and Mea- (Ezk 23:42) involving the nominal derivative
sures" in ZPEB, V, p. 917.
säbii' seems best understood as "drunkards" (so
ASV,Rsv: i.e. foreign idolators and revellers who
1453 11-11;1
(sii'an) tread, tramp. This de-
taught Israel further spiritual whoredom, ratber
nominative verb occurs only in Isa 9:4. than the KJV"Sabeans").
Parent Noun R.D.P.
1453a 1iMI? (s''ön) sandal, boot of
soldier (lsa 9:4, only).
1456 :=;i;, (sübab) turn (around, aside, back,
towards), go (about, around), encircle, sur-
1iMI? (s' 'bn). See no. 1453a.
round, change direction.
1454 *MCMC (se'se·) drive away. This verb Derivatives
occurs only once, in the Pilpel (lsa 27:8).
1456a t:,:c (sibba), :i:c~ (n' sibba)
'turn (of affairs)~ · ·
1455 K:=c (säbä') imbibe. Denominative
·;erb. 1456b t:=•;i;, (sübih ). :=i;,,~ surrounding,
round about.
Parent Noun 1456c t:=Q~ (mesah) round about.
1455a tK;:ic (söbe') wine, drink. The basic meaning ofthe root seems to involve
1455b tK~i;I (säbä') drunkard. the idea of tuming or going around; as such, it is
found also in Ugaritic and Aramaic (cf. Arabic
This denominative verb connotes the act of
sababun "rope"). A perhaps kindred root seems
heavy drinking, even of drunkenness. lt occurs in
to have been productive in Southeast Semitic (cf.
only four contexts. Deuteronomy 21 :20 involves
Tigre säbäbä "plait") and Akkadian (sabäbu
the case of an incorrigibly disobedient son who is "encircle").
brought to the town elders at the city gates for
The root occurs over 150 times, usually as a
stoning. The charges against the man are that he
simple verb of motion, whether of an individual
is stubbom, rebellious, debased, and drunken. (1 Sam 7: 16), a people (Josh 6:3), a door turning
The parallel with zölel (q.v.) implies that he is
on its hinges (Prov 26: 14), or the cycle of the
one who is contemptibly vile in his riotous be-
wind (Eccl 1:6).
havior.
Several figurative expressions occur, espe-
lsaiah (56: 12) laments that the supposed
cially in ethical or judicio-legal contexts. Thus, it
shepherds of the sheep, the leaders of Israel, are
is employed of the transferral of the kingdom to
givenover to open debauchery, thereby exposing
another (1 Kgs 2: 15: I Chr 10:14) or of the non-
their flocks to grave danger from the enemy.
transferability of inherited property between
Nahum ( 1:10) reports that the Assyrians of his
tribes in ancient Israel (Num 36:7, 9).
day were so satiated with their successes that
lt depicts God's judgment against sin, whether
they gave themselves to being like drunkards
sins of the heathen (Hab 2: 16) or of his own
(note that söbe' also occurs in this passage). The
people. Hosea (7:2) laments that Israel had gone
warning against riotous living (zölel) and drun-
so far as to surround herself with wickedness in
kenness (söbe') as leading to sloth and poverty
the very presence of the God who keeps ac-
seems weil taken (Prov 23:20-21). counts. Jeremiah (6: 12) foresees the severity of
söbe'. Wine, drink. (So Asv; Rsv in Hos 4:18, God's judgment on an equally wicked and unre-
"drunkards. ") pentant Judah.
The noun, söbe' meaning "fermented drink," säbab also characterizes the turning of one's
is probably cognate with Akkadian sabü, sibu mind so as to give attention to thorough investi-
"wheat beer" (cf. Arabic siba' "wine"). gation (Eccl 7:25). lt describes a changed mind or
söbe' describes the spiritual adultery of attitude, occasionally in great sorrow (1 Kgs 21:4;
Jerusalem (Isa l:21ff.). lsaiah's earlier contem- II Kgs 20:2). This changed mind can involve a
porary, Hosea (4: 18), likewise reports that the changed condition before God, whether for evil
northern kingdom is characterized by total (II Chr 29:6) or good (Ezr 6:22). From this, it

615
1457 i;l,;i (siibak)

becomes associated with repentance and restora- 1457b ,::il;) (s''bök) thicket (Ps 74:5: Jer
tion to favor after apostasy (1 Kgs 18:37). 4:7).
Closely following, is the idea of a change of
conditions or circumstan€es (II Sam 3:12: 14:20,
24: Jer 31:22), often indicated by changing the
1458 '?;;, (säbal) bear (Qal), drag oneself awng
(Hilhpael).
name of a person (II Kgs 23:34; 24: 17) or place
(Num 32:38). Derivatives
Whatever the conditions, even in the direst of
1458a t',;I;) (sehe(), '?;c (sobel) load,
circumstances, the most desperate "turn of af- · burden.
fairs, · · there can be seen the guiding control of a
1458b '?ZCI ( sabbii/) burden bearer.
sovereign God. No one but the believer can
1458c :,~~I;) (siblii) compulsory service,
understand this. Although he may be completely
burden bearing.
surrounded by enemies (Ps 17: 11: 109:3: 118:10-
1458d tr,7-lll;) (sibbolet) ear of grain.
12) or encompassed by sorrow or trials (II Sam
22:6), yet the believer who is pure of heart can be The primary meaning of this root is to "bear,"
confident that God will turn to comfort him (Ps "transport" (i.e. a heavy load). The root is also
71:20-21) so that God·s lovingkindness surrounds particularly productive in Aramaic/Syraic. Since
him with songs of deliverance (Ps 32:7, 10). the Akkadian zahälu is semantically equivalent
All of the foregoing tinds its füllest expression with sabälu and since the phonetic change sb>zb
and climax in the work of Messiah. Though his is known in the Semitic languages, it may be that
enemies would surround him like strong bulls and the two roots are derived from the same proto-
snarling dogs (Ps 22:12. 16 [H 13, 17)), yet he Semitic root.
would triumph over all the enemies of God and In contrast to the synonymous näsä' "lift up,"
man, redeeming his own and ruling over a ··bear/carry (away)," sähal lays stress on the
changed and revitalized earth (Zech 14:9-11 ). process of bearing or transporting a load (lsa
46:7), hence, becomes a figure of servitude (Gen
sibbä, n''sibbä. Turn of affairs. These
49:15).
synonyms (n''sihbil, II Chr 10:15), sihhii I Kgs
The root is also utilized in contexts which deal
12: 15) designate a turn of affairs arranged by
with the bearing of punishments or penalties.
God's sovereign disposition.
Jeremiah laments that the Jerusalemites have
säbib, mOsäb. Surrounding. .,ähih occurs in sinned as had their fathers, hence must bear the
several interesting contexts. The ritual of priestly penalty for violating God's covenant with thern
consecration involved sprinkling blood round (Lam 5:7). The most important context in which
about the altar (Ex 29: 16, 20) as did the sacrifice this root occurs is lsa 53:4-11. Here the coming
of the Levitical offerings (Lev 1:5, 11 etc. l. lt servant, Messiah, lifts up and takes upon himself
figures in lsrael's future when she will look man's sicknesses and bears the weight of his wor-
around at her God-given glory (lsa 60: 1-4). Until risome sorrows. Nothing could more graphically
then, she is to live as in the land of promise, portray the vicarious sacrificial work of Christ
resting in her deliverance (Deut 12: 10). who bore the penalty for man's sin so that man
may receive God's righteousness and stand jus-
müsäb. Perhaps refers to the side building sur-
tified before him.
rounding the temple (Ezk 41:7).
sebel. Load, burden, compulsory ser-
mesab. Round about. 11u\rnh refers to the
vice. Maybe denoting a laborer's basket, sehe/
carved walls of the temple (1 Kgs 6:29) and a is always used of corvee labor (e.g. I Kgs 11:28).
round table (Song 1: 12). Its most interesting oc-
sebel details those things which rested upon ls-
currence is in Ps 140:9 [H 10] which Dahood (AB.
rael' s shoulders like a heavy burden: her sin (lsa
Psalms III. pp. 303-304) translates, "The mis-
9:3) and her oppressor. Assyria (lsa l0:27: 14:25).
chief maker who surrounds me, may the poison
of their Iips drown them !.. sabbäl. Burden bearer (a name of a function).
R.D.P. Denotes either a basket carrier (Neh 4: 10 [H 4:4])
or corvee master (II Chr 34: 13).
:i~CI (sihhil). See no. 1456a.
siblä. Compulsory service, burden bear-
::i•;;, (sähih). See no. 1456b.
ing. Used of compulsory burdensome toil, such
as was Jaid upon the Hebrews in Egypt (Ex 1:11,
1457 i;;, (säha/.:.) interweave (Nah 1:10: Job
etc.).
8: 17).
sibbölet. An Ephraimite pronunciation of the
Derivatives common Semitic Jihhölet "ear of grain" (Job
1457a i;; (s''ha/.:.) thicket (Gen 22:13: 24:24), or "tlowing stream" (Ps 69:2 [H 31).
Isa 9:17: 10:34). The lest given by Jepthah's soldiers (Jud 12:6)

616
 1462 ,~;, (sagar)

probably hinges on the pronunciation of sh (shin) 1462 '1~ljl (siigar) I, shut, c/,ose.
vs. s, (sin) here written s (samekh) the next Derivatives
nearest phoneme. Speiser suggested also that in
the days of Judges, the phoneme sh was pro- 1462a t'1iJI? (s' gör) enclosure.
nounced as a soft t (1) so the difference then 1462b ,;~c (sügar) cage with hooks.
would have been the lisping pronunciation of s as 1462c t'1Jl;'I; (masger) enclosure, dun-
th (E. A. Speiser, "The Shibboleth Incident geon, builder of bulwarks.
(Judges 12:6)," in Oriental and Biblical Studies, 1462d tr,.,~i;,~ (misgeret) border, rim.
Univ of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 143-50). The primary meaning of the root, found in the
R.D.P. basic stem, is also known in Ugaritic, Biblical
Aramaic, and Ethiopic. The ideas "deliver up,"
1"17lll;)
(sibbölet). See no. 1458d. "hand over," "abandon," found in the derived
stems, are known in other West Semitic dialects
1459 '!:ljl (siigad) prostrate oneself in (e.g. Syriac, Phoenician). The root has been re-
worship (Used only in lsa 44:15, 17, 19; lated to Akkadian sekeru "stop," "dam up,"
46:6). "shut up/off," a word found with similar mean-
A common verb in Aramaic and possibly a loan ings also in Hebrew. While J. V. K. Wilson
word in Hebrew. lt seems to indicate a position ("Hebrew and Akkadian Philological Notes,"
Journal of Semitic Studies 7: 179-80) may be right
of prostration in prayer. The Arabic masgid
means "mosque." For other words on bowing in insisting that the East Semitic skr "dam up" is
to be separated from West Semitic sgr "close
down see kiira ·.
up," it is interesting to note that in ancient
'1iJI? (s• gör). See no. 1462a. Aramaic skr carries a similar range of meanings
to Hebrew sgr and that Arabic sakara can be
1460 J:,Jc (sg/). Assumed root of the following. used both of shutting doors and damming
1460a :-i,Jc (s'gülla) property, possession. streams. This root is to be distinguished from
'(~1v "speciaVpeculiar [treasure]. ") another sgr known in Arabic and lying behind the
Hebrew sagrir "steady rain."
The basic meaning of this noun is "personal The root sgr is often employed for the act of
property." Weil attested in Hebrew, Ugaritic, shutting doors or gates (e.g. Gen 19:6, 10; Josh
and Aramaic, the Akkadian sakiilu, "to acquire 6: 1) or closing up a breach in a wall (1 Kgs 11:27).
property" and sikiltum "(personal) property" lt also has many specialized uses. Thus, the shut-
are also doubtless related. While the word occurs ting of the womb pictures non-conception (1 Sam
only eight times, it is filled with theological and 1:5-6; cf. Job 3: 10). At times, it can portray a
spiritual treasures. Qoheleth reports that the ac- hostile, arrogant, greedy, or indifferent attitude.
cumulation of the finest of personal possessions The Psalmist (Ps 17:10) prays for deliverance
is sheer vanity. Those who fear the Lord become from his enemies whose insensitivity has shut
his peculiar possessions whom he will never them up to an arrogance that is bent on the de-
forget, even in that time of great judgment (Mal struction of others.
3:16-18). An individual or group of people can be shut up
Israel was God's personal possession (Ps to unfortunate circumstances. For example, Saul
135:4).Moses reminded Israel that God chose her believes that David has shut himselfup within the
and redeemed her from bondage not because of easily besieged Judean town of Keilah (1 Sam
her goodness, but solely because he loved her 23:7). The root then depicts the conditions or re-
and was faithful to the promises given to the pa- sult of a siege (lsa 24: 10; Jer 13: 19).
triarchs. Israel should reflect God' s holiness and The derived stems carry the idea of shutting
live out his commandments (Deut 14:2ff.), re- someone or something into the hand of someone/
flecting his Standards in a life of wholehearted thing eise (1 Sam 23:20; Ps 78:48, 50). Even God's
compliance with the terms of the covenant made own can, because of sin, be delivered over to the
at Sinai (Ex 19:5-6) and renewed at their entrance enemy (Ps 78:62; Lam 2:7; Arnos 6:8).
into Canaan. Then would they have good success The word is utilized in contexts which make it
(Deut 26: 16-19). So it should be with all believ- clear that God himself is in sovereign control of
ers. These verses from Deut are doubtless al- the circumstances oflife (Job 11:10; 12:14), guid-
luded to in Tit 2: 14 and I Pet 2:9. ing the events of history (lsa 45: 1) to their proper
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 142-43. end, when his enemies will be judged (lsa 24:22)
R.D.P and a glorified and prosperous Zion will stand
serenely secure with unclosed gates.
1461 t 1ijl (siigiin) l~~
(segen) prefect, a sub- Accordingly, men ought to shut themselves up
ordinate ruler (e.g. Ezk 23:6; Jer 51:23). to God's will and plan for their lives (lsa 26:20;
Probably a loan word from Akkadian. Ezk 3:24).

617
1463 ,~c (sgr)
s"gör. Enclosure. Occurs validly only in Hos Sodom was apparently located in a fertile area,
13:8, where it is used of Israel's heart enclosure as evidenced by Lot's choice of it as his dwelling
(KJV caul in the Old English sense of "cap," place (Gen 13:!Off.). lt no doubt became an im-
"cover," or "surrounding membrane") torn portant commercial center and therefore the
open and devoured by the divine displeasure. coveted object of powerful kings, a factor which
The other proposed occurrence, Job 28: 15, may lie behind the famous battle described in
should be related to the Akkadian sag/kru, He- Gen 14. Jts precise location is quite uncertain.
brew siigur (q.v.) the shortened form of Akk. Some have held that it is covered by the shallow
hurii~u sakru "pure gold." waters in the southern embayment of the Dead
Sea (J. P. Harland, "Sodom and Gomorrah," BA
sugar. Cage with hooks. (Cf. Akkadian sigaru
VI, 1943, pp. 41-52). The view that the hill site
"cage.") Depicts a "cage with hooks" with
Bäb ed Dhrä' was a shrine of the cities of the
which Jehoiachin like a caged lion was brought to
plain is defended by Paul Lapp ("Bäb ed Dhrä'
Nebuchadnezzar (Ezk 19:9).
Tomb A 76," BASOR 189: p. 14). See Smick,
masger. Enclosure, dungeon, builder of bul- Archaeology of the Jordan Valley, pp. 48-51. For
warks. This noun hides two roots: (1) From Ak- Sodom in the Ebla Tablets, see Freedman, D. N.,
kadian sigaru, a loan word from Sumerian sigar BA 41:149-159.
"door with a bar" (cf. Egyptian likar "fortified Sodom is best remembered, however (together
gateway;" (2) From Akkadian sekeru (see with Gomorrah), as a standing example of God's
above); the former is (masger) is used figura- judgment against unbridled sin (Gen 18-19; cf.
tively to depict the imprisonment of God's II Pet 2:6; Jude 7). Accordingly, Moses warned
enemies (lsa 24:22) and the release of his people Israel that apostasy can bring on destructions of a
from spiritual bondage (lsa 42:7 cf. Ps 142:7 like intensity (Deut 29:22; cf. 32:32). The
[H 8]). The latter denotes the artisans or en- prophets repeatedly compared lsrael's wanton
gineers, who were carried off into exile, who sin and apostasy to the sin of Sodom (lsa 1: 19ff.;
could have provided defense bulwarks against 3:9; Jer 23: 14; Lam 4:6; Ezk 16:46ff.; Arnos 4: 11).
the captors (II Kgs 24: 14, 16; Jer 24: 1; 29:2). Had not the Lord left a remnant in Israel, they
misgeret. Border, rim, fortress. misgeret is would have utterly perished as Sodom and
Gomorrah (lsa 1:9). But only in two places is the
also employed with two meanings: (1) "for-
tress," "bulwark" (II Sam 22:46; Mic 7:17) and destruction of Admah and Zeboim the smaller
(2) "border," "rim," forming some part of the cities of the plain mentioned-Deut 29:23 [H 22]
table of showbread (Ex 25:25, 27; 37:12, 14) and and Hosea 11:8. lt would seem that Hosea was
of the wheeled vessels of Solomon's temple referring to the book of Deuteronomy !
Jesus similarly characterized his hearers (Lk
(1 Kgs 7:28ff.; II Kgs 16:17).
10: 12) and predicted that at his return the world
Bibliography: Marrassini, Paolo, Formazione
would be as in the days of Sodom and Gomorrah
de/ /essico del/' edi/izia militare nel semitico di
(Lk 17:29f.).
Siria, Florence: University Press, 1971, pp.
Sodom and Gomorrah are mentioned in the re-
68-70.
cently found Ebla tablets according to prelimi-
R.D.P.
nary reports. Apparently they were at various
times in alliance with the great kingdom to the
1463 iJC (sgr) II. Assumed root of the follow- north. This may give a logical reason for the raid
ing. of the eastern kings against the southern cities in
1463a i•-:,~Q (sagrir) steady, persistent the somewhat later times of Abraham.
rain (Prov 27: 15). Bibliography: Smick, E. B., Archaeology of
the Jordan Valley, Baker, 1973.
i•-:,~Q (sagrir). See no. 1463a. R.D.P

1464 iQ (sad) stocks, for confining feet of 1466 1'".lQ(sadin) linen wrapper, cloak (Prov
culprits (Job 13:27; 33: 11). Probably 31 :24; Jud 14: 12-13; Isa 3:23).
these were not wooden blocks in the form
of stocks of colonial days, but more gener-
ally shackles around the ankles. 1467 ,,c (sdr). Assumed root of the followlng.
1467a ij!;) (seder) a"angement, order
.(Job 10:22).
1465 c,i;:, (s'dom) · Sodom.
1467b :,iivt (s'dera) tow, rank of sol•
A city on the southern end of the Dead Sea, it ·d~rs (II Kgs 11: 15= II Chr 23: 14),
ma:-ked the southeastern geographical limits of architectural term (1 Kgs 6:9).
the Canaanites on a boundary which started from 1467c 1i,,i;:,~ (misd' ron) porch, colon-
Gaza on the southwest. nade (Jud 3:23), meaning uncertain.

618
 1474 '!!1C(sük)

1468 ,:ic (shr). Assumed root of the following. who give their advice (Ps 55:14 [H 15]; 83:3
1468a ,:,;, (sahar) roundness (Song [H 4)). Hopefully, such friends will never stand
7:3). against a man (Job 19:19) or reveal confidences
1468b ,:,·c (söhar) roundness. Occurs (Prov 11:13; 20:19; 25:9).
only in phrase bet-hassöhar "the The wise and upright man who walks in the
roundhouse," name of a prison. fear of the Lord will have God's secret counsel
(Ps 25: 14; Prov 3:32; Arnos 3:7; cf. Job 15:8:
1469 l~C (sug) l, move, go, turn back. 29:4). He will associate himself with others who
likewise fear God (Ps 89:7 [H 8)) and sing his
Derivative praises (Ps 111:1). He will disassociate himself
1469a tl~C (sug), l'I;) (sig) dross. (Note from evildoers (Gen 49:6; Jer 15:17) and pray for
by-form l'~ (sig) "movement. ") deliverance from their evil machinations (Ps 64:2
The primary meaning of the root is "turn [H 3)). God himself will oppose wicked councils
back." lt may be cognate with Arabic saja "go (Jer 23: 18-22) and pour out his wrath upon their
and come." A second root (cf. the by-form sug members (Jer 6: 11) so that they have no place
(Isa 17:II) is probably tobe distinguished in Song among the assembly of the righteous (Ezk 13:9).
7:3, meaning "to fence," a root known also in Bibliography: Thomas, D. W., "The Interpre-
Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic. tation of b'sod in Job 29:4," JBL 65:63-66.
The root is usually employed in hostile con- THAT, II, pp. 144-47.
texts. Thus, Jeremiah predicts that Zedekiah's 1472 :i,c (swh ). Assumed root of the following.
friends will ultimately turn back from him (38:22) 1472a .r,~c (sut) vesture (Gen 49: 11,
and that Egypt, far from being a help to him, will only).
itselffall back before the forces of Nebuchadnez- 1472b :,~i;,i; (masweh) veil (Ex 34:33,
zar (46:5). Isaiah (42: 17) and Zephaniah (1 :6) . only).
prophesy that the apostate idolators will be
turned back and thoroughly shamed. 1473 nie (swh). Assumed root of the following.
The Psalmist (Ps 53:3 [H 4)) avows that the 1473a :ii,~c (suha) of/al (lsa 5:25,
natural hean condition of the unregenerate man only).
is one of turning aside from God. Like an apos-
tate Israel, it is in need of divine intervention, if it 1474 '!!~C (suk) l, anoint.
is tobe saved (Ps 80: 14-19).
Derivative
sug, sig. Dross. Usually refer to that which is
1474a 'h~=~ ('äsuk) small oiljug.
turned away or skimmed off in the refining pro-
cess (i.e. "dross" or "oxide"; e.g. Isa 1:22, 25). The root means primarily "anoint," "pour, in
kesep sigim (Prov 26:23) "silver dross," can be anointing," a meaning found also in Akkadian
read k• sapsigi with enclitic mem, "as glaze," as säk. As a pouring, it differs from its most com-
in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 1792). The by-form sfgis mon synonym mäsahwhich includes the idea of
used euphemistically in I Kgs 18:27. "smearing" or "spreading."
R.D.P. This root is to be distinguished from the
homonymic suk II, "hedge in," (q.v.) and prob-
1470 ,~c(sug) Jl, /ence about (Song 7:3; Isa ably from still a third root (only Pilpel) meaning
"instigate," "incite" (cf. Tigrinya säsäkä,
17:11).
"move unceasingly," "stir"), found in lsa 9: 11
,~~=
(sugar). See no. 1462b. [H 10]; 19:2.
suk may be used of the ordinary physical pro-
1471 ,,c
(swd). Assumed root of the following.
cess of anointing the body with olive oil, particu-
larly after bathing (II Sam 12:20), for especially
1471a tiic (sod) counsel, council,
fragrant effect (Ruth 3:3). lt was often used for
assembly.(Rsv occasionally reads
"gatherings," "company. ") medicinal needs (Ezk 16:9; cf. Lk 10:34). A sym-
bol of gladness, it could be mark of hospitality
The primary meaning of the word is "confiden- and consideration (II Chr 28:15; cf. Lk 7:46).
tial speech" (cf. Arabic sä'wada "speak se- suk also designates the pouring of the purest
cretly"), hence, "counsel." The emphasis on and most fragrant anointing oils, specially mixed
confidentiality marks a distinction between this for holy use. This holy oil was reserved for Aaron
word and the more general 'e$il (q.v.) "advice," and his sons and for the sacred precincts where
"counsel." they ministered. The entire set of regulations is
The word stresses that intelligent counsel can replete with spiritual lessons for the New Testa-
be a key to good success (Prov 15:22). lt is ex- ment priesthood of believers (see II Cor 2:14-16:
tended to indicate a circle of trusted intimates I Pet 2:5-9).

619
1475 ,~o (suk)

'äsuk. Sma/1 oil jug. The derivative 'asük is war horse (Ezk 38:4, 15; 39:20); yet Israel will no
found only with regard to the cruse which the longer trust in horses (Hos 14:3 [H 4]), but in God
widow gave t..> Elisha (II Kgs 4:2). himself, for in the Day of the Lord all weaponry
R.D.P. will be useless (Zech 12:4).
The horse·s characteristics become examples
1475 iu:i (sük) 1/, hedge, fence about. to the believer to put away stubbomness (Jer
8:6), Just (Jer 5:8), and insubmissiveness (Prov
Derivative 26:3) and to put their trust in the Lord (Ps 20:7
1475a t:i;,11::1~ (m'sükii) hedge. [H 8]).
R.D.P.
The primary meaning of the word conveys the
idea of putting up a hedge or a fence. lt is to be
differentiated from two homonyms, one meaning 1478 *!111::1(süp) come to an end, cease.
"incite," .. instigate," found only in lsa 9: 10; 19:2 Derivatives
and the more common word "anoint" (see sük !).
sük II is probably a by-form of sük l "hedge in"
1478a e,;c:, (sop) end (synonymous with
(cf. m'sükii, hedge). qe~.Eccl 3:11; Joel 2:20).
1478b :i~,c:, (süpii) storm wind (e.g. Isa
The twin roots sük and sük are found but four
times in the oT (Job 1: 10; 3:23; 38:8; Hos 2:6 5:28; Hos 8:7).
[H 8]). They describe Job's being hedged about The basic meaning of this verb is reflected in
with good and God's control of the bounds of life ASV, RSV, whereas KJV has "be consumed." lt is
and history. used of God'sjudgment (Ps 73: 19; Jer 8: 13; Arnos
m•sükä. Hedge. The derivative occurs only 3:15), especially in the end of things (Isa 66:17;
once, as does m 'sükii. The writer of Proverbs Zeph 1:2f.), and of the unending annual obser-
(15:19) distinguishes between the way of the vation of Purim (Est 9:28).
righteous (hence industrious) man (which is like a R.D.P.
good highway where progress can be made) and
that of the lazy man, which is as a thom hedge 1479 ei,o (süp) reed, water plant. (KJV"flags,"
(m'sükii). Micah (7:4) laments the sinful corrup- "weeds"; ASV, Rsv "reeds," "weeds.")
tion of God' s people, noting that the best of them
This noun is primarily a general term for marsh
is no better than a thorn hedge (m'sükii).
plants. lt can also designate rushes (lsa 19:6),
R.D.P.
seaweed (Jon 2:5 [H 6]) or marsh reeds (Ex 2:3,
5). Etymologically, it is related to Egyptian rwfi
1476 1::110 (süs) l, swallow or swift (lsa 38:14: ··marsh plant," "papyrus."
Jer 8:7). The word enters prominently into the problem
of the route of the Exodus in the territory of yam
1477 o,c:, (süs) 1/, horse. (When feminine, süp "sea of reeds." In a narrow sense, this term
RSV = "mare";
:ir;i1c:, ASV = "steed. ") refers to the area of the Exodus crossing, possi-
This word for horse, which appears throughout bly either the Bitter Lakes (southem crossing) or
the Semitic family, is commonly taken to be of Lake Timsah (central crossing). More broadly, it
Indo-European origin (cf. päräsh "horse(man)," refers to the area including the modern Gulf of
"(war)-horse" and Egyptian ssmt "horse"). Suez (Num 33:1~11) and the Gulf of Aqaba
Though attested in the Fertile Crescent about (1 Kgs 9:26). The KJV "Red Sea" stems from the
LXX which included a still wider area. There is no
the beginning of the second millennium a.c., the
horse's frequency increased with its employment warrant for the idea that because Israel crossed
in the war chariots of the Indo-Aryan Mitanni the Sea of Reeds that the water was shallow and
during the Middle Bronze Period. From Syria- no miracle was involved. Any deep sea may have
Palestine in this period the horse and chariot reeds on its edge and both the Bitter Lakes and
were introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos. Lake Timsah are )arge and deep bodies of water.
The horse was commonly utilized for military Theologically, yam süp reminds the believer of
purposes (Ex 15: 19). Trade also flourished with the goodness ofGod (Neh 9:9) who has Ioosed his
horses (Gen 47:17; Ezk 27:14), Solomon, in par- people from bondage (Josh 24:6), leads his people
ticular, being a middleman in the horse and in triumph over their enemies (Ex 15:4, 22),
chariot business (1 Kgs 10:28-29). guides them through the wilderness experiences
Theologically, horses figure in the prophecies of life (Deut 2: 1) and has placed them in the land
o~ es~hatological times when the Davidic king of promised inheritance (Josh 4:23ff.).
will nde on horse and chariot before an obedient R.D.P.
and righteous people (Jer 17:25; 22:4). The es-
chatological battles are depicted in terms of the 1480 ,,c:, (sür) turn aside, depart.

620
 1483 :,1;11;(sä/Ja)

Derivative sara. Turning aside, defection, rebellion. The

derivative särä also deals with man's relation to
1480a t:i,i;, (särä) turning aside, defection.
God and is used in two ways: ( 1) of any moral or
The primary meaning of the root is "to turn legal defection (Deut 19:16) and (2) of distinct
aside." lt appears tobe a distinctively Northwest defection from God (Deut 13:5 [H 6]; lsa 31:6;
Semitic word, being attested particularly in He- 59: 13: Jer 28: 16; 29:32).
brew and Phoenician. Intransitive in the basic Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 148-49.
stem, it is accordingly frequently found with R.D.P.
many prepositions, yielding such ideas as "turn
aside from/into," and "withdraw from." 1481 *l'l,c (sut) entice, allure, instigate,
The verbal root occurs 191 times. In many incite. (Asv, RSV similarly .)
cases it is a simple verb of motion, the act of Etymological identifications with other Semitic
turning aside (Ex 3:3-4; Jud 4: 18: Ruth 4: 1) or roots are doubtful. As opposed to pätä "be sim-
departing (Num 12:10). ple," "deceive," there is also the underlying idea
The idea of departing could also involve of cunningness in this root.
spiritual issues. Thus, Samson "knew not that Most commonly the verb has an evil connota-
the Lord bad departed from him" (Jud 16:20). tion. David, who desired self-glorification, was
The Lord departed from Saul" ( I Sam 16:14; easily enticed to number the people (1 Chr 21: 1).
28:16).Tragically, it was said repeatedly oflsrael The Assyrian officer besieging Jerusalem warns
and its leaders that they did not depart · ·from the the people that Hezekiah's instruction to depend
sins of Jeroboam" (II Kgs 10:31; 13:2, 6, 11: solely on God is a false allurement (II Kgs 18:32).
14:24;15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:22; cf. 3:3). God com- Baruch, Jeremiah's scribe, was labeled an inciter
plained against Jerusalem that the heart of bis and a political agitator, whose ulterior aim was
people bad departed from him (Ezk 6:9). Unfor- the enslavement and death of all the refugees of
tunately, those who bad "departed not from fol- Jerusalem (Jer 43:3).
lowingthe Lord" (II Kgs 18:6) were all too few. Jezebel so "incites" Ahab to evil that bis clos-
The root is often used of lsrael's apostasy. In ing epitaph is that he surpassed everyone in doing
many cases it is translated "turn aside/away" sin (1 Kgs 21:25). Ahab leamed weil from
(e.g. Ex 32:8; Deut 9:12: 11:16). Conversely, Jezebel, for he enticed Jehoshaphat, to whom he
"not to turn aside" was a way of affirming a was related by marriage, to go to war with him
man's steadfastness before the Lord (1 Kgs against Ramoth-Gilead (II Chr 18:2). Jehoshaphat
22:43).Such a course of following strictly the will should have heeded the scriptural warning
ofGod is frequently depicted by wedding the root against being misdirected by family ties (Deut
to the familiar right hand-left hand motif. Thus, 13:6 [H 71) or close friends (Jer 38:22). Despite
it was said of Josiah that he "did not turn aside to Jehoshaphat's folly, God had arranged to "lure
the right hand, nor to the left" (II Kgs 22:2; cf. away" the enemy chariot captains who were on
Deut 2:27; 5:32 [H 29]; Josh 1:7). the point of taking bis life. He had learned what
In the Hiphil stem, the meaning "remove" is the believer is ever to bear in mind. Although
most common. Asa removes Maacah for her con- God may allow him to be enticed, whenever the
tinued idolatry (II Chr 15:16). Hezekiah removes righteous truly cries to God (II Chr 18:31), God
the places and cult objects of idolatry (II Kgs diverts him "from the mouth of distress" (Job
18:4; II Chr 30:14). God's people are urged to 36: 16).
remove or "put away" those things that will do R.D.P.
spiritual harm to them: strange gods (Gen 35:2),
all evil (lsa 1:16), wine (1 Sam 1:14), false ways l'l,c (sut). See no. 1472a.
(Ps 119:29),and false worship (Arnos 5:21-23).
The root is also found frequently in the wisdom 1482 :>r,i;, (sälJab) drag (e.g.11Sam17:13;Jer
literature, being used of the most basic spiritual 49:20).
issues. Job (15:30) is reminded that the wicked
will ultimately perish at God's command. Godly Derivative
wisdom and the fear of the Lord, however, turn 1482a :i;r,i;, (s' IJäbä) rag (Jer 38: 11-
one aside from the snares of death (Prov 13:14; 12).
14:27).This is tobe leamed thoroughly in one's
youth so that it will become a pattem throughout 1483 :ir,i;, (sä/Ja) scrape (Ezk 26:4, only).
life (Prov 22:6).
Rather than turning aside from God's com- Derivative
mands and will for the life, the wise course of 1483a '!'.IQ (s' IJ,) offscouring (Lam
action is ever to · ·fear the Lord and turn away 3:45).
from evil" (Prov 3:7, cf. 16:6, 17; Job 28:28; Ps
34:14[H 15]; 37:27). '1'.11?(s' IJi). See no. 1483a.

621
1484 ~'1'.11?
(sälJish)

1484 IV'J'.19(sä/Jish) grain that shoots up of itself neither does the fact that the ancient Greek (sec-
in the second year (II Kgs 19:29). Deriva- ond century e.c.), Syriac (second century A.o.)
tion uncertain. and Latin (fourth century A.D.) versions translat-
ing sä!Jar by the meaning "to trade" argue for
1485 i,i:,;i (sä/Jap) prostrate (Prov 28:3; Jer their understanding, since by their time the root
46: 15). meaning had fallen into disuse. lndeed, Speiser's
conclusion that the primary meaning is to be un-
1486 ii:,9 (sa!Jar) to about in Irade.
derstood seems etymologically, syntactically,
and contextually more adequate. He is probably
Derivatives right in suggesting that the infrequency of the
verbal root is due to the productiveness of säbab
1486a t,i:,~ (sa!Jar), ,r,c:i (sä/Jär) gain
(q.v.) with similar basic meaning.
from merchandis~.'
1486b t:i, ·r,c ( s • höra) merchandise (cf. ~ar, s~är. Gain from merchandise. s'Mnl.
'Akkadian sahirtu). Merchandise. These three derivatives accord
1486c t:iir,c:i (söhera) buckler. with the later specialized nominal idea, usages
1486d inc~ (mi~här) merchandise. weil established by comparison with the other
Semitic languages.
1486e tr,~~0 (sö/J~ret) stone used (with
marble) in paving (Est 1:6).
sötlera. Buckler. sötleret. Colored stones.
The root in its primary meaning "go around," These two derivatives are rare. sö/Jera "buck-
"turn about/away" (cf. Akkadian salJäru and ler" (only in Ps 91:4), is usually understood as the
Old Akkadian silJrum "rim") occurs infrequently small shield used in closest combat or some type
in the oT: more common is the participle söher of armor (cf. Akkadian sihirtu, tashfrätu "sur-
.. trader. " roundings"), and is clearly related to the verbal
Etymological considerations comprise the root. The origin of sö/Jeret (only in Est 1:6)
major problem with this root, as Speiser (see bib- "precious/colored stones" of the "pavement" of
Iiography) has shown. Although the meanings of the palace like its Akkadian cognate silJru, is
the participial form and the verbal root are obscure. Both may derive from the idea of
thoroughly established, controversy exists as to roundness. Perhaps the best evidence on the
whether the primary meaning "to go around" is meaning of söheret in Est 1:6 would come from
to be understood in the five verbal occurrences the excavation of the Persian palaces of Susa.
(Gen 34: 10, 21; 42:34; Ps 38: 10 [H 11]; Jer 14:18) The "pavement" if that is the precise meaning
or whether the specialized meaning of the parti- included colored stones and söheret according to
ciple "to trade" is tobe feit. Speiser decides for Esther. Excavations show much multicolored
the former, Albright (see bibliography) and most glazed bricks used in the pavement and walls of
modern translations, for the latter. the palace of Darius (A. T. Olmstead, History of
A look at the contexts involved shows the the Persian Empire, Univ. ofChicago, 1948, pp.
complexity of the problem. In the case of the 169-71).
Jeremianic reference, it can be noted that al- Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., "The Verb
though one could argue the case for a debased SHR in Genesis and Early Hebrew Movements,"
and exiled priesthood and prophetic dass which BASOR 163:36-54. Albright, W. F., "Some Re-
would "peddle their wares," the primary mean- marks on the Meaning of the Verb S~r in
ing makes as good or better sense. In either Genesis," BASOR 164:28.
understanding, the physical drought of Jere- R.D.P.
miah 's day was an outward sign of Judah's
spiritual condition, a condition whose only end (sö/Jeret). See no. !486e.
.M'.')tiCI
could be the judgment of going off into captivity ~•,;, (sfg). See no. 1469a.
and exile.
The Psalmist's penitential plea can scarcely be
reconciled with any economic concept. The Pelal
1487 ,,-i;,(siwan) Siwan, the third month. For
the names of other months, see 613b.
stem used here must mean "my heart palpitates
(throbs)," as almost all versions agree (note 1488 •ri;, ( siinai) Sinai.
especially, ltalian "II mio cuore palpita"). GKC,
p. 151 holds that the Pelal stem characteristically The name of the mountain before which Israel
refers to quick succession in time, thus "to go encamped as God through Moses entered into
quickly.'' covenant with them (Ex 19--24). Sinai is tra-
While the fact that the root meaning was not ditionally located at Jebel Musa in the rugged
lost sight of as late as the tenth and seventh cen- mountains in the southem part of the Sinai Pen-
turies e.c. does not prove the necessity of adopt- nisula. Jebel Musa rises to 7500 feet, its neighbor
ing it for the three earlier occurrences in Genesis, Je bei Katherina to 8500 feet. "In winter, the high-

622
 1492 i;~ (säkak)

lands have relatively abundant rainfall and are serve the "host ofheaven" as gods. This is made
frequently snowclad, seeding the northward flow- clear in the accounts of Manasseh (II Kgs 21:3, 5)
ing wadis and underground channels" (E. M. who worshiped these deities as a part of his sub-
Blaiklock, Zondervan Pictorial Bible Atlas, Zon- servience, and Josiah, who repudiated them as a
dervan, 1%9, p. 28). part of his revolt against such subservience
At Sinai the people were given instructions (II Kgs 23:4-5).
conceming the tabemacle and priesthood (Ex Arnos is saying that the result of the lsraelites'
25-31, 34-40) and the Levitical regulations. Here, forsaking their trust in God for a political and
too, Israel's first great spiritual failure took place religious deal with their oppressors will result not
(Ex 32-33; Lev 10). in deliverance, but destruction.
Theologically, Sinai has been of great signifi- [The NT refers to this difficult verse (Acts 7:43)
cance to Judaism as the place where both the oral taking it a bit differently from the Hebrew of
and written law were given. More important still, Arnos 5:26. lt parallels the "sikkut of your king"
is what Sinai teaches about the person of God. (or Molech) and "the star of your god," interpret-
The One of Sinai (Jud 5:5; Ps 68:8 [H 91), is seen ing the latter deity as Remphan which is appar-
to be the omnipotent and holy God who leads ently a title of the star god Saturn. Then it refers
forth his redeemed people (Deut 33:2) from Sinai, to both the sikküt and kiyün as "figures" or "im-
his holy abode (Ps 68: 17 [H 18]) in great splendor ages" which the Jews had worshiped. In this
and triumph to the land of promise (Hab 3:2-9). formulation, the "sikkut of Molech" may indeed
The New Testament enlarges upon the place of be a "tabemacle" or "shrine" a "sukkat of
Sinai by stressing that it symbolized the bondage Molech," but the word for "shrine," sukkat,
ofthe old covenant, a bondage taken away by the may have been chosen as a word play on a
work of Christ who has effected the new coven- Babylonian name of the star god Saturn, sikkut.
ant of liberty and promise through his blood (Gai R.L.H.)
4:25ff.; Heb 12:18ff.). J.N.O.
R.D.P.
rii:!I!?(sukkät). See no. 1492e.
1489 i•i;, (sir) 1, pol (e.g. Ex 16:3; I Kgs
7:45). 1492 ,,9 (säkak) block, stop the approach, shut
off, cover.
1490 i•i;, (sir) 11, thorn (lsa 34: 13), hook
(Arnos 4:2). Derivatives
1492a t'!l!rli' (mäsäk), :i;,!?J? (m'süka)
'!!~ (sak), '!11:1(sök). See nos. 1492c,d. covering.
1492b t'!ll:I~~ (musäk) covered structure.
1491 n~:,z;,(sikküt) Tabernack. (Asv similar, 1492c t'!I~ (sak) multitude.
RSV sakkuth.) 1492d t'Tl:I (sök), :,;,!? (sükka) covert,
thicket, booth. See also no. 1491.
This word occurs once in the Old Testament, in
1492e tr,i:,I;) (sükkot) Succoth (place
Arnos 5:26, along with kiyyCtn (q. v .). Although
mi:me).
the consonants skt may be those of "tabema-
1492f '!1~0 (sökek) covered structure,
cle," as both KJV and ASV render it, the presence
only used in Nah 2:6.
of this word with kyn in certain Mesopotamian
texts, both referring to the star god, Saturn, The basic meaning of the root is that of block-
makes it seem likely that sikkut here is a proper ing, or stopping up something. Cognates exist in
name referring to such a deity. Akkadian (sakäku "(be) choke(d) up") and
Both sikkCtt and kiyün have apparently been Arabic (sakka "choke up"). A by-form, säkak
revocalized with the vowels from shiqqü$ "cover," occurs in Ex 33:22. A homophonic
abomination. Whether the words were actually root, "weave," ··shape," may possibly underlie
pronounced as revocalized, or were simply read Job 10:11 and Psalm 139:13. (But cf. Dahood,
as shiqqCt$ is a moot question. The fact that AB, Psalms III who derives it from säkak
YHWH vocalized with the vowels from 'adonai "cover" with b meaning "from" "protected
is pronounced as 'adonai gives some weight to from birth. ")
the latter view. (See a similar treatment of the This important root is productive in both a
vowels of boshet .) physical and figurative sense, particularly with
lt is clear from Mesopotamian myths that the the idea of "covering." In the former sense, it
stars represented the pantheon of gods [the was frequently used in the building activities rela-
cuneiform sign for Ishtar, the queen of heaven tive to the sacred places of worship. The
(Jer 7:18, etc.) was a star]. Thus to become a cherubim's wings were to cover the mercy seat in
vassal of Assyria and later, of Babylon, meant to the tabernacle (Ex 37:9) and the temple (1 Chr

623
1493 *',;,I?(säkal)

28: 18). A veil screened off the ark and the mercy (Lev 23:39). Prophetically, the feast finds final
seat which were located within the holy of holies fulfillment in that grand day when God will raise
(Ex 40:3, 21). The participial form yields the de- up the fallen booth of David (Arnos 9: 11) and give
nominative sokek, a covering erected to protect shelter to his repentant, redeemed, and re-
besiegers from the defenders' missiles (Nah 2:5 gathered people (lsa 4:6).
[H 6]).
sükköt. Succoth. Marks the name of two im-
In a figurative sense, it pictures God's protec- portant biblical sites. The first was located in Gad
tion for the one who comes to him for refuge (Ps (Josh 13:27) near the Jordan Valley, usually iden-
5:11 [H 12]: cf. 91:4; 140:7 (H 8]). tified with Tell Deir · Alla, two miles north of the
mäsäk. Covering. Used most notably in con- Jabbok River. Succoth also names the site where
nection with the several entrance screens in the the Hebrews first stopped in their Exodus from
tabemacle complex (Ex 39:34-40). Egypt after leaving Ramses (Ex 12:37-13:20),
usually equated with Tell el-Maskhutah in the
m•sükä. Covering. Refers to the prince of
Wadi Tumilat.
Tyre 's jeweled surroundings, a description that Bibliography: TDOT, VII, pp. 369-74.
finds ultimate understanding in the events of R.D.P.
Eden and the person and work of Satan (Ezk
28: !3ff.).
musäk. Covered way (or place). Found in 1493 *',;il? (säka/) be foolish. Does not occur
II Kgs 16: 18 where it designates "the covered in the Qal.
way for the sabbath" which was removed in the
remodeling that followed Ahaz's apostasy. Derivatives
Another view is that shahbat is to be vocalized 1493a t',;il? (siikäl) fool.
shebet (from yiishab) and read as "throne," "the 1493b ,;:i~ (seke/) folly (only in Eccl
. i0:6).
covered place of the throne.'·
1493c tm,;i;, (siklut) folly, foolishness.
sak. Multitude (Ps 42:4 [H 5]). This word is
1493d ri~',~iV (siklüt) folly (only in Eccl
difficult. The renderings of the various English i; 17).
versions (KJV "multitude," Asv, RSV "throng")
are by no means certain. Dahood's "barrier" The verb is used in the Niphal, Piel, and
(i.e. separating the temple enclosure from the Hiphil. lt must be distinguished from the root
court of the gentiles) is not without merit (see sakal "to be wise" (q.v.). Robert Gordis has
AB, Psalms J, p. 257). noted a considerable number of words possessing
mutually contradictory meanings (" Studies in
sök. Covert. Occurs four times with the idea of
Hebrew Roots of Contrasted Meanings," JQR
a protective covering, whether in the natural
27:33-58.
world (Ps 10:9: Jer 25:38) or figuratively, of the
The verb usually expresses lack in a moral or
person and work of God (Ps 27:5; 76:2 [H 3]).
spiritual sense. Thus Saul acted as a fool when he
sükä. Covert. Designates a temporary abode usurped the Levitical prerogative in offering sac-
(II Sam 11: 11: Job 36:20; 38:40). In a context of rifices. There is more involved than simply being
judgment lsaiah ( 1:8) employs the word to picture an intellectual fool-Saul displayed his utter lack
the devastation and depopulation of Israel, be- of spiritual comprehension (I Sam 13:13).
cause he foresees God's people reduced to living [The verb is mostly used in contexts where a
in temporary shelters. Figuratively, God pro- man acts out of fear and thus behaves rashly,
vides shelter for the believer's temporary affiic- rather than acting wisely out of a confidence
tions (Ps 31 :20 [H 21 ]). based in God. Thus David recognizes that he
Most commonly, it is used in connection with acted foolishly in taking the census of Israel in
the Feast ofTabernacles. Once a year the Israel- order to determine his military strength. lt was a
ite left his home to tabernacle in a "booth," made foolish act because he sought his security apart
from tree branches (Lev 23:34ff.). The feast from God (II Sam 24: 10; I Chr 21 :8). This practi-
marked not only the joy and thankfulness of a cal atheism the Babylonians used to call "living
grateful people for God's provision at the end of in a ramanishu," i.e. living by oneself, on one's
the agricultural season (Lev 23:39--41), but was to own resources, without dependence on God. But
be a perpetual reminder (Deut 16:l3ff.) to the this is the essence of sin. Saul recognizes his own
people of God's care for his own whom he had foolish behavior toward David, which was
rescued from Egypt during those long years in the caused by his unfounded fear of him (1 Sam
wilderness (Lev 23:42--43). The feast was closed 26:21 ). Laban accuses Jacob of acting foolish by
by a day of rest, featured by a holy convocation, slipping off at night rather than giving Laban op-
marking not only the climax of the religious year portunity to give them a proper send-off. Of
but symbolizing the rest ofthe believer in his God course Jacob acted out of fear (Gen 31 :28). Ha-

624
 1503 *:,7~(säla)
nani, the seer, accuses Asa of playing the fool speaking words that are of no use. He reminds
because out of fear he bribed the Syrians to at- Job (22:2) that the wisest of men can not ulti-
tack Israel instead of relying on the Lord (1 Chr mately benefit God, so that God really has no
16:9-10). ulterior motive in testing Job; nevertheless, the
David prays that Ahithophel's counsel will lead wise course of action for a good and peaceful life
to the dire consequences that come from hasty, is to place oneselfat God's service (22:21). Elihu
rash behavior. His prayer was answered when (34:9ff.) corrects Job's attitude that it is of no use
Ahithophel committed suicide (II Sam 15:31ff). to attempt to be pleasing to God (cf. 35:3).
God likewise tumed the knowledge of pagan di- The root also allows various shades of mean-
viners into the caiamity that stems from such be- ing, such as : God's superintending care of the
havior when he sent Cyrus to destroy Babylon believer (Ps 139:3), the woodsman's endangering
(Isa 44:25). B.K.w.1 of himself in the hewing of trees (Eccl 10:9), or
Balaam · s donkey' s protest that he has never been
säkäl. Fool, foolish. Jeremiah's generation
accustomed to mocking his master (Num 22:30).
was foolish and without understanding, and yet it
was more than a mere lack of understanding misk"nöt. Storage house, magazine. Designates
(5:21). Spiritual apostasy is foolishness. This is a place of service. particularly storage cities,
apparent when people are wise to evil but devoid whether for Pharaoh (Ex 1:11) or Solomon (1 Kgs
of the knowledge to do good (Jer 4:22). Eccl un- 9: 19), whether in Napthali (II Chr 16:4) or Judah
derscores the spiritual and particularly moral (II Chr 17:12).
misfit who demonstrates to all that he is a fool R.D.P.
(10:3, et al.).
sekel. Folly. lt is a moral perversion when 1495 *1;,i;, (siikan) II, incur, danger. This
folly is dignified and those of no account are ele- verb occurs only once, in the Niphal (Eccl
vated to leadership while those to whom honor is 10:9).
due are demeaned (Eccl 10:6).
1496 *1;,9 (siikan) III, be poor. Occurs only
siklut. Folly, foolishness. Consideration of the in lsa 40:20, in the Pual stem. Perhaps arti-
way of wisdom and the way of folly raises fically derived from misken (q.v.).
philosophic questions (Eccl 2:3, 12-13). In vv.
1-11 folly appears as an unrestricted accumula- 1497 *i;,i;, (siikar) /, shut up, stop up. This
tion of pleasures and things. But, as qohelet verb occurs in the Niphal (Ps 63:12; Gen
gained maturity, he found the ans wer, "Wisdom 8:2) and the Piel (lsa 19:4). Apparently re-
excels folly as light excels darkness." Wisdom is lated to siigar (q. v .).
the way ofthe moral and spiritual man while folly
is the way of a man with twisted values. One 1498 i;,i;, (siikar) II, hire (Ezra 4:5, only).
other association of sikliit (foolishness) with The much more common form is siikar
madness (Eccl 7:25f.) is pictured by the sinner (q. V.).
who allows himself to be entrapped by an im-
moral woman. The one who would be wise and
pleasing to God escapes from her clutches. 1499 *r,;,c, (siikat) be silent. Occurs only in
Bibliography: Blanck, H. S., "Folly," in IB.
th'e Hiphil (Deut 27:9, only).
vol. II, pp. 303-4. Harris, R. L., "Proverbs,"
Wycliffe Bible Commentary, Moody, 1962, pp. ',Q (sal). See no. 1507a.
553-4. Walker, W. L., ··Fool, Folly," in ISBE,
vol. II, pp. 1124--25. 1500 *N79 (sii/ii') weigh. This verb occurs
L.G. only once, in the Pual (Lam 4:2).

rii',~i;, (sik/iit). See no. 1493c. 1501 *-,79 (siilad) spring, leap for joy. This
verb occurs only once, in the Piel stem
1494 1;,9 (siikan) I, be of use, service, profit. (Job 6: 10).
Derivative
1502 :-179(sii/a) /, make light of, toss aside (Ps
1494a trii::;iz;,~ (misk''nöt) storage house. 119:118: Lam 1:15).
The root means basically "be of use." The par-
ticipialform söken "steward," marking the name :-17;,(se/a). See no. 1506a.
of an important govemmental office (lsa 22: 15),
is known predominantly in Northwest Semitic. 1503 *:,',Q (säla) II, weigh, balance. This
The root meaning can be weil seen in the dis- ~~rb occurs only once, in the Pual (Job
courses of Job. Eliphaz (15:3) accuses him of 28:16).

625
1504 ii\;,r;,(sallon)

1504 ~i\:>;,(sa/Jon) brier. Root uncertain. So exciting was the openness of this offer of
forgiveness that Isaiah (55:7) featured it as the
1505 r,79 (salah) forgive, pardon. heart of his invitation to salvation. So ready was
their Lord to forgive, that Isaiah's listeners must
Derivatives forget all notions based on the reluctance of men
to forgive each other.
1505a tr,7~ (sallah) ready to forgive, for- The experience of forgiveness in the OT was
giving. personally efficacious, although objectively the
1505b t:ir,•'?r;,
(s' liha) forgiveness. basis and grounds of that forgiveness awaited the
This verb, together with a few others, such as death of Christ. Other terms used for forgiveness
bara · · ·to create," is used in Scripture solely of stressed the ideas of wiping out or blotting out the
God. salah is used of God"s offer of pardon and memory of the sin (mäha), covering or conceal-
forgiveness to the sinner. Never does this word in ing the record of the sin (käsa), lifting up and
any of its forms refer to people forgiving each removal of sin (näsä · ), passing by of sin ( 'äbar),
other. and pardoning on the basis of a substitute (käpar
The same root appears in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. in the Pie! q.v.).
1757) and Akkadian, but without any apparent Three texts in Jeremiah, 31 :34; 33:8; 50:20,
connection to the form under consideration. The celebrate a future forgiveness of our Lord in con-
Akkadian salä[w means "sprinkle" in cultic and nection with the New Covenant and ultimately
medical contexts. his second coming.
One of the greatest evangelical notes in the OT sallält. Ready to forgive, forgiving. The only
is struck by this word: forgiveness and pardon biblical example of this adjectival form occurs in
from the very God of forgiveness. lt also raises Ps 86:5, which describes the Lord as kind and
the greatest problem as weil: What was the na- forgiving.
ture of this forgiveness? Hebrews seems to state
just as categorically that OT forgiveness was inef- s•liltä. F orgiveness. There are three occur-
fective and impossible (Heb 9:9; 10:4). rences of this noun form. In Neh 9: 17 it is used in
The resolution is clear. In the first place, the plural as a description of God: "Thou art a
Jehovah himself announces, in response to God ready to forgive" (Rsv), while in Ps 130:4 and
Moses· prayers for Israel, that he has forgiven Dan 9:9 it is used as the subject, forgiveness,
Israel at two oftheir darkest moments, the golden which is available from the God to whom for-
calf incident and the murmuring at Kadesh giveness alone belongs.
Barnea (Ex 34:9; Num 14:19-20). Bibliography: Freeman, Hobart, "The Prob-
In the second place, on the basis of Mosaic lem ofthe Efficacy ofüld Testament Sacrifices,"
legislation, real atonement and forgiveness were BETS 5:73-79. Richardson, TWB, pp. 85--86.
available for all sins except those of the defiant THAT, II, pp. 150-59.
and unrepentant sinner (Num 15:30-31) who W.C.K.
"despised the word of the Lord." The claim is
made repeatedly (Lev 4:20, 26, 31, 35; 5:10, 13, 1506 779 (sii/al) /, cast up, lift up, exalt.
16, 18, 26; 19:22) that when atonement was made,
the sinner's sins were forgiven. For all such sins Derivatives
as lying, theft, perjury, fraud (Lev 6: 1-7 1506a tn7;, (se/a) lift up, exalt.
[H 5;20-26]), or those "against any of the Com- 1506b t:,',',·c (söl' la) mound.
mandments of the Lord" (Lev 4:2), it was possi- 1506c tc:iSo(sülliim) ladder.
ble to obtain divine pardon. Rather than being
excluded, these sins were specifically included in
1506d t:iSc~ (m' sill/i),
· highway.
,~,=~(maslul)
'-
God's provision for the OT believer along with
"sins of ignorance" (Num 15:25, 26, 28). As if to The primary meaning of the words seems tobe
emphasize the point, it is stated repeatedly that · ·cast up. ·' Since the meaning of the Hebrew verb
on the Day of Atonement, "all the iniquities" and is unparalleled in other occurrences of the root in
sins oflsrael were atoned (Lev 16:21, 30, 32, 34). Semitic, it is probably a denominative from Ak-
But the individual Israelites had to properly kadian sulü "highway" (from salü "to throw
"humble themselves" in true confession (Lev up/off/out").
16:29, 3 l). This is the kind of forgiveness which The Hebrew verb is used chiefly for figurative
Solomon prayed would be available to all as he expressions, especially in hostile contexts.
led a prayer of dedication for the temple (1 Kgs Pharaoh lifts himself up against God ·s people (Ex
8:30, 34, 39, 50, and its parallel in II Chr 6). Arnos 9:17). Job decries his treatment by God (19:12)
requested it for Judah (7:2) as did Daniel (9: 19). and people alike (30: 12).
However, at times Israel was not pardoned (Deut The theme of casting up a highway is utilized
29:19; Lam 3:42). by the prophets. The figure, derived from build-

626
 1510 *e,79(sälap)
ing a road higher than the adjacent terrain, is sive rock; cf. Aramaic {Ür "mountain"), it refers
natural. Cf. our English word highway which basically to a cleft in a rock, thence a rock or
shows a similar semantic development. While cliff.
Jeremiah (18: 15) lamented that Israel had left Though the word is used of purely natural
"God's highway" to follow false bypaths, lsaiah rocks (Jud 6:20) or cliffs (Jer 13:4), the physical
(57:14;62: 10) foresaw the time when all obstacles object often becomes a symbol of spiritual truths.
would be removed from the path of a repentant Perhaps the best known case is found in Num
Israel, returning on the highway to Zion. 20:8ff., when Moses in disbelief and rebellion
against God's instruction took it upon himself, in
söl•la. Mound, siege rampart. (Cf. Egyptian
lrr.f "siege mound. ") This term is often em-
reprimanding the people to strike the rock twice
(cf. Num 27: 14).
ployed by the prophets in contexts of judgment
Like ~ür, se/a' symbolizes God himself as a
(Jer6:6; 32:24; 33:4; Ezk 17:17; Dan 11:15).
place of security and refuge (see Ps 71:3) for the
sülläm. Ladder. Used of Jacob's ladder, one who fears him and Jives righteously before
raised from earth to heaven (Gen 28: 12). Some him (Ps 31:3 [H 41). The figure of God as a rock
would suggest the translation "stairway" and becomes typical for the New Testament teach-
liken the structure to a ziggurat, which is possi- ings relative to Christ's person and walk (cf. I Pet
ble. However, there are other words for stair- 2:6ff.; I Cor 10:4).
way, and ladders were used at a very early time The word can at times also carry a bad sense,
(cf. J. Mellaart, Catal Huyuk, McGraw-Hill, its natural features easily symbolizing spiritual
1967,p. 56). obstinacy (Jer 5:3) or even open sin (Ezk 24:7-8;
Arnos 6:12).
m•sma, maslul. Highway, raised way. Whether
R.D.P.
of a simple road (Num 20: 19) or the steps of Sol-
omon's temple and palace (II Chr 9: 11) or pro-
phetically. the highway of the returning remnant 1509 =~79(sol'äm) /ocust (edible, Lev 11:22).
(lsa 11:16). Metaphorically, it describes the way
of the upright (Prov 16:17) or the courses of the 1510 *l'\79 (sälap) distort, twist, pervert, ruin.
stars (Jud 5 :20). Derivative
selah. [A term of unknown meaning, probably 1510a tl'\?.~(selep) crookedness.
of musical significance, occurring 71 times in the
Pss and also in Hab 3:3, 9, 13. Many are the The basic meaning of the root is '' to twist'': the
conjectures as to its meaning, but nothing certain related ideas of distorting or perverting a man· s
is known. Other terms also probably musical but rights or ways make it synonymous with other
of uncertain meaning are, ·atämot, sh'minit, such Hebrew verbs as: hapak "overturn," 'awii
gittit, ma~alat l''annot, n'ginot, n'~ilot, hig- "do wrong," "pervert," and 'aqash "do that
gäyon, shiggäyon, lamm'naHea~ maskil, mik- which is crooked."
täm. Other enigmatic terMs perhaps refer to The verb (only Piel) is employed primarily for
tunes. See ZEPB IV, p. 945, also commentaries contexts dealing with moral or social behavior.
and introductions, R.L.H.] The Torah warns strenously against taking a
R.D.P. bribe (KJV "gift'') lest it becloud one's clear think-
ing and so distort the course of justice (Ex 23:8;
:,~•'?1?
(s"li~ii). See no. 1505b. Deut 16:19). The dangers of bribery, particularly

1507 ,,c (sll) II. Assumed root ofthe following.

1507a ,;, (sal) basket (e.g. Gen 40:18;
in matters of litigation, were weil known in the
ancient world (see, for example The Code of
Hammurabi, paragraph 5).
Jud6:19). The verb occurs frequently in pointing out that
1507b :i7i;:,7;, (salsillä) basket, perhaps evil so twists the sinful and foolish man that his
shoot, branch (Jer 6:9). way becomes perverted and he rages against the
Lord (Prov 13:6; 19:3). While the evil man may
C?I?(sülläm). See no. 1506c. think he prospers, God will overthrow him in his
:,7;,7;,(salsilla). See no. 1507b. treacherousness (Prov 22: 12) and turn his way to
ruin (Prov 21:12).
1508 t1,c (sl'). Assumed root of the following. selep. Crookedness, falsehood. Enlarges upon
1508a ti,7i:, (sela') rock, cliff. (Asv, RSV
this picture. Whereas the righteous is guarded by
similarly.)
his integrity, the falseness of the treacherous man
This noun is related to an Arabic root sala'a will turn his way upside down (Prov 11:3). The
"split" (hence sil'un "fissure"). As opposed to man who speaks with a twisted tongue will find
~ür "rock," (with which it is often used inter- his praises self-destructing (Prov 15:4).
changeably, which lays emphasis on a more mas- R.D.P.

627
1511 "'9 (säleq)

1511 i'71? (säleq) ascend. (So also, Asv, Rsv.) The laying on of hands on the sacrificial animal
figured prominently in the regulations for the ser-
The Hebrew root is probably a loan word from vice of consecration and dedication to the priest-
Aramaic s' leq. lt is found only in Ps 139:8 (note hood (Lev 8; cf. Ex 29), a ceremony replete with
backward assimilated "!"') where the Psalmist spiritual application to the ministry of Christ (cf.
underscores the omnipresence of God. Whether Heb 10:19-23) and of those called to be his minis-
he were to climb to highest heaven or lie in Sheol ters (l Tim 4:14; II Tim 1:6).
he would find God. Possibly sälaq (q.v.) is a by:
The root can also involve the idea of support
form meaning ··go up in flames." lt also exhibits (Arnos 5: 19). The Israelites were to leam not to
the backward assimilation of the lamed (unless trust in man or nation (II Kgs 18:21; Ezk 30:6),
the derivation from näsaq is held). but in God who by his power (Ps 37:24) and word
R.D.P. (Ps 119:116) upholds the righteous (Ps 37: 17). So
will the believer dwell in safety and surety (Ps 3:5
1512 r,?.b (sölet) (fine)flour (So ASV,Rsv.)
[H 61) all his life (Ps 71 :6) despite those times
Th~ word (from Akkadian salätu "crush"), when he may fall (Ps 145:14).
denotmg a finely ground flour, is known through- Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 160--61.
out the ancient Mediterranean world (e.g. Akka- R.D.P.
d_iansiltu, Arabic sultun, Aramaic sultä', Egyp-
ttan lr.t). As opposed to qema!J "meal" which 1515 ',~!? (seme/) idol, image. (ASV,RSVsimi-
came from whole kernels and bran, this finest of larly.)
flour was ground exclusively from the inner ker-
nels of the wheat (hence, LXX semidalis, Vulgate The word denotes basically an image or statue,
simila). Though available to all, it was expensive a meaning found frequently in the Phoenician in-
and considered a luxury item (Ezk 16:13; cf. Rev scriptions. lt is one of several words for idols or
18: 13), to be used especially in entertaining im- images, such as gillülfm, maskit, 'ä$äb, and
portant guests (Gen 18:6). pesel-terms which generally refer to graven im-
Fine flour figured prominently in the Levitical ages, massekil and nesek-molten images,
sacrifices (Lev 2 etc.), the offerings ofthe twelve reräpim-household images and $elem-a gen-
tribal leaders at the inauguration of the tabernacle eral term for image or idol. Several other circum-
worship (Num 7), the regulations relative to the locutions or terms refer to idolatry, for example:
fulfillment of the Nazirite's vow (Num 6: 15), the 'elil "nothingness," sheqer "falsity," 'emil "an
consecration ceremony ofthe priests (Ex 29:2ff.), object of terror," ·äwen "wicked power," mip-
and the ordination of the Levites whom God le$et "a cause of trembling," shiqqu$, sheqe$
graciously allowed to take the place of the "detestable thing." (cf. also discussion under gil-
firstborn in a life of dedicated service to him lulim).
(Num 8:8). The fine flour reminded the priests Idolatry was prohibited and condemned as
~nd Levites of their high calling and the fine qual- apostasy and deviation from God's basic stan-
1ty of their service and dedication to God of all dard. While an idol was nothing in itself, idolatry
the fruits of their labor (cf. I Pet 2:5). did bring men into contact with evil spiritual
R.D.P. forces; hence, idol worship was both spiritually
damaging and dangerous.
CQ (sam). See no. 1516a. The contexts in which semel occurs reinforce
this picture. Thus, idol making was expressly
1513 'i'.'.l~I?(s'mader) blossom of grape (Song forbidden to Israel as a violation ofGod's person,
2:13, 15; 7:13). Derivation uncertain. work, and covenant with them (Deut 4:15-20).
Setting up an image in the temple or its precincts
1514 '!11;1?
(samak) lean upon, lay, put, uphold, was an act of gross sin (II Chr 33:7-9; Ezk 8: 1--o).
support. (Asv, RSVsimilarly .) semel is not used theologically of the "Image
The primary meaning of the root is "to lean of God."
upon," in distinction to its synonyms tämak The prohibition of idols in Israel was appar-
(q.v.), which basically means ··grasp," "lay hold ently unique in ancient times as was lsrael's reli-
of' and sä'ad "sustain." gion. The obvious thing about every idol image is
The best known use of this root is in the laying that it represents a created thing which is natur-
on of hands. In the Levitical regulations regard- ally less and less worthy than the creator. Cf.
ing the sacrificial offerings, the offerer brought Rom 1:23.
his proper sacrificial animal in person and laid his Bibliography: Girdlestone, SOT, pp. 303-11.
hand upon its head, thus expressing identification R.D.P.
with the offering, its surrender to God and in the
case of guilt, its transfer to the animal (cf. specifi- 1516 c~c (smm). Assumed root of the follow-
cally Lev 16:21). ing.

628
 1528 ,~9 (sä'ar)
1516a CCI (sam) a spiee used in in- The basic meaning of this root is "support," or
cense (e.g. Ex 30:34; Lev 4:7; "sustain" (so also Aramaic, Ezra 5:2). In South-
16:12). west and Southeast Semitic the ideas of "aiding"
or "assisting" come forward. The emphasis of
1517 *ll';lr (saman). Occurs only as the Niph- the word involves the idea of sustenance,
al participle, nisman "in an appointed whereas other words for support lay stress on
place," or "a determined portion" (lsa "leaning upon" (sämak) or "holding up"
28:25). (tämak, q.v.).
The root is utilized for taking food for physical
1518 ,,;~ (sämar) bristle up (Ps 119:20; Job nourishment or sustenance (Gen 18:5). lt is also
4: 15). employed abstractly. As a good king sustains his
throne by righteousness (Prov 20:28), so Messiah
Derivatives will establish and maintain his everlasting king-
1518a ,7;9 (sämär) bristling, rough (Jer dom with justice and righteousness (lsa 9:7
51:27, only). [H 61).
1518b ,~c~ (masmer) nail (e.g. Isa The believer who has enthroned God in his
,ff:7; Eccl 12:11). heart may claim the promise that God will sup-
port him (Ps 18:35 [H 36)) in time of trouble (Ps
20: 1-2 [H 2-3)) and sickness (Ps 41:3 [H 4 )). Yea,
1519 :it;t;i;,(s'nä'a) sons of the hated woman,
when cares multiply so that his foot would totter
i.e. the poorer classes of Jerusalem (Ezra and give way, God is there to support him (Ps
2:35=Neh 7:38). An altemate form from 94: 18). But God's sufficiency is not restricted to
sane' (q.v.).
the crisis experiences of life; God himself is the
great Provider for man's everyday needs (Ps
1520 :iJI? (s'neh) bush, the burning bush of Ex 104:15).
3:3-4.
mis'äd. Support. Occurs only in connection
The botanical identification is uncertain as is with the steps for Solomon's temple and the royal
the derivation. This bush is referred to again in palace (1 Kgs 10:12; cf. m'sillbt, II Chr 9:11).
Deut 33:16 which is rather clearly a back refer- R.D.P.
ence to Ex 3. The Moldenkes mention the view
that the "flame of fire" was an illusion caused by 1526 :ivi; (sä'a) rush (of storm wind, Ps
bright blossoms. Aside from this naturalistic ex- 55:9).
planation they suggest the very common shittim
tree, Acacia nilotica or A. seyal (Moldenke, ti•r,,9 (sä'fp). See no. 1527a.
Harold N. and Alma L., Plants of the Bible,
Ronald Press, 1952, pp. 23-24). More important 1527 t'\llC (s'p). Assumed root of the following.
than the botanical id_entificationis the great mira- 1527a ti'l,'9 (sä'fp) cleft (Jud 15:8, 11),
cle used by God to call his chosen servant to his branch (lsa 17:6; 27: 10).
great prophetic work. To judge from Deut 33: 16, 1527b :ift11? (s" 'appa) bough, branch
Moses never forgot the revelation of "him who (Ezk 31:6, 8).
dwelt in the burning bush" (N1v). 1527c *t'\l'Q (sä'ap) lop off boughs (Pie),
R.L.H. Isa 10:33).
1527d :i~t1,ci (sar'appa) bough (Ezk
1521 ci•iilci (sanwerfm) sudden blindness 31:5).
(Gen 19:II; II Kgs 6: 18). 1527e t'\liO (se'ep) divided, half-hearted
(Ps 119:113).
1522 Cl'lClCI (sansinfm) fruiJ stalk of date tree 1527f :ifl,'I? (s' 'ippa) division, divided
is~ng 7:9). opinion (1 Kgs 18:21).

1523 i•111JO(s'nappir) fin (Lev 11:9, 10, 12= 1528 il)Q (sä'ar) storm, whirlwind, tempest. By-
Deut 14:9, 10). form of sä'ar (q.v.).
Derivatives
1524 c9 (säs) moth (lsa 51:8).
1528a t:,,~i;, ( s' 'ära) windstorm.
1525 ipi; (sä'ad) IUstain, suppon, establish, 1528b tit,9 (sä'ar) denominative verb, to
strengthen, comfon. storm.
sa'ar means "storm." lt may reflect an origi-
Derivative nal nominal root which underlies the Akkadian
1525a tivi;,~ (mis'äd) support. särum "windstorm" and of which sa'ar is a by-

629
1529 MCC (sp')

form. If so, s'"ärti is a feminine derivative and Contributions to the Hebrew Lexicon, Berkeley:
sä'ar, a denominative verb. The root must be dif- University of California, 1958, p. 37) notes.
ferentiated from the homonyms sä'ar "be ac- By far most of the references in which this root
quainted with, .. and sii' ar "bristle ... and its derivative are found deal with the mourn-
sa'ar denotes a literal storm (Jon 1:4, 12) or ing rites at someone ·s death (e.g. Gen 23:2: 50: 10:
describes the Lord's wrath against the lying pro- I Sam 25: 1: 28:3; II Sam 1:12; 3:31: 11:26; I Kgs
phet (Jer 23:19) or enemy nation (Arnos 1:14), 13:29f.: cf. Eccl 12:5). At such times, all who
especially in the end times (Jer 25:32: 30:23). The sensed the loss of the departed would come to
Psalmist prays for deliverance from the storms of share their grief with the members of the family.
life (Ps 55:8 [H 9]). Their grief could be demonstrated in many ways:
going barefoot, stripping off one's clothes, cut-
s••arä. Windstorm. Used of a literal storm (Ps
ting one's beard or body, fasting (or banqueting),
107:25ff.; 148:8) sometimes as a symbol of God's
scattering ashes. or beating some part of the
judgment (lsa 29:6). Its use as a theophany (Job
body. Some of these rituals were proscribed for
38: 1: 40:6), renders more understandable Elijah's
the Israelite, doubtless because of pagan associa-
translation into heaven in a whirlwind (II Kgs
tion (Lev 19:28). Shrill cries or loud wailing often
2:1, 11).
accompanied the mourning, which in time be-
sä'ar. To storm. The root idea is found only in came stereotyped and structured into formal la-
connection with the storm which occurred during ments. Of course, weeping, especially by the
Jonah's sea flight (Jon l:llff.). women, was greatly in evidence as the combina-
Taking its meaning from a physical storm, tion of säpad with its set parallel bäkii ("weep")
sä'ar usually appears in contexts of upheaval and attests. The growth of funerary ritual led to the
distress. The Assyrian king is "enraged" at hav- employment of professional mourners, again,
ing his secret plans for ambushing the Israelites usually women.
thwarted (II Kgs 6: 11). Habakkuk (3: 14) cites Mourning for the dead began immediately at
part of an ancient epic poem in describing God's death, went on as the body was carried to the
triumph over his enemies who come like a tomb, was observed at the tomb and lasted at
"storm" against his people. While Hosea (13:2- least seven days after the burial.
3) warns the lsraelites of his day that because of The practice of mourning for the departed was
their idolatry, God would send them away into seized upon by the prophets to warn of a coming
exile as chaff driven by a "tempest" (cf. Zech national death in accordance with the just judg-
2:8--14), lsaiah (54: 11-14) prophesies that the ment of God. Isaiah (32:llff.) summons the
God of all grace and compassion will yet restore women of Judah to mourn in the light ofthe com-
his ··storm·· tossed and troubled people and es- ing judgment. Jeremiah (4:8) calls Jerusalem to
tablish them in righteousness in a land of unsur- repentance and mourning in the face of the Assy-
passing beauty and safety. rian invasion. Joel () :8, 13ff.) calls on the mourn-
R.D.P. ing priests to lead the people in a time of heartfelt
national repentance and sorrow for their sins,
e,;, (sap) I, II. See nos. 1538a,b. since the locust plague was but a harbinger of a
worse judgment to come. Micah ( 1:8) goes wail-
1529 M!:iC,(sp'). Assumed root of the following. ing and mourning for Judah.
1529a Mit;,~ (mispo') fodder (Gen A whole genre of prophetic lamentation grew
24:25; 43:24: Jud 19:19). up which not only stressed the need of national
repentance for sin and the certainty of coming
1530 ic,,;, (säpad) moum, lament, wail.
judgment but promised ultimate deliverance at
Derivative the coming of Messiah (e.g. Zech 12:10-11),
when in a far deeper sense the believer will re-
1530a ,~I?~ (misped) wailing (cf. Uga-
echo the Psalmist's cry (Ps 30: 10-11 [H 11-12]),
ritic misspdt "wailing women" I
"O Lord ... thou hast turned my mourning into
Aqht 172, 183, UT 19: no. 1790).
dancing!"
Occurring twenty-nine times, säpad is one of Bibliography: Jacob, E., "Mourning," in
more than a dozen words with similar meanings. IDB, III. Gregory, T. M., "Mourning," in
The basic meaning of the root is attested also in ZPEB, IV, pp. 302-307.
Akkadian and was no doubt known at Ugarit. R.D.P.
The Syriac concept "beat the breast as a sign of
wailing," as G. Rinaldi (" Alcuni termini ebraici
1531 :,~,;, (säpti) sweep(away), destroy, consume.
relativi alla letteratura," Biblica 40: 278) has (ASV, RSV similarly.)
pointed out, is not certain, nor is the supposed
connection with Amharic Sädäfe "dirge," ac- The basic image of the root seems to be that of
cording to Leslau (Ethiopic and South Arabic sweeping-both the process of heaping things to-

630
 1538 t'iCCI(spp)

gether and of sweeping them away (cf. Arabic 1535 i•t0 (sappir) /apis lazuli, sapphire. (KJV,
safä' "to raise and carry away dusf'). The root ~;v "sapphire"; Rsv often reads "lapis
may sometimes be confused with 'äsap or yäsap. lazuli" in the margin.
The root is usually used in a hostile sense, par-
The stone owes its name to the Sanskrit c;anip-
ticularly in contexts of judgment. David spe~t riya. Thal the people of biblical times probably
much of his life being swept away before h1s
did not understand the word to be the very hard
enemies; later, facing God's judgment for sin, h_e
modern sapphire, but lapis lazuli, the rich, azure
avoids the choice of being swept away before h1s gern so common to the ancient ':"orld, seems
enemies (I Chr 21:12-13).
probable on the basis of a companson betwee_n
The judgment of God against sin is the subject
the Ugaritic parallels rhr (gem)/iqnim (lap1s
of several contexts. Lot and his family were
lazuli) and the biblical pair rahör, röhar/sappir.
warned so that they would not be consumed with
This beautiful gern was costly (Job 28: 16) and
Sodom (Gen 19:15ff.). The prophets repeatedly
desirable (Ezk 28: 13) though less precious than
warned apostate Israel that God would heap IT!is-
true wisdom (Job 28: 16). lt adorned the breast-
fortunes upon them (e.g. Isa 7:20). Jerem1ah plate of the high priest (Ex 28: 18: 39: 11). lts great
(12:4) stated that man's sin was so serious that
value can be seen in that it is used in the throne of
even the natural world was affected by it. God (Ezk 1:26; 10: 1) and becomes the pavement
God's judgment should occasion prayer and under his feet (Ex 24: 10). lt is little wonder, then,
intercession. Abraham pleaded with his heavenly that it will be found in the very foundation of the
visitors for the life of the righteous in Sodom
New Jerusalem (Isa 54:1 I; cf. Rev 21:19).
(Gen 18:23f.). The Psalmist, concerned that
Its beauty and preciousness made it useful to
God's will and reputation be evidenced in his life,
poetic language, such as in Shulamith's des~ri~-
prayed for his enemies to be swept away (Ps
tion of her beloved (Song 5: 14) and Jerem1ah s
40:14 [H 15)). lamentation concerning the Nazirites' changed
R.D.P.
appearance (Lam 4:7--S). The modern name for
1532 nci;, (säpa/:,) I, attach to, join (together). the stone is lazurite-a sodium aluminum silicate
(ASV'RSVsimilarly.) and sulfide. Its ancient source was the Afghan-
istan-Iran area north and east of Babylonia. Evi-
While seldom used and of imprecise under- dently the Indo-European name was imported
standing, the basic meaning is usually discernible with the gern.
(I Sam 2:36; 26:19; Job 30:7; Isa 14:1). Bibliography: D. R. Bowes, "Lapis Lazuli,"
A homophonic root, found in South Semitic, in ZPEB.
"pour out," may underlie the difficult crux in R.D.P.
Hab 2:15.
R.D.P. 1536 ,=i;, (sepel) bowl (Jud 5:25; 6:38). Deri-
. vation uncertain.
1533 MC0 (sp/J) II. Assumed root of the follow-
lng.
1533a lj•~~ (säpia/:t) I, outpouring (Job 1537 100 (säpan) cover, cover in, panel (e.g. I
14:19: Prov 28:3). Kgs 6:9; Hag 1: 14).
1533b n•!l0 (säpia/J) II, growth from
Derivatives
- ~pilled kernels (II Kgs 19:29= Isa
37:30; Lev 25:5). 1537a 11'1;)(sippün) ceiling (l Kgs 6:15).
1537b :,)•!)0 ( s • pina) vessel, ship (Jon
1534 *MO~ (säpa/J) III, denominative verb, '1 :5).
cause a scab upon (Pie) only, lsa 3:17).
Parent Noun 1538 lj!:)0 (spp). Assumed root ofthe following.
1538a tlil;I (sap) I, bowl, basin.
1534a Mljllll;I (sappa!Jat) eruption, scab 1538b tlil;I (sap) II, threshold, sill.
(Lev 13:2). 1538c ti:,c,0 (säpap) stand aJ the threshold.
1534b Mljllll;)~ (mispa/Jat) eruption, scab D~nominative verb, occurring only
(Lev 13:6---8). once (Hithpoel, Ps 84: 11).
1534c :ii:i,1r~(mispä/Ja) long veil (Ezk
13:18, 21). sap /. Bowl, basin, goblet, jar. (ASV,R~~ simi-
1534d ni,iv~ (mispä/J) outpouring (of larly .) Weil attested in Northwest_ Sem1t1c (~f.
'bhJod), bloodshed (lsa 5:7). Akkadian sappu), it is used of ordmary utens1ls
(II Sam 17:28), sacred vessels (Ex 12:22: I Kgs
Mljll!l;I (sappa/Jat). See no. 1534a. 7:50; II Kgs 12:13; Jer 52: 19), and meta-
lj•~i;, (säpia/J). I, II. See nos. 1533a,b. phorically, the "cup of reeling" of God' s future
l'lf'~I? (s'pina). See no. 1537b. wrath against the nations (Zech 12:2).

631
1539 i'Ql?(siipaq)

sap II. Threshold, sill, door. (Asv. RSVs1m1- declare his name (Ps 102:21 [H 22]: cf. 22:22
larly.) sap II designates the threshold (cf. Akka- [H 23] and Josh 1:8 etc.). The Lord himself is
dian sippu ··doorpost," Aramaic sippa said to keep accounts in his book(s) (Ps 69:28 [H
"porch"), whetherof a house (Jud 19:27). palace 29]: 139:16: cf. Ex 32:32: Ps 87:6; Isa 4:3: 34:16;
(1 Kgs 14:17). or the temple (II Chr 3:7). The Dan 7:10; 12:1; Mal 3:16).
keeper of the threshold (1 Chr 9: 19, 22) held an The Old Testament plainly attests to its inspira-
important office. Theologically, it becomes a tion (Ex 24:7; Deut 31 :24; Josh 24:26) and was
symbol of God's presence in holy power (lsa 6:4) understood as such (e.g. Josh 8:31-35; Dan 9:2;
or judgment (Arnos 9: 1: Zeph 2: 14). Nah 1: 1, etc.). Accordingly. the believer is to ap-
The denominative säpap "stand at the propriate The Book as his own, since in it is the
threshold," occurs only in Ps 84: 10 [H 11]. The divine preinterpretation of what is best for man
KJV.ASV,Rsv "doorkeeper," understands the of- regarding basic issues of life (see Deut 17: 18-20;
fice: newer translations which use the definition Josh 1:8; 23:6, etc.).
given here intend either the Psalmist's practice
(cf. Lxx) or attitude. seper. Writing, book. soper. Scribe. (ASV,
R.D.P. Rsv translate similarly .) Both words are usually
considered to be East Semitic loan words, seper
1539 i'~I? (sapaq), ;,~~ (säpaq) slap, clap from Akkadian sipru, "writing," "message" (it-
(e.g., Job 34:26). self from saparu, "to send," "write") and
söper, from Akkadian .Mpiru "scribe," the S>s
Derivative shift probably taking place in North Akkadian.
1539a ;,~\II(sepeq) handclapping, i.e. Once the shift has occurred, the word with
mockery (Job 36: 18). Meaning samekh becomes common throughout Semitic (cf.
doubtful. Egyptian lüpir "scribe ").
The Semitic verb spr occurs with many seman-
1540 ,~!? (säpar) count, recount. Denomina- tic developments: in Southwest Semitic it means
tive verb. "set out on a journey." in Southeast Semitic,
"measure," andin Northwest Semitic, "count."
Parent Noun The Hebrew verb is either a denominative from
seper or has become associated with it. In favor
1540a ti,:;ip (S<'per) writing, book.
1540b :iit10 (sipra) book. of the former suggestion is the fact that while its
1540c t,~·=
(söper)
1540d ti~I? (s' pär)
scribe.
census, enumeration.
synonym mänil "number," "count," empha-
sizes the numbering process, säpar everywhere
1540e t:,it11?(s 'pora) number. seems to retain an underlying remembrance of
1540f t-,~o~ (mispar) same. the result of the process, the final scribal record-
ing. sapar, in turn, has spawned several deriva-
säpar is used of general mathematical activity. tives.
One can count objects (Ezr 1:8: Isa 22: 10). people The position and work of the söper were of
(II Sam 24: 10). periods of time (Lev 23: 15ff.: great significance in the ancient near east. The
Deut 16:9: Job 39:2), actions (Job 14:16: 31:4: Ps oldest scribal traditions go back to the ancient
56:8 [H 9]) or thoughts (Ps 139:17-18). As weil, it poles of culture at either end of the Fertile Cres-
is employed with a negative to indicate innumer- cent, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. In Babylon, the
able things (Gen 41 :49). Most importantly. God scribal art began very early and was regulated
promised an innumerable posterity to the pat- and enhanced by the establishment of scribal
riarchs (Gen 15:5: 32: 12 [H 13]) and to Israel (Hos schools in which a rigorous formal education in
1:10 [H 2:1]), promises which look beyond the all phases of literate culture was given. lndeed,
mere physical fulfillment to the spiritual seed of the scribe was in many ways an indispensable
the greater David in whom they find culmination figure, his activities being integral to every phase
(Jer 33:22: cf. Rom 4: 11-13: 9:7--8; Gai 4:28: Hos of Mesopotamian society. Likewise, in Egypt the
1: 10 [H 2: 1]: cf. Rom 9:26). scribal art became basic to pharaonic society, so
In the Piel stem. the iterative concept, "re- much so that in the famous ··Satire on the
count," takes on the added idea of "teil," "'de- Trades" the superiority of the scribal profession
clare," "show forth." Fathers are to instruct is loquaciously set forth as „ the greatest of all
their children of the need of the primacy of God callings ...
in the life and of his mighty wonders so that their In pre-exilic Israel, the position and work of
children may, in turn, transmit this information to the scribes were not clearly delineated. lt is
their offspring (Ps 78: lff.). Every believer is to known that the scribal art was in existence (e.g.
declare the miracles and mighty deeds of the de- Jeremiah's scribe, Baruch, Jer 36) and the scribe
livering God (1 Chr 16:24: cf. Ps 9: 1, 14 [H 2, 15]: seems to have enjoyed a favorable and responsi-
26:7: 73:28: 75: 1 [H 2]: 107:22: Jer 51: IO). He is to ble position in government (II Sam 8:17: 20:25:

632
 1540 'i~;,(säpar)
I Kgs 4:3; II Kgs 12:10-11; 22:3-7; lsa 36:3; Jer of the Kings of Israel (eighteen occurrences), The
32:12-15), even being quartered in special cham- Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah
bers in the palace (II Kgs 18:18: Jer 36:12). lt is (fifteen occurrences and the books of various
small wonder, then, that the names of many prophetic histories, I Chr 29:29; II Chr 9:20,
scribes have been retained, the most famous of etc.).
whom are: Baruch, Shebna (Hezekiah·s scribe), Several source books are mentioned as being
Shaphan (the head ofthe Josianic scribal family), woven into the scriptures: The Book of the Gen-
and Ezra. erations of Adam (Gen 5: 1), The Book (concern-
[lt seems that scribes also had other functions ing Amalek, Ex 17:14), The Book of the Coven-
in the govemment besides the literary one, just as ant (Ex 24:7; II Kgs 23:2), and The Book of the
today the Secretary of Defense does more than Law of the Lord/Moses (Deut 31:24). Man is to
type letters. Shebna, Hezekiah's scribe, was one sing his praise (Ps 79:13) in no lesser way than
of three emissaries to the invading Assyrian nature itself (Ps 19:1 [H 2]), and to show forth
commander (lsa 36:3). He is also said tobe "in- his glory, (Ps 96:3). Above all he is to tell others
charge of the palace," but his place was to be of God's righteousness and saving power (Ps
taken by Eliakim (lsa 22: 15-21). The position was 66: 16; 7 I: 15) and of the joy of living in accor-
one of authority, not merely literary production. dance with his ordinances (Ps 119:13).
Likewise there was a "scribe" in Zedekiah·s In all of this there is a very real hint of the
government who was "chief officer in charge of scribal activity, the believer recording in his
conscripting the people" (II Kgs 25:19, Niv). In every thought, word, and action the sufficiency
Jud 5: 14 also the scribe is said to wield a staff of of the God of his salvation. His whole life is tobe
authority (parallel to "commander") (Rsv, NASB, God's living letter to a needy mankind (Ps
NIV)not the pen (KJV). BDB and GB may be cor- I 18:15-17; cf. II Cor 3:3).
rect that the word is often used in the earlier
s•pär. Census, enumeration. This noun is
period to refer to a high office in the palace or
found in II Chr 2: 17 [H I6J in connection with
army and after the fall of the kingdom was re-
David's numbering the native Canaanite descen-
served for literary and religious activity (e.g.
dants for work on the temple.
Ezra the scribe). Our word "secretary" has this
same semantic division. W. F. Albright told of s•pörä, mispär. Number. The latter word,
F. Petrie's desire to excavate Kirjath Sepher though often used in purely mathematical con-
thinking it was called city of the book and might texts, has some other interesting uses. Thus, it is
contain tablets. But perhaps the name was de- often employed to point out God's greatness: his
rived from a military office, "city of the com- wonders are without number (Job 5:9; 9: 10), as is
mander" (class notes). R.L.H.] his host (Job 25:3); he alone (cf. Gen 15:5) knows
lt was with the ministry of Ezra that the scribal the number and names of the stars (Ps 147:4; Isa
art first became identified with the priests (see 40:26); in the ultimate sense, his etemality (Job
Ezr 7; Neh 8: 12:26, 36), although such activity 36:26) and understanding (Ps 147:5) are beyond
must have gone on constantly beforehand (cf. man's power to fathom.
possibly, Ps 45: 1 [H 2]). With the conditions of mispiir is also utilized in some unhappy con-
the exile and return, a distinct class of wise texts. David is rebuked and his kingdom is
specialists arose among the priests who were not plagued by pestilence for his desire to know the
only the custodians and teachers of the law but number of his realm solely for the sake of self-
those who interpreted it. In time, the group devel- glorification (II Sam 24:2). [Perhaps there was an
oped into a powerful socio-political and religious additional motive. The word piiqad used here
force, as documented by the many references to (II Sam 24:2, 4) is used elsewhere for numbering
these scribes in the intertestamental literature troops in preparation for battle (Num 1:3; Josh
and the New Testament. 8:10; I Sam 11:S--see KB p. 773), in short, for
The noun seper "writing," "book" came to be mustering troops. Perhaps David was considering
used also of important legal documents (Deut an ill-advised military venture, some war of ag-
24:1, 3; lsa 50:1; Jer 3:8) or official letters (1 Kgs grandizement beyond the limits of the promised
21:Sff.; II Kgs 19:14; Est 1:22; Jer 29:lff.). No land (see piiqad). R.L.H.] Unfaithful Israel is re-
doubt these were chiefly in the form of scrolls minded that she had forgotten God innumerable
(e.g. Num 5:23; Ps 40:7 [H 8]; cf. Heb 10:7; lsa days (Jer 2:32). For her apostasy, Israel would be
34:4: Ezk 2:9), written in columns (Jer 36:23) and scattered among the gentiles where she would be
occasionally on both sides (Ezk 2:9-10: cf. Rev few in number (Deut 4:27) so that all may learn to
5:)). put God first in their Iives (Ezk 12:14--16).
Several source books are cited in the Old Tes- This word also teaches that few numbers can
tament such as: The Book of the Wars of the be quite enough. Indeed, when those men who
Lord (Num 21:14), The Book of Jasher (Josh are numbered in the army of the Lord have met
10:13: II Sam 1: 18), The Book of the Chronicles his lest for their lives and are surrendered to his

633
1541 'K9 (säqal)

power, God honors even the few in number with sexual offences. Other ancient laws such as the
victory (Jud 7:6ff.). Man should not be surren- Code of Hammurabi prescribed death for many
dered to God only for the crisis struggles of life; offences but do not prescribe stoning. However,
rather, dedicated service ever brings God's an incorrigibly disobedient son was to be stoned
abundant blessings and fullness of life (Ex by the community, since such conduct was con•
23:25-26). trary to the divine prescription for the family as
Bibliography: Black, M., "Scribe," in IDB, responsible members of the covenant community
IV. Kopf, L., "Arabische Etymologien und (Deut 21:18-21).
Parallelen," VT 9:267--69. AI, pp. 131-32. Bibliography: Driver, G. R., and Miles, J. C.,
TDNT, III, pp. 836-44. THAT, II, pp. 162-72. The Babylonian Laws, Oxford: Clarendon, 1960,
R.D.P. I, pp. 281-83, II, pp. 214-15. Poucher, J.,
"Crimes and Punishment," HDB, I, p. 527.
R.D.P.
1541 ?i?CI (säqa/) stone (to death). (Asv, RSV
~imilarly.) iQ (sar). See no. 1549a.
The primary meaning of the root is difficult to
establish. lt may reside in the Piel stem, where 1542 :i,9 (säräb) rebel (Ezk 2:6, only).
not only the idea of "pelting with stones" is Meaning dubious.
found, but more commonly that of "freeing/
cleansing of stones," is attested. This latter :i,9 (sära). See nos. 1480a, 1549b.
meaning is closely related to Akkadian saqälu
"take away," "remove." Thus, the meaning of 1543 Mj9 (säralJ) go free, overhang, grow luxu-
the Qal may be a back formation from the idea of riously.
"taking away" (i.e. the life, by stoning). At any
rate, säqal becomes the special word in Hebrew Derivative
for putting one to death by the casting of stones. 1543a Mjp (sera/J) overhanging.
The use of säqal for removing or clearing away
The primary meaning of this root, "go free,"
stones is found only twice, both in Isa. In lsa 5:2 becomes a picture of anything that flows freely or
it is employed in the picturesque parable of the
is excessive.
Lord's careful preparation ofhis vineyard, Israel.
The root is used of physical objects to describe
In Isa 62: IO, it is utilized in describing the
the outer tent cloth overhanging the taberna:cle
painstaking preparations for the Lord's re-
(Ex 26: 12-13) which was made larger than the
gathered remnant for their return to Zion.
inner cloth so as to provide full protection and a
Elsewhere, the customary significance of ston-
front gable to the tent. lt is also used to describe
ing is intended. In II Sam 16:6, 13, Shimei keeps
an overflowing turban (Ezk 23: 15) or overspread•
throwing stones at David as a mark of hostility
ing vine (Ezk 17:6).
and contempt.
The concept of overflowing excess makes
The other occasions usually involve execution
Amos's condemnation of the citizens of the
by stoning. Ahab has Naboth stoned to death so
Northem Kingdom as sprawling over their beds
as to get his vineyard (1 Kgs 21: 1Off.). The verb is
of ivory at banquets most picturesque (Arnos 6:4,
particularly utilized in the various legal pro-
7). The portrayal of a society which had forgotten
nouncements. Thus, an ox which killed a person
God in its reckless pursuit of luxury, idleness,
was to be put to death by stoning (Ex 21:28f.).
and debauchery and is therefore overripe for
Moses prescribed death by stoning for the wor-
judgment is one which is all too contemporary.
ship of other gods (Deut 13:I0[H 11]; 17:5). Not
In Jer 49:7, KB suggest a second root of sära~
only spiritual harlotry, but physical immorality
with the same radicals meaning "putrify," "cor-
condemned one to death by stoning (Deut
rupt." Early support for such a possibility comes
22:2lff.). In Josh 7:25, Achan and his family were
from the Phoenician Yahamilik Inscription,
stoned to death for misappropriating that which
where the meaning "destroy," "corrupt," is at-
stood under the divine ban.
tested (see H. Donner and W. Röllig, KAI I, text,
Together with rägam, the more common Se-
p. 2, IO:15).
mitic word, säqal underlies the biblical teaching R.D.P
on execution by stoning. Stoning to death was the
responsibility of the whole community. lt took
1544 f"';Q (siryön) armor (Jer 51:3; 46:4).
place outside the city (Lev 24: 14; Deut 22:24;
I Kgs 21:13). The witnesses against the accused
1545 Cl"".19(säris) official, eunuch. (ASV, RSV
were to place their hands on him (Lev 24: 14) and
similarly.)
cast the first stone (cf. Jn 8:7), followed by the
rest ofthe populace (Deut 17:5-7). Death by ston- The noun, meaning "(court) official," has its
ing was chiefly prescribed for overt spiritual and origin in the Akkadian title fo resi (sarri) "the

634
 1550 cri;,(sätam)
one of the (king's) head." The meaning (1 Sam 7:7) and Saul (1 Sam 29:2ff.: cf. I Chr
"eunuch" arose with the practice ofutilizing cas- 12: 19).
trated men in key positions in the various nations R.D.P.
of the ancient near east (e.g. in Persia, Est 2:3ff.;
4:4f.). 1547 lj!? (seren) II, axle (I Kgs 7:30).
The Hebrew word is clearly related to the
name of the Akkadian royal official (II Kgs :'l~l/,Q (sar'appa). See no. 1527d.
18:17). Accordingly, särfs is not tobe translated
"eunuch" unless context or other evidence de- 1548 iitil;) (sirpad) an unidentified desert
mands it. Thus, since thorough study fails to un- plant. Apparently a worthless thornbush,
cover conclusive evidence for the employment of contrasted with a valuable tree (lsa 55: 13).
eunuchs as officials in ancient Egypt, the reason
why the Egyptian officers in the Joseph narrative 1549 "1jl? (sarar) be stubborn, rebellious.
were called by this term is probably that in all Derivatives
three cases (Gen 37:36: 39: 1: 40:2, 7) these men
1549a t-,Q (sar) stubborn, rebellious.
were special officials of Pharaoh.
1549b t:,-,1? (sara) rebellion.
lt can be doubted that Israel would have inau-
gurated the employment of eunuchs. Such men The root means basically "to be stubborn."
wouldhave been excluded from the congregation While Akkadian saräru "be unstable," "obsti-
by Mosaic Law (Lev 22:24: Deut 23:2). lt has nate," "be a liar/felon" is probably related,
been argued that they may have been introduced Arabic ta 'ara "be contumacious" is unlikely.
by Jezebel (cf. I Kgs 22:9) and maintained by The root lays stress on attitude, whereas the
subsequent kings (II Kgs 8:6: 9:32) in positions in synonymous märad emphasizes rebellious ac-
close contact with women. If so, the Lord's tions.
promise through Isaiah (56:3-5) is most apropos. The root is clearly displayed in the case of the
No certain evidence exists that Daniel and his wayward and rebellious son who is publicly de-
three friends were made eunuchs (II Kgs 20: 17- nounced and executed (Deut 21: l 8ff., see und er
18: Dan 1). säba'). Most often it portrays Israel' s total rebel-
Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 766-67. Iion against God (lsa 1:23; Jer 6:28). Indeed, the
R.D.P. "stubborn and rebellious son" may be one who is
not merely disobedient to parents, but who has
rebelled likewise against their God. In that case,
1546 1"1!;1(seren) I, Lord, tyrant. (Asv, RSV
. similarly.) the verses teach that even the parent should con-
demn the apostate son. Cf. for a similar thought
A Philistine loan word, seren always appears Deut 13:6--11. lt is a rebellious generation (Ps
in the plural and designates the five lords of the 78:8) or heifer (Hos 4: 16) which walks in its own
Philistine pentapolis (Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, way (lsa 65:2). lt has a stubborn shoulder (Neh
Gath, and Gaza, which together with the ter- 9:29), a deaf ear (Zech 7: 11), and a stubborn and
ritories around them made up the Philistine am- rebellious heart (Jer 5:23).
phictyony, Josh 13:3: Jud 3:3). Despite attempts The Akkadian force of the root is probably to
to connect the work with Greek tyrannos "ty- be understood in the description of the restless
rant," its exact etymological origin is still de- woman of the streets who lacks stable roots in the
bated, and doubtless will be until the Philistine community (Prov 7: 11).
language can be recovered. Current scholarship
sar. Stubborn, rebellious. This adjectival de-
postulates a relationship with Indo-Aryan ser. In
rivative occurs in two contexts, both of which
I Sam 21:l0ff., the seren ofGath is called a king.
describe Ahab's psychological condition as being
lt is tobe distinguished from the seren ("axle")
sullen and aggravated when being rebuked or re-
of I Kgs 7:30.
buffed (1 Kgs 20:43: 21 :4-5).
Although the Philistine states were totally in-
dependent, they could and did cooperate when sära. Rebellion. This noun may be taken from
commoncause or design necessitated. They con- either sur (q. v .) or sarar. In three contexts (lsa
spired with Delilah to subdue Samson, an action 1:5; Jer 28:16; 29:32), spiritual rebellion is in
which God eventually turned to their death (Jud view: hence, the word involved seems clearly re-
16:5ff.). lated to sarar.
Accordingto I Sam 5--0, the lords acted in con- R.D.P.
cert in the crisis revolving around the Hebrew
Arkof the Covenant both at Ashdod (where their 1549.1 ii,i;i (s''täw) winter, Song2:II.
god Dagon lay powerless before the Lord) and at
Ekron. They repeatedly banded together in battle 1550 Clt-1?(sätam) stop up, shut up, keep
againstthe Israelites, both in the days of Samuel close (e.g. II Kgs 3: 19, 25: Dan 8:26).

635
1551 *iti9 (sätar)

1551 *-,r,ci (sätar) hide, conceal. Not used in The Niphal is also used passively. Job laments
th~Qa!. that his way is hidden from God (Job 3:23). Israel
falsely believed that God did not take notice of
Derivatives her, Jet alone adjudicate her cause justly (lsa
1551a t-,n; (seter) hiding place. 40:27).
1551b 1"!,~I? (sitra) hiding place. In the Hithpael, the reflexive takes on the
1551c "1il'II?~(mistbr) place of shelter. added idea of ''hiding oneself carefully. '' The dif-
ficult Isa 45: 15 probably means no more than that
1551d .,~I?~ (mistär) hiding place. the Lord reserves the right to veil some of his
1551e "1!'11?1;
(master) hiding, one who purposes.
causes people to hide. In the more frequently attested Hiphil, the
basic idea of "hiding" comes forth. Perhaps its
The root in its basic meaning "hide"' is com-
most significant use is in the idiom to "hide the
mon to West, Southwest, and Southeast Semitic.
face," symbolizing broken communion, such as
The subordinate thought of protection involved
between God and sinful Israel (lsa 59:2). The
in the root, which helps to distinguish it from its
most tragic example of broken fellowship is
synonyms 'iilam "conceal" and /Jiihä' "with-
man's rejection of Messiah (lsa 53:3, where the
draw," "hide," is reflected in such Amorite
derivative master occurs). Conversely, not to
names as Sitre-Bat_ilum. "Baal is my protection. ··
hide the face beautifully pictures open and füll
The verbal root occurs eighty-th~ee times, usu-
communion (Job 13:20). Perhaps the most crucial
ally in the Hiphil (forty-five) or Niphal (thirty)
instance ofthis is in Psalms 22:24 [H 25]. Wedded
stems. The latter is frequently used reflexively,
to the call-answer motif (which speaks of fellow-
"hide oneself." David hides himself from Saul
ship, cf. Ps 102:1-2 [H 2-3]), the connotations in
(1 Sam 20:5ff.): Elijah hides by the Brook Cherith
the idiom and an exegesis of the whole of Psalm
(1 Kgs I 7:3).
22 bear greatly on a füll understanding of Mes-
An interesting problem arises in Prov 22:3 (cf.
siah 's relation with the Father in those climactic
27: 12). Here it is said that a prudent man sees evil hours when he effected the propitiation on the
and hides himself. but a simple man passes on cross (cf. Heb 5:7).
and pays the penalty. M. Dahood (Proverbs and
Experientially, God himself will be a shelter for
Northwest Semitic Philology, Rome: Pontificium
the believer, not only on that day of the Lord's
Institutum Biblicum, 1963, pp. 45-46), taking the
wrath (Zeph 2:3), but from the storms of every-
form w"yistiir ("1~1?'!) as an example ofan infixed day living (Ps 17:8: 27:5: 31 :20 [H 21 ]; 64:2 [H 3)).
"t'" with the verb sur (q.v.) "turn aside,'" trans-
lates the line, · 'The prudent man sees danger and seter. Hiding place. Occurs thirty-five times.
tums aside. ·· Dahood's comparison of these Most notably, God is seen in the approaching
verses with Prov 14:16 (.. A wise man is cautious storm, making darkness his hiding place (Ps 18:11
and tums away from danger, but a fool passes on [H 12]: cf. II Sam 12:12, where, however, seter
and is unsuspecting"), where sur is definitely does not occur). But God is available in less spec-
read, strengthens his point. Otherwise, the tacular ways. He himself is ever a place of refuge
(Kethib) Qal form of the verb in 22:3 would al- and protection from all dangers for the believer
most have to be a scribal error for a Niphal as in (Ps 32:7: 91:1: 119:114).
27:12 "hide oneself." The Qal of sätar is not Bibliography: TH AT, II, pp. 173----81.
used elsewhere. R.D.P.

636
 :v ('äb). See nos. 1552a, 1574a. cial service of the priests only. The NT however,
1552 ::11 ('bb). Assumed root ofthe following. steadfastly resisted using this group of words for
1552a :v ('äb). Architectural tenn, mean• the NT ministry or its functions except in Rom
ing unknown (I Kgs 7:6: Ezr 15:16, where it refers to Paul's labors for Jesus
41:25). Christ. lnstead, it reserved it for other religious
contexts, especially those dealing with the oT
1553 ,;i~ ('äbad) work, serve. ritual (Heb 9:21; 10:IL Lk 1:23).
Derivatives 'ebed. Slave, servant. The form appears 799
times in the OT.
1553a "h?~ ('ebed) slave, servant.
1553b i:11 ('llbäd) work (Eccl 12:1).
While the most basic idea of 'ebed is that of a
slave, in Israel slavery was not so irksome, since
1553c tM?i!l~('abodii) /abor, service.
this status involved rights and often positions of
1553d rii:i: ( 'abüddii) service (household
T;e~ants) (Gen 26: 14: Job 1:3).
trust. A fellow lsraelite could not be held indefi-
nitely against his will, but his period of bondage
1553e m,:i: ('abdüt) servitude, bondage
was limited to six years (Ex 21:2). Even the much
(Ezr 9:8, 9: Neh 9:17).
protested description of a slave as his master·s
1553f i;~i;, (ma'bäd) work (Job 34:25).
money (Ex 21:20-21) was not an "unsentimental
'abad appears 290 times in the OT. thought,'' but served to control physical abuse by
The etymology of this word seems to share the the master. Whenever evil intent could be proved
ideas of several Semitic roots, e.g. the old (Ex 21:14), or the slave died (21:20). the master
Aramaic root which means "'to do or make," an was liable to punishment. If the master·s intent
Arabic root meaning "'to worship, obey" (God) was debatable, an injured slave at least won his
and its intensive stem meaning "'to enslave, re- freedom (Ex 21:26--27), and the master lost his
duce to servitude." loaned money (21:21). Note also the servant's
This service may be directed toward things, position of honor in Gen 24:ff; 41: 12 (cf. 15:2).
people, or God. A king's subjects are his servants (Gen 21:25:
When used in reference to things it is usually Ex 7:28), as are all his vassal kings (II Sam 10:19)
followed by an accusative of the thing upon and tributary nations (I Chr 18:2, 6, 13). These in
which the labor is expended, e.g. "'to till" a field the service of the king are also his servants (Gen
(Gen 2:5 and often elsewhere): ··to dress" 40:20), including officers (1 Sam 19:1), officials
vineyards; workers or artisans in flax (lsa 19:9) or (II Kgs 22: 12), and ambassadors (Num 22: 18).
in city construction (Ezk 48: 18). Occasionally it Often the term "servant" was used as a polite
is without the accusative as in Deut 15:19, "'to and humble reference to oneself (Gen 33:5). This
till" [the ground]. The second category is fol- could reach extreme proportions as in the ex-
lowed by an accusative of person, e.g. Jacob's pression "'your servant, the dog" and the like
serving Laban (Gen 29: 15: 30:26, 29). Sometimes (II Kgs 8:13; II Sam 9:8). Cf. also the Tell el
this usage includes the preposition h" with aper- Amarna tablets and Lachish letters nos. 2, 5, 6.
son, thus one "'works by means of another" or The expression "your servant" was frequently
uses another as a slave (Ex 1:14; J er 22: 13; or in used when addressing God in prayer (Ex 4: 10; Ps
the Pual stem with captives, lsa 14:3). Servitude 19:12, 14: 109:28).
also includes "'to serve as subjects" to a king or The most significant use of the term „ servant' ·
ruler(Jud 9:28: I Sam 11:1). In the Hiphil stem, it is as a messianic designation, the most prominent
means "to compel one to labor" as a slave (Ex personal, technical term to represent the oT
1:13).When the service is offered to God, how- teaching on the Messiah. The central teaching
ever, it is not bondage, but rather a joyous and passages on this theme are found in the last
liberating experience (Ex 3:12; 4:23; 7:16, 26; twenty-seven chapters of Jsaiah. There the term
10:26;Ps 22:31: Job 21: 15: Jer 2:20; Mal 3: 14). All occurs twenty times in the singular (chaps. 39-53)
too frequently, the text records that this service and eleven times in the plural (chaps. 54-66).
was given to other gods who were not gods at all In twelve of the twenty examples of the singu-
(Deut 7:16: II Kgs 10:18-19, 21-23, etc.). lar and in all eleven of the plural, the servant is
The same concept is used of serving Yahweh the nation Israel. Passages in which the singular
with the Levitical service (Num 3:7-8; 4:23, 30, occurs include 41:8-10: 42: 18-19: 43:9-10; 44: 1-
47; 8:11, 19ff., etc.). Interestingly enough, the 3, 21; 45:4: 48:20: and perhaps 49:3. The plural
LXXreserved the Greek word latreuö for the offi- occurs in 54: 17; 56:6; 63: 17; 65:8-9, 13-15; 66: 14.

639
1553 ,,~ ('äbad)

As Willis Beecher reminds us, this is not just Is- of Noah that he "shall comfort us concerning our
rael the servant as an ethnical group. lt is that, work and toil of our hands, because of the ground
plus something more. lt is also Israel as the which the Lord has cursed" (Gen 5:29).
people of the promise or covenant made with Ab- The fruits of labor are reaped in the occupa-
raham and David. There is both national Israel tions of Cain and Abel and the development of
and spiritual Israel, regardless of whether it is the arts in Cain's family (Gen 4:21-22). Nowhere
native or adopted, which shares the promise. is the subject of leisure time discussed, for man
There are also passages in which the servant is works as long as there is daylight (Ps 104:23; cf.
differentiated from actual Israel and has a mis- Jn 11:9). But a definite cycle of rest is provided
sion to Israel (lsa 49: 1-9; 42: 1-7: 50:4-10; also as a duty and a blessing on the seventh day
52: 13-53: 12). This servant must be identified (Ex 20:9-10). By working six days Israel imitated
with the Israel-servant, but he must also be dis- God who worked six days in creating the cosmos.
tinguished from them, having a mission to them In this way she doubtless bore witness to her
(as explicitly stated in 49:5--6: cf. 49:3). Obvi- pagan neighbors, who worshiped the elements of
ously this is the reverse of eponymous heroes the creation personified as deities, that she wor-
who bequeath their names to their countries and shiped the transcendent creator. Man is to rest in
nations so that the same term refers to both. imitation of God, who rests from his work after
Here, the focal member of the group arrives last the creation (Ex 20:11; Deut 5:14-15). There
rather than first. There is a corporate solidarity were also to be special feast days on which there
between three groups which in Franz Delitzsch's was tobe "no laborious work" (Lev 23:7-8, 21,
illustration are arranged like a pyramid with the 25, 35, 36; Num 28:25-26; 29: 1, 12, 35).
base representing all national Israel (Isa 42: 19). The type of work included under this term
the middle representing spiritual Israel, i.e. na- ranges from agricultural work in the fields (Ex
tive believers and adopted believers (Isa 41 :8- 1:14) to constructing the tabernacle (Ex 35:24,
10), and the apex representing the Messiah, Jesus repairing the temple (II Chr 34:13), and working
Christ. in fine linen (1 Chr 4:21). Even God's work of
An alternative view finds two servants in these judgment is so termed (lsa 28:21).
passages-the blind failing servant Israel of When the service is offered to God, it will con-
42: 19; 49:3 etc. and the healing and restoring sist of obedience. The petformance of this ser•
Messiah servant of 42:1 and 49:5: 50:10. 52:13 vice is found in the OT ritual and worship, e.g. the
and 53: 11. people's bringing sacrifices (Josh 22:27) and the
lsaiah is not the only prophet who applies this service of the Levites and priests (Num 4: 19;
term to the covenant people; see also Jer 30: 10; II Chr 8: 14).
46:27-28; Ezk 28:25: 37:25. lt is applied to David, Finally there is the "bondage" of captives or
the Messiah of promise, in Jer 33:21-22, 26; Ezk subjects. Overwhelmingly this refers to the bon•
34:23-24; 37:24-25, and to David's descendant, dage of Israel in Egypt (Ex 1:14; Neh 5:18; II Chr
Zerubbabel, in Hag 2:23. Of special interest is its 10:4; Isa 14:3). Sometimes it refers also to mili-
connection with the messianic title "Branch" tary service (Ezk 29: 18).
(Zech 3:8). Note that the word does not appear in any of
Other religious usages include all "worship- the ethical teaching about work in the wisdom
ers" of God (a phrase commonly used by all literature. Perhaps the word had become so
Semitic peoples in referring to their false gods, strongly associated with servitude and bondage
e.g. "the servant of Baal," Marduk, etc.). any on the one side and worship on the other that the
servants in the temple or its service, and those mere secular concept of work was shifted to
who served their Lord in unique roles as his ser- other terms, \ike m'läkti or pä'al or ma'iHeh,
vants such as Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, although the original agricultural reference could
Joshua, Ca1eb, David, Hezekiah, Eliakim, and have provided such a stimulus. Cf. our word
Zerubbabel. Also the title of God's prophets, "culture" and "to cultivate ...
"my servants," or "his servants" or "your ser- Bibliography: Allis, Oswald T., The Unity of
vants," occurs twenty-four times. /saiah. Presbyterian and Reformed, 1950, pp.
81-101. Beecher, Willis J., The Prophets and the
'äböda. Labor, service. lt appears 145 times in Promise, Baker, 1963, pp. 241-88. MacRae,
the oT. Allan A .• · The Servant of the Lord in lsaiah,"
Man's work and labor is not the result of sin BS 121:125-32; 218-27. Mendelsohn, 1., "On
and the fall. Already in God's great creation man Slavery in Alalakh," Israel Exploration Journal
was placed in the garden "to work it" ('äbad, 5:65-72. ___ , "Slavery in the Ancient Near
Gen 2:15). The curse (Gen 3:16-17) was only the East," BA 9:74-88. Richardson, TWB, pp. 287-
pain and hardship which were to accompany 88. Roth, W. M. W .. "The Servant of the Lord:
labor, not the labor itself (cf. 'e!feb "sorrow"). Language and Interpretation," EQ: 131-43. Mur-
This point is made when Lamech says at the birth ray, John. Principles of Conduct, Eerdmans,

640
 1556 ,;~ ( ·äbar)

1957,pp. 82-106. Richardson, A., The Biblica/ 1556c M,;,P,(·abärä) ford.

Doctrine of Work, London, 1952. TDNT, 11, pp. 1556d rn,:;,~('ebrä) overjlow, arrogance,
636-52; V, pp. 654-77 (which has an extensive Jury.
bibliography).Zevit, Ziony, "The use of 'ebed as 1556e *t,;~ ('äbar) be arrogant, infuriate
a Diplomatie Term in Jeremiah, JBL 88:74-77. oneself. Occurs only in the Hith-
W.C.K. pael.
1556f t,~:~ ( 'iibür) I, produce (Josh
r,~i;,11 ( 'abdüt), See no. 1553e. 5: 11-12).
1556g t,~:~ ('äbür) II, on account of.
1554 :i;i~ ('äba) be thick, /al, gross (e.g. 1556h ,;P,~ (ma'abär) ford, pass.
I Kgs 12:10: II Chr 10:10). 1556i r,,;l1~ (ma'bärä) ford, pass.

Derivatives The main idea ofthis verbis that of movement:

as a rule it is the movement of one thing in rela-
1554a •:;i1,1 ('äbi) thickness (e.g. I Kgs tion to some other object which is stationary,
7:26= II Chr 4:5). moving, or motivating. Some have said that the
1554b :i;w~ (ma'äbeh) thickness, com- simplest translation of 'iibar is "to pass," but
°pactness (1 Kgs 7:46; II Chr 4: 17). this does not really cover the various nuances
that 'äbar may carry with it. lt is used about 550
:,ii:w ( 'abödä). See no. 1553c.
times.
1:1b11'('aböt). See no. 1555a. lt is impossible to discuss all the shades of
,~:~ ( 'äbü~)- I, II. See nos. 1556f,g. meaning, but there are four general usages.
r,1:~ ('äbüt). See no. 1558a.
1. The concept of movement may be used in a
simple sense: 'äbar is go beyond or further: thus
1555 1:1;~ ('äbaO take or give a pledge for a debt. Abraham says to his heavenly visitors that they
(e.g. Deut 24: 10; 15:6). Denominative could go on (Rsv pass on) after they had eaten
verb. (Gen 18:5).
'äbar means "go" when the emphasis is spe-
Parent Noun
cifically on movement without specific reference
1555a 1:1i:11('abö() pledge, article pledged to another object (Ex 38:26; Deut 2: 14; Job
as securiJy for debt (Deut 24: 11, 13:13).
13). 2. 'äbar may be used to express the fact that
there is some movement between two specific
Derivative places. In this category one finds numerous ref-
1555b 1:1•i;i;,11
( 'ab(i() weight of pledges, erences to lsrael's passing over the Jordan to
heavy debts (Hab 2:6). enter (or pass into) the promised land (Deut 27:3).
Moses used this phrase often to indicate how the
lt is probable that the cloak or other item used hindrance or barrier was to be overcome by Is-
as a pledge was not of sufficient value to serve as rael, in realizing the fulfillment of the covenant
security. lt was not to be kept by the creditor. promise concerning the land. This same emphasis
Apparently it was a symbol of the transaction is found in Josh 1:2. The idea of passing over
taken to the local court and witnessed, (cf. appears also in Gen 31:21, where Jacob crosses
Speiser, E. A., ··of Shoes and Shekels," in the river Euphrates as he begins his flight from
Oriental and Biblical Studies, University of Laban.
Pennsylvania, 1967, p. 154). After the transaction 'äbar is used also to indicate the thought of
was witnessed the pledge should be returned passing through or traversing a land. Moses
promptly. For discussion on loans, see neshek. asked the Amorite king Sihon to permit Israel to
R.L.H. march through his land (Num 21:22). Micah
speaks of the remnant of Israel passing through
1:1•~:;i11('abfir). See no. 1555b. foreign Jands as a lion goes through a forest (Mic
':;IP,·('abi). See no. 1554a. 5:8).
The Hiphil form of the verb very often appears
1556 ,;~ ('äbar) pass over, by, through, alien- to express the thought that one person causes or
ate, bring, carry, do away, take, take away, motivates another to move (Gen 8: 1; 32:24; Num
transgress. 32:5, etc.).
The term is used in Deut 18:10 and elsewhere
Derivatives to indicate the idea of compelling an infant to
1556a ti;;v. ('eher) region across or be- pass through sacrificial fire to his death.
·yond, side. 3. The' concept of movement may be used in a
1556b ~".l!;lll ( 'ibri) Hebrew. metaphorical sense. Solomon·s wealth exceeded

641
1556 "l;!:'('äbar)
(passed beyond) that of all others. The wicked- duction to the problem the term 'eher gives in
ness of Judah and Israel knew no bounds (Rsv) in interpreting some passages in Deut and Josh. The
that i' passed beyond that of others (Jer 5:28). interpretation of the term has some bearing on
Other metaphorical uses can be mentioned. one 's view concerning the authorship of
When men die they pass away from this life (Job Deuteronomy (cf. e.g. Hirsch in ISBE, 459").
30:15: Prov 22:3). Something comes between The author of Josh (22:7), writing while on the
husband and wife and they are alienated (Jer 6:8). west side of the Jordan, says that Reuben, Gad,
The money passed around is the current, the and one-half of Manesseh received their inher-
standard shekel (Gen 13:16). Men do business, itance me 'eher hayyarden (beyond, i.e. on the
exchange wares (Ezk 27:9). The bulls gender other side of the Jordan). Yet the term 'eher may
(Pie! of 'iihar "breed," Rsv), i.e. are fruitful (Job also be used to speak of the area west of the ri ver
21:10). (Deut 3:20, 25; 11:30: Josh 9:1). Joshua gave to
4. Finally, the term indicates a specific the other (non-Transjordanian) half tribe of Man-
spiritual concept. Men transgress the covenant or nesseh a possession in the land among their
the law, i.e. move outside or beyond the re- brethren (i.e. the nine tribes) me 'eher hayyarden
quirements of the covenant or law by committing yämmii, beyond the Jordan westward, meaning
adultery and practicing idolatry (Deut 17:2) or on the west side (Josh 22:7).
other sin. But on a more positive level Moses also Summing up we can say: 1) that 'eher may be
spoke of Israel as entering or passing into a cov- used variously to refer to regions located on one
enant that God was making with them (Deut side or the other of a specific river. 2) The
29: 12 [H 11]). Balaam gave expression to another standpoint of the writer has to be clearly under-
spiritual meaning of 'iihar when he said, "I can- stood as being either local or mental (i.e. writing
not pass beyond the Word of the Lord" (Num as if one is speaking from a place he is not in at
22: 18). the time): or eise a geographical name may be
involved, as in Ezr 4: 10, where the Aramaic
'eher. Against, beyond, by, over, passage, quar- 'iihar-nahärii refers to the Persian provinces
ter, side other/this side, straight (BDB adds "re- west of the Euphrates.
gion, across." Rsv has "space in front," KJVand In Deut the mental standpoint has to be as-
ASVread "over against" (Ex 25:37). sumed in some passages and not in others. In
'eher, a derivative of 'ähar, is used as a noun, Deut 1:1 there is the phrase h''eher hayyarden.
preposition or adverb to indicate the relationship The phrase is adverbial, indicating the place
of persons or things in regard to their location, where Israel was when Moses spoke the words of
distance, or direction. In various instances 'eher Deut to them. The additional phrase, in the wil-
is used with prefixed prepositions such as h' derness, makes it clear that the region referred to
or min. is on the east side of the Jordan. The phrase then
The term is used as a noun to indicate a specific can be used to refer to the region west of the
place (lsa47:15; RSVreads "direction"). In I Sam Jordan as weil as to the region east of it (cf. Deut
26:13, the other side is a mountaintop a long dis- 3:8 east, and Deut 3:20 west). The solution to the
tance away. problem of how to translate 'eher in each in-
As a preposition it indicates the relationship of stance is to keep in mind the various possibilities:
two things to each other, e.g. the commandments I) the term can be used as a noun (naming a
of the Lord are not too hard to keep or too far place), as an adverb (indicating a place), as apre-
away: they are not in heaven or beyond ('eher) position (indicating a relationship); 2) the
the sea. Thus used, the term emphasizes the standpoint of the writer must be determined as
presence and availability of God's Word for his either local or mental; 3) the entire context must
covenant people. In I Kgs 7:20 we read of how be carefully studied because definite clues are to
various parts of the temple were placed in rela- be derived from it in each instance.
tion to others, e.g. the tops of the pillars were A final remark is in order: there is nothing in
beside ('eher) the network. the use of the term 'eher which militates against
'eher also appears as an adverb. Ezekiel, seek- Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy. [Another
ing to describe the flight pattern of the living crea- possibility is to take 'eber in the sense of "shore,
tures, said that they went straight forward ('e/ edge, area" (cf. Isa 9:1 [H 8:23] "along the Jor-
'eher pänäyw, in the direction their face pointed). dan" NIV) which requires further specification.
Nehemiah came to the governors heyond ('eber) The passages exhibiting this use are usually qual-
the river (2: 11). From his location in Susa he ified as east or west of the Jordan-in lsa 9: I as
speaks of passing through the land to Jerusalem. the region of Galilee. Of interest is Num 32: 19
This area was called the Trans-Euphrates satrapy which uses the expression twice, once specified
(Aber-nahara) according to J. Bright (History of as "beyond" and the other specified as eastward.
Israel, Westminster, I 959, p. 354). This reference Joshua 9 also has the two meanings in close prox-
to the use of the term ·eher can serve as an intro- imity, with verse 1 specified as the territory to the

642
 1556 ,,~ ('äbar)

west and vs 10 specified as the territory of Og and AJSL 58:237-53. Lewy, J., "Origin and Signifi-
Sihon. All but one of the verses in Deut except cation of the Biblical Term Hebrew," Hebrew
1:1 have this additional specification. Cf. Deut Union College Annual, 27:1-13. ---, "A New
4:41, 46, 47 and 49 versus Deut 11:30. R.L.H.] Parallel between Habiru and Hebrews," HUCA
15:47-58. Noth, M., The History of Israel, Lon-
'ibri. Hebrew (Asv and RSVsame). don: Black, 1960, 33-36, 110--121.TDNT. III, pp.
Used as an adjective (Gen 39: 14) and as a noun 365-69.
(Ex 1:19), 'ibri is used in the OT to refer to a 'ebrä. Anger, rage, wrath (ASVand Rsv trans-
specific ethnic group ofpeople. In the or the term late arrogant pride, arrogance of pride, fury).
is used mostly by non-Israelites and then could
The verbal root of the noun is 'iibar ··to pass,
carry the connotation of a non-native, a person
to pass over, to overflow.'' (Michaelis and Driver
who is not "a free person on free soil" (Ex 2: 11, relate the term to the Arabic gabira: bear rancor.)
etc.). BDB's suggestion that the term is derived
The ideas expressed by the noun are a surpassing
from 'äbar and means "one from beyond,"
measure and/or excess. In the OT it is used in
"from the other side," "from beyond the Eu-
relation to the pride of men and in association
phrates," "from beyond the Jordan" seems to
with anger. Pride, combined with anger is arro-
give support to the "non-native" concept applied
gance and insolence.
to the lsraelites. But this etymological explana-
The term 'ebrii, when used in relation to God,
tion is not followed by KB. is used as a synonym of such terms as qii$ap,
There have also been various attempts to iden-
IJemii, etc. However, it adds the nuance of the
tify 'ibri with IJabiru, a term used in documents fierceness ofGod's wrath (Ps 78:49) expressed in
of the second millennium e.c. (See BDB, 'ibrf, an overwhelming and complete demonstration
and Haldar in IBD, IJabiru. Kline has argued (lsa 13:9). God's wrath burns, overflows, sweeps
however, that this is highly improbable; (cf. Bib- away everything before it (Ezk 22:21, 31). Thus
liography). E. A. Speiser agrees after citing the
on the day of the Lord's 'ebrii, nothing stands
monograph by M. Greenberg (begun as a disser-
before it. When the day ofjudgment is spoken of,
tation under Speiser's direction). Speiser says,
the reference is to God's wrath overflowing,
"The evidence remains ambiguous" ( Genesis
burning, consuming all that has displeased or op-
AB, p. 103).
posed him. When man's 'ebrii is spoken of, it is
The biblical record quite definitely indicates
described as cruel and merciless (Arnos 1:11),
that •ibri is derived from Eber, the name of one of
having wounded pride as its basic motivation.
Shem's sons (Gen 10:21; 11:14, 16). Abraham is
identified as a descendant of Shem, of Eber's line 'äbar. Meddle, to provoke to anger, to rage, tobe
(Gen 11:26). The name Ebrum now tums up also wroth. BDB lists 'iibar separately as a de-
as a king of Ebla! 'ibri is first used to designate nominative verb related to 'ebrii used only in the
Abraham in Gen 14:13. Whether or not all de- Hithpael, tobe arrogant, infuriate one's seif.
scendants of Eber were designated as ·ibrim is This verb is used to express a number of spe-
not known. The OT definitely does link Abraham, cific emphases. We read of the fool, whose at-
via Eber, to Shem and thus Abraham is desig- titude and conduct is descrit-ed as one who
nated as the one through whom Noah's prophecy "beareth himself insolently and is confident"
conceming Shem was tobe fulfilled. "Hebrew" (Prov 14:16, Asv: "throws off restraint, is care-
('ibri) became the name by which the covenant less" Rsv). The fool also is quick to meddle in or
people were designated in contradistinction to be agitated to become a third party in a quarre!.
the Egyptians and Philistines (Gen 39-Ex 10; The prudent man looks where he is going, he
I Sam 4-29). But the fact remains that when fears and departs from evil. In this context the
non-Israelite people used the word, their intent verb hit'abber definitely conveys the idea of
was not necessarily to recognize Israel as God's human pride motivating a man to a rash demon-
chosen people through whom he was fulfilling his stration of overconfidence, folly, excessive anger
promises; rather it could have been used in a and evil. Proverbs 20:2 teaches that one who
more or less derogatory sense, i.e. the immi- provokes a king to this frame of mind and con-
grants, the strangers, those from beyond. [The duct brings his own life into great <langer (Asv
Israelites themselves seldom used the word "sinneth against," RSV"forfeits his life"). This
among themselves. They used it to describe passage suggests the uncontrollable devastating
themselves to outsiders. Thus it seems to have character of aroused and human overflowing
covered a )arger dass of people. R.L.H.] pride and anger.
Bibliography: M. Greenberg, The Hab/piru, The verb is used also to describe God's reac-
American Oriental Society (1955). Kline, M. G., tions to Moses' and Israel's disobedience.
"The Habiru -Kin or Foe of Israel?" Westmin- Deuteronomy 3:26 suggests that God gave a
ster Theological Journal 20:4fr-70. Kraeling, strong, full expression of his impatience and
E.G., "The Origin of the Name «Hebrews», anger with Moses. The psalmist, when recount-

643
1557 W~~ ( 'äbash)

ing Israel's history (Ps 78:21) reminds God's 1560 ',Jt: ( 'g/). Assumed root of the following.
people that Israel's sins in the wildemess really 1560a t',~1,1 ( 'egel) (bull-) calf.
tried the patience of God. In fact, God became 1560b tM?~I/ ('eg/d) heifer.
füll of fury and he caused it to flow forth as a 1560c ,·.liJ ('agöl), ',iJiJ ( 'ägö/) round.
flood. This term certainly gives us an insight into 1560d M7~1:' ('agäld) cart.
the spontaneous complete, and evident abhor- 1560e ',•~iJ ('agil) hoop, ring.
rence of God towards repeated sins by his chosen 1560f ',~fr~ (ma'gäl) entrenchment,
delivered people. track.
'äbur /. Old corn and RSV have "pro-
(ASV 'egel. Calf. The calf is one of the animals used
duce") UT 19: no. 1807 suggests "harvest." for sacrifice. A year-old bull calf was acceptable
In Josh 5:11-12 one reads that Israel ate the as a burnt offering (Lev 9:3; Mic 6:6) and one of
'abur of the land of Canaan, and then manna an unspecified age was used as a sin offering for
ceased. Thus Israel actually realized they had ar- Aaron (Lev 9:2, 8).
rived in the promised land, the land "passed up The fatted calf was used for food (I Sam 28:24;
food" for sustenance to them. cf. Luke 15:23, 27, 30) but it was generally a deli-
cacy for the rich (Arnos 6:4).
'äbfir II. Because o/, /or, intent that, /or -'s,
The gamboling of the calf is mentioned in Ps
sake, that, to.
29:6 and in Mal 4:2 [H 3 :20]. The calf was used in
'abür is a preposition and conjunction always
the covenant rite, the participants passing be-
used with the prefix b" to express causal, pur-
tween the parts of the slaughtered calf (Jer 34: 18;
posive, and resultative relationships in agreement
cf. Gen 15:9-10).
with the meanings of the root term 'abar
The calf is also used as a type. lt typifies the
"movement from one to another," as from pur-
Gentile peoples (Ps 68:30 [H 31]), and Egypt's
pose (or cause) to accomplishment (or result).
Bibliography: Gemser, B., "Be'eber Hajjar-
mercenary soldiers (Jer 46:21). In Jer 31:18 the
untrained calf represents the wayward Ephraim
den: In Jordan's Borderland," VT 2:349-55.
and in Isa 27: 10 the grazing calf reflects the deso-
G.V.G.
lation of Judah. The calfs peaceful co-existence
with other animais bespeaks the peace of the fu-
•,:;i~ ('ibrf). See no. 1556b. ture age (lsa II :6).
The calf as an image, made of gold, is by far the
most interesting use of this word. Aaron yielded
1557 !V;liJ ('abash) shrivel (Joel 1:17, only).
to the wishes of the people in the wilderness and
made them the molten calf (Ex 32:4, 8, 19, 20, 24,
1558 *?'l;liJ ('abat) weave, wind. Occurs only 35) which he identified as the gods who delivered
in the Pie) (Mic 7:3). them from Egypt. However, this calf is involved
in the subsequent feast proclaimed for YHWH
Derivatives (Ex 32:5) and therefore may have been a symbol
1558a rii:liJ ( 'abot) having interwoven of God · s presence or, more likely, since "gods"
foliage, leafy (e.g. Ezk 20:28; Neh is pi. in verses I and 4, the name LoRD was used
8: 15). in a pagan polytheistic way.
1558b ri°:P, ('aböt) (twisted) cord, rope; The golden calves of Bethel and Dan, erected
interwoven foliage (e.g. Ex 28: 14; by Jeroboam, seem also to be pedestals upon
Isa 5: 18). which YHWH was enthroned (l Kgs 12:28, 32),
even as he was enthroned between the cherubim
above the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:22; Num
1559 :lJiJ ('agab) have inordinate a/fection, lust 7:89). However, since the calf was a symbol of
(e.g. Ezk 23:7, 9, 12; Jer 4:30). fertility, the pedestal concept faded into the
background and in the popular religion the
Derivatives
calves, due to Canaanite influence, became iden-
1559a :l~iJ ('agab) love (sensuous). Oc- tified with YHWH (II Kgs 17:16; Hos 8:5) and led
curs only in Ezk 33:32. to apostasy.
1559b ri;~P, ('agabd) lustfulness. Occurs
only in Ezk 23: 11. 'eglä. Helfer, young cow (ASV and RSV similar).
1559c :l"W ('ügab) flute, reed-pipe (e.g. A synonym is pärd which is the word used in
Gen 4:21; Job 30:31). Num 19 where the rite of the red heifer is de-.
scribed.
The heifer was used for agricultural purposes,
M.ll,' ('ügd). See no. 1575a. such as plowing and treading out the grain on the
,;_,·V('ägol). See no. 1560c. threshing floor (Hos 10:11). She would also be
,i.liJ ( 'ägür). See no. 1563a. used for milk. In Isa 7:21 ('eglat bäqär "young

644
 I 565 :i,t:(·ada)
cow") reference is made to the nomad who, sur- 1565a t'll/ ('ad) I, perpetuity, continuing
viving the Assyrian crisis, would own one cow future.
and two sheep. Normally, this would indicate a 1565b ip ('ad) II, booty, prey, used
poor peasant (cf. II Sam 12:1-3) yet the promise only in Gen 49:27: lsa 33:23: Zeph
here is for abundance of milk. The word "curds" 3:8.
in this passage is perhaps used figuratively for 1565c il) ('ad) III, ''.'.IV ('ade) as far
material abundance. as, even to, until, while.
A three-year-old heifer was used in the Lord's
covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:9). A three- 'ad I. Perpetuity. ASV, Rsv translate similarly,
year-old heifer would still be in its freshness and except in lsa 45: 17. Here the former has · · world
the fullness of its strength. (The "heifer of three without end" while the latter has "to all eter-
years old," the KJv rendering of lsa 15:5 and Jer nity."
48:34, is correctly understood by the ASV, Rsv and lt should be noted that there is no general word
NIV to indicate a place, Eglath-shelishiyah.) for time in Hebrew. neither are there special
A heifer which had never been worked, was terms for the past, present, future. and eternity.
used in a rite of expiation, when the body of a The word 'oliim should be compared, with spe-
murdered man was found in the open country and cial attention given to the nineteen times when
the murderer was unknown. The elders of the these words are used together.
closest city were to break the neck of this heifer 'ad, like 'oliim, is used only in connection with
in a valley with running water, washing their prepositions, as an adverbial accusative or as a
hands over it, thereby indicating their and the genitive in a construct chain. Ugaritic b'd 'Im
city's innocence (Deut 21:3, 4, 6). This rite shows could correspond to Hebrew 'od as weil as to 'ad
that crime is not simply a private matter but in- (UT 19: no. 1813).
volves the whole community. Further, in a real This word is used only twice relative to the
sense, the heifer was put to death in the place of past. The knowledge that the success of the
the murderer, hence suffering his punishment. lt wicked is short, has been known from of old (Job
was also a heifer which Samuel offered at the 20:4). In Hab 3:6 reference is made to the an-
time of his anointing David (1 Sam 16:2). tiquity of the mountains.
Ephraim is also likened to a heifer, a trained Otherwise it always denotes the unforeseeable
heifer that loved to thresh (Hos 10:11). This future; that is, it means in the following com-
suggests that she had chosen pleasant, produc- pounds: 'ö.de-'ad "forever" (lsa 26:4; 65: 18; Ps
tive and profitable labor (KD loc. cit. ). In thresh- 83:17 [H 18]; 92:7 [H 8]: 132:12, 14, /a'ad
ing, the animal was allowed to eat at will (Deut "forever," (lsa 64:9 [H 8]: Arnos 1:11: Mic 7: 18:
25:4). But now Ephraim will be put under the Ps 9:18 [H 19]; 19:9 [H 10]: 21:6 [H 71: 22:26
yoke to plow, i.e. she will be put to heavy labor [H 27]: 37:29; 61:8 [H 9]: 89:29 [H 30]; 111:3, 8,
and wearying toil. 10: 112:3, 9: 148:6: Job 19:24: Prov 12:19; 29:14:
Bibliography: Oswalt, John N., "The Golden I Chr 28:9): /"öliim wa'ad and '6/iim wa'ad
Calves and the Egyptian Concept of Deity,' · EQ "forever and ever" (Ex 15:18: Mic 4:5; Ps 9:5
45:13-20. [H 6]: 10:16: 21:4 [H 5]: 45:6 [H 7], 17 [H 18]:
c.s. 48:14 [H 15]: 52:8 [H 10]: 104:5: 119:44: 145:1, 2,
21: Dan 12:3): and as weil as in a construct chain
1561 c;v ('agam) be grieved. Occurs only in in which it serves as the modifier (lsa 9:6 [H 5])
Job 30:25. 'abi- 'ad "father forever"; 57: 15; shöken 'ad "the
eternal throne"; Hab 3:6: har"re-'ad "the ever-
1562 •i;v ( 'iigan) shut oneself in or off. Oc- lasting hills."
curs only in the Niphal, in Ruth 1:13. Frequently the word 'ad is applied to God. His
existence is eternal (lsa 57: 15). While his righ-
1563 "\Jt.' ( ·gr). Assumed root of the following. teousness endures forever (Ps 111:3; 112:3, 9),
1563a "\1JV ( •iigur) name of a bird, his anger does not (Mic 7: 18). God is worthy of
perhaps a thrush. praise and will be praised forever (Ps 45: 17
[H 18]; 52:9 [H 10]; 111:10; 145:1, 2, 21). The
il) ('ad) I, II, III. See nos. 1565a,b,c. throne of God (Ps 10:16: 45:6 [H 7]: Ex 15:18) and
iv ('ed). See no. 1576b. the law of God (Ps 19:9 [H 10]) will endure
forever.
1564 iit: ( 'dd). Assumed root of the following. This word is also applied to Israel. The Davidic
1564a :i,11
('idda) menstruaJion (lsa dynasty will continue forever, depending upon
•64:5). their response to the covenant (Pss 89: 29 [H 30]:
132:12). Zion is God's dwelling place forever (Ps
1565 :i,v ('iida) I, go on, pass by; Hiphil, re- 48:14 [H 15]; 132:14: I Chr 28:9).
move. Probably root of the following. A sharp contrast is seen in the use of this word

645
1566 :i,~
(' äda)

relative to the righteous and wicked. The righ- r,~,v.('edut). See no. 1576f.
teous will not always be forgotten (Ps 9: 18 ''W ('ade). See no. 1565c.
[H 19]) and they will inherit the land forever (Ps '".!~ ('iidf). See no. 1566a.
37:29). By contrast the wicked are doomed to riv ('adrn). See no. 1567c.
destruction forever (Ps 9:6 [H 7J: 92:7 [H 8]).
1567 *ljV ('adan) luxuriate. Occurs only in
'ad II, asfar as, even to, until, while. The spe-
Neh 9:25, in the Hithpael. A denominative
cial poetic form, 'ade is used twelve times. 'ad
verb.
functions as both preposition and conjunction. lt
indicates the gamut, beginning with the distance Parent Noun
from, the advance toward, and the movement up
1567a trW ('eden) I, finery, luxury.
to. lt is used spatially, temporally, and compara-
tively.
1567b :i~,v. ('edna) pleasure (Gen
18:12).
Spatially it can indicate arrival at a geograph-
1567c riv ('adrn) voluptuous.
ical location ("as far as Bethel," Gen 12:6), at a
1567d l';l~l'; (ma ·adiin) dainty (food), de-
particular object ("up to the horns of the altar,"
P.s 118:27) and at a person ("approach to God," light.
Ex 22:8). When used in combination with min it 'eden I. Finery, dainty, delight, Used only
gives the idea of extent ("from Sidon ... as far as three times. Twice it refers to the rich booty of
Gaza," Gen 10:19). Idiomatically it designates war. In his elegy for Saul, David urged the
range (from the young to the old, Gen 19:4). women to weep over his death, for he had pro-
This word is used temporally to indicate a con- vided them with luxurious clothes (II Sam 1:24).
tinuation of an event from a point in the past to The inhabitants of Judah indict Nebuchadnezzar
the present (Gen 19:37, 38). lt can be used of an as a beast of prey which has devoured their deli-
event clearly in the past (Gen 8:7) and also of an cacies (Jer 51:34). In Ps 36:8 [H 9] the Psalmist
event in the future (Gen 3: 19: Deut 7:20, 23). As a refers to the river of pleasure found in God who is
conjunction it can refer to action which has al- the fountain of life. This is perhaps an allusion to
ready happened (Deut 2: 14) or one which has not the joining of the four rivers in the Garden of
yet been completed at the time of the writing Eden (Gen 2: 10).
(II Sam 17:13). A continuing event can be desig-
nated under such translations as "while" and 1568 r'.11,' ('eden) II, Eden. (Always so trans-
"during" (" the exalting of the wicked is but for a . lated by the RSV and the Asv).
moment," Job 20:5; cf. Jon 4:2; II Kgs 9:22).
This word was possibly derived from the Ak-
lt can be used comparatively in the sense of
kadian word edinu based on the Sumerian word
measure or degree to suggest a higher or the eden, meaning "plain, steppe." Akkadian Bit
highest. Esther is promised her request by the
Adini refers to the region on both sides of the
king up to half the kingdom (Est 5:6). Paying the
Euphrates. lt was then secondarily associated
tithe will result in an overwhelming blessing (Mal
with the homonymous but unrelated Hebrew root
3: 10). God's words are said to run even to haste,
'ädan meaning enjoyment. However the LXX
i.e. swiftly (Ps 147:15). When used with the nega-
seems to derive this word directly from the He-
tive it expresses the concept of "not even as
brew root 'ädan by translating it "garden of de-
much as." The family of Shimei did not have as
light." This has led to the traditional identifica-
many children as Judah (1 Chr 4:27). Abishai was
tion of the Garden of Eden with Paradise which
chief ofthe thirty but he did not attain to the three
was apt enough (Rev 2:7).
(II Sam 23: 19). The army of Sisera was totally
This word appears fourteen times in the OT. In
destroyed, not a man was Ieft (Jud 4:16). As a
Gen 2:8, 10; 4: 16 reference is made to the geo-
conjunctive it can indicate a degree of achieve-
graphical area in which the garden is placed. The
ment which becomes perpetual (lsa 47:7).
Bibliography: Ginsberg, H. L., 'A Preposi-
precise location of Eden is difficult. While the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers can be located, there
tion of Interest to Historical Geographers,"
BASOR 122:12-14; 124:29-30. is general uncertainty as to the other two rivers,
the Pishon and the Gihon. However, an area near
c.s. the head of the Persian Gulf seems a likely possi-
bility. Speiser maintains that the physical back-
1566 :'!';IV ('ada) II, ornament, deck oneself. ground as given here in Genesis 2 is authentic
(AB, loc. cit. and cf. Harris, R. L. "The Mist, the
Derivative Canopy and the Rivers of Eden," JETS 11 (1968)
1566a '".IV ('adi) ornaments. 177-180).
Eden is a symbol of great fertility in Isa 51:3;
:i:rv.ceda). See nos. 1574c, e, 878a. Ezk 36:35 and Joel 2:3. Both Isaiah and Ezekiel
M';IV ('idda). See no. 1564a. promise that the waste places of Judah will blos-

646
 1574 *::m,('üb)
som, becoming as Eden. Joel, referring _to th_e 1571 *-,".IV( 'ädar) II, hoe. This verb occurs
locust invasion, indicates that prior to their am- only in the Niphal (Isa 5:6; 7:25).
val the land was as Eden but as a desolate place
Derivative
after their departure.
In Ezk 31 Egypt is likened to a giant cedar tree 1471a i•:ir;r; (ma'der) a hoe.
wbicb tbe trees of Eden (in apposition with "the
choice and best of Lebanon," hence indicating 1572 *i".IV ( 'ädar) III, be lacking, fail. Oc-
the nobles and princes of the nations) envied, but curs in the Niphal and Pie! only.
this giant cedar tree will fall, bringing comfort to
the trees of Eden (princes already fallen, now Derivative
joined by tbe nobility of Egypt, Ezk 31 :8, 9, 1572a ti:,1,1 ( 'eder) flock, herd. (Asv, RSV
16, 18). · similar.)
Tbe expression "garden of Eden" in Gen 2: 15;
This word is generally used of sheep, goats,
3:23, 24 (cf. Ezk 36:35; Joel 2:3) apparently gave
and cattle but it is also used to indicate the nation
rise to a particular use of Eden by tbe prophets.
of Israel in her relationship to God.
In Isa 51:3 Eden is parallel to the phrase "garden
Relative to animals, this word is primarily used
of tbe LoRo" (cf. Gen 13: 10) and in Ezk 28: 13
of sheep (Gen 29:2, 3, 8; I Sam 17:34; Jer 51:23;
Eden is in apposition with tbe phrase "garden of
Joel 1: 18; Mal 1: 14). The shepherd is challenged
God." (Note the change in the divine name: the
to watch the condition of bis flock (Prov 27:23).
Isaiah passage uses Yahweh because i~ is di-
In describing bis beloved, the bridegroom de-
rected primarily to Israel and her restoral!on; the
scribes her teeth as a flock of ewes (Song
Ezekiel passage uses Elohim because it depicts
4:2=6:6). In addition to sheep, this word is
Eden as tbe most glorious land in all eartby crea-
applied to goats (Song 4: 1; 6:5), to oxen (Joel
tion [KD loc. cit.].) Clearly such a usage is now
1: 18) and to cattle-domesticated bovine but
more interested in the theological rather than the
often including other animals (Gen 32: 17, 20).
geograpbical.
The most significant use of this word is its de-
In Ezk 28 Eden, the garden of God, is located
signation of Israel as the flock ?f God_. The very
on the holy mountain of God (Ezk 28: 14, 16) and
nature of the animals (sheep, m part1cular) and
in tbis garden there is a king, identified as t~e
the devotion and care of the shepherd plus the
King of Tyre. He is a primordial person who 1s
common knowledge ofthis fact made this an ideal
beautiful and perfect. Because of pride, however,
symbol of God's relationship to Israel. While
he was driven out of the garden. The king ofTyre
kings (Jer 13:20) and other rulers (call~d
here may weil represent Satan (q. v .) and bis fall.
shepherds, Ezk 34:12; Zech 10:3) have m1s-
Ifthis is tbe case then Eden seems to refer here to
treated God's flock, he will care for them. The
a paradisiacal situation. . . .
prophet condemned the shepherds of Israel who
Even in the Genesis passages the wnter 1s m-
bad not been caring for the flock, but rather car-
terested in more than geography. There Eden
ing for themselves (Ezk 34:2). By contrast, the
symbolized a state of unbroken fellowship be-
prophet promises that God will tak~ ~~od care of
tween God and man. The expulsion from the gar-
Israel and set up bis "servant, David over them
den was more than a physical move. lt indicated
(lsa 40: 11; Ezk 34: 13-16, 24). Even as he guided
that man had sinned, disobeying God's com-
them in the past in the wildemess after the
mand. lt is also significant that Eden was not only
Exodus (Ps 78:52), so he will bring them back
a luxurious place to be enjoyed, it was a place
from their exile (Jer 13: 17), seeking them out and
where man bad work to do.
Jeading them like a shepherd (Mic 2:12)._This al-
During the intertestamental period further de-
legory is the basis ofthe New Testament 1mage of
velopment among the Jews of the belief in the
Jesus as the Good Shepherd (Jn 10; Heb 13:20).
resurrection led to the identification of Eden as c.s.
the place of the righteous dead both before and
after tbe resurrection. (lt should be noted, how- 1573 ri~,v, ('cldäsha) lentil (e.g. Gen 25:34;
ever, that they continued to maintain belief in the
Ezk 4:9).
original garden of Eden.) This emphasis clea~ly
intluenced the NT writers who refer to parad1se 1574 *:m1 ('ub) becloud. Denominative verb,
three times-Luke 23:43; II Cor 12:1-4; Rev 2:7.
used in the Hiphil.
c.s.
Parent Noun
1569 11,v('ädap) remain over, be in excess 1574a "bV ('äb) II, cloud.
(e.g. Ex 26: 12; 16:23).
'ub "becloud" is used only in Lam 2: 1, ofZion
being placed under a cloud because of the Lord· s
1570 ,,v ('ädar) 1, help (l Chr 12:34). anger.

647
1575 ~,t1 c·ug)

'äb. Cloud. This word should be distinguished 1576d tiw ('üd) bear witness. Denomi-
from the synonym 'änän "mass of clouds" (used native noun.
in the expression "pillar of cloud," Ex 13:21). By 1576e t.,iµ ('edii) testimonies.
contrast ·äb seems to designate a particular 1576f tr,~-il) ('edüt) testimony.
cloud, generally a dark cloud in the sense of a 1576g :,iwr, (t' 'udii) testimony (lsa
rain cloud (Jud 4:5; I Kgs 18:44, 45; Job 37: 11; '8: 16, 20), attestation (Ruth 4:7).
Eccl 11:3; Job 37:11).
'öd. Continuance, besides, still, again. Func-
'äb is used metaphorically to show the swift
tions as a substantive and an adverb. This word,
movement of the remnant (arriving on white- derived from ·üd "to repeat," "to do again," has
masted ships) when God calls them back from
the sense of repetition and permanence. C. van
exile (lsa 60:8), the facility, rapidity, and totality
Leeuwen notes that the root 'üd is widespread in
with which God removes sin (lsa 44:22) and the
the Semitic Ianguages: e.g. Arabic 'iida "to re-
transience of prosperity (Job 30:51). Even as God
tum" and 'iidat "habit," Ethiopic 'öda "to turn
can subdue the heat of the sun by clouds so he
about," Phoenician/Aramaic/Hebrew 'öd "still,
can still the noise of the enemies of his people
yet." But the meaning "witness" ('ed) occurs
(lsa 25:5).
only in Hebrew (THAT, II, p. 210).
This word is also used to suggest height, par-
Most frequently this word has a temporal
ticularly as it pertains to the ambition of the
sense. lt is used to indicate the continuance of a
wicked and their aspirations against God. Though
past or present event ("Abraham still stood be-
the wicked seem to prosper, reaching the heights
fore the Lord," Gen 18:22), of a custom ("people
of success, they will soon perish and disappear
still sacrificed and burned incense on the high
(Job 20:6). lt is used in the same way of Egypt,
places," I Kgs 22:44), and of an attribute ("I am
which is likened to a cedar whose top is in the
still as strong," Josh 14:11). Constancy can be
clouds but which will be felled (Ezk 31:3, 10, 14).
expressed by this term. The psalmist_affirms that
The king of Babylon expresses his ambition by
he will sing to the Lord as long as he hves (Ps 84:4
the determination to ascend the summit of the
[H 5]; 104:33; 146:2). Jacob declared that ~od
northem mountain or sacred mountain (NIV)
was with him all his life (Gen 48:15). When hm-
which is lost in the clouds (lsa 14: 14). However,
ited by its nature to a single occurrence, this
he will die as all other men and go to Sheol where
word assumes the meaning "again" (Gen 18:29;
he will enjoy no special place.
29:33).
The mobility of God is depicted by this word
Addition or repetition can be indicated by this
(Ps 18:11, 12 [H 12, 13]=11 Sam 22:12, 13; ~s
term. After "yet" seven days, Noah sent out
104:3). God rides upon the clouds when he 1s
another bird (Gen 8: 10, 12). Jacob served Laban
about to bringjudgment upon Egypt, striking fear
for "another" seven years to gain Rache! (Gen
into the very idols of the nation (lsa 19:1). lt is
29:30). Joseph warned his brothers that the
perhaps in this sense of judgment that Jesus, al-
famine would continue five "more" years (Gen
luding to Dan 7: 13, referred to his return „ on th.~ 45:6).
clouds of heaven with power and great glory
This word also has a numerical emphasis,
(Mt 24:29-31).
meaning "moreover," "besides" (Gen 19:22;
c.s. I Sam 10:22; Arnos 6: 10). When used with the
negative, the meaning is there is none besides
1575 JW ('üg) bake a cake (Ezk 4:12). De- (lsa 47:8, 10). God emphatically asserts that there
nominative verb. is no other besides him (lsa 45:5, 6, 14, 18, 22).
Parent Noun 'ed. Witness. (Asv and Rsv similar.) This word,
1575a :,JI) ( ·ügii)disc or cake of bread appearing some sixty-seven times in the OT, is
'(e.g. Hos 7:8; Ezk 4:12). also derived from the root 'ud meaning "return"
1575b JilJ~ (mä'og) cake (l Kgs 17:12; or "repeat, do again." The semantic develop-
Ps 35: 16). ment apparently is that a witness is_one, \_1/hoby
reiteration, emphatically affirms h1s test1mony.
The word is at home in the language of the court.
::i;w ('ügab). See no. 1559c.
A witness is a person who has firsthand knowl-
edge of an event or one who can testify on the
1576 ,11) ( 'üd) return, repeat. basis of a report which he has heard (Lev 5: 1).
Such a person is under obligation to testify (Prov
Derivatives 29:24). The law demanded the testimony of at
1576a tiilJ ( 'öd) a going round, con- least two witnesses to establish guilt (Num 35:30;
tinuance. Deut 17:6; 19:15). In the case of a stoning, the
1576b til) ('ed) witness. witness hurled the first stone (Deut 17:7; cf. Acts
1576c t:,,µ ('edii) testimony, witness. 7:58).

648
 1576 ,w ('üd)
The OT recognizes that a witness could be de- strongly admonished by Nehemiah not to dese-
pendable or false. In the former instance the crate the Sabbath (Neh 13: 15). Moses cautioned
ward is qualified by 'emet ··truth"' (Prov 14:25: Israel against curiosity at Sinai (Ex 19:21 ).
Jer42:5), by 'emünii "firmness·· (Prov 14:5), and Samuel warned the nation against instituting the
by ne'emän "confirmed" (lsa 8:2). To designate monarch (1 Sam 8:9). The owner of an ox, who
the unreliable witness the word is qualified by had been advised that his animal was dangerous,
sheqer "false" (Ex 20: 16), by käzäb "lie" (Prov would be put to death if the ox should kill a per-
21:28), by he/iya'a/ "worthlessness" (Prov son (Ex 21 :29).
19:28},by shiiw' "emptiness" (Deut 5:20 [H 171), God is also frequently the subject of this verb,
and by ~1iimäs "violence" (Ex 23:1; Deut 19:16: extending a warning to Israel (II Kings 17:15; Ps
Ps 35: 11). 50:7: 81:8 [H 9]: Jer 11:7). The prophets were
Hearing false witness is prohibited in the Deca- often the channel through which God extended
logue (Ex 20: 16) and is condemned in the wisdom his solemn exhortation (II Chr 24: 19; Neh 9:26:
literature (Prov 6:19: 14:5: 19:5, 9, 28: 21:28: Jer 42: 19: Arnos 3: 13).
25: 18). The psalmist complains that false wit- 'edä /, Testimony, witness. Used only of things
nesses have risen against him (Ps 27: 12: 35: 11). posited to establish permanence and unequivocal
According to the law, a false witness is subject to facts such as ownership (Gen 21 :30). an agree-
the same penalty he hoped to have inflicted upun ment (Gen 31 :52), and a covenant with God (Josh
the accused (Deut 19: 16--21). 24:27).
A witness was needed for various transactions
such as the sale of property (Jer 32: 10. 12, 25, 44) 'edä II. Testimonies. This noun is used only in
and the act of redemption (Ruth 4:9, 10, 11). the plural. lt refers to the laws as given with di-
lnanimate objects could be witnesses: stones vine warrant, especially in Ps 119 (thirteen
(Gen 31:48), altar (Josh 22:27, 28), moon (Ps times). Possibly 'eda is a variant pointing of
89:37 [H 381). and a poem (Deut 31:19, 21, 26). 'edüt.
The nation of Israel was viewed as God's witness 'edut. Testimony, reminder, warning sign. (Asv
(lsa 43:9, 10: 44:8, 9). In Gen 21 :30 animals were and RSV are similar but the latter will occasionally
symbolic witnesses in the making of a treaty. use the rendering "warning.·· cf. II Kgs 17:15:
The ultimate witness is God himself. who is Neh 9:34, which is justified since the meaning of
shown to be keenly aware of man·s integrity this word is not simply a corroborative testimony
(1 Sam 12:5: Job 16:19) and equally cognizant of but also a warning testimony .) This substantive is
man's sin (Jer 29:23: Mal 3:5). from the root 'üd meaning "to bear witness."
Synonymous and derived from the same root are
'ud. Bear witness, admonish, warn. (ASV and 'eda III, found less frequently and only in the
Rsv similar except for minor variations in plural, meaning "testimonies" of God and
synonyms.) This word is a denominative verb, t' 'tida, also meaning ··testimony"' but somewhat
coming from the noun 'ed meaning "witness ... more restricted since it seems to designate the
This word is used not too frequently aml usu- particular prophetic testimony oflsaiah (8: 16, 20)
ally in the area of human affairs. lt is used rela- rather than the law in general. (For this latter
tive to a business transaction in Jer 32:10, 25, 44 word l:{ UT 19: no. 1832, t'dt, which has the
where Jeremiah obtained witnesses for the deed dual meaning of message and messenger-UT,
to his newly acquired property in Anathoth. 16: T nos. 137:22, 26, 30, 41, 44.)
Jezebel secured two men tu denuunce (witness This word is always used in reference to the
against) Naboth so that Ahab could have his testimony of God. lt is most frequently con-
vineyard (1 Kings 21:10, 13). lsaiah secured reli- nected with the tabernacle (Ex 38:21; Num 1:50,
able witnesses to verify his sign tu Ahaz (lsa 8:2). 53 ), resulting in the expression "tabernacle of the
Job recalled the wide approval he enjoyed before testimony,"' and with the ark (Ex 25:22: 26:33.
his adversity (Job 29: 11). 34: 30:6, 26), resulting in the phrase "ark of the
God appeals to and invokes heaven and earth testimony." In fact in several instances this word
as his witness against Israel that he has given her stands alone to indicate the ark (Ex 16:34: 27:21:
a choice between life and death (Deut 4:26: 30:36: Lev 16: 13). Moses was instructed to put
30:19). This is a cummon motif in the OT (cf. lsa the testimony in ("before," Ex 16:34: 27:21) the
1:2). Moses also invokes heaven and earth ark (Ex 25:21) and he did so (Ex 40:20: cf. Heb
against the anticipated rebellion of Israel (Deut 9:4). Here the meaning is made quite clear. lt
31:28). designates the two tables of stone upon which the
Most frequently this ward is used in the sense Ten Words (commandments) were written (Ex
of a strong warning. Man can be the one who 24:12: 31:18: 32:15: 34:29). These two tables rep-
issues the warning as weil as the one who re- resented God's covenant with Israel (Ex 34:27,
ceives it. Joseph warned his brothers to return 28) and as such are called the · ·tables of the co-
with Benjamin (Gen 43:3). The merchants are venant" (Deut 9:9; 11: 15).

649
1577 :iw('äwa)
The law of God is his testimony because it is p. 82). BOB conjecture two roots: 'äwa l
his own affirmation relative to his very person "bend" twist" related to Arabic ·awaya and
and purpose. While in the oT the written words 'äwa II "to commit iniquity" a denominative
constitute the testimony, it is the proclamation of from 'äwön which in turn is related to Arabic
the gospel which is the essence of the testimony gawaya. But KB and GB with more probability
in the NT. see only one Hebrew root related either to
The identification of this word with the Jaw is 'awaya "alone .. (so KB) or to both roots (so
seen even more clearly in Ps 19 and 119 where it GB). For convenience we shall follow this proce-
is used as a synonym ofthe law. In Ps 19:7 [H 8] dure.
the testimony is said to be trustworthy. This The basic meaning ofthe verb, "tobend, twist,
word is used nine times in Ps 119 (14, 31, 36, 88, distort," can be seen in its concrete, non-
99, 111, 129, 144, 157) where the psalmist retlects theological uses: "I am bent over" (Niphal) (Ps
his great delight in and his great respect for the 38:7); "the LORDlays the earth waste, devastates
law of the Lord. it; and he ruins (Pie!) it" (Isa 24: 1). From this
This word is also used in conjunction with the primary notion it derives the sense "to distort, to
coronation ceremony of Joash. At the time of re- make crooked, to pervert": "He has made my
ceiving the crown from the priest Jehoiada, the paths crooked (Pie!)" (Lam 3:9); "! have ... per-
king also received the "testimony" (II Kgs 11:12 verted (Hiphil) what is right" (Job 33:27); "a man
= II Chr 23: 11). This action based on Deut 17:18, of perverse (Niphal) heart will be despised"
19, 20 was to remind the king that the law (Prov 12:8). When the distortion pertains to law it
was to determine both his personal life and his means "to sin, to infract, to commit a perver-
rule as king (cf. I Kgs 2:3; I Chr 29:19, of Sol- siön/iniquity. ·'
omon and II Chr 34:31, of Josiah).
As noted above this word has an emphasis of 'äwön. lniquity, guilt or punishment for
warning. The fall of the Northern Kingdom is at- guilt. [The derivative noun 'ä.wön occurs with
tributed to the fact that Samaria despised the only the derived, abstract theological notion of
warning of the Lord (II Kgs 17: 15). Ezra makes a the root: "infraction, crooked behavior, perver-
confession for the Southern Kingdom, acknow- sion, iniquity, etc."
ledging that Judah had not heeded God's warning We note in the first place that the noun is a
(Neh 9:34; cf. Jer 44:23). The law of the Lord has collective. Thus God says of the midsdeeds/
been given as a warning sign to man. perversions of the Amorite: "The perversion
Bibliography: Woudstra, M., The Ark of the (singular) of the Amorite in not complete" (Gen
Covenant.from Conquest to Kingship, Presbyte- 15: 16). The widow of Zarephath complains to
rian Reformed, 1965, pp. l01-I02. TDNT, IV, Elijah that he came to "bring my perversion/
pp. 482-86; VII, pp. 802-28. THAT, II, pp. 209- iniquity (singular) to remembrance" (1 Kgs
20. 17:18). Thus it occurs in such formulas as "to
c.s. bear(nä.M') 'äwön (Gen 4:13; Ex 34:7; Hos 14:3;
Ps 85:3); "to take away ('äbar) (Hiphil) 'äwon
(Zech 3:4), "to visit (päqad) 'äwön (Ex 20:5);
1577 MW ('äwa) bend, twist, distort.
etc. This notion of totality is also seen in the as-
Derivatives sociation of individual misdemeanor with that of
the group: "and the goat shall bear on itself all
1577a tiiV ('äwön) iniquity, guilt, punish-
their perversions/iniquities (plural)" (Lev 16:22);
ment.
ruin. · · ... and the LORD Struck him with the
1577b t:,111 ('awwa)
perversion/iniquity (Singular) of all of us" (lsa
1577c C~l-'W ('iw'im) distorting, warping
53:6).
(lsa 19: 14).
Moreover, as the above references indicate, it
1577d \1,' ('f) ruin, heap of ruins.
denotes both the deed and its consequences, the
1577e \1,'I? (m • 'i) ruin (lsa 17: 1).
misdeed and its punishment. Both notions are
Cognates to Hebrew 'äwa include Arabic present, but sometimes the focus is on the deed
·awaya "to bend," "to twist" and/or gawaya ("sin "), and at other times on the outcome of the
"to deviate from the way" (cf. S. R. Driver, misdeed ("punishment"), and sometimes on the
Notes on the Hebrew Text ... of the Books of situation between the deed and its consequence
Samuel (2 1913), pp. 170f; GB 569b; KB 686f.; ("guilt"). As an example of the focus on the mis-
Zorrell, 578a), and Biblical Aramaic 'awaya "of- deed demanding punishment: "this sin will be-
fense, iniquity" (Dan 4:24). come for you like a high wall, cracked and bulg-
lts main derivative is the masculine noun ing, that collapses suddenly, in an instant (lsa
'äwön (occurring 231 times against the verb 30:13; cf. Ezk 18:30; 44:12: Hos 5:5; Job 31:11,
found 17 times), an abstract nominal pattern with 28). With the emphasis on the punishment:
the än>ön ending (BL, p. 498 and Moscati, „ Arise ... or you will be swept away in the

650
 1577 :i,~ ('äwa)

punishment of the city (cf. Jer 51 :7; Ps 39: 12; gard to the family, the familiar statement is found
106:43;Job 13:26; 19:29; Ezr 9:7). With the em- in Ex 20:5; Deut 5:9. God's visitation may be
phasis on "guilt": "upon me be the blame" centered as a punishment more immediately on
(! Sam 25:25; see below for numerous examples). individuals of the family or tribe (Lev 5: 17; 18:25;
The remarkable ambivalence between the Num 5:31; I Sam 25:24; II Sam 14:9; Ps 106:43;
meanings "sin as an act" and "penalty" shows Jer 36:31 ). 'äwön makes the nation liable for
that in the thought of the or sin and its penalty are punishment (Lev 26:39; Ezr 9:7, 13, Ps 107:17
not radically separate notions as we tend to think and a number of times in lsaiah, Jeremiah and
of them. Rather in the or the action of man and Ezekiel). In a sense, the high priest and the
what happens to him are presupposed to be di- priests took upon themselves the danger of
rectly related as one process within the basic di- punishment, in the stead of the nation, due to the
vine order. This connection has been called a holiness of their duties and of the sanctuary (Ex
"synthetic view of life" (von Rad, G., Theology 28:38, 43; Lev 22: 16; Num 18: 1, 23). After the fall
of the 0/d Testament I, p. 205). The root /:zä[ä' of Jerusalem, that disaster was recognised as the
"sin" displays the same basic "synthetic" con- result of the nation's 'äwön (Lam 4:6, 13, 22; Ezk
cept; e.g. Num 32:23: "but if you fail to do this, 39:23; Dan 9: 13, 16).
you will have sinned (/:za[a'tem) against the LoRD, lt was not inevitable that punishment follow
and you may be sure that your sin (/:zarra't'kem) 'äwön; there was a way to escape it. Man's
will find you out." The second occurrence, the prayers of supplication and God's announce-
nominal form of the root, denotes "the penalty" ments of salvation indicate the way to be rid of
for the act (cf. Num. 12:11). Thus sin had the 'awön. Man must be aware of and confess 'äwön
inevitable effect of destroying the individual (Gen 44:16; Lev 16:21; Neh 9:2; Ps 32:5; 38:18
and/or the community and must be rooted out. [H 19]) and it must be a request directed to God
8.K.W.] (Ex 34:9; Num 14:19; Job 7:21; Ps 25:11). Man
'äwön definitely is not a trait of God's charac- must also change his way of life (Ezk 18:30;
ter nor of his dealing with man (Ex 20:5; 6; 34:7), 36:31). There is provision for a substitute in pun-
but is an overwhelming trait of man's character ishment (Lev 16:22; Isa 53:5-6, 11; Ezk 4:4-6).
and actions, including consequences of those ac- Of supreme importance is God's _acts of taking
tions. away, forgiving 'äwön; this is both promised and
'awön designates kinds of civil or social declared as an actuality (Num 14: 18; Ps 65:3
violations in I Sam 20:1, 8; II Sam 3:8; Neh 4:5; [H 4]; 78:38; 103:3: Prov 16:6; lsa 6:7; Jer 32: 18;
Ps51:2, and cultic violations in Josh 22: 17; and I Dan 9:24; Mic 7:18-19; Zech 3:4, 9; cf. David's
Sam 3: 13-14. In instances too numerous to !ist, act of forgiveness by kissing, II Sam 14:32). In
this term is a collective, or a quasi-abstract, noun three places the divine act of cleansing is stressed
denoting the sum of past misdeeds against God (Ps 51:4; Jer 33:8; Ezk 36:33).
and man. Samples are Num 14:34; I Sam 25:24;
II Sam 22:24; I Kgs 17: 18; Ezr 9:6; Job 13-26; lsa 'awwa. Ruin, rubble. This noun occurs only in
1:4;Jer 11:10). Ezk 2 I :27 [32], where it is used three times to
In other passages the emphasis is on the quality express a superlative degree. The ASV translates
and the inner source of 'äwön. In Job 15:4-5 it is this word "overtum," associating it with the root
related to doing away with the fear ofGod, etc., 'äwa, "bend." lts meaning is sharpened by the
whereas in Ps 78:37-38 it is tied to being not reference to an inversion of power and status in
steadfast toward him (God), and in Jer 14: 10 with vs. 26. The high priesthood (turban) and the
the statement, they have loved to wander thus. monarchy (crown) will be reduced to ruin until
The term is related to both adultery (Num 5:31) the coming of the legitimate one. While some
and to idolatry (Hos 5:5: Jer 16:10---11).In this look for an historical person, it seems to have
metaphor, both the act of violation and the con- Messianic overtones. The Messianic interpreta-
sequent defilement is depicted. Other results of tion is strengthened by comparing these verses
'äwön are found to be separation from God, an with Gen 49: 10. The difficult "until Shiloh
alienation (Lev 26:40; Isa 59:2; I :4), and un- comes" can better be translated, "until he comes
cleanness (Ps 51:2 [H 4]). to whom it belongs," taking the shin as an old
Guilt is the major consequence of ·awön on the relative pronoun. The phrase then is remarkably
inner man. This element is not easily distin- like Ezk 21:27 [H 21:32] which uses the more
guishedfrom the function of the term as a sum for usual relative pronoun "until he comes whose
past misdeeds, but BDB lists over thirty in- right it is."
stances in which the element of guilt is prominent Bibliography: Ben-Mordecai, C. A., "The In-
(p. 731). iquity of the Sanctuary; A Study of the Hebrew
Along with the inner impact of 'äwön, there term ,,~ "JBL 60:311-14. Gelin, Albert, Sin in
are consequences which affect the family, the the Bib/e, Desclee, 1964. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin
tribe, the nation, the nations and nature. In re- the O/d Testament, Rome: Herder, 1963. Quell,

651
1578 m,('uz)
G., Sin, London: Adam and Charles Black, 1951. as his refuge (Ps 31:2, 4 [H 3, 5]; 43:2). Man is
Smith, C. R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin, London: confronted with a decision relative to making
Epworth, 1953. TDNT, I, pp. 268-93. THAT, II, God his refuge (lsa 27:5) and it is possible, as
pp. 243-48. Israel did, to forget him (lsa 17:10). While he is a
c.s. place of shelter in time of trouble (Ps 37:39: Jer
16:19; Nah 1:7), he is also a constant refuge (Ps
1578 m1 ('Liz) take refuge, bring to refuge. 27:1). In the midst ofsorrow, thejoy ofthe Lord
can be our strength (Neh 8: 10), sustaining us.
Derivative Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 221-23.
1578a tti11i; (mä'oz) place or means of c.s.
safety.
The root 'wz is found elsewhere only in ',•w ('iiwil). See nos. 1579b, 1580d.
Arabic. 'äcja "to seek refuge." Gerstenberger,
however, suggests that possibly our verb is a
denominative, because its alleged derivatives 1579 ',w ('ti/) I, give suck. This root, cognate
have a striking phonetic and semantic similarity to Arabic 'äla "nurse," and 'ayyil "in-
to 'äzaz "tobe strong" (THAT, II, p. 222). fant," designates the feeding activity of
This verb carries the concept of taking shelter the young of domestic animals and man.
quickly. Such urgency is seen in the contexts in The verb occurs four times, always as a
which it appears: Ex 9: 19, quick securing of that Qal active participle.
which is in the field because of the hail: Jer 4:6:
6: 1, associated with the advance of the Chaldean Derivatives
army, necessitating a quick alarm; Isa 10:31, oc- 1579a ',~11 ( 'ti/) sucking child, suckling
casioned by an advancing army, either.the Assy- (lsa 49:15; 65:20). The more com-
rian or the Syrian-Ephraimite army. The futility mon synonym is the Qal active par-
of taking shelter in Egypt is emphasized in lsa ticiple of yänaq.
30:2, where the verb occurs with the derived 1579b ',•,v. ('awil) young man. Occurs
noun as a cognate accusative. once clearly, in Job 21: 11, and once
mä'öz. Place or means of safety, protection, problematically, in Job 19:18.
stronghold, fortress. As is sometimes the case, 1579c ',';>ill ('öle/) child.
the mem prefix adds the meaning "place" to the 1579d ',',i11 ( 'öläl) child. 'öle/ and 'oläl
verbal root. T are indistinguishable in meaning.
Natural and manmade places of safety can be They probably refer to an older
designated by this word such as a mountain (Jud child than the infant (yöneq). How-
6:26), harbor (lsa 23:4), cities (lsa 17:9), and ever, in the pair, 'öle/ and yöneq,
temple (Ezk 24:25). These strongholds, in sharp '6/el comes first. These last two
contrast to God, are not invincible but are rather nouns may also be derived from
'älal a by-form of ',u1.
subject to destruction (lsa 23: 11, 14: Ezk 30:15).
The noun also possibly appears in Ps 52:7 [H 9]
(however that may be from 'äzaz "be strong")
1580 *',W ('ü/) II, deviate from, act unjustly.
showing the futility of riches as a shelter.
This word can also be used figuratively of Used only in the Pie) 'iwwel.
human protection. A foreign power, such as Derivatives
Egypt, can be viewed as a means of protection
1580a t',W ('äwel) injustice, unrighteous-
(lsa 30:2, 3; here the protection of Pharaoh is
ness.
parallel to the shadow of Egypt). This reliance
1580b t:,7,v ('aw/a) injustice, unrighteous-
upon Egypt is a common problem oflsrael, bring-
ing down on her the condemnation of the ness.
1580c t',,t: ( 'awwä/) unjust, unrighteous
prophets (Jer42:7-17). Judah was also inclined to
one.
view falsely the temple as a symbol of security
1580d t',•w ('awil) unjust one.
(Ezk 24:25; cf. Arnos 6:8: Jer 7:4; 26:4, 5, 6).
By far the most common use ofthis word is the The Arabic cognate 'w/ means "to deviate."
figurative one, designating God as the refuge of Likewise in Hebrew the basic meaning of this
his people. Careful distinctions are made here. root means to deviate from a right standard, to
While the wicked rich refuse his shelter (Ps 52:7 act contrary to what is right. The root occurs
[H 9]) taking refuge in their wealth, he is the sixty times, with forty of these found in Job (six-
protection of the poor (lsa 25:4), of the upright teen times); Psalms (thirteen times) and Ezekiel
(Prov 10:29), and of his people in general (Ps (eleven times): The rest are distributed through-
28:8: Joel 3: 16 [H 161).The psalmist refers to God out the prophetic and legal literature.

652
 1580 *'m.'( 'Cd)
The verb is a denominative from 'iiwel!'awlii ·awla is not found with him. Moses sings, "The
and occurs only twice in the Old Testament, both Rock! His work is perfect, for all his ways are
times in the Piel stem. In lsa 26: 10 it describes the just: a God of faithfulness and without injustice
activity of the people of Judah who act unjustly ['iiwel], righteous and upright is he (Deut 32:4).
(KJv: "perversely :· Rsv) in contrast to upright Elihu expostulates. "Therefore, listen to me. you
behavior. In Ps 71 :4, a prayer of supplication. the men of understanding. Far be it from God to do
verb contrasts the behavior of the unrighteous wickedness, and from the Almighty to do wrong
with that of God and his servant. ( ·awe/)" (Job 34: 10). Jehoshaphat instructs his
judges: · · For there is no injustice I 'awlil I with our
'äwel, 'awlä. lnjustice, unrighteousness. Like God" (II Chr 19:7). In Jer 2:5 the Lord asks the
the antonyms ~-edeq/~·•·Jaqa there is little dif- fathers to search their history and see "what in-
ference between the masculine segholate 'iiwel justice ["iiwe/] they have found in him." Accord-
found twenty times, and its feminine equivalent ingly he will save the oppressed (Job 5: 16). Men
'awlii occurring thirty-three times. Both denote who practice injustices are abomination to him
an act or deed that is against what is right. That (Deut 25: 16: Prov 29:27), and even if a righteous
they express a deed or act is clear in the first man turns away from his righteousness and
place from their frequent use as direct objects of commits injustice he must die (Ezk 3:20).
verbs of doing: after 'üs<i (Lev 19: 15, 35: Deut Though man may choose injustice (Ezk 18:26:
25:16: Ezk 3:20: 18:24: 33:13, 15, 18: Zeph 3:13: 33:13, 18) and thus become culpable (Ezk 3:20:
Ps 7:4: 37: 1): after pii'a/ (Ps 58:3: 119:3: Job 28: 18: 33: 13, 18 etc.) he need not become fixed in
34:32: 36:23): with tii'ab (Ps 53:2). Secondly, that condition for he may renounce it (Job 34:32),
·awel is sometimes said tobe in one·s hand (Ezk confess his condition (Ps 7:3: Ezk 33:15), and put
18:8: Ps 7:4; 125:3). By metonymy it stands spe- it far from him (Job 11: 14: 22:23). God, on his
cifically for speech (cf. lsa 59:3: Mal 2:6; Job part. will respond with salvation.
5: 16: 6:30: 13:7: 27:4).
'awwäl. Unjust, unrighteous one. This mas-
That they denote behavior contrary to what is
culine noun is a close synonym to ·awel, but is
right is shown by their frequent employment as
used more specifically as a label of persons. lts
opposites of: !fedeq/!f' diiqii "righteousness"
five occurrences mostly refer to oppressive rul-
(Lev 19:15, 35f.: lsa 26:10: 59:3f.: Ezk 3:20:
ers. Bildad declared that such a person ·s
l8:8f.: 24: 33:12f., 15f.: Job 6:29), !faddiq. "one
dwellings were headed for disaster (Job 18:21),
who does righteousness" (Deut 32:4: Ezk 3:20:
and Job claimed that this kind of man was his
18:24, 26: 33:13: Zeph 3:5: Ps 125:3: Prov 29:27),
enemy (Job 27:7) and he was not one ofthem (Job
'emünil "faithfulness, truth" (Deut 32:4: lsa
29: 17). In a statement of personal commitment.
59:3f). yiishiir "upright" (Deut 32:4; Ps 107:42),
Job agreed that an ·awwiil had punishment com-
mishpiit ••justice" (Deut 32:4: Ezk 33:14f.; Zeph
ing to him from God (Job 31 :3) and then chal-
3:5). shiipa/ "to do justice" (Mic 3: 11: Ps 43: 1:
lenged anyone to prove he was such a person.
82:2): niiköa!J ··upright, right" (lsa 26: 10).
The prophet Zephaniah affirmed that God was
This notion is further confirmed by the parallel
righteous and not an ·awwäl, in sharp contrast to
use with: 'äna (Pie]) "to afflict" (II Sam 7:10),
man.
riishii' lresha · "wickedness" (lsa 26: 10: Ezk
18:24: 33: l2f.. 15, 18f.: Ps 125:3: Job 27:7: 34: 10), 'awlä. lnjustice, unrighteousness, wrong. This
pesha' "transgression" (Ezk 33: 12f.), ~1iimiis feminine noun carries a more abstract meaning. lt
"act of violence'" (Ezk 28:l5f.: Ps 58:3). diim often refers to violent deeds, such as murder
"bloodguilt'" (Mic 3: 10: Hab 2: 12). /Jiimü~· "ruth- (II Sam 3:34), oppression (II Sam 7: 10: 1 Chr
lessness" (Ps 7:17 [H 18]), mirma "treachery" 17:9: Ps 37:1: 89:22 [H 23!: 125:3: Hos 10:9: Mic
(Ps 43: 1), kiiziib "lie" (Zeph 3: 13). r' miyyil "de- 3: 10; Hab 2: 12) and also vicious words (Job 6:30:
ceitful" (Job 13:7). 'iiwön ••iniquity" (Ezk 13:7: 27:4: Isa 59:3). This quality was the oppo-
28:18). site to Goct·s character (II Chr 19:7: Job 36:33: Ps
These unrighteous deeds include: partiality in 92:15 [H 16]: 107:42: lsa 61:8). Likewise, this
judgment (Lev 19: 15: 82:2): dishonest trade quality must not be in the character of God's fol-
dealings (Deut 25: 16: Ezk 18:8)-more specifi- lowers (II Chr 19:7: Job 6:29-30: Ps 119:3: Zeph
cally robbing (Ezk 33: 15), murder (II Sam 3:34). 3: 13: Mal 2:6). In fact, God had made man free of
oppression (II Sam 7:10: I Chr 17:9: Ps 37:1: this quality, but he became this way later (Ezk
39:22: 125:3: Prov 22:8: Hos 10:9; Mic 3:10: Hab 28: 15).
2: 12):-more specifically vicious words (Job As with 'iiwel, there is a way tobe rid of 'awla.
6:30; 11: 14: 13:7: 15: 16: 27:4 Isa 59:3: Hos 10: 13). Man may put it away (Job 11:14: 22:23), not be
Thus the words have an important theological envious of those who do ·awla (Ps 37: 1), but seek
significance for they refer to behavior contrary to God and walk in his ways (Ps 119:2--4). And God
God's character and against which he must re- must act in deliverance, for the Psalmist knew he
spond. Some texts explicitly state that 'üwe// could not be rid of it in his own power (Ps 43: 1).

653
1581 m1('Cm)

'Awil. Unjust one. Clearly used once, in Job The action of this verb, not surprisingly, is at-
16:11, as a labe! for Job's enemies from whom tributed to birds (Prov 23:5: 26:2; Isa 31:5; Hab
God had delivered him. 1:8: Gen 1:20; Deut 4:17). Actually, only in the
lt is highly probable that four occurrences of last two references, is flying referred to without
'blii come from this same root. In three instances the development of a simile.
the term designates the character of God's This word is also used of angelic beings. The
enemies (Job 5:16; Ps 58:2 [H 3]: 64:6 [H 7]). seraphim of lsaiah 6 are six-winged. With two
Once in Ps 92:15 [H 16], the term is the contrast wings they cover their face, with two wings they
to God's character, for he is upright. cover their nakedness (a euphemism) and with
Bibliography: Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bible, two wings they fly (lsa 6:2, 6). Mounted on a
Desclee, 1964. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin in the O/d cherub Yahweh flies through the heavens (Ps
Testament, Rome: Herder, 1%3. Quell, G., Sin, 18:10 [H 11)=11 Sam 22:11). Ezekiel describes
London: Adam and Charles Black, 1951. Smith, the cherubim as four-winged and four-faced crea-
C. R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin, London: Ep- tures accompanied by whirling wheels. The
worth, 1953. THAT, II, pp. 224-27. wings of the golden cherubim overshadow the
G.H.L. mercy seat (Ex 37:9). The cherub of Ps 18:10
[H 11] is perhaps to be considered as a personifi-
',',i11 ( 'b/e/), ,,i11('b/ä/). See nos. cation of the wind. Yahweh is pictured as riding
1579c,d. • upon the clouds and wind (Ps 104:3; lsa 19:1).
r,i',';oir, ('bleibt). See no. 1627a. The passage in Dan 9:21, which in both the RSV
07ill ('öläm). See no. 1631a. and the ASVhas the angel Gabriel flying, is much
debated. In the OT angels seem to assume human
1581 ,~11
('Cm) dwell. form and generally do not fly. lt might even be
argued that Gen 28: 12 assumes that angels do not
Derivatives have wings. The problem in Dan 9:21 is whether
1581a t'iill~ (mä'bn) dwelling, habitation. the word in question is from the root 'up or the
1581b ~riJ~ (m• 'onil) dwelling, habita- root yä'ip, meaning "tobe. weary." By using
tion. Most frequently refers to the this latter word, flying would then not be attrib-
dens of animals. uted to angels. However, it would seem equally
strange for angels to grow weary but the action of
The verbal root 'wn is unattested in Hebrew. this verb could perhaps be assigned to Daniel
The Arabic verb gilna means "to cover, con- who may be wearied because of his praying and
ceal." fasting (cf. KD loc. cit). Since seraphim and
mä'ön. Dwelling. (Asv, Rsv similar except cherubim have wings and since angels appear
I Sam 2:29, 32 and Zeph 3:17 where Rsv emends with wings in Enoch 61, perhaps it would be best
to read "eye" .) lt is used eighteen times. This to accept the traditional translations-"fly
word is used to depict the ruins of desolate cities swiftly." Angels can presumably appear in vari-
now the dwelling place of wild animals. Most fre- ous forms.
quently it designates the Lord's dwelling place, In Zechariah 5: 1-2 an immense scroll (30 by 15
i.e. heaven (always qualified with the word feet, the same size as the holy place of the taber-
"holy") and the temple (Ps 26:8). Finally it por- nacle or the porch of Solomon ·stemple) on which
trays the Lord as a refuge for his people (Ps 71:3; is inscribed a curse, is seen flying over the land.
90: 1; 91:9). lt is a s ymbol of Yahweh · s wrath and will find its
c.s. target, the thieves and perjurers.
The upward flight of sparks (literally "sons of
ii\" ('awon). See no. 1577a. flame") is seen in Job 5:7 to indicate the certainty
C'llW ('iw'im). See no. 1577c. that sorrow has been allotted to man. The move-
ment of the clouds in lsa 60:8 suggests the
1582 l'\W ('üp) l,jly,jlyabout,jlyaway. (ASV, white-masted ships bringing the exiles back to the
RSVsimilar.) land. The success of the eschatological army of
Israel against Philistia is likened to the "swoop-
Derivatives ing down of a bird" (lsa 11:14).
The meaning "to fly away" or "vanish" is
1582a tl'\ill ('bp) flying creatures, i.e. birds
used of several matters. The Psalmist, oppressed
or insects.
by the wicked, is anxious to escape (the city?)
1582b l'\l,!~l,! (' ap 'ap) eyelid.
and to fly away to the wildemess where he can
'up, used primarily in the Qal and seldom in find rest (Ps 55:6 [H 7)). Zophar affirms that the
the intensives, means to fly about, and also to fly wicked enjoy success which is as fleeting as a
away, i.e. vanish. The Ugaritic 'p and Arabic dream (Job 20:8). The sage cautions against the
'afa have similar meanings. eyes "flying" (glancing) upon wealth because it

654
 1587 ,w ('ur)

is transitory, flying away as an eagle (Prov 23:5). substantive-the blind. Blindness was common
The brevity and swiftness of life is depicted by and serious in the ancient near east and even until
this word in Ps 90: 10. Finally, the army attacking recent times (cf. Jesus· frequent confrontation by
Assyria plunders her and then flies away with the the blind).
booty (Nah 3: 16). This word is used both literally and metaphori-
cally. The former is clearly indicated in the case
'öp. Bird, fowl, insect. Collective noun from
root 'ilp meaning to fly. Used seventy-one times. of blind animals which could not be accepted as
sacrifices (Deut 15:21; Mal 1:8). A blind person
Birds were created (Gen 1:20, 21), named (Gen
2:20). taken aboard the ark (Gen 7:8). eaten (Ps was disqualified from the Aaronic priesthood
78:27), and sacrificed (Gen 8:20; Lev 1: 14). (Lev 21:18). The blind and the lame were suffi-
Classified as clean and unclean. Used with ciently strong, claimed the Jebusites, to ward off
shere:f it designates clean and unclean winged
David's effort to take Jerusalem, because of its
insects (ASV "winged creeping things"). Lev strategic location (II Sam 5:6. 8). The law had
provisions for the protection of the blind (Lev
11:2~23 obviously refers to insects with four
legs, perhaps counted in addition to the hind legs 19: 14; Deut 27: 18).
used in leaping. While blindness is traceable in some instances
Bibliography: Driver. G. R., "Birds in the
to the Lord (Ex 4: 11; Zeph 1: 17), it is also he who
heals the blind and restores sight (Ps 146:8).
Old Testament.·· PEQ 87:5-20. 129-40.
c.s. Blindness is one of the curses that Israel could
expect if she broke the covenant (Deut 28:29).
Metaphorically this word can designate a help-
1583 l'\W ('ilp) II, be dark. less and morally insensitive person. False
Derivatives prophets (lsa 56: 10: Lam 4:4) and the nation of
Israel (lsa 42: 19; 43:8) are characterized as blind.
1583a l'\\"1~ (mli'äp) gloom (lsa 8:23).
Israel laments its blind condition (lsa 59: 10). The
1583b l'\WI;' (mä'üp) gloom (lsa 8:22).
promise of the restoration of the remnant in-
1583c :i~l)l'l (t'"üpii) gloom (Job 11:17). cludes God's leading the blind in their return to
1583d :,i;,•11 ( ·epa) darkness. Zion and restoring their sight (lsa 29: 18; 35:5;
42:16: Jer 31:8).
1584 l'W ('us) counsel, plan (Jud 19:30; Isa A significant use of this word is found in the
8: 10). promise that the Suffering Servant will give sight
to the blind (lsa 42:7), gloriously fulfilled in Jesus
1585 •;,111 ('üq) crush. Occurs only in the Christ, who gives both physical and spiritual
Hiphil, in Arnos 2:13. sight.
Bibliography: TDNT, VIII, pp. 279-85.
Derivatives
c.s.
1585a :i:r\" ( 'äqa) pressure. Occurs only
in Ps 55:4.
1587 ,111 ( '{ir) /, rouse oneself, awake, incite.
1585b :,,?\"1~ (mil'äqa) compression,
distress. Occurs only in Ps 66: 11. Derivative
1587a i•l) ( 'ir) excitement.
1586 *iw ( 'äwar) make blind. Occurs only
inthe Piel. This verb appears in the active, passive, inten-
sive, and the causative with minimal differences.
Derivatives The latter frequently has God as its subject,
1586a ti,:,i ( 'iwwer) blind. showing his involvement in the flow of history.
1586b 1iiw ( ·iv.·wäron) blindness (Deut Ugatitic 'r in its causative stem means "to
28:28; Zech 12:4). arouse" and Akkadian eru"awake. ··
1586c ri,11_1 ( ·awweret) blindness lnanimate objects can be addressed and be told
<L~v 22:22J. to awake: idol (Hab 2: 19), sword (Zech 13:7).
spear (II Sam 23: 18), wind (Song 4: 16), fire (Hos
'iiwar is used infrequently and only in the Piel.
7:4), storm (Jer 25:32), scourge (lsa 10:26). dawn
lt may be denominative from ·iwwer "blind,"
(Ps 57:8 [H 9]), and harp and lyre (Ps 57:8 [H 9]).
which in turn may be derived from 'ür "skin" by
Qualities can be awakened and incited: love
referring to a cataract, i.e. a skin over the eye
(Song 2:7; 3:5; 8:4), strife (Prov 10:12), wrath
(BDB). 'äwar is used of both literal blinding
(78:38), might (Ps 80:2 [H 3)), and a cry of anguish
(II Kgs 25:7; Jer 39:7; 52: 11) and figurative blind-
(lsa 15:5).
ing (Ex 23:8; Deut 16: 13).
Sheol is pictured figuratively as arousing the
'iwwer. Blind. (Asv, Rsv similar.) While this shades when the fallen king of Babylon joins
word is an adjective it is generally used as a them (Isa 14:9).

655
1588 ,w ('ur)

This word is also predicated of man. He can be 1588c tCi'"I~ ('är6m), C"I~ ('äröm) naked.
awakened from sleep (Zech 4: 1), but he cannot be 1588d c·-,1,1~(ma'tiröm) naked thing (II
aroused from the sleep of death (Job 14: 12 cf. qf!f Chr 28: 15).
··awake"). Man can arouse himself to praise (Ps
The verb 'ur II occurs only in Hab 3:9. lt is
57:8 [H 91) and incite himself to action (Job 17:8).
probably the root of the above nouns, and possi-
Military endeavors are described by this word.
bly it is a by-form of 'ära "be naked," cf. 'ärar.
Babylon is seen by Jeremiah as stirring, prepar-
ing to move against Judah (Jer 6:22; 50:41). The 'eröm. Naked, nakedness. (Asv and Rsv simi-
king of the north stirs up his power and courage lar.) 'eröm is used ten times to designate spiritual
against the king of the south (Dan 11:2, 25). and physical nakedness. As used of Adam and
Deborah is urged to awake, to awake and sing a Eve (Gen 3:7, 10, 11), it indicates more than sex
song in the struggle against Sisera (Jud 5: 12). consciousness. lt depicts an awareness of the
With the negative this word is used to show openness of their guilt to God. Their relationship
spiritual inertia. Isaiah has the exiles confessing with God was impaired, upsetting their relation-
that they had failed to pray, that they had not ship to each other. In Ezk 16:7, 22, 29; 23:29 and
awakened themselves, remaining in spiritual Deut 12:29 this word is used of the personified
lethargy. Hence God had hidden his face (lsa Jerusalem, indicating both her material and
64:7). Man needs to arouse himself in areas of spiritual poverty. U sed in Ezk 18:7, 16 to indicate
prayer and praise (Ps 57:8 [H 57:9]). proper social concern of righteous in providing
By far the most significant use of this word is in clothes for needy.
the causative with God as its subject. Here one
sees the active involvement of God in history. He 'äröm. Naked. (ASV and RSV similar.) This
is not aloof or passive. He is not simply a spec- word is either derived from 'ur II, "be exposed"
tator. He is in complete charge, manipulating his and thus would be a secondary form of 'eröm
plan. All his actions are purposeful. Events do "naked" or it is from the root 'ära "be naked"
not happen by chance. This emphasis is clearly (q. v .), probably a by-form. While this word fre-
discernible in the oT passages which use this verb quently indicates nudity (Gen 2:25; I Sam 19:24;
in the causative with God as subject. Tilgath- lsa 20:2; Mic 1:8) it also indicates exposure, i.e.
pilneser, king of Assyria, was stirred up by the Jack of concealment and disguise (Job 26:6) and
Lord against the tribes in the Transjordan area (1 Jack of resources (Arnos 2: 16).
Chr 5:26). He aroused the Babylonians against Frequently the nudity indicated by this term
Jerusalem (Ezk 23:22). Then he stirred up the has a symbolic meaning. Adam and Eve's lack of
Medes against Babylon (lsa 13: 17: Jer 50:9, 11; embarrassment at their nakedness suggests inno-
51: 11). cence (Gen 2:25). Isaiah walked (a verb fre-
Again it was the Lord who incited Cyrus to quently used with 'är6m) naked (probably not
allow the Jewish exiles to return to Judah (II Chr complete nudity but simply the laying aside of the
36:22: Ezr I: I) and who in turn urged the exiles to upper garment; see KD on Isa 20) as a portent of
return (Joel 3:7 [H 4:7]). When apathy had over- Egyptian prisoners being led away by the victori-
taken the returned exiles, the Lord agitated ous Assyrians (lsa 20:2, 3, 4). In I Sam 19:24 Saul
Zerubbabel and Joshua through the prophets likewise was probably not naked, but divested of
Haggai and Zechariah to carry the construction his royal robes and especially of his sword by the
of the second temple to its completion (Hag 1: 14). power of the Spirit of God so that David could get
There is also a personal appeal to God to away in safety. The nakedness of the poor is an
arouse himself, particularly in the Psalms. At indication of oppression (Job 24:7, 10; lsa 58:7).
times, God appears to man tobe inactive, apathe- His outer garment had been taken as collateral
tic, at least slow. Hence he urges him to action. (Job 24:9) and not returned at night (Ex 22:25, 26,
In Ps 7:6 [H 7] the psalmist wants God to arise to 27 [H 26, 27, 281). Hosea 2:3 may allude to a
justice. God appears to be sleeping, and is urged custom mentioned in the Nuzi tablets in which
to awake and bring deliverance (Pss 44:23 [H 24]; children are called upon to strip their mother
59:4 [H 51). He is requested to stir up his might when she is dismissed for adultery. So the Lord
(Ps 80:2 [H 31) and to use his arm (power) on would do to his adulterous wife, Israel.
behalf of the nation (lsa 51:9). This word also indicates a Jack of resources.
c.s. Job, following his affliction by Satan, now re-
duced to nothing, observes that it was thus when
1588 '"IW ( 'ur) II, be exposed, laid bare. he left his mother's womb and would be the same
when he returned to the womb of the earth (Job
Derivatives 1:21=Eccl 5:15 [H 141). Arnos 2:6 depicts a man
1588a '"lil/1, (mä'6r) nakedness (Hab 2:15). stripped of his resources of courage when he
1588b tcl°'"l'I,/ ('erom), c·-,1,1
('eröm) naked faces the divine visitation.
(adjective), nakedness (noun). A most interesting use of this word is the affir-

656
 mation that Sheol is naked before God, i.e., 1591 *ri,~ ( · äwat) bend, make crooked, pervert.
within range of God's jurisdiction and interest (Asv, RSV similar with the former using
(Job 26:6; cf. Ps 139:7, 8; Prov 15:11; Arnos 9:2). such synonyms as "subvert" and "over-
God's knowledge and concem extend even to the throw. ") Used only in the intensive con-
realm of the dead. jugations.
c.s. Derivative
1589 iil/ ( 'wr) III. Assumed root of the follow- 1591a Ml'l11! ( ·awwäta) subversion, used
ing. ·~nly in Lam 3:59 where it desig-
1589a tiit: ('ur) skin, hide. (Asv, Rsv nates a "wrong" produced by the
similar.) This word is used both of deprivation of justice.
men's and animals' skins.
The basic meaning of this verb is seen in Eccl
lt indicates the skin of man fifty-five times. 12 where characteristics of the elderly are listed.
While it can designate the outer covering of the The legs (strong men) of the old "bend them-
body (Job 10:11; Lam 3:4; Ezk 37:6, 8), it also at selves," i.e. are shaky and unreliable (Eccl 12:3).
times is used metonymically to indicate the whole The remaining references are figurative and
body (Ex 22:27 [H 26]; Job 19:26). Various have a moral dimension. In Arnos 8:5 this word
characteristics of the skin are mentioned. Men pertains to dishonest business transactions,
cannot change its color (Jer 13:23). After talking where scales are falsified so as to secure more
with God on Mount Sinai, the skin of Moses' face money while giving less grain.
shone (Ex 34:29, 30, 35). The skin can be dark- In Job this word is involved in the basic con-
ened and hardened by disease (Job 7:5; 30:30; tention of the dialogues. Bildad (Job 8:3) and
Lam 4:8; 5:10). An abnormal skin disease, called Elihu (Job 34: 12) contend that Job has sinned and
leprosy, but probably including various contagi- hence he deserves his sufferings. They argue, to
ous diseases characterized by skin rash, is dis- contend, as does Job, that he is innocent, is to
cussed at great length in Lev 13: 1-46 (see ~ä- accuse God of perverting justice. Job concurs
ra'at). To flay or tear the skin of man is used that his suffering is from God (he is unaware of
metaphorically in Mic 3:2, 3 to indicate mistreat- Satan's involvement) but since he is convinced of
ment of the people of Israel by their rulers. Two his innocence, he concludes that God has per-
interesting uses of skin are found in Job. The ex- verted his rights (Job 19:6). There simply is no
pression "skin fo'r skin" (Job 2:4) seems tobe a justice (Job 19:7), he contends.
harter term, while "by the skin of my teeth" The pessimism of Ecclesiastes stands out in its
(gums? Job 19:20) may indicate a very narrow use of this word. What is crooked and what God
escape. has made crooked (Eccl 1:15; 7:13) cannot be
This word is used forty-four times to indicate straightened. What is crooked can no more be
the skin of an animal. With the exception of the straightened than what is lacking can be counted.
harpooning of the skin of leviathan (Job 41:7 Man cannot change the divine order ofthe world.
[H 40:3!]) this word always designates the hide Recognizing that God is opposed to the perver-
of animals after skinning. These hides were used sion ofjustice (Lam 3:36), the psalmist appeals to
for garments (Gen 3:21; II Kgs 1:8). Such gar- God because his rights were subverted by the
ments could be "diseased" probably mildewed godless (Ps 119:78). While the Lord cares for the
(Lev 13:51), and therefore were to be bumed. oppressed, he makes crooked the way of the
Hides were also used as coverings; for the taber- wicked, so that it leads to ruin.
nacle (Ex 25:5), and also for the ark and the sac- c.s.
red utensils (Num 4:6).
The hides of sacrificed animals were disposed 1592 1'1111( 'iit). Occurs only in Isa 50:4, in
of variously depending upon the kind of sacrifice. phrase läda"at lä'iit, perhaps meaning "to
The hides of the sin offering for the priest or the help."
whole community were to be destroyed (Ex
29:14; Lev 4: 11, 21; 8: 17; 9: 11; 16:27). The hides
Ml'l111 ( 'awwäta). See no. 1591a.
of other sin offerings and the burnt offering were Tl/,-('az), i't: ('oz). See nos. 1596a,b.
assigned to the priests (Lev 5: 13; 7:8). Tl/ ( 'ez). See no. 1654a.
C.S.

iii)l,/ ('iwwäron). See no. 1586b. 1593 'mop ( 'azä ·zel) Azazel. (Asv and Rsv use
ri::,w ('awweret). See no. 1586c. .. · :Azazel," but the former allows for the
translation "removal" in the margin.)
1590 t:IW ( 'iish) lend aid, come to help (Joel This word appears four times in the or, all in
4: 11). Lev 16 (8, 10, 26) where the ritual for the Day of

657
1594 :J~ ('äzab)
Atonement is described. After the priest has seen in Ps I03: 12 where God "removes" our
made atonement for himself and his house, he is transgressions from us.
to take two goats on behalf of Israel. One is to be In the NT John the Baptist identified Jesus as
a sacrifice to the Lord, the other is to be the the Lamb ofGod which takes away the sins ofthe
"scape goat," i.e. the goat for Azazel. In all four world (Jn 1:29, 36). This language is sacrificial,
appearances of this word, it has the preposition yet nowhere in the Law is a lamb spoken of as a
"to" attached to it. bearer of the people's sins. The paschal lamb is
This word has been variously understood and not a sin offering. The description of the Savior
translated. The versions (LXX, Symmachus, as a lamb is unknown to late Judaism. Fur-
Theodotian and the Vulgate) have understood it thermore, the phrase "the lamb of God" is an
to stand for the "goat that departs," considering unparalleled genitive combination. John may
it to be derived from two Hebrew words: ·ez have had in mind that Christ as the paschal lamb
.. goat" and 'azal „ turn off." bespeaks our great deliverance from the bondage
By associating it with the Arabic word 'aza/a of sin. However, what seems more likely is that
"banish," "remove," it has been rendered "for he had a complex of ideas in mind. Some words
entire removal" (IDB loc. cit.). of lsa 53 are discernible here: "as a sheep led to
The rabbinic interpretation has generally con- the slaughter, and a lamb dumb before his
sidered this word to designate the place to which shearers ... whose soul was made a guilt offer-
the goat was sent: a desert, a solitary place, or ing ... and who bore the sin of many. ·' But also
the height from which the goat was thrown (cf. discernible here is an allusion to the scapegoat.
Lev 16:22). This fact is clearly seen in the words "taketh
The final possibility is to regard this word as away" (cf. I Jn 3:5). In Christare consummated
designating a personal being so as to balance the all the atonement concepts of the oT.
word „Lord." In this way Azazel could be an c.s.
evil spirit (Enoch 8:1; 10:4; cf. II Chr 11:15; Isa
34: 14; Rev 18:2) or even the devil himself (KD
1594 ::lI~ ('azab) /, leave, forsake, loose. (Asv,
loc. cit.), standing logically in antithesis to Lord. RSV translate similarly.)
However the Enoch references to Azazel as a
demon are doubtless dependent on the author's Derivatives
own interpretation of Lev 16 and Gen 6:4. Some 1594a :i;mv,('azuba) forsakenness, desola-
who adopt this demon reference of Lev 16 also tion (lsa 6:12; 17:9: a desolate
consider the passage to be of late authorship place).
(P document).
1594b 1i::lW ('izzabbn) wares.
The actual use and meaning of this word in Lev
16 is at best uncertain. However, regardless of its The verb 'azab appears primarily in the Qal
precise meaning, the significant dimension is the (active) and only limitedly in the Niphal and Pual
removal of the sins of the nation by the imposi- (passive). The word also occurs in Akkadian
tion of them on the goat. In this passage sin (ezebu). Arabic has 'zb "to be distant" and
seems to be hypostatized and therefore readily 'azab "single," "unmarried." 'zb in Ex 23:5;
transferrable to the goat. lndeed vss 21 and 22 I Chr 16:37; Neh 3:8 may be a second root, 'zb
state that this goat is to bear away the sin of the II, attested in Old South Arabic 'efb "to restore,
people. Such a ritual would illustrate vividly the repair," and in Ugaritic 'db "to make, prepare,
physical removal of defilement from the camp to set," (UT 19: no. 1818). See U. Cassuto, A
a solitary place where it would no longer infest Commentary on the Book of Exodus, 1967,
the nation. p. 297; cf. M. Dahood, JBL 78: 303-309 for Job
A parallel to the scapegoat can be seen in the 9:27; 10:1; 18:4; 20: 19; 39: 14.
ritual for a recovered leper. Two birds were The basic meaning of 'azab is clearly seen in
selected. One was tobe killed and both the leper its literal use where it has three distinct em-
and the living bird were to be touched with its phases: to depart, to abandon, and to loose. Per-
blood. Then the living bird was released. This sons (Gen 44:22; Num 10:30; Ruth 1: 16; II Kgs
bird carried away the evil, the leprosy itself, into 4:30), places (II Kgs 8:6; Jer 18:14; 25:38) and
the open field and then the leper was pronounced objects (Gen 39: 12-13; 50:8; Ex 9:21) can be left
clean (Lev 14: 1-9). behind. To leave can mean to entrust (Gen 39:6;
There is also a parallel for this scapegoat in Job 39: 11), to expose (Job 39: 14), to permit (Ruth
Babylonian ritual. In the New Year's Day Festi- 2: 16), to allow to continue as is (Josh 8: 17; II Chr
val a slain sheep was removed and cast into the 24:25; Ezk 23:29), to neglect (Deut 12:9; 14:27;
river. The person who carried out this assignment Job 20:19), to put aside (Job 9:27), and to release
was considered unclean as was the person who (Job IO:1) but see Dahood above for the meaning
released the goat in the wilderness (Lev 16:26). .. arrange my complaint."
This concept of the removal of guilt can be This word is also used figuratively with man as

658
 1596 T!~ ('azaz)

the subject. He can forsake, i.e. apostatize. Israel mr;, ('ezuz). See no. 1596c.
is indicted for this on numerous occasions (Deut ml,' ('izzuz). See no. 1596d.
28:20: 31: 16; Jud 10: 10; Jer 1: 16). In forsaking the
Lord and following after idols she was guilty of 1596 T!~ ('äzaz) be strong. (ASV, RSV similar,
breaking the covenant (Jon 2:8 [H 9]; Deut 29:24; except in Ps 52:7 [H 9] where RSVreads · üz
I Kgs 19: 10, 14) and of adultery (Hos 4: 10). Fur- .. take refuge. ")
ther this backsliding was evidenced by her for- Derivatives
saking the temple (II Chr 24: 18; cf. Neh 10:39 1596a tT!i ( 'az) strong.
[H 40]).
1596b tT°!J ('oz) strength.
With man still the subject, this verbis also used 1596c mP, ( 'ezüz) strength, might, fierce-
to indicate the abandonment ofvirtuous qualities.
ness.
Rehoboam forsook the good counsel of the old 1596d ml,' ( 'izzüz) mighty, powerful.
men for the poor ad vice of the young men (1 Kgs
12:8, 13=11 Chr 10:8, 13). But this use is best
1596e :i~m-'('özniya) osprey.
illustrated in Proverbs. The way of righteousness The verb 'azaz can be predicated of both God
(2: 13; 15: 10), wisdom (4:2, 6), reproof (10: 17), and man. When used of God, it generally occurs
loyalty and faithfulness (3:3) can be forsaken. in a petition for him to show his strength since he
The psalmist complains that his strength (Ps is already inherently strong. In the Hiphil (causa-
38: 10 [H 11])and his courage (Ps 40: 12 [H 13]) tive) it is used only of man in a negative sense.
have failed. When used of man, this word carries the idea
lt is also possible for man to forsake undesira- of prevailing as in a war or struggle (Jud 3: 10; 6:2;
ble qualities. To confess and forsake sin is to ob- Dan 11: 12; cf. UT 19: no. 1835) or as being bellig-
tain mercy (Prov 28: 13). The wicked are urged to erent, particularly to God. The psalmist prays
forsake their style of life (Isa 55:7). The righteous that man (parallel to goyim, the pagans) might
are instructed to forsake wrath and anger (Ps not prevail, but that God will arise against him in
37:8). defense of his own (Ps 9: 19 [H 201). This act of
God can also be the subject of this verb with defiance is seen in the strong man who chooses to
man as the object. The promise is that God will trust in his riches and to strengthen himself in his
never forsake the righteous by allowing him to [evil] desire rather than to strengthen himself
fall into the hands of the wicked (Ps 37:25, 33). in God.
The poor and the oppressed, in spite of their That which strengthens man is wisdom-even
plight, have not been forsaken by the Lord (Ps more than the multiplication of human strength
9:10 [H II]: lsa 41:17). In Ps 22 the psalmist is (Eccl 7: 19).
convinced that God has forsaken him because of The psalmist recognizes that God is inherently
his dire circumstances but then concludes the powerful (Ps 89: 13 [H 141) and therefore prays
psalm with a triumphant note, proclaiming God's that he will show that strength against the
faithfulness (Ps 22: 1 [H 2J; cf. Mt 27:46). lt may enemies of his people (Ps 68:28 [H 281). God
be suggested that God had indeed not forsaken demonstrated his strength at creation when he
his son in his personal relation, but as the parallel made firm (established) the fountains of the deep
line in Ps 22: 1 shows, had forsaken him from the in the sense that he restrained them (Prov 8:28)
suffering. The cry from the cross quotes 'äzub in (see ·ayin).
the Aramaic translation shiibaq.
'az. Strang, mighty, fierce. (Asv, RSV similar
Of particular interest here is the promise of
except in Num 21 :24 when RSVreads this word as
God to David. Even if his children forsake the
a location, Jazer.) Used twenty-three times but
divine law, God will not violate his covenant with
never applied to God. Used of animals: ants
the Davidic dynasty (Ps 89:30-37 [H 31-38]). (Prov 30:25 „ not strong"), lion (Jud 14: 14, 18)
However, the Chronicler reminds the nation that
and dog (lsa 56: 11). Applied to forces of nature:
if they forsake God, he will forsake them (II Chr
wind (Ex 14:21) and water (Neh 9: 11: lsa 43: 16).
12:1, 5; 15:2). An excellent illustration of this as it
lt is used of qualities: love (Song 8:6); wrath (Gen
pertains to the individual is Hezekiah whom God
49:7: Prov 21:4); and impudence ("strong
forsook "in the matter of the envoys of the
countenance,'' Deut 28:50; Dan 8:23). When
princes of Babylon„ so as "to try him and know
applied to people it seems invariably to denote
all that was in his heart" (II Chr 32:31).
enemies.
c.s.
'öz. Strength, power. (Asv, RSV are similar.)
1595 :l!~ ( 'äzab) II, restore, repair (Neh 3:8, This word is used primarily of deity, particularly
only). in the Psalms. Synonyms are: ~uyil meaning
(physical) strength, efficiency. army; k.öa~ mean-
1i:l1l,' ('izzabon). See no. 1594b. ing strength, power; and g'' büra, meaning
:i;nv, ('azüba). See no. 1594a. strength, might, particularly of warriors.

659
1597 *i'H' ('äzaq)
Since Hebrew does not lend itself to the 1598 '1!1; ( 'äzar) /, help, support. (Asv, RSV
abstract, the concept of strength is expressed in translate si milarly.)
picturesque ways.
Material and physical strength can be indicated Derivatives
by this word. In Jud 5: 1, it is descriptive of a 1598a t-,_\11( 'ezer) help.
tower: in lsa 26: 1, of a city. Used with face (Eccl 1598b t:"!?T~ ( 'e zrii) help.
8: 1) it clearly means „stern." lt can be descrip-
tive of actions: dancing (II Sam 6: 14). rejoicing Apart from Akkadian and Ethiopic, this root
(1 Chr 13:8), and singing (II Chr 30:21). To "gird ( 'c/r) occurs in all the Semitic languages. Thus,
the loins with strength" is to work industriously for example, in Ugaritic 'cjr means "to rescue/
(Prov 31: 17). Used with rain it indicates torrents save .. ( UT 19: no. 1831). In Old South Arabic it
of drenching rain (Job 37:6). This word is also means "to excuse." (Akkadian i::.irtu „help·· in
used with "scepter' · to depict political power (Jer the Tel Amarna correspondence is a Canaanism.)
48: 17, of Moab; Ezk 19:11, 12, 14, of Zedekiah; As in the Bible, it is especially weil attested in
Ps 110:2, messianic: cf. Ps 2:9; 99:4). numerous personal names: Hadididri, Asarya.
Primarily this word is related to God. Strength Isra, etc.
is an essential attribute of God (Pss 62: 11 [H 12]; Used approximately eighty times in the 01.
63:2 [H 31), his voice (Ps 68:33 [H 341) and his 'äz.ar generally indicates military assistance. Il-
arm (lsa 62:8; cf. Isa 51:9; Ps 89:10 [H III) are lustrative of this is the use of this word with
mighty. While the ark is a symbol of his power Egypt. Egypt will fall in spite of her supporters.
(II Chr 6:41; Ps 78:61; 132:8; cf. Num 10:35, 36), In fact, these allies will fall with her ( Ezk 30:8;
it is also observable in the skies (Ps 150: 1). 32:21). Further, Egypfs military assistance for
God bestows strength on man: the king (1 Sam Judah is worthless and the prophet condemns re-
2: 10), his people (Ps 29: 11; 68:35 [H 361), and on liance on it (lsa 30:7; 31:3).
Zion (lsa 52: 1). But not only is strength a quality 'äzar used in compound with the divine name
given by God, he himself is that strength. Fre- (either EI or Yah) forms several proper names:
quently the personal possessive pronouns are at- Azarel (.. God has helped"), Azriel ("My help is
tached to strength in the Psalms to show this (Ps God"), Azariah C'The Lord has helped") and
28:7; 81: 1 [H 2]: 118:14). In seeking his presence, Ezra ("help," but possibly from a form meaning
strength is found (Ps 105:4=1 Chr 16: 11). ··the Lord helps"), and cf. Ebenezer (.. stone of
God exercises this strength on behalf of his help").
people against their foes. This is particularly weil Divine assistance is frequently of a military na-
illustrated in the Exodus (Ex 15:13). ture. Ahaz, after his defeat by Damascus, turned
This word is used figuratively to describe the to their gods, convinced that they had helped
security enjoyed by the righteous. The Lord is a Damascus defeat him (II Chr 28:23). David's
strong tower against the enemy (Ps 61:3 [H 41) army received additional recruits from Benjamin
and a mighty rock (Ps 62:7 [H 81). His name (i.e. and Judah because they were aware of the divine
person) is the strong tower in which the righteous assistance which David experienced in his strug-
are safe (Prov 18: 10). The impartation of his gle with Saul (II Chr 12:18). Asa is divinely as-
strength, made the psalmist secure as a strong sisted against Egypt (II Chr 14:10: Uzziah,
mountain (Ps 30:7 [H 8]). Zion is a strong city against Philistia and other nations (II Chr 26:7,
because it is surrounded not only by material 13); and Amaziah, against Edom (II Chr 25:8).
walls but also by his salvation (lsa 26: 1). The Chronicler is particularly conscious of God' s
The strength of the Lord is to be a common military assistance.
theme of our praise. We are to ascribe strength to While the historical setting is not always cer-
him. We are to recognize his glorious might and tain, the Psalms also reflect God's military assis-
to praise him for it (Ps 29:1; 96:7; I Chr 16:28). tance. Jerusalem. perhaps in the 8th century. is
Thus in hymns of praise God"s strength shows delivered from Sennacherib by God's help (Ps
itself as his overwhelming majesty, and in the 46:5 [H 61). This psalm also possibly has some
laments it appears as his helping protection. eschatological emphasis. Following an uniden-
Dahood translates this word three times as tified assault upon Judah, the psalmist prays for
"praise·· (Ps 29:1: 68:34 [H 35] and 96:7). Note God's help (Ps 79:9).
the LXX and NT use of --praise „ in Ps 8:2 [H 3J and The matter of military assistance is seen in the
Mt 21:16. familiar eschatological passage of lsa 63:5. God
Bibliography: THAT. II, pp. 252-55. in his wrath and vindication against the nations
c.s. has no human assistance. He looked about for
human aid but finding none, he consummated the
day of vengeance himself. There was no human
1597 *i'H/ ( 'äzaq) dig about. Occurs only m instrument as God had used on other occasions.
the Pie!, in Isa 5:2. While some have seen the redemptive work of

660
 1607 t'\~V('a(ap)
Christ in this passage, it is not likely. A more Derivative
likely counterpart in the NT is the defeat of the
beast in Rev 19: 11 where again the military 1601a l"I\W7' (ma'a(eh) wrap, mantle.
·occurs only in Isa 61:3, a "mantle
character is clearly seen in Christ's work of
of prai se."
judgment.
Assistance to the nation of Israel is a common The Asv and RSVdiffer in two instances. In Jer
theme in Isaiah (41: 10, 13, 14; 44:2; 49:8; 59:7, 9). 43: 12, the RSVreads '"delouse," following the
Again the picture here has a military nature. Be- LXX. In Song I :7, the Rsv understands the root to
cause of God's aid, Israel will be successful in be fii'il and hence reads it "wander." A synonym
overcoming her foes. (frequently in parallel relationship with ·iifil) that
Personal assistance, non-military in character, should be noted is liibash meaning "to clothe."
is found particularly in Psalms. The Lord is seen The basic meaning of 'äfii is seen in I Sam
as the helper of the underprivileged: the poor (Ps 28: 14 where the elderly Samuel is wrapped in a
72:12)and the fatherless (Ps 10: 14; cf. Job 29: 12). robe. This concept is also seen in its figurative
The psalmist confesses that he has no help but use. God wraps himself in fury so as to prepare
God (Pss 22: 11 [H 12]; 107:12). He is conscious of himself as a warrior to protect his community (lsa
divine assistance at a time of illness (Ps 28:7), at a 59: 17) and he also covers himself with light as
time of oppression by enemies (Ps 54:4 [H 6]), with a garment (Ps 104:2).
and at a time of great personal distress (Ps 86: 17). This word is also used in the causative. Ps 84:7
God's hand (Ps 119:173) and his laws (Ps I 19:175) states that the rain "covers" the land with pools.
were sources of assistance to the psalmist. lt is The psalmist laments that God has covered his
the righteous who can anticipate God's aid (Ps anointed with shame (Ps 89:46) because of sin.
37:40). Jerusalem (cf. Isa 49: 18; 52: 1) or the Servant re-
joices even as a bridegroom and bride on their
'ezer J. Help, support, helper. (ASV,RSVsimilar
wedding day because God has covered her (him)
except in Ps 89:19 [H 20] where the RSVreads
with the robe of righteousness, which phrase is
nezer and hence translates "crown. ") While this
further defined by the parallel "clothed me with
word designates assistance, it is more frequently
garments of salvation" (lsa 61: 10). Of signifi-
used in a concrete sense to designate the assis-
cance here is the fact that it is God who provides
tant. (Cf. Gen 2: 18, 20 where Eve is created tobe
this covering of righteousness. Man cannot so
Adam's help[er].) As to the source of the help,
this word is generally used to designate divine clothe himself. However, he can be aware of it,
rejoice in it, and sing over it.
aid, particularly in Psalms (Cf. Ps 121:1, 2) where
it includes both material and spiritual assistance. c.s.
'ezrä I. Help, support, assistance. (ASV, RSV 1602 :,~~ ('ätil) II, grasp. Occurs only in lsa
similar.). The assistance specified by this word 22:17, possibly in Ezk 21:15 [H 20].
is either human or div:ne. The meaning is quite
like the masc. form. Eight times (Jud 5:23; II Chr 1'~11 ('a{in). See no. 1604a.
28:21; Isa 20:6; 31:1-2; Jer 37:7; Lam 4:17; Nah :,~•~t? ('ä{ishil). See no. 1609a.
3:9), it denotes military aid which proves ineffec-
tive. When used of divine aid, it is found in an 1603 l'\",'~1/ ('tl{allep) bat (Lev ll:19=Deut
affirmation (Pss 22: 19 [H 20); 27:9; 40: 17 [H 18]) 14:18; Isa 2:20).
or in a plea (Ps 35:2; 44:26 [H 27]) with the gravity
ofthe request shown by a cry for haste (Pss 22: 19 1604 1QI/ ('fn). Assumed root ofthe following.
[H 20]; Ps 38:22 [H 23]; 40:13 [H 14]; 70:I [H 2]; 1604a 1'~11 ( 'afin) pail, bucket (Job
71:12). In such conditions, man's help is futile (Ps 21:24).
60:11 [H 13]; 108:12 [H 13].
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 256--58. 1605 I'\~~ ('äfap) I, turn aside. Occurs only in
c.s. Job 23:9.

1599 i!l) ( 'zr) II. Assumed root ofthe following. 1606 I'\~~ ( 'ä[ap) II, envelop oneself.
1599a :i,111 ( 'aziiril) enclosure (e.g. Ezk Derivative
•,43:
14; II Chr 4:9).
1606a :i9t;1P,r,,(ma'iifiipil) overtunic (lsa
3:22).
1600 ~µ ( 'e() stylus (e.g. Jer 17:1; Job 19:24).
Derivation uncertain. 1607 I'\;~ ('ä(ap) III, be feeble, faint, grow
weak. (ASV,RSVsimilar except the former
1601 :it;i~ ('ii(ä) I, enwrap, cover. (ASV, RSV prefers the word "overwhelm" while the
similar.) latter uses "faint." A difference is also

661
1608 ,~~ ('ä(ar)

seen in Isa 57: 16 where the Rsv follows the from exile and make a crown (Hebrew is plural,
LXX and renders this word as "proceed. ") perhaps to indicate the superlative, the ultimate
Arabic ·araba means "to flag, be feeble. ·· crown), and to place it upon the head of Joshua,
This word can pertain to physical exhaus- the priest. This crown is then to be kept in the
tion or the Ianguishing of man·s innermost temple (6: 14). This crowning is symbolic of the
being. Messiah (see $emah). By receiving the royal
crown, Joshua indicates that in Jesus Christ both
lt is descriptive of cattle, i.e. feeble cattle,
the priestly and the royal offices are combined.
which Jacob ignored when he developed his own
He alone can wear that crown !
flock (Gen 30:42). This word is also used to de-
Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 624-29.
scribe the children of Jerusalem who fainted due
to weakness from lack offood during the Babylo-
c.s.
nian siege (Lam 2: 11, 12, 19).
Used as subjects ofthis verb are soul (Ps 107:5; 1609 ~=l/ ( '/sh). Assumed root ofthe following.
Jon 2:7 [H 8]), heart (Ps 61:2 [H 3J), and spirit (Ps 1609a :,~•~P, ('afisha) sneezing (Job
77:3 [H 4]; 142:3 [H 4]; 143:4; lsa 57: 16). Not only 41: 10).
can man be overwhelmed with physical exhaus-
tion, his innermost being can also languish. 'II ( 'i). See no. 1577d.
This term is descriptive. of the individual when
he observes his circumstances and then becomes 1610 Q'I/ ("i() scream, shriek. Occurs only in I
aware of his separation from God. As a result he Sam 25: 14.
is overwhelmed. This was true of Jonah in the Derivatives
belly of the fish (Jon 2:7 [H 8]), of a lonely im-
prisoned man (Ps 142) and of a man totally 1610a =~~ ('ayi!) bird of prey (e.g. Gen
crushed by his enemy (Ps 143). This recognition 15: 11; Job 28:7).
of weakness is invariably in a prayer when there 161Ob Q'I/ ( ·if) dart greedily (like a bird
is also a petition for divine assistance. The human of prey. Denominative verb (1 Sam
resources of strength being exhausted, the psalm- 14:32; 15:19).
ist petitions God for his help.
c.s. 1611 Cl;il ('ayäm) glow (lsa 11:15). Meaning
and derivation dubious.
1608 "1~)r ('afar) surround (I Sam 23:26; Ps
5: 13, only). 1612 7'11 ('in) to eye. Denominative verb (1
Sam 18:9).
Derivatives
1608a t:,?~il ( 'a/ara) crown, wreathe. Parent Noun
1608b *"1~)r ( 'afar) to crown, to give a 1612a t7•l,7 ( 'ayin) I, eye. This is a gen-
crown. Used in the Pie! and eral Semitic term and may also
Hiphil. mean "source" (see 'ayin II). In
Ugaritic ·yn means "to behold"
•a~ärä. Crown. This word, a general term for
(UT 19: no. 1846).
crown, should be distinguished from nezer, the
royal and priestly crown. More than the eye itself is implied by this
'äfarä can designate the crown of the queen word. Occasionally it represents the whole pro-
(Jer 13:18), the nobility (Est 8: 15) or the bride- cess of seeing and by extension, of understanding
groom (Song 3: 11). While the crown could be and obedience (Jer 5:21). However, in the OT it is
made of gold and silver (Ps 21:3 [H 4]; Zech 6: 11), the ear which is generally used in this figurative
it could also be a garland of flowers (Ezk 23:42). way. The eye is used to express knowledge,
By far the most significant use of this word is character, attitude, inclination, opinion, passion,
the figurative. lt is used metaphorically to show and response. The eye is a good barometer of the
honor and authority. This is seen particularly in inner thoughts of man.
Proverbs where grey hair ( 16:3)), grandchildren Of all the physical organs of the body, the eye
(17:6), good wife (12:4), and wisdom (4:9: 14:24) was considered one of the more important. If a
are considered a crown. The ultimate metaphor is master should destroy the eye of a slave, that
found in lsa 28:5 where it is the Lord who will be slave was automatically released (Ex 21:26). Not
the crown ofthe remnant! He will bless them and only are eyes assigned to men (Lev 21 :20: II Kgs
be their pride (cf. Ezk 16:12). 4:34), to beasts (Gen 39:41), to birds (Job 28:7;
This same metaphor is used when the emphasis 39:29) but also to wheels (Ezk 1: 18; 10:12, where
is negative, the crown is removed. they symbolize the all-seeing God), to a stone
In Zech 6: 11, the prophet is commanded to (Zech 3:9, where they represent facets: cf. Ex
take the gold and silver brought by the remnant 10:15 "eye [surface] of the whole land'') and to

662
 1614 e-i~~('ip)

idols which are unable to use them (Ps 115:5; the RSV uses the word "spring." Both
135:6). words, however, are similar in meaning.)
Anthropomorphically eyes are attributed to Connection with 'ayin I uncertain.
God. His eyes are in every place, observing the
good and evil (Prov 15:3). They focus throughout Derivative
the whole earth to defend the righteous (II Chr 1613a 1;V~ (ma'yän) spring,
16:9) while they are upon the sinful to destroy
them (Arnos 9:8). Man can find favor in the eyes This word designates a flow of water from an
opening in a hillside or valley. lt should be distin-
ofthe Lord (Gen 6:8). He can do right in his eyes
guished from "weil" or "cistern." Synonymsare
(l Kgs 15: 11) or evil (1 Kgs 16:25). Man prays for
':1äqbr als~ meaning fountain but used frequently
God to open His eyes (II Kgs l9:16=1sa 37:17;
Dan 9: 18). When God hides his eyes, he ignores 1~a figurative way and ma'yän meaning substan-
the prayers and needs of man (lsa 1:15). When he tlally the same as 'ayin.
The land of Canaan was described as · ·a good
directs his eyes to man, he sustains and delivers
land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains
him (Ps 33: 18: 34: 15 [H 161).
('ayin) and springs, flowing forth in valleys and
The eyes are depicted as spiritual faculties.
h!lls." Jacob in blessing his sons, reserved one of
After eating the forbidden fruit, the eyes of Adam
h1~ greatest blessings for Joseph (tribes of Eph-
and Eve were opened. They had lost their inno-
ra1m and Manasseh), likening him to a fruitful
cence, now being aware of their nakedness both
bough by a spring (Gen 49:22). This perhaps re-
physical and spiritual (Gen 3:5, 7). The eyes can
~ers to the "planting" of Manasseh and Ephraim
be blinded to God (Jer 5:21), can be blinded by
m Canaan, suggesting their securing offertile and
God (lsa 6: 10; 44: 18) and can be opened by God
si~nificant territories. The association of springs
(Num 22:31; II Kgs 6: 17). The eyes looking to the
w1th the deep is seen in Prov 8:28 where the
Lord represent expectancy and confidence (Ps
phrase "fountains of the deep" also seems to
133:2).The law ofthe Lord enlightens the eye (Ps
suggest that the deep was the source of the foun-
19:8 [H 9]: cf. I Sam 14:28 to enlighten is to in-
tains. The exact meaning ofthis verse is difficult.
vigorate and revive, Ezr 9:8; Ps 13:3 [H 41).
Following the LXX, it appears that it is the Lord
Isaiah confessed that he had seen the Lord
who strengthened, i.e., established the fountains
with his eyes (6:5). However, this privilege is
of the deep, fixing the boundaries of the sea. But
generally restricted to an eschatological dimen-
in this passage, the bounds of the deep favor the
sion (lsa 33:17; Ezk 38:23; cf. Rev 1:7).
interpretation "ocean" and the 'ayin r•·hbm
The eyes are a mirror of man's inner being. The
could merely mean surface of the deep. In Gen
e~es _reflect generosity ( Prov 22:9, "good eye"),
stmgmess (Prov 23:6, "evil eye"), design (Ps 7: 11, presumably the reference is to suboceanic
so~rces. In any ~vent, Wisdom was already in
17:11), arrogance (Prov 6:17: Isa 2:11), humility
ex1stence at the time of this creative act of God.
(Job 22:29), mockery (Prov 30:17), pity (Ezk
Of significance is that which happened at these
16:5), and avarice (Eccl 4:8).
fountains. The nation of Israel found refreshment
'!'~e phr~se "in your eyes" is equivalent to at the twelve springs of Elim (Ex 15:27: Num
opm1on or JUdgment. In Judg each man did what
33:9).
was right in his own eyes (21:25). The fool is right
lt was at the spring on the way to Shur (proba-
in his own eyes (Prov 12:15). The temple had
bly Beer-lahai-roi where both Abraham, Gen
become a den of robbers in the eyes of the inhabi-
20: 1, and Isaac, Gen 25: 11, dwelt) that Hagar
tants of Jerusalem (Jer 7: 11). Sarah had contempt
witnessed a theophany (Gen 16:7-14). In later
for Hagar (Gen 16:4, 5) while Abraham had sor-
times the fountain was used figuratively of the
row for lshmael (Gen 21: 11, 12).
Lord and as a symbol of His power to refresh.
The promise to preserve with special care is
The only figurative use of this word is found in
expressed by the phrase "apple ofhis eye" (Deut
Deut 33:28 where the phrase "fountain of Jacob"
32: IO; Zech 2:8) which literally means pupil, but
is. parallel to Israel. Israel sprang from the pa-
has now become an English idiom for what is
tnarch Jacob, the father of the twelve tribes (cf.
precious.
Ps 68:26 [H 27] where the word mäqär is used).
Bibliography: Mikliszanski, J. K., "The Law
The constant succession of Jacob's descendants
of Retaliation and the Pentateuch," JBL 66:295-
would be as a stream ever welling forth fresh
303. Richardson, TWB, pp. 44-75. Robertson
from its source.
E.. "The Apple of the Eye in the Masoreti~
Text," JTS 38:56-59. THAT, II, pp. 259-67.
c.s.
c.s.

1613 t1'1,1 ('ayin) II, spring, fountain. (The 1614 !'\'V ('ip) befaint. Probablyaby-formof
ASV generally translates "fountain," while yä'ep.

663
1615 ,~ll ('ir)
Derivative Here the protection must have been very limited.
1614a ti:,~~ faint,
( 'äyep) exhausted, Strathmann notes that although the LXX usually
weary. (Asv and RSVsimilar.) translates 'ir by p6/is, yet the Greek idea of
"city" differs radically from that of Israel. In its
Most frequently this word describes a physical developed use p6/is has as its core meaning a
exhaustion. lt can be occasioned by hunger and political institution, whereas 'ir (cf. Greek 'astu)
great exertion such as was the case with Esau focused on a protected place. He wrote: · ·There
(Gen 25:29, 30), with Gideon's men (Jud 8:4, 5), is in the OT no trace whatever of the world of
with the nation of Israel (Deut 25: 18), and with ideas which the Gks. associated with JtOAUJ ••.. "
David and his men (II Sam 16: 14; 17:29). lt can The importance of cities [in Israel] lay in the re-
also be used to represent a condition of extreme sistance they could offer to aggressors because of
thirst whether actual (Job 22:7; Prov 25:25) or their fortifications, in the protection they could
imaginary (lsa 29:8). give to their inhabitants" (TWOT, VII, p. 23).
This word also is used figuratively. The psalm- Synonyms of this word are qeret and qirya,
ist, wandering in the desert land of Judah, both meaning city with little or no distinction in
realizes that his soul is in much the same parched meaning from 'ir. However these two terms are
condition as the land in which he wanders. Even chiefly used in poetic sections, with the former
as the dry land is thirsty for water, so the psalmist appearing exclusively in poetry. Further they are
thirsts for God, the Fountain of Life (Ps 63: 1 limited in use in contrast to 'ir which is used c.
[H 2)). This metaphor of God as satisfying water 1090 times.
is common to both the Old and New Testament, The Bible represents urban civilization as hav-
as is also the figure of man thirsting for God (Ps ing begun with Cain who built a city and named it
143:6; Jer 31 :25) even though he often substitutes after his son, Enoch. In the tables of the descen-
something eise (Jer 2: 13). dants of Noah (Gen 10) several cities are men-
c.s. tioned, cities which were built after the disper-
sion from the tower of Babel (Gen 11). Some
l'l9'!! ("epa). See no. 1583d. scholars think on the basis of these two passages
that there is an antipathy. toward the city in
1615 i•v ('ir) ciJy. The root is found in nu-
Genesis (cf. G. Wallis, "Die Stadt in den Über-
lieferungen des Genesis, .. ZA W 78 ( 1966): 133-
merous semitic languages (cf. Ugaritic 'r
148). But Hulst argues that such ajudgment is not
(from ·yr 1) meaning · 'city" (UT 19: no.
true to the witness of the OT. Thus cities are a
1847). Derivation unknown.
good gift ofthe LORDto Israel (Deut 6: 10) and the
"ir refers to a permanent settlement without sin in Genesis 11 is not the building of the city
reference to size or claims. None of our modern (THAT, II, p. 271). Cities continued tobe preva-
terms such as city. town, or village adequately lent in the scripture up to the very end of Revela-
convey the meaning or the mental picture con- tion where the new Jerusalem is described (Rev
tained in this word. Not only is there a difference 21 and 22).
between the modern and ancient city, there were Of significance for this article is the fact that
differences between the ancient cities them- cities have qualities of character. This is in part
selves, making definition even more difficult. The because the word ""city·· many times actually
primary distinction between a city and a village means "inhabitants ... A city can cry (1 Sam 4: 13;
U1ä$er and bänbt-the latter literally 5:12) and it can be stirred (Ruth 1:19; cf. Mt
"daughters") is that the former 'ir generally had 21:10). lt can be characterized as righteous (lsa
a wall. Frequent reference to the "gate" of the 1:26), faithful (Zech 8:3) and holy (lsa 48:2; 52: 1;
city where governmental functions were held, Neh 11: 1, 18). All the above qualities are descrip-
underscores the walled nature of cities. Elders of tive of Jerusalem. A city can experience joy (Jer
the cities are often mentioned who had some 49:25), stimulate trust (Jer 5: 17). and be re-
governmental functions. As early as Gilgamesh, nowned (Ezk 26: 17). She can also have undesira-
cities in Mesopotamia had a council of elders ble qualities. She can be proud (Zeph 2: 15), op-
whom the king had to consult before beginning a pressive (Zeph 3: 1), and bloody (Ezk 22:2; 24:6,
war. The villages were in an adjacent agricultural 9, of Jerusalem; Nah 3: 1, of Nineveh). Cities as
area of a city and were in turn dependent on the corporate societies are hence subject to the di-
city for protection. vine blessings and curses. They are established
A. R. Hulst says that nothing certain can be and destroyed depending upon their relationship
said about its basic meaning; still one ought to to God. The security of the city is contingent
think of some form of fortification in connection upon God (Ps 127: 1).
with 'ir (THAT, II, p. 267). Along side of cities A familiar concept in the 0T is the city of ref-
fortified with high walls, gates and bars, Deut 3:5 uge. Six Levitical cities were appointed to re-
mentions "unwalled towns" ( 'äre happ'' rä;:,i). ceive and give asylum to the accidental man-

664
 1619 W';;tJ('akkäbish)

slayers. These cities represent an effort to pre- does, for in the succeeding chapters he proceeds
vent the shedding of innocent blood in the land to do, under the lash of his comforters' words,
(Deut 19: 10). Their aim was to control blood re- precisely what he had said was folly: to question
venge, allowing justice to intervene between the the wisdom of God's ways. The result is that, in
slayer and the avenger (cf. IDB loc. cit.) These the vision of God in chapters 38---41,Job must be
cities are promised in Ex 21: 13 and are projected faced with the gulf between himself and God and
as six in number in Num 35:6. In Deut 5:41---43 brought to realize that his words in the first part
after the conquest of Transjordan the three east- of chapter 9 were more true than his later ones.
ern cities are named: in Deut 19:2 three more are God is the creator and sustainer and. as such,
projected for Canaan. Finally in Jos 20:7-8 after sees things in ways of which we know nothing.
the conquest, all six cities are named. The pro- The particular contexts of both chapters 9 and
gression of the narrative is most satisfactory if 38 suggest overtones of both the Mesopotamian
the Pentateuch be kept in its unity. and the biblical creation accounts. In both of
Bibliography: Feinberg, C. L., "The Cities of these the deity fixes the times and seasons. Fur-
Refuge," BS 103:411-17: 104:35---48.TDNT. VI, thermore, in the Enuma Elish, Marduk fixes the
pp. 522-29. THAT, II, pp. 268-71. places of the gods in the heavens-rather patent
c.s. references to the sun, moon and stars. In the bi-
blical account God also fixes these, but not as
1616 i•!J ( 'yr) Assumed root of the following. gods, simply as created objects, the work of his
1616a ti~p ('ayir) male ass. (ASV, RSV hands. Job also treats them as such, but perhaps
similar.) 'r (from root 'yr II) in the overtone that God has defeated the gods is
Ugaritic is an "ass," but in Egyp- also found here.
tian it denotes "goat" (UT 19: no. Beyond ihis, the reference to Rahab in 9: 13 and
1848). C. H. Gordon notes that one Leviathan in chapter 41 seem to be an appropria-
word in Arabic may include '"don- tion of certain ancient literary motifs to indicate
key" or "gazelle." that creation was not only a triumph of creative
might and wisdom, but also a triumph of good
The ass had been domesticated centuries be-
over evil. All in all, the use of these various
fore the times of the Genesis patriarchs. Its var-
themes serves to point up the truth that the gulf
ied uses in western Asia are clearly seen in the
between creature and Creator is a vast one, one
Bible: a riding animal (Jud I0:4; 12:14); a work
which can only be crossed from the Godward
animal (Gen 49: 11: Isa 30:6, 24); a gift (Gen 32: 15
side.
[H 161). Job 11: 12 alludes to two well-known
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Two As-
qualities of the ass: stupidity and obstinacy. The
tronomical Passages in the Old Testament," JTS
most interesting reference is Zech 9:9 where the
7: 1-11.
Messiah is pictured as riding upon a mule (cf. Mt
J.N.O.
21:1-7 and John 12:14), entering Jerusalem as a
victorious king. That such a ceremony was part 1618 i::,::,1,1 ('akbar) mouse. (ASV and RSV
of a coronation is suggested by David's directions
's'imilar.)
to Solomon to assure him ofthe crown: he was to
ride on the king's mule down to Gihon then up Denotes any one of a large number of rodents
into Jerusalem (I Kgs 1:33, 38, 44---45). of the family Muridae. In Lev 11:29 the mouse is
c.s. declared unclean. Reference is made to a pagan
practice of eating mice (collective singular) in Isa
i•I) ( 'ir). See no. 1587a. 66: 17. They are also edible for Moslems (KB.
o·,,!J ('eröm). See no. 1588b. 702). The Philistines suffered a plague of mice
because of their seizure of the ark (1 Sam 6: see
1617 t:•1,1( 'ayish) Arcturus (ASV and RSV the 'öpe/). The mice seem to have carried an
Bear). epidemic. as rats and other rodents often do carry
the bubonic plague, and perhaps also caused ag-
Heavenly constellation of which the brilliant
ricultural problems. As a propitiatory offering,
star Arcturus is the most easily identified. Occurs
five golden mice were returned with the ark.
only in Job 9:9 and 38:32 in connection with k•·sfl
"Orion," kimti the "Pleiades," mazza/(r)vt the
c.s.
"constellations," (all of which see).
1619 ~•:=:i1,1 ( 'akkäbish) spider. (ASV and RSV
In both occurrences the stars are referred to as
si~ilar.)
evidence of the creati ve power of God. In 9:9 Job
points to the heavens as evidence of God's over- There are only two references to the spider in
whelming power and wisdom, and therefore, of the Old Testament and in both instances the em-
the folly of questioning his ways. However, as phasis is on the web which is pictured as tran-
with many humans, Job knows better than he sitory or nimsy. The wicked will assuredly be

665
1620 *0;,~ ('äkas)

punished in spite of his confidence which is com- graphic location. lt was the site of Achan's
pared to trust in a spider's web (Job 8: 14). In Isa execution and grave for his transgressing the
59:5 the spider's web symbolizes something evil. command to take no booty from Jericho (Josh
Isaiah asserts that the nation 's effort to hide its 7:24, 26). By this act he had brought "trouble"
iniquity (59:6) with the web it has woven, simply on Israel. This site figures eschatologically in Isa
will not work. Any covering that man makes for 65: 10 and Hos 2: 15 [H 17]. lt will be a fruitful
his sin is as transparent as the spider's web. The valley, providing pasture for the flock when Is-
spider of Prov 30:28 (Av) is the word s' miimft rael is restored. An idyllic picture of peace is as-
and probably refers to a kind of lizard. sociated with it. lt will be a place of "hope"
c.s. rather than "trouble."
c.s.
"'li:lV ( 'iikor). See no. 1621a.
1622 :rnr;i, ('akshub) asp, viper.
1620 *o;,v ( 'iikas) shake bangles, rattle, tin-
kle. This denominative verb occurs only i,p ('al). See no. 1624p.
in the Piel, in Isa 3:16. ,·11 ('o/). See no. 1628a.
Parent Noun 1623 .l",t/ ('lg). Assumed root of the following.
1620a o::,p ( 'ekes) anklet, hangle (lsa 1623a .l\;-1,1('illeg) speaking inarticulate-
3:18). ly (lsa 32:4).

1621 "'l;iV ('iikar) stir up, disturb, troubk, make 1624 M7V('ä/ä) go up, cllmb, ascend.
(someone) taboo. (Asv, RSVtranslate simi-
larly .) Derivatives
1624a :i7v ('äleh) leaf, leaf age.
Derivative 1624b •7~ ('elf) pestle (Prov 27:22).
1621a t"'li:lV ('iikor) trouble. 1624c t:i,11 ( 'ölä) I, whole burnt offering.
1624d t:,711 ( 'öla) II, ascent, stairway.
'iikar reflects the social dimension of an indi-
1624e t•'71,1('i/lf) upper (Jud I: 15; Josh
vidual' s action. A person's negative action (this
15: 14).
word always has a negative concept) has a harm-
1624f tM~?P,( 'alfya) roof chamber.
ful influence not only on himself, but also upon
1624g t?i'?I' ('elyon) /, high.
others. A person can "trouble" another person
1624h t?i•7~ ('e/y{m) II, most high.
or the entire nation, bringing either man's or
1624i t,i,'7~ (mö'a/) lifting.
God's judgment upon others. KB (p. 703) fol-
1624j tM?.P,I;(ma'aleh) ascent.
lowed by Holladay (p. 273) define the word to
1624k t,i,,; (ma'a/) above, upward.
mean "taboo; cast out from (social) intercourse"
16241 m,v~ (ma'alil) /, what comes up,
(see Schwally, Sem. Kriegs-altertümer I (1901):
41).
'i'.~.thoughts (Ezk 11:5).
1624m t:i7ir,; (ma'alil) II, step, stair.
The murderous actions of Simeon and Levi
1624n t:i7v1;1(t' 'älil) /, conduit, water
made Jacob odious to the Canaanites (Gen
course.
34:30). Ahab and Elijah exchange charges, each
1624o t:,7V.\'I(t''iilil) II, healing.
claiming that the other had brought the present
1624p t,ll (' a/) above.
trouble (drought) on Israel (1 Kgs 1: 17, 18).
Achan, ignoring the injunction against taking There are nearly 900 occurrences of the verb
booty from Jericho (Josh 6: 18), did so and 'älil in the OT. The most common meanings in the
brought defeat upon the whole nation (Josh 7:25; simple tenses are "go up" (over 300 times),
I Chr 2:7). "come up" (over 160 times) and "ascend" (17
A person can bring trouble on his own house- times). In the causative stems the two predomi-
hold (Prov 11:29; 15:27) or a man can trouble nant meanings are "to bring up" (over 100 times)
himself. A cruel man hurts himself (Prov 11:17). and "to offer" (77 times). The other 230 uses of
Not only is man the subject of this verb, but the word are translated about 85 different ways in
also God. Joshua declared that the Lord would the AV.
bring trouble ('äkor) on Achan (note the word-
'öli\ /. Bumt offering, bumt sacrif,ce. ASVand
play) because of his sin (Josh 7:25). God cut off
Rsv similar.
Achan from the nation.
This noun occurs 286 times in the OT. The usual
'äkor. Disturbance, trouble. (ASVand RSVsimi- explanation for the common rendering "bumt of-
lar.) This word is derived from the root which fering" is that the smoke from the offering goes
means "to disturb, to trouble." lt is always used up or ascends to God. However, since there are
with the word 'emeq "valley," indicating a geo- other sacrifices which were bumed, it seems

666
 1624 ~7~ ('äla)

probable that there is some further concept in- water was the whole animal conveyed to the
volved in the use of 'ölii to describe this sacrifice. priest. He then took it to the altar and arranged it
The key appears to be that alone among the ls- there where it was wholly burned up.
raelite sacrifices the 'ölii is wholly bumed, rather A special case occurs in II Chr 29:20-24 when,
than partially burned and eaten by the worshipers under king Hezekiah, a reform movement began.
and/or the priest. Thus, the whole animal is In this instance, the priests performed the actual
brought up to the altar and the whole is offered as slaughter of the animals. However, the situation
a gift (min/Jii, q. v .) in homage to Yahweh. Whole may retlect a rededication to Yahweh and his true
offering would be a better rendering in English to service on the part of these individuals, and in
convey the theology of the 'ölii. lt is indeed fact indicate that these ·olöt were the offerings of
bumed, but the burning is essentially secondary these men. This event probably lies behind Eze-
to the giving of the whole creature to Yahweh. kiel's shifting the right of sacrificing the 'ölbt to
(See N. Snaith, VT 7: 309.) the Levites (Ezk 44: 11).
According to Lev 1, the 'ölii could be a bull, a Usually the 'ölii was offered in conjunction
ram, a goat, pigeons, or turtledoves. The animals with another offering (e.g. a minhii), although the
had to be perfect male specimens, but no sex 'öla itself has atoning efficacy (Lev 1:4; cf.
qualifications are indicated for the birds. The 16:24).
mode of sacrifice is given in some detail, but for The 'ula was offered for specific reasons. In
the most part, no interpretation of the meaning of times of joy and celebration, an 'ölii is a gift to
the various steps is given. express that joy and to reverence Yahweh (Gen
The 'ölii is first presented since it is a gift ( qor- 8:20f.; I Sam 6:14). This sacrifice is not linked
ban, q.v.) to Yahweh (Lev 1:2, 10, 14). Jf the with the horrors of death. (Note especially on this
offering was a bull (and presumably also either a the material in Dennis J. McCarthy, · 'The Sym-
sheep or a goat, although this is not specifically bolism of Blood and Sacrifice," JBL 88: 166-76;
stated in vv. 10 and 14), the worshiper then iden- see also his later notes 92:205-10). McCarthy
tified himself with the animal by placing his hand concludes that the OT attitude to the sacrificial
on the animars head. This may symbolize the use of blood is without real parallel.
substitution of the victim for the worshiper and An 'öla can also accompany petitions for
indicate the transference of the guilt of sin to the God's intervention in time of nced (Jud 21:4; Jer
animal, but, as de Vaux points out (Roland de 14: 12). Common to both these classes of 'ö/{!( is
Vaux, Studies in OT Sacrifice, p. 28), the only the overiding awareness ofthe need to give honor
other instance where this symbolic gesture is and homage to the God who is holy.
made is in Lev 16:21 where the sin ofthe nation is Two particularly troublesome incidents involv-
transferred to the scapegoat and then carried into ing 'ölöt are the episode of Saul in I Sam 13, and
the wilderness. Because the goat is "impure," he that of Jephthah in Jud 11. Saul's sin is identified
is driven away, rather than sacrificed on the altar. as having offered an 'ölii in preparation for holy
The altar is reserved for holy things. But the war against the Philistines. Since the worshiper
same gesture is used again in the important mat- himself killed the animal, this was not the sin of
ter of the priests · sin offering and burnt offering Saul. Apparently the problem was in the absence
and the ram of consecration (Lev 8: 14, I 8, 22) of a priest to take the blood and the victim to the
and in the other offerings. lt would seem to be a altar. The worshiper slaughtered, but the way to
valid inference that the gesture implied substitu- the altar was reserved to the priest. [Moreover. he
tion, that in some cases it showed the penalty was disobeyed the Lord by failing to follow Samuel's
expiated, in other cases there was the symbolism order to wait seven days at Gilgal until he would
of removal. This act certainly implies the close come to offer the sacrifices and show Saul what
identification of the worshiper with the ·ölii. The he should do (1 Samuel 10:8) R.L.H.]
animal is his indeed, and he is offering it as a gift Jephthah's 'öhi was a different story. A vow
to the Lord. taken under the pressure of imminent defeat was
The third step in the process is the actual kill- nonetheless a vow to be kept-he thought. The
ing of the offering. N ormally the act of sacrifice sacrifice of his only child as an 'öla to Yahweh
was performed by the priest, but for the 'ölii, was the result. Some interpret this controversial
only the birds were slaughtered by the priest- passage to mean that he offered up his daughter
probably because of the small size of the creature to perpetual virginity for divine service and thus
and the small quantity of blood in them. lt was insured the extinction of his line (see G. L.
essential that the blood be put on the altar. A Archer SOTI, pp. 278ff.). Others hold that she
bull, sheep, or goat was killed by the worshiper was offered in human sacrifice. In that case the
himself beside the altar (Lev 1:5, 11, 15), after horror with which this action was received both
which the priest poured the blood against or upon by Jephthah and the nation (Jud 11:29-40) is evi-
the altar. Only after the worshiper had skinned dence enough that human sacrifice was not the
and cut up the animal and washed the parts m norm in Israel. Cf. also the reference to the offer-

667
1624 :,7~('äla)

ing of Mesha·s son as a sacrifice, II Kgs 3:27. De temple which had elaborate upper rooms (II Chr
Vaux argues that the event terrified the Israelites 3 :9). In the heat of the Palestinian surnrners, an
and they tled (Studies in OT Sacrifice. p. 62, n. open room on the roof would catch the cool
49). Micah (6:6--8), reflecting the later prophetic breezes and provide a cornfortable place for the
tradition, is perfectly in line with this view-that king to work (cf. Jud 3:20-25). In Ps 104: 13, the
the fruit ofthe body is not acceptable as an "ii/a. 'äliyil is the abode of Yahweh from which he
What is required is the gift of the seif in justice, sends rain upon the rnountains.
love, and submission. Albright concludes that "it
t„älä /. Conduit, waJercourse. The apparent
is very hard not to give Israel credit for having
anomaly of deriving conduit or watercourse frorn
helped by its example to encourage the oppo-
nents of human sacrifice in Phoenicia .. (YGC, the root "to go up" disappears in the light of the
fact that the dry river beds (wadis) of Palestine
p. 244).
frequently are the routes of easiest access "up
Whole bumt offerings, unknown in the Meso-
to · · the towns and cities.
potamian cults, were common among the
Canaanites, although human sacrifice was not t"'älä II. ldentified by both The Englishman's
prevalent even there (see Roland deVaux, Sac- Hebrew Concordance and Young' s Analytical
rifice, pp. 42ff., 66). Evidence from Ugarit ante- Concordance with ,,, 'älil 1, above, it is translated
dating the 0T and from the Phoenician texts post- "eure" or "healing" in Jer 30: 13: 46: 11. RSV"no
dating the OTgives evidence of rites that parallel medicine for your wound" seems to be valid, as
the Hebrew 'olti. But, missing from all ofthese is the t'' 'älii is considered in relation to a (trench-
the one essential element in the Hebrew struc- like) incision or as a "conduit" for blood.
ture-the offering of the blood and the contact of Schneider not es that the verb ·älti is frequently
the blood with the altar. The offering of the life used as a standing forrnula for going to Jerusalem
(cf. Lev 17: 11, the blood is life) to the God of life and to the temple, because Jerusalem, like most
makes the difference between a simple slaughter cultic centers of the ancient near east, is located
and an acceptable sacrificial gift. on a hill (but "up' · naturally refers to eminence
Bibliography: Cundall, Arthur E., Judges: An too. In Japan people go "up" to Tokyo at sea
lntroduction and Commentary, Inter-Varsity, level). Schneider cites Steinleitner approvingly
1968; pp. 146--149. McCarthy, Dennis J., "The who argued that this expression became a techni-
Symbolism of Blood and Sacrifice, .. JBL 88: cal term for cultic activity in the sense of going to
166--76. McCarthy, Dennis J .... Further Notes on the temple (TDNT, 1, 520f.)
the Symbolism of Blood and Sacrifice, .. J BL Moreover the 0T always speaks of going up to
92:205-10. Rad, Gerhard von, O/d Testament heaven (Deut 30: 12; Arnos 9:2: II Kgs 2: 11).
Theology, I, Harper & Row, 1962, pp. 250-58. Yet another religious use of the word is found
Vaux, Roland de, S111diesin O/d Testament Sac- in the reference to God ascending his throne
r/fice, Cardiff: University of Wales, 1964, pp. when as king he subdues all Israers enemies (Ps
27-51, 52-90. See also 'ashäm, ka/il, J:,a((ä't, 47:5 [H 61).
minJ:,ii, qorbän, shelem. sh'' lamim, zebah.
'elyön /. High, higher, highest, upper, upper-
'ölä II, Ascent, stairway. This noun occurs most. ASVand Rsv similar. Adjective from 'äla
only in Ezk 40:26. Possibly it is a feminine parti- "to go up." Cf. 'äl. The word rnay be taken as
ciple of ·ala. one word with two meanings or as two separate
nouns.
'illi. Upper, This adjective is used only twice This adjective, derived from äla, occurs some
(Josh 15: 19: Jud 1: 15), both times to describe part twenty-two or twenty-three times. lt is used of
of the territory given by Caleb to his daughter as Israel (Deut 26: 19: 28: 1), the Davidic kings (Ps
part of her dowry-the upper and lower springs 89:27 [H 28]), things (e.g. baskets, Gen 40: 17;
of Debir. (Albright identified Tell Beit Mirsim rooms, Ezk 41:7; gates, II Chr 23:20, etc.), and
with Debir, but this geographic detail tips the places (the upper pool, Gihon, Isa 7:3; II Kgs
evidence in favor of Rainey·s identification of 18: 17; upper Bethhoron, Josh 16:5, etc.), to de-
Rabud as Debir.) scribe location in space or erninence of position.
'äliyä. Roof chamber. lt was an upper story 'elyön II. Most high. One ofthe narnes ofGod,
room, sometimes built on the roof of a house the KJVuses it as a descriptive title. The ASVand
(1 Kgs 17:19, 23: II Kgs 4:10-11). Apparently it Rsv capitalize it as a proper name, "Most High."
was strategically located on the city walls (1 Sam The use of 'elyön as a divine name has been a
18:33 [H 19: 11)over the gate, or as a watch tower much debated topic in oT study. (See the specific
(Neh 3:31-32). lt also indicated status and material below under "ä/. In about one-third of
honor-a kind of penthouse apartment. King the times it is so used, it appears either adjecti-
Ahab built an 'aliyii as a high place for an altar (II vally or in apposition with one ofthe other divine
Kgs 23: 12). perhaps following the design of the names. In about two-thirds of the occurrences,

668
 I624 :,7~('ala)
·e/y{m stands alone as a proper name in its own ment History and Religion, Doubleday-Anchor,
right. One of the basic ideas in Semitic religion 1968, pp. 3-100. Bertram, Georg, "uljnow~" in
generally and the 01 particularly is of the exal- TDNT, 8:614-20. Dahood, Mitchell, "The Root
tedness and overwhelming majesty of God. GMR in the Psalms," Theological Studies,
'e/yon, as a divine name signifying the supremacy 14:595-97. __ ,Psalms/, II, III, in AB, 1965,
ofthe deity, is known from both Ugaritic ('ly, UT 1968, 1970. Levi, Della Vida, G., .. 'EI 'Elyon in
19: 1855 and Ais WUS), and Phoenician texts, Gen 14, 18-20," JBL 63: 1-9.
appearing there as epithets of the highest gods of
the pantheons. mö'al. Lifting. This noun occurs only in Neh
In the or, 'e/yön appears only in poetry, and 8:6 where the lifting up of the hands is associated
reflects the ideas of omnipotence (Ps 18:13 with worship of the Lord.
[H 14]; Lam 3:38), universality (Ps 83:18 [H 19]),
and/or constancy (Ps 21:7 [H 8]). Thus the sin of ma'äleh. Ascent. lt is found some nineteen
the king of Babylon in Isa 14: 14 is not that he times, mostly in geographical references to the
wanted to become godlike or even_a god, but that high tenitories associated with specific cities.
he aspired to be like the Highest God. ma'al. Above, upward. Found about 140 times,
'elyön is the place of protection and shelter for always in adverbial or prepositional phrases.
Israel (Ps 9:2 [H 3]; 91:1, 9), and for her king (Ps Most frequently it refers to spatial relationships
21:7[H 8]). In keeping with the Gen 14 passages, or locations described as "above" or "upward,"
'e/yon seems to have a special concern for Zion although often it is used of temporal sequences
(Ps 46:4 [H 5]; 87: 5) even though he is Lord of all describing the age-span of a group of people.
heaven and earth. Psalm 73: 11 satirically em-
phasizes the futility of trying to hide from the ma'älä I. Ezekiel (11: 5) uses ma 'a/ii figura-
all-knowing 'elyön. ThepathosofPs77:I0[H II] tively for the ideas that "come up" in the mind of
is that it expresses the unthinkable-the omnipo- the wayward Israelites.
tent has become impotent.
'elyon occurs in several compounds. ma'älä II. Used variously of steps or stairs,
1. 'et ·elyön. The earliest appearance of ·elybn in the "way up" to the throne, the city walls, etc.
the OT is in conjunction with the old Semitic ap- The use in II Kgs 20:9-11 and lsa 38:8 of degrees
pelative 'el (q. v .) in the Abraham/Melchizedek of the sundial is obviously just counting the
story (Gen 14:18-22). Alt points out that the pri- "steps" or divisions marked off on the dial, or,
mary fact about the names compounded with 'el better, stairway C'the stairway of Ahaz" NIV).
is that they seem to be associated with particular A specialized use of ma'a/ii II is found in the
holy places (e.g. EI Bethel, Gen 31:13, although titles to Ps 120-134 (Av "Song of Degrees," ASV
this is his only clear example; Albrecht Alt, The and RSV"Song of Ascent"). Traditionally this has
God of the Fathers, see Bibliog. p. 11). With EI been interpreted as a series of psalms to be sung
Elyon, however, this is not the case. Genesis as the Israelites "went up" to Jerusalem (e.g. Ps
14:19, 22 identifies him as "possessor" (qöneh, 122), or as the Levites ascended the fifteen steps
q.v.) of all the earth. The RSVfollows the LXX between the court of women and the court of the
ektisen "who created." This perspective clearly Israelites. Dahood ("Psalms"; AB, XVIla, pp.
precludes EI from being considered a nature deity 194f.) suggests "Songs of extolment" on the
(e.g. Baal),and stresses his total supremacy. Psalm basis of I IQPs• Zion 14. Another alternative is to
78:35(cf. Num 24: 16) follows this with EI Elyon interpret the "steps" in terms of the ascending
as the most exalted one. literary structure within the individual psalms.
2. YHWH 'e/yön. This combination occurs in Ps
47:2[H 3] and Ps 97:9 where the common version 'al or 'äl or 'äli. Is used usually as a preposition
treats 'elyön adjectivally, andin Ps 7:17 [H 15] in or conjunction. 'al which usually functions as a
parallel with Yahweh. His exalted position and preposition, is translated over thirty different
his total righteousness leave the Psalmist in awe ways in the or, the most common being above,
(nöra') of the Great King. against, beside, concerning, on, over, upon. lt
3. 'elöhim 'elybn. This combination occurs only also occurs frequently as a conjunction, trans-
twice. In Ps 57:2 [H 3], it is in parallel with ·et lated because, although. Compounded with k'' or
gömer which Dahood treats as a proper name, min it provides more precise inflections of the
'"Avenger God." (Mitchell Dahood, Theological basic meanings.
Studies, 14:595-97.) Ps 78:56 (MT) links the two Theologically, 'al is important for the substan-
words, but Dahood (Psalms II, AB, in loc.) di- tives associated with it and from which the pre-
vides the cola between the two, making ·e/yön position is derived. BDB and Englishman's He-
objective to the second verb. hrew Concordance !ist only six uses of 'a/ as a
Bibliography: Alt, Albrecht, The God of the substantive: Gen 27:39; 49:25; II Sam 23:1; Ps
Fathers, 1929, reprinted in Essays in O/d Tesla- 50:4; Hos 7: 16; 11:7. Mandelkern adds Job 36:33.

669
1625 T';,~('älaz)
In the passages from Gen and Ps 50, the con- Hebrew," JQR 30:263-70. Snaith, Norman H.,
struction is (ha)shämayim me'äl "the heavens "Sacrifices in the Old Testament," VT 7:30~17.
above" and 'al is used adjectivally, almost as G.L.C.
"the high heavens."
In II Sam 23: 1, ·a/ stands alone in an adverbial =•~1',11('alumim). See no. 1630c.
relationship to the verb so that the colon reads :,i?1,1( ('a/uqa). See no. 1636a.
"the oracle of the young man who was raised up
highly." Similarly, Job 36:33 (a text which Pope 1625 t'it; ( 'älaz) exult, rejoice.
(Job, AB, p. 238) declares is "notoriously dif-
ficult, ·· as witness the variety of translations) is Derivatives
included with the substantive use of 'a/. Pope 1625a tt',t; ('älez) exultant (lsa 5: 14).
understands 'äläyw in the first colon as reflecting 1625b tT•~l) ('alliz) exultant, jubilant.
the ancient name of the storm god 'Aliy (which
could as easily be the God who mies the storm), These words describe an emotion of joy which
but emends the second colon in a way that dam- finds expression in singing and shouting. lt is in-
ages the parallelism. Delitzsch (Job, in loc,) saw appropriate for one in anguish (Jer 15: 17) and for
this as a divine name also, but followed it up with one who has sinned (Jer 11:15). By contrast it is a
the observation that 'a/-'6/eh also refers to God. natural response of the faithful (Ps 149:5), even
Hosea 7:16 and 11:7 both use 'a/ as the proper being ascribed to God himself (Ps 60:6 [H 8J=Ps
name translated in Av as ··Most High'· ( = 'elybn 108:7 [H 81). When applied to the wicked (Ps
see above). The Rsv·s emendations to Baal (7: 16) 94:3) and lsrael's foes (II Sam 1:20; lsa 23: 12; Jer
and yoke ( 'öl, 11:7), are interesting speculations, 50: 11), it depicts a kind of gloating.
but add nothing to the understanding of the text, c.s.
and are unnecessary.
lt is now evident that the Ugaritic texts use '/y 1626 :,~711('alä(a) thick darkness. Derivation
··Most High" as an epithet for Baal (Legend of uncertain.
Keret 3.6-9) specifically in a storm god context
(UT 19: no. 1855). The related concepts of '?W ('e/i). See no. 1624b.
power, strength, exaltedness, etc., are paralleled •~t1 ( ·illi). See no. l 624e.
by the attributes of 'elyon. What we have here is :,~?I:'('aliya). See no. 1624f.
another of the so-called standard semitic epithets 1i•7~ ('elybn) I, II. See nos. 1624g,h.
or surrogates for the deity--<:ommon among the t'~l/ ('a/liz). See no. 1625b.
ancient near eastern peoples, but, purified of all ',•711 (' alil). See no. 1628b.
their pagan overtones of the fertility cults, incor- :,',•~11 ( 'alila). See no. 1627c.
porated into Hebrew religious vocabulary. :,~?~?II('öliliya). See no. 1627d.
The discovery of 'a/ or ·a/i in these contexts rmt'?I:' ('öli~ut). See no. 1635a.
has not only justified the translation "Most
High" in the Hos and Job texts, and given
1627 *',';,t; ('ä/a/) I, deal with set>erely, abuse,
additional evidence for the use of 'e/yon as a di-
make a fool of someone.
vine name, but has also opened up the possibility
of identifying other cases of the use of 'al as the Derivatives
proper name of the deity. Some representative
1627a tr,i',',itl ( 'olelot) gleaning.
examples suggested by Dahood are Gen 14:19;
1627b *',';,t; ('älal) glean. Denominative
21:33; Deut 33: 12; I Sam 2: 10; Ps 7:6, 8, 10 [H 7,
9, I IJ; 16:6; 18:41 [H 42J; 55:22 [H 23]; 57:2 [H 3]; verb, occurring only in the Poel.
1627c t:,7•'?11 ( 'ölila) wantonness, deed.
62:7 [H 8]; 68:29, 34 [H 30, 35]; 75:8 [H 9]; 106:7;
1627d :,~?'?I:'('aliliya) deed (Jer 32: 19).
119:104, 127, 129, 136; 139:14, 15; 141:3; 144:5;
1627e t',';1/7;' (ma'aläl) deed, practice.
146:5; Isa 63:7: Hos 10:5.
1627f Cl'?1?1/l,:I (ta'(I/ulim) wantonness
Bibliography: Albright, William Foxwell,
(lsa 3:4; 66:4).
From the Stone Age to Christianity, 2d ed.,
Doubleday Anchor, 1957, pp. 230-236. --, The verb 'älal appears thirteen times, always
Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, Doubleday, in the intensives. lt is difficult because it cannot
1968, especially chapters 3-4. Dahood, Mitchell, be consistently translated with any one word.
Psalms /, II, III, AB, Doubleday, 1965, 1968, The context must determine the nuance of mean-
1970. ___ , "The Divine Name 'eli in the ing. Further homonyms meaning "to play the
Psalms." Theological Studies 14:452-57. De- child" ('II in lsa 3: 12) and "to thrust" ('II in Job
litzsch, Franz, Biblical Commentary on the Book 16: 15) are easily confused with this root. (Asv and
oflob, reprint, Eerdmans, 1949. May, H.G., 'Al RSVare reasonably similar with the former pre-
... in the Superscriptions of the Psalms," AJSL ferring the words "do" and "mock" while the
58:70-83. Reider, J., "Substantive 'a/ in Biblical latter prefers "deal" and "make sport of' re-

670
 1629 Cl?~
('älam)

spectively. An interesting difference in Ex 10:2 is applied to the nations after universal judgment
and I Sam 6:6 will be noted below.) (lsa 24: 13). Micah (7: 1) confesses his inability
This word speaks of relationships. lt is used to to find a godly remnant in Judah. The destroyers
indicate the exercise of power over another per- of Edom will not even leave a remnant (Jer 49:9;
son, generally in a bad sense, hence meaning "to Ob 5). Used figuratively by Gideon of Ephraim's
maltreat." lt signifies some great achievement, military achievements (Jud 8:2).
generally malevolent.
'lllilä.Deed, action. (ASVand RSVfrequently
The negative and strong thrust of this verb can
use · "doings. ") Used twenty-four times of which
be seen in Lamentations. In 3:51 the speaker (a
all are plural, except two (Ps 14:1; 66:5), hence
man, 3: 1, not the personified city) complains that
his eyes have caused him grief, i.e. that which he "doings." Applied to both man and God with a
sharp apparent contrast. The deeds of God are
has seen-destruction, disease, famine-has
brought intense pain to him. The personified city righteous and renowned (Ps 9: 12; 66:5; 105:1).
implores God to consider his severe treatment of The actions of men are wicked (Ps 14: 1). This
wicked quality ofmen's deeds is primarily seen in
her, necessitating cannibalism (2:20). She ques-
tions passers-by whether they have ever witnes- Ezekiel where six times this word is parallel to
derek "'way, practice" (14:22, 23; 20:43; 24:4;
sed such malevolent treatment ( 1:12) and intreats
36:17, 19).
God to treat her enemies even as he has dealt
with her ( 1:22). In this appeal for retribution there ma'llläl. Deed, practice. Used somewhat more
is a recognition that God is just and that ven- often with a similar range of meaning. Again the
geance belongs to him. deeds of men are wicked deeds. The word is used
This word is used to depict the exploitation of three times of the action of God.
one person by another. The concubine of the Le- c.s.
vite was sexually abused by the men of Gibeah
(Jud 19:25). Saul requested that hebe slain rather 1628 *',';>~ ('ä/a/) 1/, inserl, thrust in. Used
than to be taken by the Philistines who would only once, figuratively of humiliation (Job
make sport of him (1 Sam 31 :4= I Chr 10:4). 16: 15).
Zedekiah was fearful that the Jews who had de-
fected to the Chaldeans would abuse him (Jer Derivatives
38:19). In Num 22:29 Balaam accuses his ass of 1628a +',·I,' (·öl) yoke.
mocking him. 1628b ',•71) ('a/i/) furnace.
The crucial passages in this area are Ex 10:2
'öl. Yoke. (So translated in Rsv and Asv.) Used
and I Sam 6:6 where the Lord is the subject of
this verb and the Egyptians are the object. Is it of a yoke either of wood or iron (cf. Jer 28:2, 4,
11, 14). Limited use as a literal yoke for animals
proper to suggest that the Lord makes sport of
(Num 19:2; Deut 21:3; I Sam 6:7). Derived from
anyone? Did he deal ruthlessly with Egypt? The
'äla/ II from insertion of the neck into the yoke.
ASVhas chosen in these two instances to give a
neutral rendering '"wrought" and "wrought Most frequently used figuratively: oppressive
policies of monarchy (1 Kgs 12 and II Chr 10);
wonderfully" while allowing in the margin for the
translation ··mocked." While the thought of bondage and servitude (Lev 26: 13, of Egypt: lsa
14:25, of Assyria; Jer 27:8, 11, 12, of Babylon);
mocking is startling, both the contextual and the
domination of sin (Lam 1: 14); benevolent control
etymological situation demand a negative type of
ofGod (Jer2:20; 5:5). In lsa9:4 [H 3Jareference
treatment. God treated the Egyptians severely
is made to messianic deliverance from the bur-
because, as the Philistines noted, they hardened
their hearts. lt is clearly within God's power and densome yoke. Cf. the figure in Gai 5: 1.
perogative to punish and discipline but he never c.s.
acts in jest; hence the RSVtranslation · · made
sport of' can be misleading. 1629 c';>~ ( 'älam) I, be hidden, concea/ed, se•
Finally the use of this word in Ps 141:4 is set in cret.
a prayer for an upright heart. There is a recogni- Derivative
tion here that wicked external practices originale
in the heart and issue forth from the mouth and 1629a :,~?II~ (ta'alümmii) hidden thing,
lips (cf. Mk 7:15-23). secret.
The meaning of the verb 'älam is quite obvi-
'ölelöt. Gleaning. (Asv and Rsv similar.) Re- ous. Only the passive participle occurs in the Qal
fers to grapes and olives left after first picking. (Ps 90:8). Its commonest uses are Hiphil to ex-
Used six times, always figuratively of a remnant, press causative (hide, conceal) or Niphal as pas-
derived from "älal l by BOB and KB, but connec- sive. lt occurs a few times it\ the Hithpael, prob-
tion not clear. Refers to Israel's remnant after ably as reflexive. The verbis not used in Ugaritic
God's exhaustive judgment (lsa 17:6). Same figure or Arabic so it cannot be determined whether the

671
1630 c';,t.'('/m)

initial consonant is ayin or ghayin. lf it is ayin, Virgin and the Old Testament," RTR 12:1-13.
the verb may be the parent of 'olam; if it is Lattery, Cuthbert, "'The Emmanuel Prophecy:
ghayin, the verb may be the parent of 'eiern and lsaias 7: 14," CBQ 9:89-95. __ , '"The Term
'alma. 'Almah in lsaias 7: 14," CBQ 9:89-95. Moriarty,
R.L.H. Frederick, 'The Emmanuel Prophecies," CBQ
19:226-33. Steinmueller, J. E., "Etymology and
Biblical Usage of · Almah," CBQ 2:28-43.
1630 1:1',lJ ( 'Im) II. Assumed root of the follow-
A.A.M.
ing.
1630a Cl~V ( 'eiern) young man (1 Sam
20:22; 17:56). 163I 1:1',lJ ('Im) III. Assumed root of the follow-
1630b t:,97p ( 'alma) young woman. ing.
1630c 1:1•~~,i: ('alümim) youth (abstract). 163Ja t1:17i1J ( 'ölam) Jorever, ever, ever-
lasting, evermore, perpetual, old, an-
There is no certain root for these words. They
cient, world, etc. (RSV similar in
are not clearly related to 'älam 1. The suggestion
general, but substitutes '"always"
in KB that they may be derived from an Arabic
for "in the world" in Ps 73: 12 and
root meaning "'to be vehemently affected with
"eternity" for "world" in Ecc
Just" is without foundation, particularly since
3: 11.) Probably derived from 'älam
Arabic literature comes from a time several cen-
I, "'to hide," thus pointing to what
turies after the Biblical record, and the relation-
is hidden in the distant future or in
ship, if any, is apt tobe the reverse. According to
the distant past. The Ugaritic cog-
KB 'a!ma means "marriageable girl, young
nate is ·Im, · · eternity. · ·
woman (until the birth of her first child)." The
latter statement is purely conjectural, for there is Though 'ölam is used more than three huncjred
no evidence on which to base it. times to indicate indefinite continuance into the
Since b" tüla is used many times in the oT as a very distant future, the meaning of the word is
specific word for '"virgin," it seems reasonable to not confined to the future. There are at least
consider that the feminine form of this word is twenty instances where it clearly refers to the
not a technical word for a virgin but represents a past. Such usages generally point to something
young woman, one of whose characteristics is that seems long ago, but rarely if ever refer to a
virginity. This is bome out by the fact that the limitless past. Thus in Deut 32:7 and Job 22: 15 it
LXX translates it as parthenvs in two of its seven may refer to the time of one's elders. In Prov
occurrences, and that its use in Isa 7: 14 was 22:28; 23:10; Jer 6:16; 18:15; 28:8 it points back
quoted to Joseph by the angel as a prediction of somewhat farther. In Isa 58: 12, 61 :4; Mic 7: 14;
the virgin birth. Mal 3:4, and in the Aramaic of Ezr 4:15, 19 it
Some translators interpret Mt I :22-23 as being clearly refers to the time just before the exile. In
simply a. comment by Matthew, but it is more I Sam 27:8, in lsa 51 :9 and 63:9, 11 and perhaps
reasonable to consider that the argument that Ezk 36:2, it refers to the events of the exodus
convinced Joseph was the fact, pointed out to from Egypt. In Gen 6:4 it points to the time
him by the angel, that such an event had already shortly before the flood. None of these past ref-
been predicted by lsaiah. There is no instance erences has in it the idea of endlessness or limit-
where it can be proved that ·a/ma designates a lessness, but each points to a time long before the
young woman who is not a virgin. The fact of immediate knowledge of those living. In Isa 64:3
virginity is obvious in Gen 24:43 where 'alma is the KJV translates the word "'beginning of the
used of one who was being sought as a bride for world." In Ps 73:12 and Eccl 3:11 it is translated
Isaac. Also obvious is Ex 3:8. Song 6:8 refers to "world," suggesting the beginning ofa usage that
three types of women, two of whom are called developed greatly in postbiblical times.
queens and concubines. lt could be only reason- Jenni holds that its basic meaning "most dis-
able to understand the name of the third group, tant times" can refer to either the remote past or
for which the plural of 'alma is used, as meaning to the future or to both as due to the fact that it
"virgins." In Ugaritic the ward is used in poetic does not occur independently (as a subject or as
parallel with the cognate of h'' tüla. See refs. in an object) but only in connection with preposi-
UT 19: no. 1969. tions indicating direction (min "since," 'ad '"un-
Bibliography: Wilson, Robert Dick, "The til," I" '"up to") or as an adverbial accusative of
Meaning of 'Almä (AV "'Virgin") in Isaiah direction or finally as the modifying genitive in
vii. 14," Princeton Theological Review, 24:308- the construct relationship. In the latter instance
16. Feinberg, Charles Lee, "'The Virgin Birth in 'öläm can express by itself the whole range of
the Old Testament and Isaiah 7: 14," BS meanings denoted by all the prepositions "since,
119:251-58. Gordon, C. H., '"Almah in lsaiah until, to the most distant time"; i.e. it assumes
7:14," JBR 21:106. Knight, G. A. F., "The the meaning "(unlimited, incalculable) con-

672
 I637 ,r;~ (' ämad)
tinuance, eternity." (THAT II, p. 230) J. Barr Lord (1 Sam 2: 1: Ps 9:2 [H 31). The psalmist
(Biblical Words for Time (2 I 969), p. 73) says, prays that his enemies will not be able to exult:
'"We might therefore best state the „basic mean- i.e. gloat, over him. This is also a possible re-
ing" as a kind of range between ·remotest time· sponse from nature (1 Chr 16:32) and from a
and ·perpetuity' ". But as shown above it is community (Prov 11:10).
sometimes used of a not-so-remote past. For the c.s.
meaning of the word in its attributive use we
should note the designation of the LORDas 'e/ 1636 :,',11 ( '/q ). Assumed root of the following.
'öläm, "The Eternal God" (Gen 21:33). 1636a M~1',v, ( ·a/iiqa) leech (Prov
The LXX generally translates 'öläm by aiön 30: 15).
which has essentially the same range of meaning.
That neither the Hebrew nor the Greek word in Cl/ ('am), C~ ('tim), 01,1 ('im). See
itself contains the idea of endlessness is shown nos. 1640a,b,e.
both by the fact that they sometimes refer to
events or conditions that occurred at a definite 1637 ii;,11 ( 'iimad) stand, remain, endure, etc.
point in the past, and also by the fact that some-
times it is thought desirable to repeat the word, Derivatives
not merely saying „forever," but "forever and
1637a ti~!J ( 'ömed) standing place.
ever."
1637b tM,~~ ( ·emda) standing ground
Both words came to be used to refer to a long
(Mic 1:11).
age or period-an idea that is sometimes ex- 1637c t,1~11 ( 'ammüd), "!IP.II( 'ammüd)
pressed in English by "world." Postbiblical
pillar, column.
Jewish writings refer to the present world of toil 1637d t,~11~ (ma·amäd) attendance.
as hä'öliim hazzeh and to the world to come as
1637e ti~~~ (mo'ömäd) standing ground,
hä'öläm habbä·.
foothold (Ps 69:3).
'ad (q.v.) has substantially the same range of
meaning as 'öläm (usually long continuance into This basic term for "stand," cognate to Akka-
the future, but cf. Job 20:4). dian emedu „to lean against, stand, place," and
Bibliography: Snaith, Norman H., "Time in Arabic 'amada "to prop up, support," is very
the Old Testament," in Promise and Fulfillment, common in the Hebrew OT (used over five
Essays Presented to Professor S. H. Hooke, ed. hundred times). Synonyms include: yäJab,
F. F. Bruce, Edinburgh: Clark, 1963, pp. 175--86. Hithpael, .. to take one's stand"; kün, Niphal,
Jenni, E., .. Das wort 'o/am im AT," Diss, Theo!. "to stand firm, fast"; nä$ab, Niphal "to stand,
Basel 1953 ( ZA W 64: 197-248; 65: 1-35). stand firm:" and qiim, "to stand up, get up."
A.A.M. The verb ·ämad is used so extensively in the
oT of the physical act of standing as to preclude a
1632 0?~ ('älas) rejoice (e.g. Job 20:18; complete analysis in this work, but the reader is
39: 13). referred to the full categorizations in BOB and
KB. Attention should be given to certain key
1633 *!J?~ ( ·ala' ). Meaning uncertain. Occurs passages, particularly those with significant
only in the Pie!, in Job 39:30, y•· 'a/'ii-däm theological import. Oile such expression is "to
.. they drink (?) blood ... stand before Yahweh," used, for example, of
Abraham in Gen 18:22 (cf. 19:27) and Moses in
1634 *11?~ ( 'älap) cover. Occurs only in the Deut 4: 10 (cf. Jer 15:1, of Moses and Samuel).
Pual and Hithpael (e.g. Song 5: 14; lsa „To stand before Yahweh" (construed with lipne
[q. v. 1) in these instances is a posture of prayer
51:20). Ezk 31:15 'ülpeh is best vocalized
and intercession. That men have feit a need for
as a Pual form.
Yahweh's help is not surprising. But the fact that
men may „stand" before the Creator of eternity
1635 l'';>~ ('äla,$) exult, reJoice. (Asv and RSV and make intercession is utterly remarkable. lt is
similar, both using "triumph" in Prov important to add, however, the observation of
28: 12.) E. Jacob that such intercession is not at all magi-
Derivative cal. nor is there an automatic answer from God to
the petitioner. He writes, "Whether intercession
1635a r,1:ii•i:>11 ( 'alisiir) exultation, used is useless because of the greatness of the sin or
o~ly in Hab 3: 14, · 'their exultation pardon is impossible because of the absence of
was as it were to devour the poor. ·' intercession (Ezk 22:30; Isa 59: 16), it is important
This verb describes an emotional response ba- to notice that it depends on the divine liberty and
sically of the righteous (Ps 5: 11 [H 12); 68:3 that no human device can bring about God's par-
[H 4]; Prov 28: 12), which is occasioned by the don" (JTOT, p. 296).

673
l 637 ,r.,~(' ämad)
Another nuance to the expression, .. to stand The masculine noun 'ammud "pillar, col-
before Yahweh," is afforded by a passage such umn," is used of structural, supporting pillars;
as Deut 19: 17. In this context litigants „shall bronze (monumental) upright columns; vaporous
stand before Yahweh, before the priests and the columns of smoke, fire, and cloud; and in figura-
judges who will be in office in those days'' (cf. Jer tive expressions of the "supports" of earth and
7: 10). Such presentation was for judgment. heaven (see Ps 75:3 [H 4]; Job 9:6). Pillars forthe
Standing before Yahweh and his ministers in the structural support of the roofs of great buildings
sanctuary portends the ascertaining of truth and were used from an early period in the ancient
justice. At times the nation as a whole was called near east. The familiar story of Samson's final
to come to the central sanctuary and „stand be- victory over the Philistines in the palace at Gaza
fore Yahweh · · in solemn assemblies for sacrifi- describes how he destroyed the building, killing
cial acts (e.g. Lev 9:5). Servants of Yahweh thousands and himself, by knocking out of place
"stand before him" as an expression of dedica- the supporting pillars (Jud 16:26-30). J. B. Job
tion, allegiance, and servitude. This terminology notes that the archeological evidence from Philis-
is used of priests (e.g. Ezk 44: 15), and particu- tine sites suggests these pillars were of wood, set
larly of genuine believers during the period of on stone bases (see "pillar," NBD, p. 998). Sol-
lsrael's decline and apostasy (Elijah, I Kgs 17: 1; omon' s palace was noted for the four rows of
18:15; Elisha, II Kgs 3:14; and Gehazi [with re- cedar pillars with corresponding cedar beams
luctance], II Kgs 5:16). (1 Kgs 7:2-36). Earlier, the tabemacle had pillars
As Joseph stood before Pharaoh (Gen 41 :46), made of acacia (KJV, "shittim"; Ex 26:32, 37; cf.
David before Saul (1 Sam 16:21), Abishag and 27: lüff.). Pillars are mentioned in the description
Bathsheba before David (1 Kgs 1:2, 28), and of Ezekiel's temple (Ezk 42:6) and the palace of
Nebuzaradan before Nebuchadnezzar (Jer Ahasuerus (made of marble, Est 1:6).
52: 12): so the believer stands before Yahweh in a The temple of Solomon is remarkable in the
position of obedience, respect, and readiness to description of two free-standing pillars made of
serve. Such a position is noble in proportion to bronze, named · · Jachin .. ('"he shall establish ")
the majesty of the one served. When a person and "Boaz" ("in it is strength," I Kgs 7: 13-22).
stands before Yahweh for service, there is no These products of Hiram of Tyre (Huram-abi in
higher honor to which he may aspire. II Chr 2: 13) must have been majestic in strength
A crucial use of the verb 'ämad, the subject of (27 feet high, plus the capitals which were 7.5 feet
perennial debate, is in the controverted „long high), and lovely in beauty (see the description of
day" of Josh 10: 12-13; a day unlike any other, the capitals in I Kgs 7: 17). In II Chr 3: 15 the word
"when Yahweh listened to the voice ofa man, for for the height of the pillars differs from that in
Yahweh fought for Israel" (Josh 10: 14). R. D. I Kgs 7: 17 and may refer to the combined length
Wilson explained long ago that the use of 'ämad ofthe two pillars (see 'ii/am "porch"). lt may be
(coupled to dom) in vv. 12-13 refers not to a noted that the text does not specifically say that
prolongation of the day, but to a cessation from these pillars were free standing. lt may be that
the heat and light of the sun; that is, an eclipse they stood at the front comers ofthe porch. Or, if
coupled to a storm. The defeat of the enemy was the porch had closed sides somewhat like a ves-
completed not in the midst of a very long, hot tibule, they could have omamented the entry-
day, but in the darkness ofa storm. On this point, way, dividing it into three openings. This is the
see H. J. Blair in NBC, rev. ed., p. 244, and J. way such pillars were used in the govemment
Rae in WBC, p. 218. D. Patten, following a lead buildings of Megiddo (David Ussishkin, "King
from 1. Velikovsky, associates the phenomenon Solomon's Palaces," BA 36:78-105, especially
with a close fly-by of a heavenly body. 85, 87, and 98).
Some scholars have suggested that these twin
'ömed. Place, standing place, stood upright. (ASV, pillars may have contained the sacred fire of the
RSVsimilar.) A masculine noun found with a gov- temple with the smoke symbolizing the presence
eming proposition and pronominal suffix in late of the Lord (see J. Gray, !-II Kings, p. 175). In
oT writings (nine times in Dan, Neh, and II Chr.). any event, the pillars with their strength, beauty,
'emdä. Standing. (Asv "stay," RSV "standing and symbolic names likely represented the pres-
place," NASB"support. ") A feminine noun found ence of the Lord and the permanence of the
only in Mic 1: 11. Davidic house.
The word 'ammüd is also noteworthy in the
'ammOd, 'ammiid. Pillar (ASV, RSV, "pillar, phrases 'ammud 'iiniin and 'ammiid 'esh, "the
column, post"). A very common noun (110 times pillar of smoke" and "the pillar of fire" (Ex
in the oT), used of pillars supporting buildings 13:21; cf. 14:24 'ammiid'esh w'"änän, "pillar of
(e.g. Jud 16:25), the bronze pillars ofthe temple (1 fire and smoke"; see the articles on 'esh and
Kgs 7: 15), and the pillar of cloud and fire in 'änän). These visual tokens of the presence of
Yahweh ·s theophany (e.g. Ex 14:24). Yahweh in leading, directing, and protecting his

674
 1640 t:1~11
('mm)

people were designed for the comfort of Israel biblical view of labor based on this word alone
and the constemation of her enemies (see Num would be defective, but this aspect of work
14:13-14). lt was in the mysterious pillar of cloud should be included in a full induction. Thus
that Yahweh would manifest himself before Moses uses this term to describe the frustration
Moses (Num 12:5; Deut 31:15), and this mysteri- and struggle of the worker in this ephemeral,
ous manifestation in cloud, smoke, and fire was transitory world (Ps 90: 10). No wonder he ci'ies
never forgotten by Israel (e.g. Neh 9: 12). out to the etemal God "and !et thy beauty (eter-
nal, lovely work) be upon us" ( v. 17). The root in
ma'ämäd. Attendance, office, pLace, state. (ASV,
its several forms is used especially by Solomon in
RSV similar; for RSV add "duty' seating. ") A mas-
Eccl as he details the frustration, profitlessness,
culine noun which prefixed mem of location;
and transitory (hebe/) benefits of day-by-day
hence, the term speaks of a "place of standing"
Iabor; such is noted when that labor is not seen as
in the sense of "office" (lsa 22: 19) and "service,
service (even worship!) to God, but simply as
attendance" (1 Kgs 10:5).
work done "under the sun." For the man whose
mo'ömäd. Standing. (So Asv; RSV, NASB, relationship to God is tenuous, there is no profit
"foothold.") Only in Ps 69:2 [H 3), in a figure of (yitr6n) from all his work (Eccl 1:3). Yet even in
distress. Ecclesiastes there are glimpses of a higher view
Bibliography: AP-Thomas, D. R., "Notes on of labor: "every one who eats and drinks and
Some Terms Relating to Prayer," VT 6:225-41. sees good in all bis labor-it is the gift of God"
Patten, Donald W., Hatch, Ronald R., and (Eccl 3: 13; cf. 5: 18-19 [H 17-18]).
Steinhauer, Loren C., The Long Day of Joshua
'iimäl. Labor, toil, trouble, mischief, so"ow,
and Six Other Catastrophies, Pacific Meridian,
1974.Wilson, Robert Dick, .. Understanding The
travail, pain, grievance, grievousness, iniquity, mis•
erable, misery, painful, perverseness, wearisome,
Sun Stood Still,' '' Princeton Theological Review
wickedness. (ASV, RSV similar.) As in the case of
16:46-54; reprinted in W. Kaiser, ed., Classical
the verb, so in that of the noun: 'ümül relates to
Evangelical Essays in O/d Testament Interpreta-
the unpleasant factors ofwork and toil. A perusal
tion, Baker, 1970, pp. 61-65. TDNT, VII, pp.
of the varied synonyms used in the KJV to render
641-46. THAT, II, pp. 328-31.
this word suggests its negative overtones. Such
R.B.A.
are the categories of grievence expressed by this
noun. Moreover, these negative elements are
1638 M~I) (' mh). Assumed root ofthe following. amplified by words used in hendiadys and paral-
1638a l'W,'~ ('ämit) associate, fellow, lelism with 'ämäl: yägon "torment, sorrow" (Jer
reLation (e.g. Zech 13:7; Lev 20: 18); ka'as "provocation" (Ps 10: 14); 'önf
5:21). "misery" (Deut 26:7); 'äwen "trouble" (Ps
90: IO); shäw' "worthlessness" (Job 7:3); shöd
M,PP.('ümma). See no. 1640b. "destruction" (Prov 24:2); rä' "evil" (Hab 1: 13),
·-m~~('ammüd). See no. 1637c. and the Iike.
•;i~~ ( 'ammoni). See no. 1642a.
-i•r>~('ämfr). See no. 1645c. 'ämel /, Laborer, misery, wicked, workmen. This
ri•r>~('ämft). See no. 1638a. noun is used ofworkmen (e.g. Prov 16:26) and of
misery (e.g. Job 3:20). "Misery·· is preferable to
"wicked" (so KJV) in Job 20:22.
1639 ',r;~ ( 'ämal) to labor.
'ämel II. BDB, but not KB or Lisowsky, distin-
Derivatives guishes the use of 'ämel II in Eccl from the
1639a t',~~ ('ämü/) Labor, toil, troubLe. above, 'ämel l, terming it a verbal adjective, ren-
1639b t',r~~ ('ämel) /, Labore,, sufferer. dered "toiling" (Eccl 2: 18, 22; 3:9; 4:8; 9:9).
1639c t',r;~ ( 'äme/) II, toiling. Bibliography: Rainey, Anson F., "A Second
Look at Amal in Qoheleth," Concordia Theolog-
The verb 'ämal is one of several Hebrew verbs
ical Monthly, 36:804. THAT, II, pp. 332-34.
for "labor, work, toil." Other major. terms in-
R.B.A.
clude 'äbad "to work, serve," and 'üsa "to
make, do, work" (both of which see). 'ümal is
used Iess often than those two verbs, and is em- 1640 Cl~I) ( 'mm). Assumed root of the follow-
ployed often with the nuance of the drudgery of ing.
toil rather than the nobility of labor. Hebrew 1640a tc~ ('am), CV ('äm) people.
'ämal is cognate to Arabic 'amila „ to labor," 1640b tC!,/ ('im) with.
and to the Akkadian noun nfmelu, that produced 1640c tct,1~ (me'im) from, with.
by work, "gain, possessions." 1640d t',am~!,I ('immänü';I) Immanuel,
The root 'ämal re\ates to the dark side of \abor, the messianic name of lsa 7: 14 and
the grievous and unfulfilling aspect of work. A of Judah's king in Isa 8: 10.

675
1640 C~l,' ( 'mm)

1640e Cl~ ( ·am) kinsman (on father's side). ·ammi is also used extensively in the OT. Occa-
1640f t:irp;i ('iimma) against, beside. sionally a king or leader is quoted when he is
speaking of the people for whom he is responsi-
'am. People, nation. (Asv, Rsv similar, except ble. The phrase is used basically to express the
in some instances, e.g. RSVtranslates "kindred ... relationship between God and his people. That
ASV"people," Gen 25:17.) ·am is the term used should not be surprising
The term seems to be derived from the com- since, as we have seen, it emphasizes the rela-
mon Semitic root 'amam (cf. e.g., UT 19: no. tional and unity aspects of a group of people.
1864) meaning "to comprehend or include ... Al- The Lord first uses the term ·ammi when he
though there is some overlapping in meaning with speaks of the descendants of Abraham whom he
its two main synonyms KbY and /'' 'öm, (see has chosen and with whom he is identified by
synonyms under !{Öy), the unique emphasis of means of the covenant (Ex 3:7ffi. God seals this
'am lies in its reference to a group of "people as relationship more firmly by redeeming them from
viewed by one of themselves, .. or to "people in Egypt (Ex 5: lff.J. His constant protection over
genera1.·· them and all-sufficient provision for them testify
The noun ·am appears in some important to the continued love and concem he has for
phrases: ·ammi. /o'-•ammi and ·am hii'iire:f those he calls "my people" (cf., e.g., Ps 78:52-
(" my people, .. "not my people" Hos 2:23 [H 251, 66: 95:7). God formed these people for himself
and „ the people of the land"). (lsa 43:21: 51: 16), gave them their dwelling place
The term ·am is often used in a general sense in (Zion, Isa 10:24), and bestowed his blessings and
the OT to refer to a group of people, larger than a virtues upon them (lsa 63: 18).
tribe or clan, but less numerous than a race (!•· The Covenant people, through religious adul-
'öm ). When the reference is to a large group. tery. became lo ' - ·ammi „ not my people .. ( Hos
without reference to any specific characteristic or 1:9-10,iH 2:11: 2:23 [H 25]). They are destroyed
relationship, translators have, in instances, cor- as God's people "because oflack ofknowledge"
rectly rendered ·am as ·•folk" or "men." In the (Hos 4:6). which implies basically a rejection of
Aramaic portions of Ezr and Dan the term is used the Lord, his covenant, his love and law. Al-
with this general sense in all but two instances though many of the people backslide and are
(Ezr 7: 13: 7: 16). punished (Jer 15: 17), God will maintain a remnant
However, 'am is predominantly used to ex- who will be ·am (lsa 11: 11, 16: 46:3: Ex 8:9, 11).
press two basic characteristics of men considered He will yet save them (Zech 8:6, 11) and the Lord
as a grouping: 1) relationships sustained within or will say "it is my people" (Zech 13:9).
to the group and 2) the unity of the group. The Covenant people of the Lord will be one
Various types of relationship are expressed. united people. That does not mean only biologi-
implicitly or explicitly. Some examples are: reli- cal descendants of Abraham are the ·am. From
gious fellowship (Gen 17: 14. the uncircumcised is Egypt, as from Assyria (lsa 19:25) and from ls-
to be cut off from his people). maternal (Gen rael's surrounding nations, there are those who
17: 16, Sarah a mother of kings of people), ances- are tobe included and written up as God's people
tral (Gen 25:8, Abraham died and was gathered to (Ps 87).
his kindred, also 25: 17: Gen 49:33), king-subject The phrase. ·am h1i'ürq· "people ofthe land,"
relationship (Gen 26: 11: Ex 1:9, etc.), family ties is used frequently. but its usage varies from one
(Gen 36:6, family included wives, children, time to the other. R. de Vaux (Al. pp. 70--72)
slaves, servants), judicial (Gen 49: 16. Dan is to points out that in earliest history, "people of
judge his people). deliverer and ruler (Ex 5: 16, the land" referred to the body of free men of
etc., refer to the relationship of Moses and the various nationalities (Gen 23: 13). The term is also
delivered lsraelites), social (Num 5:27, an adul- use·ct to distinguish homeborn from immigrant
teress was a curse to her people), a military (Gen 42:6). The whole body of Israel is referred
leader of his troops (Josh 3:3, etc.) adoption to (Lev 20:4), or the people in distinction from
(Ruth 1: 16), and prophetic (prophets from Elijah the royal members (II Kgs 16: 15). BOB also lists
to Malachi address their people). a word ·am II meaning "kinsman" and this ele-
Intimately related to the concept of relatedness ment is indeed used in theophoric names. The
among people. is the concept of unity. Religious. usages, however. may be subsumed under ·am
maternal. ancestral ties united people. Explicit "people ...
expression is given to the concept of unity. lt
cotild be achieved by intermarriage (Gen 34: 16). 'im. With, beside, by, among, accompanying,
lt was achieved by God gathering men (Ezk from among, between (variations of meaning
38: 12). The idea of people as a flock expresses occur in ASVand RSV).
unity also (Zech 9: 16). There are also a number of 'im. the preposition, as ·am the noun. ex-
passages (cf. I Sam 11: 11) where the word means presses the concept of inclusiveness, together-
"troops." ness, company (cf. UT 19: no. 1863). Men can be

676
 1642 n~11 ( 'ammön)

together; fighting with (against) each other (Gen was with Moses, so I will be with you" (Josh
26:20); they could inherit together or share (Gen 1:5). To David God said, "I have been with you"
21:10; Josh 22:9): and they could speak with, be (II Sam 7:9).
pleased with, show kindness to each other. Solomon earnestly prayed that the Lord would
The points to be emphasized are: 1) the basic be with him and Israel as he had been with David
conception conveyed is that of fellowship, com- (1 Kgs 8:57). By various visible means, i.e. cloud,
panionship, common experiences of suffering, pillar of fire, and the ark of the covenant the Lord
prosperity etc.; 2) the term can emphasize a confirmed his word. He was with his people. He
common lot regardless of social status, location led, upheld, and blessed them.
etc.; 3) the term, as all other prepositions, may lsaiah, speaking to Ahaz, assured him that the
have definite theological implications. All prepo- faithful covenant God was present as he had been
sitions indicate relationships, and 'im in particu- and as he would be in the incarnate Son to be
Iar stresses a close relationship. This type of rela- born of the virgin. Thus the past, present, and
tionship should be maintained between God and future intimate relationship of God's presence
man, man and man since it is essential for any with his people is summed up in the name Im-
person's salvation, etemal life and the worship manuel.
and service of God. Fora fuller statement from the biblical point of
'et also means "with," but 'im expresses more view cf. E. J. Young "Immanuel." NBD p. 556-
the concept of relationship and is the more com- 57; for a modern critical statement, C. North in
mon of the two words. IBO.
me'im. From, with, beside. This compound 'ümmä. Against, overagainst, at, beside, hard by;
preposition combines two seemingly contradic- exactly as. (ASV and RSV have variations.) This
tory terms: together (with) separation (from). The preposition indicates relationship of close prox-
specific thrust is coming apart from being to- imity, or opposite to, e.g. certain parts of the
gether. The preposition occurs after words such tabernacle (Ex 25). Shimei stood 'ümma "oppo-
as depart, remove, turn, ask. E.g., a heart is spo- site" David and threw stones 'ümma "close to"
ken of as possibly tuming "from with" God if it him (II Sam 16:13).
tums to the detestable things of Canaan (Deut Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 364-69: IV, pp.
29:18). 32-37. THAT, II, pp. 290-324: 325-27.
There are two other distinct usages of me'im. G.V.G.
1) When a person seeks counsel, advice, truth, he
asks, enquires, requests from someone. Thus 1641 Cl~~ ('amum) II, darken, dim (e.g. Ezk
me'im indicates available sources from which 31:8).
help is available. This is particularly true when
men turn to God making enquiries and requests. 1642 Ü~ll ( 'ummön), ii~!l ( 'ammön) Ammon.
2) Closely related to the preceding is the idea of
origination. Signs and wonders come from God Derivative
(lsa 8: I8). He also sends his word forth pro- 1642a t•~i~!l ( ·ammrini) Ammonite
nouncing sentence (Gen 41 :32) and producing
'ammön. Ammon. This proper noun may be
judgments (II Chr 10: 15) and giving peace (1 Kgs
related to the root 'ämam. In Ugaritic the three
2:33).
radicals ·mn indicate either an emphatic use of
'immänüel. With us is God. This proper name "with" or of "with me" (UT 19: no. 1868-69).
occurs twice. lt is the name to be given to the But Gordon suggests (no. 1861) that the final "n"
child to be bom of the virgin (lsa 7: 14). lsaiah is an emphatic element on the prep. 'im.
addresses Judah's king, of Davidic lineage, as The name states more than a kin relationship
Immanuel (8:8). The prophet also gives the mean- (cf. "'kinsman"). Lot's younger daughter, in
ing and application of the name by stressing that, naming her son Ammon, gives expression to the
in spite ofwhat a disobedient king does, God will incestuous relationship by which she conceived:
be with his covenant people (lsa 8: 10). i.e. "a son by my father·· (Gen 29:30-38). The 01
The name Immanuel gives expressiori to the teils us nothing about Ammon's youth, or that of
truth God had expressed in various ways to his his brother-cousin Moab (who was bom also by
covenant people in times previous to lsaiah. He an incestuous relationship). This is known: Israel
had specifically said that he would be God to Ab- in the Conquest was not permitted to and did not
raham and his seed (Gen 17:7). He would go with molest or attack Ammon's descendants or take
Jacob (Gen 28: 15) and Moses (Ex 3: 12). God property from them because of God's promise to
identified with his people saying he had taken Abraham's nephew Lot (Num 21:24; Deut 2: 19).
them tobe his possession (Ex 19:5-6). The angel Israel had to consider Ammon as· their kinsman
of his name would go with and guard his people also. They had to respect him as one who had a
(Ex 23:20, 24). To Joshua the word came, "As I specific relationship to their father Abraham.

677
1643 er;~ ('ämas)

God had given himself as a blessed possession to 1644c t;,~I:' ('iimeq) deep.
him and his seed. Thus Ammon's religious 1644d t,,~1/ ('ämöq) deep.
privileges and responsibilities towards Israel (and 1644e tc•;,r,,~~ (ma'amaqqim) depths.
Moab) cannot be gainsaid. The verb 'ämöq may be compared with its
•ammöni. Ammonites. The Ammonites, de- synonym shäqii' "to sink down," and the nouns
scendants of Ammon, lived on the east side of m'· !fö/il "deep, depths,.. !fii/a "abyss," and
Jordan, north of Moab. The Lord destroyed the t'' hbm "deep." lt is cognate to Arabic 'amuqa
Rephaim, called Zamzumim who lived there. "to be deep; "Akkadian emequ "to be (deep)
Later, part of the area was taken from the Am- wise" (cf. emüqu "power, ability"); and Ugaritic
monites by the Amorites who came from the west 'mq II, "strong" (see Gordon, UT 19: no. 1874).
side of the Jordan (Num 21:25-25). When the The verb 'äm<iq is found in the Qal stem in an
children of Israel sought to enter the promised exclamation ofdescriptive praise in Ps 92:5 [H 6],
land from the east bank of the Jordan, the Am- where the Psalmist exults: "How great are your
monites had every opportunity to "be blessed" works, 0 LoRD!/ your thoughts are very deep !"
through a friendly cooperative relationship with In the other eight uses, 'iimöq is in the Hiphil,
Abraham's descendants (Gen 12:1-3). Israel did "to make deep."
not attack their distant kinfolk, the Ammonites In the Emmanuel prophecy Yahweh speaks to
(Deut 2:37), as they did the Amorites and others Ahaz through Isaiah, challenging him to ask for a
dwelling in the Gilead and Bashan regions. But sign to vouchsafe the surety of his words con-
the Ammonites joined Moab on various occa- cerning Rezin and Pekah, "those two smoldering
sions seeking lsraers ruin. They were therefore stumps" (lsa 7:4). God casts the verbal gauntlet
denied the right to have one Ammonite identify that Ahaz make his request "as deep as Sheol or
with covenant Israel for at least ten generations as high as heaven" (lsa 7: 11). (This assumes
(Deut 23:3-6). However, Solomon brought Am- sh'"ii/a is Sheol with a locative he. The alterna-
monitish women into his harem (1 Kgs 11: 1). One tive is "make deep his request or make it high
of these was Na'amah the mother of Rehoboam above." So Young, E. J. The Book of lsaiah,
(1 Kgs 14:31). Eerdmans, 1965, Vol. I, pp. 277-78. Cf. also KJV
The Ammonites were defeated by the Israelites and NIV. Young takes sh'"äla as a "paragogic
at various times, by Jephthah (Jud 11), Saul imperative" preceded by a Hiphil inf. used ad-
(1 Sam 11), David (II Sam 10, 12). The Ammo- verbially.) Ahaz, in feigned piety, demurs. The
nites had their own deity named Milcom (I Kgs remaining examples of 'iimaq are all severely
11:5). They also worshiped Chemosh, the god of judgmental. lsaiah 29: 15 pronounces "woe on
Moab (Jud 11:29, mentioned also on the Moabite those who deeply hide their plans from Yahweh /
stone). Both were also worshiped by the lsrael- and do their deeds in the dark," as though God
ites at times. does not see or know! (Cf. lsa 30:33, of Tophet
The Ammonites afflicted the descendants of (q. v. J made deep as a funeral pyre for the king of
Abraham co:1tinuously (Arnos 1: 12-15; Jer 40: 13; Assyria; 31:6, of Israel which had "deepened
Neh 2: 10, 19). Various prophets pronounced apostasy. ") Jeremiah warns his hearers to flee
God's curse upon them (Zeph 2:8, 9; Jer 49: 1-6; for shelter from judgment, to "dwell in the
Ezk 25: 1-7). Instead of enjoying covenant bless- depths" (Jer 49:8, of Dedan; 49:30, of Hazor).
ings, their attitude toward the covenant people Hosea 5:2 is difficult to render, but the general
brought them God's curse. intent is likely, "the revolters have gone deep in
G.V.G. depravity" (so NASB,but see commentaries; cf.
9:9).
',~mtpl,' ( 'immiinü' el). See no. 1640d.
'emeq. Vale, valley. (Asv, Rsv similar). A
1643 or;,11( 'iimas). ~~I:' ( 'iimas) to Load, common noun in the oT, cognate to 'mq I m
carry a Load (e.g. Gen 44: 13; Neh 13:15). Ugaritic.
The noun ·emeq "valley" (Ugaritic ·mq !), is a
Derivative common term, used seventy times in the OT, gen-
1643a :-io~p~ (ma'amäsa) Load, burden erally in specific geographical phrases such as
\z~~h 12:3). "the valley of Siddim (Gen 14:3). In Num 14:25
there is a bitter reminder to the sinning and rebel-
1644 ;,·~I:' ('ämöq) be deep, make deep, be pro- lious Israel that at that time the Amalekites and
found. (ASV,RSVtranslate similarly.) the Canaanites were living in the valleys (enjoy-
ing the produce of the land). lt was in the valleys
Derivatives of Canaan that agriculture was maintained (e.g.
1644a t;,~p ( 'emeq) valley. I Sam 6: 13: Jer 49:4; Ps 65: 13 [H 14]), as the hills
1644b ,,~:; ( 'ömeq) depth (Prov 9:18; were more eroded. lt was also in the valleys that
25:3). chariots could be used to best advantage (see

678
 1650 :,~~ ('äna)

Josh 17:16). In the series of wars between Israel 1649 ,~~ ('änad) bind around, upon (Job
and Syria in the days of Ahab, the Syrian coun- 31:36: Prov 6:21).
selors erred greatly in supposing that Yahweh
was a god of the mountains only, and impotent in Derivative
the plains and valleys (1 Kgs 20:22-30). Valleys 1649a (ma'adannöt)
r,i~jl,'I'; bonds, bands
figure in the description of judgment by God in (Job 38:31; I Sam 15:32). Appar-
prophetic writings. Micah 1:4 speaks of moun- ently from 'änad by metathesis.
tains melting under him, "And the valleys will be
split / like wax before the fire / like water poured 1650 :,~ll ('äna) /, to answer, respond, testify,
down a steep place."
speak, shout. (ASVand RSVtranslate simi-
'ämeq. Deep, strange. Used of speech, this ad- larly, but the RSVmore clearly brings out
jective is best rendered „ unintelligible" with the secondary meanings.)
NASB(lsa 33: 19; Ezk 3:5--6), or "obscure, for-
eign" with the Rsv. Compare the wry lö'ez of Derivatives
Egyptian language in Ps 114:1. 1650a :it11 ('öna) cohabitation (Ex 21:10;
Hos 10:10).
'ämöq. Deep, deeper. (ASV,RSVsimiiar.) This tr,v. ('et) time.
1650b
adjective occurs sixteen times in the or (seven in
1650c t:,~~ ( 'atta) now.
Lev 13 ofthe severity ofleprosy). In Prov 'ämöq
describes a man's speech and thoughts (Prov
1650d 'NI ( 'itti) timely, ready (Lev 16:21).
1650e tip~ (ya'an) on account of.
18:4; 20:5), and the disastrous destruction to be 1650[ t:,~v,r; ( ma 'aneh) answer, response.
found in harlots (Prov 22: 14; 23:27). 1650g tipr;7 (/" ma'an) in order that.
ma'ämaqqim. Deep, depths, of literal waters Basically, the root ·äna I signifies a response.
(lsa 51:10), and figurative (Ps 69:2 [H 3), 14 In several connotations it attests scattered mean-
[H 15); 130:1-an emblem of distress; cf. Ezk
ings in Ugaritic, among them "to speak" or "to
27:34 of the fall of Tyre). say." Distinguish this root from 'änii II, "oc-
R.B.A. cupy"; III, "afflict," "oppress," "humble"; IV,
.. sing." lt occurs 617 times.
1645 •ir;v ( 'ämar) I, bind sheaves. This de- The most frequent meaning of this root is "to
nominative verb occurs only once (Ps answer," and it is often used with 'ämar, less
129:7), in the Pie!. often with däbar. lt is sometimes used in a non-
Parent Noun verbal clause. lt corresponds to qärä' "to call"
and (less often) zä'aq "to cry out." God is not
1645a ,~·11 ( 'ömer) /, sheaf (e.g. Deut bound to answer the person who calls on him.
24: 19; Lev 23: 11). Hence, the Psalmist uses "answer me" in plead-
1645b ,~11 ('ömer) II, omer (Ex 16). ing for God's grace (Ps 4:1 [H 2], 13:3 [H 41).
·one-tenth ofan ephah (q.v.). Thus it may occur as part of the normal motif
1645c i•~V ( 'ämir) swath, row of fallen petitioning God to be favorable in the petition
grain (e.g. Arnos 2: 13; Jer 9:21). section of lament psalms. Samuel warns Israel
that God will not answer their prayer for relief
1646 •i,;v ( 'ämar) II, deal tyrannically with. when distress comes upon them as a result of
Occurs only in the Hithpael (Deut 24:7; rebellion (1 Sam 8: 18). All the prophets record the
21: 14). silence of the Almighty (Mic 3:4; lsa 46:7). When
directed to God this root parallels words intimat-
wr;~('ämas). See no. 1643. ing God's hearkening (Ps 55:2 [H 31) to the situa-
tion and delivering the petitioner (Ps 60:5 [H 7]).
1647 :llll ('nb). Assumed root of the following. God may respond verbally (lsa 14:32) or nonver-
1647a :,11,1 ('enäb) grape(s) (e.g. Deut bally as with fire (1 Chr 21:26) or thunder (Ex
32: 14; Gen 40: 10). 19:19). In all instances it is clear that "to answer"
the prayer is equivalent to looking with favor on
1648 *il~ ('änög) be soft, delicate. Occurs the petition. The basis of such a petition is the
only in the Pual (Jer 6:2) and Hithpael (e.g. righteousness, mercy, and veracity of God (Ps
Deut 28:56; lsa 66: 11). 69: 13 [H 14]). The petition often asks for spiritual
salvation (Ps 20:6, [H 7), 9 [H 10), 38:15 [H 16]),
Derivatives and/or physical salvation (Ps 22:21 [H 22), 60:5
1648a J~·11 ( 'öneg) daintiness, exquisite de- [H 71). lt is noteworthy that the pleas introduced
. light (lsa 13:22; 58: 13). by this root are often for yäsha' "salvation," and
1648b Jl~ ( 'änög) dainty (lsa 47: 1). that God is the only savior (Ps 118:21). When
1648c mv,1:1 (ta'anug) daintiness, luxury. God called on man by his word (through Moses

679
1650 :,1~ ( 'ilnii)

and the prophets) he expected an answer, an ap- strength of his foes (Ps 5:9). God is praised for
propriate response of obedience. To refuse was using the weak things (babes and infants) to es-
to sin (Jer 7: 13: lsa 65: 12). tablish a bulwark. He does this not because of, or
One secondary meaning of this root is --10 tes- to the advantage of his foes, but in view of them
tify„ with the emphasis on speaking ( ·11J, q.v.). (Ps 8:2 [H 3J).
In many such cases a trial ( rih,) is in view (1 Sam Sometimes the word is used (perhaps ironi-
12:3). This is especially interesting in passages cally) to show the foolishness of man ·s sins. In
like lsa 3:9: 59: 12: and Jer 14:7 where men are lsa 30: 1 God condemns the people for false
tried and found guilty by God. This usage has a spiritual alliances to the end that they might add
more general meaning. however, as is evidenced sin to sin. In Jer 44:8 God asks if their idolatry is
by its occurring in the ninth commandment (Ex to destroy themselves (cf. Hos 8:4: Arnos 2:7:
20: 16). Usually. this usage appears as an idiom, Mic 6: 16). Obviously. they did not intend to de-
'än<i h'. but there are exceptions (Ex 23:2: Hab stroy themselves or offend the deity. Their inten-
2: 11). tion was the opposite. But they erred in straying
Another secondary meaning is --10 speak" (see from God's word. Good intentions were not
Joüon, .. Respondit et Dixit''). The root often is enough.
used of initiating conversation (Job 3:2: Song As a preposition, /•·ma·an designates the one
2: 10: I Sam 9: 17). lt can refer to loud crying out who is tobe vindicated, i.e. established as right.
as of animals (lsa 13:22) or shouting as of a We see this in Gen 18:24 where Abraham asks
victory cry (Ex 32: 18: Jer 51: 14). God if he would spare Sodom for the sake of fifty
In the case of 1•·ma'an (see also below) the righteous. Will he approve their righteousness,
conno,ation "in order that" occurs with some thus demonstrating that righteousness is indeed
known and intended end in mind. hence. "to the pleasing in his sight, or will their righteousness
intended response that. .. Abraham told Sarah to issue in futility (and destruction)? This question
say that she was his sister so that it might go weil was very important to Abraham at that early
with him (Gen 12:13). Jehu arranged a feast os- stage of his walk with God. Would God keep his
tensibly to honor Baal but secretly in order to promise to reward obedience (righteousness)?
destroy the worshippers of Baal (II Kgs 10: 19). Abraham learned the lesson: and he obeyed God
This aids in understanding passages like Jer 7: 10. (on the basis of believing God's promises of ulti-
in which the people are chided for coming into mate reward) in acting (righteous acts) as God
the temple while loving sin and --rearing" God. required, and it was reckoned to him for (saving)
Actually. they were trying to placate God so that righteousness. Ps 51 :4 [H 61 is of interest. lt does
they could continue their sin. not mean that David sinned so that God's righ-
This word is also used in connection with teousness might be made manifest in his verdict.
God's action in history. In Gen 50:20Joseph teils Rather David confesses that he sinned in order to
his brothers that they intended harm to him when establish the fact that God would be just should
they sold him into slavery (Gen 37:22). He also he give the verdict that David must die for his sin.
told them that God was active in all this „in order Many passages record action (intended or ac-
that" (i.e. to the intended and accomplished end) complished) for God's sake. Indeed, it is the
good might come to him. When God explained to Psalmists· frequent plea that God will save, lead,
Moses that he would harden Pharoah's heart, the deliver, quicken. etc., for his sake, i.e. to demon-
action (hardening) clearly is initiated by God, not strate before the creation, the wicked, or the
Pharoah. God is following a plan, since this righteous (or all three) the certainty of his cove-
„hardening" has a predesignated end: first, that nant (Ps 25: 11: 143: 11: Jer 14:21).
God's glory might be displayed in the signs, and Bibliography: Gowan, Donald, "The Use of
second, that God's glory might be recounted in ya·an in Biblical Hebrew" VT 21: 168-85. Joüon,
testimony and that God's glory might be dis- P., "Respondit et Dixit." Bib 13: 309ff. TDNT,
played in his causing the wrath of man to praise VIII, pp. 6-15. THAT, 11, pp. 335-40.
him (Ps 76: 10 1H 111). So, too. God hardened R.B.A.
Sihon·s heart (Deut 1:30) to the end that he might
deliver him into lsrael's hands. The basis of this •et. Time, space of time, appointed time, proper
hardening, however. was doubtless judicial and time. The ASV and Rsv translate this word identi-
because of past sin. cally except for a few instances involving sec-
When used to mean „in view of," /•·ma·an ondary meanings. Although BDB lists ·et as a
does not specifically express causation. In pas- derivative of 'än<i 1, to answer. respond. it is
sages like Deut 3:26 God is said to be angry with difficult to trace any relationship. A clearer tie is
Moses in view of the people's sins. Cf. also Dt. perhaps with 'änä II, to be occupied (i.e. the
1:37 where big•· lal is used "on account of the filling of time?). The basic meaning of this word
peopie, .. instead of /•·ma ·an. The Psalmist prays relates to time conceived as an opportunity or
for God to take over his life in view of the season. Other words similarly rendered are:

680
 1650 :iw('äna)
z' man an Aramaic loan-word with a very similar brew noun 'et "time" (q.v.), the adverb 'atta is
meaning; yom emphasizing the division of time derived from a root 'äna (with assimilation ofthe
into regular units; mö'ed emphasizing the idea of nun). The adverb occurs in Ugaritic as 'nt, a
appointment (it is sometimes used to further de- word to be distinguished from the goddess 'nt
fine 'et, e.g., Ps 102:13 [H 14)); pa'am denoting (Anal, see UT 19: nos. 1888, 1889). In Arabic the
short spaces (beats) oftime (cf. rege/). Our word cognate is al-äna, "at the time, now" (with def.
occurs 290 times. art.).
Our word can apply to extensions of time. lt is The adverb of time 'atta, found frequently in
used of particular points in time as an hour of the the oT (425 times), is rendered usually as "now."
day (Ex 9: 18; Josh 11:6). lt is used of an occasion As developed by KB this term may include the
such as the completion of childbearing (Mic 5:3 following nuances: ··now (in the present mo-
[H 21), to mark the situation prevailing when ment)," as in Jud 11:8, "we have tumed to you
Michael stands in God's court (Dan 12: 1), and now;" now (with the present state ofaffairs)," as
(used distributively) when Israel's judges are to in Gen 19:9, "now we will deal worse with you
function (Ex 18:22). lt is used of a period nar- than with them"; and "now (after what has hap-
rowly conceived as late aftemoon (perhaps dusk, pened)," as in Gen 22: 12. "for now I know that
Gen 21: 1I), and as the period when Nehemiah 's you fear God." Very often 'atta with the con-
enemies were writing and registering their com- junction (waw), "and now," introduces the next
plaint (Neh 6: I). lt can refer to an extended point in consequence, as in Isa 5:3, "And now. 0
period as weil, e.g. the time during which the inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah, /
tabemacle rested at Gibeon (1 Chr 21: 29), and the judge between me and my vineyard." lf the con-
period of God's gracious covenantal treatment of junction is adversative (determined by contexl),
Israel (Ezk 16:8). then the rendering is "but now," as in lsa 1:21,
There are many situations which 'et describes. "Righteousness once lodged in her, / but now
We will look at only three. assassins." ·atta may be contrasted with ·az
First, it is used of the usual, the regular events, "then," as in Josh 14: 11, "as my strength was
such as rains (Ezra 10: 13), harvest (Jer 50: 16), then, so my strength is now." The adverb may be
seasons of the year like spring, the time of preg- contrasted with future time as weil, as in
nancy (Gen 18: 10, 14), the migratory time ofbirds Balaam's wistful, "I see him, but not now"
(Jer 8:7), and mating season (Gen 31: 10). God is (parallel to "near," Num 24: 17).
consistently presented as the orderer (controller) The adverb 'atta is found in prophetic contexts
of all recurring events. Secondly, it is used of the of the imminent activities of Yahweh-activities
appropriate time for unrecurring incidents such of blessing, "Behold I will do something new, /
as death (Eccl 7: 17). Thus those who retum from now it will spring forth" (lsa 43:19); and judg-
the Exile plead that it is not the appropriate time ment, "Now I will arise, says Yahweh, / now I
for rebuilding the temple (Hag 1:2). Eccl presents will be exalted, now I will be lifted up" (lsa
God as the one who has designed life's compo- 33: 10). "Now" in some prophetic contexts could
nents so that each has a suitable season (3: 11; cf. be used from the prophetic standpoint of events
Prov 6: 14). In Lev 26:4 God asserts his sover- or states still future; e.g ... Jacob shall not now be
eignty over rain. He teils Job (38:32) of his con- ashamed, nor shall his face now turn pale" (lsa
trol over the stars. The Psalmist (104:27) notes 29:22).
God's maintenance of the seas and all that is in
them according to their proper times. Just as all ya'an. On account of, because, is used as a
creation suits his plan, so he requires man to ar- preposition or conjunction. lt indicates purpose:
range life according to its times (i.e. according to perhaps, "in response to." When joined with ki
his law, Jer 8:7). When man fails to do this God or 'asher it is the most common causal conjunc-
promises judgment. So, the Psalmist reminds tion. Simple ya'an can serve the same function
God that it is time for him to act (119:126). Fi- (GKC, sec. 158b). Once it occurs with ma
nally, the word connotes a fixed, set time or "why," i.e. "on account ofwhat" (Hag 1:9), and
period (1 Chr 9:25). As such it is what astrologers several times it is repeated for emphasis (e.g. Lev
claim to discem (Est 1: 13), but God alone knows 26:43; see Donald Gowan, "The Use of ya'an in
such hidden matters because he controls them. Biblical Hebrew").
Therefore, in the prophets God speaks of his ap- ma'aneh. Answer, response. Cf. Ugaritic m'n
pointed judgment (Jer 8: 12), of a point (time) used of a reply to a letter or school examination
when all will be consummated (Dan 12:9), and questions.
which will result in an extended period (time) of
glory and blessing for his people (Jer 3: 17; 50:20). t•ma'an. In order that, in Yiew of, proYided
that (conjunction, rarely used; cf. M. Dahood,
'atta. Now, aJ this time, henceforth, straightway, Psalms, 111, in AB, p. 216), for the sake of-(p-
whereas. (Asv, RSV similar.) Related to the He- reposition). Grammarians differ as to whether

681
1651 :iJ~('äna)
/'' ma'an with an infinitive is a preposition (BOB, was more than slavery). In Num 24:24 and Jud it
p, 775) or a conjunction (KB, p. 549). The RSVand describes the physical pain brought by war. lt is
ASVusually agree although in some cases the Rsv used for what God does to his enemies (Deut
brings out secondary connotations better. 26:6).
/'' ma'an seems to be related to 'änii I, "to an- God uses affiiction to prompt repentance; for
swer, respond." ma'an may mean "that which example, the purpose of the wildemess wander-
corresponds to." (cf. further on usage earlier ing was to humble Israel (Deut 8:23). This is a
und er 'dnii 1). recurrent theme in Scripture. The Exile is simi-
L.J.C. larly viewed as to nature and end (Ps 102:23
[H 24]; Isa 64: 12 [H 11]; Zech 10:2). God is there-
1651 :,1~ ('iinii) II, be occupied, busied with fore thanked for affiiction (Ps 88:7 [H 8]; 90:15;
(Eccl 1:13; 3:10). 119:75; Lam 3:33). Onlookers are wrong to say
that God affiicts the Messiah (lsa 53:4) because of
Derivatives his sin.
1651a ~;~II('inyän) occupaJion, task. Only Another theological theme frequently con-
used in Eccl 1:13; 2:23, 26; 3:10; nected with this word is self-inflicted inner pain
4:8; 5:2, 13; 8:16. expressing contrition and often accompanied by
1651b :i 11(1' (ma'anii) place for task, i.e. fasting. These are commanded by God (Lev
field (Ps 129:3; I Sam 14:14). 16:29, 31) for the Day of Atonement. lt is striking
that this is the only time such fasting and contri-
tion are enjoined by God. The Niphal usages of
1652 :,1~ ('änii) III, afflict, oppress, humble.
the word are reflexive, emphasizing self-affiiction
Derivatives (Ps 119:107; lsa 58:10). The Messiah is to affiict
himself for the sins of his people (lsa 53:7). On
1652a t11~ ( 'ändw) humble.
humility.
the other hand, the verb may denote here the
1652b t:,1JI) ( ·anawii)
Messiah's humbling by submitting himself to the
1652c r,;;~ ( ·enüt) affliction (Ps 22:25).
oppressions of the ungodly. The Psalmist uses
1652d t•~~·· ( 'ani) poor, afflicted.
this concept to emphasize the extent of his sol-
1652e t'H:' ('oni) affliction, poverty. icitude even for his enemy (Ps 35: 13).
1652f r'l'~P,ti (ta'anft) humiliation (byfast-
The Hithpael stem is used to indicate submit-
ing, Ezra 9:5).
ting onself to reproach (Gen 16:9) and fasting and
The primary meaning of 'änii III is "to force," contrition (Ezr 8:21; Dan 10:12).
or "to try to force submission," and "to punish This root may also be used to denote humblirtg.
or inflict pain upon," mostly in the Piel. Birke- A young lion is undaunted at the shepherds'
land (see Bibliography) defines the verb "to find voices (lsa 31:4; cf. Ugaritic III AB. B [UT 16:
oneself in a stunted, humble, lowly position." text 137) 24. 26). Pharoah refuses to submit him-
Consequently it is not predicated of God in the self to the Lord (Niphal Ex 10:3). Judgment is not
Qal. lt is be distinguished from 'änii I, answer; humbled or brought low (and thus violated) by
II, occupy; IV, sing. lt differs both from ,rärar God (Job 37:23). The Psalmist says that God has
which connotes restriction or binding; from weakened (brought low) his strength; God has
yaga, the emotional side of distress (i.e. sorrow, shortened his days (Ps 102:23 [H 24]). One can
grief), from shäpal, the objective state or condi- also bow down or humble his soul by a binding
tion of being Iow and/or humble, and from käna' oath (Num 30: 13 [H 14]).
implying submission to another's will. Ugaritic This verb is applied to the forcing of a woman
attests this root with the meaning "cowed, hum- including a captive woman later rejected (Deut
bled" (active) and "was humbled, punished" 21:14) or cases of pre-marital relations (Deut
(passive). The Bible attests this root over two 22:29; Gen 34:2). lt can be a capital offence
hundred times. (Deut 22:24).
The verbal form occurs a few times in the Qal
having varying shades of meaning. lt most often 'änäw. Humble, meek. This adjective stresses
occurs in the Piel (intensifying the concept). The the moral and spiritual condition of the godly as
Niphal and Hithpael usages offer some interest- the goal of affiiction implying that this state is
ing shades of meaning. joined with a suffering life rather than with one of
The verb is used in several ways. lt is used of worldly happiness and abundance.
what one does to his enemy. lt describes the dis- 'änäw expresses the intended outcome of
comfort Sarah inflicted upon Hagar (Gen 16:6) affiiction: humility. Moses' description of himself
and what the lawless do to the defenseless (Ex (Num 12:3) as such a man is no proud boast, but
22::'.2 [H 21]). lt speaks of the pain inflicted on merely a report of his position: absolute depen-
Joseph's ankles by the fetters (Ps 105:18). lt sets dence on God (cf. Paul's statement in Acts
forth what Egypt did to Israel (Ex 1:11-12: this 20: 19). Of all men he was most properly related to

682
 1652 :, 1., ('äna)

God. Throughout the rest of scripture such an right to the gleanings of the field. ·tini is distin-
attitude and position is lauded as blessed and to guished from da[ (the poor) in Prov 22:22, "Rob
be desired. This is the goal which God intended not the poor (da[) for he is poor (da[), neither
when he affiicted his people and toward which oppress the affiicted ( 'äni) in the gate." God is
they are to endure affiiction. The humble con- set forth as the protector and deliverer of the
sider and experience God as their deliverer (Ps afflicted. and he enjoins his people to be the
10:17; 76:9 [H 10]) receiving grace (undeserved same. So the one who complies is considered
favor) from him (Prov 3:34). They rejoice when godly (Ezk 18:17), while those who do not are
God is praised, seek God (Ps 69:32 [H 33]), and considered ungodly (Job 24:9; Prov 14:21; Isa
keep his ordinances (Zeph 2:3). They wait on 58:7).
God (Ps 37: 11) and are guided by him (Ps 25:9). F. Hauck and S. Schulz argue that this much
As such they are commended as being better than discussed word is "in the first instance a social
the proud (Prov 16: 19). They are contrasted with and economic term like 'ebyön, da/, räsh, ·one
the wicked (Ps 37: 11) and the scoffers (Prov who is in the position of a servant. · lt describes a
3:34). lsaiah (61: 1) writes that it is to such that the man who has no property and who has thus to
anointed of the Lord is to preach the good news earn his bread by serving others" (TDNT, VI,
of salvation (the parallel here is "the broken- p. 647). They allow that a more developed usage
hearted"). They are conscious of divine approval refers to lowliness, distress, reduced circum-
and are confident that in the eschaton God will stances (ibid., 888). They argue that in the Pen-
save them (Ps 76:9 [H 10]; 147:6; 149:4). tateuch it refers to a man with no inheritance, to
lt is interesting that the unleavened bread of one wrongfully impoverished whom the Lord
Passover is called the bread of affiiction (Deut therefore especially protects.
16:3)inasmuch as it constitutes a material remin- lt is questionable if there is enough evidence to
der of sin which is the ultimate (sometimes im- make these fine distinctions. The Pentateuch, on
mediate) cause of affiiction (Ps 25: 18), the bon- orthodox dating, was written when no lsraelite
dage of sin (especially that hardship in Egypt), bad landed property, but all were to be given
and God's deliverance (Lam 3: 19). some in due time. The legislation does indeed
envision times when people would become poor
'Anäwä. Humility, gentleness. This word sets
and would have to seil their land-until the
forth the dual qualities gained by man in the
jubilee. Many times these poor people would
school of affiiction. Applied to the Messiah it
have been wrongfully impoverished; some times
connotes his gentleness in submission to his own there were other factors. They were not to be
nature (Ps 45:4 [H 5]).
discriminated against in judgment. God was their
'äni. Poor, weak, afflicted, humble. The 'äni is protector as he was the protector of the widow
primarily a person suffering some kind of dis- who was a widow through no one·s fault. But that
ability or distress. (Gray, G. B., Jsaiah. ICC, 1, the word refers to a particular social dass rather
p. 310). than to a social condition seems questionable and
The 'äni, although frequently in synonymous difficult to establish.
parallelism with ·ebyon and dal. differs from Material deprivation and the resulting difficulty
both in that it connotes some kind of disability or are closely associated with social oppression.
distress. In Deut 24: 14-15 the hired servant is Social affliction is clearly in mind in lsa 3: 14 and
described as 'ebyon and 'äni. Israelis told not to Ezk 18:17. So, God instructs his people to deal
oppress their hired servant by withholding the justly with the 'tini (lsa 10:2). The king is espe-
wagesdue him because he is 'tini. Furthermore, cially charged with overseeing their rights forever
if he is oppressed he may call on God his defen- (Ps 82:3).
der. We see that financially the 'äni lives from This word can also describe the one afflicted
day to day, and that socially he is defenseless and physically as with the Exile ([sa 51 :21) or by
subjectto oppression. Consequently, this word is sickness (Ps 88: 15 [H 161).
used frequently in connection with ·ebyon ex- Often physical affliction is closely tied to
pressing the difficulty accompanying. a lack of spiritual affliction, as in Ps 22:24 [H 25]. In many
materialpossessions. The people are commanded instances external affliction engenders inner
to give alms to the "äni under sanction of God's affliction issuing in a cry to God for help (Ps
blessing(Deut 15: 11). God instructs his people to 25: 16; 34:6 [H 7]; 69:29 [H 30]). God's people are
grant loans to the 'tini of Israel even when they frequently described as afflicted (Ps 68: 10
have only their outer garment as collateral or [H II]). God does not forget them (Ps 9:18
pledge(see 'äba!) and not to further affiict them [H 19], 74:19). He has pity on them (lsa 49:13),
by keeping that garment overnight because the saves them (Ps 34:6 [H 7]), delivers them (Ps
'äni would need it to keep warm (Ex 22:25-26), 35: 10) and bestows favors upon'them (Ps 72:2, 4).
for it was his only outer garment. In ,e i 9: 10 Finally, the word is used in the sense ofhumble
the 'äni is classed with the stranger as having a or lowly. lt describes the Messiah in Zech 9:9. lt

683
 is in contrast to the scoffers (Prov 3:34; cf. Jas in the daily life of Israel from the patriarchal
4:6) and the haughty (Ps 18:27 [H 28]; II Sam period onward. The kid was used occasionally for
22:28). Such a one has a contrite spirit (lsa 66:2), food (see Gen 27:9); the she-goat provided milk
is God's turtledove (Ps 74: 19), trusts God (Ps (see Prov 27:27), skin for leather goods, and hair
14:6), and is assured of deliverance (II Sam for cloth (see Ex 25:4; 26:7; 35:6ff.). An animal of
22:28). such varied uses and dependence was also ap-
'äni (afflicted) is often confused with 'änäw propriate for sacrifice. A regular phrase in sacri-
(humility), each being written for the other (or ficial texts is "a kid ofthe goats" (e.g. Lev 4:23),
translated for the other as is reflected in the Asv but the female goat was also sacrificed (e.g. Num
and Rsv). Perhaps this is an incidence of the fa- 15:27).
mous yod-waw interchange (GKC, sec. 17c; Twice in Solomon's Song the woman's hair is
Ernst Würthwein, The Text of the Old Testa- described in flowing Ioveliness, "like a flock of
ment, p. 72), although not necessarily so. This goats moving down the slopes of Gilead" (Song
interchange appears frequently in the plural of 4: l; 6:5).
the words. lsaiah seems to make no distinction R.B.A.
between 'äni and 'änäw.
'öni. Affliction. This word expresses the state •~V ('ani), •~V,('öni). See nos. l652d,e.
of pain or punishment resulting from affliction. i:~l' ('inyiin). See no. 1651a.
Bibliography: TDOT, VI, pp. 888-902.
THAT, II, pp. 341-50. 1655 *l;~ ('änan) I, bring clouds. A de-
L.J.C. nominative verb, used once, in the Piel
(Gen 9:14).
1653 :i;v ('ana) IV, sing (e.g. Jer 51:14; Ex Parent Noun
15:21).
1655a tl~V ('änän) cloud, cloudy.
When the verb 'iina I with a similar meaning
"answer" is so frequently used, it is inevitable "Cloud" is the only translation of 'änän. lt
that there will be confusion between the two occurs about eighty times in the OT, and three-
roots. Nevertheless this root "to sing" should be quarters of those refer to the pillar of "cloud"
distinguished. Gesenius-Buhl lists twelve in- which directed the Israelites through the desert
stances in the Qal and three in the Pie), BDB and represented God's presence over the taber-
about the same. Some notable instances listed by nacle (Ex 13, 14, 16, 33, 40; Num 9-12, 14, 16, et
them are: Miriam's singing after the Red Sea al.). In Numbers 9: 15-22 'änän is used eleven
crossing (Ex 15:21, Niv); the worshipers of the times.
golden calf (Ex 32: 18); the women who sang After the time of the tabernacle, a "cloud" was
David's praises (1 Sam 18:7, etc.). Not listed in present in or over the temple (cf. I Kgs 8:10--11;
BDB and more debatable is Hos 2:21-22 [H 23- II Chr 5: 13-14). God's presence was accom-
24) where the translation "sing" might be more panied by "clouds" when he met with Moses on
apropos to the joyful context than the usual Mount Sinai (Ex 19:9, 16; 24:15-16, 18; Deut
"answer" or KJV"hear." 4: 11; 5:22; Ps 97:2).
R.L.H. "Clouds" will accompany God's eschatologi-
cal presence in judgment (Ezk 30:3; 32:7; Joel
iJV ('anaw). See no. 1652a. 2:2; and Zeph 1:15; cf. Dan 7:13).
c•~~ll,' ( 'anushlfrl). See no. 1659b. Although most references to "'cloud" aside
rm~ ·('enut). See no. 1652c. from the "pillar of cloud" pertain to the ordinary
kind made ofwater vapor, Nah 1:3 mentions dust
"clouds" and Lev 16: 13 and Ezk 8: 11 refer to a
1654 Tll/ ('nz). Assumed root of the following. '"cloud" of smoke from burning incense (cf also
1654a tTI! ('ez) goat, she-goat, kid. (ASV, Isa 4:5 and Ezk 1:4).
Rsv similar.)
Several times 'änän is used to illustrate some-
As may be seen by the doubling of the zayin in thing by its characteristics or functions. Job 7:9
the plural and suffixed forms, 'ez comes from a refers to the way "clouds" can disappear and
root 'nz; cf. Arabic 'anz"" and Akkadian enzu, illustrates the way people disappear at death (cf.
both meaning "she-goat, goat." Synonyms in the Hos 13:3). lsaiah also speaks of the way ""clouds"
OT include 'attud, $äpir, sä'ir, tayish (all "he- disappear. but is referring to the blotting out
goat"), .s•· 'ira ("she-goat"), seh and g' di of sin (44:22). Hosea illustrates transitory good-
("lamb, kid"). ness to a fast-disappearing morning "cloud"
Of the seventy-four times ·ez is used in the OT, (6:4).
fifty-six are in the Pentateuch. Many ofthese ref- When God answered Job, he alluded to the
erences demonstrate the importance of the goat "clouds" clothing the sea (38:9). According to

684
 1659 w;~('änash)
Jeremiah (4: 13), judgment will rise like "clouds" 1657 l'\)t.' ('np). Assumed root of the following.
(of dust?). Ezekiel refers to the shadow a 1657a ti1~ ('änäp) branch(es), bough(s)
"cloud" casts and compares it to a military horde (e.g. Ezk 17:8; Lev 23:40).
invading the land (38:9, 16). 1657b ti~~ ( 'änep) Juli of branches (Ezk
lt is of interest to note that the Hebrews, far 19: 10).
from thinking that rain actually poured through
celestial windows, knew very weil that rain came 1658 i')t.' ( 'nq). Assumed root of the following.
from clouds (lsa 5:6; I Kgs 18:44, etc.). 1658a i' 1P, ('anäq) l, neck (e.g. Josh
Bibliography: THAT. II. pp. 351-52. 15: 14=Jud 1:20).
IU„A. 1658b i' 1P, ( 'anäq) II, neck/ace (Song
4:9; Jud 8:26).
1656 ,,~ (' änan) II, observe times (KJV); 1658c ;,,~ ( 'änaq) serve as necklace.
practice soothsaying, practice spirilism Denominative verb (Ps 73:6; Deut
(Berkeley Version, II Chr 33:6); practice 15: 14).
magic (JB, Lev 19:26); practice augury
(Asv, Deut 18:10, 14); practice wiJchcraft 1659 iv,~ ('änash) amerce, punish, condemn.
(Berkeley, Lev 19:26); soothsayer, en- Denominative verb.
chanter (Av); sorceress, diviner, fortune-
teller (Berkeley Version, Jud 9:37); bar- Parent Noun
barian (NEB, Isa 2:6); Meonenim (Av, 1659a t!Vft.' ( 'onesh) fine.
ASV,NAB,Jud 9:37); cwud (verb); bring, 1659b tc•tr~'I?('anCtshirn) fines.
gather, or collect (clouds). 'änash is a term oflegal redress, to punish by a
This verb only occurs eleven times. Its mean- pecuniary penalty (a monetary fine). Other types
ing is uncertain, as the above list ofvariant trans- of punishment are expressed, e.g. by yäsar (Pie))
lations demonstrates. "to chastise, discipline, rebuke" and näqarn "to
lt is questionable whether this variety of take revenge, vengeance" (q.v.).
occultism is connected with the clouds, as the The verb 'änash is used in two legal passages
roots of the two words seem to indicate. Since in which a monetary fine was to be assessed for a
the future was determined by the position of the criminal act. In Deut 22: 19 a groom who falsely
stars (astrology), or by examination ofthe liver of challenged his bride's virginity was to be
a sacrificed animal (hepatoscopy; cf. Ezk 21:21), whipped and then fined one hundred shekels of
even as there are modern tealeaf readers and silver. Exodus 21:22 is the crux passage on abor-
palm readers, the reading and interpretation of tion and miscarriage in which a fine was to be
cloud pattems seems a natural explanation. levied ("he will most certainly be fined") against
Another suggestion is that this is an one who accidentally caused a woman to mis-
onomatopoetic word. The sound of the word is carry. On this verse, see Waltke (below); another
the sound made by the one performing the art. view is given by Cotrell (below). There is a
Similarly, some say that näl:,ash (q.v.), a parallel somewhat similar law in the Code of Hammurabi
word, is the snake-like hiss made by a "sor- (ANET laws 209-214.) 'änash is also used of
cerer." tribute to be paid on the deposing of Jehoahaz (II
Whatever the practice is, it is forbidden by God Chr 36:3).
in Lev 19:26 and Deut 18:10 (cf. v. 14). Among
'önesh. Fine, punishment, used only in II Kgs
Manasseh's sins was this kind of magic (cf. II
23:33 (of tribute) and Prov 19:19 (of penalty).
Kgs 21:6; II Chr 33:6).
Isaiah (2:6; 57:3), Jeremiah (27:9), and Micah 'än0shim. Fines. Some authorities (e.g. KB,
(5: 12) make derogatory remarks about those who Holladay) identify this as a noun rather than Qal
practice this kind of magic. In these passages, passive participle (found only in Arnos 2:8).
along with those in Deuteronomy, 'änan occurs Unjust fines are evil (Prov 17:26), butjust fines
in the participial form. may be instructive (Prov 21: 11). Arnos 2:8 speaks
The only other occurrence of the root ·änan is ofpeople who "drink the wine ofthose who have
in Jud 9:37, which the Av translates "the plain of been fined"; likely a reference to ill-gotten funds
Meonenim," the Asv "the oak of Meonenim," used for the purchase ofwine in worship, an "act
and the NAB"Elon-Meonenim." Others translate of gross hypocrisy" (Cripps, Arnos, p. 143).
it as "the Diviners' Oak" (Rsv, JB) and "the Bibliography: Cotrell, Jack, "Abortion and
Soothsayers' Terebinth" (NEB). the Mosaic Law," Christianity Today, 17:6-8.
Bibliography: Gaster, M., "Divination (Jew- Cripps, Richard S., A Critical and Exegetical
ish)," in Encyc/opedia of Religion and Ethics, Cornrnentary on the Book of Arnos, London:
IV, Scribners, 1955. Liefeld, W. L., "Divina- S. P. C. K., 1960. Waltke, Bruce, "The Old Tes-
tion" in ZPEB. II. pp. 146-49. tament and Birth Control," Christianity Today,
R.1.A.
685
1660 c;,~ (' asas)

13:3-5. (Also in Birth Control and the Christian, Goldman, Samuel [Soncino series], p. 214). King
ed. Walter 0. Spitzer and Carlyle L. Saylor, Jotham was responsible for building on the wall
Tyndale, 1969, pp. 7-23.) of Ophel (II Chr 27:3; cf. 33:14). Ophel in
R.B.A. Nehemiah's time was occupied by temple ser-
vants ("Nethinim," see Neh 3:26-27; 11:21).
c•;i~ ('äsis). See no. 1660a. The noun 'opel is used by Micah in a stunning
millennial prophecy: ·· And Yahweh will reign
1660 01;)~ ('äsas) press, crush, press by treading, over them in Mount Zion / From now on and
tread down (Mal 3:21). forever. / And as for you, 0 tower of the flock /
Derivative Hili of Daughter Zion, / To you it will come- /
Even the former dominion will come, / The king-
1660a tz:,•;i~ ('äsis) sweet wine. dom of Daughter Jerusalem."
The derivation of 'äsis would suggest fresh 'öpel II. Emerods. (ASV,"emerods, tumors;"
pressed juice. lt is only used five times. An exact Rsv, tumors;" NASB, "hemorrhoids;" NIV
definition of 'äsis is difficult because Song 8:2 "tumors. ") A noun occurring six times, five in
speaks of the juice of the pomegranate. But Jsa I Sam 5-6, 'opel refers to boils or tumors (cf.
49:26 and Joel 1:5 indicate it was fermented. Joel Arabic 'afl"" "tumor, boil of the anus or vulva).
3:18 [H 4:18] and Arnos 9:13 are inconclusive. In all instances in the or it is replaced by the Qere
Perhaps the word refers to fermented juices in t'"/:ibr (q. v.), apparently regarded as a more deli-
general, from grapes or other fruit. The usual cate euphemism by the Sopherim (see C. D.
definition "sweet wine" may mislead. "Sweet" Ginsberg, lntroduction to the Massoretico-
wine today is wine that has had the fermentation Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible [Reprint,
stopped and has some unfermented sugar. KTAV, 1966], p. 346). In Deut 28:27 (in the
"Sweet" wine of antiquity seems to refer to "cursings" formula) Israel is threatened with
stronger wine (cf. Greek gleukas, Acts 2: 13). loathsome diseases of the skin including 'opel.
lt may mean wine that was stronger because The noun figures prominently in the story of the
made from sweeter juice. Philistine control of the ark (1 Sam 5:6, 9, 12;
R.L.H. 6:4-5). Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (the latter, in
threat at least) were scenes of the Lord's affiic-
1661 Cl'KCI/ ( 'p'ym), Kethih; Cl'~I/ ('opäyim), tion of the people by tumors and of the land by
Qere,foliage (Ps 104:12). Aramaic loan mice (1 Sam 6:5). Fiven golden images of the
word according to BOB, but "raven" tumors were made, along with five golden mice
from a root 'p' according to M. Dahood, or rats, at the direction of the Philistine priests as
Psalms III, in AB, pp. 38-39. a trespass offering to compensate Yahweh on
the return of the ark. The number five repre-
Cl'~I/ ('opäyim). See no. 1661. sented the pentapolis of Philistia. Hindson writes,
· 'These representations of their plagues were
1662 '"~ (' äpal) /, swell, be lifted up. thought by pagan peoples to bring healing from
Derivatives the thing represented. Thus by the pagan notion
1662a t':i!;,°11
( 'opel) /, Ophel, fort, strong- of sympathetic magic they hoped to rid them-
·hold. selves of the creator's plagues. The mice may
1662b t,;,·11 ('öpe/) II, tumor. indicate that they suffered from the bubonic
plague" (The Philistines, p. 143). lf so, this
Some authorities (e.g. BOB) differentiate two would be the first time in history when the
roots 'äpal. The only time a form of putative bubonic plague (characterized by swellings,
'äpal l, "to swell," is found is in the classic Hab especially in the lymph glands of groin and
2:4, in the phrase "his soul is lifted up" (K1v:ASV, armpits) was observed to be associated with ro-
"puffed up;" Rsv, "shall fail" [emendation]; dents.
NASB,"the proud one"). (See 'äpal II, below.) Bibliography: Pfeiffer, Charles F., Jerusalem
'öpel /. Ophel, fort, stronghold, tower. (ASV, through the Ages, Baker, 1%7. Owen, G. Fred-
RSV,NASBread "hill" in II Kgs 5:24.) The noun erick, Jerusalem, Baker, 1972. Avi-Yonah,
'opel "mound, knoll," is a designation for an Michael, Jerusalem, Arco, 1%0. Join-Lambert,
acropolis within Samaria (II Kgs 5:24), and espe- Michael, Jerusalem, Frederick Ungar, 1958.
cially, Jerusalem (seven times). Ophel in Hindson, L.. The Philistines and the Old Testa-
Jerusalem is the spur on the eastern hill, running ment, Baker, 1971.
due south, just to the west of the temple area, R.B.A.
joining the Kidron Valley on the east. The Ophel
was the Jebusite stronghold taken by David 1663 *',"~ ('äpal) II, presume. (So ASV, Rsv;
(called "Zion" [$iyybn, q.v.] in II Sam 5:7; cf. S. NASB,"to be heedless. ")

686
 1666 ~JV('ä~ab)

This root, to which we may compare Arabic turns (Gen 3:19; Eccl 3:20; 12:7; Job 4:19; 8:19;
gafala "tobe heedless, neglectful, inadvertent," 10:9; 34: 15; Ps 104:29). Probably because of this
is found in only one OT passage, Num 14:44 usage, dust sometimes means just the grave (Job
(Hiphil), of Israel's rash and reckless attack on 7:21; 17:16; 40:13; Ps 22:29 [H 30]; lsa 26:19).
the Amalekites and Canaanites, following her Dust is used of the surface of the earth (Ex 8: 16-
lack of faith and great rebellion. There are some 17 [H 12-13]; Job 19:25), and is found in paral-
authorities who suggest that the Pual of ·iipal in lelism with 'ere$ ··earth" (e.g. Isa 25:13; 26:5).
Hab 2:4 may be from the same root, "to pre- The fact that man comes from the dust of the
sume, be proud" (e.g. Lisowsky; see root I, earth is a reminder of the sovereignty of God in
above). his creative acts, and of the insignificance of man
apart from the intervening "breath of life" of his
11l/~l/ ('ap'ap). See no. 1582b. goodness. Man as a fashioned artwork owes
praise and obedience to the Poller who fashioned
1664 •-,~~ ( 'iipar) /, to dust. Denominative him of clay (see lsa 29:16; 45:9; 64:8 [H 7]; Jer
verb, occurring only in the Pie! (II Sam 18:1-14; cf. Rom 9:21). Dust-man became liv-
16:13). ing-man by God's grace; therein lies his humility
and his dignity.
Parent Noun Because of the abundance of dust particles on
1664a ti~~ ( "iipiir) dust, earth, ground, the earth, dust serves also as a figure for abun-
ashes, mortar, powder, rubbish. dance in God' s gracious promise to Abraham of
(ASV,RSVsimilar, but Rsv has "plas- innumerable descendants (Gen 13:16), a promise
ter" in Lev 14:41-42, 45, where KJV renewed to Jacob (Gen 28: 14; cf. II Chr 1:9).
reads · · mortar. ") Something as common as dust serves as well as a
figure for worthlessness (Zeph 1: 17; cf. Zech 9:3;
The masculine noun 'iipiir is a common term in Job 22:24). Because of its lightness, dust may
the OT (109 occurrences) meaning ""dust," i.e. also serve as a symbol for the scattered: "the
"dry, fine crumbs of earth." A rare synonym is king of Syria had destroyed them and made them
'äbäq, meaning "dust, soot." Another synonym like the dust at threshing" (II Kgs 13:7).
is 'eper "'dust, ashes," whose paronomasia with 'iipiir • 'dust," comes from a different root than
'äpär lends to coupling ofthe words in a common the noun ·öper "young hart, stag," and the name
hendiadys (Gen 18:27; Job 30: 19; 42:6) and paral- Epher ( 'eper, e.g. Gen 25:4).
lelism (Ezk 27:30). Compare also tir · ·mud, Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 353-55.
clay," and /Jamer "mortar, clay." The broader R.B.A.
term 'adiima ··ground, soil," and 'ere$ ··1and,
territory, earth," should be consulted. Hebrew 1665 '1011 ( 'pr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
'äpär has cognates in Ugaritic ( 'pr). Akkadian ing.
(eperu), and Arabic ('afar""), all meaning "'dust, 1665a '1!:;,°11
( 'aper) stag.
loose earth, debris." The word is found in 1665b r,~pl/ ('aperet) Lead. But possi-
Amama Canaanite as l:Japaru (= 'aparu). .bly this is a loan word not related to
The noun 'iipiir is used literally in many con- the root.
texts meaning "'dust" or ··1oose earth." The
Philistines filled the wells dug by Abraham with ri::,pll( 'aperet). See no. 1665b.
loose dirt (Gen 26: 15). Dust from the ground of '!'V. ('e$). See no. 1670a.
the tabernacle was to be taken by the priest and
added to the holy water and was to be used as a 1666 :i~ ('ä$ab) /, grieve, dispLease, vex, wrest.
potion in the ritual lest for adultery (Num 5: 17).
Dust and stones were cast at David by the venge- Derivatives
ful Shimei in his malicious cursings (II Sam 16:13,
1666a :;v. ("e$eb) sorrow, Labor.
see above). Dust was thrown on the head as a
1666b t:t11 ('ö$eb) sorrow.
sign of grief and mourning. Joshua and the elders
1666c t:~~ ('ä$eb), :;l/ ('aHäb) labor.
of Israel expressed distress in this manner when
1666d ri:;;p ( 'aFfebet) sorrow, wound.
Israel was defeated at Ai (Josh 7:6; cf. Ezk 27:30;
1666e 1b;r,1(' i$$iib6n) sorrow, toil.
Lam 2:10; Job 2:12; Mic 1:10, rolling in dust).
1666f t:i;i~1' (ma'l1$eba) terror.
This act of humiliation and seif denigration (often
accompanied by the wearing of sackcloth) be- The root 'ii$ab relates to physical pain as well
speaks dependence upon the God who "formed as to emotional sorrow (cf. '11$ib in Biblical
man of dust from the ground" (Gen 2:7, accusa- Aramaic, "sad"). Words similar in Hebrew are
tive of material). hU I hul "to writhe," /Jiirtr "to be hol (with
Man in his physical body was formed from anger)," yiiga Niphal "to grieve," /ii'a "tobe-
dust, and it is to dust that his physical body re- come tired, weary," kii'as "tobe irritated, an-

687
1667 *:;~ ('ä,$ab)

gry ,' · märar · · to be bitter, despairing,'' qü( "to metathesis (see J. M. Myers, I Chronicles, AB
feel a disgust," qü$ "to feel a disgust," täwa 11, p. 28).
"to trouble" (Ps 78:41), and the noun rögez Yet another example of paronomasia is noted
"turmoil." by Cassuto in the pericope of the curse on the
The verb 'ä$ab as a term of physical and men- wo man and the man in Gen 3. Pain in childbirth
tal discomfort is used in a variety of contexts. ( ·issäbon and ·e$eb) are decreed for the woman
The Qal is found three times in the oT. The (Gen 3:16), and pain in manuallabor('iHäbon) is
prophet-historian of I Kings comments wryly decreed for the man (Gen 3: 17). Both came as the
conceming Adonijah that his father had "never consequence of the sin respecting the fruit of the
crossed him" (l Kgs 1:6, NASB)at any time by forbidden tree. Noting that "tree" ('e$) has the
inquiring into his activities, a shameful lack of same first two radicals as pain ('$b ), Cassuto
parental interest and discipline. In another pas- writes, "lt was with respect to 'i$ that the man
sage, Israel is depicted as a forsaken wife who is and the woman sinned, and it was with 'e$ebh
"grieved in spirit" (lsa 54:6). The third instance (pain) and 'i.p"äbhön (toil, suffering) that they
of the Qal is in I Chr 4: 10 where the translation were punished" (Genesis, I, p. 165).
"hurt" serves as a pun on the name "Jabez" (see R.B.A.
below).
The Niphal of 'ä$ab is found seven times; once 1667 *::111/('ä$ab) II, make, worship. Occurs
of physical pain (Eccl 10:9, on the folly of a only in the Piel.
stoneworker being hurt by his stones). Usually
mental and spiritual anguish are depicted by this Derivatives
form of the verb, as in the sorrowful and angry 1667a t:i;11. ('e$eb) idol.
distress of Joseph's brothers on recognizing him 1667b :l';{ll ( 'ö$eb) idol (Isa 48:5).
(Gen 45:5); Jonathao·s anguish conceming his 1667c t:i;11 ('ä$äb) idol.
father·s foul plots respecting David (l Sam 20:34;
cf. 20:3); and Israel"s shocked griefat hearing the The verb 'ä$ab II is used only twice in the or.
Torah recited and recognizing their deficiencies In Job 10:8 the protagonist speaks of Yahweh
(Neh 8: 10-11). shaping or fashioning him. A difficult construc-
Twice the Piel is employed. Psalm 56:5 [H 6) tion is found in Jer 44: 19, where the Hi phil reads
"to make an image·· (rendered "worship" in AV
speaks of David's enemies wresting his words
and ASV).The Rsv smooths this to "bearing her
(NASB,"they distort my words"). In Isa 63: 10 it is
image,'' and NASBto "in her image."
declared oflsrael that "they rebelled and grieved
his Holy Spirit" (cf. Eph 4:30 where lupeö is •~eh. Idol. Better, "vessel," something
used in a similar manner). The Hiphil of the He- fashioned. Rsv has „ pot," NASB"jar. ·· Only in Jer
brew verb is found only in Ps 78:40, parallel to 22:28, used figuratively of Coniah = Jehoiachin.
terms for rebellion, tempting, and provocation.
•ä~äh. Idol. Always in the plural in the or.
One ofthe two uses ofthe Hithpael describes the
Idols, though fashioned of silver and gold, are
reaction of the brothers of Dinah at her being
raped (Rsv, "the men were indignant," Gen 34:7). poor substitutes for the living God (e.g. Ps
115:3-11).
The other is the chillingly familiar prologue to the
deluge, the grief in the heart of Yahweh concem- There doubtless are places where 'e$eb "idol"
should be read for ·e:reb "sorrow" or its similar
ing the wickedness of man and his continually
words. Ps 16:4 (though fern.) may be a case in
evil thought patterns (Gen 6:6).
point.
•~eh. Sorrow, wicked. (Asv, RSVsimilar, but R.B.A.
add "pain."). Rendered "wicked" in Ps 139:24,
"and see if there be any wicked way in me." li:llli ( 'i.p'äbön). See no. 1666e.
1'1?.;ll('a.p"ebet). See no. 1666d.
•ä~h. •a~~äh. Labor (so Asv; RSVand NASB,
"worker"). Only found in Isa 58:3, "and drive 1668 i:r11 (':rd). Assumed root of the following.
hard all your workers·· (NASB). 1668a i;~r; (ma'li$äd) axe (Jer 10:3;
ma•~ehä. Terror. (Literally, "a place of Isa 44: 12).
pain""; Rsv renders "torment.") Used only in lsa
50: 11. 1669 :i;11 ('ä:ra) I, shut (Prov 16:30).
The several derivatives listed above depict
many types of pain. In I Chr 4:9-10 there is a pun 1670 :-tlll ( ·$h) II. Assumed root of the follow-
complex on the name Jabez respecting the pain ing.
( 'ö$eb) his mother suffered in childbirth, and his 1670a Tl' ('e$) tree, wood, timber, stock,
own desire not tobe hurt ( 'ä$ab. Qal). His name, plank, stalk, stick, gallows.
ya'be$, has the same root letters as '$b, but with 1670b :i;i: ( 'e$t:i) trees (Jer 6:6).

688
•~. Tree, etc. This masculine noun, which oc- specting these two trees, "there is much to com-
curs 329 times in the or, is the basic term for mend the literal sense, na"iVe though it may
"tree" and also wood products. lt is common seem." The trees were not magical, but were the
Semitic, found in Ugaritic ('s "tree, vine"), Ak- rneans of confronting man with God's will, giving
kadian (is [sl u), Arabic ('giHatu•), Aramaic "man a decisive Yes or No to say with his whole
(' a', etc.). being" (Genesis, p. 62). lt is morally significant
The noun ·es is used regularly throughout the that God fenced these two trees not with a wall
or, with good distribution in the Torah, the but with his word !
prophets, and the writings. The singular may be lt is no accident that human sin which began at
used in a collective sense, "trees" (e.g. Lev the foot of a tree, the "tree of the knowledge of
26:20,"the trees of the land"), or of a single tree good and evil" (Gen 2:9ff.), found its resolution
(e.g. Prov 11:30, "the fruit of righteousness is a on another tree, the cross of Calvary. There is a
tree oflife," reminiscent of Gen 2:9). The plural poetic justice in the use of trees in the Heilsge-
is also tobe found of standing trees (cf. Joel 1:12; schichte, the redemptive directedness, of biblical
Isa 7:2, etc.). More often the plural is employed theology. Satan's victory over the woman (and
for felled wood, used for timber (l Kgs 5:18 the man!) beneath the branches of that prima)
[ff 32]), kindling (I Kgs 17:10, 12), sacrificial tree led to his own defeat beneath the crossed
firewood (Gen 22:3ff.), and wooden articles (Ex beams of another tree on which the Prince of
7:19). The singular ·es may be used for felled Glory and the ernbodiment of wisdom died.
lumber or wood as weil. Some examples are: a Henceforth there is another tree, the "tree of
wooden idol (Hos 4: 12; KJV "stocks"), timber life" of the New Jerusalem (Rev 22:2), trans-
(Hag 1:8), wood paneling (Ezk 41:16), a wooden planted, as it were, from Eden (Gen 3:9, 22, 24),
vessel (Lev 11:32), a wooden handle (Deut 19:5; and made available for the inhabitants ofthe com-
KJV "helve"), a stick (Ezk 37: 16ff.). a shaft ing new world.
(II Sam 23:7), a gallows or pole (Gen 40: 19-
probablya pole for impaling), etc. Many varieties •e~a. Trees. A feminine collective noun,
of trees are mentioned in the or. Specific types of "wood," found only in Jer 6:6 (but some read as
lumber Iisted include: "gopher" (the wood of
·es with the 3d feminine pronominal suffix, "her
trees"; so RSV, NASB).
Noah's ark, Gen 6: 14; the variety is still in doubt,
Bibliography: For brief discussion and illus-
but perhaps is a type of pine or cypress), acacia
trations of the various types of trees in the or,
(used in the construction of the tabemacle, Ex
25:Sff.; "shittah" and "shittim" in KJV), "al- consult Fauna and Flora of the Bible: Helps for
Trans/ators, XI, London: United Bible Societies,
mug" (or "algum," used in the temple, I Kgs
1972. Moldenke, H. N., and A. L., "Plants of
10:llff.; likely Juniperus phoenicea excelsa;
the Bible" Ronald Press, 1952. THAT, II, pp.
Ugaritic '1mg), cedar (used in the temple, I Kgs
35~58.
6:9; the cedars of Lebanon are proverbial in the
or as producing great timber), pine (used in con-
struction, I Kgs 5:Sff.; some authorities render 1671 :,i1,1 Csh) III. Assumed root of the follow-
Hebrew b' rosh as "juniper" or "cypress"), ing.
olive(zayit, "olive tree" is found often in the or; 1671a :i;~ ('äseh) eilher spine or os sa-
occasionallyone reads ·esshemen, "tree ofoil," crum, bone close to fat-tail (Lev
e.g. I Kgs 6:23), etc. When ·es rneans "tree" as 3:9).
against"timber, lurnber," it may refer to any kind
oftree in God's creation (cf. Gen 1:11-12, 29).
In reading the description ofthe righteous in Ps :i; •.i ( 'esii). See no. 887a.
1:1-3, the reader, especially if he is from a c~i~ ( 'äsum). See no. 1673d.
forested area, must not miss the emotional "wal-
lop" in the image of the tree, with its splendid 1672 *',;~ ('äse/) be sluggish. Occurs only in
emblematic parallelism. A tree in Palestine, par- the Niphal, in Jud 18:9.
ticularly in the southem areas, was something
rather special. lt is fitting that one rernember that Derivatives
Eden was characterized by the plenitude of its 1672a ?;f~ ('äse/) sluggish, lazy (e.g.
trees (Gen 3:9). An oasis in the desert of southem Prov 24:30; 10:26).
Palestine was a haven from oppressive heat, a 1672b :i7:,~('aslii) sluggishness (Prov
place of rest and refreshment; but also it was a 19: 15; Eccl 10:18).
grim reminder of a well-watered and heavily 1672c l'I~?:,~('aslut) sluggishness (Prov
forested garden lost through human sin. In that 31:27).
gardenof God there were two trees of paramount
import, the tree of life and the tree of knowledge
of good and evil. We agree with Kidner that re- l'I~,:,~('aslut). See no. 1672c.

689
1673 CJ~ ('ä~öm), Cl~ ('ä~am)
1673 Cl!; ('ii$öm), Cl'JI;( 'ii$am) I, be strong, '01>mä. Strength, abundance. This feminine
mighty, great, increased. noun is used three times (lsa 40:29; 47:9; Nah 3:9
[but see above]), rendered "füll might" by KB.
Derivatives
•e~m. Bone, body, same, selfsame. (Asv, RSV
1673a tc~f!J ( 'ö$em) might.
similar.) A very common noun in the or 'esem is
1673b t:,~n ( 'o$ma) strength. cognate to Ugaritic '?,m I, Arabic 'a?,u'm•~, and
1673c tc;I'. ('e$em) bone. Akkadian e$emtu, all meaning "hone." A He-
1673d tc~:tr; ( 'ä$fim) mighty, numerous. brew synonym is gerem (which see).
This noun has a variety of nuances in the or. lt
1673e :i~).IP,~ (ta'cl$üma) might (Ps
may mean "hone" in the anatomical sense, both
68:36).
human (e.g. Lam 4:8, of skin cleaving to the
There are two roots in the OT spelled 'ä$am (so bones: Jud 19:29, of dismembering a concubine)
KB, Holladay, Lisowsky; BDB confusingly lists and animal (e.g. Ex 12:46, of the passover lamb).
four). The first is a stative verb, "to be mighty, In Num 19:18 'e$em is used, it seems, for a skele-
numerous, strong"; the second a transitive verb, ton (which defiles). Adam's exclamation of iden-
"to close (the eyes)" (see below, 'ä$am II). tity and relationship to Eve who was fashioned
'ä$am may be compared to Arabic 'a:i.uma "tobe from a part of him is given in the well-known
great in bones," hence, "to be mighty." words, "This is now hone of my bones, / and
Synonyms used more often in the or for flesh of my flesh" (Gen 2:23a, NASB).From this
"strength, power" are /:zäzaq"to be strong," stirring couplet comes the Hebrew expression
'äma.$ "to be strong," gädal "to be great," "flesh and hone" (in English locution, "flesh and
räbab "to be numerous," etc. blood"), descriptive of close genetic relationship
The verb 'ä$am is found once in the Piel (de- (Gen 29:14; Jud 9:2; II Sam 5:1; II Sam 19:13
nominative of 'e$em "hone"), meaning "to [H 14];1Chrll:I).
break the bones" (BDB), or "to gnaw off the The plural noun "bones" often is used for a
bones" (KB), in the figure of a lion gnawing on corpse. Joseph demanded that bis "bones" (i.e.
the bones of Israel (Jer 50: 17). Once it is found in his mummy) be taken back to Canaan with Israel
the Hiphil, "to make strong" (Ps 105:24). Else- (Ge~ 50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Josh 24:32). Similarly,
where, 'ä$am I is found in the Qal. Sometimes David took the "bones" (corpses) of Saul and
this is in a comparative sense (e.g. "my iniquiti- Jonathan for burial (II Sam 21: 12-14).
es ... are more than the hairs of my head," Ps Yet another employment of ·e$em is as a figure
40: 12 [H 13]; cf. Ps 40:5 [H 6], God's wondrous of the seat of the emotions. Jeremiah speaks of
deeds and thoughts · · are more than can be num- the reticence of proclaiming Yahweh as "a bum-
bered"). Elsewhere the verb is used in an abso- ing fire shut up in my bones" (Jer 20:9; cf. 23:9,
lute sense (e.g. of Egypt, "they are very strong" both used parallel to "heart"). David speaks of
[lsa 31:1]; ofthe thoughts ofGod, "How vast is the burden of sin causing a Jack of health in his
the sum of them! [Ps 139:17, NASB]). bones (Ps 38:3 [H 41). The revilings of his
An important theological employment of this enemies challenging the reality of Yahweh are
verb is in Ex 1:7 (cf. 1:20) where it is used in "as a shattering of my bones" (Ps 42: 10 [H 11]).
dramatic and emphatic juxtaposition with the One's "bones" may refer to the entire person
verbs pära "to be fruitful" (see Gen 1:28), (see Ps 6:2 [H 3], where "bones" is used parallel
shära$ "to swarm" (see Gen 1:20), räba "tobe- to "self/soul" in the following verse).
come numerous" (see Gen 1:28), and the doubled A more specialized use of 'esem is found in Ex
noun "exceedingly" (bim' öd me' öd, "with ex- 24: 10 in the phrase, "the ~ubstance of the
traordinary muchness!"), "so that the land was heavens" ("the sky itself' in the NASB).'e$em
filled with them" (see Gen 1:28). Such is a vivid expressing absolute identity is rendered "self-
summary of Yahweh's miracle of blessing the same" as in the phrase, "exactly at this day"
growth of his people in the "womb" of Egypt. (e.g. Ex 12:17, and often).
The vocabulary of growth from Gen is quite pur- •~um. Mighty, strong. This adjective is used
poseful in Ex 1-this is indeed a new beginning. thirty-one times in the or. lt may be cognate to
Ugaritic '?,m II, "mighty" (UT 19: no. 1842), and
'öiiem. Might, strong, substance. Used three Phoenician '$mf "mighty deeds."
times (Deut 8:17; Job 30:21; Ps 139:15 ["my R.B.A.
frame was not hidden from thee," ASV,Rsv, NAsa;
KB and Holladay render "bones" in this pas-
sage]), and perhaps in Nah 3:9 (with defective 3 1674 Cl'JI; ('ä$am) II, shut, c/ose (eyes).
fern. sing. suffix; see K. J. Cathcart, Nahum in (Asv, RSV similar.) Used twice in the or
the Light of Northwest Semitic [Rome: Biblical (lsa 33: 15, shutting one's eyes from seeing
Institute Press, 19731, p. 135). evil [Qal]; and Isa 29:10, ofYahweh clos-

690
 1676 :lit~ (' äqab)

ing the "eyes" of Israel, the prophets strained, shut up, under restraint," as in Num
[Pie!)). 16:48 [H 17:131, "and the plague was checked"
(NASB). With Yahweh as subject, this verb con-
Derivatives tributes greatly to the doctrine of the sovereignty
1674a M~;P ( 'a.)'ma). Some authorities, of God. lt is he who restrains as weil as who
e.g. KB, Holladay, Lisowsky, dis- wills.
tinguish the feminine plural 'a.)'mot
•~er. Oppression, only in Jud 18:7. This mas-
from "bones" in three passages (Ps
53:5 [H 6], "evil deeds"; Job 7: 15, culine noun used only in Jud 18:7 in the phrase
"possessor of restraint" (LXX and Rsv, "possess-
Ps 22: 17 [H 18), "severe suffer-
ings"). ing wealth"), is suggestive of the NT phrase,
"that which/he who restrains" (II Thess 2:6-7),
1674b ni~;irP, ('a.)'ümot) strong (reasons).
although Greek katechö usually renders Hebrew
(Rsv, "proofs. ") A feminine plural
'ä}Jaz or /Jäzaq (q.v.).
abstract, used only in Isa 41:21.
(BDB, however, assigns this noun 't)!,er. Barrenness (closedness), oppression.
to a different root, '.)'m, compared This noun is used ofbarrenness in Prov 30: 16 and
to Arabic 'a.)'ama ··to defend, pro- of oppression in lsa 53:8 and Ps 107:39.
tect." KB regards it as a plural of
'ä.)'Ctm[above].)
ma'sör. Restraint, hindrance. The feminine
nouns 'a.)'ära and 'll.)'eret are rendered "solemn,
R.B.A.
sacred assembly,'' perhaps from the semantic
development suggested by KB: "suppression,
ni~;irP, ( 'a.)'ümot). See no. 1674b. stop ofwork" leading to "solemn assembly" (see
Num 29:35). Such a solemn assembly can be
1675 iiv (' ä.)'ar) restrain, close up, retain, shut, proper and pious (e.g., Joel 1:14), apostate (Jer
wilhhold, refrain, stay, detain. 9:2 [H !]), or idolatrous (II Kgs 10:20).
Derivatives ma'sär. Restraint, control; "self-control" in
1675a ti;,11 ('e.)'er) oppression (Jud Prov 25:28, with /" rü}Jb.
· 18:7). R.B.A.
1675b t,;·i, ( 'ö.)'er) barrenness.
1675c M;;P, ( 'a.)'ära), nj;t.P, ( 'a.)'eret) 1676 :lt;iV ( 'äqab) take by the heel, supplant.
solemn assembly. Denominative verb.
1675d tii~i,r; (ma'sor) restraint.
1675e ti;I?~ (ma'.)'dr) restraint, control. Parent Noun
1676a t:11~ ('äqeb) I, heel, hoof, rear of a
The Hebrew root '.fr is compared to Ethiopic
troop, footstep.
and Arabic roots meaning "to press," and to a
Syriac root "to retain." (The Akkadian e.)'eru
1676b :l1?V ('äqeb) II, ove"eacher (Ps
49:6).
noted by BDB is omitted by KB; Akkadian eeru
means "to draw, make a drawing" [CAD, IV-E,
1676c :l~V ('äqöb) deceitful; showing
f ootprints.
p. 346)). In the Amama texts ba-zi-ri (= 'a.)'äru)
is found meaning "to restrain, retain" (K. A.
1676d M:;l?V(äq'bä) deceitfulness (II Kgs
10:19).
Barker, "Comparative Linguistic and Gram-
matical Study of Canaanisms in the Amarna Tab-
1676e :l:'.11('eqeb) consequence. Usually
occurs as an adverbial accusative,
Jets (unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, p. 106).
as a consequence of, because.
Synonyms of this Hebrew root include: mäna' 1676f t:·~P,~ (ya'aqöb) Jacob.
"to retain, hold back" 'ä}Jaz "to seize, hold
fast," }Jäsak "to restrain, hold back," }Jäzaq 'äqeb. Heel. From the literal idea of "heel"
Hiphil "to take hold of," etc. and kälä' l, "to (cf. Job 18:9, a man caught by the heel), 'äqeb
keep back." extends itself to describe horses' hoofs (Gen
The verb 'ä.)'ar is used forty-six times in the or. 49: 17; Jud 5:22) or anything at the rear. 'äqeb
In the Qal stem this root has three basic mean- denotes the rear guard of a troop (KB, ·p. 279;
ings: (1) "to hold back, restrain, retain, prevent" attacked, literally, at their heels, Gen 49: 19) or
as in Sarai's words, "Yahweh has prevented me the exposed buttocks (euphemistically, "thy
from bearing" (Gen 16:2; cf. 20: 18); (2) "to keep heels made bare," Jer 13:22) of captive individu-
from," as in David's words, "women have been als (v. 19; cf. Ugaritic 'qbt "tendon" of a bull).
kept from us" (1 Sam 21:5 [H 6)); and (3) "to At Ai, the Israelitish army's 'äqeb (Josh 8: 13) is
rule," only in I Sam 9: 17, Yahweh to Samuel, of the concealed detachment directed against the
Saul. "This one shall rule over my people." The Canaanitish "heel" (cf. Ps 49:5 [H 61), therefore
Niphal has the passive renderings, "to be re- not so much a Hebrew rear guard (Rsv) as an

691
1677 i1;'~ ( 'äqad)
ambush, .. liers in wait" against Ai (KJV,Asv; KD, prevailed" (v. 28 [H 29]; cf. his subsequent devo-
p. 86). ·äqeh may also connote the motion of the tion, Heb 11:21).
heel, i.e. a step-so in Ps 56:6 [H 7). David's foes Both names, Israel and Jacob, became designa-
watch "his steps ... The actual word is „heels," tions of honor for the patriarch's descendants
or the mark left by the heel, i.e. a footstep, (from Num 23 onward; cf. 24:5, or 17 [Mes-
whether of a man (Ps 89:51 [H 52) where enemies sianic]; Ps 47:4 [H 5]). God "loves Jacob" (Mal
··reproach the footsteps" of God's anointed, 1:2; cf. Rom 11:26). Yet finally the blessing
perhaps referring to King Jehoiachin as he was reaches out to all the people of God, · · the genera-
led captive in 597 e.c.). lt can also refer to a flock tion of those who seek Thy face--even Jacob"
(Song 1:8), or even to God (so Ps 77:19 which (Ps 24:6 NASB;cf. Gai 3:29).
speaks of Yahweh's leading Israel through the Bibliography: Payne, J. B., Theo/ogy of the
Red Sea; but after the water returned, · · Y our O/der Testament, Zondervan, 1962, pp. 419-22,
footsteps are not known"). 430. Wood, L., A Survey of Jsrae/'s History,
The metaphorical usage of ·aqeh includes such Zondervan, 1970, pp. 69-75.
ideas as a traitor's "lifting up the heel" against J.B.P.
David (Ps 41 :9 [H 10]), i.e. "proving faithless and
spurning" him, or, "iniquity at my heels" (49:5 1677 ii;I~ ('aqad) /, bind (Gen 22:9).
Asv; ••iniquity of my heels" KJv), i.e. dogging
one·s steps ("wicked deceivers" NIV). Greatest 1678 i;,i., ( 'qd) II. Assumed root of the follow•
of all references is the prophecy in Gen 3: 15, that ing.
mankind is to achieve victory over Satan and 1678a i;,~ ('äqöd) striped, streaked
reconciliation with God at the price of Calvary, (e.g. Gen 30:40; 31:8).
where the serpent will "bruise the hee1" of the
seed of woman.
1679 :,;,i., ( 'qh). Assumed root of the following.
ya'ilqöb. Jacob. Abraham's grandson through 1679a l"li'P~ (ma'äqeh) parapet (Deut
Isaac. V sed collectively, it refers to the tri bes of 22:8).
Israel, as descended from the twelve sons of
Jacob. l"li?~ ('aqil). See no. 1585a.
Jacob, the second of Isaac·s twin sons, re-
ceived the preeminence before birth (Gen 25:23; 1680 *',i;i~ ('äqa/) bend, twist. Occurs only in
an example of divine election in general, Rom the Pual, in Hab 1:4.
9: 11-13). But he acquired his name when he was
born "with his hand [symbolically] holding on to Derivatives
Esau's heel" (Gen 25:26 NASB:Hos 12:3 [H 4]). 1680a ',i;17i;1V,( 'äqalqa/) crooked (Jud
When he had later gained the birthright (Gen 5:6; Ps 125:5).
25:29-34) and stolen Isaac's blessing (27: 1-29), 1680b 7il'l7i;iP, ( •äqallaton) crooked (lsa
Esau thus exclaimed, .. ls he not rightly named 27: 1).
Jacob (ya·aqöh), for he has supplanted me
these two times?" (v. 36). See also his devices ',i;17i;ip ('aqalqal). See no. 1680a.
against Laban (30:29-31: 12; cf. lsa 43:27-28). 7il'l7i;i~ ('aqalläton). See no. 1680b.
Yet at Bethel, as Jacob was fleeing from Esau,
God assured him that he was with him (28: 12, 15)
1681 ii;I~ ('aqar) I,p/uckorrootup (Eccl3:2;
and renewed the covenant which he had pre-
Zeph 2:4). Denominative verb.
viously revealed to Abraham and Isaac (vv.
13-14; cf. 17:7-8; 26:3-4: Lev 26:42). Jacob Parent Noun
thereupon vowed that Yahweh would be his God
1681a i;,p ( 'eqer) offshoot, member
and receive his tithes (Gen 28:20-22). Then at ·(Lev 23:47).
Peniel, enriched by the Lord but dreading to meet
Esau, he uttered a model prayer (32:9-12).
God, in the person of the Angel of Yahweh 1682 *ii;i~ (' äqar) II, hamstring. This de-
presumably Christ pre-incamate (vv. 24, 30; Hos nominative verb occurs only in the Piel
12:4), next encountered Jacob, with whom the (e.g. II Sam 8:4; I Chr 18:4).
patriarch wrestled, literally, but also in prayer Parent Noun
(Hos 12:4). Broken by God (Gen 32:25 [H 26]),
Jacob thereby achieved his final spiritual victory 1682a ,i?~ ('aqar) barren (e.g. Deut
and blessing (v. 29 [H 30]), for the Angel said, 7: 14; Ex 23:26).
„ Your name will no longer be Jacob (ya ·aqöb
„supplanter"), but Israel (yisrä'e/), for you have 1683 ::?i?ll ( 'aqrab) scorpion (e.g. Deut 8: 15;
striven (.Mra) with God and with men and have Ezk 2:6).

692
 1686 ::lj~ ('ärab)
1684 *Wi?I/ ("äqash) is perverse, Niphal; to 1686c t:"ll!C (ma'aräb) merchandise.
make crooked, pervert, Pie!; to declare, 1686d t:i;SP.!:i
(ta'arüba) hostages.
prove perverse, Hiphil.
The verb 'ärab may be compared with one use
Derivatives of Akkadian erebu "to enter (under one's author-
ity)" (see CAD, IV-E, 264), and to Ugaritic 'rb
1684a ~l'l,,' ( 'iqqesh) crooked, perverse. "to enter (as a pledge)," e.g. in the phrase 'rb
1684b tl'll~~l,,' ( 'iqq'' shtit) crookedness
bbnshm · 'they entered as pledges for their men =
(Prov 4:24; 6: 12).
they guaranteed their employees" (so UT 19: no.
1684c W~P,I;'(ma'aqäsh) crooked things
1915). Synonyms for the Hebrew 'ärab "to
(lsa 42: 16).
pledge," include IJaböl, l;äböla, 'aböt, nouns
The root 'äqash is a descriptive term in hamar- meaning "pledge"; and the verbs IJäbal "to take
tiology that emphasizes the perversion and in pledge," and täqa' "to strike the hands in
twisted nature of sin. Hebrew 'äqash may be re- agreement." Cf. the noun 'abö( "pledge." De-
lated to Arabic 'aqa$a "to twist her hair" (a wo- pending on the manner of classification, there are
man); as women braid and plait their hair, so four (KB) or six (BOB) roots 'ärab, eight in GB!
people twist their ways. As used in the oT the range of meaning for the
With the exception of · ·crooked, rough places · · Qal of ·ärab I falls into three clusters. First, the
in Isa 42: 16, the root 'äqash and its derivatives term may mean, "to exchange merchandise, har-
are used to describe the twisted and perverted ter," as in Ezk 27:9 (cf. 27:27). Secondly, the
acts of sinful men. In Isa 42: 16 it denotes the verb may mean "to pledge, mortgage," and by
difficulties the Lord will overcome in saving his extension, "to dare." Nehemiah 5:3 speaks of
people out of their desperate situation. In Deut mortgaging fields, as an example of the former
32:5 'iqqesh is used in hendiadys with p'taltöl alternative, and Jer 30:21 (figure) of daring one's
"tortuous," of a desperately wicked generation heart (NASB,"who would dare to risk his life"), as
(see also Prov 8:8; Ps 18:26 [H 27]). Other an example of the latter.
synonyms for 'äqash are häpak "to turn;" /Liz The third, and major, duster is "to be/become
"to go the wrong way;" 'äwa "to pervert the surety or bail for." A splendid example is af-
right;" sälap "to twist;" 'äwat "to make forded by the Joseph narrative. Judah ventures to
crooked, pervert." Wicked rulers "twist every- be the surety for his youngest brother, Benjamin,
thing that is straight" (Mic 3:9, NASB).The per- to his father, Jacob. He states, "I will be the
verse of lips is a fool (Prov 19: 1), and the per- surety for him: ofmy hand you shall require him"
verse ofheart is an abomination to Yahweh (Prov (NASB,"you may hold me responsible for him"
11:20). Gen 43:9; cf. 44:32). Another type of example is
given by the noun ·eräbön (see below) in Gen 38
'iqq•shut. Froward. (Asv, RSV, "wayward,
(vv. 17-18, 20). In this far less noble chapter of
crooked. ") This is an abstract feminine noun,
Judah's spiritual degradation, the reader ob-
"perverseness," used twice in the phrase, "per-
serves that he is dull not only spiritually. but ra-
verse mouth" (Prov 4:24; 6: 12).
tionally as weil. He leaves with Tarnar, his dis-
R.B.A.
guised daughter-in-law, his signet, cord, and staff
as 'eräbön. By leaving behind his "credit card,"
l'l'W~l,,' ('iqq''shül). See no. 1684b. he lost all chance for anonymity in the sordid
,:, ('är) foe. Only I Sam 28: 16. Arama- affair.
ism(?). See no. 2930a. The Hithpael. of 'ärab is found in one context
only, meaning "to make a wager" (Rsv II Kgs
1685 :·111( 'rb) I. Assumed root of the following. 18:23; Isa 36:8). The Hithpael forms in Ps l06:35;
1685a ::ljl/ ( 'ereb) I, mixture, mixed Prov 14: IO; 20: 19; 24:21; listed by BOB under the
·company (e.g. Ex 12:38; Neh root "to pledge," are better understood as from a
13:3). homonym, "to associate with, intermix, meddle"
1685b ::ljl/ ( ·ereb) II, woof (Lev 13:48). (so KB, Holladay, Lisowsky).
1685c :'i:, ('äröb) swarm (e.g. Ex 8:17;
Ps 78:45). 'arübbä. Pledge, surety. Found only in I Sam
17:18; Prov 17:18.
1686 ::ljl/ ( 'ärab) 1/, to be / become surety, 'eräbön. Pledge. Used only in Gen 38 (three
mortgage, engage, occupy, undertake for; times, vv. 17-18, 20; of Judah's seal, his "credit
give pledges (Hithpael). card"). The noun ·eräbön (Ugaritic 'rbn) is one
of the few Semitic words which have entered
Derivatives Western languages (Greek, arrabön; Latin, ar-
1686a m;~P, ('arübba) pledge. rabo; French, les arrhes). In the NT arrabön is
1686b t,;:,11 ( 'eräbbn) pledge. used of the Holy Spirit who is the "pledge of our

693
1687 ~j~ ( 'ärab)

inheritance" (Eph 1: 14: cf. II Cor 5:5). The desire 1689 :::lj~ ( 'arab) V, become evening, grow
for God himself as one ·s "security" is an OT dark. Denominative verb.
hope. Hezekiah, twittering and moaning like a
bird, said: "My eyes look wistfully to the heights; Parent Noun
I O Lord, I am oppressed, be my security" (lsa 1689a t::'.')
V. ( ·ereb) evening, night.
38: 14, ~Ass: cf. Ps 119: 122). Similarly Job pleads 1689b t::;~r; (ma'arab) westward.
with Yahweh: ··Lay down. now, a pledge forme
with Thyself: / Who is there that will be my 'ereb. Evening, night. This common mas-
guarantor?" (Job 17:3). Kidner observes, "Job is culine noun for "evening" likely developed from
a bad risk for anybody but God" (Proverbs, p. the expression, "the setting of the sun, sunset."
72). The parallel expression, "who will be lt is cognate to Akkadian erebu, a common verb
guarantor," is literally to be read, "who will of wide usage which includes "to enter, go down
strike hands with me?'' The verb täqa' (q.v.) is a (of the sun)." Akkadian erib samsi means "sun-
stock-in-trade parallel for 'arab i, in the sense, set." Compare Arabic garifa "to set (of the
··to confirm a contract, bargain" (see Prov 6: 1; sun)," and Ugaritic 'rb sps (= m'rb), "sunset."
11:15; 17:18; 22:26). Other important Hebrew words for time periods
The passages given above in Prov on acting as of the day are: yöm "day," 'et "time;' böker
surety for a loan for another (to which we may "moming," and /ayla "night" (all of which see).
add 20:16 and 27:13 where the parallel verbis Some have suggested that "Europe," the west-
häbe/) contain strong wamings against such em land is derived from this root (BOB, GB and
~ell-meaning, but foolish acts. Such a man is cf. the American Heritage Dictionary).
"lacking in sense" (Prov 17: 18) and ··will smart 'ereb is found 131 times in the OT. The phrase
for it'' (Prov 11: 15). The ad vice for one who has "there was an evening and there was a moming"
entered such an agreement, is to get out as best occurs six times in the creation narrative (Gen
he may (Prov 6: 1-5). Again, we quote Kidner 1:5, 8, 13, 19, 23, 31), delimiting the six days of
who says such advice "does not banish generos- divine creative activity. This phrase would indi-
ity: it is nearer to banishing gambling. That is, a cate that in ancient Israel a day began with sun-
man·s giving should be fully voluntary." He rise. Some have feit this at variance with the
adds, "Even to the recipient, an unconditional Jewish practice of regarding sunset as the begin-
pledge may be an unintended disservice by ex- ning of the next day. Cassuto, after dealing with
posing him to temptation and to the subsequent the biblical data and the Jewish custom, con-
grief of having brought a friend to ruin" (Kidner, . cludes that there was "only one system of com-
Proverbs, pp. 71-72). Neverth~less, corhpare the puting time: the day is considered to begin in the
acts of the Good Samaritan in Luke 10:35. morning; but in regard to the festivals and ap-
ma•aräb. Merchandise (articles of exchange). pointed times, the Torah ordains that they shall
This collective noun occurs only in Ezk 27 (nine be observed also on the night of the preceding
times). day" (U. Cassuto, Genesis, I, p. 29 [his em-
phasis]). This judgment appears vindicated in the
ta•ar0bä. Hostages in the phrase, "children of employment of 'ereb in Levitical legislation re-
pledges" found in II Kgs 14: 14; II Chr 25:24. specting uncleanness. One was considered un-
Bibliography: Porten, Bezalel, "Guarantor at clean because of certain acts "until the evening"
Elephantine-Syene," JAOS 89: 153-57. (Lev 11:24, plus thirty times). Thal is, one was
R.B.A. unclean for the duration of the day.
Evenings were quite important for sacrificial
1687 ::!W ('ärab) III, be sweet, pleasing. acts and ceremonial meals in ancient Israel. The
Passover began on the evening of the fourteenth
Derivatives
day of the first month (see Ex 12:6, 18). Some-
1687a ::i:,~ ('areb) sweet, pleasant (Prov times, as in Ex 12:6, the Hebrew reads literally,
20:17; Song 2:14). "between the two evenings," likely "twilight,"
the time interval between sunset and darkness in
1688 ::,:, ('rb) IV. Assumed root of the fol- which there is a state of illumination. Only in Job
lowing. 7:4 does ·ereb denote "night" proper.
1688a ::jl) ( 'arab) desert plateau, steppe
(lsa 21:13). ma'aräb. Westward, from or toward the west, the
1688b ,:::,,v.('aräbi) steppe-dweller (lsa west side. (Asv, RSV similar.) Strictly, the "place
· b:20; Jer 3:2). of sunset," hence, "west." See Ps 103: 12 where
1688c :::,-,p (' iiräb) steppe-dwellers (col- this word is contrasted to mizra/:i, "from the
, l~ctive noun). east" (see zarah "to rise").
1688d :i;,1-' ('araba) desert plain, steppe. R.B.A.

694
 1694 ,j~ ('ärak)

1690 ::l"ltl ('rb) VI. Assumed root ofthe follow- Conversely, nakedness, the exposure of
ing. shame, is a marked feature of judgment on evil-
1690a ::l'.itl ('oreb) raven. doers (see Isa 3: 17; Hab 3: 13; Zeph 2: 14 Lam
1690b :i;?P, ( 'aräba) poplar. 4:21; and the extensive employment of the vo-
cabulary for nakedness by Ezk in chapters 16,
ti::l?ll ( 'eräbon). See no. 1686b. 22, 23).
•::;,P, ( 'aräbi). See no. 1688b. In Ps 137:7 Edom's taunt of Jerusalem is an
example of paronomasia. Edom's words, "raze
1691 :jv ('ärag) longfor. it, raze it, down to its foundations," by double
entendre signify, "strip her, strip her, down to
Derivative her buttocks"' (Jerusalem pictured as a woman
1691a :mip ('arüga) garden terrace or being ravaged; see Dahood, Psalms, III, in AB
•bed. p. 273).
The verb 'ära is employed in the Niphal (ex-
1692 *:,?V (' ära) uncover, leave destitute, dis- plained as passive of Hiphil by BDB) in lsa 32: 15
cover, empty, rau, pour out. of the Spirit being poured out upon us. Other
examples of "make bare" leading to the idea of
Derivatives "pour out" are found in Gen 24:20 (Pie!, Re-
1692a :,?V ('ära) bare place (lsa 19:7). bekah emptied her pitcher); II Chr 24: 11 (Pie!, an
1692b :,""- ('erwa) nakedness, shame. officer emptied the ehest); Isa 53:12 (Hiphil, the
1692c :i:,v. ('erya) nakedness. Servant poured out his life unto death; cf. Ps
1692d ip,; (ma'ar) nakedness. 141:8).
1692e "lll!:\ (ta'ar) razor, sheath; cf. Ugar- The Hithpael in Ps 37:35 is somewhat prob-
itic t'rt "sheath, scabbard" (that lematical. The NASB renders, "a violent, wicked
which makes bare). man spreading himself like a luxuriant tree. · ·
R.B.A.
The verb 'rh does not occur in the Qal stem. In
the intensive and causative stems it is employed :,~~"IP,('arüga). See no. 1691a.
meaning: (1) "to lay bare, uncover, expose
nakedness," and (2) to lay bare in the sense "to 1693 iiit: ('ärod) wild ass. Only in Job 39:5.
empty, to pour out." This latter sense may be
used as a figure of death in the expression given
:,''"- ('erwa). See no. 1692b.
in Ps 141:8 and Isa 53: 12, "to pour out the soul/
life" (nepesh, q.v.). Hebrew 'ära has cognates in
c~,v ('ärüm). See no. 1698c.
"l!;i"IIJ. ('aro'er). See no. 1705c.
Arabic ('ariya "tobe naked'"), Phoenician ('rh
"to lay bare"), Akkadian (üru "nakedness, des-
r~·,v' ('ärü.)'). See no. 1702a.
:i:,v. ('erya). See no. 1692c.
ert waste"), and Ugaritic ('ry "naked" [Ais- :iCl'"IIJ. ('arisa). See no. 1699a.
WUS, no. 2097]). li;".'I~
· ('ärip). See no. 1701a.
After the fall (or "plunge ") of man, nakedness '!"".'IV('äri~). See no. 1702b.
in the or was a matter of shame. This is not be- '".'!'".'IP,
( 'ariri). See no. 1705a.
cause sex is evil, but because of sin-burdened
minds (see J. B. Payne, Theology of the Older
1694 '!ljV ('ärak) sei (put, lay) in order, sei in
Testament, p. 218). As D. Kidner writes, "Man
array, prepare, order, ordain, handle, fur-
saw the familiar world and spoilt it now in the
nish, esteem, equal, direct, compare.
seeing, projecting evil on the innocence (cf. Tit
1:I5) and reacting to the good with shame and Derivatives
flight." He adds, "The fig leaves were pathetic
1694a '!l'.')l/ ('erek) order, row, estimate.
enough, as human expedients tend to be, but the
1694b *t'!l~V ('ärak) value, estimate, lax.
instinct was sound and God confirmed it, for sin's
Occurs in the Hiphil only.
proper fruit is shame. The couple, now i11at ease
1694c t'!l?P,r; (ma'aräk) preparation
together, expressed a foretaste of fallen human
(Prov 16:1).
relations in general" ( Genesis, InterVarsity,
1694d t:,;?P,I'; (ma'aräka) row.
1967,p. 69).
Hence, nakedness in the or after Gen 3:7 is a 1694e tl'l~jP,1; (ma·areket) row.
symbol of human shame, the evil fruit of sin. lt is 'ärak is a verb of preparation, arranging (so its
quite impossible to build a case biblically for nud- Phoenician cognate), setting in order; often used
ity. Nakedn.ess cannot be tolerated outside in martial contexts of "drawing up in battle or-
proper sexual relationships (see the prohibitions der." The militaristic tone of the verb may be
of incest in Lev 18 and 20), nor may it occur in compared to the Arabic 'araka in III stem, ··to
worship (Ex 20:26; cf. 28:42). contend (in battle)," and to the Arabic nouns

695
1695 i,"'.l~('äral)
ma·rak"" and ma'rakat'"', both meaning "battle- ma'areket. Row, showbread. Found only of
ground." the rows of showbread or the table, as in Lev
The verb 'iirak has two basic nuances in the 24:6-7.
0T. The first, found often, means "to set or ar-
range in order," used vatiously. The second, "to
1695 ',j~ (' ara/) count uncircumcised (Qal);
compare, .. is suggested by BOB to be the result
foreskin to be uncovered (Niphal). De-
of arranging in order (for the purpose of compati-
nominative verb.
son). This latter use ofthe verbis found in Isa in a
majestic paean of praise to the incomparability of Parent Noun
Yahweh. lsaiah 40:18 reads, "to whom then will
you liken (däma, Piel) God? / or with what like-
1695a t:i1,~ ('orla) foreskin, uncircum-
cised.
ness will you compare ( 'ärak) him?" (so Ps 40:5
1695b t',j~ ( 'arel) having foreskin, i.e. un-
[H 6]; 89:6 [H 7]; cf. Job 28:17, 19). The incom-
circumcised.
parability of Yahweh is one of the grand, but
sometimes neglected, themes of oT biblical theol- The denominative verb (so BOB, KB) 'äral is
ogy. used only twice. In Lev 19:23 the RSVand NASB
More often 'ärak means "to set in order, ar- render the Qal, "forbidden," and Holladay
range." One encounters this verb with many ob- suggests, "leave unharvested." The Niphal in
jects: pieces offirewood set in order for a sacrifi- Hab 2:16 is a crux. The ASVreads, "be as one
cial fire by Abraham for his son Isaac, in one of uncircumcised"; NASB, "expose your own
the most moving scenes in the 0T (Gen 22:9); nakedness"; NIV, "be exposed"; the RSVreads
pieces of the sactificial bull arranged on the altar with the DSS and some versions, ··stagger"
by the priests (Lev 1:8); showbread set out in two [from the root r'/, metathesis].
rows of six cakes on the gold table (Lev 24:8);
'orlä. Foreskin, uncircumcised. (ASV,RSVsimi-
seven altars set up by the pagan mantic Balaam
lar.) The feminine noun 'orla may be related to
(Num 23:4); stalks of !lax arranged by Rahab
Arabic gurlat"" "foreskin," and gari/a "to be
for hiding the spies (Josh 2:6); a table prepared
uncircumcised," Aramaic gür/"ta' "foreskin,"
for dining (Ps 23:5; Isa 21:5); words produced for
and Akkadian urü/(l)ati (pi.) "foreskins" (Be-
speaking (Job 32: 14); a legal case developed for
zold, Glossar, p. 68). The reader should compare
presentation (Job 13: 18); etc. In II Sam 23:5
the article on the verb mul "to circumcise."
David exults in the covenant granted him by
Yahweh, "for he has made with me an everlast- 'ärel. Uncircumcised, uncircumcised per-
ing covenant, / ordered ( 'arükii) in all things and son, i.e. having the foreskin intact. (ASV, RSV
secure. similar.)
Often '[Irak is a military term describing the Circumcision has been practiced by many
drawing up in battle order to commence the fight- peoples of the world usually at puberty, but in
ing. The verb may appear with milhama "com- Israel it was rooted in a profound religious con-
bat" (Gen 14:8; Jud 20:22; I Sam 17:8, etc.), and viction: by this act of dedication, witness was
with /iqra't "to meet"' (e.g. I Sam 4:2; II Sam given to the fact of belonging to Yahweh and to
10:9-IO, etc.). The 0T writers also speak of ar- his people (see Eichrodt, ETOT, I, p. 138). As far
ranging weapons for battle (Jer 46:3; I Chr 12:9). as we know, only Israel practiced infant circum-
At one point, Job desctibed his anguishing state cision. Of course this practice precluded the
of aftliction as that of military attacks by the other licentious puberty rites of the surrounding
forces of the terrors of God, sei against him in pagans.
battle array (Job 6:4). The institution of circumcision is detailed in
'ärak. Hiphil, to value, estimate, tax. BDB Gen 17 as the sign of Yahweh ·s covenant with
lists this as a denominative verb from the noun Abraham, as was the rainbow in his covenant
'erek "estimate." lt is found five times in Lev 27 with Noah. Every male of the community, bond
and in II Kgs 23:35. Some authotities, e.g. KB, and free, was to be circumcised when eight days
do not distinguish this use of 'iirak as a separate old. The uncircurncised were to be cut off from
lexical entry; it is merely the Hiphil of the verb the cornmunity. Youngblood wtites, "Frorn that
listed above. time forward the rite of circurncision would be-
come ... a token of God's solernn promise to
ma'äräk. Preparation (Rsv, "plan"). Occurs bless His people numerically. God had spoken,
only in Prov 16:1, "the plans of the heart ... and He would bring His word to remembrance
ma'äräkä. Row, rank, army, order, fight. A every time the circumciser's knife was wielded"
feminine noun with three usages: (1) "battle (The Heart of the O/d Testament, p. 46). The
linc," as in I Sam 4:2ff.; (2) "ranks" or "army," patriarchal covenant act was reaffirmed in the
as in I Sam 17: 10; and (3) "row," as in Ex 39:37, Mosaic code (Lev 12:3). Exodus 4:24-26 is
"lamps of the row ... somewhat obscure. See Cassuto, Exodus, pp.

696
 1698 C:l°"I~
('äröm)

5~1. and Clements, Exodus. p. 31. [This dif- tion and defilement (see Feinberg, Ezekie/, pp.
ficult passage has been much discussed but the 184-85).
suggestions of Hans Kosmala possibly bring new Bibliography: Youngblood, Ronald, The
light ("The Bloody Husband," VT 12:14-28). He Heart of the O/d Testament, Baker 1971.
argues, first, that it is the first-bom son who is in R.B.A.
<langer-not Moses. In the context the emphasis
is on Israel as God's first-born. Pharaoh's first- 1696 *Clj~ ('aram) 1, be heaped up. Occurs
born is in danger. Now Moses' first-bom must be only once, in the Niphal (Ex 15:8).
circumcised or he too is in danger. Second, the
verb näga' should be taken as a Qal "touch" not Derivative
Hiphil "cast" as KJV. Third, says Kosmala, Zip- 1696a :irn~ ('aremii) heap.
porah touched the child's legs with the foreskin
to make a sign of blood-not that she cast it at 1697 Cl'11/ ('rm) II. Assumed root of the follow-
Moses' feet. Moses is not mentioned by name in ing.
this sentence. Fourth, that her remark "a bloody 1697a ~ir=•w ('arm{m) the plane-tree (as
husband" should rather be translated "a blood- stripped of bark (Ezk 31:8).
circumcised (boy)." The Arabic verb ~atana
means "to circumcise" and Kosmala reminds us 1698 Cl"'I~('aröm) beware, take crafty counsel,
that Zipporah in Sinai may weil have had early be prudent.
Arabic connections. Thus she was not petulantly
blaming Moses, but in satisfaction claiming she Derivatives
had saved her boy by performing the rite. Kos- 1698a tc'.')·11 ('örem) craftiness (Job
mala finds the last clause of v. 26 to be not a mere '5: 13).
repetition. lt is a linguistic note that what she said 1698b t:,~,~ (' ormii) guile.
in Arabic idiom applied to the boy who in He- 1698c tc~,~ ( 'ärum) crafty.
brew idiom was "the circumcised" (mul).
arom is a root with positive (prudence) and
The suggestion changes no consonants in the
negative (shrewdness) connotations. lt may be
text. lt has linguistic support. And it avoids the
contrasted with its positive synonym säkal "to
otherwise strange tension between Moses and
be skillful, wise," which is always positive. Its
Zipporah. A free translation would be:
cognates in Arabic, Aramaic, and Syriac are
At a lodging place on the way the LORD met
negative in tone ("'ill-natured, shrewd"). The
him (Moses) and sought to slay him (his first-
Greek terms panourgos and panourgia, used in
born). But Zipporah took a flint knife and cut off
the LXX and the NT, mean "ready to do any-
the foreskin of her son and touched his legs with thing," usually in the bad sense of tricky and
it. Then she said, "Surely you are my blood-
cunning behavior (e.g. Lk 20:23; Eph 4: 14). Dis-
circumcised one" and the LORD let him alone. tinguish this root from 'äram, Niphal, "to be
So the term she used "blood-circumcised one" heaped."
(Arabic) referred to the circumcised one (He-
The verb 'aröm is used in the Qal five times:
brew). R.L.H.]
twice positively (Prov 15:5; 19:25), and twice
The adjective ·ärel · 'having foreskin, uncir-
negatively (1 Sam 23:22 ). The Hiphil is used once
cumcised," became a word of contempt, used meaning, "to act craftily," "they lay crafty plans
particularly with reference to the Philistines who against thy people" (Ps 83:3 [H 41). Some au-
did not practice circumcision (cf. Jud 14:3; 15:18;
thorities have considered all but the Qal infinitive
1 Sam 14:6; 17:26, 36; 31:4=1 Chr 10:4; II Sam absolute in I Sam 23:22 to be Hiphils. KB and
1:20). This term was associated with moral and Lisowsky say the only true Hiphil is in Ps 83:3 [H
spiritual uncleanness (lsa 52: 1) as weil as with
4].
organs that did not function properly (Ex 6: 12,
"uncircumcised lips" do not speak weil; Jer 6: 10, 'örem. Craftiness. This masculine noun oc-
"uncircumcised ears" cannot listen). curs only in Job 5: 13.
Circumcision was a spiritual act as weil. Egypt,
'ormä. Guile, prudence, subtility, wilily, wis-
Edom, Ammon, Moab--and Judah!-all prac-
dom. This noun may be used negatively of pre-
ticed circumcision of the penis, but not the heart sumptuous guile (as in Ex 21: 14), or positively of
(Jer 9:25-26 [H 24-25], see Bright, Jeremiah, prudent behavior (as in Prov 1:4).
AB, p. 78). Hence, Israel was commanded to cir-
cumcise the foreskin of the heart (Deut 10:16; Jer 'ärum. Crafty, prudent, subtle. The adjective
4:4; cf. Rom 2:28-29). 'ärum is construed tobe a positive virtue when
Ezekiel uses 'arel in eh. 32 in his "conducted rendered "prudent." The prudent one does not
tour of the nations in Sheol" (Taylor, Ezekiel, vaunt his knowledge (Prov 12:23), ignores an in-
p. 211). There the nations are described as uncir- sult (Prov 12:16), acts with knowledge (Prov
cumcised, to bear out the concept of their pollu- 14:8), looks where he is going (Prov 14: 15), sees

697
1699 c,:, ('rs)

danger and acts appropriately (Prov 22:3 = which Israel is termed q'' sheh-'örep "stiff-
27: 12), and is crowned with knowledge (Prov necked" (e.g. Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9, etc.). The
14:18). term 'örep thus enters the vocabulary of hamar-
This adjective is negative when rendered tiology. Arrogance on the part of the vassal to the
"crafty" (see Job 5:12: 15:5). The most memora- suzerain is a form of rebellion and treason.
ble use of ·iirum in this negative nuance is, of Bibliography: Daiches, S., "The Meaning of
course, Gen 3:1, "Now the serpent was more e,-,1,1
in Lev. 5, 8," ExpT 39:426.
crafty than any other wild creature which the R.B.A.
LoRD God had made." His "malevolent bril-
lance" (D. Kidner, Genesis, Chicago: Inter Var- 1701 l'\j.' ('ärap) II, drip, drop.
sity, p. 67) is contrasted by paronomasia to the
naked innocence of Adam and Eve in Gen 2:25 Derivatives
( 'iirum ··craftiness," vs. 'arummfm "naked- 1701a e,•.,~ (' iirip) cloud (lsa 5:20).
ness:" see U. Cassuto, Genesis, I, p. 143). Given 1701b t?!;)j~ ( 'aräpel) dark cloud, dark-
this seminal passage, the comment of our Lord to ness, gross darkness, thick darkness.
his disciples is even more surprising: "Be shrewd (Asv, Rsv similar, but Rsv "gloom"
[phronimos] as serpents, and innocent as doves" in Deut 4: 11 where NASBhas · 'thick
(Matt 10:16, NASB). gloom.")
R.B.A.
The word 'ariipel is a masculine noun em-
,;~-,p ( 'armon). See no. 1697a. ployed respecting the veiled glory ofYahweh, the
darkness enveloping his appearance on Mount
1699 c,-,1,1 ( 'rs). Assumed root of the following. Sinai, and the judgment he brings on sin.
1699a :,9•.,~ ('arisa) coarse meal (e.g. Suggested etymologies are from (1) 'iirap "to
Ezk 44:30: Neh 10:38). Meaning drip, drop," with lamed afformative (BDB); or
uncertain. (2) Arabic gafara "to cover" (KB). The word
grpl "heavy cloud," occurs in Ugaritic (UT 19:
,p-:,p ('ar'ar). See no. 1705b. no. 1989a). lmportant synonyms in Hebrew for
"cloud" are 'äb (used of theophany in Ex 19:9)
and 'änän (often used of the glory of God).
1700 l'\j.' ('ärap) I, break the neck of an
Descriptions of the glory of God in the oT seem
animal. Denominative verb (BDB; KB
deliberately vague, perhaps to preserve the ele-
treats it as a homonym, compared to
ment of reverential awe respecting the wonder of
Arabic 'arafa "to cut to pieces").
beholding tokens of God, and also, perhaps, to
Parent Noun remind one of the horror of sin in his presence.
Hence, while the people stand afar off, Moses
1700a tl'\,-t.t ('örep) back, neck. comes near to the "thick darkness" enveloping
This anatomical term is often used metaphori- Yahweh (Ex 20:21). Indeed, the very mountain
cally. lt has been related to Akkadian arüb(b)u/ visited by God became an awesome mountain,
arüp(p)u "neck (mane?)," and Arabic 'urfat•• "burning to the heart of heaven, wrapped in
"mane of a horse, crest of a cock." Some He- darkness (i)öshek), cloud ('änän), and thick
brew synonyms for "neck" are gargiirot, giiron, gloom (wa'aräpel)" (Deut 4:11). Similar ex-
mapreqet, $awwä'r, and $aww'rönim. pressions are found in Deut 5:22 [H 19]; II Sam
'örep is used thirty-three times. In Gen 49:8, 22: 10; Job 22: 13; Ps 18:9 [H 10]; 97:2. When Sol-
Jacob prophesies that Judah's hand will be on the omon dedicated the temple, the glory of Yahweh
neck of his enemies, a symbol of authority over filled the building in cloud and thick darkness
his foes. In the expression "turned (one's) (1 Kgs 8: 10-12; II Chr 5: 13-6: 1), "as a reminder
neck," 'örep is used as a synonym for back (see of the darkness into which Moses penetrated on
gab, gaw, gew, sh''kem ["shoulder"]). Thisterm Sinai" (JTOT, p. 259).
occurs as a figure of fear and retreat of the Other uses of 'aräpel include the poetic figure
enemies of Israel (Ex 23:27: cf. Josh 7:8, 12 of of darkness as a swaddling band for the sea (Job
Israel turning her back; II Sam 22:41 in a psalm of 38:9); and darkness as a symbol of ignorance,
David); as a figure for apostasy from Yahweh misery, and sin of man (lsa 60:2). The term
(II Chr 29:6: Jer 2:27; 32:33); and as a figure for 'aräpel is also used as a symbol of Yahweh's
shame and remorse (Moab in Jer 48:39). judgment on sin (Jer 13:16; Ezk 34:12; Joel 2:2;
From comparison with Arabic 'urfat•• "mane Zeph 1:15). Because the same term is used of
of a horse," "crest of a cock," one can see the God's enveloped glory and his awesome judg-
possible semantic development of "neck" to ments, the term is paradoxical: it bespeaks ter-
"stiffness, arrogance, recalcitrance, refractori- ror, wonder, fear, majesty, awe, and reverence.
ness." Hence, there are numerous occasions in R.B.A.

698
 1704 .,.,t,t
('rr)
'9?~ ( 'arape/). See no. 1701b. ma'är~ä. Terror (lsa 10:33). BDB reads,
··awful shock, crash;" RSV,"terrifying power;"
1702 1'j~ ( •iiras) to be affrighted, dread, fear, NASB,··a terrible crash;" NIV"great power."
oppress, prevail, break, be terrified. R.B.A.
Derivatives
1703 :,j~ ('äraq) gnaw (Job 30:3).
1702a t1'1'1~ ('iirus) dreadful (Job 30:6).
1702b tr•".I~ ( ·iiris) mighty, awe-inspiring.
1702c t:i;,~r,, (ma'ariisa) awful shock, 1704 ,,t:
('rr) I. Assumed root of the following.
crash (lsa 10:33). 1704a t:,?~~ (me'ära) cave, den, hole,
Mearah. (Asv, RSVsimilar.)
The verb 'iiras denotes fear or terror; tran-
sitively, "to cause terror," or intransitively, "to The word me'ära is a feminine noun from the
be terrified.'' The Hebrew root may be compared root 'iirar; compare Arabic mag'iirat"" "cave,''
with a Syriac root, "to come upon suddenly, and perhaps the Ugaritic place name mg'rt (see
violently," and the Arabic 'arasa "to quiver, UT 19: no. 1523; AisWUS no. 1630). Some au-
flicker." Hebrew synonyms include yiire' "to thorities (KB, Holladay, Lisowsky, NEB)distin-
fear;" piihad "to tremble;" gur "tobe afraid;" guish m'"'ära II, ''barren field" as a hapax
yägör "tobe afraid;" sii'ar "to bristle with hor- legomenon in Isa 32: 14. "Caves" is read there by
ror; and ~iitat "to be shattered, filled with other authorities (BDB,KJV, ASV,RSV,NASB,JB).
terror." Synonyms are ~ör "hole, cave,'' and me hilla
In the Qal stem the root 'aras is used in two "hole" (occurs only as a pi. in lsa 2: 19).
ways. In a transitive sense the verb means "to The word "cave" is used for temporary dwell-
cause to tremble, to terrify." An example with ing, emergency refuge, or burial. Lot and his
Yahweh as subject is in Isa 2:19, 21, speaking of daughters dwelt in a cave for a period of time
the terror of his judgment. The word occurs with (Gen 19:30-38). On numerous occasions people
men as the subject in Ps 10:18 (cf. Job 13:25) and are reported to have fled to caves for safety from
1s 47: 12 (with irony). The verb is used intransi- enemies. Some examples include the Canaanite
tively six times meaning, "to tremble, be afraid." kings in the cave at Makkedah (Josh 10: 16--27);
In five instances those trusting in the might of Israelites during the Midianite oppression (Jud
Yahweh are commanded not to tremble, for 6:2) and in a battle with the Philistines (1 Sam
Yahweh the great and awesome one is in their 13:6); the prophets of Yahweh hidden from
midst (Deut 1:29; 7:21; 20:3; 31:6; Josh 1:9). In Jezebel by Obadiah (1 Kgs 18:4, 13); and wicked
these passages the verb 'iira$ is associated with men fleeing from the wrath of Yahweh (lsa 2: 19;
the synonyms yare', pii~ad, and ~iitat (q. v .). cf. Ezk 33:27).
The Niphal is used once (Ps 89:7 [H 8]) in the The cave of Machpelah which Abraham pur-
phrase, ··a God greatly feared in the council of chased from Ephron the Hittite (Gen 23) became
the holy ones" (parallel to norä' "awesome"). the burial place for Sarah (Gen 23:19), Abraham
The Hiphil occurs three times (lsa 8: 12-13; (Gen 25:9), Isaac, Rebekah, Leah (Gen 49:31)
29:23). Yahweh is to be held in reverential awe: and Jacob (Gen 50: 13). The manner of purchase
fearing him, one need fear no other. fits nicely into what is known of Hittite customs
of the day (see Kidner, Genesis, pp. 145--0).
'ärfi~. (Properly, Qal passive participle) cliffs
Theologically, the chapter continues Abraham' s
(Job 30:6). BDB reads "(most) dreadful (ravines):"
testing begun in Gen 22. He who had been prom-
ASV"'frightful (valleys)." (KB regards this term
ised the land of Canaan had to purchase a burial
as from another root, 'iiras II, and renders
··slope," so Rsv, "gully.") site upon the death of his wife. The cave of
Machpelah is believed to be in the Haram el-
'äri~. Mighty, oppressor, in great power, strong, Khalil at Hebron, surrounded by a wall built in
te"ible, violent. (Asv similar: RSVand NASBocca- Herod's time (see Avraham Negev, Archaeolog-
sionally use "ruthless. ") ical Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, pp. 141-2,
The adjective · äris is found twenty times in the 191).
or. Once it refers to Yahweh as a "dread cham- David in flight from Saul stayed in the Cave
pion" (Jer 20:11, NASB).More often it relates to Adullam and a cave at Engedi, a scene of humor
the ruthless enemies of an individual (e.g. Ps 54:3 and pathos (see I Sam 22:1: I Chr 11:15; I Sam
[H 5]: 86: 14) or a nation (e.g. Isa 13:11: 25:3-5: 24). The titles of Psalms 57 and 142 likely refer to
29:5; Jer 15:21). Ezekiel employs the phrase 'ärire Adullam.
$egöyim ··the ruthless of the nations," four times Elijah is associated with a cave on Mount Sinai
(Ezk 28:7; 30:11: 31:12; 32:12). In Prov 11:16 in I Kgs 19:9-18. The definite article in the He-
violent and ruthless men are contrasted to a gra- brew text (v. 9) suggests a specific cave, the very
cious woman ('eshet ~en). place in which Moses saw the glory of Yahweh

699
1705 ijr; ('ärar)

(Ex 33:21 f.: on this parallel, see, with some cau- 1706 iv,11 ('rs). Assumed root of the following.
tion, Cross (see bibliography). 1706a iv'.")V, ('eres) couch, divan (e.g.
Bibliography: Cross, Frank Moore, Jr., ·oeut 3: 11: Arnos 3: 12).
Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic, Harvard Uni-
versity, 1973. Negev, Avraham, Archaeological
1707 ::iivll ('sb). Assumed root of the following.
Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, London and
1707a t::i~v, ( 'eseb) grass, herb. (Asv
Jerusalem: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972. ·similar; RSV,add „ plants.")
R.B.A.
The masculine noun ·eseb is one of four major
1705 ij.' ('ärar) II, make bare, strip oneself. synonyms for "vegetation, verdure, herb, or
grass." The English "herb," found in the KJV,is
Derivatives used in the broader and older sense of non-woody
1705a -rii•".'lll ( •ilriri) stripped. tissue vegetation, rather than in the more re-
1705b ti1,1-:ili ('ar'ar) stripped, destitute. stricted nuance of seasoning or medicinal plants.
1705c t,11;,v, ('ilro'er) treeorbush. 'eseb and its synonyms correspond more closely
to the American English use of the word "plant"
The verb ·ärar l I is one of several entries in the
than to "herb." The other synonyms (which
vocabulary of nakedness; compare the synonyms
gäla ··10 uncover: .. 'ur "to be exposed, bare;" should be consulted) are: deshe' "new, fresh
grass;" yereq "green plant, verdure" (and yäräq
'arä ··10 uncover, expose nakedness;" and
"greens, vegetables .. ): and /Ja$ir I, ··green grass,
päsha[ "to strip off." The verb 'ärar is likely a
herbage" (distinguished by some authorities from
by-form from the root 'ärii. (q.v.).
homonyms IJa$ir II, "leeks," and /Ja:jir III,
Forms from the verbal root 'ärar are foundjust
"reeds, cattails .. ). The reader is also directed to
four times in the OT, each in a different stem. The
Qal is used in Isa 32: 11 (parallel to päsha() as a the article on ·es "tree." A rare word for "shrub,
bush" is si(a)IJ_-only in Gen 2:5; 21:15; and Job
command to the complacent women of Jerusalem
30:4, 7. The Hebrew 'eseb may be compared to
to strip off finery and clothe themselves for
Arabic ·usb"" "green, fresh herbs, pasturage,"
mourning. A Poel in Isa 23: 13 has been rendered
and to Akkadian esebu '·to grow luxuriantly.' · In
variously (KJV··they raised up the palaces;" ASV,
Biblical Aramaic 'äsab occurs five times in Dan
"they overthrew;" Rsv, "they razed;'' and NASB
of Nebuchadnezzar·s bestial affliction, "eating
"they stripped"), but the RSVand NASBseem pre-
grass like an ox" (Dan 4: 15, 25, 32, 33 [H 4: 12,
ferable. E. J. Young writes, "The reference is to
22, 29-30]; 5:21).
a stripping of the palaces of all their ornament
The noun 'eseb is found thirty-three times in
and contents" (The Book of Jsaiah, II, 135). In
the Hebrew or, fifteen ofwhich are in the Torah,
Jer 51:58 a Pilpel inf. abs. is coupled to a Hithpal-
and four are in Gen l. In the creation account this
pel to render "completely razed" (of the broad
word has its most important rote. On the third
wall of Babylon; RSV,"leveled to the ground").
creative day God called for the earth to "sprout
'äriri. Stripped, childless. The adjective ·ariri forth vegetation (deshe'), plants ('eseb) yielding
means ··stripped" and is used to describe the seed, and fruit trees ('e$ p• ri) bearing fruit with
loneliness and "nakedness" ofthe childless in an its seed within, each according to its kind, on the
era when children were necessary for a sense of earth: and God saw that it was good" (Gen 1:11:
completeness. Abraham is 'ilriri in Gen 15:2, cf. v. 12 for fulfillmenl). In this context, deshe'
having only Eliezer as his adopted heir. "vegetation, .. appears to be the broader cate-
Childlessness was a divine judgment for certain gory, subsuming both 'eseb and 'e$, "plants and
sexual sins (Lev 20:20-21; cf. the judgmental for- trees."
mula of Jer 22:30). [The absolute use of ·eseb in Gen I should be
contrasted with its construct use in the expres-
'ar'ar. Stripped, destitute. The adjective
sion ·eseb hassädeh "plant of the field" in Gen
'ar'är, "stripped, destitute," occurs as a sub-
2:5. Cassuto has argued that this expression de-
stantive in Ps 102:17 [H 18]. The prayer of the
notes "cultivated grains" (Cassuto, U., Genesis
nakedly destitute is not spurned by the Lord.
in loc.). But these did not exist at the time the
'ärö'er. Tree, bush. Mentioned only in Jer Lord formed Adam because there was as yet "no
17:6. A type of shrub, perhaps the Juniper man to till the ground" (Gen 2:5). Accordingly,
(Arabic ·ar'ar), Juniperus phoenicia. This is a Gen I and 2 are in harmony. Whereas "plants„
shrub with minute leaves like scales, having did exist before the creation of man, cultivated
small, round tawny-colored cones. (See Fauna plants did not. lt is possible also, however, that
and Flora of the Bible [London: United Bible Gen 2:5-6 refers only to the land where Eden
Societies, 1972), p. 131). On this shrub, compare was, which was watered by the rivers (not
the Hebrew city name 'äri>'er. ·•mist," 'ed. q.v.). This view would find the rec-
R.B.A. onciliation of Gen I and 2 in the thought that they

700
 110s :iif~ cäsa)
describe different items of God's creative Aside from the numerous occurrences of the
activity-the world at large in Gen 1, Eden alone meaning "do" or "make" in a general sense,
in Gen 2:4 ff. (Cf. Harris, R. L., "The Mist, the ·asii is often used with the sense of ethical obliga-
Canopy and the Rivers of Eden," JETS, II: 177- tion. The covenant people were frequently com-
79). R.L.H.] manded to "do" all that God had commanded
Man and animals, some hold, were made origi- (Ex 23:22; Lev 19:37; Deut 6: 18, etc.). The nu-
nallyas herbivores, according to Gen 1:29-30 (cf. merous contexts in which this concept occurs at-
3:18). Not until God's covenant with Noah, fol- test to the importance of an ethical response to
lowing the Deluge, was man specifically in- God which goes beyond mere mental abstraction
structed to add meat to his diet, but the blood and which is translatable into obedience which is
of animals was still restricted (Gen 9:3-4). No evidenced in demonstrable act.
account is given of the transformation of some The word is often used in specialized expressions
animals to camivores, but it is likely that this such as "make war" (Gen 14:2), "deal kindly"
was one of many changes brought by the fall (Jud 1:24), "show faithfulness" (Gen 32: 11), "do
of man and the loss of Edenic conditions. Never- folly" (Deut 22:21), "offer sacrifice" (Ex 10:25),
theless, the ideal of a retransformation of animal "keep the Passover" (Ex 12:48), "execute ven-
life to herbivorous pattems is part of the es- geance" (Jud 11:36), and many more.
chatological hope of Israel-an Eden redivivus When used in the sense of "make," the em-
where "the cow and the bear will graze; / their phasis is on the fashioning of the object (Gen 8:6;
young will lie down together; / and the lion will 33:17; Ex 25:1~11, 13, 17, etc.).
eat straw (teben) like the ox" (lsa 11:7; see con- The word also connotes the concepts "com-
text of the entire chapter and compare 65:25). mit," when used of wrong (Hos 6:9), "to deal
Some authorities, e.g. Kidner, would demur with one" (Zech 1:6), and "to follow" in the
from the view that Gen 1:29-30 suggests that all sense of following advice (II Sam 17:23).
creatures were herbivorous. Rather, he states When used of God, the word frequently em-
that the statement "is a generalization, that di- phasizes God's acts in the sphere of history.
rectly or indirectly, all life depends on vegeta- These contexts stress one of the most basic con-
tion, and the concem of the verse is to show that cepts of oT theology, i.e. that God is not only
all are fed from God's hand" (Genesis, p. 52). transcendent, but he is also immanent in history,
But he does admit that for man, meat was a new effecting his sovereign purpose. Moses could re-
concession in Gen 9:3-4 (ibid., p. 101). call God's great acts in Egypt, reminding the
Elsewhere in the oT, the noun 'esebfigures in people of all that God "did" (Deut 29:1). That
the catastrophic plagues of hail (Ex 9:22, 25) and which God has done to the nations is a testimony
locusts (Ex 10: 12, 15) brought by God through to God's intervention in history (Josh 23:3). Sol-
Moses in the c!assic confrontation with Pharaoh. omon, in his dedicatory prayer, could beseech
As God was the creator of all vegetation in Gen 1, God to "act" (l Kgs 8:39). The word 'äsii is often
so he is the supplier of vegetation in his promises used of the signs and wonders performed by God
to his people respecting their new land (Deut in the course of history (Josh 24: 17; Ps 98: 1; lsa
11:15). Nevertheless, for the recalcitrant, God 25: 1), demonstrating again the heavy emphasis in
may prevent the growth of vegetation in judg- the oT on the immanence of God.
ment (Deut 29:23 [H 22]). The pervasiveness of The word occurs with great frequency in the
grass in a fertile field allows the noun to be used Genesis account of creation, which is the first
as a figure for abundance (II Kgs 19:26 [used with great act of God in history. The significant inter-
yiraq deshe' "green vegetation"]; Job 5:25; Ps change between the words bärä' "create" and
72:16). The transitoriness of grass under the 'äsii is of great interest. The word bärä' carries
Palestinian sun also allows the noun to be used as the thought of the initiation of the object in-
a figure of brief flourishing followed by destruc- volved. lt always connotes what only God can do
tion and death (lsa 37:27; Ps 92:7 [H 8]; 102:4, 11 and frequently emphasizes the absolute newness
[H 5, 12)). of the object created. The word 'äsii is much
R.B.A. broader in scope, connoting primarily the fash-
ioning of the object with little concern for special
nuances.
1708 M~~ (' ä.M) do, Jashion, accomplish, The use of bärä' in the opening statement of
Derivative the account of creation seems to carry the impli-
cation that the physical phenomena came into ex-
1708a t:i~P,~ (ma'aseh) deed, work.
istence at that time and had no previous existence
The verb 'äsii has the basic connotation of in the form in which they were created by divine
"do" or "make." lt is used in numerous crystal- fiat. The use of 'äsii may simply connote the act
lized expressions, always with the same basic of fashioning the objects involved in the whole
idea. creative process.

701
1709 *:,~~ ('äsa)

The word ·äsa is also used elsewhere in Scrip- God in this same sense. The heavens are the
ture to describe aspects of the creative work of work of God's fingers (Ps 8:3 [H 4]), and they
God (Ps 86:9; 95:5; 96:5). proclaim his workmanship (Ps 19:l [H 2]). God's
works are a source of gladness (Ps 92:4 [H 5]),
ma'äseh. Deed, acts, business, workmanship, and they are proclaimed as great (Ps 92:5 [H 6];
purpose. The primary meaning of the noun 111:2). The mighty nation of Assyria is only the
ma'liseh is "that which is done or made." lt oc- work of God's hands (lsa 19:25). Man is also the
curs frequently in the basic sense of "work" or work of God's hand, and this concept forms a
"labor" (Gen 5:29; Ex 5:4). The word is used basis for lsaiah's plea for mercy (lsa 64:7-8).
often in contexts denouncing idols as the "work" The word occurs in a number of technical ex-
of men's hands (Ps 115:4; Isa 2:8). pressions such as "the work of a baker," i.e.
The word has the sense of "deed" and, like its "baked goods" (Gen 40: 17) and the work of a
verbal root, uses that concept in both a general perfumer (Ex 30:25).
sense (Gen 20:9; I Sam 19:4) and an ethical sense. Bibliography: TDNT, III, pp. 1005-1028; VI,
When used in the latter sense, it frequently has a pp. 459-72. THAT, II, pp. 359-69.
negative connotation (Ex 23:24; Ezr 9: 13). lt T.E.M.
may, however, be used positively (Prov 31:31).
The "work" of an individual is the basis for re-
quital on the part of God (Ps 62: 12 [H 13]).
1709 *:,'" ('ä.M) II, press, squeeze.
only in the Pie!, in Ezk 23:3, 8.
Occurs
The word frequently occurs in the sense of
"deed" in contexts dealing with God's activity in -iiiv" ('äsor). Seeno. 1711d.
the created world (e.g. Ps 118:17). A basic •-i•iv~ ('iHiri). See no. 171lf.
theological concept emerges in this regard in the r,·•".'l•~v,('asirit). See no. 17llf.
affirmation that God is kind in all his doings (Ps
145:17). The psalmist affirmed that all God's 1710 *i'W" ('äsaq) contend. Occurs only in
work is done in faithfulness (Ps 33:4). His deeds the Hithpael, in Gen 26:20.
are awesome (Ps 66:3) and unparalleled (Ps 86:8).
The works of God include the wonders that
1711 "Iivi, ( 'fr). Assumed root of the following.
God performed on Israel's behalf (Deut 11:3, 7),
as weil as his great acts as they are revealed in his 1711a t"IWI'.('der), :i,,i:
('llsära) ten.
1711b t"l~V ('ä.sär), Mj~l'- ('esreh) ten,
creation (Ps 107:24). These contexts affirm a
-teen.
concept of God that is fundamental to the oT
understanding of God. God' s acts are discernible 1711c t,~"
tithe.
('äsar) take the tenth part of,
in two areas: the physical universe which testifies
1711d t-iiiv" (' äsor) ten, tenth.
to God's power and the sphere of history where
171le tC•".'l~l'-('efrim) twenty.
the acts of God may be clearly witnessed. A
well-detined but severely limited natural theology 17llf t•".'l•~v,('asiri), M~".'l•~v, ('llsiriya),
thus exists in the OT.The concept of God's activ- l'i'".'1'~1?
( 'llsirit) a tenth,
171lg tli-i"f~ (' issäron) tenth part.
ity in history is an important aspect of 0T theol-
ogy. The psalmist warned of the dire results of 171lh t"l~l?r; (ma'llser) tithe.
forgetting the works of God (Ps 106:13ff.) The Hebrew root 'fr is related to the Arabic
The word ma'iiseh has great signiticance in the verb 'ashara "to form a community, a group,"
book of Ecclesiastes. Qoheleth asserts that he and the Arabic nouns 'ashirat•• "tribe," and
has seen all the works which are done under the ma'shar"" "assembly." Likely because of the
sun, and he tinds them devoid of reality (1: 14). ten fingers, the semantic development was "ten
The word appears to refer here to the events of = collection, union." Hence, "ten" in Arabic is
the world of history observed by Qoheleth. The 'ashr""; in Ugaritic, ·~, I; in Akkadian, esru; in
same usage obtains in 2: 17 and 8:9. In Biblical Aramaic, 'llsar.
Ecclesiastes, the word is used most frequently of The concept of tithing in the OTis one of con-
man's work. In 3:22 a theology of contentment siderable importance in OT theology. As in the
emerges, for man is encouraged to enjoy his instances of circumcision (though infant circum-
work. cision does not seem to be documented outside
The word occurs in an ethical sense referring to Israel), sacrifice, dietary restrictions, and the
evil deeds (4:3; 8:14b) and good deeds (8:14a). like; tithing was not unique with Israel in the an-
Because evil deeds are not punished im- cient near east. Other nations of antiquity prac-
mediately, the wicked are encouraged to do more ticed tithing. This is true of the Egyptians as weil
wickedness (8: 11). as the Mesopotamians (see, e.g., citations from
The word ma'llseh connotes "work" or Akkadian literature respecting tithes paid to gods
"workmanship" in numerous contexts (Ex 39:5; or temples in CAD, IV-E, 369). Nor was tithing
Deut 14:29; I Kgs 7:8) and is frequently used of first introduced to Israel in the Mosaic law.

702
 1111 ,wr,('sr)
Abram paid a tithe of his war booty to Mel- convert the produce to a monetary equivalent. In
chizedek after receiving a priestly benediction Deut 14:28-29 regulations are given for the distri-
from him (Gen 14:20; cf. Heb 7, esp .v. 4), and bution of tithes within one's own locality every
Jacob vowed a tithe to God at Bethel following three years. In this tithe there was an emphasis
his dream of a ladder leading to the presence of on the needs of the poor and the defenseless (cf.
Yahweh (Gen 28:22). 26:12-15).
lt is in the Mosaic code, however, that sense Such were ··the comparatively simple laws in
and shape are given to the tithing principle. As the Pentateuch goveming tithing" (Thompson).
J.G.S.S. Thompson observes (NBD, p. 1284), the There are some complexities, however, respect-
three clusters of instruction in the Torah serve to ing these simple laws.
answer three basic questions conceming tithing: One complexity concems the number of tithes
(1) "what?" (2) "to whom" and (3) "where?" Israel was to pay. Some read the legislation in the
The first question, "what is to be tithed?" is Torah without any thought or question that more
answered in the last paragraph of Lev 27 (vv. than one tithe might be under discussion. Yet, H.
30-34). In this major passage, of seemingly inci- Landsdell and others, especially on the basis of
dental setting in the book, the range ofthe tithe is Deut 14:22-29 as compared with Lev and Num
given in the broadest possible terms, and in a argue for three tithes: (1) the tithe tobe given to
manner perfectly suited for an agricultural econ- the Levites (14:27; Num 18), (2) the tithe for the
omy. All the tithe ofthe land belongs to Yahweh. sacred feast (14:22-26), and (3) the tithe in the
This includes vegetation as weil as animal life, third year in the local area for the poor ( 14:28-
without exception. Moreover, the tithe is not to 29). Landsdell concludes, "lt would seem, then,
be confused with the offering of the firstfruits (Ex that the Mosaic law enjoined upon the Israelite to
22:29-30 [H 28-29]; see Eichrodt, Theology of pay yearly, in connection with his religion, two-
the O/d Testament, I, p. 153), nor is it tobe based tenths, and, at the end of three years, a third
on partiality (keeping the better for onesel0. Re- tenth, of his income" (The• Tithe and the Scrip-
specting animals, for instance, a herdsman was ture, p. 36; for contra, see S. R. Driver, Deuter-
simply to count every tenth animal as it would onomy, ICC, pp. 166-73; M. G. Kline, Treaty of
leave the fold and regard it as belonging to the Great King, Eerdmans, 1963, pp. 87-88 ar-
Yahweh. A farmer might wish to convert his ag- gues that only a small portion of the single tithe
ricultural tithe to cash (for ease in transporting would go for a communal meal, and that the tithe
it), but he would have to add a fifth to it, to pre- for the poor was an altemate use of the annual
clude any financial advantage. He could not tithe on the third and sixth years). Dennis Wret-
make such an exchange for his animals. The re- lind argues that there were two kinds of tithes,
sultant tithe was "holy to Yahweh" (see one primary tithe (Lev 27 and Num 18), and two
qödesh), set apart to his exclusive use. secondary tithes (Deut 12, 14, 26), whose pur-
A second question respecting tithing, "to poses related to the · •justice, mercy, and faithful-
whom are tithes to be given?," is answered in ness" of our Lord's words in Matt 23:23; that is,
Num 18:21-32. As the Levites were not to be justice to the Levite, faithfulness to God, and
given a territorial inheritance in Canaan, their mercy to the poor (unpub. master's thesis, "Fi-
reward for their service to God was "every tithe nancial Stewardship in the New Testament
of Israel" (18:21). In their own regard, the Le- Church," Western Baptist Seminary, 1975).
vites were to give a tithe of their own income (" a A second complexity relates to the perversion
tithe ofthe tithe," 18:26), which was reckoned by of the tithing legislation. Israel and later Judaism
Yahweh tobe as fitting as the grain from agricul- were prone to err· in one of two ways. Either they
tural workers. These Levitical tithes were paid to kept the law too rigidly, losing its intended pur-
the priest. pose, so that tithing came to be regarded as a
A third question, "where are tithes to be means of obtaining mercy from God in the inter-
given?" is answered in Deut 12: 1-14 and 14:22- testamental and New Testament periods (cf. Lk
29. Tithes and sacrifices were not tobe given "at 11:42); or Israel neglected the tithe and became
every place that you see" (12: 13), but at the guilty of robbing God (Mal 3:8-10).
"place which Yahweh will choose in one of your Perspective on tithing in the OT is found in two
tribes" (12: 14). This central sanctuary site, sub- directions, Godward and manward. Respecting
sequently decided to be Jerusalem, was the only the Godward thrust, tithing was never meant to
authorized point for the presentation of tithes and be an onerous weight, that one must give a tithe
offerings in the new land (12:6). In the presenta- ofwhat one eams. Rather, the tithe was a liberat-
tion of these tithes and offerings there was to be a ing act of joyful worship (e.g. Deut 12: 12; cf. the
sacred meal, in which the Levite was to share, "cheerful giver" of II Cor 9:7). All that one has is
eaten with rejoicing and praise to the magnificent God's (on this point, see J. B. Payne, The Theol-
blessing of Yahweh (12:7; cf. 14:23). If the dis- ogy of the O/der Testament, p. 434). The surren-
tance would prove to be too great, one might der to his use of a small proportion of what one

703
1711 -,~l,' ( 'fr)

holds in trust by his grace is a grateful act of coming of kingship; and Neh 10:37-38 [H 38-39),
submission and dependence. Secondly, tithing of Levites who were to collect the tithes from
has a manward, or community thrust; it is part of rural areas). In four of these passages, tithing is
the inter-relatedness of the people ( 'am) of God. described as an act of worship to God. In one
The Levites who were in the service of God, not (1 Sam 8: 15, 17) the word is used, perhaps with
in commercial activity, were the direct bene- some irony, of the oppressive taxation of a king
ficiaries of the tithes (Num 18:21). There was an (a common practice in the ancient near east).
inter-relatedness, therefore, between their minis- 'äsor. Ten, tenth. A masculine noun meaning
try and the daily labor of the non-Levites. In this
'· a ten.'' In Gen 24:55 it is used of a period of ten
synergistic bond there was a regular reminder of
days, and in Ps 33:2 of an instrument with ten
their need one for another. Moreover, the poor,
strings (so Ps 92:3 [H 4]; 144:9). Elsewhere, ·asor
the widows, and the orphans (proverbial subjects
is used in a date formula, "on the tenth day ofthe
of neglect) were to be maintained by means of the
month" (Ex 12:3, ten plus times).
tithe of the third year (Deut 14:29). They too,
though defenseless, were apart ofthe community 'esrim. Twenty. The plural of ten is used for
(·am). The tithes insured their well-being (cf. the "twenty" in the Hebrew oT; it is very common,
repeated test of true religion, one's care for the seen 315 times.
widow and orphan, e.g. Isa 1:23; James 1:27), a
'äsiri, 'äsiriyä, 'äsirit. A tenth. These are the
major step toward a healthy society.
masculine and two feminine forms of the ordinal
'eser, 'äsära. Ten (Asv, RSV).The cardinal nu- "tenth." They are used in such phrases as, "the
meral "ten" in masculine and feminine forms, is tenth day" (Num 7:66). The words are used as
found very often in the Hebrew OT (176 times). weil as substantives (e.g. "a tenth" [a remnant],
Only occasionally are the forms of the number Isa 6: 13; "a tithe" of herds and flocks, Lev
ten joined to other numbers (e.g. Gen 50:22, 27:32).
"Joseph lived one hundred ten years"). More 'issäron. A tenth deal (Asv, "tenth part (of an
often these forms of the word are used for a group ephah)"; Rsv, "a tenth of an ephah "). A measure
not exceeding ten items, such as ··ten bulls" of quantity employed in Ex Lev and Num in sac-
(Gen 32: 15 [H 16]). In the Aramaic sections ofthe rificial texts (thirty-three times).
01, "ten" is found five times ('ilsar and 'asra).
While ten is the number used in several important ma'äser. Tithe, tenth part. This is the noun for
lists, such as the Ten Commandments (literally, "tithe," to which the verb 'asar"to tithe" is
"ten words," Deut 4: 13), there does not appear related. The first mention of a tithe in the oT is
tobe any mystical or symbolic significance to the Abram's offering to Melchizedek (Gen 14:20).
number ten in the oT. Legislation respecting the tithe is given in Lev 27,
Num 18, and Deut 12, 14, 26. After the legal cor-
'äsär, 'esreh. Ten, -teen (Asv, Rsv). These are pus the word "tithe" appears infrequently in the
the masculine and feminine forms of "ten" which oT. In pre-exilic texts subsequent to the Torah,
are joined to units to make the numbers 11-19, this word occurs only in Arnos 4:4 (although
both cardinals and ordinals. Usually the num- II Chr 3 I: 5ff. records tithes in the reform of
bered item, if commonly used with numbers, is in Hezekiah). In post-exilic texts, ma'ilser is found
the singular (e.g. "day," "month," "year," six times in Neh and twice in the classic text in
etc.); otherwise, the numbered item will be in the Mal 3 (vv. 8, 10). In Ezk this noun is used twice
plural. In making the "teen," the unit may pre- of a tenth part of a measurement (45: 11, 14).
cede or follow the form for "ten." Again, this is a Bibliography: Corley, Bruce, "The Intertes-
very common entry in the Hebrew OT. The mas- tamental Perspective of Stewardship," South-
culine is found 203 times and the feminine 144 western Journal of Theo/ogy 13:19-24. David,
times, the gender agreeing with the item num- John J., Biblica/ Numerology, Baker, 1968.
bered. Landsdell, Henry, The Sacred Tenth, Baker,
'äsar. To tithe, give or take a tithe, take a tenth. 1955. ___ , The Tithe in Scripture, Baker,
(ASV,Rsv similar.) A denominative verb accord- 1963. Segal, J. B., "Numerals in the Old Testa-
ing to BDB, but not KB (witness the Qal in I Sam ment," JSS 10:2-20. Vischer, Lukas, Tithing in
8: 15, 17; elsewhere Piel or Hiphil). The verb "to the Ear/y Church, Fortress, 1966.
tithe" is used in only five passages in the oT (Gen R.B.A.
28:22, in Jacob's vow to God at Bethel; Deut
14:22, in God's command to tithe agricultural Thfl/ ('issarbn). Seeno. 1711g.
produce annually; Deut 26: 12, in the tithe of the ci•iwv. ( 'esrim). See no. 171le.
third year, designated for the Levite and the poor; 'li~ ' {' ash ). See no. 1715a.
I Sam 8:15, 17, in Samuel's waming ofthe tax- ;,i'li~ ('äshbq). See no. 1713c.
ation policies likely to be instituted with the ci•;,~tlii,,('lishüqim). See no. 1713d.

704
 1713 l'Wl'('äshaq)
l"liWV ('äshot). See no. 1716b. 17l3e Mii'WP.~
(ma'ashaqqa) extortion
i•~V ('äshir). See no. 1714b. (Prov 28:16; lsa 33:15).

1712 l;iV ('äshan) to smoke; tobe angry. De- The verbal root 'äshaq is concerned with acts
nominative verb. of abuse of power or authority, the burdening,
trampling, and crushing of those lower in station.
Parent Noun Important synonyms in the semantic range of
1712a tl~V ('äshän) smoke. 'äshaq include: gäzal "to deprive, take by
1712b lWV ('äshen) smoking (Ex 20:18; force;" däkä' (Niphal) "to be crushed;" yäna
Isa 7:4). "to be violent, to oppress;" lä/Ja~ '"to crowd,
oppress, torment;" ~ärar "to be cramped, op-
'ishin. Smoke. This noun (cf. Arabic 'a(ana) pressed;" rä~a~ "to ill-treat, abuse;" and
means "smoke," both literally and figuratively. shädad "to devastate, maltreat." The Hebrew
Comparison should be made with the root qä(ar root 'äshaq has been related to the Akkadian ad-
(Ugaritic q(r) which is a term used in the OT for jective esqu "strong, massive," and the Arabic
sacrificial smoke. noun 'asaq•n "roughness, injustice, ill-nature"
'äshän is used of the smoke arising from the (cf. Arabic 'usuq "hard toward his debtors").
burning city of Ai (Josh 8:20-21). The term then E. Jacob writes in his Theology of the O/d Tes-
becomes an ominous figure of the utter devasta- tament, "lf man's nature can be defined by the
tion of the enemies of Yahweh (Ps 37:20; 68:2 theme of the image of God, his function can be
[H 3]; lsa 34:IO; Nah 2:14); and, conversely, of qualified as an imitation of God. This involves a
the destructive powers of wickedness (lsa 9: 18 double obligation for man, we might say a double
[H 17)). Smoke is an irritant to the eyes (Prov outlook: one eye turned towards God and the
10:26), may be a military signal (Jud 20:38, 40), other towards the world" (p. 173). This "double
and smoke clouds arise from caravans (Song 3:6) outlook" precludes for the righteous any oppres-
or armies (lsa 14:31). Smoke, like vapor (see sion of those of inferior station in life. Just as
hebe/), is a picture of transitoriness (Ps l02:3 man, much-forgiven, is expected by God to re-
(H 4]; Isa 51:6; Hos 13:3). Once the word is used spond forgivingly to others, so one, who has been
of the fire-snorting Leviathan (Job 41 :20 [H 12]). dealt with in extraordinary graciousness by the
Most significantly, the root 'äshän is used of Master of etemity owes favorable treatment to
Yahweh in two ways. First, smoke is a marked the defenseless. The proverb explains, "He who
attendant to the theophanies to Abram (Gen oppresses the poor reproaches his Maker / But he
15:17), Moses on Mount Sinai (Ex 19:18; 20:18; who is gracious to the needy honors Hirn·· (Prov
cf. Ps 104:32; 144:5; II Sam 22:9; Ps 18:8 [H 9]; 14:31, NASB).
Isa 4:5; Joel 2:30 (H 3:3]), andin lsaiah's vision Oppression, hence, is a grievous sin against
of God (lsa 6:4). The origin of the figure is which Israel was warned in stern terminology.
obscure, but the portent is clear. Smoke (along One is never to oppress ('äshaq) or rob (gäzal)
with fire) proclaims the terror of Yahweh, the his neighbor (Lev 19:13), or his hired servant,
confrontation of his holiness with man's sin (see whether a fellow lsraelite or a foreign sojoumer
Derek Kidner, Genesis, pp. 124-25). Secondly, (Deut 24: 14). Ludicrous is the poor man who
the verb and noun may refer to the anger of would oppress the lowly (Prov 28:3). Those most
Yahweh (Deut 29:20 [H 19]; Ps 74: 1; 80:4 [H 5]; likely to be mistreated and oppressed were those
Isa 65:5). Whereas the anger of God against his without adequate defense of their rights, i.e. the
enemies is tenifying indeed, the smoke and terror widow, the orphan, the sojourner and the poor.
of his presence does not create panic among his Against none of these were evil acts to be di-
own, but a mysterious wonderment, attraction, rected or contemplated (Zech 7: 10; see Jer 7:6).
reverence, joy, and confidence (see Eichrodt, Such acts of oppression are a breach of faith
Theo/ogy of the O/d TesJament, II, p. 270). against Yahweh (see Lev 6: 1-7 [H 5:21-26)). Of
R.B.A. such gross abuses of privilege and power the
prophet Samuel was able to maintain füll inno-
1713 i,;iV ('äshaq) oppress, get deceilfully, de- cence (1 Sam 12:3-4). The king, a regent under
fraud, do 11iolence. Yahweh had as a divine task the vindication of
those oppressed by wicked men (Jer 21: 12). The
Derivatives king was to "crush the oppressor" ( widakke'
1713a 1'tl1 ('ösheq) oppression, extortion. 'osheq, Ps 72:4). This is in imitation of Yahweh
1713b :,~~V ( 'oshqä) oppression, who "works vindication and justice for all who
distress (lsa 38: 14). are oppressed" (Ps 103:6; see Ps 105:14; I Chr
1713c i,ituV ( 'äshoq) oppressor (Jer 16:21; Ps 146:7).
22:3). Nevertheless, one of the pervasive and persis-
1713d c•;;,~WP, ( 'ashuqim) oppressions. tent sins of many lsraelites was the oppression of

705
1714 "'IWf?
('ashar)
the poor and the weak and the committing of boast in knowing Yahweh (Jer 9:23-24 [H 22-23],
gross acts of extortion against the sojoumer (Ezk cf. I Cor 1:29--30). Rather than in riches the right-
22:29, Hos 12:7 [H 81, "he loves to oppress"; eous trust in the loyal love of Yahweh (Ps 52:7-8
Arnos 4: 1; Mic 2:2; Mal 3:5). For such acts, [H 9--10]). The verb 'äshar in Ps 65:9 [H 10] re-
punishment by Yahweh is just: "You shall be fers to Yahweh's (millennial) enrichment of the
only oppressed and robbed continually and there earth in the year of his goodness (Ps 65: 11 [H
will be no one to help you" (Deut 28:29; cf. v. 12]).
33). Yet in his judgment God does remember The tension between the benefits and dangers
mercy. Israel who is oppressed by others for her of riches is weil expressed in the sage's prayer:
own oppressive actions (Hos 5: 11) will yet see "Give me neither poverty nor riches, feed me
God's redemption (Jer 50:33-34). with the food that is my portion, lest I be full and
Once (wrongly!) God is accused of oppressing deny thee and say 'Who is the Lord?' or lest I be
the righteous (Job 10:3). The righteous may pray, in want and steal and profane the name of my
however, that Yahweh will preserve them from God" (Prov 30:S-9).
oppressive acts (Ps 119:121-22). Two rare uses of R.B.A.
the verb 'äshaq are in Job 40:23 (of a turbulent,
raging river), and Prov 28:17 (one burdened, 1715 WWV('äshesh) waste away.
laden with the blood of another).
R.B.A. Derivative
1715a W>,; ('äsh) moth.
1714 ,~V ('äshar) be rich, Qal; to enrich,
Hiphil; pretend to be rich, Hithpael. 1716 M~'i; ('äshat) /, be smooth or shiny (Jer
5:28).
Derivatives
1714a ,1u.tt('osher) riches. Derivatives
1714b ,•wv('äshir) rich, rich man. 1716a M\u.~
('eshet) plate (Song 5: 14).
This verbal root ('arar in Biblical Aramaic) is 1716b MiWV( 'äshot) smooth (Ezk
27: 19).
one of the major entries in the lexicon of wealth
and riches. Some synonyms are: hon "wealth,"
1717 *MW'i; ('äshat) II, think. Occurs only in
hämon "riches," ~ayil "property, wealth,"
the Hithpael, in Jon 1:6.
~osen "treasure," yiträ' "savings," yitron "pro-
fit," n ,,käsim "wealth," and marmon "trea- Derivatives
sure."
1717a ri,l'l!Vll('ashtüt) thought (Job
There is an ambivalent attitude in the OT re-
12:5).
specting wealth and riches. On the one hand,
1717b :irl'I~~ ('eshtonii) thought (Ps
riches are said to be the blessing of Yahweh to
146:4).
the righteous (Ps 112:3; cf. Prov 10:22; I Sam 2:7
1717c •r:,~p ('ashte) one.
[Hannah's psalm]), the reward of humble faith
(Prov 22:4), the gain of wisdom (Prov 14:24), the
ri,l'\~ll ('ashtüt). See no. 1717a.
reward of valor (l Sam 17:15), the result of dili-
gent labor (Prov 10:4), and the proper adomment
of kings (e.g. Solomon [l Kgs 10:23; II Chr 9:22;
cf. II Chr 1:11-121, Jehoshaphat [II Chr 17:5],
:i~,,~~
'l'IWll ('ashte). See no. 1717c.
('eshtona). See no. 1717b.

1718 Mj·l'l~ll ('ashtoret) Ashtoreth, Ashtoroth

and Hezekiah [II Chr 32:27]; but cf. Deut 17:17). (plural). This is the name of a Canaanite
Conversely, riches may lead to self-
goddess of sex and war, a vivid repre-
dependence rather than dependence upon
sentation of paganism in its most corrupt
Yahweh (see Ephraim in Hos 12:8 [H 9]), may
manifestations.
derive from deceit and treachery (Jer 5:27), may
fly away with eagles' wings (Prov 23:4), cannot Derivatives
redeem a soul (Ps 49:6 [H 7]; cf. I Pet 1:lS-19!),
1718a tr,i,l'IWll ('ashtärot) l,jlocks.
and cannot last (Ps 49:16--17 [H 17-18]; "you
1718b trii,~~ll ('ashtärot) II, Ashtaroth.
cannot take it with you!"). Hence, a good name
is more desirable (Prov 22: 1). 'ashtäröt /. Flocks (ASV,RSV'NASB,"young").
As in so many areas of life, the evil is not in The terrn occurs four tirnes in Deut (7: 13; 28:4,
one's riches, but in one's attitude toward them. 18, 51) in the phrase, 'asht' rot $6'nekä, rendered
Proverbs 28:20 reads, "A faithful man will "the flocks ofthy sheep" (KJV),or "the young of
abound with blessings / But he who makes haste thy/your flock" (Asv, RSV,NAse; "ewes" by KB,
to be rich will not go unpunished" (NASB).He Holladay). Albright observes, "Since Astarte
who has riches (or wisdom or might) had rather was best known as the patroness of sexual re-

706
 1719 *,ri~ ('ätöd)
pr~duction, this is a very natural development, place name, Josh 21: 18). The devotees of these
qu1teacceptable in Israel, as the Israelites had goddesses glorified Astarte, Ashera, and Anat
littlefeeling for the religious connotations of the (or, as some suggest, one goddess under three
expression" (YGC, pp. 185-86). designations) in terms of exaggerated sexual fea-
tures (so the terra cotta figurines) coupled with
'ashtäröt II. Ashtaroth. (Asv, RSV similar.) A
vicious sadism (so the nauseating scenes in the
placename, perhaps associated with the worship
Ugaritic epic literature).
of Astarte, some twenty miles east of the Sea of
Modem readers of the or doubtless miss occa-
Galilee,Tell 'Ashtarah; mentioned in the Amama
sionally the import of Canaanite idolatry. The
texts and Assyrian inscriptions (see maps 2 J, 23,
worship of a Canaanite god or goddess was no
24, etc., in The Macmil/an Bible Atlas).
minor blemish in lsrael's history. Besides having
Ashteroth [ne~r] Kamaim was conquered by
a_ devastatingly debasing effect on the practi-
Chedorlaomerm the war of Gen 14. Ashtaroth in
tloner, the acts of worship, which included male
t~e time of Moses was the principal city of Og,
and female cultic prostitutes in hetero- and homo-
kmgofBashan (Deut 1:4; see Josh 9:10; 12:4;
sexual liaisons, were fundamentally opposed to
13:12,31; I Chr 6:71 [H 56]-gentilic).
the worship of the living God, and were, in fact,
The goddess Astarte, as she is known in Greek
a~ts oftreason against his suzerainty. R. K. Har-
transliteration, figures prominently in the reli-
ns_on, after describing the gross and savage wor-
giousworld ofthe ancient Near East as a mother-
goddess associated with sexual reproduction as sh1p system of the Canaanites, concludes that
"its sordid and debased nature stand in marked
weilas warfare. The Hebrew 'ashtöret is cognate
contrast to the high ethical ideals of Israel. The
to Akkadian istar and Ugaritic '(tri (there is also
amasculine deity, 'l(r; cf. Moabite 'shtr [masc.]. absolute lack of moral character in the Canaanite
Phoenician·shtrt, Aramaic 'tr, Old South Arabic ~eiti~s mad~ such corrupt practices as ritual pros-
'a{tar [masc.]). The Hebrew 'ashtärot is the t1tut1on, chdd sacrifice, and licentious worship
the normal expression of religious devotion and
pluralform. Albright and Pope suggest that the
fervor. In consequence there could be no com-
pluralrefers not to many such goddesses, but re-
promise between the morality of the God of Israel
flects "an increasing tendency to employ the
and the debased sensuality of Canaanite religion ·'
plural~f the ?ame ''in the clear sense of totality
(see Bibliography, p. 170).
?fmamf~stat1onsof a deity'" (Pope, p. 20, quot-
Bibliography: Albright, William Foxwell,
mgAlbnght, p. 213). The BOB lexicon observes
Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: A Historica{
that the singular form 'ashtöret may be an artifi-
A'!a{ysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, Garden
cialpronunciation to suggest the vowel pattern of
the Hebrew böshet "shame" (q.v.); the Akka- City, N.Y.: Doubleday, & Co., Inc., 1968. Cas-
suto, U., The Goddess Anath: Canaanite Epics
dian, Ugaritic [normalized 'a{tart], and Greek
renderingsshow no vowel between the last two of the Patriarchat Age, Tr. Israel Abrahams
Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1971. Cross, Frank
consonants. This singular Hebrew form is used
three times in the book of Kings of a Sidonian Moore, Jr., Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic:
Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel,
goddessworshiped by Solomon (I Kgs 11:5, 33;
Harvard University, 1973. Harrison, R. K., Old
II Kgs 23:13, called the shiqqü~ "abominable
idol," of the Sidonians). Elsewhere in the or the Test~ment Times, Eerdmans, 1970. Kapelrud,
plural 'ashtiirot is found, usually associated with Arv1d S., The Ras Shamra Discoveries and the
Baalim(the plural of Baal [q.v.]. Jud 2:13; 10:6; O/d Testament, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965.
Pope, Marvin H., EI in the Ugaritic Texts, Sup-
1 Sam 7:4; 12:10), and once with "strange gods"
(1Sam 7:3). Saul's armor was placed in a temple plements to Vetus Testamentum, II, Leiden:
Brill, 1955.
of Ashtaroth upon his death (1 Sam 31: IO).
R.B.A.
Some scholars dissent, but it appears likely
that the goddesses Ashera (q. v.) and Astarte are
1'11; (' et). See no. 1650b.
one and the same (e.g. Kapelrud, p. 62). In the
HebrewBible, as in the Ugaritic texts, Astarteis
used much less often than Ashera. Yet ·they are 1719 *'ii'\~ ('iitöd) be ready. Occurs only in
the Pie! and the Hithpael.
both associated with Baal (and in Ugaritic, with
EI). To complicate the picture of the Canaanite Derivatives
pantheonfurther, some scholars suggest that the
1719a i•J:')~ ('ätfd), ,~r,~ ('iitüd) ready,
goddessAnat (Ugaritic 'nt, UT 19: no. 1889), the
prepared.
consort of EI and the sisterspouse of Baal is
ident_ifiedat times with Ashera and Astarte (;,g, 1719b tiuw ('attüd) he-goat, ram, chief
Hamson, p. 167). Anal does not occur in the or one.
as the name of a goddess, but is the name of 'attud. He-goat. The Hebrew noun 'attüd is
Shamgar's father (Jud 3:31; 5:6; cf. Anathoth, a one of several terms used for goats in the or, and

707
1720 *C.t,~ ('ätam)
is to be compared to Akkadian atüdu "wild the awesome power of Yahweh who removes
sheep," and Arabic 'atüd"" "young he-goat." mountains, overthrowing them in his anger. A
For a list of Hebrew synonyms see ·ez. unique employment of the Hi phil is found at Prov
The male goat was a sacrificial animal and the 25: 1 where the proverbs of Solomon are said to
'attüd is so designated as part of the peace offer- have been transmitted by the men of Hezekiah
ings of the leaders of Israel thirteen times in Num (So R. B. Y Scott, Proverbs, in AB, p. 155.
7 (twelve times for each offering, plus once
'ätäq. Arrogancy, grievous things, hard things,
(v. 88] in the total). In these offerings the 'attüd
stiff. Used of froward, insolent and arrogant
is associated with rams and male lambs. Sacrifice
speech (] Sam 2:3; Ps 31: 19; 75:6; 94:4).
must be motivated by reverent attitude, to be ac-
ceptable. Hence, Yahweh spums the blood of 'äteq. Durable. (ASVsame; Rsv, "enduring. ")
goats from the wicked and unrepentant (lsa 1:11), An adjective used in Prov 8: 18 of ancient or
and expresses scomful irony in Ps 50:7-15 re- hereditary (hence, eminent) wealth.
specting those who sacrifice wrongfully.
'ätiq. Durable. (Asv same; Rsv, "fine. ") Used
Goats are part of Moses' picture of the plenty
only in Isa 23: 18, of noble or choice attire.
of the lancl of Canaan (Deut 32: 14). Striped or
speckled goats were rather rare; hence, Jacob's 'attiq. Ancient, drawn away. (ASV, RSV, "an-
stratagem in the Laban struggle (Gen 31). The cient, weaned. "). Used to mean removed from
word is employed figuratively on occasion. Since the breasts (weaned) in lsa 28:9, and old or an-
the 'attüd was the head of the flock (Jer 50:8), the cient in I Chr 4:22.
term could be used of rulers and leaders (see lsa R.B.A.
14:9; Ezk 34:17).
1722 "ltll; ('ätar) I, pray, entreat.
:,~1,1 ('atta). See no. 1650c.
,u,r; ('ätüd). See no. 1719a. Derivative
,~r-,1,1 ('attüd). See no. 1719b. 1722a -i~r; ( 'ätär) suppliant, worshiper
•r:11,1('atti). See no. 1650d. (Zech 3: 10).
i•::,r; ('ätid). Seeno.1719a.
:,•::,r; ('ätiq), i''N•' ('attiq). See nos. The verb 'ätar is a somewhat unusual entry in
172lc,d. the vocabulary of prayer. lts Arabic cognate 'at-
ara means "to slaughter for sacrifice." Perhaps
1720 *Cltll; ('ätam) Occurs only in Isa 9:18, in the Hebrew 'ätar has a sacrificial basis (so von
the Niphal. Meaning dubious, perhaps Rad, Old Testament Theology, I, p. 380, and
"will be scorched." Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, I,
p. 172). In Ex 8:28 [H 24] 'ätar is related to sac-
rifice, but see below. This verb is rendered in the
1721 i'i.11; ('äteq) become old, be removed, Qal;
LXX often by euchomai "to pray" (Ex 8-IO) and
copy out, leave off, remove, Hiphil.
(in the Niphal) epakouö "to hear with favor."
Derivatives The word "entreat" means "to make an earnest
prayer or request, to beseech, implore." Impor-
1721a tj:l~r; ('ätäq) forward, a"ogant (of
tant synonyms include J:,änan (Hithpael) "to
speech).
plead for grace," päga' "to urge strongly,"
1721b tj:ii,lf; ('ateq) durable (Prov 8: 18). pälal (Hithpael) "to pray," shä' al "to ask, re-
1721c ti'•::,r; ( 'ätiq) durable. quest," and J:,äla(Piel) "to appease, entreat."
1721d ti''l'W ('attiq) ancient.
The biblical doctrine of prayer, as Eichrodt at-
This root is used infrequently in Hebrew of tests, is remarkable for the element of freedom
spatial motion and temporal aging. lts Akkadian from "any trace of hollow pathos or high-flown
cognate etequ is a common verb meaning "to flattery; rather its marks are a childlike simplic-
pass along, advance." Cognates are found also in ity, sincerity and confidence" toward Yahweh.
Arabic ( 'ataqa "to precede, grow old"), Ugaritic Further, in contrast to the prayer literature of the
('tq "to pass") and Aramaic ('attiq "old"). ancient Near East, there is not a "'disparity be-
The root is used in the Qal in Job 14:18 of a tween the prayer of the cultus and the prayer of
rock moving from its place (cf. Job 18:4). lt is the private individual" (Eichrodt, Theology of
used of aging with consequent weakening (of the the Old Testament, l, p. 175). Biblical prayer is
eye) (Ps 6:7 [H 81), and of persistent strength of spontaneous, personal, motivated by need, un-
the wicked (Job 21:7). conditioned by time or place. As Vriezen ob-
In the Hiphil stem the root is used twice of serves, "God could be approached anywhere
patriarchal travels (Abram in Gen 12:8, Isaac in (Gen. XXIV) and at any moment of the day"
Gen 26:22). Job 32: 15 speaks of words failing, (Outline of Old Testament Theology, p. 279). lt is
leaving the speaker in the lurch. Job 9:5 teils of of interest that in lsrael's worship despite the de-

708
 1724 ,rw (·tr)
tailed instructions for sacrifice, there is not a eamest entreaty; the passive (Niphal) is used of
fixed liturgy of prayer. lt was to be spontaneous. the prayer as received with favor by Yahweh, the
Of the twenty occurrences of 'ätar, eight are marvelous display of his grace and condescen-
found in the theological contest of the plagues in sion. This interplay of voice may be observed in
Ex 8-10, (viz. Ex 8:8-9, 28-30 [H 4-5, 24-26J; Gen 25:21: "And Isaac entreated to (Qal)
9:28; 10:17-18). In Ex 8:28 [H 24] sacrifice is re- Yahweh on behalf ofhis wife, for she was barren,
lated to the prayer of entreaty; such a relation- and Yahweh was entreated of him (Niphal) and
ship seems likely throughout this episode. Sacri- Rebekah his wife conceived." This verb is to be
ficial acts are associated with the making of distinguished from two homonyms: 'ätar II and
entreaty in II Sam 24: 15 (David offers bumt offer- ·ätar III.
ings and peace offerings to stay the plague at the Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 785-800. THAT,
direction of the prophet Gad), and perhaps in II, pp. 385-86.
II Sam 21: 14 (conceming the burial of Saul and R.B.A.
Jonathan). Sacrifice need not always accompany
prayer of entreaty, however, as the two and 1723 *ilj~ ('ätar) II, be abundant. Occurs
one-half eastem tribes prayed to God in the midst only in the Niphal and Hiphil.
of battle, "and He was entreated for them, be-
cause they trusted in Hirn" (1 Chr 5:20). Yet Derivative
another example of sacrifice-less entreaty is 1723a l"\'.JN/ ( 'ateret) abundance (Jer
given by Manasseh in his prayer of contrition 33:6).
while in Babylonian captivity (II Chr 33: 12-13;
cf. v. 19). In this passage 'ätar is used along with 1724 il"\t.i ( 'tr) III. Assumed root of the follow-
Mlii ··to appease," käna· "to humble oneself' ing.
(Niphal), pälal "to pray" (Hithpael), and the 1724a it,~ ('ätär) odor (of incense, Ezk
noun t' ~innii "supplication." 8: 11).
The active forrns of 'ätar (Qal and Hiphil) have
to do with prayer as it is given to Yahweh in l"ljJ'.1~ ( 'äteret). See no. 1723a.

709
1725 :,~~ (pä'il) cleave in pieces (Deut 32:26). is not mentioned in these three passages as they
are elsewhere when foreheads, etc. are intended.
Derivative lt is in any case a reference to the nomadic Arab
1725a t:,~!? (pe'il) corner, side. tribes of lsrael's day.
There are two especially interesting contexts in
pe'A. Corner, side. pe'a is used eighty-two
which pe'a as "corner" occurs. The first is in
times in the or, five times in the absolute state,
Lev 19:27; 21:5. Both verses prohibit rounding
seventy-seven times in the construct state. The
off the hair at "the edges" or trimming "the
one questionable reference is Arnos 3: 12, "The
edges" of one's beard. These injunctions, at first
sons of Israel will be rescued that dwell in
sight meaningless, are found listed with other
Samariain the corner of a bed (bip" 'at mir,a)."
abominations such as body laceration, tattooing,
KB, p. 780, suggests that pe' a here is from the
and even cultic prostitution. Presumably the
root yäpiilyäpü' "to be beautiful" and translates
references to the avoidance of cutting the edges
"splendid (i.e., luxurious) couch."
of one ·s hair refer to the peculiar markings which
lt is of interest to note that of the eighty-two
the pagans put on themselves at their funerary
occurrences of pe' ii, forty-four of them are in
rites (Jer 9:26 [H 25J; 25:23; 49:32). lt is thought
Ezekieland without exception they are all found
that their intention was to make the mourner in-
in the last unit of the book, chaps. 40-48, the
cognito to the spirits hovering round the de-
prophet's vision and description of the new tem-
ceased. In Israel such deference to the presence
ple. Along with these Ezekiel passages, the word
of evil spirits is prohibited.
is used in Exodus, and in Joshua, in the
The second context is in Lev 19:9 and 23:22:
stereotype phrase "east/west/north/south side „
"when you gather the harvest of your land, you
of the tabernacle, an apportionment of land, or
are not to harvest to the · very end' of the field"
the designation of a city's boundary.
(and cf. Deut 24: 19-22; Ruth 2:2). This fact is
The phrase "east side" (p'' 'at qädim/q'' demii)
illustrative of the Bible's concern for the poor
andits counterpart · ·west side ·' (p'' ·at yam) each
and the stranger.
appear twenty-three times. The phrase, "north
Bibliography: On the translation problems of
side" (p' 'at $äpon) is used eleven times as is its Arnos 3: 12, Gese, H .. "Kleine Beiträge zum Ver-
polarity "south side" (p'' 'at negeb), Thus, the
ständnis des Amosbuches, .. VT 12: 417-38. esp.
useof pe'ii in relation to one of the four points of
pp. 427-32.
lhe compass accounts for sixty-eight of eighty- V.P.H.
lwo usages,
The second basic way pe'ii is used in the OT is
1726 *"i!'llf (pifar) I, glorify, beautify, adorn.
in the meaning "comer, .. though how "comer"
in translation is lo be distinguished from „ side" Derivatives
is not always clear or obvious. As "comer" pe'ii
1726a t"iKS (p' 'er) /urban.
mayrefer 10 ( 1) the comer of a foreign land (fron-
1726b t:i,tt~l'l (lip'ürii) beauty.
lier regions), Neh 9:22; Num 24: 17; Jer 48:45; (2)
the comer of a table, Ex 25:26; 37:23; (3) the The verb pa'ar appears thirteen 1imes in the
corner of the court (in the tabernacle), Ex 27:9; or, six times in the Pie! (of which four are in lsa:
(4) lhe corner of a field, Lev 19:9; 23:22; (5) the 55:5; 60:7, 9, 13) and seven times in the Hithpael
cornerofthe hair on the head, Lev 19:27; (6) the (of which five are in lsaiah: 10: 15; 44:23: 49:3;
cornerofthe beard, Lev 19:27; 21:5; (7) the sides 60:21; 61:3).
of the head, i,e. the lemples, Num 24: 17 (maybe The basic meaning of pä'ar in the Pie! is ··to
Jer 48:45). beautify/glorify." In the six instances of this, the
In connection wilh (7) we mighl note lhe three subject of the verb is always God. The recipient
references in Jer 9:26 (H 25); 25:23: 49:32. In is his child(ren), for example, Isa 55:5: Ps 149:4,
each ofthese verses one finds lhe phrase q'' ~-ü$e or his sanctuary (Ezr 7:27: lsa 60:7, 13). This
pe'ä, literally, "lhose cut off/clipped on the thought is carried into the use of pa ·ar in the
corner," the temples. The KJV translation, "and Hithpael (lsa 44:23; 49:3; 60:21: 61:3). An
all that are in the utmost corners" (9: 26 [H 25]) additional meaning in this stem is "lo boast" as
seemsto be in error. JB appropriately translates seen in Jud 7:2; Isa 10:15. Exodus 8:5, Moses
this phrase "Crop-Heads!" But NIV follows the speaking to Pharaoh, literally reads, "glory your-
older interpretation thought to be more appro- self over me," which seems to mean "please give
priateto the context. Also the hair, beard or face me an order·· or "explain yourself before me ...

713
1727 *-,~, (pa'ar)
This distinction in the verb between "to 1727b ,~,i,c,
(pä'rür) glow (Nah 2:11;
beautify" and "to boast" is found in the derived Jon 2:6). Meaning uncertain.
substantive as weil, although the primary mean-
ing is "beauty," but including the nuance of 1728 1?H, (pii'rän) Paran.
"pride" (cf. lsa 10: 12, "I will punish the ·pride'
This biblical place name is referred to only in
of his arrogant looks," and also Isa 13:19 (Baby-
the books of Gen, Num, Deut, 1 Sam, I Kgs,
lon) and 20:5 (Egypt).
Hab. The accumulated evidence would seem to
There is a sense in which tip'ärii speaks of a
support a district or area in the northeast section
right kind of boasting, pride, a "glorying." This
of the Sinai peninsula, southwest of Edom, and
is especially true of this word in Proverbs: 17:6,
south of the wilderness of Zin near the Judean
· ·the children 's ·g!ory' is their father"; 20:29,
mountains .
.. 'the glory' of the young is their strength";
Though a desert area, it was both habitable and
28: 12, "when the righteous triumph, there is
inhabited. In the campaigns of "kings" (Gen
great ·rejoicing'." (See also Jud 4:9.) Related to
14:6) EI-Paran designated the extent of the con-
these are those verses in which God speaks of
quest of Chedor-laomer as far as Edom, perhaps
Israel as his "glory ," lsa 46: 13; 62:3; Jer 13:11;
a campaign to clear the caravan route to the Red
33:9. Sea. For the· designation "EI-Paran," "God of
lt is interesting to note the extensive vocabu-
Paran," cf. "EI-Bethel" (Gen 35:7), "God ofBe-
lary in the OT for "beauty." This can be observed
thel." When Ishmael was cast out with Hagar by
in the number of synonyms for tip' ärii used in a
Abraham, presumably from Beersheba, he dwelt
parallel relationship. Isaiah 28:5, "The Lord will
in the wilderness of Paran (Gen 21:21).
be a crown ofglory ($''bf), a diadem ofbeauty."
Paran also functioned as a base for clandestine
Psalm 96:6, "Strength ( 'öz) and beauty are in his
operations for it was from here that Moses dis-
sanctuary." I Chronicles 29: 11, "Yours, 0 Lord,
patched spies to reconnoiter the land of Canaan
is the greatness (g'' düllii) and the power (g' burii)
(Num 10:12; 12:16; 13:3, 26). Numbers 13:26 spe-
and the glory, and the victory (ne$a/:i) and the
cifically says that the spies returned to Kadesh
majesty (hod). Exodus 28:2, 40, "Clothes ... for
glory (käbod) and beauty." Deuteronomy 26: 19, (-Barnea) in the wilderness of Paran, though note
that Num 33:36 places Kadesh in the wilderness
"To make you high ... in praise (t' hillii), and in
of Zin (but cf. the LXX reading, ·'In the wilderness
name (shem) andin honor." lsaiah 4:2, "And the
of Paran, that is Kadesh"). Cf. also Deut. 1:1.
fruit of the earth shall be excellent (gä 'bn) and
After the death of Samuel, David went to the
beauty." Isaiah 64: 11 [H 10], "Our holy (qädosh)
wilderness of Paran (1 Sam 25: 1) where he came
and beautiful house." Also Isa 63: 15.
into contact with Nabal, a man of "Maon" i.e.
p•'er. Turban. lf the idea behind the verb is southern Judah from whom David was to extort
"to clothe with beauty" it is only fitting that a protection money. This also put safe distance be-
derivative from the verb should refer to some tween David and Saul, especially after the death
kind of clothing. The turban was not limited to a of David's friend and supporter Samuel. Hadad
certain sex or worn on just one occasion as the the Edomite escaped Joab's slaughter (in Sol-
following shows. lt could be worn by women (lsa omon's time) by fleeing from Edom to Midian,
3:20, KJV "bonnets") or by men (Ezk 24:17, 23, through Paran and on to Egypt, suggesting that
Ezekiel himself, KJV "tire"). lt also was worn by Paran was contiguous with Edom and Midian.
the high priest or priests and was made of linen Deuteronomy 33:2 connects Mount Paran with
(Ex 39:28; Ezk 44: 18). lt was worn by the bride- Mount Sinai and Hab 3:3, Mount Paran with Te-
groom (lsa 61: 10), perhaps here with the transla- man, a north district of Edom.
tion "wreath." Cf. also "garland" for ashes in V.P.H.
Isa 61:3.
tip'ärä. Beauty, glory, pride. Occurs fifty-one ,~,i,c,
(pä'rur). See no. 1727b.
times in the OT, and with two exceptions (lsa 28: 5
and Jer 48: 17) always in the construct case, 1729 JJl:I (pgg). Assumed root of the following.
tip' eret "beauty of." 1729a :i~o (pagga) early fig (Song
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 387-88. 2: 13).
V.P.H.
,~.,~ (piggü/). See no. 1730a.
1727 *itt, (pä'ar) ll,goovertheboughs. De-
nominative verb. Occurs only in Deut 1730 ',Je (pg/). Assumed root ofthe following.
24:20 (Pie!). 1730a ,~.,, (piggul) foul thing, refuse.
Parent Noun 1731 I.'~, (päga') encounter, meet, reach, en-
1727a :-l?Hlll (pö'rii) bough. treat, make intercession.

714
 1733 w~, (pägash)

Derivatives who makes "contact" with God as opposed to

the many who simply dabble in prayer.
1731a 1/J~ (pega') occurrence, chance (1 V.P.H.
kgs 5: 18; Eccl 9: 1!).
1731b II~~~ (mipga') thing hit, mark
(Job 7:20). 1732 *i~~ (pagar) be exhausted, faint. Oc-
The verb paga' appears forty-four times in the curs once, in the Pie! (1 Sam 30: 10, 21).
or with the above range of meanings. The two 1732a t,~~ (peger) corpse, monument,
basic meanings of the Hiphil are (1) "to in- ·stela.
tercede" (lsa 53: 12; 59: 16; Jer 15: 11; 36:25); and
peger. Corpse, monument, stela. The word
(2) "to lay, burden" (lsa 53:6, "the Lord has
peger appears twenty-two times in the oT.
'laid' upon him all our iniquity"). The sixth use of
peger refers to the corpse of men, never of
the Hiphil of this root is Job 36:32b and a trans- animals (except Gen 15:11), and not just the body
lation is difficult. Cf. Nrv "he commands it to
immediately after death, but the corpse in which
strike its mark" and Pope's "he directs it (viz.
decay and stench have started (lsa 34:3; cf. Jn
the lightning) with ·sure aim'" (Job in AB,
11:39). The idea of "dead/death" is contained in
pp, 268, 276) with Tur-Sinai's "and he com-
peger, though twice it is qualified by the word
mands for him an ·accuser'" ( Commentary on
metim "dead" (II Kgs 19:35; Isa 37:36). In most
Job, pp. 506-7).
instances the presence of death is the result of
In the Qal stem the basic meaning is "to
divine judgment, not death through natural
meet." With but few exceptions paga' is fol-
causes: I Sam 17:46; Arnos 8:3; Nah 3:3; lsa
lowed by the preposition b'' "to, upon" and this
14: 19, inter a/ia.
combination of verband preposition conveys the
Of interest is that in Ugaritic the root pgr
idea of physical contact. The basic meaning of means "monument, stela" (Gordon, UT 19: no.
the verb is illustrated in the following verses:
2005). This has led some to believe that this is the
1 Sam 10:5, "You shall ·meet' a company of
correct translation in some instances of Hebrew
prophets"; Ex 23:4, "If you ·meet'/'come on'
peger. Leviticus 26:30 most Iikely does not refer
your enemy's ox or donkey going astray." Cf.
to "corpses ofyour idols" but "the stelae ofyour
Gen 32:1 [H 21: Ex 5:20; Num 35:19, 21; Arnos idols." Ezekiel 43:7, 9 "carcasses of kings"
5:19.
should come out as "the (idolatrous) stelae of
There are, however, three special ways in
kings" and this is the sin for which Ezekiel re-
which the verb is additionally used. One is to
bukes the people, sacralizing the dedicatory
describe that a piece of land or a designated terri-
stelae of earthly monarchs.
tory went from place X and "reached" to place Y
Bibliography: Neiman, D., "PGR: A Canaan-
(Josh 16:7; 17:10; 19:11, 22, 26, 27, 34), or that a
ite Cult-Object in the Old Testament," JBL
man in his journeys ·"reached" a certain place
67:55-60.
(Gen 28:11, Jacob).
V.P.H.
A second use of this verb is to serve a number
of times simply as a synonym for "to kill," to
meet another person for the sake of eliminating
1733 ~J~ (pägash) meet, encounter.
him. The usual translation in these contexts is
"to fall upon." There are fifteen uses of paga' in The basic meaning of the verb is illustrated in
this context. In only one instance is God the sub- the following passages: Gen 33:8, "What do you
ject who doles out punishment in the form of (Jacob) mean by all this company I (Esau) have
death (Ex 5:3). Every other time it is man, nor- met?" Also Gen 32: 17 [H 18]; Ex 4:24, 27 (the
mally (but not always) acting outside of divine first, an encounter fraught with danger and the
will, selfishly, capriciously. The verse in Ruth second, an encounter fraught with happy conse-
(2:22), "Thal they not ·meet' thee in any other quences ): I Sam 25:20; II Sam 2: 13; Jer 41:6.
field" (KJV) means likely, "that they not ·molest' Even in the Qal stem more than simply "meet"
thee" rather than "kill." may be involved, as is obvious in Hos 13:8, "I
The third way the verb is used is in the context will 'pounce' on them as a bear bereaved of her
of making intercession (I) to man (Ruth 1:16, whelps."
"entreat me not," i.e. "don't press me to leave In the Niphal the verb seems to mean "to co-
you," and Gen 23:8, "entreat forme to Ephron," exist" as in Prov 22:2, "the rich and poor are met
i.e. "put pressure on, use your influence"); (2) to together," or Prov 29: 13, "the poor and deceitful
God (Jer 7:16, "don't make intercession to me"; man meet together." That is, the rich and poor
alsoJer 27: 18; Job 21: 15). We have already noted are found side by side in every community. There
the four references to this verb in the Hiphil as is a polarity of wealth and poverty. In Ps 85: 11
"intercede" (to man: Jer 36:25 "to beg"; Jer pagash is parallel to nashaq "kiss, embrace."
15:11;lsa 53:12; 59:16). An intercessor is one V.P.H.

715
1734 :i,,
(päda)

1734 :i,,(pädä) ransom, rescue, deliver. gä'al, which is sometimes used synonymously
with päda .) The fzerem refers to the spoils of
Derivatives war, as in the battle of Jericho (cf. Josh 6-7 in the
light of the law in Lev).
1734a tc•m1 (p'' duyim) ransom (Num The theme of redemption was not to be related
3:49). merely to the firstbom of Israel. Israel itself was
1734b tm,~ (p" dut) ransom. the firstbom of God (Ex 4:22) and had been re-
1734c tci•i~ (pidy6m) ransom. deemed by Yahweh: "You shall remember that
1734d tii•,~ (pidyön) ransom money. you were a slave in the land of Egypt and the
Lord your God redeemed you ... " (Deut 15:15;
The basic meaning of the Hebrew root is to 24: 18). Israel had been delivered, ransomed from
achieve the transfer of ownership from one to servitude in Egypt by the hand of God. This fact
another through payment of a price or an equiva- was to color Hebrew thought through the cen-
lent substitute. The root occurs in Assyrian with turies to come (cf. II Sam 7:23; Ps 78:42; 111:9;
the meaning „ to spare," and in Ugaritic it is used Mic 6:4). lsaiah even saw God's calling of Ab-
in the sense "to ransom (UT 19: no. 2013)." The raham from Ur as redemption (lsa 29:22; cf. I Pet
root with its derivatives occurs sixty-nine times 1:18). Likewise he saw the future deliverance of
in the OT. Zion as the result of that same redemptive activ-
The semantic development of päda is one of ity (lsa35:I0; 51:11; cf. also Isa50:2; Zech 10:8).
great significance to Christian theology. Origi- The concept of redemption continued to
nally. it had to do with the payment of a required broaden. God, who had redeemed his people
sum fo.- the transfer of ownership, a commercial from Egypt, would also deliver them from other
term. Exodus and Lev 19:20 speak of the re- difficulties. David could affirm that God had re-
demption of a slave girl for the purpose of mar- deemed him from all adversity (II Sam 4:9; I Kgs
riage. lt is also used to speak ofthe redemption of 1:29); therefore he could pray, "Redeem Israel,
a man·s life who is under the sentence of death, 0 God, out of all his trouble" (Ps 25:22).
as in I Sam 14:45, when Jonathan was redeemed The Psalms often speak of God's deliverance
by the people of Israel. or redemption of life from some <langer (Ps 26: 11;
The word was given special religious signifi- 31:5; 34:22 [H 23]; 44:26 [H 27]; 71:23), or from
cance by the Exodus. When God delivered Israel the hand of human oppression (Ps 55: 18 [H 19];
from servitude to Egypt, he did so at the price of 69:18 [H 19]; cf. also Job 6:23). The greatest
the slaughter of all the firstborn in Egypt, man danger or adversary that man faces is Death,
and beast (Ex 4:23; 12:29). Consequently, the Sheol, the Pit. The Psalmist gives poignant ex-
event was to be perpetually commemorated in pression to man's inadequacy in Ps 49:8-9, but
Israel by the consecration of all the firstborn of concludes that God's redemptive power is not
man and beast to the Lord (Ex 13:12). limited (v. 16). The resurrection is God's ultimate
When the lsraelites were numbered at Mount redemption of man.
Sinai, it was ordained by divine direction that the Interestingly enough, only once is päda used
Levites should be exempted from enrollment and with reference to redemption from sin (Ps 130:7-
separated unto the Lord in place of the firstbom 8). This remained for the completed revelation of
of the people and their cattle in the place of the the new covenant. Unfortunately, this emphasis
cattle of the people (Num 3:44ff.). The number of has become so dominant in Christian redemptive
firstborn in excess of the number of the Levites theology, there is the tendency to overlook the
were then redeemed at the price of five shekels fact that the NT as weil as the OT sees redemption,
apiece, and the money was given to Aaron and or salvation, in terms of the total human situa-
his sons. According to the legislation in Ex tion. Even a cursory reading of Luke's Gospel
13:11-16; 34: 19-20 and Num 18:8-32, in later will catch the reflection of the OT heritage in the
generations the firstborn of men and unclean concept of salvation.
animals were to be redeemed, but the firstborn of The use of päda and its derivatives is some-
a cow. a sheep or a goat were unredeemable be- times paralleled by other roots. Particularly it
cause they were holy to the Lord and were there- should be noted that gä'a/ is used synonymously.
fore to be sacrificed; but the firstbom of asses Both roots have to do with redemption by the
were to be redeemed with a lamb or be killed. payment of ransom though it is suggested that
That which is holy to the Lord, i.e. the cow, gä'al basically is associated with family situa-
sheep or goat, was not tobe redeemed. Similarly, tions; hence, the idea of acting as kinsman.
any thing or person "devoted" to the Lord Nevertheless, the usage of both päda and gä'a/
(firm), i.e. placed under ban and therefore unlaw- in parallelisms in Hos 13:14 and Jer 31: 11, and the
ful for human appropriation, was "most holy" to synonymous usage in Lev 27:27 et al. illustrate
the Lord, and was therefore unredeemable (Lev the overlapping of the two words. Also, of the
27:28-29). (The word used here for redeem is ninety-nine times the LXX uses the verb lutroö,

716
 1736 !1':I~(pada ·)
forty-five times it translates the root gii'a/ and ci•,c (pidybm). See no. 1734c.
forty-three times the root päda. 1i•,, (pidyön }. See no. 1734d.
The word kvper sometimes parallels päda as in
Ps 49:8 and Ex 21:30. The root käpar means "to
appease, to make an atonement," and the koper
is the ransom paid to secure favor or reconcil-
1735 1,~ (paddän) Padan.
This noun occurs only in Genesis, and always
iation. is combined with 'aräm to form paddan-'äräm,
päda occurs in parallelism with näsa/ (Jer Padan-aram (except for Gen 48:7, mippaddän
15:21)and mäla/ (Job 6:23), both ofwhich mean "from Padan"}. Its location is obviously in
"to deliver. .. In fact, pädä is sometimes trans- northem Mesopotamia since it included, we
lated "deliver" (as in Ps 44:26 [H 17]; 55: 18 know, the city of Haran (Gen 29:4). Some have
[H 19]),because the idea of payment recedes into suggested that Padan-aram is Haran, the meaning
the background and the emphasis is upon release. of Padan-aram being the "route/road" of Syria/
While it may be said that the price of redemption Aram (on basis of Akkadian padanu "route"),
in the Exodus is the firstbom of Egypt (Ex 12: 13), synonymous with Haran (Akkadian, !Jarranu,
there is no indication of ransom price in other also meaning "route/road"}. The expression in
contexts. In the NT, however, the Scriptures are Hos 12:13, s''deh 'aräm, takes Padan to mean
clear: "You know that you were ran- "field" of Aram instead of "route" of Aram.
somed ... with the precious blood of Christ, like The Bible consistently refers to Laban, the
that of a lamb without blemish or spot" (1 Pet uncle of Jacob and a resident of Padan-aram, as
1:18-19). an Aramean (KJV, ··syrian"}: Gen 25:20; 28:5;
p•dut. Ransom, redemption. A feminine 31:20, 24. Laban is connected with Padan-aram
abstract noun. This form occurs only in Ex 8: 19; not only geographically but also linguistically.
Ps 111:9; 130:7 and Isa 50:2. The significance of That is, he is portrayed as speaking Aramaic,
this term in Ex 8: 19 is difficult. Here translators Gen 31:47: ··And Laban called the place (in a
render p'' düt either as "division" or "distinc- covenant with Jacob) Jegarsahadutha" ("mound
tion," so also Septuagint and Vulgate, but it is of testimony," the Aramaic equivalent to Jacob ·s
not clear whether this is an interpretation or Hebrew designation "Galeed").
whether it depends on a different text. (Cf. A. A. There are eleven references to Padan-aram in
Macintosh, "Exodus VIII 19, Distinctive Re- Genesis. One of them, Gen 25:20, relates that it
demption and the Hebrew Roots l"!'il:Iand 'i'i!:I," was at Padan-aram that the servant of Abraham
VT 21 (1971), 548-555, for a discussion of the found Rebekah and brought her back to Canaan
problem.) as a wife for Isaac. This mission was performed
at the personal request of Abraham (Gen 24: !ff.)
p•duyim, pidyöm. Ransom. The former is a in hopes that Isaac would not marry a local
plural abstract form of the passive participle Canaanite woman (v. 3). In v. 4 Abraham refers
(which is used substantively in Num 3:49, Isa to the area from which Rebekah was eventually
35:10 and 51: 11 with the meaning · 'the re- fetched as "my own land and my own kinfolk."
deemed"}. occurring only in Num 3:46, 48. The Similarly Isaac follows the same plan with his
latter is found only in Num 3:49, 51. son Jacob--Gen 28:4, and for the same reasons
pidyön. Ransom money. Occurs only in Ex (Gen 27:46), but this time without the presence of
21:30 and Ps 49:8 [H 9j. Both passages use a an intermediary. The remaining nine references
parallel word also, koper, which refers to money to Padan-aram refer to Jacob and his experi-
given (though sometimes it refers to a bribe, as in ences.
I Sam 12:3, Prov 6:35 and Arnos 5: 12). Note that in the case of both Isaac and Jacob,
Bibliography: Elliott, Ralph H., "Atonement the prohibition on marrying a Canaanite woman
in the Old Testament, .. Review and Expositor is to maintain the line through which God's cov-
59:9-26.Girdlestone, R. B., Synonyms ofthe O/d enant would be perpetuated. Also, in both cases
Testament, 2d ed., Eerdmans, 1897. Hili, David, neither Isaac nor Jacob are to be repatriated to
Greek Words und Hebrew Meanings, London: Mesopotamia (Aram Naharaim), for the covenant
Cambridge University, 1967. Morris, Leon, "The is vitally connected with the promised land.
ldea of Redemption in the Old Testament," RTR Bibliography: Dhorme, P., "Abraham dans Je
11:94-102.Yaron, R., "A Document of Redemp- cadre de l'histoire," RB 37:367-85; 481-511, esp.
tion from Ugarit," VT 10:83-90. TDNT, IV, pp. pp. 484-87. O'Callaghan, R., Ararn Naharairn,
329-35.THAT, II, pp. 389-405. Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1948, esp. p. 96.
W.B.C. V.P.H.

c•,,,
m,, (p' düyim ). See no. 1734a.
(p''düt). See no. 1734b.
1736 t/j' (päda') deliver. Occurs only in Job
33:34. Meaning uncertain.

717
1737 ,,~ (peder)
1737 "l"t!ll (peder) faJ (of the burnt offering, The mouth is the extemal manifestation of one's
Lev 1:8, 12: 8:20). Derivation uncertain. character and disposition.
The mouth is the organ through which one's
1738 :,~ (peh) mouth.
relationship to God is ascertained. Obvious here
is the oft repeated theme ofpraise to God in one's
This word appears almost 500 times in the 01, mouth (Ps 8:2-3 [H 3-4]; 34:1 [H 2]), or a prayer
most frequently in Ps (sixty-six times) and Prov that God may guard the believer's mouth (Ps
(tifty-six times). Some preliminary observations 142:3).
on the various uses of peh may tirst be noticed. Bib/iography: Couroyer, B., "'Mettre sa
(1) Primarily as an organ of speech (a) for God, main sur sa bouche' en Egypte et dans la Bible,"
(ca. 50 times) only in Ps 18:8 [H 9] (=II Sam RB 67:197-209. Dahood, M., "Hebrew-Ugaritic
22:9), and perhaps in Job 37:2, is God's mouth Lexicography VIII," Bib 51:391-404, esp. pp.
something other than an organ of speech. (b) for 395-96. Meek, Theophile J., · · Archaeology and a
man; (c) for animals (Num 22:28). (2) Less fre- Point in Hebrew Syntax,'' BASOR 122:31-33.
quently, an organ for eating and drinking (Ezk Richardson, TWB, p. 156. Weiss, K., .. Stoma"
3:3, inter alia). (3) Mouth as "opening/outlet/ in TDNT, VII, pp. 692-701. THAT, II, pp. 406-
aperture/entrance" for example, of a weil (Gen 10.
29:2); a sack (Gen 42:27): a cave (Josh 10:18); a V.P.H.
city (Prov 8:3); "edge" of a sword (Gen 34:26).
(4) In phrases such as peh · e}J.ad "with one ac- 1739 :,·!ll (pöh) here, hither.
cord" (Josh 9:2); peh 'el peh "mouth to mouth"
Forty-three times pöh is simply an adverb
(Num 12:8); peh lapeh "from one end to
another·' (II Kgs 10:21); (5) peh with pretixed meaning "here,'' translated in the LXX primarily
as höde, but also entautha or autou. "Here" as
prepositions: "according to (k''pi) his service"
an aqverb means "present/in this place" as in "ls
(Num 7:5); "according to (/'' pi) the multitude of there not 'here' a prophet of the Lord?" (1 Kgs
years" (Lev 25: 16); (6) peh in fractional units: 22:7; II Chr 18:6). "Why sit we 'here' until we
peh sh'' nayim (Deut 21: 17; II Kgs 2:9; Zech
die ... if we sit still 'here· we will die" (II Kgs
13:8). This particular phrase has been translated 7:3-4).
two ways-"a double portion" or "two-thirds," In Ezk 40-41 the word mippöh or mippö is
which is more correct. Hence, Elisha asks not for used not as an adverb but as a correlative in the
a "double portion" of Elijah's power and gift but phrase mippöh . .. mippöh, literally, "from
for two-thirds. here ... from here" or „ on this side ... on that
We can now look at how peh is applied to God, side." The LXX translation of such a phrase is
then to man. Approximately tifty times the 01 enthen kai enthen "on this side and on that."
speaks of God's mouth. The God of the 01 is a V.P.H.
God who speaks. His voice has not been muted.
Interestingly, in all but two passages it is in God' s 1740 ~,!ll (piig) grow numb.
capacity as the LoRD that he speaks. Lamenta-
tions 3:38 uses the phrase mippi 'elyön "out of Derivatives
the mouth of the most High." II Chr 35:22 in- 1740a N,!ll (piigat) benumbing, cessa-
forms us that the saintly king Josiah met his death tion (Lam 2: 18).
because he refused to listen to the words of the 1740b :i1U:'1/(hapiig/1) benumbing (Lam
Pharoah "from the mouth of God" (mippi 3:49).
'elöhim).
Most prominent is the phrase 'al pi yhwh, "ac- l'l~,!ll (piigat). See no. 1740a.
cording to the mouth ( =commandment) of the
"t,1 (piid). See no. 1765.
LORD." lt occurs twenty-four times, eighteen in
Num plus Ex 17:1; Lev 24:12; Deut 34:5: Josh
19:50; 22:9; II Kgs 24:3. Note the heavy concen-
1741 i:ru,,(piia}J.) breaJhe, blow.
tration of this phrase in the Pentateuch. When Derivative
God speaks he speaks with authority and tinality.
1741a i:r•~ (pia}J.) soot (Ex 9:8, 10).
God's speech is also prophetic speech as is illus-
trated in references from the prophets (lsa 1:20; The verb appears tifteen times in the OT, of
40:5; 62:2; Jer 9: 11; etc.). Thus, the prophet's which seven are in Prov: 6:19; 12:17; 14:5, 25;
word is not his own concoction. He becomes 19:5, 9; 29:8. The problem of tracing the occur-
God's mouth (cf. Jer 15:19). In God's mouth rences of this root in the 01 is complicated by the
there is also a creative word: Ps 33:6 and Deut 8:3 fact that in Hebrew there are two roots, piia}J.and
(live on what comes from the mouth of God). the by-form yapa}J., both meaning "to breathe,
In Ps and the wisdom literature the uses of peh puff' and in many instances the consonantal
refer predominantly to man's mouth, not God's. skeleton of verbal forms of these two verbs will

718
 1745 l"~!!I(pu$)
be indistinguishable. (Gordon, UT 19: no. 1129 hal, thirty-seven times in the Hiphil. PU$ is used
lists Ugaritic yph but no pw/J.) most often in the prophets, thirty-seven times,
Primarilythe verb means "to breathe/blow" in (eighteen times in Ezk and ten times in Jer).
the negative sense of "to utter" lies, be utterly The word is first used in Scripture to describe
deceitful. Thus the object of puah in Prov 6: 19; the "scattering" ofthe families ofthe Canaanites
14:5,25; 19:5, 9 is k' zäbfm "lies." Similarly, in Gen 10:18. On the heels of this is the famous
Prov 29:8 speaks of scomful men who "stir up" Tower of Babel incident (Gen 11) in which the
(pQalJ)a city to strife. (There is some question in builders of the tower(?) did not want tobe · ·scat-
these Prov passages whether the form yäpiah, a tered abroad" upon the face of the earth (Gen
verb should be pointed as a noun, yepiah. Thus 11:4). The Lord, however, made such a scatter-
Prov 14:5 is not "a false witness will utter lies" ing inevitable (vv. 8-9) by destroying their lan-
but ··a perjurer is a false witness. ") In most of guage. This made further communication among
these verses puah is translated in the LXX by the peoples impossible, and thus brought to a halt
egkaleö "to accuse." Only in Prov 12:17 is puah their building project. lt should be observed in
used of uttering · 'truth. '' this passage that no mention is made of God con-
Twice the verb occurs in the Psalter: 10:5, fusing the languages. Rather, what was destroyed
··God's rivals, he puffs/sneers at them all," was the universal language (11: 1), an interna-
(though Dahood, Psalms I, in AB, p. 60 trans- tional linguafranca. The individual dialects (Gen
lates, "He (the unbeliever) ·sniffs' at them all 10:5, 20, 31) remained intact.
(i.e., God's decrees)." He shows contempt and There is no substantial change in the meaning
scom for God's laws.). Also, in Ps 12:5 [H 6] is of the verb as it is used in one of the above men-
the phrase, "I will set him in safety from him that tioned three stems. The only perceptible dif-
'puffeth' at him" (KJV).Better is the RSVtransla- ference is that in the Qal and Niphal PU$ is in-
tion, "[ will give my help to him that ·tongs' transitive and in the Hiphil it is transitive.
for it." There are three repeated categories which
pQah in reference to nature refers to the most often serve as the subject or object of PU$.
"blowing" ofthe day, i.e. the first appearance of ( 1) lt may refer to the scattering of armies, either
the morning (Song 2:17; 4:6; also 4:16). that of the enemy (Num 10:35; Ps 68: 1 [H 2]) or
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "The Phoenician one's own (1 Sam 11:11; 14:34; II Kgs 25:5=Jer
Contribution to Biblical Wisdom Literature," in 52:8). (2) The subject/object of PU$ may refer to
The Role of the Phoenicians in th( lnteraction of sheep, (a) as subject, in Jer 10:21; Ezk 34:5-6, 12;
Mediterranean Civilizations, ed. W. A. Ward, Zech 13:7; (b) as object, in Jer 23:1. Sheep may
Beirut:The American University of Beirut, 1968, get lost inadvertently. They may, quite literally,
pp. 123-52,esp. pg. 127. __ , "Some Ambigu- nibble their way to lostness. But that is not the
ous Texts in Isaias," CBQ 20:41-49, esp. p. 47, nuance inferred by the verb under consideration.
n. 21. --, Proverbs and North-West Semitic Sheep scatter, ifpossible, impulsively when there
Phi/ology, Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1963, is some external threat to their safety and secu-
p. 45. rity. lt is the shepherd's duty at that time to take
V.P.H. command of the situation and repulse the threat.
Ezekiel 34:5 mentions the hapless sheep who
1742 '!1~111
(puk) antimony, stibium (e.g. Jer were scattered because of the absence of a
4:30; II Kgs 9:30). shepherd. (3) Most frequently, the object of pu$
is Israel, who sometimes is likened to scattered
1743 ',i111(pol) beans (II Sam 17:28; Ezra sheep (1 Kgs 22:17=11 Chr 18:16). In a few pas-
4:9). sages not only Israel, but lsrael's enemy, Egypt,
is scattered abroad (by God): Ezk 29:12-13;
1744 ?~III (pun). Meaning 30:23, 26.
dubious. Occurs
only in Ps 88: 16. There are two things of interest when the Bible
speaks of God's "scattering" Israel. One, the
phrase, ··I/He/the LORDscatters Israel" is con-
1745 MIii (PU$) 1, be dispersed, scatur. fined to the prophetic books of the Bible (and
here, either in the past, Ezk 20:23; 28:25, or as a
Derivatives threat, Ezk 22: 15 for example). The only excep-
1745a rl;l~ (mepi$) scauerer, disperser tions to this are: Deut 4:27; 28:64: 30:3; Neh 1:8.
(Nah 2:2; Prov 25: 18). Two, when in this phrase God is the subject and
1745b :i;icr;i (t' p6$it) dispersion (Jer Israel is the object, the verb is always in the
25:34). Hiphil stem. lt is not the Assyrians or Babylo-
nians who scatter the people of God. They are
The verb appears sixty-four times in the OT, simply instrumental. God himself is the scatterer.
twelvetimes in the Qal, tifteen times in the Nip- Bibliography: Humbert, P., "En marge du

719
I 746 r,s (pu~ >
dictionnaire hebraique," ZAW 62:199-207, esp. pp. XLVI-XLIX .. Feinberg, C. L. "Purim"
p. 202 (on pü~ in Prov 5: 16). ZPEB, IV, 957-58.
V.P.H. V.P.H.

1746 1'1!11 (pü~) II, jlow, overjlow (Prov 5: 16; 1750 iii:, (pwr) Assumed root of the follow-
Zech 1:17). ing.
1750a M?1!11 (pürii) winepress (lsa 63:3;
Hag 2: 16).
1747 ;,1!11 (püq) I, reel, totter (e.g. lsa 28:7;
Arnos 2: 13). 1750b ,1,~
(pärftr) pot (Num 11:8; Jud
6: 19).
Derivatives
1747a M1?1!11(püqii) tottering, staggering 1751 tv1!11 (püsh) l,springabout (e.g.Habl:8;
(1 Sam 25:31). Mal 3:20).
1747b ;,•!II (ptq), ;,i;; (piq) tottering
(Nah 2: 11). 1752 *tv1!11 (püsh) II, be scattered. Occurs
only once, in the Niphal (Nah 3:18).
1748 *;,1!11 (püq) II, bring out, furnish, pro-
mote. Occurs only in the Hiphil (e.g. Isa 1753 *TI~ (päzaz) /, be refined. Occurs twice,
58: 10; Prov 3: 13). only in the Hophal (1 Kgs 10: 18; II Chr
9: 17).
1749 i1!11 (pür) Jot. Derivative
The word occurs only in the book of Esther,
3:7; 9:24; 9:26 (two times), 28, 29, 31, 32. Hebrew
1753a T' (paz) rejined, pure gold (e.g.
Lam 4:2; Isa 13: 12).
pur is to be distinguished from goräl, the usual
word for ··1ot." In Est 3:7 and 9:24 the two words 1754 Tl~ (päzaz) II, be suppte, agile (Gen
appear beside each other. 49:24; II Sam 6: 16).
lt appears obvious that pur is related to
Babylonian püru which means "lot" and secon- 1755 ,r~ (päzar) scatter (e.g. Jer 50: 17; Joel
darily "fate." Of special interest is that in Est 4:2).
9:26, 28, 29, 31, 32 the Hebrew "Purim"' is trans-
lated in the LXX by phrovrai, from a verb meaning M!II (pa/J). See nos. 1759a,b.
"to watch, guard." One suggestion has been to
see in phrourai the aramaized form of Babylo-
1756 "!MIi! (pähad) fear, tremble, revere (Rsv
nian purruru "to destroy, exterminate." (Lewy). - ~ometi~es "be in dread," "be in terror").
From Est 9:20-28 we leam that Purim was a
feast instituted by Mordecai to celebrate the de- Derivatives
liverance of Jews from Haman's plot to kill them. 1756a t"ll'.1!11
(pal;ad) I, dread.
The observance of Purim was determined after 1756b t:,i:,, (pahdii) fear, religious awe.
lots were cast by Haman in order to determine
1756c t,~~ (paf;~d) II, thigh (Job 40: 17).
the month in which the slaughter was to take
place. Esther 3:7 says that Haman, having al- pä/;ad serves as a strong verb of fearing with
ready decided on the pogrom, consulted the lots emphasis either on the immediacy ofthe object of
only to learn the most propitious day on which to fear or upon the resulting trembling. The verb
extirpate the race of Mordecai. The LXX adds to may refer to the kind of fear aroused by a paf;ad
the MT these words, · · And the Jot feil on the four- "terror" (see below). Most of its occurrences are
teenth of the month called Adar" (March/April); in poetic passages so that it could be considered a
that is, the decree was to be enforced almost a strong, poetic synonym for yärä' (q.v.).
full year after its original promulgation. One asks, päl;ad refers to a strong emotion of fear, such
why did Haman send the edict out almost twelve as the fear of the princes at hearing Jeremiah's
months in advance of the proposed day of slaugh- scroll read (Jer 36: 16; lit. "feared to each other")
ter? Is it reading in too much to see in this un- and the fear of sinners before God's judgment
usual arrangement the sovereign hand of God (lsa 33: 14). lt is appropriately used in contexts
once again protecting his children, even though which refer to such ideas as quaking and trem-
they are in exile? bling (e.g. lsa 19: 16; 33: 14; Jer 33:9). (The
Bibliography: Lewy, J., "The Feast on the categories used for this discussion roughly paral-
14th Day of Adar," HUCA 14: 127-51. lel those used for the verb yärä').
Lindblom, J., "Lot-Casting in the Old Testa- However, in some contexts, the particular sig-
ment," VT 12 164-78. Moore, C., in AB, Esther, nificance of päl;ad seems less in mind than the

720
 1759 *Mi:tf (pä/J.a!J.)

desire to use an appropriate synonym in a poetic translation derives from the alleged meaning of
context. This verb occurs only rarely in prose. "thigh", "loins" for palJad. Cf. pa/Jad II. But
While the verses cited above show pö./Jad used see Bibliog. R.L.H.]
to refer to the emotion of fear, there are no clear At times careful exegetical judgment may be
examples in which the immediacy of feeling is needed to decide whether a given passage refers
lost sight offor this verb. Thus, unlike yö.rö.', it is to internal emotion or to an external object of
not used for the abstract, intellectual apprehen- terror; some passages could refer to either (e.g.
sion of evil. Deut 28:67). A )arge group of such passages are
lt may refer to awe or reverence; Ps 119:161 those referring to the terror of some personage.
speaks of David's standing in awe at God's word Examples are the terror of the Hebrews which
(cf. also Prov 28: 14). The "fear" of Hos 3:5 is fell upon Egypt (Ps 105:38), the terror ofthe Jews
probably this kind of reverence. Unlike yö.rö.', it upon the Persian subject peoples (Est 8: 17), and
is not used to refer to pious living or formal reli- passages referring to the terror of God (1 Sam
gious worship. 11:7). Such passages are easiest taken as express-
pö.lJadtwice occurs in the Pie! (lsa 51: 13; Prov ing the emotion aroused towards the personage:
28:14). In both cases the Pie! probably has itera- and there is no firm objection to this interpreta-
tive meaning, particularly in light of the iterative tion. However, in light of the examples above,
adverbs in these two contexts ("continually" and one must consider the possibility that such pas-
"always" respectively). Proverbs 28: 14 is sages refer to the personage as an external object
another case of this verb with the meaning of ofterror (in such a case, the genitive relationship
"revere." would express the genitive of apposition).
The Hiphil is once used (Job 4: 14) with causa- The immediacy of the object of terror and the
tive meaning; i.e. "cause to fear" (Rsv strength of the emotion are clearly seen in such
"made ... shake"). passages as Deut 28:67, Ps 119:120, and I Sam
pa!tad /, Dread, fear, terror, etc. (Rsv some- 11:7.
times ··panic' '). May refer either to a strong emo- pa.!Jdä Fear. Feminine of palJad. Used once
tion of fear or terror or to the external person or referring to fear of God as an inner attitude lack-
thing arousing terror. ing in the Jews' hearts (Jer 2: 19).
Clear instances of the substantive, pa/Jad, re- pa~ad II. Thigh (KJV "stone"). Occurs once
ferring to the emotion of terror are the terror in
in the physical description of "Behemoth" (Job
the hearts of the Jews' enemies in Deut 2:25 (Rsv
40: 17). lts meaning is unclear, but cognate evi-
"dread") and the "dread" of Job 4: 14. dence indicates that "thigh" is the most likely
A )arger number of passages use the term to
meaning.
refer to an external terror or object of fear. The
Bibliography: Hillers, D. R., "Pahad
Psalmist was a "terror" (Rsv "object of dread")
YISHÄQ" JBL 91:90-92 (against Albright's
to those who knew him (Ps 3 I: 11 [H 12]). In other view). TDNT, IX, pp. 203-208. THAT, II, pp.
contexts poetic parallels indicate that the pa/Jad
411-12.
is an external danger comparable to the pit and
A.B.
the snare (e.g. Isa 24: 17-18; Jer 48:43). In Isa
2: IO, the "terror" of the Lord is something ex-
temal from which one can hide; here, "terror" 1757 M!;t~ (pe/Jii) governor (e.g. Neh 5: 14:
may refer to the terrifying aspect of God's re- Mal 1:8). Probably a loan word from Ak-
vealed glory. On the surface, the weapons of Sol- kadian.
omon's bodyguard were better utilized against
some external night-terror (Song 3:8; RSV"alarms 1758 Tlj' (pä/Jaz) be wanton, reckless (lud
by night," KJv ••fear") than against an emotion. 9:4; Zeph 3:4).
Psalm 91:5 probably refers to a similar, if not
identical nightterror. The "sudden panic" (Rsv) Derivatives
of Prov 3:25 may be better taken as referring to
1758a Tljtp (pa!Jaz) wantonness, reckless-
an external terror. Similarly, in Ps 53:5 (H 6; cf.
ness (Gen 49:4).
also Ps 14:5) the phrase, "are in great terror"
may mean "fear the [external] terror." God, as 1758b rmljQ (palJazüt) recklessness, ex-
travagance (J er 23: 32).
an external object of terror, is in view in the
phrase „ Fear of Isaac" cf. E. A. Speiser,
Genesü, in AB "The Awesome One of Isaac" rmr,to (pa/Jazüt). See no. 1758b.
(Gen 31:42, 53). [W. F. Albright (FSAC 2nd Ed.
p. 248) follows the suggestion of Alt and trans- 1759 *Mljf (pö./JalJ) ensnare. Denominative
lates this phrase "kinsman of Isaac" similarly to verb, occurring once, in the Hiphil (lsa
the "Champion 'abir of Jacob" (Gen 49:24). This 42:22).

721
1760 CM0 (p/Jm)

Parent Noun of primogeniture in the OT, there are two distinct

1759a Ml;l (pah) /, bird (e.g. Hos
trap conceptions. First, there is a socio-legal one
5: 1; Arnos 3:5). Often used figura- which assigns special status to the first male of
tively for calamities and plots. the paternal line (h" kör). Second, there is a cultic
1759b Ml;l (pah) II, plate ofmetal (Num conception which assigns special responsibilities
17:3; Ex 39:3). to the first male issue ofthe materna1 line (pe{er).
This one is dedicated to God. If it is a sacrificial
1760 tlM!:) (p/Jm). Assumed root ofthe following. animal it must be sacrificed. Otherwise, the
1760a 01'!!! (pe/Jäm) coal, ember (e.g.
firstborn must be redeemed (Ex 34: 19).
Prov 26:21; Isa 44: 12). V.P.H.

1761 ?'IM!:) (p/Jt). Assumed root of the following. 1765 ,,o (pyd). ,,o (pwd). Assumed root of
1761a ri,:,o (pa!Jal) pit (e.g. Jer 48:43: the following.
Isa 24: 17). Never used for the pit of 1765a ,,!iJ (pid) ruin, disaster (e.g. Job
the grave as is sha/Jat and hör. 12:5: Prov 24:22).
1761b ritit,!;l (p'' /Jetet) a boring or eating
out (of leprous decay in garment, tt'l,l (pia/J). See no. 1741a.
Lev 13:55).
1766 tl'!:) (pym). Assumed root ofthe following.
ritit,!? (p'' /Jetet). See no. 1761b. 1766a nr;•l,l (pima) super abundance
(Job 15:27).
1762 n,l?!iJ(pi(''dii) topaz (e.g. Ezk 28:13; Ex 1766b to•l,l (pim) (or payim) a weight of
28: 17). A loan word; from Sanskrit (?). two-thirds of a shekel.
The KJV erroneously translates "file." Most
1763 ~•~li) (pa((ish) forge (lsa 41:7;
hammer recent versions use either two-thirds of a shekel
Jer 23:21). Possibly a loan word. or pim.
The word occurs only in I Sam 13:21 where it
1764 ,~, (pä[ar) setfree, remove, open, escape. was former1y connected with peh (BOB called
the text corrupl). Now the word has been found
Derivatives inscribed on several weights of two-third shekel
1764a ti~;i (pe(er) firstborn. size. Speiser (see bibliography) suggested that
1764b n,l?!iJ(pifra) firstborn (only in the word is a dual and arose from a false Hebraiz-
Num 8:16). ing of the Akkadian shanipu (a Sumerian 1oan
word for two-thirds of a shekel), reading it as two
This verb is used nine times in the OT. All in- pu's therefore in Hebrew a dual of peh-payim.
stances are in the Qal stem except for one use in (the ordinary plural of peh "mouth" has a
the Hiphil, Ps 22:7 [H 8]; cf. Mal 27:39), "They feminine ending).
'gape' (open/separate the 1ip) at me, they shake This identification of pim or payim helps
their head."
beautifully to elucidate I Sam 13: 19-22. The
There are four discemible uses of pätar in the verse is not corrupt. lt teils of the beginning of
Qal. (1) · To escape from." .. David escaped from
the iron age in Palestine. lron was known before
Saul's presence" (1 Sam 19:10). (2) "To sei free,
then ( about 1200 a.c.) but it was wrought iron
let out.·' · 'The beginning of strife is as when one and not as strong as steel which is made by heat-
lets out water," ( Prov 17: 14), comparing the ing the iron then quenching it in water. Appar-
commencement of disagreement to the seepage
ently, the Philistines brought with them the secret
of water. (3) "To sei free/exempt from duty" of tempering and therefore were ab1e to make
I Chronicles 9:33: II Chr 23:8, .. For Jehoiada the long steel swords which were much better than
priest had ·exempted' none of the (priestly) or- the short bronze daggers the lsraelites had used.
ders." (4) In I Kgs 6: 18, 29, 32, 35 it is said re- I Samuel 13:19 really says the lsraelites had no
garding the interior fumishings of the walls of ironsmiths. The Philistines effectively kept their
Solomon's temple that they were of "knops and
military secret for some time and the Hebrews
'open' flowers" (p''fure .riHim) ofcedar." Liter-
had to pay them to get their agricultural imple-
ally the Hebrew phrase reads, "open parts of
ments repointed after use in the rocky soil of
flowers," i.e., ca1yxes.
Palestine. The price for sharpening a plow point
pe~er. Firstborn. Occurs in Ex: 13:2, 12, 13, was a payim, two-thirds of a shekel. lt is of some
15; 34: 19, 20. pefer refers to both the firstbom of interest that David lived for a whi1e as a Philistine
children and animals. The more usual word in subject in Philistine territory. The military secret
Hebrew for "first(born)" is b'' kor, which is the could not be kept after that.
firstborn of the males. Regarding the institution Bibliography: AI, p. 205. Huey, F. B.,

722
 I 769 *;i,9 (pälag)
"Weights and Measures," in ZPEB, V, p. 921. verb kruptein. Zechariah 8:6, "lf this seem a
Speiser, E. A., "Of Shoes and Shekels," in · miracle · in the eyes of the remnant." (2) Prov
Oriental and Bih/ical Studies, University of 30: 18, "There are three things which are ·too
Penn., 1967, pp. 156-59. wonderfur (LXX adunatos) for me." (3)
R.L.H. Deuteronomy 30: 11, · 'This commandment is not
'hidden°-KJV-from you (Lxx huperogkos)."
1''!;1 (piq). See no. 1747b. Thal is, it is accessible, and hence knowable. The
i;i (pak). See no. 1767a. same Greek word translates pi' in II Sam 13:2
and Lam 1:9. (4) The root may also be used nega-
1767 ,,!:I (pkk). Assumed root of the following. tively to mean "unbelievable." The reference in
1767a '!IG) (pak) vial, jlask. Dan 8:24 and 11:36 to the diabolical apocalyptic
1767b *ri:,!ll (piikii) trickle. Occurs in the figure who hatches "incredible schemes" or
'Piel only (Ezk 47:2). Perhaps de- speaks "incredible blasphemies" illustrates this.
nominative from pak. We have seen, then, that when pi' refers to man
it means unsolvable, suprarational, incredible.
1768 *M79 (piilä') be marvellous, wonderful. This Our clue for pi' applied to God will be found in
denominative verb does not occur in the the Psalter. There appears to be no significant
Qal. difference here between pe/e' and nip/ä'öt, both
referring to God's wonders, either in a general
Parent Noun sense, or in a specific historical antecedent. As
1768a tM':o!ll (pele') wonder. might be expected, the root appears mostly in Ps
1768b •NSD(pi/'i) wonderf ul, incompre- that are classified as hymns or prayers of
hensible. thanksgiving but also the historical Pss 78, 105,
1768c r!M':o!:I~ (mip/ii'ä) wondrous work 106. Often, in such psalms the key verb is
'(.1~i:,37: 16). "'hödä" ("praise"): 9: 1 (H 2); 75: 1 (H 2), etc.,
though niplä'öt is the direct object of hodii only
The basic meaning of the verb is "to be won- in Ps 107:8, 15, 21, 31.
derful" and in the Hiphil "to cause a wonderful Equally important are the verbs in the impera-
thing to happen ... In the Piel, however, it means
tive in the Psalter exhorting the people to recite
"to fulfil (a vow)," Lev 22:21; Num 15:3, 8,
orally the wonders God has done. This forms the
though this nuance is also present in two in- heartbeat of Israel's liturgical celebrations. The
stances of pälä' in the Hiphil (Lev 27:2; Num most frequent verb here is säpar, "teil": Ps 9:2:
6:2). 26:7; 75:2; 96:3, etc.; but also .~ia~. "talk of': Ps
Preponderantly both the verb and substantive 105:2 (= I Chr 16:9); 119:27; 145:5; nägad, "de-
refer to the acts ofGod, designating either cosmic clare": Ps 40:5 [H 6]; 71:17; dahar, "speak": Ps
wonders or historical achievements on behalf of 40: 5 [H 6 J. There is to be a public sharing of what
Israel. That is, in the Bible the root pi' refers to God has done and not just a private musing.
things that are unusual, beyond human capa-
lt is of interest to note that the function of
bilities. As such, it awakens astonishment (pi') in God's wonders is ultimately to make mercy
man. Thus. the "real importance of the miracu- available to the recipient or reciter, and not just
lous for faith (is) -not in its material factuality, to make a demonstration of power. Thus, in Ps
but in its evidential character ... it is not, gener- 107:8, 15, 21, 31 nip/ä'öt is parallel with hesed
ally speaking, the especially abnormal character "loving kindness, mercy." God performs ·mar-
of the event which makes it a miracle; what
vels of love,' Ps 31:21 (H 22), hipli ~asdo.
strikes men forcibly is a clear impression of
God's care or retribution within it" (Eichrodt). pele'. Wonder. Always in a context of God's
We may add that it is essential that the miracle is acts or words, except for Lam 1:9. The root ap-
so abnormal as to be unexplainable except as pears most frequently in the Psalms, of eighty-
showing God's care or retribution. four instances of pii/ä · /pele ·, thirty-seven of
piilä' is applied to man around fifteen times. In them are in the Psalter.
such cases the thrust of pälä' is "to be beyond Bibliography: Eichrodt, W., Theology of the
one's capabilities," and hence, unsolvable or in- 0/d Testament, II, Westminster, 1967, pp. 162-
accessible, and such are God's mighty and won- 67. TDNT, III, pp. 27--42.THAT, II, pp. 413-19.
derful acts. To illustrate. ( 1) Deut 17:8, "If a case V.P.H.
comes before you which is ·100 difficult' for you"
(in the LXX,adunatein). The same Greek verbis '1(7!;1 (pi/'i). See no. 1768b.
used in the translation of Gen 18: 14, .. 1s there
anything ·100 hard' for the LoRo?" Two verses in
Jeremiah-32:17, 27-are almost identical to this 1769 *i;,~ (pälag) split, divide. Occurs in the
rhetorical question but the LXXuses instead the Niphal and Piel only.

723
1770 ~~?.~ (pi/egesh)

Derivatives Derivative
1769a J~!p (pele1:) channel, canal. 1772a •i',l!J (p'' löni) a certain one. Al-
1769b :,~~~ (p''/agga) stream; division. ways used with 'almöni (Ruth 4: 1;
1769c :,~7.~(p''lüggii) division (II Chr I Sam 21:3; II Kgs 6:8.

1769d :i~,~~
35:5, only).
(miplagga) division (II Chr
35:12, only).
According to BOB, p. 811. this root occurs
seven times, four times in Ex, three times in Ps.
lt is used in the Niphal twice (Ex 33: 16; Ps
139:14), andin the Hiphil five times. KB, p. 761,
1770 ?UJ':ii;,(pile1:esh), ~J':i•i;, (pile1:esh) con-
on the other hand, treat only the Ex passages
cubine.
(8:22[H 181:9:4; ll:7;33:16)undertherootpä/ii.
pilegesh. Concubine. The Hebrew equivalent Ifthis is the case, pälii occurs once in the Niphal
of Greek pallakis and Latin pellex. A concubine (Ex 33: 16, "to be marked out, separated"), and
was a true wife, though of secondary rank. This is three times in the Hiphil (8:22 [H 18]: 9:4: 11:7,
indicated, for example, by the references to a "toset apart, discriminate").
concubine's "husband" (Jud 19:3), the "father- In the fourth plague on Egypt of flies (8:22
in-law" (Jud 19:4), "son-in-law" (Jud 19:5). [H 81), the Lord ··sets apart" the land ofGoshen
Thus, the concubine was not a kept mistress, from the plague which infests the Egyptian
and did not cohabit with a man unless married houses. In the fifth plague, the death ofthe Egyp-
to him. The institution itself is an offshoot of tians' livestock, the Lord "discriminates" be-
polygamy. tween the cattle of Israel and Egypt (9:4). When
A number of men in the OT had concubines, Moses announces the death of the firstborn, Ex
either one, or many (as sign of wealth and status 11: 1ff., he says again that the Lord will "dis-
symbols). Note that many of those who have criminate" between Egypt and Israel (11:7).
concubines are kings (and cf. Est 2: 14; Song 6:8; The three passages in question in the Psalter
Dan 5:3, 23). are 4:3 ( H 4); 17:7; 139: 14. To illustrate, Ps 4:3
There are two famous concubines mentioned in [H J reads, "the Lord ·works wonders' (Hiphil)
the or. They are (]) Rizpah, the concubine of for those he loves." The MT for "works won-
Saul, whose moving display of maternal love so ders" reads hiplä, from päla, but many manu-
moved David that he had her children buried in scripts read hiplä ·, from pälä ·, akin to the form
the family sepulcher (II Sam 3:7 and 21:8-14); (2) hipli' in Ps 31:21 [H 221, and hapleh in Ps 17:7.
the concubine of an unnamed Levite of Gibeah For Ps 17:7 and 139: 14 cf. thejuggling efforts of
whose rape and murder brought about the death Dahood in AB, Psalms. I, p. 96: III, p. 293.
of 25,000 members of the tribe of Benjamin, and V.P.H.
the ban against members of the other tribes
intermarrying with them (Jud 19-20; one-third of 1773 M';!~ (päla/J) cleave (e.g. Ps 141:7; Job
the uses of pilegesh in the or are in these two 16: 13).
chapters).
To lie with a king·s concubine was tantamount Derivative
to usurpation of the throne. This explains why 1773a M7~ (pela!J) cleavage, millstone
Abner soon feil out with the house of Saul be- (e.g. Jud 9:53; Song 4:3).
cause he sought in marriage Rizpah. Saul's con-
cubine (II Sam 3:7). Marrying a king·s widow 1774 ='7~ (piila() escape, save, deliver.
could easily suggest designs on the throne (cf. II
Sam 16:21-22 and similarly the idea in I Kgs Derivatives
2:21-24). 1774a =,~ (palle!) deliverance (Ps 32:7;
Bibliography: Morgenstern, J., "Additional 56:8, only).
Notes on 'Beena Marriage (Matriarchat) in An- 1774b t=•?~ (pö[it) fugitive.
cient Israel,'" ZA W 49:46-58, esp. pp. 56-58. 1774c =-,~ (pälet) fugitive.
Patai, R., Sex and Pumily in the Bible, Double- 1774d t:,~•':,~(p•· leta J escape.
day, 1959, pp. 39-43. Plautz, Werner, 1774e =7~~(miplö!} escape (Ps 55:9).
"Monogamie und Polygynie im Alten Testa-
The verb piila( appears twenty-seven times in
ment," ZAW 75:3-27.
the or, of which nineteen are in the Psalter. The
verb always occurs in the Pie!, except for its us-
1771 :i,7~ (p''/ädii) iron, steel (Nah 2:4). De- ages in lsa 5:29, Hiphil, and Ezk 7: 16 (Qal). Da-
rivation uncertain. hood has suggested repointing the Piel in Job 23:7
to a Qal, and reading, .. I would forever escape
his condemnation."
1772 *:i7, (piila) be distinct, marked out. As we indicated above, the verb pälar is con-

724
 1776 ,,, (piilal)

fined primarily to the Ps. The only places päla( t:i'?' (päli(),
1774b,c.
t:i•,,
(pälet). See nos.
occurs in the Piel outside of the Ps (or parallel
passages to Psalm verses) are: Mic 6: 14, "You ?'?' (päli/). See no. 1776b.
shall store away (food) but never ·preserve' "; '?'?~ (p''/ili). See no. 1776d.
Job 21:10, "His cow ·calves' (i.e. escapes from :,~7•~~(p'' /iliya). See no. 1776e.
the womb) with no loss"; Job 23:7 (in KJV), "so
should I be 'delivered' forever from my judge." 1775 ,,o (pik). Assumed root of the following.
1775a ,,, (pelek) whirl of spindle, stick,
lt can be observed then that the verb päla( in
the sense of "rescue, deliver" is limited to poetry ·district (e.g. II Sam 3:29; Neh 3:9,
in the 0T. In the Psalter the verb is always on the 12, etc.).
lips ofthe Psalmist addressed to God either in the
form of a testimony of praise for deliverance or, 1776 .,,, (päla/) intervene, interpose, pray.
päla( is in the form of an imperative, seeking
Derivatives
God's deliverance. In 43:1 and 71:2 we find illus-
trations of päla( in the imperfect, but with im- 1776a tl"l?!;)l'I (t'' pillä) prayer.
perative function. Only in Ps 91:14 is God the 1776b t',•'7~ (pälil) assessment, estimate.
subject of the verb, "I will deliver him." 1776c :i7•'7~(p'' lila) office of judge or
A frequent parallel of pälar is ·äzar "to help, umpire (Isa 16:3, only).
assist" as in Ps 37:40; 40: 17 [H 18]; 70:5 [H 6]. 1776d t•?'?!;) (p'' /i/i) assessable, criminal.
Cf. the Ugaritic passage, aqht yplrk bn dnil 1776e t:,~7•~!;) (p" /iliya) reasoning.
wy'cfrk, .. And (call) Aqhat and let him save you, The verbis found eighty-four times in the 0T,
Daniel's son, and let him rescue you," 3 Aqht; usually in the Hithpael (except Gen 48: 11; I Sam
rev 13-14. 2:25; Ps 106:30; Ezk 16:52). The usual translation
päli,. Fugitive, escapee. Nineteen times in the for the root in the Hithpael is "to pray ... The
oT. In form, a Qal passive participle of pälat. semantic development behind this will be dis-
Always päift refers to someone who has escaped cussed below.
from a calamity, a survivor in battle or war. A There is a rich nomenclature for "praying" in
few times päli( refers to a single survivor or fugi- the OT. There are at least a dozen Hebrew words
tive as in the case of the one who brought to for pray and prayer. But easily the most common
Abraham the news of the capture of his nephew word for "prayer" is t'' pil/a and the related verb,
Lot (Gen 14:13, and cf. similarly the references to pälal. A number of suggestions have been made
the survivor who announces that Jerusalem has for the etymology of pälal. Wellhausen in the
been taken by the Babylonians, Ezk 24:26, 27; 19th century connected it with the Arabic falla,
33:21, 22). "to notch the edge ofa sword" and thus pälal, it
More often päli( is used collectively to refer to was thought, meant "to cut or wound oneself,"
the remnant of Jews who escaped either death or and reflected the pagan custom of slashing one-
deportation at the hands of an enemy. By way of self in a frenzy during worship, a practice forbid-
extension, Lam 2:22 indicates that none shall den by the law (Deut 14: 1).
"escape" on the day of the Lord. A second suggestion also relates Hebrew pälal
to Arabic falla but sees the connection between
p•leJä. Escape, survival. Twenty-eight times in the two in the common meaning "to break, cut"
the oT. Once again, the primary use of this noun with the subsequent development: to cut>to di-
is to refer to the remnant of God' s people (II Kgs vide>to compare >to distinguish>to pass a
19:30,3l=Isa37:31, 22, etc.) But those who have judgment (Ap-Thomas).
escaped do not owe their survival to simply for- A third suggestion is that Hebrew pälal and
tuitous circumstances or Juck. Their survival is näpal are developments of the same bilateral
only of God's mercy. As a matter of fact, p' le(a stem meaning "to fall," emphasizing prayer and
means not only "escape" but also "deliver- prostration.
ance," as in II Chr 12:7. "In a little while I will A fourth suggestion is to see in pälal the mean-
grant them deliverance." Cf. also the Statement ing "to estimate, assess" on the basis of the re-
of Joseph (Gen 45:7): "God sent me before you to flexes of the derivatives. The Pie! (the 4 uses
make sure that your race would have 'survivors' noted at the beginning of this article) then means
in the land." The goodness of God in preserving a "to count on, figure" (Gen 48: 11) or "cause
remnant, rather than liquidating the race, is espe- (re)assessment" (Ezk 16:52 "you have caused
cially emphasized in Ezra 9:8, 13-15. reassessment in favor of your sisters." That is,
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Hebrew-Ugaritic Jerusalem is so corrupt she has made Sodom and
Lexicography VIII," Bib 51:391-404, esp. p. 397. Samaria look angelic!) (Speiser).
TDNT, IV, pp. 196-209; VII, pp. 970-89. THAT, What then is the relationship between the Pie!
II, pp. 420-2(;. and the Hithpael of this root and what is the sig-

725
1777 *c,, (palas)

nificance of the 80 of 84 usages of this verb in the husband's ·assessment'" (LXX, meta axiömatos
Hithpael, meaning „to pray"'l First, it should be "according to estimate").
observed that several verbs in Hebrew for prayer
p''lili. Assessable, criminal ( ?), found only in
are found preponderantly in the Hithpael stem.
Job 3 I :28, KJV,"this also were an iniquity to be
For example, I Kgs 8:33, "and they shall pray punished by the •judge ·." Perhaps it means, · 'this
( w' hitpa/1" ü) and make supplication ( w'hit!Jan-
was an ·assessable' offence," or "criminal in-
n'• nü)." Ezra 10:1, "Now when Ezra had prayed
iquity."
(ük'' hitpal/e/) and confessed (ük'' hitwadotu ),
weeping, and casting himself down (ümitnap- p''liliyyä. Reasoning, judgment, only in Isa
pe/) .. . " Isa 44:17, "and he worships (w"yish- 28:7, "they stumble in (making) 'judgment'."
ta!Jü) and prays ( w'' yitpa/le/)." Bibliography: Ap-Thomas, D. R., "Notes on
The traditional explanation is that the Hithpael Some Terms Relating to Prayer," VT 6:225-41.
is connected with p'' lilim "judges" and hence, Blank, S. H., "The Confessions of Jeremiah and
hitpallel means to "invoke God as judge." A the Meaning of Prayer,'' HUCA 21:331-54.
second explanation, taking piilal as "to break," idem., "Some Observations Conceming Biblical
is that the Hithpael, a reflexive, means here, "to Prayer," HUCA 32:75-90. Richardson, TWB,
break oneself," that is, "to be contrite, pray," p. 169. Speiser, E. A.,· "The Stern PLL in He-
(Goldman). A third suggestion is to move from brew," JBL 82:301-306; Girdlestone, R., SOT,
the Piel pillel "to decide, settle an affair,'· to pp. 219-20. Yalon, H., ',',c, ',c',c in Hebrew and
hitpallel "to act as mediator," (Ap-Thomas). A Aramaic, Tarbiz 6: 111. TDNT, 11, pp. 785-800.
fourth suggestion is to move from the Piel pille/ THAT, II, pp. 427-31.
··to estimate, make assessment·· to hitpalle/ "to V.P.H.
seek assessment, consideration, to pray,'' on the
basis that one of the syntactical functions in the 'l?S (p' löni). See no. 1772a.
Hebrew Hithpael is to seek what the simple stem ')~~lil (palmöni). A form of no. 1722a.
designates (Speiser). An interesting case where
1777 *c';>, (pii/as) weigh, make Level. De-
the Piel and Hithpael of pälal are juxtaposed is
nominative verb occurring in the Piel only
I Sam 2: 25, · · If one man sin against another, God (e.g. Prov 4:26: lsa 26:7).
can •intervene' (üpi/'lu 'elöhim) but ifa man sins
against the Lord who can 'intercede' for him Parent Noun
(yitpallel-lii)?" GB divides the root into two
1777a C'?!?(pe/es) balance, scale (Prov
verbs, *pii/al I judge (mostly Pie)) and *piilal II . i6:I I: Isa 40:11).
pray (Hithpael).
Most often both the verb and the noun refer to
1777b ~?!;l~(mipläs) swaying, pomng
(Job 37: 16). derivation uncertain.
intercessory prayer. This is best illustrated in
Solomon · s prayer for the people at the dedication
of the temple (1 Kgs 8 and its parallel II Chr 6) 1778 *1'7' (palas) shudder. Occurs only
where the root occurs 30 times in these chapters once, in the Hithpael (Job 9:6).
alone. The first reference there, I Kgs 8:28, Derivatives
reads, "listen to the prayer (1'' pillat) of your ser-
vant and to his entreaty (1" IJinniit6) . .. listen to 1778a l"l~:t?O (palläsüt) shuddering (Job
the cry (rinna) and the prayer (1' pi/la) your ser- 21:6; Isa 21:4).
vant makes to you today (mitpalle/)." 1778b l"l;'?i;i~ (mipleset) horrid thing (1
·Kgs 15:13; II Chr 15: 16).
t•pillä. Prayer. Found seventy-six times in the 1778c l"l:t'i!:11'1(tipleset) shuddering, hor-
OT, most often in Ps (thirty-two times). Indeed ··;~~· (Jer 49~16).
five Psalms are specifically called "prayers" in
their superscription (Ps 17, 86, 90, 102, 142). m:t?lil (pallasüt). See no. 1778a.
pälil. Assessment, estimate. lt is found three 1779 *~7, (pälash) act of mourning. Occurs
times (Deut 32:31; Ex 21:22; Job 31:11) all in the only in the Hithpael (e.g. Mic 1: 10; Ezk
masculine plural. In each ofthese cases the trans- 27:30).
lation by the KJV/Rsv,"judges," seems unlikely.
To illustrate, the relevant section of Deut 32:31
reads in the Rsv, "even our enemies themselves 1780 ~!? (pen) lest, not.
being "judges ·." More likely it should read some- In biblical Hebrew, pen is a conjunction that
thing like, · ·even in our enemies' estimation.' · Or negatives dependent clauses, "neither shall you
Ex 21:22, "He shall pay as the 'judges' deter- touch it 'lest' you die" (Gen 3:3). In every occur-
mine,'' a passage dealing with the liability ofone rence, except two, it is followed by the imperfect
who caused a miscarriage by brawling. lt is pre- form of the verb. The two exceptions are: (1)
ferable to read, "He shall pay according to the II Sam 20:6, "pursue after him 'lest' he get

726
 1782 :iJf (panii)

(mä$ä') fenced cities and escape ( w'' hizzi/) us"; tifies the person and reflects the attitude and
(2) II Kgs 2: 16, · · ·test' the spirit of Yahweh has sentiments of the person. As such, panim can be
taken him up (n''sä'o) and cast him on some a substitute for the seif or the feelings of the seif.
mountain." The conjunction pen always stands In the Bible the ••face·· (along with the other
at the beginning of the clause, followed by the parts of the body) is described not merely as an
verb and then the object. The one departure from exterior instrument in one 's physiology, but
this is Prov 5:6, 'öral; !Jayyim pen t'"pal/es "lest rather as being engaged in some form of be-
you should ponder the path of life. · · havioral pattern, and is thus characterized by
The primary function of pen at the beginning of some personal quality. lt is only natural that the
a clause is to express precaution. For example, face was considered to be extraordinarily reveal-
many of the instances of pen in Prov follow the ing vis-a-vis a man's emotions, moods, and dis-
negative particle 'a/ and the jussive form of the positions.
verb: "reprove not ( 'a/ toka!J) a scorner, 'lest' A "hard" face is indicative of defiance (Jer
(pen) he hate you" (Prov9:I0); also, 20:13; 22:25; 5:3), impudence (Prov 7: 13), ruthlessness (Deut
26':4--5;30:6, 10. For pen following a positive im- 28:50). A "shining" face is evidence of joy (Job
perative, see Prov 25:16-17. 29:24). A "shamed" face points to defeat, frus-
On the other hand, in Deuteronomy, pen often tration, humiliation (II Sam 19:5). A "flaming"
follows the phrase hishshamer t•·ka (Niphal imv. face is one convulsed by terror (lsa 13:8). An
of shamar) or a variant of that. Deut 4:9 "take "evil" face is a face marked by distress and anx-
heed to yourself (hishshamer /'"ka) ... 'lest' iety (Gen 40:7). A ••fallen" face stems from very
(pen) you forget." Cf. also Deut 4: 16, 19; 6: 12; strong anger or displeasure (Gen 4:5). To make a
8:11; 11:16; 12:13, 19,30: 15:9:also,Gen24:6and person's face "sweet" is to conciliate him or
31:24. seek his favor (of God: I Kgs 13:6: II Kgs 13:4).
Dahood has argued that occasionally pen is the The KJV translates freely this last phrase "X
equivalent of the negative adverb "not" and is sought/entreated the Lord." But the Hebrew
merely a stylistic substitute for the normal nega- runs literally "X made sweet the Lord's face."
tive adverb 'a/ followed by the jussive. Similarly, this idiom is used of man (Prov 19:6).
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Hebrew- The phrase "to hide one·s face" means to
Ugaritic Lexicography VIII," Bib 51:391-404, show aversion or disgust (lsa 53:3) and "to turn
esp. pp. 398, 399. GKC. par. 107q: 152w. away the face" is to reject (Ps 132:10). Con-
V.P.H. versely, "to raise the face" of another is to show
favor, respect, acceptance (1 Sam 25:35), or show
1781 ,~; (pannag). Meaning dubious. Appa- partiality and favoritism (Lev 19: 15).
rently some kind of food (Ezk 27: 17). Most of these idioms and phrases are also
applied to God. God's face "shines" (Ps 4:6
1782 :,~~ (pana) turn. (H 7]) as a sign of favor and good will. His face
may "fall" in anger (Jer 3: 12). God may "hide"
Derivatives his face (Ps 13:1 [H 2]).
l782a tcr,s (panim) face. Five times one encounters the phrase · 'to see
1782b t•J,~~ (/ipne) before. God's face" probably in the technical sense of
1782c :i;•,i;., (p'' nima) toward the inside. visiting the sanctuary for cultic worship: Ex
1782d t•~•,i;., (p'' nimi) inner. 23: 15; 34:20 (KJV, "none shall appear before
me"); Deut 31: 11: Ps 42:2 (H 3): Isa 1: 12. In each
The frequency with which pana, and even
of these instances the vcrb ra'a "to see," is
more its derivatives, occurs in the OT is attested
by KB p. 76, who notes that the root appears pointed as a Niphal, and is translated then "to
appear," the idea of "appearing before" soften-
twenty-one-hundred times in the oT.
ing the concept of seeing God's face. In one case
The basic meaning of the verb, which appears
(1 Sam 1:22) the N iphal is indicated by the conso-
most frequently in the Qal stem, is "to turn," but
nantal text. The thought of lera'öt panay, Niphal
here it may assume a number of nuances. For
infinitive construct, "to appear before God" is
example pana may mean "to turn towards" a
acceptable, even mandatory, but the possibility
direction (Deut 2:3): a person (Jer 50: 16); a thing
(Ex 16:10). lt may mean "to turn back" (Josh of /ir'öt panay, Qal infinitive construct, is incon-
8:20); "to turn from" (Gen 18:22); "to turn ceivable, according to Ex 33:20. There are some
around" (Ex 2: 12): "to look for, expect" (Hag exceptions to this, for example, Jacob (Gen 32:30
[H 31]) and Moses (Ex 33:11). They saw God
1:9); "to pay attention to, consider" (Job 6:28).
••face to face" panim el panim.
pänim. Face. This particular word always oc- A man must perish if he looks on or even hears
curs in the plural, perhaps indicative of the fact God (Ex 19:21). For this reason Moses (Ex 3:6),
that the face is a combination of a number of Elijah (1 Kgs 19:13), and even the seraphim (Isa
features. As we shall see below, the face iden- 6:2) cover their faces in God's presence. The man

727
1783 1,c (pnn)

who remains alive after seeing God is over- Most interesting is the use of pinnii as cor-
whelmed with astonishment and gratitude (Gen nerstone of the world (in Job 38:6). In two pas-
32:30; Deut 5:24); with awe (Jud 6:22-23; 13:22; sages the comerstone is figurative, and has a
Isa 6:5). In the New Testament God is manifested Messianic significance. These are: (1) Isa 28: 16
in Jesus who alone has seen the Father (Jn 1: 18; (Rom 9:33); (2) Ps 118:22 (and cf. the quotation of
6:46: I Jn 4: 12). Christ is not only the Word this in Mt 21 :42; Mk 12: 10; Lk 20: 17: Acts 4: 11:
through whom God is heard. He is the image I Pet 2:7).
through whom God is seen. The question is whether the comerstone of
Scripture is a foundation stone or a stone which
lipne. A preposition, in the presence of, be-
crowns the building. Isaiah 28: 16 seems to refer
fore. This is the most frequent usage of p'' ne
to the former and Ps 118:22 (rö'sh pinnä) to the
(plural construct) with a prefixed preposition.
latter. By extension, in the NT, Christ is both the
Literally, the phrase means "at/to the face of."
foundation on which the church is built, and he is
We are dealing then with a case of a substantive
also the coping stone or keystone which crowns
which has become a preposition by virtue of its
the church.
union with a prefix. In the meaning "before" the
Bibliography: Good, E. M., ··comerstone,"
following object is most frequently a person, God
in !DB, I, p. 700.
or man, 'before · in the sense of 'in full view of.
V.P.H.
under the eye of. at the disposal of. in the estima-
tion of' (BDB, pp. 186---187).
1784 *;,;~ (piina4) indulge, pamper. Occurs
p''nimi. Inner, always used of parts of build- only once, in the Piel (Prov 29:21 ).
ings, usually the temple (esp. Ezk 40---46).
Bibliography: Dahood, M., "Hebrew-Uga- 0~ (pas). See no. 1789a.
ritic Lexicography VIII," Bib 51:391-404, esp.
pp. 399, 400. Johnson, A. R., "Aspects of the 1785 *i'Q~ (piisaq) pass hetween. ls used once,
Use ofthe Term cml:Iin the O.T.," in Festschrifi in Ps 48: 14 (Piel).
Otto Eissfeldt zum 60 Geburtstage, ed. J. Fueck,
Halle: Niemeyer, 1947, pp. 155-59. __ , The :,~,;, (pissä). See no. 1789b.
Vitality of the Individual in the Thought of An-
cient Israel, Cardiff: University of Wales, 1949,
pp. 42ff. Lohse, E., "pms<ipon" in TDNT, VI, 1786 MQ~ (pasa/1) /, pass or spring over.
pp. 768-780. Oppenheim, A., "ldiomatic Acca- Derivative
dian," JAOS 61:251-71, esp. pp. 256---58 for
1786a tMQ!;) (pesa~) Passover.
panu. Speiser, E. A.. "The Biblical Idiom
PA.NlM HÖU KlM" in The 75th Anniversary pesati. Passover. There are three areas, which
Volume of the JQR, pp. 515-17. TDNT, VI, pp. one must investigate, to put together the data in
771-75. THAT, II, pp. 432--60. the Bible on Passover. These are: (1) the histori-
V.P.H. cal setting for Passover, Ex 12: (2) references to
texts that spell out the procedures in the obser-
vance of Passover, Num 28: lo---25: Lev 23:5-8:
:ig,;, (pinnä). See no. 1783a.
Deut 16: 1-8; (3) historical texts that narrate the
0•;~ (piinim). See no. 1782a.
:ii;•;s (p'' nimii). See no. 1782c. celebration of a particular Passover, Num 9: 1-14:
Josh 5: 10-12 (at Gilgal); II Chr 30: 1-27 (cele-
-~•;,;, (p'' nimi). See no. 1782d.
brated by Hezekiah, but interestingly no parallel
0'J'~!;J (p'' ninim). See no. 1783b.
to this in Kgs): II Kgs 23:21-23: II Chr 35:1-19
(celebrated by Josiah, and note the amplification
1783 1Jl:I (pnn). Assumed root of the following.
in the Chronicles account); Ezr 6: 19-22.
1783a t:,g,;, (pinnä) corner.
1783b o•r;,;, (p''ninim) corals (e.g. Job
The name "Passover" is derived from päsa~
which some think means "to pass (over)" (BDB,
28:18: Lam 4:7).
p. 820). There are four instances of this. (1) Ex
pinnä. Corner is one of the two words trans- 12: 13, "When I see the blood I will ·pass' (üpii-
lated "comer·· in the OT, the other being pe'ii sahti) over you." (2) Ex 12:23, "The LORDwill
(q.v.). pe'ä includes the idea of ·•side" or "ex- ·pass· through ( 'abar) ... and the LORDwill 'pass'
tremity": pinnii is more specifically "comer." (iipasa~) over the door." (3) Ex 12:27, "lt is the
pinnä may refer to the comer of a house (Job sacrifice of the LoRD's passover who 'passed'
1: 19); an altar (Ex 27:2; 38:2); a city wall (Neh (pasah) overthe houses ofthe children oflsrael."
3:24, 31); a street (Prov 7:8, 12); a roof (Prov (4) lsa 31:5, "The LORDof hosts will protect Jeru-
21 :9; 25:24): a tower in the tract of a wall (II Kgs salem (gänan)' he will protect (giinan) and de-
14:13; Jer 31:38: figuratively, "chieftains" (Jud liver (nii!ja/) it. He will pass over (piisa~) and
20:2; I Sam 14:38). deliver (mala() it."

728
 1791 :i~, (pa'a)

In addition to this etymology for pesu!J (i.e. the Jesus celebrated this feast (Mt 26:2, 18). Christ
merciful passing over of a destructive power). is the ·Passover' for the Christian (1 Cor 5:7 and
several others have been suggested. (1) lt is tobe also Jn 1:20, I Pt 1:19).
linked with the root pasah II, "'to limp, hobble," Bibliography: DeVaux, R., Al, pp. 484-92.
and thus Passover describes a special cultic Glasson, T., "The 'Passover,' A Misnomer: The
dance. (2) Some have connected pesah with the Meaning of the Verb PASACH," JTS 10:79-84.
Akkadian verb pasiibu, "'to appease, assuage" (a Haran, Menahem, "The Passover Sacrifice,"
deity) in ritual. (3) The interpretation of others Supp VT 23:86-116. Kraus, H. J., Worship in
suggests that pasah in the above four passages Israel, Richardson, Richmond, Virginia: John
means not "to pass over" per se but rather "to Knox, 1966, pp. 45-55. TWB, p. 163. Weiss, R.,
defend, protect. .. The LORD will protectively "ps/J=!Jml. !Jws," Les(menu 27:125-30. Jocz,J.,
cover the houses of the lsraelites and will not "Passover," in ZPEB, IV, pp. 605-11.
suffer the destroyer to enter (Ex 12:23b, and cf. V.P.H.
I Cor 10:10; Heb 11:28). lt is the destroyer who
seeks to enter the houses and the LORDrebuffs 1787 ni:;,, (päsa!J) II, limp.
him, standing guard by the houses of his people.
The blood is a sign to the LORD."When I see the Derivative
blood (cf. Gen 9: 16, "when I see the rainbow") I 1787a i:t~l;II (piseah) /ame.
will ·protect' you" (not the negative idea, "I will
lt is debated whether or not there are two dis-
pass over/omit you" (Glasson, Weiss). (4) A final
tinct verbs in biblical Hebrew with the conso-
suggestion is to relate pesah to an Egyptian word
nants ps!J. BDB. p. 820, suggests there are and
meaning "stroke, blow" and thus the Passover is discusses päsa!J 1, "to pass over" and pasa/J II,
the blow of the tenth plague in which the Lord "to limp." KB, p. 769, does not differentiale be-
struck the firstborn of Egypt. The traditional tween roots I and II, remarking that the etymol-
etymology and (3) seem the most plausible. ogy of pesa!J „ Passover" is not clear.
According to Ex 12, the Passover was to be There are only three uses of pasa!J II in the OT.
celebrated at the full moon in the first month of ( 1) II Sam 4:4, "and he (Mephibosheth) feil and
the year (Abib = March/ April). On the tenth day "became limp/lame ·." (2) I Kgs 18:21, "how long
of the month every family chose a one-year-old 'halt' ye (KJV) between two opinions?" Another
lamb, a male, and one without blemish. This lamb suggested translation is, "how long will you
was killed at the twilight on the 14th, and its 'hobble' on two crutches?" (i.e., Yahweh and
blood was sprinkled over the two doorposts and Baal). (3) I Kgs 18:26, "and they (the priests of
the (intel of the house where it was eaten. On the Baal) ·Ieaped' upon/'hobbled' upon the altar,"
following day, the 15th, the feast of unleavened presumably a reference to some kind of pagan
bread began. Note that it is a domestic ceremony
ritual dance.
originally without reference to any central V.P.H.
sanctuary or priestly involvement. lnterestingly.
it was very advantageous for the lsraelites to -,,i:;,,
(päsi/). See no. 1788b.
leave Egypt on the night of a full moon.
The critical theory regarding the relationship 1788 '?l;l~ (pasal) hew, hew into shape.
between Passover and Unleavened Bread is as
follows. Originally, both were separate feasts, Derivatives
Passover a nomadic shepherd's rite, and Un- 1788a '?~~ (pese/) ido/, image.
leavened Bread a Canaanite agricultural feast. 1788b ',•~, (päsi/) For the
idol, image.
Subsequently the two were historicized (by being different words for idol, cf. gillul
connected with the Exodus) and coalesced, or and also ·ti$tib.
reestablished (Kraus), in the time of Josiah as a
consequence of the centralization of worship. 1789 00111 (pss) I. Assumed root of the follow-
This, of course, is speculation. Hezekiah cele- ing.
brated a great Passover (11 Chr 30, where it is also 1789a 0!? (pas) jlat of hand or foot, of
called the Feast of Unleavened Bread). Solomon tunic reaching to pa/ms and soles,
celebrated the three annual feasts ( Unleavened k•· tönet passim (Gen 37:3, 23, 32;
Bread, Weeks, and Tabemacles, II Chr 8: 13). II Sam 13:18, 19).
The silence of the books of Samuel and Kings is 1789b :iH (pissti) abundance, p/enty
not a valid argument against the early date of the '{Ps 72: 16). Meaning uncertain.
Passover. None of the prophets except Ezekiel
(only Ezk 45:21) mention either the Passover or 1790 0i:;,, (päsas) II, disappear, vanish (Ps
the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Even Jeremiah 12:2 only).
passes over Josiah's great celebration in silence,
a silence that proves nothing. 1791 :,~~ (pa'ti) groan (lsa 42:14).

729
1792 'l'' (pä'a/)

Derivatives (from Ugaritic) for p'l), Bib 41:303; 43:361;

44:303; 46:320--21. TDNT, II, pp. 1005-1028.
1791a lJ~~ ('epu') worthless. Derivation
THAT, III, pp. 461-65.
uncertain. V.P.H.
1791b MV~~ ('ep'ä) viper.
1793 cp, (pä'am) thrust, impel.
1792 ',p~ (pii'a/) do.
Derivatives
Derivatives
1793a tcp, (pa'am) foot, step.
1792a t',ps., (pö'u/) work, deed. 1793b 1~1/~ (pa'amön) bell, on robe of
1792b tM7~~ (p'' 'ülla) work, recompense, high priest.
reward.
1792c "V!?~(mip'ä/) work, thing made pa'am. Foot, step, anvil, time. This noun oc-
(Prov 8:22). curs one hundred-seventeen times in the or, usu-
1792d M7V!?~ (mip'iila) deed (Ps 46:9; ally meaning "time, occurrence." When pa'am
66:5). means "foot" it may refer to: (1) the foot of man
(Ps 58: 10 [H 11]); (2) (foot)step(s) (Ps 17:5; 85: 13
The verb appears fifty-six times in the or. Most [H 141); (3) supports or a pedestal for a building
often it is found in the Psalms, twenty-six times, (Ex 25: 12). The meaning "anvil" is found once,
(eighteen times in the expression pö'a/e 'iiwen, in lsa 41:7.
"workers ofiniquity"). pa'al is found only in the There are numerous expressions for "time" in
Qal stem and in poetic texts. Its use in the or, which pa'am is one of the elements. For exam-
only fifty-six times, is of interest when one ob- ple, "This is ·at last' (happa'am) bone of my
serves that the verb ·asa"to do, make," occurs bones" (Gen 2:23). "And I will speak 'but this
over twenty-six hundred times (BDB, p. 793). once'" ('ak-happa'am) (Gen 18:32). "'Now this
When pii'a/ describes man's actions or deeds, time· ( ·atta happa ·am) will my husband be joined
like the substantive pö'al, it refers to his moral to me" (Gen 29:34). "'Many times' (p' 'iimim
acts, either positive (Ps 15:2; Zeph 2:3), but more rabbot) he delivered them" (Ps 106:43).
often negative: Prov 30:20-wickedness; Job Hebrew pa'am is a blend of Ugaritic p'm
34:32-iniquity; lsa 44:15-idolatry. "time" and p'n (Phoenician p'm) "foot" (Gor-
In connection with this we may note the sig- don, UT 19: nos. 1998, 2076).
nificance of the phrase pö'a/e 'iiwen "workers of V.P.H.
iniquity." In addition to the eighteen instances in
the Psalter the phrase appears in: Isa 31 :2; Hos n'~11,,
(pa'tlmön). See no. 1793b.
6:8; Job 31 :3: 34:8, 22; Prov 10:29; 21: 15. In spite
of the suggestion made famous by Mowinckel in 1794 ·w, (pii'ar) open wide (the mouth) (e.g.
Psalmenstudien that the word 'iiwen is a magical Isa 5: 14; Job 16: 10).
power and the pö'a/e ·awen were sorcerers who
by their potent spells brought about the affiiction 1795 M'n (pii~a) part, open (e.g. Gen 4: 11;
of the righteous, we may be safe in assuming that Num 16:30).
the ·workers of iniquity' are foreign enemies who
harass and gloat over their defeats of Israel and 17% n;, (pii~a/J) cause to break or burst forth,
her king. break forth with (e.g. lsa 14:7; 55: 12).
pö'al. Work, deed. Sixteen times the reference M'?;~ (p"~fra). See no. 1801a.
is to God's work and twenty-one times to man's
work. When applied to God, pö'a/ refers primar-
1797 *',;, (pii$a/) peel. Occurs only m the
ily to God's acts in history, not his acts in crea- Pie! (Gen 30:37, 38).
tion. When applied to man pö'a/ often has a
moral nuance, positively, Prov 21 :8; negatively, Derivative
Prov 21:6, for example.
1797a M711~
(pi#a) peeled spot or stripe
p"'üllä. Work, recompense, reward, fourteen (Gen 30:37).
times in the OT. lt may refer to normal labor (Jer
31: 16): most often recompense in the sense of 1798 c;, (pti$am) split open. Occurs only in
wages (Isa 40: 10); a reward (Prov 11:18); reward Ps 60:4.
(of sin) (lsa 65:7; Ps 109:20), all paid by God.
p'' u/la is used with siikar/siikar "to hire/wages" 1799 lJlf (pii$a') bruise, wound by bruising.
in Lev 19:13; II Chr 15:7; Isa 40:10; 62:11; Jer
31:16; Prov 11:18. Derivative
Bibliography: Dahood, M. (who sees some- 1799a lJ;~ (pe$a') bruise, wound (e.g.
times in Hebrew b'l, "to own," a dialectal form Ex 21:25; lsa 1:6).

730
 1802 ,i?~ (paqad)

1800 •n, (piiJa.~) break. Occurs in the Poel suggests that in this usage its real meaning is to
(Jer 23:29) and Pilpel (Job 16: 12). muster troops or to ascertain the available man-
power. lt usually concems soldiers, Levites or
1801 "IJ' (piiJar) push, press (e.g. Gen 19:3; priests. There are a number of other Hebrew
Jud 19:7; Arabic cognate possibly means words that express the simple idea of counting or
"appoint, prescribe"). numbering.
[lt may be noted that the so-called census in
Derivative Num I concerns only the adult men "able to go
1801a :,?'ll!;) (p''.~irii). Occurs only in I forth to war" (v. 20). lt was more than a census:
Sam 13:21. BDB calls this text "in- it was an organizing of the troops for battle "by
curably corrupt," but see pim. their armies" (v. 3). lt was the mustering of the
Modern translations, price, charge. troops in preparation for Moses· invasion of Ca-
naan from Kadesh Barnea. The similar number-
1802 „i?,(päqad) number, reckon, visit, punish, ing of Num 26 is not a duplicate account or from a
separate source. lt was another mustering of the
appoint.
troops, this time for Joshua·s invasion from the
Derivatives east.
lt is probable that David's "census·· of II Sam
1802a t:i,;:,!;) (p'' qüddii) mustering.
24 was also not just a head count to satisfy a
1802b tc•-,1i:)!;) (p''qüdim) al/ocation.
monarch's pride, but was again a preparation for
1802c ti•;,, · (piiqid) officer, overseer.
some ill-conceived military adventure. Notice
1802d ri:i;,c (p'' qidül) oversight (Jer
that Joab, the commander of the army. was
·37: 13, only).
charged with the mustering and that he had
1802e tc•,1;,i;, (piqqüdim) precepts.
strong objections to it. R.L.H.j
1802f iii;;,1;1 (piqqadön) deposit.
When translated "visit," as fifty-seven times
1802g ti;:,i;,r,i (mipqäd) number.
in the KJV (Rsv the same in many of these occur-
päqad occurs primarily in the Qal, Niphal, and rences), this word almost always has the sense,
Hiphil stems. lt also occurs a few times in the now largely obsolete, of "making a visitation"
Piel, Pual, Hophal, Hithpael, and Hothpael and points to action that produces a great change
stems. The basic meaning is to exercise oversight in the position of a subordinate either for good or
over a subordinate, either in the form of inspect- for ill. Speiser suggests a close parallel to the
ing or of taking action to cause a considerable phrase „ to raise the head ... used in Gen 40: 13, 19
change in the circumstances of the subordinate, for Pharaoh · s treatment both of the butler and of
either for the better or for the worse. the baker, one tobe restored to his position in the
lt has been said of this verb, which occurs court and the other to be hanged. The word
more than three hundred times in the oT: "There piiqad is similarly used in what might seem to be
is probably no other Hebrew verb that has caused two opposite senses in Jer 23:2. There are many
translators as much trouble as pqd" (Speiser, instances where --visit" means to inflict injury or
BASOR 149:21). KB wrongly asserts that pqd harm and Rsv translates many of these as
originales from the idea of missing. The only "punish." However, in a consider2ble number of
basis for such a statement is a similar word in cases it is clear that the „ visitation" produces a
Arabic, which, as far as most of our available beneficial result, e.g. Gen 50:24-25. Ruth 1:6,
texts are concerned, represents a late develop- I Sam 2:21; Ps 8:4 [H 5J; Jer 15:15: 29:10. In lsa
ment in Semitic languages. The verb occurs in 24:21 the evil forces that God imprisons for a
Akkadian, usually with the meaning ofappointing season are "visited" by him after many days.
a govemor or other official. Scholars divide about equally as to whether
Speiser considers the root meaning to be "at- ·•visit" here means punish or release. with De-
tend to with care" or "take note." lt is impossi- litzsch and Calvin leaning toward the latter
ble to prove whether this is the actual origin, but interpretation.
the fact that at least half of the occurrences in- There is only one occurrence where the pre-
volve positive action by a superior in relation to sent usage of "visit" (make a call) would seem
his subordinates strongly suggests that such ac- appropriate (1 Sam 15:2). In view of all the cir-
tion is a vital part of the meaning of the word, an cumstances here, and of the many occurrences
idea that is supported by the fact that the LXX with quite a different idea, one may reasonably
most frequently translates it by episkeptö or a suggest that this passage is not an exception to
similar word. the general usage.
The word is translated "to number" 110 times Such translations as "miss," ··tack," "want,"
in the KJV, but the fact that the LXX renders it by and their passives (altogether about sixteen oc-
arithmein in only eight of these occurrences, and currences) seen at first sight to suggest quite a
usually uses episkeptein or a related word different idea, but on examination prove to come

731
l 803 M1;:lf(päqalJ)
under the general meaning of the verb. Thus ref- ment," "Muster" Gate, "appointed place"). Al-
erences in l Sam 20:6, 18, 25, 27 to David's seat though this word occurs only five times, it covers
being empty or to David being missed involve the a wide range of meanings, all related to the gen-
idea of Saurs oversight over his subordinate. The eral idea of päqad.
references to cattle or sheep not being missed in Bibliography: Beyer, Herman Wolfgang,
I Sam 25:7, 15, 21 relate to David's protection of bnoxtJtToµm, fJtWXOJtEW,EmoxoJtt Em6xoJto~.
Nabal's tlock. A similar reference to God"s over- aAt.oTQLmioxoJto~. in TDNT, 11, pp. 599--622.
sight of his people and finding none missing is Blaiklock, E. M., "Census," in ZPEB, I, p. 771.
contained in Jer 23:4. In Num 31 :49 and II Sam Coenen, L., "Bishop, Presbyter, Eider,'' in The
2:30 reference is made to oversight of the sur- New International Dictionary of New Testament
vivors of a battle with a check on the number that Theology, 1, ed. Colin Brown, Exeter: Paternos-
had been lost. In II Kgs 10: 19 there is a demand ter, pp. 188-201. Esser, H. H. "Command, Or-
by the king that the priests of Baal be watched der," in TDNT, I, pp. 330---39.Gehman, H. S.,
over so that all will be assembled and none found fmoxiµJtoµut, EJttOX€\/)L~EJt(oxoJto~ and tmo-
to be absent. In Jud 21 :3 there is a reference to xom'l in the Septuagint in Relation to ii'C and
God's care of his people and the importance that other Hebrew Roots," VT 22: I97-207. Middel-
no tribe be lacking. koop, P., "A Word Study: The Sense of PAQAD
The Hiphil is often used for a king's appoint- in the second Commandment and its general
ment of ofticers; also for committing Jeremiah to background in the OT in regard to the translation
prison (Jer 37:21) and for committing one's spirit into the Indonesian and Timorese Languages,"
into the hand of God (Ps 31 :5 [H 61). The South East Asia Journal c~f Theology, 4:33-
-47. Scharbert, J., ··Das Verbum PQD in der
p''qüddä. Visitation, office, officer, account,
Theologie des Alten Testaments," Biblische
charge, custody, ordering, oversight (Rsv similar,
Zeitschrift 4:207-27. Snaith, Norman H., "Time
but usually substitutes "punishment" for "visita-
in the Old Testament,'' in Promise and Fu!fill-
tion, .. except in Job I 0: 12 where it substitutes
ment, ed. F. F. Bruce, T&T Clark, 1963, pp.
"care"). This noun corresponds closely to the
175-86. Speiser, E. A., "Census and Ritual Ex-
verb päqad and has just about the same range of
piation in Mari and Israel," BASOR, 149: 17-25.
meanings. lts commonest use is to express the
THAT, II, pp. 466--85.
primary idea of that verlr--intervention by a
superior power (usually God or a king) in order to
1ii~1;1 (piqqädon ). See no. 1802f.
make a great change in the situation of a subordi-
l"l'ii'!;I (p'"qidül). See no. 1802d.
nate. In most of the occurrences of p''qüdda of
this type the change is for the worse, but Job
c•,1,,1;1(p 'qüd,m ), c•i1;ll!;I (piqqüdim ). See
nos. · 1802b,e.
10: 12 shows that this noun, like the verb, can also
have the idea of a change for the better. While the 1803 Mi?~ (päquM open (lhe eyes).
noun, like the verb, may simply involve over-
sight, it more generally represents an active in- Derivatives
tervention to help or injure the one visited. 1803a l'.l;!'!;I(piqeuh) seeing (Ex 4: II;
p•·qudim. Sum (Rsv the same), is used in the 23:8).
pi. to mean "appointments" or "allocation." lt 1803b l'.li,,-Mi?!;I(p"quh-qöuh) opening (of
occurs only in Ex 38:21, where it indicates the eyes.(lsa 61:1).
amount designated for the tabernacle. The verb päqa/J occurs twenty-one times in the
päqid. Officer, overseer (RSV similar, adds OT. Most often in II Kgs (4:35; 6: 17; 6:20; 19: 16)
"leader"). This word designates a subordinate and lsa (35:5; 37:17; 42:7, 20; 61:1). Eighteen
who has been placed in a position where he has times päqah is in the Qal; three in the Niphal
the oversight of others, whether assigned for a (Gen 3:5, "your eyes shall be opened"; 3:7; lsa
special duty (Gen 41 :34: Est 2:3) or in a perma- 35:5).
nent position in charge of soldiers, priests, Le- päqah refers to the opening of the eyes with
vites, or singers. two exceptions (lsa 42:20, the opening of the
ears; lsa 61: 1, the opening of a prison to those
piqqudim. Precepts, statutes, commandments who are bound [cf. Lk 4: 18-19]).
(used only in pi.) (Rsv "precepts" in all twenty- The eyes may be God's (Job 14:3; Dan 9: 18;
four occurrences), used only in Ps (all but three Zech 12:4; II Kgs 19: 16= lsa 37: 17; Jer 32: 19) or,
ofits occurrences are in Ps 119), is ageneral term as in the other passages, man' s. The references to
for the responsibilities that God places on his God's eyes, an anthropomorphism, may suggest
people. the idea that God is attentive and aware, as op-
mipqad. Number (gate of commandment, ap- posed to passive and uninvolved (II Kgs 19-
pointed place: RSV "numbering," "appoint- : 16= lsa 37: 17, .. Lord, open thy eyes, and see

732
 1809 :i,, (piira)

(rä'a) the words of Sennacherib"'). Or, it may He is the abominable no-man. Proverbs 18: 18
suggest not only awareness, but more, loving says that the lot „separates„ powerful parties
compassion (Zech 12:4. "'but on the house of locked in a legal contest.
Judah (as opposed to God"s enemies) I will open Bibliography: Wieder. A., .. Ugaritic-Hebrew
my eyes. "). Lexicographical Notes, .. JBL 84: 160-64, esp.
When pä,1ah refers to the opening of man· s pp. 163-64.
eyes, more often than not Gm! is the subject of
the verb: Gen 21:19: the six passages in II Kgs 1807 '1'1!) (prd) II. Assumed root of the follow-
referred to above; lsa 35:5 (and cf. Mt 11:5: Lk ing.
7:22); 42:7: Ps 146:8. Only in II Kgs 4:35 does 1807a Mi~ (percd) mule.
päqah seem to refer to the opening of the eyes in 1807b :i,,i:,(pirdä) she-mu/e (1 Kgs
a physical miracle (the son of the Shunemite wo- 1:33, 38, 44).
man). One is reminded of Jesus· healing of the pered. Mule (Ixx. lu'mionos "'the separated
man with congenital blindness (Jn 9) and espe- animal .. ). The mule is the offspring of a mare and
cially Jn 9:39, "'lt is for judgment that I have a male ass (the offspring of a stallion and she-ass
come into the world so that they which see not is called a hinny). Because Lev 19: 19 forbids the
might see, and that they which see might be made crossbreeding of animals we must assume that
blind."' mules were imported into Israel. The mule was
V.P.H. ridden (II Sam 13:29: 18:9: Isa 66:20) and served
as a beast of burden (II Kgs 5: 17).
i•;,~ (päqid). See no. 1802c. From the time of David mules function as
transportation for members of the royal family
1804 1/i'!l (pq· ). Assumed root of the following. (II Sam 13:29: 18:9: I Kgs 1:38, pirdti, 18:5).
1804a Cl'lli?!?(p' qä ·im) carved wood or They were received by kings as gifts (1 Kgs 10:25:
ml!lal ornaments, either ball or knob- II Chr 9:24). Until recently the word pered was
shaped (I Kgs 6:18; 7:24). unique to biblical Hebrew. lt has now appeared
1804b l"\1/i!'~ (paq41l' at) gourds ( II Kgs in the Ugaritic phrase (2102: 12) r/ I ql d vh/ prd "'a
4:39). garment for the courier who is borne by a mule."
Bibliography: Dahood, M., .. Hebrew-
C'!,'i?ll (p' qü'im). See no. 1804a. Ugaritic Lexicography VIII, .. Bib 51:391-404,
r,t:;,~ (paqqü'<>I). See no. 1804b. esp. p. 400.
'1~ (par). See no. 1831a. V.P.H.
1805 M'1!l (pr'). Assumed root of the following. 1808 c,,, (pardes) park, enclosed garden.
1805a M'.i~ (pere') wild ass (e.g. Hos
The word from which comes (through the
8:9: Jer 2:24).
Greek) the word "'paradise." This is a loan word
into Hebrew as weil as into Greek from the Zend
1806 i:i; (pürad) /, divide, separate.
A vestan. lt is never in the Hebrew 01 applied to
Derivative the Garden of Eden, although the LXX uses it to
1806a :i,,!) (p' nidä)
1: 17).
grain of seed (Joel
translate "'garden" (,:an) in Gen 2:8. Used only
three times (Neh 2:8: Song 4: 13 and Eccl 2:5). it
does not prove that Song and Eccl were written
The verb pärad appears twenty-six times in the in exilic times. The Zend Avesta, a holy book of
01 in a number of stems: Qal (only Ezk 1: 11), Zoroaster. is indeed from 600 s.c. (or later), but
Niphal, Pie! (only Hos 4: 14), Pual only (Est 3:8), its language is a branch of old lndo-Iranian and
Niphil, and Hithpael. the word may easily have been borrowed by Sol-
In the sense of "'to separate ... pärad may re- omon ·s wide-ranging traders. Just as the few
fer: ( 1) to the separation of a river into tributaries Greek words in Dan may have been borrowed
(Gen 2: 10): (2) the separation of the wings of a before the Greek age of Alexander so this word
bird (Ezk 1:11: cf. Job 41:17 [H 91): (3) the sep- may have been borrowed before the Persian age
aration of friends on an amiable basis (Gen 13:9, of Cyrus. Extensive Persian borrowing came
11, 14: Ruth 1: 17: II Sam 1:23: (4) the dispersal of later. lt is of interest that the several Persian loan
peoples (Gen 10:5. 32: 25:23: Deut 32:8). words in the Hebrew 01 are found in Ezra. Neh.
The verb has an intercsting nuance in Prov, Est, Dan, Song, and Chr. None occur in the Pen-
where it occurs fivc times. Here it may mean to tateuch.
drive a wedge between solid friendships. Thus, R.L.H.
Prov 16:28 refers to the man who destroys other
people"s friendships by creating discord. ptirad is 1809 :'i'1!:l (pärti) bear fruit, be fruitful, branch
used in Prov 18: 1 to describe the unsociable man. 'dff.

733
1810 iJ".\O
(parwär)

Derivative Bibliography: Ginsberg, H. L., "'Roots

1809a t•-:,~ (p'' ri) fruit. Below and Fruit Above· And Related Matters,"
in Hehrew and Semitic Studies, Oxford: Claren-
The verb piirii is used twenty-nine times in the don, 1963, pp. 72-76. Tolkowsky, S., "The
OT, most often in Gen (fifteen times). piirii ap- Meaning of p'' ri ·e!f hiidär (Lev. XXIII, 40),"
pears twenty-two times in the Qal, seven times in JPOS 8: 17-22.
the Hiphil (with the meaning "make fruitful"). V.P.H.
Quite often it appears in conjunction with the
verb riibii "to increase, multiply." lt either fol- 1810 ,,-,~ (parwär). Structure attached to the
lows riibii (Jer 3: 16: Ezk 36: 11) or, more fre- west süle of Solomon's temple (II Kgs
quently, it precedes it (Gen 1:22, 28: 8:17: 9:1, 7: 23: 11: I Chr 26: 11). Perhaps a colonnade.
35: 11: 47:27: Ex I :7: Jer 23:3; in the Hiphil, Gen
17:20; 28:3: 48:4; Lev 26:9). ,1,, (pärür). See no. 1750b.
The root piirä is at the heart of the name of
one of the tribes of Israel. Genesis 41 :52, 1811 (perez) warriors, leaders
l'.')!!) (Hab 3:4).
"(Joseph[ named the second son Ephraim ( 'ep- · Meaning dubious.
räyim) because God has made me fruitful (hip-
rani) in the country of my affiiction." The same 1812 ,.,, (prz). Assumed root of the following.
promise and sustenance came to Jacob at Bethel 1812a :ir,~ (p'' räzä) open region, hamlet.
(Gen 28:3: cf. 48:4). Even the banished Ishmael 1812b ,;,,, (p •·räzhn) rural population,
received this promise of God (Gen 17:20). Most rustics. This word occurs only in
interesting of all is the word of the Lord to Ab-
raham in Gen 17:6. "I will make you fruitful and
will make you into nations." Two things are of
1812c •r,,
Jud 5:7. lts meaning is dubious.
(p'räzi) open region.

special interest here. First, in Gen 17 Abraham

was ninety-nine years old. Twenty-four years had •r,,
iii,, (p'' räzhn ). See no. 1812b.
(p'rtd). See no. 1812c.
elapsed after God's original promise to him (Gen
12:4). Second, at the time ofthis promise offruit- 1813 Mj' (pära~!) /, bud, sprout, shoot.
fulness Sarah was post-menopausal and Abraham Derivatives
was impotent (Gen 17:17: Rom 4:19). Unwaver-
1813a tMj!!) (pera/J) bud, sprout.
ing faith!
1813b :ii:,;~ (pir/Jiil brood (Job 30: 12).
p"ri. Fruit. Three primary meanings are cov-
ered by Hebrew p'' ri: ( 1) the fruit of a tree (Gen
1813c i:r·,~"'
( 'epröa/J) young ones (of
birds (Deut 22:6: Job 39:30).
1:12): a vine (Zech 8:12): or a fig tree (Prov
The meaning of this verb is connected with
27: 18): (2) the fruit of the womb, i.e. children
growing objects in nature. Its two basic transla-
(Gen 30:2; Deut 28:4, 11: Ps 21: 10 [H 11]: 127:3);
tions are to sprout; to blossom/bud.
(3) fruit as consequences resulting from an ac-
pära/J always occurs in the Qal, except for five
tion, e.g. ··reward" (Ps 58: 11 [H 12]: Prov 11:30).
usages in the Hiphil. Of special interest is Ps
Six times p'' ri is juxtaposed with shiiresh "root''
92: 12-13 [H 13-141 which illustrates the use of a
(II Kgs 19:30: lsa 14:29; 37:31; Ezk 17:9: Hos
verb in different conjugations in the same con-
9: 16: Arnos 2:9). Ginsberg has suggested that in
text. Thus, 92:12 [H 13] ··the righteous shall
these passages p•· ri does not mean ··fruit." but
tlourish (yiprii/J) like the palm tree"; 92: 13 [H 14]
"branch, bough." Such may also be the meaning
"they shall tlourish (yapri/Jü) in the courts of our
of piirii inverses such as Deut 29:18 [H 17]. "lest
God." Dahood (in AB, Psalms, II, p. 338) under-
there be among you a stock 'branching out into'
stands the latter form as a Hiphil elative and
(i.e. ·sprouting') gall and wormwood." Isaiah
translates, "they will richly tlourish," to bring
11:1, a famous messianic passage, may be trans-
out the force of the Hiphil stem.
lated, "and a shoot shall ·branch' off from his
Many times the verb is used metaphorically to
stock."
describe, for example, the "tlourishing" of God's
Of the three usages cited above, the third, i.e.
people, specifically, Israel (lsa 27:6), both in
fruit as being indicative of consequences, occurs
numbers and in intluence. lt also refers, more
most frequently (especially in Ps, eleven times,
generally, to the righteous (!faddiq; Ps 72:7;
and Prov, ten times). Proverbs refers to the "fruit
92:12-13 [H 13-14]: Prov 11:28; cf. Prov 14:11).
ofone's speech/mouth" (12:14: 13:2; 18:20: also,
18:21), and twice to the "fruit of one's hands" in peralJ. Bud, sprout. This substantive refers to
the sense of achievements (31:16, 31). Proverbs either buds or blossoms (Num 17:8 [H 23]: I Kgs
1:31 says that the heedless will eat of "the fruit of 7:26; lsa 5:24: 18:5: Nah 1:4). lt may also refer to
their way." There is a relationship between ac- bud-shaped ornaments (Ex 25:23, 31, 34; 37:17,
tion and consequence as there is between seed 19, 20: Num 8:4: l Kgs 7:49; II Chr 4:5), a decora-
and plant. tive piece.
734
 1820 Cj' (paras)
1814 M".ll' (pära/J) II, break out (of leprosy). In the OT healing pertains to the man of God,
not the priest. Miriam's leprosy was cured not by
This verb describes the eruption of skin dis-
Aaron, but by Moses· prayer (Num 12:I0ff.).
eases such as leprosy (?) and boils (Ex 9:9-10).
Naaman was healed when he followed a remedy
Apart from Ex 9:9-10, pära/J II occurs only in
prescribed by Elisha.
Lev 13 and 14 (13:20, 25, 39, 42, 57; 14:43).
Bibliography: DeVaux, R., AI, pp. 462-64.
lt is questionable whether or not päralJ, II, "to
Harrison, R. K., "Leprosy," in IDB, III, pp.
break out" (of diseases) is to be distinguished
111-13. Browne, S. G., "Leper, Leprosy," in
from the root päralJ, I, "to bud, spring up,
WBE. Harris, R. L., Man-God"s Eternal Crea-
flourish." BDB, p. 827, separates the two. KB,
tion, Moody, 1971, pp. 142-43.
pp. 777-78, treats them as one.
V.P.H.
Leprosy might "break out" in place of an old
boil (Lev 13:20), or it might "break out" in place
ofa burn which had not healed (Lev 13:25). Skin 1815 ""' (pära/J) lll,fly. Occurs only in Ezk
which had "broken out" in bright spots might be 13:20.
diagnosed as psoriasis or eczema (KJV, "tetter,"
Lev 13:39). Leprosy might "break out" on a bald 1816 IQ':I' (pära/) improvise carelessly (Arnos
head, the symptom being a whitish-red spot (Lev 6:5). Meaning uncertain.
13:42). Leprosy might "break out" on clothing
(Lev 13:57)(probably mildew or fungus). Finally, Derivative
leprosy, spread by dry rot, could "break out" in 1816a !Qj~ (pere/) the broken off, i.e. fal-
one's home (Lev 14:43). See täme' and sara'at "ten grapes (Lev 19: 10).
for the view that other communicable diseases
were also so designated. '".'~ (p'ri). See no. 1809a.
There are two kinds of leprosy: ( 1) nodular lep- 1"'~' (päri$), See no. 1826b.
rosy in which the patient exhibits eruptions
which develop into nodules which subsequently 1817 iic (prk) 1. Assumed root of the follow-
become ulcerated; (2) a more severe kind, ing.
anesthetic leprosy, which involves degeneration 1817a '!t'.l~ (perek) harshness, severity
of the nerves, loss of sensation and muscular · (Lev 25:53; Ex 1: 13).
movement, progressive paralysis, and eventually
the loss of extremities. 1818 ,,c (prk) II. Assumed root of the follow-
Few lepers are mentioned in the OT. They in- ing.
clude: (1) Moses, Ex 4:6ff.; (2) Miriam, Num 1818a ri;,-,, (päräket) curtain (e.g. Ex
12:!Off.; (3) Naaman, II Kgs 5: lff.; (4) Gehazi, II 26:31; Lev 4:6).
Kgs 5:27; (5) Uzziah/Azariah, II Kgs 15:5; (6) the
four lepers at the siege of Samaria, II Kgs 7:3ff. ri;,·,, (päröket). See no. 1818a.
Only the leprosy of Uzziah and the four de-
manded exile and banishment. 1819 Cl':1' (päram) tear, rend garment (Lev
Leprosy, like all sicknesses described in the 21: 10; 10:6; 13:45).
0T, came not from the realm of impurity or the
demonic, but from the realm of God. lt is the
1820 0':I' (päras) Persia, the equivalent of
Lord who made Moses (his hand) and Miriam
Greek Peris. both derived from the Per-
leprous. He infected houses with defiling leprosy sian designation Parsa.
(Lev 14:34). Elisha, the Lord's prophet, made
Gehazi leprous on account of his avarice. Uzziah lts designation, the Achaemenian Empire, re-
was smitten by the Lord (II Kgs 15:5). flects the name of Achaemenes (700--675 e.c.),
"While the leper was regarded as ceremonially the eponymous ancestor of the dynasty.
unclean, the Bible never refers to leprosy as a Cyrus II (559-530 e.c.) is the first Persian
type of sin. lts incidence was regarded as an act monarch referred to in the oT. He promulgated
of God, and in consequence the healing of the the famous edict (in 539 e.c.) allowing the Jews
leper was invariably interpreted as a miracle of (and other captured peoples) to leave Babylon
divine grace," (Harrison, see bibliography). and retum to their native soil. He is referred to,
According to Lev 14 the priest visited the leper by implication, in lsa 41: 1-7, as the future
during his sickness. He examined the diseased liberator of the Judeans. In lsa 44:28 he is called
area (not as a physician, but as an interpreter of God's "shepherd" and in 45: 1 God's
the Law). He quarantined him, and later pro- "anointed," literally, "messiah ... Far from beiilg
nounced him pure or infected. Most important, an independent power bent on self-
the priest performed no therapeutic or exorcistic aggrandizement, he is an instrument whom God
activity. A purification rite was carried out only has raised up for deliverance, one of the actors on
after the leprosy healed. the stage of God's unfolding drama.
735
1821 C'jf (päras)

Two other Persian kings also figure promi- Specifically, Lev 11:1-8 identifies clean and
nently in the Bible. If Cyrus II authorized the unclean beasts on land. What is permissible for
restoration, then it was Darius 1 (522-486 B.c.) food and consumption are only those who "part
who confirmed it. Both Haggai and Zechariah re- the hoof' (mapreset parsa) and chew the cud (a
ceived their call in the second year of Darius· ruminant). Thus, Lev 11 forbids the pious to eat
reign (i.e. 520 B.c.), each of whose prophecies the camel, the hyrax, the hare, the pig, the first
deal with the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the three because of the absence of the cloven hoof,
temple. Secondly, it was under Artaxerxes I the swine because it is not a ruminant. The !ist in
(465-424 a.c.), who sponsored and authorized the Deut 14:3-8 begins, unlike the list in Leviticus,
ministries of Ezra and Nehemiah, that the resto- with the permissible and then moves to the out-
ration plans in Jerusalem were bolstered and lawed.
completed. lt is interesting to trace man's relationship to
There is no doubt but that the cruelty and animals in the or, at least as the latter being a
rapacity demonstrated by the Assyrians and source of food (companionship aside!). lt is quite
Babylonians on their subject peoples is missing clear that before the fall man was a vegetarian
with the Persians. They have become famous for (Gen 1:28-29). Only after the flood is man specif-
their remarkably humane treatment of their vas- ically given permission to eat meat, and that
sals. Two factors may account for this benign without blood (Gen 9:3-4). By the time of Lev
policy. One, the Persian respect for other's au- and Deut man·s meat menu is largely narrowed to
tonomy may have had an ulterior motive. That is, a few living creatures of the tarne, herbivorous
the Persians were prepared to respect national species.
sensibilities only to the extent that they served to Perhaps the most important thing is not the
weid together a new empire greater even than its specifications of what is clean and unclean, but
Babylonian and Assyrian predecessors (cf. Est the underlying motivation that prompted the
1:1). Two. the religion of Persia, Zoroastrianism, drawing of such a distinction. One obvious truth
was itself geared to tolerance, for it made a place here is that God is concemed with the total life of
for foreign gods as helpers of Ahuramazda, the his people, and nothing is beyond his concem or
chief god. The strategy in the political administra- purview. Whether the categorization of animals
tion of the empire may have been a spillover from is based on pagan associations or simply on
this mentality. hygienic concems is difficult to say. Perhaps
V.P.H. both.
Conceivably this is one illustration of how the
1821 0':I~ (piiras) divide, break (in two). OT unites hygiene and religion, or health and holi-
ness (III Jn 2\. lt is noteworthy that no punish-
Derivatives ment for violating these laws is ever mentioned.
1821a (peres) bird of prey, perhaps
0'.')l!i The prohibited animals are declared unclean, and
.vulture. it is understood that anyone absorbing their im-
1821b t~9,; (parsa) hoof purity would be cut off from all contact with the
holy and therefore from God. So then, lsrael's
The verb is used twice in the Qal to describe
total life is to be brought into conformity with
the "breaking" of bread for the hungry (lsa 58:7)
or at a funeral meal (Jer 16:7). Every other time it God's demands.
Bibliography: Harris, R. L., Man-God's
is in the Hiphil, used of those particular animals
Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 139-44.
which "separate" or "split" the hoof.
V.P.H.
parsä. Hoof. Found in (prophetic) passages to
describe the might of an enemy raised by God 1822 1/j' (piira') I, act as leader, lead. This
himself against his people (lsa 5:28) or against denominative verb occurs only in Jud 5:2.
lsrael's neighbors (Jer 47:3, Philistines: Ezk Parent Noun
26: 11. Tyre). or even the strength of Israel herself
(Mic 4: 13). 1822a 1/jl!) (pera') leader (Jud 5:2: Deut
Of more important interest is the use of parsa j2:42).
in Lev I t:3-7 (seven times) and Deut 14:fH! (five
times) to describe the animals with cloven hoof. 1823 1/'"l!l (pr') II. Assumed root of the follow-
Leviticus 11 begins the third section in Lev ing.
which discusses the theme of legal purity, that is, 1823a 11':ll!I(pera·) long hair of head,
what the covenant of God with Israel meant for locks.
the latter in terms of daily living. Other items
1824 11:,, (piira') III, /et go, /et loose, ignore.
discussed in this unit beside chapter 11 (clean and
unclean animals) are childbirth (chap 12), leprosy This verb, used sixteen times in the OT, has
(chaps 13-14), sexual uncleanness (chap 15). three basic meanings. The first is "to let loose,"

736
 used of the hair in the sense of „ cutting" (Lev teenth or early thirteenth centuries B.c. Concem-
10:6, 13:45; 21: 10), or "unbraiding" (Num 5: 18). ing the Pharaoh whose heart "God hardened"
The second is „to let loose" in the sense of ··to (reflecting perhaps the monistic way in which the
let run wild'" (Ex 32:25 [twice]), ··when Moses Hebrew put the facts of history), see Rom 9: 14-
saw the people ·so out of hand'." The third is · · to 29. To use the unfaithful man providentially as a
Jet Joose" in the sense of „to Jet sJip through the means of revealing God' s gracious redemption to
fingers," i.e., "to ignore, reject" (Prov 1:25; others so that they may become redeemed is it-
8:33; 13:18; 15:32). self an act of mercy; (4) the father-in-law of Sol-
Twice pära' is used in the HiphiJ (Ex 5:4; omon (1 Kgs 3:1; 9:16, 24; 11:1). Solomon's mar-
II Chr 28: 19). Once it is used in the Niphal, Prov riage with Pharaoh's daughter signifies, possibly,
29:18, "where there is no vision the people 'per- Egypt's inferior status as a poJitical power l'is-a-
ish'" (KJV). On the basis ofthe use of pära' in the vis Israel at this time. The Pharaoh's donation of
Qal a possible transJation for Prov 29: 18 is, Gezer is most likely a territorial concession made
"where there is no vision (reveJation from God), in the guise of a dowry. This Pharaoh has been
the peopJe are ·undisciplined/get out of hand'." identified, tentatively, as Siamun or Psusennes
V.P.H. II, the last two kings ofthe twenty-first Dynasty.
Bibliography: Gardiner, A .. Egyptian Gram-
mar, London: Oxford University, 1966, pp.
1825 :,·11".ll:I
(par'öh) Pharaoh. The Hebrew
71-76. Redford, D., "The Pronunciation of Pr in
par'öh (in Akkadian, pir'u) represents the
Late Toponyms," JNES 22:119-22. Wilson, J.,
transcription and vocaJization from the
··Pharaoh" in IDB, III, pp. 773-74.
Egyptian per a·o "the Great House."
V.P.H.
Originally the Egyptian designation did not
refer to the king of Egypt, but rather to his 1825.1 tul/i;;i (par· ösh) flea.
palace. Not until the middle of the eighteenth
Dynasty (1575-1308 B.c.) did the expression be-
1826 fj~ (pära$) I, break (through, down, over),
come the appellative title of the king. As a cir-
hurst.
cumlocution used to specify the king, the phrase
per a'o may be analogous to the phrase "the Derivatives
White House," or to the titJe "the Sublime
1826a tf'.')~ (perq·) breach.
Porte," i.e. the Turkish sultan of the Ottoman
Empire. There is no indication that Egyptian 1826b f'".l'
(päri.r) violent one.
texts ever used "Pharaoh" as part of the officiaJ The verb is used some fifty times in the OT,
titulary of the king. often in a military or disaster situation. The sub-
There are several pharaohs named in the Bible: ject may be God or man. When God is the sub-
(1) Necho, II Kgs 23:29, (the twenty-sixth ject, pära$ describes his punitive activity upon
Dynasty) who killed Josiah (609 B.C.) at Megiddo. Israel herself(I Chr 15:13; lsa 5:5; Ps 60:1 [H 3];
II Chronicles 35:22 says that Josiah met his death 80:12 [H 13]; 89:40 [H 41)); upon one of her
because he would not listen to God's word from priests (Ex 19:22, 24); upon the individual (II Sam
Necho's mouth! (2) Hophra, Jer 44:30, who suc- 6:8; Job 16: 14); upon a recalcitrant king (II Chr
ceeded Necho, is an object of Jeremiah's 20:37); upon lsrael's enemies (II Sam 5:20; l Chr
prophecy; (3) Shishak, I Kgs 11:40 (twenty- 14: 11).
second Dynasty) who harbored Jeroboam when When päras is associated with man it often
the latter escaped the wrath of Solomon; (4) So, connotes malicious and destructive activity, for
king of Egypt to whom Hoshea sent envoys example, to describe what the Babylonians did to
(II Kgs 17:4). H. Goedicke argued that this is not the walls of Jerusalem. In Neh 4:3 [H 3:35] and
the name of a king but of a city (BASOR 171:64- Eccl 3:3 pära$ is used in contrast to bäna „to
6). K. Kitchen holds that it is Osorkon IV (The build, erect," showing that pära$ does not mean
Third lntermediate Period in Egypt, Aris & Phil- simply "to punch a hole through" but ··to level.
lips, 1973, pp. 372-75). raze."
There are also a number of pharaohs in the Another important nuance of pära$ is ··to in-
Bible who are incognito. Some of these are: ( 1) crease" (explained by KB, pp. 780-81, as ··to
the Pharaoh visited by Abraham (Gen 12: 10-20); break over (by plenty), i.e., increase"). Some
(2) the Pharaoh under whom Joseph served, pre- have suggested that there are actually two roots
sumably one of the Hyksos kings (Gen 39ff.): (3) here „ to break · · and "to increase" (Guillaume;
the Pharaoh of the oppression of the Exodus, see bibliography) or „to break through'" and
either Thutmose III and Amenhotep II, (eigh- "command"' (Driver; see bibJiography). When
teenth Dynasty), or Ramesses II and his son pära$ means ··to increase" it refers to an in-
Merenptah (nineteenth Dynasty), depending on crease either in produce (Job 1: 10; Prov 3: 10) or
whether one dates the Exodus events in the fif- in progeny (Gen 28: 14; I Chr 4:38). This increase

737
 may be due to the assistance of a friend or rela- of "to make invalid" or "annul" (Num 30:9, 13,
tive (Gen 30:30, 43) but more often is due to 14, 16). These all deal with vows taken by
God's grace (Ex 1:12; lsa 54:3). The inability to women, be she newly married, a divorcee or a
make increases, conversely, is indicative of widow. They may be "annulled" only b~ the
God's wrath (Hos 4: 10). bndegroom/husband, and must be done so im-
A third sense for pära!f is "to urge, be insis- mediately (v. 16). The opposite in Num 30 of
tent" (1 Sam 28:23, "they ·pressed' Saul to eat" piirar is qüm "to rise" with the meaning here of
i.e., they broke his abstinence; also, II Sam "validate, endorse." The same relationship be-
13:25, 27, David by Absalom; II Kgs 5:23, Gehazi tween these two verbs is found in Prov 15:22:
by Namaan). "Without deliberation plans ·come to nothing'
(häper), where counsellors are many plans ·suc-
pere$, Breach, gap, mostly in a wall (1 Kgs
ceed' (tiiqum)": (2) counsel/advice, 'e!fii (II Sam
11:27: lsa 58: 12; Arnos 9: 11; Neh 6: 1). God looks
15:34; 17:14; Ps 33: 10; Ezr 4:5; cf. also Isa 14:27);
for a man "to stand in the breach/gap" in front of
(3) sign/omen, '{>t, "foiled" by God; (4) the fear
him when he views the idolatry in Jerusalem (Ezk
(of God) yir'ii (Job 15:4); (5) the command-
13:5; 22:30; cf. Ps 106:23). pere!f may also de-
ment(s), mi!fwii, (Ezr 9:14); (6) God's judgment,
scribe the breaking of a dike (II Sam 5:20; I Chr
mishpä{ (Job 40:8);
13:11); a rupture between tribes (Jud 21:15); a
lt will be seen that in all these instances piirar
perineal rupture (Gen 38:29, the birth of Perez
has a moral overtone. lt does not mean "to
and the sudden and unexpected priority of his
break" in the sense of an exhibition of physical
birth over that of his brother Zerah).
strength, but to violate or renege on revealed
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Some Hebrew
truth. Only in Ps 74: 13 do we find a reference to
Roots and Their Meanings," JTS 23:69-73, esp.
piirar and strength: "You have 'broken' the sea
p. 72. --, "The Root pr!f in Hebrew," JTS by your strength," a reference not to the Exodus
25:177-78. --, ··Studies in the Vocabulary
events (Ex 14:21) but to the primeval actions of
of the Old Testament III," JTS 32:361-66, esp.
Gen.
pp. 365-66. Glück, J., "The Verb PRS in the
This is bome out by the fact that of the fifty-
Bible and in the Qumran Literature,'; RQum
three uses of pärar, in twenty-three the direct
5:123-27. Guillaume, A., "Paranomasia in the
object is "covenant" b' rit. Of course, usually
Old Testament," JSS 9:282-90, esp. pp. 284-85
man is responsible for "breaking" the covenant.
(on "Perez' in Gen 38:27ff.). __ , "Some He-
On a few occasions, however, the possibility of
brew Roots and their Meanings: l'"l!:I," JTS
God's "breaking" the covenant is alluded to:
24:318.
Lev 26:44; Jud 2: 1; Jer 14:21; Zech II: 10. Simi-
V.P.H.
larly, Ps 89:33 [H 34]. Possibly then herein this
covenant relationship was that of annulment.
1827 l'"l!:I (pr!f) II. Assumed root of the follow-
Yet, "though the expectation of God's punitive
ing.
intervention was very real, it looked on the whole
1827a l'?~~ (miprä!f) landing place (Jud
for individual divine acts of punishment, the aim
5: 17).
of whic~ was not an annihilating judgment that
would d1ssolve the covenant, but rather the main-
1828 ,'j' (päraq) tear apart, away (e.g. Gen
tenance of that relationship by the removal of
27:40: Lam 5:8).
disturbing elements" (Eichrodt).
Derivatives Bibliography: On piirar in Eccl 12:5: Dahood,
M., "Canaanite-Phoenician Influence in
1828a ,'':,~ (pereq) parting of ways (Ob
Qoheleth," Bib 33:216. On Job 15:4: Driver
14); pluntkr (Nah 3:1).
G. R., "Problems in the Hebrew Text of Job"
1828b "'' (päräq) fragment (lsa 65:4). Supp VT 3: 77. Eichrodt, W., ETOT, I, pp. 457ff.
1828c rir:,-,~r,, (mapreqet) neck (1 Sam
THAT, II, pp. 486--87.
4: 18).
V.P.H.
1829 *"lj' (piirar) l, break, destroy, frustrate,
in validate. 1830 "ljf (pärar) II, spüt, divide (lsa 24: 19;
Ps 74: 13).
The verb appears fifty-three times in the oT,
most ~ften in the Hiphil stem (forty-six times),
1831 "1"1!:I(prr) III. AMumed root of the follow-
never m the Qal. lt can be used only transitively.
ing.
The suggestion of KB, p. 782, to distinguish be-
tween pärar "to break" and pärar II "to stir 1831a t"IQ (par) young bull, bullock.
rouse" (lsa 24:19; Ps 74:13) seems unnecessary'. 1831b t:i?f (pärii) heifer, cow.
In the sense of "to break" piirar may take the par. Young bull, bullock, referred to 132 times
following objects: ( 1) a vow, neder, in the sense in the OT (KB, p. 775, derives par from pärar III,

738
 1832 it'"j' (päras)

··turn away, be untamed, unmannerly"). lt is a Derivative

type of cattle (bäqär), a category which sub-
divides into: ( 1) ·elep/' äläpim and shbr, the male 1832a w-;:~~(miprä.O spreading out, thing
spread.
working ox used in tillage. ploughing: (2) par
"bull"; (3) piirii "cow": (4) 'egel "calf'; 'eg/a This verb appears sixty-nine times in the or
"heifer." (Qal, fifty-seven times: Niphal, once; Pie), eleven
Only in Ps 22: 12 [H 13] is par used as a figure times). There are a number of direct objects that
of strength and power. Mostly it is mentioned as follow päras. Those which appear most often
a sacrificial victim, especially in Lev and Num. are: ( 1) käniip (thirteen times: twice in the singu-
Often par is followed by the phrase ben bäqiir lar, Ruth 3:9: Ezk 16:8, ··skirt," and eleven times
(e.g. Ex 29:1; Lev 4:3, 14: Num 7:15). in the plural, "wings"). Many ofthese references
In the Hebrew sacrificial system the bull (par) are to the cherubim spreading their wings above
figured prominently as a sacrificial animal, used: the Ark (Ex 25:20: 37:9; I Kgs 6:27: 8:7; I Chr
(1) at the consecration of Aaron and his sons (Ex 28: 18; II Chr 3: 13; 5:8). God's "wings" may act
29:1, 3, 10, 11, 14); (2) as the sin otTering either as a net to trap the wicked (Jer 48:40; 49:22) or
forthe sins ofthe high priest (Lev 4:3, 4, 5, etc.), act as a protection and a covering to the righteous
or the community in Israel (Lev 4: 14, 15, 16, 20, (Deut 32: 11).
21; in both cases the bull was tobe immolated. lts (2) A second frequently found object of päras
remains were bumed "outside the camp," the is reshet ··net," nine times. The net may be
animal having served as a substitute for the guilty spread by God himself over his own backslidden
person who should be expelled); (3) on the Day of people (Ezk 12: 13; 17:20; 32:3; Hos 7: 12). Or the
Atonement, when the high priest offered a bull net may be spread over Israel, by an invader
for himself (Lev 16:6, 11, etc.); (4) at the in- (Ezk 19:8), or over an individual (Ps 140:5 [H 6])
vestiture of priests when a bull was offered for by hostile men. Cf. Prov 29:5; Lam 1: 13: Hos
their sin (Lev 8:2); (5) at the feast of tabemacles 5: 1.
(Num 29:20, 36); (6) at the feast of weeks (Num (3) Most frequently the direct object of paras is
28:28); (7) at the feast of the new moon (Num "hand" (kap "palm," thirteen times; yad, five
28:11). Most frequently par is used in the de- times). This is. of course, a reference to the
scription of the offering for the dedication of the spreading of one·s palms before God in prayer.
tabemacle 's altar (Num 7: 15, 21, etc.). The oT data would indicate that the prayer could
assume a number of different postures in his
pärä. Cow. Unlike the par "bull," the cow
prayer time: ( 1) standing, I Sam 1:26: I Kgs 8:22;
was never used in the OT as an animal of sacrifice.
Jer 18:20; (2) kneeling, I Kgs 8:54; Ezr 9:5; Dan
The only exception is the red heifer, which was
6: 11; (3) prostration, Josh 7:6; (4) head bowed,
slaughtered and bumed outside the camp (Num
Gen 24:26; Neh 9:6: (5) face between the knees,
19:lff.). Its ashes were mixed with the water of
I Kgs 18:42; (6) sitting, II Sam 7: 18.
purification (vv. 17-22), which removed defile-
lt may be of no special significance, but the
ment incurred through contact with the dead
word used after piiras in the Qal when the verb
(Num 19:11-16). Hebrews 9: 13 refers to this cus-
refers to prayer is always kap, more literally,
tom when speaking of the effectiveness of
"the palm." In the Piel, however, the object, if
Christ's blood for the remission of sin.
the reference is to prayer, is yad (Ps 143:6; Lam
Of interest is the story of the Philistines' re-
1: 17) except for kap in lsa 1:15.
tuming the ark to Israel (1 Sam 6). The presence
Same whose prayers are physically accom-
of God is always a problem for the sinner! The
panied by the raising of or spreading before God
Philistines were instructed to send the ark back
the palms are: (1) Moses, Ex 9:29, 33; (2) Sol-
on a new cart, drawn by two previously un-
omon, I Kgs 8:22, 54; II Chr 6: 12, 13; (3) Ezra,
worked cows that had just calved (1 Sam 6:7).
Ezr 9:5; (4) Job, on advice by Zophar, Job 11: 13;
The calves were to be separated from the cows
(5) the prayer of the pious who spread their hands
(1 Sam 6:7). The striking evidence that God is
toward the temple, I Kgs 8:38; II Chr 6:29; (6)-
leading them is that the cows, though separated
those who degrade prayer to a cover-up for in-
from their calves, go forward and head for Beth-
justice and oppression, lsa 1: 15; (7) those who
shemesh (1 Sam 6: 12).
stretch their palms to an alien God, Ps 44:20
Twice, pära is used symbolically, Hos 4: 16,
[H 21].
comparing Israel' s backsliding to a stubbom
lt would appear that in most cases where up-
cow, and Arnos 4: 1, symbolizing the reckless
lifted hands are involved it is in a spirit of suppli-
luxury of the warnen of Samaria.
cation. The same idea may be found, though,
V.P.H.
with the verb niisii "to lift, raise" in Ps 28:2;
134:2; 141:2. Cf. the Ugaritic fo ydk smm "lift up
your hands toward heaven" (Krt: 75-76). Paul
1832 tvj' (päras) spread out, stretch. reflects this practice in I Tim 2:8.

739
1833 tu':19
(pärash)

The odd form par.fr~ Job 26:9 is called a Pi"lel 1834 *t:h~ (pärash) II, pierce, sting. This
of pärmi by BOB and GB. verb occurs only once. in the Hiphil (Prov
V.P.H. 23:32).

!W'!~ (pärfr~ ). See discussion under no. 1835 tu"\!: (prsh) III. Assumed root of the fol-
1832. lm~ing.
1835a w:,i;, (pert'Sh) feca/ matter.
1833 IU".\~ (piirash) /, make distinct, declare.
1836 ~"\!: (prsh) IV. Assumed root of the foJ.
Derivative
lowing.
1833a :i~-,~(päräshii) exact statement 1836a t~;,~ (päriish) horse, horseman.
(Est 4:7: 10:2). Both of these translations are covered by the
This verbis found five times in the or (or four if one Hebrew word. The various lexica differ radi-
in Ezk 34: 12 the MT is changed from nipräsluil to cally among themselves as to how often and
niprä.vot, ·•his sheep that are ·scattered·.-- that is where päräsh = "horse „ and where "rider." Some
from päras instead of pärash). The one use ofthe have suggested that the proper translation of
verb in the Hiphil is Prov 23:32, "it ·stings· like ptirtish is always "horse" and if "horsemen" is
an adder." KB, p. 782. 83 includes this under ever allowable, the reference is to those who were
parash I. but BOB, p. 831, relegates this Prov charged with managing the horses (as in a
passage to a separate root pärash 11. chariol), not to those who mount for riding
The three passages we are left with then are: (Mowinckel).
(1) Lev 24: 12-in the case of blasphemy it is said The word occurs fifty-seven times in the or and
of the culprit that he is to be placed under guard all but three are in the plural. Since the singular
until the will of the Lord "should be made clear" form is päräsh, one would expect the remaining
unto them. (2) Num 15:34--in a case of Sabbath fifty-four instances to have the plural form
breaking the violator is tobe kept in custody until p' rüshim. lnstead the form is päräshim. The MT
his penalty should be "determined" or "fixed." presupposes an original parräsh.
(3) N eh 8:8, .. So they read in the book in the law The heaviest clusters of parash are found in
of God "distinctly' .. (KJV), or in some versions, the Solomon cycle in reference to his vast re-
"they read from the Law of God, ·translating' ... sources (ten times), and in the account of the
i.e. from Hebrew to Aramaic. Conceivably the death of the Egyptians at the Red/Reed Sea, Ex
form of the verb in Hebrew here, m'pöräsh. is 14 (six times).
the equivalent of the Aramaic form in Ezr 4: 18, Bibliography: Gurney, 0. R.. ·•Hittite
"The document you sent to me has been ·trans- Paras-Horse'.''?"' PEQ 69: 194. Mowinckel, S ..
lated ·, m ,.pärash, and read before me. · · ( Ezr "Drive and/or Ride in O.T .. " VT 12:278-99. esp.
4:6----6:
18 are written in Aramaic, the rest in pi,. 289-95. Sayce, A., ·•Origin of the Hebrew
Hebrew.) PARASH,·· JTA 24:175.
The basic meaning still remains. "to make/be
made clear·· (by revelation, explication, or trans- 1837 l~~•-,~ (parsheRen) copy. This Persian
lation). loan word occurs only in Ezra 7: 11.
lt is from this Hebrew root that the term
"Pharisee" is derived. The origin both of the 1838 :i;-:~;:,~(parsh'dönti).Meaning unknown.
movement and the designation itself. Pharisee, is Only Jud 3:22. BOB connects with peresh
somewhat puzzling. lt has been suggested that fecal matter. LXX takes it as part of Eg-
the Pharisees, under the Hasmonean prince John lon ·s palace.
Hyrcanus (135-104 B.c.), himself an ex-Pharisee.
were expelled from the Sanhedrin and were sub- 1839 l:l'~l"i'!!il
(part' mim) nobles. Only in Est
sequently branded with the name the "Peru- and Dan. Loan word from Old Persian.
shim," i.e., "the separators." In other words,
the term was originally one of opprobrium. akin
to that attached to the Holy Club at Oxford. the 1840 :,~~ (pä.i:ti) spread.
··methodists." And like the Methodists, the
Pharisees took the name as their own but used its 1841 IIW~(päfo') step, march (lsa 27:4).
alternative Hebrew meaning. "the exponents"
(of the Law). The Pharisees are, then. the Derivatives
"separators" in that they are the expositors of 1841a IIW~ (pe.l'a') step (1 Sam 20:3).
the Law, both written and oral. 1841b :--:;i~i;,~ (mipfo'ä) hip or buttock
V.P.H. (1 Chr 19:4).

740
 1846 t.'W'(päsha')
1842 :,w~(päfoq) part, open wide (Prov 13:3: ties. In Ugaritic the substantive ps· "sin" is
Ezk 16:25). found (UT 19: no. 2128).
In a context of international relationships, the
1843 tu~ (pash) folly (Job 35: 15). Meaning verbal form designates a casting off of allegiance.
uncertain. a rebellion against rulers. This secular concept of
revolt appears in I and II Kgs and parallels in
II Chr. By analogy, but in a religious sense, Is-
1844 *MW~(päshalJ) tear in piues. Occurs rael was accused of rebelling against her divine
only in the Piel (1 Sam 15:33; Lam 3: 11). king and the established covenant between them
(lsa 1:28; 48:8: Ezk 2:3; Hos 8: 1). Obviously,
1845 t:IW~(paslw() strip, invade. God is never guilty of committing this act since
there is no higher authority than himself: hence,
The verb occurs forty-two times in the oT,
this is a trait of human activity (Hos 14:9), and is
twenty-three times in the Qal: three times in the
sometimes set in contrast to the actions offaithful
Piel (1Sam31 :8: II Sam 23: 10: I Chr 10:8, always
(Prov 28:21: and righteous (Ps 37:38) men. In one
··10 strip the slain" after a battle): fifteen times in
the Hiphil; once in the Hithpael (1 Sam 18:4, instance, Israel is accused of engaging in rebel-
lion "since your birth" (lsa 48:8). The acts of
"Jonathan ·took off the cloak he was wearing").
transgression, i.e. going beyond the limits of
In the Qal stem päsha/ has two basic transla-
God's laws, have impact on inner attitudes which
tions. One is to "strip off' (clothing), the second
is "lo invade." The meaning "to strip off' is not create deceitfulness (lsa 59: 13) or a distorted love
for this "independence" from God (Arnos 4:4). lt
unique to the Qal stem but may be found also in
may dull one's knowledge of the right (Hos 8: 1:
the Pie! (where the object of the verbis "armor"
Ps 51:13) and be a rigid refusal to accept correc-
of a fallen warrior) and in the Hiphil (primarily
with the object "clothing" but also "armor" tion (Jer 2:8, 29; Hos 7: 13: Zeph 3: 11: Arnos 4:4).
(1 Sam 31:9) or „ skin" in the sense of "to tlay,
God's reaction to transgression may be judg-
ment (Ps 37:38: lsa 1:28: Dan 8:23), but his deep
dismember" (Lev 1:6; II Chr 29:34; 35: 11; Mic
desire is really to provide salvation from this way
3:3). Of the fifty-two occurrences of päsha/,
of living. Through lsa (46:8) he gave a ringing call
twenty-three times the meaning is "to strip, re-
to remember and turn, and through the Suffering
move, make naked."
Servant made provision for a change (lsa 53: 12).
In such a context päshat may denote violent or
Those who would cast away, and acknowledge
judgmental action-those passages which refer to
these sins (Jer 3: 13: Ezk 18:31), God would for-
the stripping off of one·s armor-but also, the
give and redeem (Jer 33:8: Hos 7: 13; Zeph 3: 11).
Stripping off of one's clothing when Israel/Judah
At least one so redeemed desired to teil others
is overrun by an alien power (Ezk 16:39; 23:26;
how to be converted (Ps 51: 13).
Josh 2:3 [H 51). Micah 2:8 observes that Judah
"pulls off," i.e. "steals" the coats of others. pesha'. Rebellion, revolt, transgression. This
Similarly Joseph was "stripped" of his coat by masculine noun designates those who reject
his brothers (Gen 37:23). Aaron is to be God's authority. In the indictments of the first
"stripped" of his vestments, before he dies, on two chapters of Arnos, pesha' is done by non-
account of lsrael's past sins (Num 20:26, 28). lsraelites to other people, but overwhelmingly
On other occasions "to remove" the clothing the Hebrew· people were the ones who were
simply means to make a change in one·s dress, at guilty of pesha' against the authority and cove-
a sacred occasion (Lev 6: 11 [H 4]; 16:23); at the nant of their God. In a few Psalms, the book of
end ofa day·s work (Neh 4:23 [H 17]): as a sign of Prov and a few instances in Ezk the individual is
repentance and mouming over one's sins (lsa emphasized, instead of the corporate body, guilty
32:11): in an act of ecstatic prophecy (1 Sam ofthis sin. Lam personifies Jerusalem three times
19:24). and lsa says the earth (a figure for its inhabitants)
Bibliography: On piishar in Hos 2:5: Gordon, was involved in pesha'.
C. H., "Hos. 2:4-5 in the Light of New Semitic In a few secular contexts, this term refers to
lnscriptions," ZA W 54:277-80. violations of personal and property rights of oth-
V.P.H. ers (Gen 31:36; 50:17: I Sam 24:11: 25:28). In a
religious context, this term refers to involvement
in fertility cult practices (lsa 57:4), active perse-
1846 l/W~ (päsha') rebel, transgress, revolt.
cution ofGod's people (Ps 5: 10 [H 111:59:3 [H 41)
Derivative and telling falsehoods (Prov 12: 13: 17:9). Predom-
inantly pesha' is rebellion against God's law and
1846a tl/W~ (pesha') rebellion.
covenant and thus the term is a collective which
The fundamental idea of the root is a breach of denotes the sum of misdeeds and a fractured rela-
relationships, civil or religious, between two par- tionship.

741
1847 iw~ (pesherl

The measure of this kind of sin is the character Desclee, 1964. Girdlestone, R. B., SOT, pp.
of God himself, for if there were no such God, 26-85. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin in the O/d Testa-
there could not be pesha ·. Some passages high- ment, Rome: Herder, 1963. Quell, G., Sin, Lon-
light the contrast between God and man's rejec- don: Adam and Charles Black. 1951. Smith,
tion of him, especially his desire to correct the C. R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin, London: Ep-
estrangement (Ex 34:7: Num 14:18: Josh 24: 19: worth, 1953. TDNT, 1, pp. 268-93. THAT, 11,pp.
I Kgs 8:50: Prov 19:11: Mic 7:18). 488-94.
Not only does pt'sha' create a gulf between G.H.L.
God and man, it generates distortions within him-
self, i.e. a tendency to hide his actions (Job 34:6). 1847 i~!;I (pesher) solution, interpretation.
deceitfulness (Prov 28:24), apathy (Ps 36: 1 [H 2)), Loan word from Aramaic (pishrii ·, Eccl
illness (Ps 107: 17), a love for strife (Prov 17: 19), a 8: 1).
sense of enslavement (Prov 12: 13), easily angered
(Prov 29:22), hypocritical worship (Isa 58: 1) and 1848 riW1;1 (peshet) jlax, linen. Derivation
a sense of defilement (Ezk 14:11). In one case, uncertain.
pesha · is depicted as a heavy, crushing weight
(lsa 24:20). 1849 :ii;,~l!) (pishtii) jlax.
As far as God is concerned, there are two ways
the rebellion may be ended: it may end with 1850 l'll!> (pol) sockets (I Kgs 7:50: lsa 3: 17).
punishment or a renewal of the relationship.
God's first step is to indict his people and expose l"\11(pat). See no. 1862a.
their sin as a rebellion. Some key passages with CN:;'ll!> (pit'öm). See no. 1859a.
this theme are Job 36:9; Mic 3:8. Through his
servants, God warns his people of their <langer 1851 ~;•r,11 (pat-biig) portion (of food) for
(Ps 89:32 [H 33): Arnos 3: 14), and takes pains to king, delicacies (Dan 1: 11:26).
designate their transgression as the cause for
their punishment (Ezk 39:24: Mic 1: 13; Dan 1852 C~:;'ll!) (pitgiim) edict, decree (Est 1:20:
8:12-13). Eccl 8: 11). Persian loan word.
The references given above on the character of
God indicate that God wants to pursue a different
1853 :ii;,~ (piitii) entice, deceive, persuade.
course of action: he wants to save his people. In
the ceremonies of the Day of Atonement he pro- Derivative
vided a scapegoat (Lev 16:16, 21) and in Isa 53:5,
1853a t•r,1;1 (petf) simple, foolish.
8 promised redemption through the Suffering
Servant. Through his servants he promised for- The verb piitii appears twenty-seven times,
giveness (Job 7:21; lsa 43:25: Ezk 18:22: 37:23). primarily in the Pie! and Pual stems. The basic
God also makes man· s role of choice clear (Ezk verb idea is "be open, spacious, wide," and
33: 12: cf. Job 8:4). might relate to the immature or simple one who is
Before God actually grants his pardon, man is open to all kinds of enticement, not having de-
called upon to act (Ezk 18:30-31) with a warning veloped a discriminating judgment as to what is
attached and that man must personally repudiate right or wrong.
his rebellion and the idolatry that was an integral The verb usage is seen in the tactics of Sam-
part of it (Ezk 18:28, 37:23). son' s bride-to-be in wrangling the secret of his
An examination of several prayers of supplica- riddle (although in the end she lost her husband,
tion reveals that the one who prays does indicate Jud 14:15-16). Enticement is described in terms
awareness of sin (lsa 59: 12) and does engage in of a man seducing a woman (Ex 22: 15). The im-
confession ofsin (Ps 51:3 [H 5]: Ezk 33:10). Yet, mature are warned not be enticed by sinners
it is clear that human effort can not bring salva- (Prov 1: 10). Another arresting usage of entice-
tion, so these prayers also exhibit an earnest plea ment is what happens when a man refuses to fol-
for God to act (Job 13:23: 14: 17; Ps 19:13 [H 14]: low God's direction. He is enticed to do wrong to
25:7: 51: 1 [H 3]). Best of all, testimonies are re- his ultimate hurt, a discipline or judgment for re-
corded that God did indeed pardon and redeem jecting the Lord (II Chr 18:19-21).
his people (Ps 32:1: 65:3: Prov 19:11: lsa 43:25: To deceive carries almost the same idea as to
44:22: 53:5: 59:20). entice. Israel is warned not to be deceived by
Historically, Israel as a nation and as individu- turning to other gods in the midst of plenty (Deut
als knew God's acts of judgment and his acts of 11:16). To be a witness against a neighbor with-
salvation. Man ·s rebellion was the cause of the out cause is to deceive with one's lips (Prov
judgments, but God's compassion was the 24:28). Jeremiah in the depths of despair com-
grounds for their salvation. plained that God had deceived him when his
Bibliography: Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bib/e, ministry seemed so fruitless. The Lord was gra-

742
 1854 n.ri~ (päta~)

cious with him (as he is with all who serve him), ject of piita/:1 is a part of the body-forty-one
for Jeremiah could not escape the commission times (the mouth: twenty-three times; the eyes:
(20:7-9). Even a prophet can be deceived by God seven times; the hands: six times; the lips: three
when a double-minded people ask guidance. The times; the ears: twice).
Word already given (regarding idols) must be Since päta/:1 is followed most frequently by
obeyed before further light is sought or eise it is peh "mouth," it will be instructive to see what
mockery (Ezk 14:9). are the various nuances behind the phrase, "to
open the mouth." In some places this combina-
peti. Simple, foolish. peti generally describes
tion is simply a literary device to draw attention
the naive (not deranged) in Prov who must be
to what follows as in "Job opened his mouth,"
weil taught, since an immature person believes
(Job 3: 1). This is comparable to the introduction
anything (Prov 14: 15). [But is not something
in the NT to the Sermon on the Mount, · ·And
worse than immaturity implied when the p' täyim
Jesus opened his mouth," (Mt 5:2) or "Then
along with mockers le$im and fools k' silfm (Prov
Peter opened his mouth and said" (Acts 10:34).
1:22)are said to have "rejected me," "ignored
Quite often it is simply a circumlocution for
my advice" and not to have "accepted my re-
"talk," or "speak." "When she ·opens' her
buke" (1:24-25 N1v)?R.L.H.] Ifthe peti refuses to
mouth, she does so wisely," (Prov 31:26; cf.
learn he will go on to inherit folly ('iwwelet, the
24:7). Thirdly, it may mean "to make an an-
impairment of moral and spiritual values, Prov
nouncement" (Ezk 21 :22 [H 271). Fourth, "to
14:18). To achieve moral and spiritual maturity,
the naive are encouraged to receive prudence open the mouth" sometimes denotes "to slander,
to attack with words" (Ps 109:2). Fifth, one may
(Prov 1:4), to understand wisdom (Prov 8:5), and
open his mouth to eat (Ezk 3:2).
to dwell where wisdom makes her home (Prov
Sixth, one who does not open his mouth is
9:4). Otherwise, he may drift into temptation and
compared to one afflicted with dumbness (Ps
then sin, immorality (Prov 7:7f.), robbery and
38: 13 [H 14]). He refuses to give back to his ac-
murder (Prov 1: 10--14). Apart from godly tutel-
cusers the sharp ans wer or to retaliate orally.
age, he is on the road to death (Prov 7:7; 22:3).
This can be seen too of the suffering Servant in
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 495-97.
Isa 53:7, "He opened not his mouth.' · In the sev-
L.G.
eral instances of this phrase in Ezekiel the mean-
ing is "to function and speak prophetically";
r11r-i~ (pittüa/:1). See no. 1855a.
thus, Ezk 3:27, "When I speak to you, I shall
r,;r,, (piitot). See no. 1862b.
·open your mouth' and you will teil them." When
1854 nti, (piita/:1) I, open. Ezekiel was struck dumb (3:26) it is very unlikely
that this means he lost his capacity for speech.
Derivatives What he lost was his capacity to function as a
1854a tMt,ll.) (peta/:1) opening, doorway. prophet and to act as an intermediary or inter-
1854b Mt'Jll.l(peta/:1) opening, unfolding cessor. Cf. too Ezk 24:27; 33:22.
(Ps 119: 130). Finally "the opening of the mouth" is applied
1854c liMi:-t~ (pit/:lon) opening (Ezk to something other than humans: (1) a cave: Josh
16:63; 29:21). 10:22; (2) the earth: Num 16:32; 26: 10; (3) a don-
1854d ni,'l'.'l!p(p' ti/:lä) drawn sword (Ps key: Num 22:28.
55:22; Ezk 21:33; Ps 37: 14). petal;t. Opening, entrance, 164 times. lt may
!854e MJ;II?~(miptä/:1) opening, utterance describe the opening/entrance of: ( 1) a tent, Gen
(Prov 8:6). 18:1; (2) a house, Gen 19:11; (3) a city, I Kgs
1854f t,:it,i;,r,, (maptea/:1) key. 17:10; (4) an "open" place, Gen 38: 14; (5) a cave,
The verb appears 135 times in the OT, in the I Kgs 19:13; (6) a gate, Ps 24:7, 9. The word is
Qal, 97 times; in the Niphal, 18 times; in the Piel, used tiguratively in Hos 2: 15 [H 17], "a door of
19 times; in the Hithpael, once. In the Qal stem hope." Only in Mic 7:5 is peta/:1 connected with
the meaning "to open" remains standard. The the mouth, "keep the 'doors' of your mouth."
same is basically true in the Niphal except for Isa mapteal;t. Key an opening instrument, Jud
5:27; 51:14 where the respective translations are 3:25; 1 Chr 9:27; Isa 22:22.
"to loose" and "to release." In the Pie!, how- Bibliography: Dahöod, M., "Hebrew and
ever, the primary meaning is "to loose, untie, Ugaritic Equivalents of Akkadian pitü püridä,"
strip off, undo," either in the sense of "to Bib 39:67-69 (lsa 45:1, "I shall 'loose· (päta/:1) in
humiliate" (Job 12: 18; 30: 11; Isa 45: 1), but more the Pie!) the loins of kings" does not mean, "J
often "to liberale" (Isa 58:6; Jer 40:4; Ps 102:20 shall disarm kings" but "I shall make the kings
[H 21]; 116:16). run"). Emerton, J., "Binding And Loosing: For-
piita/:1is a transitive verb always with a direct giving And Retaining," JTS 13:325-31. (pätah
or implied direct object. Most commonly the ob- may throw light on "whatsoever you loose on

743
1855 *n.ti, (päta~)

earth," Mt 16:19). Gertner, M., "TermsofScrip- ·straightway· (KJv)" or •impulsively.' .. The LXX
tural Interpretation: a Study in Hebrew Seman- reads for "straightway" kepphötheis "simple-
tics," BSOAS 25:1-27, esp. pp. 14-16 (Pätah tons" suggesting that behind the MT pt' m is
means 'interpret/interpretation· in Ps 49:4 [H 5]; p•· tä'im. We retain the Massoretic vocalization
119:130). Wilson, R. R., ··An Interpretation of (W. McKane, Proverbs, p. 340) as more in line
Ezekiel's Dumbness," VT 22:91-104. with the context.
V.P.H. The final-min pit'öm is in biblical Hebrew and
Ugaritic frequently an adverbial indicator. Com-
1855 *Mr,, (päta!J) II, carve, engrave. pare such words as: ~innäm "in vain": reqäm
"empty-handed"; yomäm "daily": ·etmöl shil-
Derivative shöm „ previously ...
1855a lj11'1~ (pittüa~) engraving. Of the twenty-five uses of pit'öm all of them
occur in connection with disaster or judgment.
This verb appears eight times in the Piel and
The one exception where pit'öm has a pleasant
once in the Pual (Ex 39:6). lt may refer to engrav-
sense is II Chr 29:36. After describing the rededi-
ings on buildings (Solomon's temple, I Kgs 7:36:
cation of the temple by Hezekiah the writer says,
II Chr 3:7: and the worker, Huram, who did the
· ·And Hezekiah rejoiced and all the people over
engraving on that temple (II Chr 2:7, 14 [H 6,
what God had prepared for the people, for the
13)). Secondly, it refers to engravings on the thing was done ·suddenly', .. most likely a refer-
priestly vestments, specifically (1) the two stones
ence to the reforms of Hezekiah which were so
on which the names of the tribes of Israel are to speedily and happily executed.
be inscribed, which are then tobe attached to the The word first appears in the OT in Num 6:9.
shoulder straps of the Ephod (Ex 28:9, 11), and
Because a Nazirite had to avoid contact with any-
(2) the diadem (Ex 28:36). Cf. also Zech 3:9.
thing deceased, if anyone died "suddenly" in his
V.P.H. presence, the Nazirite had to present a sacrifice
to God. Cf. also Num 12:4.
liMi:,~ (pit''/:uin). See no. 1854c.
The adverb appears for the first time in a mili-
•i,~ (peti). See no. 1853a.
tary context in Josh 10:9: 11:7, describing the
blitzkrieg attack of Joshua on the Amorite kings
1856 ',•~•i:,~ (p' tigi/) rich robe (lsa 3:24).
and Hazor. This is preponderantly the motif in
the prophetic references too: lsa 47: 11: Jer 51:8
,;ri,
-
:in•r,s (p'' tf~ä). See no. 1854d.
(päti/). See no. 1857d. for example.
Malachi's proclamation (3:1) ofthe Messiah's
appearing is weil known, ··And the Lord. whom
1857 ',J::1' (päta/) twist.
you seek, shall ·suddenly' come to his temple."
Derivatives This sudden coming will be a combination of
',•r,, (päti/) cord, thread. judgment and vindication, curse and blessing.
1857a
1857b ,-1'1,r,~ (p' taltö/) tortuous ( Deut
Who can remain standing on that day'?
Bibliography: Gordon. C. H., UT 11:4 (for
32:5). the adverbial -m): Daube, D., The Sudden in the
1857c C'711'1Q~ ( naptülim) wrest/ings
Scriptures. Leiden: Brill, 1964, pp. 1-8.
(Gen 30:8).
V.P.H.
',f-i7t1!;) (p'' taltö/). See no. 1857b,
1860 ,r,~ (pätar) interpret (dreams).
1858 l?'itl (ptn). Assumed root of the following.
1858a 1!)!;1 (peten) venomous serpent, per- Derivative
haps cobra. 1860a tl-,r,~ (pitr1i11) interpretation.
1858b 1~~~ ( miptän) threshold.
The verb occurs nine times in the OT, always in
1859 lJt\!ll (peta') suddenness. connection with the interpretation of dreams, and
1859a tc't(r,~ (pit' äm) suddenly, surpris- here it is confined exclusively to Gen 40--41,
ingly. Joseph's dream interpretations while in Egypt.
pit'öm. Suddenly, surprisingly. The word ap- pitrön. Interpretation. Only in Gen 40--41. The
pears twenty-five times in the OT, most often in Aramaic equivalent for pätar is p's/wr which is
the prophets, ten times (lsa, four times: Jer, five found as a noun and a verb in Dan 2-5. lt has
times: Mal, once) and in Wisdom Literature, been speculated that the place of residence of
eight times (Prov, four times: Job, three times: Balaam-Pethor (Num 22:5) is not a Hebrew loca-
Eccl, once). The one dubious passage is Prov tive at all but instead is Balaam·s Aramaic pro-
7:22 which translates, ··He goes after her fessional title-patlwrah-a regular nomen agefllis

744
 1862 riti, (pätat)

of pätar "the interpreter, .. (Yaure; see biblio- although individual Hebrews may interpret
graphy). dreams for foreigners. And even when they do,
Among the literature from Qumran there have the Scripture emphasizes that neither was able to
been discovered „commentaries"' on several of solve the dream through his own wisdom. lt was
the canonical books. The characteristic feature of God who revealed the interpretation to them
these compositions is that the gloss after the bi- (Gen 40:8; Dan 2:7ff.).
blical verse quoted is preceded by the phrase Bibliography: Ehrlich, E. L., Der Traum im
pishro 'a/, .. its interpretation concems." Hence, Alten Testament (Beihefte ZA W 73), Berlin: Ver-
because of the use of the root pshr, these com- lag Alfred Töpelmann, 1953. Oppenheim, A. L.,
mentaries (better, apocalyptic expositions of bi- The Interpretation of Dreams in the Ancient
blical passages, for the most part from the Near East, Philadelphia: American Philosophical
prophets) are known as p•· shärim. Society, 1956. Yaure, L., .. Elymas-Nehelamite-
The technical name for dream interpretation is Pethor," JBL 79:297-314, esp. pp. 3 I0ff.
oneiromancy. An individual who engages in such V.P.H.
an activity is called an oneirocritic. lt is weil
known that in the ancient Near East there existed iii:,~ (pitrön). See no. 1860a.
a whole discipline of dream interpretation even to
the existence of manuals on the subject. In these 1861 PV?l'.'IO(patshegen) copy (Est 3: 14; 4:8;
cultures dreams were always understood caus- · 8:.13). A variant of parshegen (q.v.).
ally. By magic one could induce good dreams.
The local deity could be petitioned to turn a 1862 l'\t,~ (pätal) break up, crumble. Occurs
dream to good. Or. the ill effect of a bad dream only in Lev 2:6.
could be cancelled by a counterspell.
lt is of no little importance that a science of Derivatives
dream interpretation failed to emerge in Israel. 1862a l'\l!) (pa/) Jragment, bit, morse/ of
Only two Hebrews engage in oneiromancy- bread.
Joseph and Daniel-and that while they belong to 1862b Mil'\' (pätol) fragment (Ezk
the court of heathen kings. The biblical Hebrews 13: 19).
never need interpreters to explain their dreams,

745
 :itc~ (.re'a). See no. 1884a. Sheep frequently serve as a symbol for the
:itct (~ö'a). See no. 1884b. people of God (Num 27: 17). The imagery indi-
•~? (~·ö'i). See no. 1884c. cates the people are naive and must be led and
protected by a compassionate shepherd (Ps
1863 C'?M:t (se'e/im) a kind of Lotus (Job 100:3). The sheep too have the responsibility of
40i21-22). responding to the voice of their master (Ps 95:7).
When they are wayward, they must confess their
wrong and return to the Lord (Isa 53:6).
1864 1N:t (.(n). Assumed root of the following.
A compassionate leader is called a shepherd
1864a i1M? (sö'n) flock, sheep. (Asv and
(cf. Jer 3: 15). When the people lack leadership,
Rsv very similar.)
they are considered as sheep scattered on the
so·n is the generic term for „ small cattle „ hills; i.e., without leadership they do not have the
comprised mostly of sheep and goats, but the direction to work together to overcome obstacles
emphasis in the word is on sheep (cf. Gen 38: 17; (I Kgs 22:17; Num 27:17). Two of Israel's
I Sam 25:2). Flocks were the staple animals greatest leaders, Moses and David, learned to
throughout Israel's history, especially during the lead people by tending flocks (Ex 3: 1; Ps 77:20
patriarchal period (Gen 46: 32). They provided [H 21]; I Sam 16:11; II Sam 7:8; Ps 78:70ff.).
milk (Deut 32: 14) and food. Their wool was Arnos, a prophet, also was taken from tending the
woven into cloth that served numerous purposes flock to preach in Northern Israel (Arnos 7: 14f.).
and their hide had many functions, including tent Yahweh is pictured as the good shepherd (Ps
covering (Ex 26: 14). A man's wealth was mea- 23: 1; 80: 1 [H 2]; Ezk 34: 15, 31), and the people
sured by the size of his flocks (I Sam 25:2). Abra- are the sheep of his pasture (Ps 95:7; 100:3; Ezk
ham had a !arge flock (Gen 12: 16), and the flocks 34:31; Jn 21:15ff.). When he brings salvation, he
of Jacob and his sons were so !arge that they will tenderly and strongly gather them into his
grazed from Hebron to Dothan (Gen 37: 12-17). arms (Isa 40: 11). The coming Messiah is also an-
King Solomon' s household consumed 100 sheep ticipated as the true shepherd of the sheep (Ezk
a day. Finding water for the flocks was a major 34:23f.: cf. Jer 23:3-6: Jn 10:11, 14). Conversely,
concern. Wells were thus both a major gathering false shepherds scatter the sheep (Jer 23: 1-3;
place and yet a source of deep contention (Gen 50:6; lsa 56:1 If.; Jn 10:12f.). They feed them-
24:11-27; 26: 17-22). Sheep were protected in selves and not the flock (Ezk 34:2f.). The sheep
caves and folds made from rock (cf. Num 32: 16). flee and are threatened with destruction by nu-
A shepherd was responsible for the sheep; he had merous dangers (1 Kgs 22: 17; Ezk 34:5f.). The
to stand the loss ofhis negligence (cf. Ezk 34: 10). people under distress and sensing that they have
But if he fulfilled his task faithfully, any sheep been forsaken by God describe their condition as
lost was the loss of the owner (cf. Gen 31:39). sheep led to the slaughter (Ps 44: 11, 22 [H 12, 23]:
The firstbom of the flock belonged to Y ahweh cf. Jer 12:3). This same feeling was tobe encoun-
(Ex 13:12; Deut 15:19), and the tithe of the flock tered literally by the suffering servant (lsa 53:7).
was given to him (Lev 27:32). A sheep remained These shepherds will be judged and God himself
with its dam seven days before being presented will search for his sheep, rescue them from
on the eighth (Ex 22:29). In addition, sheep dangerous places, and bring them back to their
served for numerous offerings. Their most prom- own land (Jer 23:3; Ezk 34:l0fT.; Mic 2:12).
inent place was on the day of the passover. A Therefore one description of the blessings of the
year old, male lamb without blemish was offered new age is that of flocks securely pasturing on the
up by each household (Ex 12:5f.). The animal hills of Palestine (cf. Jer 33: 12f.; Zeph 2:6).
could be either a sheep or a goat. In addition, Bibliography: Cansdale, G. S., .. Sheep,"' in
they served for burnt offerings (Lev 1:J0), sin ZPEB, V, pp. 385-88. Post, G. E., .. Sheep," in
offerings (Lev 5:6), guilt offerings (Lev 5: 15) or IDB, IV, p. 486f. Post, G. E., .. Flock," in IDB,
peace offerings (Lev 3:6). To qualify, the animal II, p. 15f. Napier, B. D., "Sheep," in IDB, IV,
had tobe perfect, without blemish, except minor p. 315f.
defects were allowed for a freewill offering (Lev J.E.H.
22:21-25). When Israel was faithful to the coven- :,; (säb). See nos. 1866a, 1867a.
ant, God promised to bless them; this blessing
included an increase in flocks (Deut 7: 13; 28:4): 1865 tt;; (,räbä") flght, serve.
conversely when they were disobedient, apart of
their curse would be the loss of their flocks ( Deut Derivatives
28:18, 31, 51). 1865a M1f (,räbä') war, army.

749
 1865b rii1-t;; ($'ba'6t)armies, hosts. objects (II Kgs 17:16). Anyone who would lead
(Rsv and ASVare similar; ASVuses Israel astray in this regard was to be put to death
"hosts" more often while Rsv has (Deut 17:2-7). Unfortunately both northern Israel
"army," "service," "company" and Judah succumbed to this temptation during
and for Lord of hosts, Asv has various eras (e.g. II Kgs 17:16ff.; 21:3; 23:5). As a
··Jehovah of hosts": NIV "Lord result, both nations were eventually devastated
Almighty"-note Rev 4:8). by their enemies. But there is a day coming when
this host will cease to exist (lsa 34:4).
$äbä' has to do with fighting, e.g. Israel war- Yahweh of Hosts is a special name for God.
ring against Midian (Num 31:7). lt has also a Yahweh and 'e/ohim occur with $' bä'ot some
wider use in the sense of rendering service. In- 285 times (based on Mandelkern); most fre-
terestingly four uses have to do with the work of quently in Isa (62), Jer (77), Hag (14), Zech (53)
the Levites in the tent of meeting (Num 4:23; and Mal (24). lt is absent from the Pentateuch.
8:24). No doubt service for Yahweh is seen as Most often the word :f''bä'öt follows Yahweh,
involving total dedication and careful regimenta- around 261 times; after 'e/öhe, 18 times; after
tion, and since God is Yahweh of hosts, en- 'e/ohim, 6 times. There is often a building of di-
throned between the cherubim housed inside the vine titles as: yhwh -~"bä'öt 'e/ohe yisrä'e/, 37
tent of meeting, work associated with the tent occurrences; yhwh ·elbhe $" bä' ot, 13 (with arti-
may be considered spiritual war. In Ex 38:8 and cle 3, + 'elohe yisra'e/, 3 times; + 'adönay l);
I Sam 2:22 a participle refers to the women who yhwh 'elohim $'ba'ot, 4; 'adönay (ha'adon 5)
ministered at the door of the tent of meeting. yhwh $''ba'bt, 20 (1 with article); 'adöniiy yhwh
Dhorme suggests that $äbä' may denote the 'elohe haH'ba'ot, Arnos 3:13; yhwh $'bä'ot
length oftime spent in the army. Such is its use in 'elohehem 2 (or 'elay 2, or 'elohenii 1). For em-
Job 7:1 and 14:14. In the first passage man·s phasis "his name" is sometimes added to these
earthly existence is likened to hard military ser- divine titles (e.g. Arnos 4: 13: lsa 47:4; 54:5). lt is
vice. He must continually labor, endure suffering impossible to determine conclusively which for-
and be subject to a destiny beyond his control. In mula is the source of the other. The three part
the latter passage man' s tenure of abode in Sheol formula shows that 'elohe stands in construct re-
is described in terms of the restrictions and hard- lationship with hosts, But it is doubtful that
ships of military service. Yahweh is similarly in construct, Some have
Translated as host(s) säbä' means army(ies). lt proposed that ot is an abstract plural ending (cf.
can refer to any arrayed army (Jud 4:2), the in- GK 124d,e); then $'ba'öt is a noun in apposition
habitants of heaven (1 Kgs 22: 19), or the celestial to Yahweh: Yahweh the mightiest Warrior or
bodies (Deut 4: 19). The Israelites in their wilder- Yahweh the all-powerful King. Therefore
ness joumey were numbered in armies by their Yahweh :f''bä'ot has become a technical term.
tribal units (Num 1:52). Since they had been The LXX supports this possibility by translating
slaves in Egypt, a concerted effort was made to $'bä'ot with sabaöth (especially in I Sam and
organize them into a company. Under the lsa; cf. Rom 9:29; Jas 5:4) and pantokratör,
monarchy the king maintained a formidable army .. Almighty," .. All-Powerful." The LXX, how-
weil equipped for war (e.g. II Chr 26: 11-15). Is- ever, employs kyrios ((ho) the6s) tön dynameön,
rael bore arms, but their victories resided in the „ Lord of powers," a few tim es; this translation
fact that Yahweh as head of armies fought for lends some support to taking hosts as a genitive
them. When God fought for Israel, so did all the after Yahweh (but cf. GK 125h).
forces of heaven. An angel known as the com- This divine name appears for the first time in
mander (sar) of Yahweh's army appeared to 1 Sam 1:3. Its origin appears to have been at the
Joshua to give him directions for going to battle close of the period of the judges and in the
against Jericho (Josh 5: 13ff.). Unless Yahweh, vicinity ofthe sanctuary Shiloh, where the ark of
head of all the armies of existence, went to battle the covenant was housed. The ark itself sym-
with Israel's army, the effort ended in failure (Ps bolized Yahweh's rulership; for he is declared to
44:9 [H 10]; cf. Prov 21:31). be enthroned between the cherubim (I Sam 4:4;
The heavenly bodies, including the sun and the cf. Ps 99: 1). This name certainly contains the af-
moon, are called the host of heaven (Gen 2: 1). firmation that Yahweh is the true head of lsrael's
When referring to them the word is always singu- armies. The idea that more than Israel's armies is
lar. God created this host by his breath (Ps 33:6), encompassed in this title is clear from David's
and he preserves their existence (lsa 40:26). They statement, "Yahweh of hosts, the God of the ar-
thus serve and worship him in complete obedi- mies of Israel" (1 Sam 17:45). Rather it affirms
ence (Neh 9:6; lsa 45: 12). The host are identified his universal rulership that encompasses every
as his ministers that do his will (Ps 103:21). Israel force or army, heavenly, cosmic and earthly.
is exhorted never to worship them (Deut 4: 19). Now that Israel was emerging as a nation with
Yet man has a tendency to worship those created international relationships, the language which

750
 1869 :i:t (~bh)

exposed the theology of its God needed to keep tion of his people. In Arnos 4: 13 it is associated
pace. lt was important to affirm that Yahweh was with his creating the mountains and wind and his
not merely one warrior god among the leading ability to control nature (cf. Arnos 5:8f.; 9:5f.).
warrior gods of the nations, but that he was the He is master over every force; he alone secures
Supreme God. Particularly for Israel, located on peace. To him prayer may be addressed (e.g. Ps
the landbridge between three major continents 80: 19 [H 20]). Special attention is given to the
which was constantly crossed by the armies of majestic splendor of Yahweh's rule in this title
the great world powers, it became essential to (cf. Ps 84: 1 [H 2]; Isa 28:5f.).
emphasize that Yahweh was King even of the Bibliography: Dhorme, E., Job, Thomas Nel-
armies of these mighty empires. As a result he son, 1967. Eichrodt, Walther, Theology of the
was sufficient to lead Israel to overcome any Old Testament, l, Westminster, 1961. Eissfeldt,
crisis brought on by those armies. The prophets, Otto, "Jahwe Zebaoth," Kleine Schriften, 3,
during the kingdom period, faced a further prob- Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1966.
lem, namely that God used these mighty armies McClellan, W. H., "Dominus Deus Sabaoth,"
to punish Israel in their rebellion against God. CBQ 2:300-307. Miller, Patrick D., The Divine
Hence it was essential to point out that Yahweh Warrior in Early Israel, Harvard University,
indeed was the king of those nations and that he 1973. Ross, J. P., "Jahweh Seba'ot in Sam and
would judge them. Conversely, if Israel would Ps," VT 17:76-92. Van Imschoot, P., Theology
not retum to God, then Yahweh could employ of the O/d Testament, l, Desclee, 1954. Oehler,
those armies against her and reduce her to captiv- G. F., Theology of The O/d Testament, tr. G. E.
ity (cf. lsa 10:5-34). Further for the prophets dur- Day, Funk and Wagnalls, 1883, pp. 437-44.
ing the time of the Babylonian crises when the TDNT, VII, pp. 705-707. THAT, II, pp. 498-
people were attracted to astral worship, this 506.
name conveyed clearly to the people that it was J.E.H.
foolish to worship these stars which were merely
obedient creatures to Yahweh (cf. lsa 47).
When captured in all of its thrust the name riiM;~ ($' ba' ot). See no. 1865b.
yahweh $'bä'ot is a most exalted title. lt is defi-
nitely associated with Yahweh's kingship as Isa 1866 ::i::i:r ($bb) I. Assumed root of the follow•
6:5 and Ps 84:3 [H 4] show. On a festive day ing.
before a triumphal procession entered the temple 1866a ::i:it (säb) litter, covered wagon (Num
court, the chorus sang: "Lift up your heads, O T7:3:'lsa 66:20).
gates! and be lifted up, 0 ancient doors! that the
King of glory may come in. Who is this King of 1867 ::i::i:r ($bb) II. Assumed root of the follow-
glory? The LoRo of hosts, he is the King of ing.
glory!" (Ps 24:9f.). The text here clearly shows 1867a ::i; ($äb) lizard (Lev 11:20).
that Yahweh of hosts conveys the concept of
glorious king. Yahweh is King of the world (cf. 1868 :i;; (.~äba) I, swell, swell up (Num 5:27;
Zech 14: 16) and over all the kingdoms of the lsa 29:7).
earth (lsa 37: 16). This God is the source ofall (Jer
10:16). His rulership necessitates a time when he Derivative
will visibly display that lordship. In the last days 1868a :i;:i;
($iibeh) swelling, swollen
the nations will wage war against Mount Zion. (Num 5:21).
They will think they have won, only to come to
the realization that their imagination has outdis-
1869 :,::i:r ($bh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
tanced their accomplishment. At that time
ing.
Yahweh will lead a great army into battle aided
1869a to:;i; ($' bi) beauty. (Asv, RSV simi-
by the forces of nature. Every opponent in
lar; most often "glory" or "glori-
heaven and on earth will be subjugated (lsa 13:4;
ous"; Asv once "goodly," Jer
24:2lff.; 29:5--8; 31:4f.; 34: 1-12). Then Yahweh
3: 19.)
will visibly manifest a universal reign from Mt.
Zion. All kings and nations will acknowledge that The best in regards to splendor and honor is
the Yahweh ofhosts is the king ofglory. His total referred to as beautiful or glorious: the promised
authority and Iordship will be etemally estab- land (Ezk 20:6, 15; Dan 11:16, 41), the temple
lished. mount (Dan 11:45), the strategic cities of Moab
Although the title has military overtones, it (Ezk 25:9), Babylon, the greatest nation (lsa
points directly to Yahweh's rulership over the 13:19). Yahweh will destroy all beauty that has its
entire universe. He continually rules, but at times own source (lsa 23:9; 28: 1-4). But he will be a
he directly intervenes to secure his own victory crown of beauty to his remnant (lsa 28:5). His
and insure the direction of history for the salva- branch also will be beautiful in his reign (lsa 4:2;

751
1870 :,:::i: ($bh)
cf. 24:16; II Sam 1:19 „glory" refers to King 1875 ri:::i:t($bt). Assumed root of the following.
Saul). 1875a C'J'.1;; ($" bätim) bundles of grain
J.E.H. (Ruth 2: 16).

1870 :i:::i:r ($bh) III. Assumed root ofthe follow- C•J'.1;;

($'bätim). See no. 1875a.
ing. ,; ($ad). See no. 1876a.
l 870a •;; ( $• bi) gazelle.
1870b :,~;; ($" biya) gazelle (Song 4:5; 1876 ii:t ($dd). Assumed root of the following.
7:4). 1876a it ($ad) side.

1877 :," ($ädil) /, lie in wait (Ex 21: 13;

p,:::if ($äbüa'). See no. 1872b.
1 Sam 24: 1)).
·m1J ($ibbür). See no. 1874a.
•;l ($' bi). See nos. 1869a, 1870a. Derivative
1877a :,~".!; ($'"diya) lying in wait (Num
1871 i=;; ($äba() reach, hold out (Ruth 2: 14). 35:20, 22), with malicious intent.

1872 11:::i:r($b') I. Assumed root of the following. 1878 *:,,; ($ädil) II, lay waste. This verb oc-
1872a 11;; ($eba') dye, dyed stuf/ (Jud curs only in the Niphal, in Zeph 3:6.
5:30).
1872b p,:::i; ($äbüa') colored, variegated :,~".!; ($' dfya). See no. 1877a.
(Jer 12:9). i''"11 ($addiq). See no. 1879c.

1873 11:::i:r($b') II. Assumed root of the follow- 1879 i'jf ($adeq) be just, righteous. Denomi-
ing. native verb.
1873a tu;;~ ( 'e$ba') finge, (Asv and RSV
identical.) Parent Noun
1879a ;,,; ($edeq) justice, rightness.
The word is used in a normative sense for 1879b :,~,; ($' däqa) justice, right-
measuring width, about three-quarters inch (Jer eousness.
52:21), and for the priestly activity of sprinkling 1879c i''"IJ ($addiq) just, lawful, righ-
blood or oil (Lev 4:6, 17; 14:16; 16:14). In addi- teous.
tion, "finger(s)" refer to work artfully produced,
especially in regard to God. They refer to the This root basically connotes conformity to an
handiwork of his creative power, e.g. the ethical or moral Standard. lt is claimed by Snaith
heavens (Ps 8:3; [H 8:4]), the plagues (Ex 8: 19), (N. Snaith, Distinctive ldeas of the OT, Schock-
and the Law on the stone tablets (Ex 3 l: 18; cf. en, 1964, p. 73) "the original significance of the
Lk 11:20). In regard to man, it often deals with root $dq to have been „to be straight." But he
his artistic work which is contrary to God, as the adds that it stands for a "norm." Perhaps the
making of idols and cultic objects (lsa 2:8; 17:8). origin of the word is not so clear or even signifi-
These and other sins defile the finger; this ex- cant. Words having a secular origin often are bap-
pression means man is separated from approach- tized into special meanings and a word originally
ing God, especially cultically (lsa 59:3). Rather, meaning straight may develop easily into a moral
the fingers should have the instructions of the termjust so canon "rod," "measuring rule" be-
wise teacher bound to them (Prov 7:3). Further, comes a standardized list of sacred books. $edeq.
"pointing of the finger" is a gesture of contempt then, refers to an ethical, moral standard and of
made by the self-righteous (lsa 58:9; cf. Prov course in the or that standard is the nature and
6: 13, which some, as McKane, interpret as a will of God ... The Lord is righteous ($addfq) in
practice of magic). all his ways and holy in all his works" (Ps
Bibliography: Luering, H. L. E., "Finger," 145:17).
in ISBE, II, p. 1111. McKane, W., Proverbs, The masculine $edeq occurs 118 times, the
Westminster, 1970. Mixter, R. L., "Finger," in feminine$'' däqa 156 times. The two forms do not
ZPEB, II, pp. 536-37. differ in meaning, as far as we can prove (Snaith,
J.E.H. ibid., p. 72).
The earliest usages of $edeq or $' däqa (except
1874 ,;; ($äbar) heap up (Gen 41:35; Ps Gen 15:6; 18:19; 30:33, s 0 däqa) occur in relation
39:7). to the functions of judges. All of their deliver-
ances or decisions are to be according to the truth
Derivative and without partiality (Lev 19:15). lt is applied
1874a .,,,, ($ibbür) heap (II Kgs 10:8). similarly to weights and measures (Lev 19:36).

752
 1879 i'j} (~ädeq)

Commercial fraud and deception are not allowed. they do. Beautiful singing will not persuade God
In both these usages is seen the basic sense of to accept corrupt religious practice (Arnos 5:23-
"not deviating from the standard." The word de- 24). Jeremiah declares that justice and righteous-
scribes three aspects of personal relationships: ness together means to deliver the weak, to do no
ethical, forensic, and theocratic. violence to them, nor to shed innocent blood.
The ethical aspect involves the conduct of men This righteousness will preserve the city (Jer
with one another. lt is held by some (Achterneier, 22: 1-4).
The Gospel of Righteousness, pp. 68-70) that Whether by nations or individuals, righteous
righteousness is the quality of relationships be- conduct can only be secured by plowing up fal-
tween individuals. What follows from this view, low ground, sowing in righteousness, and reaping
however, is that righteousness is a matter of cur- in mercy, i.e. making a new base for righteous-
rent norms. Actuall y, righteousness is exhibited ness ( Hos 10: 12). All must become new persons
only through conformity to standards set out in whose actions are governed by the law of God.
the word of God. Righteous conduct issues from a new heart (Ezk
The man who is righteous tries to preserve the 36:25-27). Habakkuk puts it another way: thejust
peace and prosperity of the community by fulfil- shall live by his faith (Hab 2:4). Isaiah (32:15-17)
ling the commands of God in regard to others. In couples righteousness with the work ofthe Spirit,
the supreme sense the righteous man ($addiq) is all resulting in peace and therefore eternal, as-
one who serves God (Mal 3: 18). Specifically, he, sured quietness. lt is possible that this thought
like Job, delivers the poor and orphan, helps the lies behind the figure in Ps 85: 10 [H 11], "Righ-
blind along the way, supports the weak and is a teousness and peace have kissed each other."
father (provider) to the poor (Job 29: 12-15). This Because there has been reconciliation between
was the righteous ·•cJothing" of Job's life. To man and God, peace comes to bless his way.
return the poor man's pledged coat before sun- Isaiah apparently refers to the state of these
down so that it may serve as his night clothes is people: "thy people shall all be righteous." True
righteousness (Deut 24:13), the purpose in this ethics derive from imparted righteousness.
case being the man's comfort. But the "right- The forensic aspect of $edeq applies to the
eousness·· consisted in obedience to God's law equality of all, rich and poor, before the law. The
and conformity to God's nature, having mercy righteous one, the $addiq, is not to be put to
for the needy and helpless. Among other right- death (Ex 23:7) for the law does not condemn
eousnesses of Job were his care for the traveler him. The man who has the position of right (the
(Job 31 :31-32), eschewing wealth for its own sake righteousness ofthe righteous, $id' qat $addiq) in
(31:24-25), thus not victimizing himself or others litigation must not be turned aside, (lsa 5:23). lt
in its pursuit. Nor did he squeeze out of his ser- should be emphasized that in Israel's law the
vants the last ounce of effort (31: 13) having their judge was not considering a man's innocence
limits of strength and comfort in mind. Job' s long with regard to breaking a human law, but a man's
oath of innocence was a declaration of righteous- righteousness in regard to God's law. Today a
ness as the three friends recognized (32: 1). man may transgress a statute but be innocent be-
The ~-addiq gives freely (Ps 37:21), without re- fore God. In the OT law, tobe innocent and tobe
gard for gain. The presence of this kind of people righteous were one and the same. The mainte-
is the exaltation of the nation (Prov 14:34), and nance ofrighteousness is frequently expressed by
the memory of the righteous man is a blessing. the Hiphil stem. This construction refers to mak-
When men follow God, righteousness is said to ing righteous or to declaring righteous.
dwell in the city (lsa 1:21). But when sin rules, it The comparative status of right is expressed by
becomes a harlot. To rule on behalf of the wicked Judah in comparison to Tarnar (Gen 38:26), i.e.
for a price is perversion of righteousness, for it she was within her rights to act as she did, Judah
takes away the righteousness (decency, God- was not. But this is not a total approbation of her
likeness) of the righteous (Isa 5:23). David was actions. Ajust or true claim is a "righteousness"
(more) righteous than Saul because he refused to (Ps 17:1; 18:20 [H 21]), always opposing the lie
slay Saul when unprotected (1 Sam 24:7), al- (Ps 37:6). In terms of an individual involved in
though God seemingly had given Saul into his litigation, to be righteous means to be free from
hands. The source of all this righteous conduct is guilt in relation to any infraction of law (Gen
the bestowal of God's judgments (or laws) and 30:33). One is righteous who is declared to be
righteousness on his people (Ps 72: 1-2). right (Ex 23:7; Deut 25: 1). Such is Job's affirma-
The above discussion elucidates the message tion (Job 19:7) (cf. The Argument of the Book of
ofthe prophets, whose cry for righteousness rang Job Unfolded, W. H. Greeves [New York: 1891],
throughout the land. Arnos cried for justice in the p. 188. lt is the duty of judge and king to maintain
gates (5: 15, 24) that is, that right institutions be righteousness in the community; Ex 23:7-8; I Chr
rightly administered. All who function in public 18:14; Prov 16:12).
areas are to be righteous in all they do-not for all Noah, Daniel, and Job were righteous (Ezk

753
 14:14, 20). Good conduct by an individual estab- back according to his own righteousness (lsa
lishes a claim on the Lord of deliverance from 46: 13). Rather than finding here a meaning of de-
calamitousjudgment. Similarly, Gen 15:6 teaches liverance, salvation or triumph for $' däqa as
that Abraham received Isaac as his heir because some do, it is better to find God's solution of the
his trust in God's promises was accounted as problem of justification for the sinner in the
righteousness. teaching of lsa 53 where the suffering servantjus-
$edeq is used attributively when applied to tifies sinners by bearing their sin. This same
God himself as to his character. The Lord is the forensic meaning of justification of the ungodly is
just judge (II Chr 12:6; Ps 11:7; Jer 12:1; Lam a real precursor of Rom 3:26. So lsrael's restora-
1: 18) even to the utmost degree as the judge of all tion to the land of promise is righteousness (lsa
the earth (Deut 32:4; Ps 119:137; Isa 5: 16). There- 46: 12-13) and it is in righteousness that the Lord
fore his standards, his judgments set out in his raises up Cyrus to restore Israel to the land
word are righteous (Ps 119:144, 160, 172). Being (45: 13). Such righteousness will be set out before
everlasting, they are the confidence of his people all the world, for God will help Israel. In this
and will not fail. God's hate of sin and love of fulfillment of the covenant God is declared right-
righteousness (Psa 45:7 [H 8]) express his essen- eous (lsa 54: 14), and lsrael's status is that of
tial righteousness. Therefore righteousness and being righteous, $addiq.
judgment are the habitation ("foundation" NASB, The root presents a development or variety of
Niv) of God's throne, i.e. they always charac- usage. 1. The abstract meaning of conformity to
terize his actions (Ps 97:2). some standard (Gen 15:6), Abraham measuring
Corollary to the forensic aspect of God's righ- up to the requirement of trust. 2. As a descrip-
teousness is the concept of salvation as vindica- tive characteristic ofGod (Deut 32:4), asjust and
tion (cf. Isa 1:27; 46: 13, in which t' shü'il "salva- righteous, the standard being his own will and
tion" occurs in parallelism with $' däqa. The sal- nature as the supreme being. The illustration of
vation of God appears in this righteousness, for the potter and the clay, (lsa 45:9-12) points to the
God delivers his people (lsa 51:lff.). God is appropriateness of the divine decision. 3.
characterized as right in delivering his people (Ps $" däqil or :fedeq when applied to God mean
85:9-11 [H 10-1 l]; 97:2). Cyrus is summoned to righteousness, his characteristics then becoming
deliver God's people and is therefore termed the ultimate standard of human conduct. 4. The
righteous (lsa 42:6; 45: 13). Because God is al- visitation of punishment on moral infractions is
ways righteous, his saving action is properly sig- an example of righteousness, as were God's
nified by his righteous right band (lsa 41: 10). His judgments on Pharaoh for refusing to release the
saving righteousness is expressed with judgment, lsraelites (Ex 9:27). To judge sin is, one may say,
fidelity, and love (Ps 36:6--7 [H 7-8]) and with a divine necessity for a righteous God 5. God
power (Ps 71: 19). Those who experience this de- shows his righteousness in vindicating the de-
liverance celebrate it in song (Ps 40; 10 [H 11]; serving among his people (Gen 18:25). Although
71: 15-16). that righteousness may require punishment, it is
The covenant or theocratic aspect involves the followed by mercy on repentance. 6. The work
nation of Israel. The covenant requires obedience of justification is seen when David pleads for for-
to God by the nation and is the way of his people giveness (Ps 51:14 [H 16]), calling on God tobe-
(Ps 1: 1-6; Deut 6:25), a way of righteousness. stow deliverance without regard to merit to fulfill
God is righteous, under the covenant, when he his obligation to his own standards. Implicit in
delivers his people from trouble (Ps 31: 1 [H 2]), this justification is the substitutionary sacrifice
their enemies (Ps 5:8 [H 9]), the wicked (Ps 37:6) for sin sincerely offered as noted in Ps 51: 16--19
and when he is vindicating Israel before her foes [H 18-21]. These verses are no later addendum to
or executing vengeance on them (Jer 11:20). lt is the Psalm. They give the oT parallel to Rom 3:26.
appropriate that Israel be assured of ultimate 7. The word describes the righteous standing of
victory over her foes (lsa 54: 14-17). In this last God's heirs to salvation, with no charge tobe laid
event the Lord is both righteous and the savior against them (lsa 54: 17), this righteousness, actu-
(lsa 45:21). ally possessed by Messiah (Jer 23:6), is bestowed
Yet God is just to deliver the national by him, thus pointing toward the NT doctrine of
sanctuary to the sword of Israel' s enemies on ac- Christ our righteousness. The righteousness of
count of her sins. God's judgment is just and Is- God's heirs of salvation is the righteousness of
rael's evil conduct can in no way be justified i.e. the Messiah attributed to them by God through
considered righteous. But the righteous ones re- faith in the redemptive work of Messiah in which
member the covenant to do it, and God's promise God declares them righteous only because of the
to them is their restoration (lsa 51: 1-8). For Is- grace provided through that redemptive work. 8.
rael to look to her maker involved repentance and Finally in post-exilic times the root develops to
reform. On the basis of this new righteousness mean benevolence, alms-giving etc. as acts of a
came a deliverance. Israel in exile was far from godly man (cf. Ps 112:9).
righteousness (lsa 46: 12) but God would bring her There are different concepts of the meaning of

754
 1883 -,:,1 (~hr)

this root. G. Schrenk cites Diestel and Kautzsch Literatures,'' JJS 8:143-54. Swetman, James,
as working out ··thoroughly the idea of the con- · · Some Observations on the Background of i'"il
sistent and normative action of God (God himself in Jeremias 23, 5a," Bib 46:29-40. TDNT II, pp.
being the norrn rather than standing under it)" 212-14; II, pp. 174-78; 195-98. THAT, II, pp.
(TDNT, II, p. 195). Schrenk himself, however, 507-29.
declares that · · $' däqii implies relationship. A H.G.S.
man is righteous when he meets certain claims
which another has on him in virtue of relation- ($äheb ), ::i:-r;
1880 *::11'.fl ($cihöb) gleam. Occurs
ship" (ibid.). He does not atternpt to prove this only in the Hophal, in Ezr 8:27.
concept ofrelationship, but he bases much on the
idea that · · Deutero-Isaiah" always uses the Derivative
image ofa legal dispute whereby God defends the 1880a ::i:-r;($ähöb) gleaming, yellow (of
people under covenant to him much as an ancient hair, Lev 13).
eastern suzerain promised to do in a suzerainty
treaty. This covenant concept is so pararnount in 1881 ':ott; (säha/) I, neigh, cry shrilly (Est
Schrenk that he can say: "This linking of right 8: 15; Isa 24: 14).
and salvation is most deeply grounded in the co-
venant concept. $" däqii is the execution of co- Derivative
venant faithfulness and the covenant promises. 1881a :-r7:,;~(mi,fhäla) neighing (Jer
God's righteousness as His judicial reign means 8: 16; 13:27).
that in covenant faithfulness to His people He
vindicates and saves thern" (ibid.). By this em- 1882 *':ott; ($ähal) II, make shining. Occurs
phasis on the covenant, God's righteousness be- only in the Hiphil, only in Ps 104:15).
comes fidelity to promises and there is no eternal
justice of God to be satisfied by a substitute. In- 1883 ,:-rx ($hr). Assumed root of the following.
deed, rescue of the covenant people frorn trouble 1883a t"\ttl ($öhar) I, noon, midday.
is both righteousness, salvation, and victory. 1883b "\tll ($öhar) II, roof (Gen 6: 16).
Snaith writes from a sirnilar viewpoint. He 1883c ti:,;• (yi,fhär) fresh oil.
holds that · 'the eighth century prophets use the 1883d *itt; ($ähar) press oil. Denomina-
word ,fedeq-$' däqii (righteousness) in an ethical tive verb. Occurs only in the Hiphil,
sense .... Second Isaiah thought of $edeq more only in Job 24: 11.
from the point o' view of that which actually is
established in this world. lt is that which
~öhar. Noon, midday. (ASV, RSVsimilar; they
triumphs and prospers" (op. cit., p. 87). In a note
use „noonday"; ASValso „noontide. ") Noon,
(p. 89) he argues that only in the very late pas-
sages of Isa 26: 19 (Trito Isaiah, third century) and being the hottest part of the day, is siesta time
(II Sam 4:5). The brightness of that hour sym-
Dan 12:2 (which he holds is Maccabean) is there
bolizes the intense purity of justice (Ps 37:6; cf.
any teaching of a "resurrection life beyond the
Job 11:17) and the blessing that dispels gloorn (Isa
grave." Therefore (since the other verses on
59: 10). lt is also viewed as a time ofsecurity; thus
resurrection are retranslated and their teaching
denied) he says that righteousness, i.e. salvation, a conquest carried on at this time indicates a con-
queror's superior strength (Jer 6:4; 15:8; 20: 16;
for the Israelite „must involve the blessings of
Zeph 2:4). Conversely, the rebellious grope in
honor from men and general prosperity.'' The bi-
darkness even at noonday (Deut 28:28f.; Isa
blical declaration of the personal righteousness of
58: 10; Job 5: 14). Since the sun will set at noon on
the living God is thus evaporated by critical
the day of judgment, the troubles of that day will
theory.
be very severe (Arnos 8:9).
Bib/iography: Bollier, John A., '"The Righ-
teousness of God, .. Interp 8:404-13. Girdlestone, y~här. Fresh oil. (Asv and Rsv identical.) Oil
R. B., SOT, pp. 158--69.Snaith, N., The Distinc- provides light, is used for cooking, and serves as
tive ldeas of the Old Testament, Philadelphia, an ointment. BDB considers it to be „fresh oil,"
1946. Payne, J. B., The Theology of the Older the unmanufactured product of the olive tree. lt
Testament, Grand Rapids, 1962. Jones, Edgar, almost always appears with grain (dägän) and
The Greatest Old Testament Words, London, new wine (tirösh) (q.v.) these three agricultural
1964. Kautzsch, E., Der Derivate des Stammes products were the staples for the inhabitants of
tsdq im altentestamentlichen Sprachgebrauch, Palestine. Therefore the government had
Tübingen, 1881. Heerboth, L. A., "Der Begriff storehouses built for them (II Chr 32:28). These
Gerechtigkeit in A.T., besonders in den Psal- three products were guaranteed to Israel as
men," Concordia Theological Monthly, 7:497- God's blessing for fulfilling the covenant (Deut
508. Lofthouse, W. F., "The Righteousness of 7:13; ll:13f.), but were withdrawn when Israel
Jahweh," Exp T 50:341-45. Jacobs, L., .. The failed to obey (Deut 28:49ff.). The first fruits of
Concept of Hasid in the Biblical and Rabbinical the grain, new wine, and oil were presented to the

755
1884 timt (~w')

priests as God"s representatives (Deut 18:4; Num Babylon and Assyria. was known as a mighty
18: 12f.). Under the reforms of King Hezekiah hunter, and his skill became the basis of the
and of governor Nehemiah, the people demon- proverbial saying, "'Like Nimrod a mighty hunter
strated their desire to follow the covenant by before the Lord" (Gen 10:9). Esau distinguished
bringing abundantly of their first fruits to the himself from Jacob, especially in his father's
priests (II Chr 31 :5; Neh 10:35-39 [H 36-401: eyes, as a good hunter (Gen 25:27f.). Hunting
13:12). Unfortunately during other periods the was often done with nets and various types of
people forgot that Yahweh gave them the grain. traps, as the two derivatives meaning ··net" indi-
new wine and oil (Hos 2:8 [H 2: IOJ). Since they cate. Under the Levitical code hunting of clean
forsook Yahweh, he in turn forsook them by birds and beasts was permitted; the hunter had to
bringing drought and loss of crops (Joel 1:10). Yet prepare the game that was killed by pouring out
God never completely forsook his people. its blood and covering it with dirt (Lev 17:13:
Through his prophets he foretold of a coming Deut 12: 15; 14:5 (a list of clean game)). In addi-
time when he would restore Israel to their land tion, Prov points out that the hunter must be dili-
and bless them with abundance of grain, new gent, for the '"slothful man will not catch his
wine and oil (Joel 2:19, 24; Hos 2:22 [H 241; Jer prey .. (Prov 12: 27 RSV).
31: 12 NIV). The blessing would be so abundant This root is used metaphorically to indicate one
that lsrael's needs would be satisfied and their who pursues the life of another to destroy it. The
reproach would be completely removed (Joel adulterous woman stalks a man·s very life: i.e.
2: 19). Only in Zech 4: 14 is yi~•hiir used in the she yearns for more than he can provide and she
sense of anointing: '"sons of oil" = '"anointed holds power over his whole life (Prov 6:26). Even
ones. more intense than she is is the woman who
J.E.H. through magic hunts the souls of God's people
(Ezk 13: 18). God is against them and will free the
1; (.~aw). See no. 1887c. hunted souls (Ezk 13:20). God too pursues man,
especially in judgment (Jer 16: 16: cf Job 10: 16).
Because of lsrael"s waywardness God decreed,
1884 K1? (.)"H"). Assumed root of the following.
·' I will send for many hunters, and they shall hunt
1884a :itt? ($e'ä) filth, i.e. human
excrement (Deut 23: 13; Ezk 4: 12). them from every mountain and every hill, and out
of the clefts of the rocks" (Jer 16: 16). Lam says
1884b :'!tel (.1·1fä) filth (lsa 28:8: Prov
that this assertion became the experience of the
30: 12).
people, ··1 have been hunted like a bird by those
1884c •~1 ($ö'i) filthy (Zech 3:3).
who were my enemies without cause" (Lam
3:52).
iKj; (.~awwä"r). See no. 1897c.
m"sudä II. Stronghold, fortress. (Asv and RSV
1885 i,:t (.~üd) /, hunt. similar: ASValso '"high tower. 00
)Apparently re-
lated to 111,. $äd which means „ mountain-height' ·
Derivatives or "'summit": then "fortress, castle.. (Arabic
1885a i•; (.~ayid) hunting, game. ma.yädun) so Masada, the fortress-palace plateau
1885b i•:t (savväd) hunter (Jer 16:16. of Herod near the Dead Sea. In the rocky crag the
T~nly.). · · eagle makes his stronghold (Job 39:28). But man
1885c i;9 (m•·~11d) i;9 (m''.yad) fast- erects his fortress out of stone or brick to protect
ness, stronghold (1 Chr 11:7: 12:8 himselffrom external dangers. Nevertheless with
[H 9]). great strategy a stronghold may be taken: e.g.
1885d ii:t; ( miisöd) I, siegeworks (Eccl David captured the stronghold of Zion (II Sam
9:14). 5:7). For the believer, especially David, God
1885e ii:t; (mä$11d) II, hunting imple- himself was the stronghold in whom he trusted
ment, net (Prov 12:12: Job 19:6). throughout his trials (Ps 18:2 [H 3]: 91:2).
1885f :iii:t~ (m''södil) /, net (Eccl Bibliography: McKane, W., "Proverbs," in
T9:12; Ezk 19:9). O/d Testament Lihrary, Westminster, 1970.
1885g :i,,i~(m' ~-udä) /, net prey (Ezk J.E.H.
13:21: Ps 66: 11).
1885h :i,i?~ ( m ,,~-bdä) II, f astness. 1886 ii? (.~wd) II. Assumed root of the follow-
stronghold (lsa 29:7; Ezk 19:9). ing.
1885i t:i,,19 (m''.ylidli) II, fastness.
1886a i•; ($ayid) provision, food (Neh
stronghold. 13:15: Job 38:41).
1886b :-r)'; ($eda) food (Josh 1:11; Gen
Hunting was a means of supplementing the 42:25).
food supply and also provided a pleasant change 1886c *i•; (.yid) supply oneself with pro-
of menu. Nimrod, the founder of a kingdom in visions. This denominative verb

756
 occurs only in the Hithpael (Josh (cf. Ex 12:28, 50). But unfortunately Israel was
9:4, 12). prone to leave the way God directed (cf. Deut
31:29). To follow his commandments results in a
1887 *:ii:r (sihva) command, charge. Occurs good and long life (Deut 5:33). Therefore, Israel
i~the Pie! and Pual. was not to deviate to the right or to the left from
what God commanded them (Deut 5:32). Obedi-
Derivatives ence to God's command becomes the obedient
1887a ii•; (~1)iin) signpost, monument one's righteousness (Deut 6:25).
(II Kgs 23: 17; Ezk 39: 15). God instructed Hezekiah, who was suffering
1887b t:i,:r~ (miswa) commandment. from a fatal illness to command his house: i.e. he
1887c ti;' ·(~aw) · command. was to make sure all his responsibilities were
executed or properly entrusted to his successors
Command is used for the instruction of a father
(II Kgs 20: 1). Jacob also gave orders to his sons
to a son (1 Sam 17:20), a farmer to his laborers
concerning his burial (Gen 49:29, 33).
(Ruth 2:9), a king to his servants (II Sam 21:14).
lt reflects a firmly structured society in which m~wä. Commandment. In a deed of purchase
people were responsible to their right to rule by for a plot of land, miswa refers to the terms of the
God's command (cf. II Sam 7:7; I Kgs 1:35). The contract (Jer 32: 11). lt is also the word used by
leader was then in a position to command the the wisdom school for the instruction of a teacher
people and to expect their obedience (Josh 1:9, to his pupil (Prov 2:1: 3:1). More frequently the
16). God commissioned Joshua to succeed Moses commandments are the particular conditions of
(Num 27:18f.; Deut 3l:14f.). When God chose the covenant. lt is used for the Ten Command-
David to be king, he "commanded him" (com- ments in Ex 24: 12.
missioned him as) prince (nägid, l Sam 13:14). God clearly reveals his commandments in
The prophet' s word possesses authority, because order that they be available to all the people. No
he speaks whatever God commands him (Jer 1:7; one has to spend a lifetime in search of them
cf. Deut 18: 18). (Deut 30: 11). They are right at hand. The Lord
God "commanded" the world into existence reaches out to man long before man seeks him.
(Ps 33:9; lsa 45: 12). All creatures and elements God's commandments are considered pure (Ps
therefore obey his command (cf. I Kgs 17:4; Job 19:8 [H 9)), true (Ps 119:151), reliable (Ps 119:86),
37: 12; Ps 78:23). God also directs the course of righteous (Ps 119:172). The man of faith has his
history by decreeing crucial events; indeed no delight in God's commandments; and he is called
determinative event happens without God's or- blessed (Ps 119:47; 112:1). The commandments
daining it (Lam 3:37). Indeed he decrees that his of Yahweh provide insight into the meaning of
people be victorious (Ps 44:4 [H 51). life in order that it may be lived to its füllest sig-
What God commands to be done, he provides nificance (Ps 19:8f. [H 9f.]: cf. Deut 5:29: 6:2;
the means to accomplish, e.g. he instructed 8: 11). Following God's commandments gives one
Moses conceming the building of the cultic fumi- wisdom and the respect ofhis neighbors (cf. Deut
ture and buildings; then he inspired Bezalel and 4:5f.). Consequently the one who follows them
Oholiab with the Spirit of wisdom to be able to often rises to a place ofleadership. So too, Israel
accomplish the work (Ex 31 :2---0;35:30-36: 1). would become a leading nation if she remained
Regarding the making of these objects the text first true to the Lord's commandments (Deut 28: 13).
details the instructions and then describes lsrael's The splendor which it experienced under David
careful fulfillment of God's commandment (Ex and Solomon bears witness to the validity of this
25-30; 36--39; Lev 8; cf. Ex 39:5, 7, 32, 42f.). affirmation. The reason Israel was to obey the
God insures the truth ofhis word by command- commandments rests in God himself (Lev 22:31).
ing it; he commanded the covenant (Ps 105:8; By his very nature he knows what is best for his
111:9) and will command blessing to those faith- people and by his very position they are bound to
ful to the covenant (Deut 28:8; Ps 133:3). God serve him. The one who loves God keeps his
remembers what he has commanded and is care- commandments (Deut 11:1). Thereby he shows
ful to fulfill every part of his side of the command his reverence for (or fear of) God and develops a
decreed (1 Chr 16: 15). walk with God (Deut 8:6; 13:4 [H 5)). God ex-
Blessing accompanies obedience to God's tends his love (fJesed) to those who obey him
commands: rebellion, however brings curses (Deut 5: 10).
(Deut 11:26ff.). Adam and Eve disobeyed and To do the commandments, man must re-
encountered curses (Gen 3: 16--19). In contrast, member them. The Hebrews were to make
God commanded Noah to build an ark; Noah did fringes (or tassels) on the corners of their gar-
all that God commanded and survived the flood ments to remind them of the law (Num 15:39).
(Gen 6:22; 7:5). Israel obeyed the commands of Also they were to bind God's words on their
God at the Exodus, particularly regarding the foreheads and on their hands and write them on
Passover, and they escaped their enslavement the doorposts oftheir houses. The fathers were to
757
teach them to their sons and to speak of them :i,:r ($wh). See no. 1909.
frequently (Deut 6:6--9). And they were pre-
served by being written in the book of the law 1888 M1l ($dwa~l cry aloud (lsa 42: 11, only).
(Deut 30: 10). However, the commandments pos-
sess no real value if they are considered only a Derivative
human document leamed by rote (lsa 29: 13f.). 1888a :,r,iJ (s'wahä) outcry (Jer 14:2;
Furthermore, man in his depravity is tempted Ti>s144: 14).·
on the one hand to reject God's commandments
and on the other hand to add to them by interpret-
1889 ,,:r ($w/). Assumed root of the following.
ing them very minutely. The latter leads to the
1889a :,7~:r(~·ü/ä) ocean-deep (lsa 44:27).
sense of secure arrogance that one is even doing
1889b :,',i:t0 (m'' sö/ä), :,',~:t0 (m'' sülä)
God a favor. Therefore God declares that one is Tdepth, deep (Job 4Tl:23; Ex 15.:5).
not to add to or to diminish from the command-
1889c :,7:!t~ (m'' $iilii) basin, hol-
ments given (Deut 12:32 [H 13: 1j; cf.5:32).
low (Zech 1:8). Meaning doubtful.
The violation of any commandment results in
guilt and the need for atonement (cf. Lev 4). But
whoever goes so far as to spum God's com- 1890 *cn:r ($Üm) fast. (ASVand Rsv identical.)
mandments is cut off from God's people (Num Derivative
15:31). Solomon's failure to follow the com-
mandments in his later life resulted in the division 1890a Cli:t ($6m) fast, fasting. (ASV and
ofthe kingdom (II Kgs 11:31-39; 14:8). Then the RSVidentical.)
continued disobedience of various kings. espe-
cially Manasseh, led to the end of David's Fasting is depriving the body ofnourishment as
dynasty. But God extended his mercy to Israel a sign that one is experiencing great sorrow.
even in captivity (cf. Neh l:8f.). And he will ful- Mouming · is further expressed in weeping and
fill his promise to David through the Messiah. lamentation and in putting on sackcloth and ashes
In the postexilic period the scribal class de- (Est 4:3). He who fasts claims to affiict himself or
veloped. They were skilled in the command- his soul, i.e. his inner person. One could fast in
ments, i.e. they interpreted the law for the people behalf of another, e.g., the Psalmist for his
(Ezr 7: 11). enemies during their illness (Ps 35: 13). The fast
The writer of Eccl searched every possibility most often lasted from sunrise until sunset (cf. II
for meaning to life and came to this conclusion: Sam 1: 12), and it could be total or partial absti-
"The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear nence (Ps 35: 13; Dan 10:3). Fasting accompanied
God, and keep his commandments; for this is the mouming for the dead, and for severe grief it
whole duty ofman" (12:13). lasted seven days (] Sam 31: 13). One also fasted
to gain the attention of God on behalf of his suf-
~aw. Command. (ASV, RSV "precept" in lsa
fering in sickness. David's illegitimate son by
28: 10, 13.) In lsa 28: 10, 13 the word appears
Bathsheba was critically ill; therefore David
parallel to qaw ("line," q.v.). Some suggest
fasted and moumed many days (II Sam 12: 16ff.).
these are elliptical sarcastic mimicries mocking a
On the seventh day David leamed that the child
prophet's speech. One suggestion is the sound of
had died; then he arose, washed, anointed him-
a teacher and pupil constantly reciting the al-
self and changed his clothing, for he perceived
phabet. Another possibility is a sound alluding to
that he could accomplish nothing now that the
the root $-w-h, ··command." Another is that it is
child was dead (II Sam 12:20-23).
baby talk. The context is clear; the people are
ridiculing Jsaiah's message as meaningless tidbits Another occasion for fasting was making a crit-
(v. 10); he in turn announces that these tidbits ical decision or following an ominous course of
action. Esther, intending to seek the king's favor
will be the standard by which they will be judged
(v. 13). In Hos 5: 11 $GW ("he was content to walk in reversing the decree of Haman, placed herself
under the king's mercy and possible wrath which
after man's command" ASV)is emended with LXX
to shaw' ("'he was determined to go after vanity" could end in her death. Therefore she requested
that all the Jews fast and entreat God for her
Rsv). lf $aw means worthless and qaw is a
mission (Est 4: 16). Nehemiah fasted upon leam-
measuring line used to mark off something for
ing of the sorrowful condition of Jerusalem (Neh
destruction, then the play on sounds in lsa 28: 10,
1:4), and then proceeded to work to correct the
13 draws from the vocabulary of judgment.
situation. Apparently before a person was stoned
Bibliography: Kaiser, Otto, lsaiah J3-39,
for blasphemy, the people moumed the sin and
Westminster Press, 1974. Young, E. J., The Book
coming execution with fasting. Jezebel pro-
of Israel, ll, Eerdmans, 1969. Wolff, Hans Wal-
claimed such a fast for Naboth (1 Kgs 21:9, 12).
ter, Hosea, Fortress, 1974. THAT, 11, pp. 530-
Also upon leaming of one's sin, fasting is in or-
35.
der. When Elijah condemned Ahab for Naboth's
J.E.H. death, he moumed in sackcloth and fasted. God

758
had mercy on him and delayed the punishment on Bibliography: Guthrie, Jr., H. H., "Fast,
his house (1 Kgs 21:27ff.). Fasting," in IDB, II, pp. 241-44. Lewis, J. P.,
An individual could intercede in supplication "Fast, Fasting," in ZPEB, II, pp. 501-4. TDNT,
and fasting for an entire nation. Daniel confessed IV, pp. 927-31. THAT, II, pp. 536-37.
his sin and his people's sins that had led them into J.E.H.
captivity (Dan 9:3-19). Gabriel answered his
prayer, assured him ofthe ending ofthe captivity 1891 1,i:r (,!'w'). Assumed root of the following.
and promised the establishing of a new covenant 1891a Cl'llJl/1 (,!'a'ä.)'ü'im) things formed,
(Dan 9:22-27). images (II Chr 3: 10, only).
National fasting was called during times of ex-
treme crisis, such as a plague, a military threat or 1892 f\~:r (,!'Üp) jlow, overjlow (Lam 3:54;
the death of a king. Jehoshaphat proclaimed a Deut 11:4).
fast because the kings of Moab and Ammon were
planning a campaign against Judah. The people Derivatives
assembled at Jerusalem. Jehoshaphat led the as- 1892a f\~:r (,!'üp) honeycomb (Prov
sembly in prayer. Then Jahaziel, a Levite, under 16:24; Ps 19:11).
the inspiration ofthe Lord's Spirit, proclaimed an 1892b :,~l (.~äpti) outjlow (Ezk 32:6).
assurance of salvation. Prayer and enthusiastic
praising followed. Afterwards Jehoshaphat led 1893 r~:r (,!'Ü,!') I, blossom; shine, sparkle.
the army to war, but Yahweh bad already dis-
comfited the enemies; the army bad only to col-
lect the spoil (II Chr 20: 1-29). In 604 when the Derivative
Babylonian army was camped against Ashkelon, 1893a tr•~ (,!'i,!') blossom, jlower, plate.
about a three day march from Jerusalem, King
The verb $11$ refers to the growth of plants and
Jehoiakim proclaimed a fast. Jer used this occa-
to the gleam of a crown. The crown of the ruler of
sion to have Baruch read his prophecies from a
Zion shall shed its luster in contrast to the shame
scroll before the people near the New Gate ofthe
with which bis enemies will be clothed. lnjustice
temple (Jer 36: 1-10). Jer wanted the people to
too may blossom forth, but God comes to destroy
move from an outward show of contrition to true
it on the day of doom (Ezk 7: 10).
repentance. On another occasion, Joel forsaw the
coming of the Day of Yahweh; therefore he $~. Blossom, jlower, plate. Within the temple
exhorted the people to sanctify a fast and call a built by Solomon, the cedar was carved in the
solemn assembly (Joel 1: 14; 2: 15). He proclaimed form of gourds and open flowers (1 Kgs 6:18).
that if the people would truly repent in mourning Also on the wall were carved figures of cherubim,
and fasting, then God would be gracious and palm trees and open flowers (6:29). The two
postpone the day of judgment (Joel 2: 12-14). The doors of olivewood which led to the inner
case of Nineveh shows God's desire to extend sanctuary (6:32) and the folding doors of fir or
mercy and not judgment. On hearing the procla- cypress which led to the nave (6:34f.) were simi-
mation of judgment by Jonah, the Ninevites pro- larly carved.
claimed a fast and repented. Thereby they ,!'i$ also refers to the plate made out of pure
averted for a time the day of judgment (Jon 3:5- gold and engraved with "Holy to Yahweh"
10). which was placed on a lace of blue and put as a
Certain days in the calendar were for national sacred diadem on the high priest's turban (Ex
fasting, the most prominent being the Day of 28:36f; 39:30). Aaron thereby bore the iniquity of
Atonement (Lev 16:29, 31; 23:27-32; fasting is the holy offerings in order that they might be ac-
indicated in the phrase ••affiict oneself," 'nh cepted before Yahweh (Ex 28:38).
npsh). The number of these days appears to have During the wilderness sojourning the tribes
grown in the post-exilic period. Zech 8: 19 lists challenged the priestly role of Aaron·s house
four fast days during the year. A fast day pre- (Num 17:1-11 [H 16-26)). The contest was settled
cedes the celebration of Purim (Est 9:31). By the by each tribe's placing its rod before the tes-
time of the NT the pious fasted on Monday and timony in the tent of meeting. God demonstrated
Thursday ofevery week (cf. Lk 18:12). in finality that solely Aaron·s house was chosen
Fasting in itself did not cause Yahweh to turn as priests, for his rod alone budded, produced
to his people. He did not succumb merely to the blossoms, and bore ripe almonds (Num 17:8
affiictions of the body. A true fast had to indicate [H 23)).
that the people were intent on seeking righteous- The length of man's life is compared to the
ness, which included taking care of the poor and flourishing flower ofthe field, which is soon gone
needy (lsa 58; cf. Jer 14:12; Zech 7:5). However, and fades when it encounters the winds (Ps
when the Lord brings final salvation to bis 103:15f., cf. Ps 90:5f.; Job 14:lf.). In Isa the fad-
people, the months of fast will be turned ·into ing flower is contrasted to the enduring word of
feasts of joy and gladness (Zech 8: 19). God (lsa 40:6ff.). The wicked too for a season

759
 may prosper abundantly and receive magnificent Derivative
splendor, but although they flourish like the 1896a t;,i1~ (mä$Üq) molten support, pil-
sprouting grass, they are doomed to eternal de- lar.
struction (Ps 92:7 [H 8]). Similarly Ephraim's
flower of his glorious beauty will fade and be de- Man·s ingenuity is demonstrated in his great
stroyed before Yahweh's fierce anger; i.e. his technological skills. One such skill as Job points
rich valleys will be trodden down (lsa 28: 1-4). In out, is his ability to recover precious ores from
contrast, during the reign of the righteous king, the ground (Job 28: 1-4); he has discovered how
men will blossom in the cities (Ps 72: 16). Israel to smelt copper ore (v. 2). But true wisdom ex-
too shall blossom abundantly and fill the whole ceeds these skills and can not be purchased (Job
earth with its produce (lsa 27:6). Its rich produce 28:12-19). lt belongs to God alone and is discov-
will easily support the people. ered by man when he fears Yahweh (Job 28:23-
J.E.H. 28). In Job 29, Job describes the honors and
blessings he had before his great trial. One bless-
1894 *ri: ($Ü$) II, gaze, peep. Occurs only in ing was that the rock poured out oil for him (v. 6).
the Hiphil, only in Song 2:9. The abundance of oil for anointing the body was
the property of the rich. ( For these two passages
1895 *;,i: (~·üq) /, constrain, press, bring into Dhorme argues that yti$Üq is Qal passive partici-
straits. Occurs only in the Hiphil. ple of yti$aq = .. hard. ") Jsaiah 26: 16 is also dif-
ficult; $tiqün is variously emended. But IQJs•
Derivatives reads the same text and E. J. Young argues that
its root is $Üq. The passage describes the distress
1895a ;,il ($bq) constraint, distress of God's people during a time of punishment.
(Only in Dan 9:25). They pour out their hearts in prayer, but they are
1895b :,~il ($Üqa) distress, pressure. so oppressed they only utter a whisper (lsa
1895c ;,;,~ ( mli!ftiq) constraint, distress. 26: 16).
1895d ;,il~ (mti$öq) straits, distress.
l895e :,~ill? ( m ,.$Üqa) distress. m3!iuq. Mollen support, pillar. I Sam 2:8 as-
serts that God owns the pillars ofthe earth, there-
!fÜq refers to strong inner motivation or great fore, he has control over everything that happens
external pressure. Elihu described the strong in- on the earth. The word also describes a rocky
clination within him to address Job and his com- crag near Michmash, which most likely was pillar
forters as --ihe spirit within me constrains me" shaped (1 Sam 14:5).
(Job 32: 18). Samson twice succumbed to the ex- Bibliography: Dhorme, E., Job, London:
ternal pressure put on him by two importuning Thomas Nelson, 1%7. Young, Edward J., The
Philistine women (Jud 14:17; 16:16). lt includes Book of lsaiah, II, Eerdmans, 1969.
the distress created by an enemy in besieging a J.E.H.
people. The enemy may be called literally --one
who brings distress" (lsa 51: 13).
1897 "\il (!fwr) I. Assumed root of the following.
God may distress his people in an attempt to
1897a t"\Mj; (.rawwä'r) neck.
bring about their repentance and salvation (lsa
29:2). The strongest curse of judgment that God 1897b 1ii1; (sawwarbn) necklace (Song
4:9) ..
brings against his disobedient people is the dis-
tress of siege and captivity. The distress will be- sawwä'r. Neck. (Asv and Rsv identical except
come so severe that they will even eat their chil- Job 15:26, RSVemends to "stubbornly. ") The
dren (Deut 28:53, 55, 57; Jer 19:9 [mäsbq]). prominence of the neck makes it the place to bind
Isaiah declares that during such a time Israel will jewelry (Gen 41:42; Song 1:10). Hard work may
unfortunately fail to seek comfort in the Creator be described as putting the neck to the work (Neh
God, but will instead continue to fear the destroy- 3:5). The total subjugation of an enemy is pic-
ing oppressor (lsa 51: 13). But fortunately God is tured as standing with a foot on the neck of a
able to bring relief to his people (Isa 51: 14). prostrate foe, e.g. Joshua's treatment of the five
The Day of the Lord is described as a day of southern kings of Canaan (Josh 10:24). The ten-
great distress, anguish, and gloom (Zeph 1:15, der compassion of reunion is expressed by em-
m''$üqa). lt will be a time ofthick darkness, but bracing one and weeping on his neck (Gen 33:4;
into that darkness will break the light that comes 45: 14). In contrast the proud may express their
from God himself intervening in human history arrogance through the bearing of the neck (Ps
through his Messiah (lsa 8:22-9:2 [8:22-9:1]). 75:5 [H 61; cf. Job 15:26, neck connotes strength
J.E.H. and arrogance).
The neck is considered to be a place of
strength, no doubt because animals are harnessed
1896 ;,,1 (.yüq) II, pour out, melt. Probably a for work by a yoke laid on the neck. Both the
by-form of yä~·aq. horse and Leviathian have great strength in the

760
 1900 ,~i (~ur)

neck (Job 39:19; 41:22 [H 14)). When a people Metaphorically this verb expresses God · s full
submit to the authority of a more powerful na- effort to confront the Psalmist on every side,
tion, they are described as wearing a yoke. a leaving no place for escape from his presence (Ps
symbol of a suzerainty covenant (Jer 27:8, 12: 139:5). In Song 8:9 it figuratively refers to the
28: 14). God and his people are bound by such a defense a young girl must develop to keep her
yoke. At first God in his kindness spared Eph- morality secure.
raim the yoke, but because of their rebellion, The walled cities were an important factor in
they had to submit (Hos 10: 11: cf. Mic 2:3). ancient warfare. The walls were a welcome pro-
Lamentations puts it thus, "My transgressions tection and the surrounding population crowded
were bound into a yoke ... they were set upon into the cities in times of attack. But if the siege
my neck; he caused my strength to fail" ( 1: 14; cf. were not soon relieved, the walls became a trap
5:5). In contrast. liberation from a foreign gov- and the people endured agony. The general
emment is described as breaking the yoke. God practice-right up to the Middle Ages-was to
promised to break the yoke of Babylonian captiv- offer amnesty to a besieged city. If it was refused,
ity (Jer 30:8; cf. lsa 10:27: Gen 27:40). Similarly all the inhabitants were subject to slaughter if and
in anticipation ofthe great deliverance the suffer- when the city feil. This type of total war caused
ing servant was to accomplish, lsa exhorted, many a city to give in, rather than face destruc-
"Arise, 0 captive Jerusalem; loose the bonds tion. (Cf. the willingness of the men of Jabesh
from your neck" (52:2). Gilead, I Sam 11:3.) Israel was to follow this con-
J.E.H. cept of total war in the conquest of Palestine
(Deut 20: 16--18). But the individual Israelite was
not to profit from the pillage-all was dedicated
1898 '11? ($Ür) II, bind, besiege.
to the Lord (Josh 6:24). However, in warfare out-
Derivatives side the land, Israel was to offer amnesty and if
that were refused would not kill non-combatants
1898a tiixr; (mäsor) siege, entrenchment.
(Deut 20: 12-15).
1898b t:i,m~ (m•·~·üra) stronghold. The punishment for breaking God's covenant
This root means to make secure a valuable ob- was that Israel herself would be heavily besieged
ject, such as money (II Kgs 5:23), similar to .~ärar (Deut 28:47-57; lsa 29: 1-4: Jer 19:8f.).
I (q.v.). Applied to military action it means to Bibliography: Yadin, Yigael, The Art of War-
relentlessly attack an opponent's stronghold. fare in Biblica/ Lands, 1, 11, McGraw Hili, 1963.
Every effort was made to shut off supplies (espec- J.E.H.
ially water. cf. II Sam 12:27) from the city and to
prevent the people from escaping. The tactics in- 1899 '11? (sür) 111, show hostility to, be an ad-
cluded building a mound to reach the wall and versary. (Asv and RSVquite varied, e.g.
using battering rams and towers to breach it (cf. ASV"vex," "constrain," "assault"; Rsv
II Sam 20: 15; Ezk 26:8f.). The inhabitants of a .. harass," "attack.")
besieged city were threatened by both sword and This root describes the act of inciting someone
famine; therefore, some surrendered to the into an outward conflict or battle (cf. Jud 9:31).
enemy in order to preserve their Jives (Jer 21:9). Israel was not to provoke Ammon or Moab into
Without great discipline, tension inside the city war, for God had not allotted Israel any of their
mounted as prices for anything resembling food land (Deut 2:9, 19). On the other hand, God
soared (II Kgs 6:25). lt took the Assyrians three promised his people that when they were obe-
years to capture Samaria (II Kgs 17:5). Some- dient then whoever acted hostile toward them
times armies lacked the capacity to move from should experience his hostility (Ex 23:22). This
victories on the battlefield to take a stronghold verb is similar in meaning to $iirar II to which it
(II Kgs 16:5).
probably is a by-form.
The law restricted Israel from the wanton de- J.E.H.
struction of fruit trees while besieging a city
(Deut 20: 19f.).
1900 '11? ($Ür) IV, form, fashion. Possibly a
mll'ior.Siege, bulwarks, defense, besieged (ASV, by-form of yä$ar.
RSVsimilar also using siegeworks, fortified).
Derivatives
m•surä. Stronghold, fenced. These nouns,
1900a t:i,1: ($Üra) form, fashion.
which may also be used adjectively, refer to a
1900b '1'? ($ir) image (lsa 45: 16; Ps
siege itself or to seige works, either defensive or
49:5).
offensive. The Psalmist draws on the image of a
besieged city to describe the tremendous blessing "To form" regards the making of an object ac-
the Lord gave him by manifesting his steadfast cording to a certain style, especially a meta) that
love so that the siege by his troubles was lifted can be molded. Hiram of Tyre cast two pillars of
(Ps 31 :21 [H 22]). bronze for the temple (1 Kgs 7: 15). At Mount

761
1901 ,,-: (~wr)

Sinai Aaron fashioned the gold with a graving Yahweh himselfis many times called a Rock; I
tool into a calf (Ex 32:4). The text in Jer 1:5, Sam 2:2 says, 'There is no rock like our God."
where God asserts that he formed Jer in the Yahweh is a Rock, not in being represented as an
womb, is debated; the K supports $Ur as the root idol carved from stone, but in that he is totally
and Q yä$ar, but evidence from the Dead Sea reliable. He is a sure source of strength and he
Scrolls supports the possibility that a wäw can endures throughout every generation. There is no
stand for a qäme$ /:tä(üph; then K and Q are from unrighteousness found in him; he is completely
yä$ar. upright (Deut 32:4; Ps 92: 15 [H 16]). God is a
Rock of salvation (Deut 32: 15; Ps 89:26 [H 27]).
~ura. Form. Four times in Ezk 43: 11; (three
He is a strong refuge in which his people may
times RSVemends on the basis of the Greek text).
take shelter from any difficulty (cf. Ps 94:22). In
lt refers to the form of the temple. lts form is
distress the psalmists cry out to Yahweh so that
carefully described because God desires that the
they may experience the security of his steadfast
people make sure the physical objects conform
endurance (Ps 27:5; 28: 1). $Ur thus appears in
exactly to their description. Although the text in
theophoric names: Zuriet (Num 3:35, "my Rock
Ps 49: 14 [H 15] is difficult, "form" (ASV
is EI"); Zurishaddai (Num 1:6, "my Rock is
"beauty") most likely refers to the substance
Shaddai"). The man who relies on God as his
that survives the corpse and which is consumed
Rock will not be greatly moved (Ps 62:2, 6, 7
in Sheol (but see sh''ol).
[H 3, 7, 8]). When Israel strays, lsaiah exhorts
Bibliography: Briggs, Charles, and Briggs,
them to "look to the Rock from which you were
Emilie, The Book of Psalms, in ICC.
J.E.H. hewn" (lsa 51: 1). Perhaps he is alluding to Deut
32:4. Yahweh gave birth to Israel through Ab-
raham's faith in him. Isaiah encourages the
1901 "113 ($wr) V. Assumed root of the follow-
people to trust in Yahweh; as a result they shall
ing.
have perfect peace (lsa 26:4f.). The quality of
1901a hr:r ($ür) rock. (Asv and RSV
strength connoted by "rock" applies not only to
same.)
defense but also to aggressive leadership in battle
$Ur appears about seventy-five times. Rock (Ps 18:31-48 [H 32-49]; 144:1). The quality ofau-
stands for boulders or formations of stone and for thentic endurance assures Habakkuk that
the material which composes mountains (Job Yahweh will bring the wicked to judgment (Hab
14:18 rock parallel to mountain). Rock may serve 1:12). Yahweh's ability to protect and to help his
as a toponym, e.g. Wildgoats' Rocks (1 Sam 24:2 people as a Rock sets him apart as the only true
[H 3]; cf. Jud 7:25; II Sam 2: 16). The rock may Rock (II Sam 22:32; lsa 44:8).
house pleasant surprises for man such as wild The coming Messiah is called · · a rock of
honey (Ps 81:16 [H 17]) and preciousjewels (Job stumbling" (lsa 8: 14). He cannot be ignored; all
28: 10). Rocks provide refuge, but in the day of who come into contact with him are made aware
judgment people will unsuccessfully seek refuge of their sin and misunderstanding about God's
in the caves of the rocks (lsa 2: 19ff.). Men en- way of providing salvation. Some stumble and
graved into various rock formations pictures and are broken to repentance; others fall and are
writing pertaining to all aspects of his life. Such crushed by the rock itself (cf. Mt 21:42ff.; Rom
writing in stone remains forever (Job 19:24). 9:32f.; I Pet 2:8).
Rock, by reason of its magnificence and hard- In the desert Moses struck the rock and water
ness, affords many metaphorical uses. People came forth to quench the people's thirst (Ex 17:6;
who confidently occupy their habitation so that Deut 8:15; Ps 78:15, 20; 105:41; 114:8; lsa48:21).
an enemy cannot defeat them are referred to as a Paul identifies this rock typically with Jesus
rock (Jer 2 I: 13). The gods of the nations are (1 Cor 10:4).
called a rock (Deut 32:31, 37); to them are attrib- Bibliography: Boston, James R., The Song of
uted qualities of strength and reliability. Perhaps Moses; Deut 32:1-43, Ann Arbor, University
the Scripture in some places is playing on the fact Microfilms, 1967. THAT, II, pp. 538-42.
that some of these idols were only statues hewn J.E.H.
from stone. Wayward Israel went so far as to
claim that a stone ( 'eben) gave her birth (Jer
2:27). Ti"l)l ($awwäron). See no. 1897b.
Albright, who prefers the translation ni ($a/:t). See no. 1903a.
"mountain," claims that $Ur was a common
name for deities in Syria and Anatolia and is an
old appellation (A YGC pp. 24, 188f.). He rightly 1902 l'!M3 (s/:th). Assumed root of the following.
adds that these appellations were used by the Is- 1902a :ir,; ($i/:teh) parched (lsa 5: 13).
raelites with no borrowing of the heathen deities
to whom the words were applied by the surround- 1903 MtTJ ($ä/:zal:z) be dazz/ing. Occurs only in
ing nations. Lam 4:7.

762
 Derivatives Job smiles (in AB, Job, p. 187) at his retainers
1903a Ml (.yafi) dazz/ing, glowing, clear (Job 29:24). The able and virtuous woman can
(lsa 18:4; Jer 4: 11). live without concern and "smile [rejoice, KJV] at
1903b lj'i'.ll (.yafiiafi) shining, glaring the future" (Prov 31:25, NASB).
(Ezk 24:7-8; 26:4, 14; Neh 4:7). The Qal of säliaq also has a negative usage.
1903c :,r,•r,x (s'' hihii) scorched land (Ps Young men laugh at Job (Job 30: !). While the
.68:'7). . . . righteous can laugh at destruction (5:22), so can
1903d :ir,;l'.lt ($ü'1$iifiii) scorched region the Chaldeans, at the fortifications of their help-
(lsa 58: 11). less foes (Hab 1: 10) or at Jerusalem's fall (Lam
1:7). Metaphorically, the ostrich laughs at
lj'i'.ll (.yiiliiafi). See no. 1903b. horsemen for she can outrun them (Job 39: 18);
wild donkeys laugh at (scom, KJV) cities (v. 7);
1904 inx ($'1n). Assumed root of the following. the war horse mocks at fear (v. 22); and
1904a :i;r,it stench (Joel 2:20).
($afitinii) Leviathan, the crocodile, laughs at human
weapons (41:29 [H 211). God laughs, säfiaq, at
:ii,;r;tt (.yali$iifiii). See no. 1903d. rebellious sinners (Ps 2:4; 37: 13; 59:8 [H 9]), so
does divine Wisdom (Prov 1:26); and so may the
1905 :,i:r; (~·afiaq) laugh (Qal); play, mock (Pie!). righteous (Ps 52:6 [H 8]). Similarly the Piel of
$iiliäq represents the charge brought by
Derivatives Potiphar's wife against Joseph, that he was
t:,·n; ( .y,,fioq > laughter, "brought in to mock us" (Gen 39: 14, 17; see ICC,
1905a laughing
siock.
Genesis, p. 458, which interprets this euphemis-
tically as does "to make love to us," AB,
1905b t:,r,;• (yi$'1iiq) Isaac.
Genesis, pp. 202-3). Sarah insists that Ishmael be
1905c t:,i:r~ (säfiaq). Alternate form of driven away because he was "mocking" Isaac
$iiliaq.
1905d :,·nif (s" fioq ). Alternate form of al (Gen 21:9). The Rsv innoccuously renders this
$" fioq.
participle "playing." Yet in the light ofGal 4:29,
1905e on Ishmael's persecuting Isaac, KJV, ASV, NASB,
;,i,~• (yisfiäq). Alternate form of
NIV prefer mocking. Observe that the Hiphil of
yi.yfiäq.
1905f sähaq (II Chr 30: 10) describes the mockery by
;,i,if~ (mishäq) object of derision Israelites ofthe Northem Kingdom at Hezekiah's
(Hab 1: 10).
invitation to share in the Passover at Jerusalem.
The simple stem of .yäliaq conveys the idea of The Pie! of $iifiaq does, however, progress to•
laughter, whether in joy or incredulity. The ward more positive concepts. Samson was sum-
stronger Pie! stem connotes positively, play and moned by the cruel Philistines to "make sport,"
sport, or negatively, mockery and derison. i.e. entertainment, before them (Jud 16:25). At
Säliaq reproduces Ugaritic $'1q ··to laugh." Ofits Sinai faithfless Israel rose up "to play" (Ex 32:6).
thirteen biblical occurrences, one is in Jud and Jeremiah disdained the company of "them that
the rest are in the Pentateuch (eleven in Genesis). make merry" (Jer 15:17, ASV, as in I Kgs 4:20).
In documents of Iater periods, the verb used for When Lot wamed his sons-in-law of the impend-
"laughter" is sä!Jaq. ing destruction of Sodom (Gen 19:14), he seemed
The thirty-six occurrences of säfiaq parallel its to them not so much as "one that mocked,"
earlier equivalent, with the additional ideas, in (KJV), as one simply jesting (Rsv; cf. Prov 26: 19,
the Qal, of laughing in achievement, smiling, and NASB, "joking"). Isaac was observed "sporting
deriding, (especially with 'al "over," or /' with Rebekah his wife" (Gen 26:8; Rsv,
"at"). In the Pie! it is used for playing musical "fondling", NIV "caressing;" ICC, Genesis. p.
instruments or rejoicing. In the Hiphil to laugh to 364, "to exchange conjugal caresses"). The Pie!
scorn is an altemate to .y"fioq (cf. misliaq Hab of säliaq depicts children playing (Zech 8:5; cf.
1:10, a "laughing matter"), with added ideas of Job 41 :5 [H 40:291), or even God's wild creatures
sport or games. "playing on the mountains" (Job 40:20) and in
$afiäq first occurs in the Qal stem, describing the ocean (Ps 104:26). lt may mean to perform
the reactions of the patriarch Abraham (Gen combat (II Sam 2: 14; KB, p. 918), to play tam-
17:17) and his wife Sarah ( 18:12-13) as they bourines and dance (I Sam 18:6--7), or to cele-
laughed incredulously at God's promising them a brate (II Sam 6:5, 21, NASB) the restoration ofthe
son. But the promise was fulfilled, and Sarah ark. Above all, the personal wisdom of God (cf.
exclaimed, "God has made laughter ($"'16q) for the description of Christ in I Cor 1:24) rejoices
me, so that all who hear will laugh with me" before God the Father and delights in men upon
(yi$fiaq-/i, 21:6; KB, p. 800); cf. the child's name, earth (Prov 8:30-31).
yi.yliäq "Isaac."
In Solomon's wisdom literature the verb säliaq ~•l'aöq.Laughter, laughingstock (cf. KB, p.
designates the opposite of weeping (Eccl 3:4). 918). Feasts are made for s" fioq (Eccl 10: 19), and

763
1906 ,ni (.r~r)

laughter is a gift of God (Job 8:21; Ps 126:2). Yet cludes the entire nation, the covenant community
wickedness is as "sport to a fool," like a game itself (lsa 1:27; Ps 97:8). "Zion" appears fre-
(Prov 10:23). The laughter offools is vanity (Eccl quently in Ps and Lam. lt seldom refers to the
7:6); whereas sorrow may lead to a better wisdom political capital of Judah, but much more often
(v. 3). At her fall, Judah was made a $'' /Jöq stands for the city of God in the new age.
"laughingstock" (Ezk 23:32; cf. Lam 3: 14; From the time Solomon built the temple, Zion
likewise Moab, in Jer 48:26, 39). Twice in one became the center of Yahweh's activity. Yahweh
verse Job complains that he has become ajoke to identified himself as "the One who dwells on
his friends (Job 12:4, NASB, cf. Jer 20:7). Mount Zion" (lsa 8:18). Here he initiales his
work of salvation and here he begins his judg-
yi$1;täq. Isaac, ··he laughs." While the name
ment against sin (Arnos 1:2).
"Isaac" (Gen 17:19) arose out of Abraham's in-
Zion frequently occurs in poetic passages, re-
credulity, way-yi$/Jiiq (v. 17), it could yet become
ferring to the temple area where Yahweh dwells.
a symbol of blessing (21:6) and ultimately an
Psalm 48 renders great praise to Mount Zion. lt is
identification for the entire nation of Israel (Arnos
called "the joy of all the earth" and "the city of
7:9, 16).
the great King" (v. 2 [H 31). lt is also said tobe
säl;taq. An alternate form of $a/Jaq. Both appear located in the far north (v. 2 [H 3] but cf. NIV). In
in Jud 16:25. Ja!Jaq became popular after the Canaanite religion the assembly of the gods was
time of David (hence even yis/Jaq for yi$haq (Ps thought to meet in the far north. Therefore the
105:9; Arnos 7:9, 16; Jer 33:26). Psalmist is using poetic language to show that
Bibliography: Beauchamp, Paul, "Laugh- Zion is the religious center, not only for Israel,
ter," in DBT, p. 263. Leupold, H. C., Exposition but for the entire world. Since the city of Yahweh
of Genesis, Baker, 1958, pp. 599-601. is in the same place as the assembly ofthe gods, it
J.B.P. means these gods have no existence or power
outside of Yahweh. Ezekiel even seems to refer
1906 -,n-:ir($/Jr). Assumed root of the following. to Zion as the "navel" of the earth, the place
1906a "lljJ (sa!Jar) reddish-gray, tawny where God sustains this planet (38: 12, though
(Ezk 27: 18). ·eres here may refer only to the land of Pales-
1906b ,n; (sa/Jiir) tawny (Jud 5: 10). tine). lts sanctity, however, does not rest in loca-
tion, but rests solely in the fact that Yahweh has
1907 •; (si) /, ship. An Egyptian loan word. chosen to dwell there. The crucial distinguishing
factor between mythical ideas and the biblical
1908 •; (sil II, a wild beast, desert-dweller (1 sa expressions concerning Zion resides in the fact
13:21; Jer 50:39). that Zion was not set apart as holy at creation. lt
possesses no intrinsic holiness. lt became impor-
i•; (sayid). See nos. 1885a, 1886a. tant to the Lord and to Israel only within history
i•; ($id). See no. 1886c. (cf. Ps 78:68). Hence it acquired meaning and
,~; (sayyad). See no. 1885b. sacredness. This fact is further verified in that
"Zion" is not mentioned in the creation account
1909 :i•: (syh), m-:ir ($wh). Assumed root of nor in the Pentateuch at all, except that Mount
the following. Moriah is specified as the place where Abraham
1909a :,~; (.yiya) dryness, drought (Hos offered up Isaac (Gen 22:2, 14; II Chr 3: I); the
2:5; Ps 105:41). first reference to Zion is II Sam 5:7.
1909b ii•; ($iiyön) dryness, parched land. Nevertheless because of lsrael's disobedience
even Zion would not be spared; it actually feil to
1910 1i•; ($iybn) Zion. the Babylonians in 587/6 e.c. Lamentations fre-
quently refers to Zion and "the daughter of
lt is possibly related to Arabic $llna from root Zion" to express overwhelming sorrow at Zion's
.y-w-n, meaning protect, defend; hence $i_vön may
destruction (Lam 1:4, 6, 17; etc.). In captivity the
have meant place of defence, fortress. Others Psalmist was so despondent that he could not
suggest derivation from root $iihii "be bald"; cf. bring himself to sing any of the songs of Zion (Ps
Syriac spelling .yehyon for this name. 137:lff.). But even in exile the people still had
Zion is the fortified mound between the Kidron faith and prayed for Yahweh to rebuild his city
and the Tyropean valleys that David captured and to restore its fortress (Ps 102:13, 16
from the Jebusites (II Sam 5:7). Subsequently, it [H 102:14, 17]; 69:35 [H 69:36]).
became known as the city of David. With the In some of the prophets, especially lsa, Jer,
building of the temple to the north, that hill later Joel, Zech, Zion appears as the central location
became known as Mount Zion. Zion may even for Yahweh's great deeds of salvation in the fu-
refer specifically to the temple vicinity or more ture. He will cleanse away Zion's sin by judg-
generally to Jerusalem itself; sometimes it in- ment (lsa 4:4). That is, the city will be redeemed

764
 1915 :-r7;(~äla)

by justice and righteousness (lsa 1:27; 33:5). God 1913 "l'? ($yr) 1. Assumed root ofthe following.
will build the city by laying a precious cor- 1913a "l'? (~·ir) /, envoy, messenger (Jer
nerstone in Zion (lsa 28: 16). The glory of Yahweh 49: 14; lsa 18:2).
which was present in the Exodus shall return to
protect its inhabitants from the elements (lsa 1914 "l'? (syr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
4:5f. ). God shall firmly secure the city from its ing.
enemies (lsa 33:20). God's people shall return in 1914a '"I'? (sir) II, pivot of door, hinge
joy and singing to Zion from the various places of (Prov 26: 14).
their exile (lsa 35: 10: 51: 1I ). Then they shall 1914b ,•; (rir) III, pang (lsa 13:8; Dan
weep no more (lsa 30: 19). The land will become 10:16).
as fruitful and lush as the Garden of Eden (lsa
51:3 ). The scope of this restoration is for all
peoples: foreign nations shall come to Mt. Zion to ,•; (rir). See nos. 1900b, 1913a, 1914a,b.
worship (lsa 2:3: Mic 4:2). All of these fantastic ',; ($el). See no. 1921a.
changes in Zion will give her the new name ··My
delight is in her" (lsa 62: 1-5). But the greatest 1915 :i7; (Iäla) roast.
difference is that God himself will reign there in
that day (Zech 8:3; lsa 59:20). Derivative
Bibliography: Fohrer and Lohse, ·•zion- 1915a •7; (.~ä/i) roasted, roast. (Rsv and
Jerusalem" in TDNT, VII, pp. 292-338. Payne, Asv are the same except in lsa 44: 16
J. B., "Zion," in ZPEB, V, pp. 1063--66. Rsv has "meat" and Asv "roast.")
Roberts, J. J. M., ··The Davidic Origin of the
Zion Tradition," JBL 92:329-44. THAT, II, pp. This root appears in connection with the
543-50. Passover lamb, the offerings desired by the sons
J.E.H. of Eli, and Isa's argument against idolatry. The
Passover lamb was tobe roasted whole, including
its head, legs, and inner parts. lt could not be
w; ($iyün). See no. 1887a. boiled or eaten rare (Ex 12:8f.). Roasting permit-
~i•; (.räyon). See no. 1909b. ted the lamb to be cooked entirely without being
;,:•; (~·inöq). See no. 1941a. butchered. The wholeness of the animal as a
means of redemption for the firstborn was crucial
1911 r; ($i.i'). Occurs only in Jer 48:9. Mean- to the significance of the ceremony. Being quick
ing dubious. and easy, roasting also coincided with the theme
of haste. lt also consumed the fat which accord-
ing to later legislation was forbidden to be eaten
1912 rit•; (}iiil) tassel (RSV, /ringe (Asv):
(Lev 3: 17: 7:24f.). And perhaps it anticipated that
lock.
the judgment on the lamb of God would be total.
lt is debated whether $i$il indicates the fringe The sons of Eli flagrantly violated the stan-
around the edges of a garment or a tassel at each dards for making sacrifices to Yahweh. One
corner: Snaith suggests the threads were twisted example is their requesting only raw flesh to
in groups to form "a fringe of tassels." A cord of roast, rather than accepting it boiled as was ap-
blue was to be placed on each tassel. Tra- parently customary (1 Sam 2:15: cf. Ex 29:3lf.:
ditionally they were woven out of eight threads Lev 6:28f. [H 21f.]). No doubt they desired the
tied into five knots. These tassels served to re- fla vor added by the fat.
mind the people to keep Yahweh's command- lsaiah ridicules idolatry by describing the pro-
ments and not to follow their own desires (Num cess of making an idol. One cuts down a tree;
l5:38ff.; cf. Deut 22: 12: Mt 9:20; 14:36: 23:5). For with part of it he makes a fire and roasts meat
a faith based on a saving history and a law, mem- over it. He is warm and his stomach is full. With
ory is crucial to preserving its integrity. lt also the rest of the wood he carves an idol. He wor-
rneans · ·a lock .. ; in a vision the Spirit transported ships it and prays to it saying, ··Deli ver me, for
Ezekiel by a lock of hair to Jerusalem (Ezk 8:3). thou art my god" (lsa 44: 17). His prayer comes
Bibliography: Driver, S. R., Deuteronomy, in after he himself has met all his needs. lsa argues
ICC. Hayman, H., "On the Law of Fringes in that such worship of idols is completely absurd.
Nurn and Deut," BS 51:705ff. Kennedy, Bibliography: Pedersen, Johs, Israel, lts Life
A. R. S., "Fringes," in !DB, p. 68ff. Snaith, N. and Culture, III-IV, London: Oxford, 1963.
H., Lel'iticus and Numbers. in New Century Bi- Segal, J. B., The Hebrew Passover, London: Ox-
ble, Attic Press, 1967. ford, 1963.
J.E.H. J.E.H.

r; (ris). See no. 1893a, 1911. ',i',t ($/w/). See no. 1922a.

765
1916 n'7;(~ala!J)

1916 n7; ($iilah) l, rush (1 Sam 10:6; Arnos r"l'i'.'l'l ($'lohit). See no. 1918c.
5:6). rii:i\;,;·($allahat). See no. 1918b.
'?l ($iilf). See no. 1915a.
1917 i:t'?; ($äleah) II, prosper, succeed, be profit- 1919 ',7; (siila/) /, tingle, quiver.
able; Hi phil, make prosperous, experi-
ence prosperity (Asv and Rsv are similar.) Derivatives
(Cf. Aram. $'1ah "cleave through," "press 1919a ?'J7l ($il$ii/)
1 l, whirring, buzzing
through," .. succeed"; used especially in (lsa 18: 1).
Haphel stem. The Arabic ~-a/aha means 1919b ,;7; ($il$iil) II, spear (Job
"thrive," "be weil," or "be righteous.") 40:31).
1919c ',;7; ($' /asa/) whirring locust
The root means to accomplish satisfactorily (Deut 28:42).
what is intended. Real prosperity results from the 1919d tC'?l?;if ($'1$elim) cymbals.
work of God in the life of one who seeks God 1919e t:,7;~ · (m''$illa) bell (Zech 14:20).
with all his heart (II Chr 31:21; cf. Josh 1:8; Ps 1919f tC'!'17l~ (m' $illayim) cymbals.
1:3). As II Chr 26:5 says, "As long as [Uzziah]
sought Yahweh, God made him prosper." Joseph :,el~•lim. Cymbals. These instruments were an
is called a prosperous man, for Yahweh turned all integral part of an ancient orchestra that played
of his misfortunes into benefit for Jacob's sons especially on high occasions such as David's
(Gen 39:2-3, 23). The devout man earnestly peti- bringing the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem
tions God to grant him success in his work (Ps (II Sam 6:5). In Ps 150:5 two kinds of cymbals are
118:25). distinguished: · ·sounding cymbals' · (shiima') and
lts use with a negative describes the worth- "loud clashing cymbals" (t'rü'a). KB interprets
lessness of a rotten cloth (Jer 13:7). Those who them as small, tinkling cymbals and !arge, clash-
refuse to worship Yahweh are just as rotten (Jer ing ones. Sachs considers them to be "clear,"
13:10). broad-rimmed with small bosses, struck softly
God expresses his purposes through his word. and "harsh," narrow-rimmed with !arge bosses,
Therefore his word will not prove empty, but it struck forcefully. Both were used to render
will prosper in its fulfillment (lsa 55: 11). God ac- praise to the Lord.
complishes salvation for man through the suffer-
ing of his obedient servant (lsa 53). lsaiah says, m•~illä. Bell. (Only in Zech 14:20; ASVand Rsv
"The will of Yahweh shall prosper in his hand" identical.) Zechariah is describing the nature of
(53: 10). life in Jerusalem when the righteous king reigns.
Although true prosperity comes only from Then the bells of the horses will be inscribed,
God's blessing, externally it often appears that "Holy to Yahweh." Formerly this inscription
the wicked prosper. This appearance causes the was engraved on a gold plate fastened to the high
righteous to question God's involvement in priest's turban (Ex 28:36ff.). The contrast indi-
human affairs (Jer 12: 1). In the last days those cates that everything shall be holy in that time;
who are opposed to God shall prosper for a time the distinction between the sacred and profane
through cunning and deceit (Dan 8: 12, 24f.). But shall be eliminated.
their success will be only temporary, for God is m•~iltayim. Cymbals. (Asv and RSVthe same.)
preparing a time of judgment against all evil to The distinction between this word and $el$' /im is
accomplish his indignation (Dan 11:36). lt must not clear; Sachs conjectures that this word may
be clearly affirmed that transgression of God's be "cymbals on clappers" or at least those with a
law will neverfinally succeed (Num 14:41; cf. the stronger gemination. Cymbals, some made out of
argument in Ps 37:7-11 and Ps 73:12-20 where, bronze, were used to make a loud melody of
however, the word is sha/ew "be at ease." praise to Yahweh on occasions ofrejoicing (1 Chr
Bibliography: TDNT, V, pp. 110---12.THAT, 13:8; 15:19). According to I Chr 16:5 nine Levites
II, pp. 551-55. were appointed to play the harps and lyres, but
J.E.H. only two the trumpets, and one the cymbals; in-
terestingly he is named chief. They played on
special occasions, e.g. at the dedication of Sol-
1918 n',:t ($1hl III. Assumed root of the follow- omon's temple (II Chr 5: 11-14). They also played
ing. on the day when Hezekiah completed the
1918a :ii,7; ($eliiha) cooking pot (II Chr sanctification of Yahweh's house (II Chr 29:25-
35: 13). 30). This order established by King David and
1918b rii:i\;,; ($allahat) dish (II Kgs Nathan the prophet (II Chr 29:25) continued into
21: 13; Prov 19:21; 26: 15). the second temple period (Ezr 3: 10). They played
1918c r"i'l'.f',; ($' lohit) jar (II Kgs 2:20). at the laying ofthe foundation ofthat temple (Ezr

766
 1923 c,i (~Im)

3: IOf.) and at the dedication of the wall of darkness of eyelids tired from weeping (Job
Jerusalem (Neh 12:27-30). 16:16), the thick darkness present in a mine shaft
Bibliography: Sachs, Curt, The History of (Job 28:3), the darkness of the abode of the dead
Musical Instruments, Norton, 1940, p. 12lff. (Job 10:21f.; 38: 17), and the darkness prior to
Seilers, 0. R., "Musical Instruments of Israel," creation (Arnos 5:8). Emotionally it describes the
BA 4:33---47. internal anguish of one who has rebelled against
J.E.H. God (Ps 107:10-14; cf. 44:19f. [H 20f.]). Thus it
is the strongest word in Hebrew for darkness.
1920 ?7J ($äla/) II, sink, be submerged (Ex Since sinful man uses darkness as an aide to
5: 10, only). accomplish his woeful deeds, the terror as-
sociated with thick darkness becomes his experi-
1921 ?7J ($älal) III, be or grow dark (Neh ence in the morning (Job 24: 16f. Asv). Yet there is
13:19; Ezk 31:3). no place dark enough for them to hide from God's
eyes (Job 34:22). Further, God is never threat-
Derivatives ened by deep darkness; it causes him no terror.
1921a t,; ($e/) shadow. No matter how dark a place is, God will lead his
1921b tri.Jr;?J ($almäwet) deep darkness. people through so that they fear no evil and are
comforted by his rod and staff (Ps 23:4). The ap-
~el. Shadow. In a positive sense, "shadow"
plication in this Psalm to the experience of death
conveys the ideas of shade, protection, and de-
is apt and has comforted multitudes of dying
fense. Shade, even that of a boulder, gives some
saints. The people could trust this statement of
relief from the heat of the day, especially for the
slave (cf. Job 7:2). "Under the shadow of one's the Psalm, for God had proven his ability by lead-
ing his people through the drought and deep
roof' connotes that the head of the house pro-
vides protection for his guests (Gen 19:8, Asv). darkness of the wilderness from Egypt to Canaan
(Jer 2:6). He can always bring light to dispel the
Similarly a strong nation may offer someone or
power of deep darkness (Job 12:22; cf. Arnos
another nation shelter (lsa 30:2f.; cf. Ezk 17:23).
5:8). The most dramatic demonstration was tobe
But God may remove a nation's shelter or de-
fenses in order to enable his people to conquer when God would send the Messiah as a light to
those who dwell in a land of deep darkness (lsa
them (Num 14:9). On the other hand, shadow
9:2 [H 9: 1]). Conversely, injudgment, God is able
serves as a negative metaphor when it is viewed
as ephemeral and fleeting. Man·s life is compared to turn light into thick darkness (Jer 13: 16).
Bibliography: Dhorme, E., Job, Nelson,
to a shadow, for it has no permanence and flees
quickly away (1 Chr 29: 15). Shadow also de- 1967. Thomas, D. W., .. $almäwet in the Old Tes-
tament," JSS 7:191-200.
scribes the failing condition of one who is endur-
J.E.H.
ing a sickness (Job 17:7).
Yahweh is the shade or the source of protec-
tion for his people (Ps 121:5f.; lsa 25:4). There- 1922 ??':l (s1/) IV. Assumed root of the follow-
fore the Psalmist prays that God may hide him ing.
under "the shadow of his wings·· (Ps 17:8; cf. 1922a 71?':l ($1wl) Kethib, ?'?J ($'1i/)
36:7 [H 8]; 91: 1). God promises to hide the suffer- Qere, cake, round loaf (iud 7: 13).
ing servant in the shadow of his hand in order that
he can proclaim his penetrating message for a 1923 C?':l ($/m). Assumed root of the following.
period of time (lsa 49:2)'. And in the latter days 1923a tc?.; ($elem) image.
Yahweh's glory will return to Jerusalem. lt will
be a shade from the heat and a shelter from the Used sixteen times. The Aramaic is used simi-
other elements (lsa 4:6; cf. Hos 14:8). larly in Dan 2 and 3. The word basically refers to
a representation, a likeness. Five times it is used
~almäwet. Deep darkness. (Asv prefers "the ofman as created in the image ofGod. Twice it is
shadow of death" and also has "thick darkness," used of the golden copies of the mice and swel-
"thick gloom"; RSV prefers „ deep darkness" and lings that affiicted the Philistines (1 Sam 6:5, 11
also has "gloom. ") Some treat it as a combina- and see 'opel). Mostly it refers to an idol.
tion of $alämu "be dark" (Akkadian, also There are a number of words used for idol (see
Arabic) plus iit as an abstract ending. Most ver- under gi/liil and 'ä$äh). Some, like gilliil, refer to
sions understand it as combination of "shadow" their shape; others, like hebe/, (KJV vanity) may
and "death." D. W. Thomas accepts the lauer, be just a derogatory substitute (Deut 32:21; Jer
but convincingly argues that miit possesses 8:19 NJV). $eiern refers to the image as a repre-
superlati ve force: · · very deep shadow," "thick sentation of the deity. As such, images were
darkness." M. Dahood agrees, vocalizing it $al- strictly forbidden. Notice, not all sculpture was
mawet and citing other compound nouns in forbidden (cf. the golden cherubim), only the
Ugaritic (Psalms 1, AB, p. 147). lt describes the idols.

767
 Man was made in God's image ($eiern) and the two with the result that they can find a fulfil-
likeness (d' mut) which is then explained as his ling relationship only in one another, but never
having dominion over God's creation as vice- with the same intensity in any other part of crea-
regent. Ps 8:5-8 [H 6--9] is similar citing man's tion. Therefore woman's origin makes it possible
God-given glory, honor and rule. God's image for a man and a woman to establish a dynamic
obviously does not consist in man's body which relationship in which they become "one flesh"
was formed from earthly matter, but in his (cf. Gen 2:24).
spiritual, intellectual, moral Jikeness to God from The text of Job 18: 12 is debated as to whether
whom his animating breath came. The emphasis the text is tjelä' or $ela' ("limping"; Rsv ""for his
of the prohibition of idols is that they are all ma- stumbling"). The latter could be "at his side"
terial created things. God is non-material, the as Dhorme and ASVtake it: but KD rejects this
creator (Deut 4: 15-19). This spiritual aspect of possibility.
man has been damaged by the fall and is daily Bibliography: Dhorme, E., Job, London:
tarnished by sin. But it was seen in perfection in Thomas Nelson, 1967. Renckens, S. J. Henricus,
Christ and will be made perfect in us when salva- lsrae/'s Concept of the Beginning, Herder &
tion is complete (Heb 2:6--1!5). Herder, 1964.
Bibliography: Girdlestone, SOT, pp. 303-308; J.E.H.
on God's image in man: Buswell, J. 0., Systema-
tic Theo/ogy of the Christian Religion, vol. I, 1925 117J ($a/a') II, limp (Gen 32:32; Mic
Zondervan, 1962, pp. 232-238. Miller, J. M. "In 4:6--7, Zeph 3:19).
the ·Image' and · Likeness · of God," JB L
91:289-304. THAT, II, pp. 556--62. Derivative
1925a 11'7~(tje/a') limping, stumbling
l"\imi (~·a/miiwet). See no. 1921b. (Ps 38:18; Jer 20:10).

1924 11',:r ( $1') I. Assumed root of the following. See nos. 1919a,b.
',:r',:r ($il$äl).
1924a t117J (selii') side, rib (Asv, RSVare ,i~~ ($" lä$al). See no. 1919c.
almost identical.) c•'7~7~($el$"lim). See no. 1919d.
$elä' is used once for a man's side (Gen 2:2lf.)
1926 M~J ($äme') be thirsty.
and once for the side of a hill, perhaps a ridge or
terrace (II Sam 16: 13; BDB); elsewhere it is an Derivatives
architectural term. lt refers to the sides of an ob-
1926a M7;'l ($iimii') thirst.
ject, e.g. the sides of the ark of the covenant (Ex
1926b M~l ($äme') thirsty.
25:12, 14). lt is also employed to describe a loca-
tion within a building (cf. Ex 26:35). Further it
1926c :ii:c~; ($im'a) parched condition
(Jer 2:25, only).
means a side chamber. There were three levels of
1926d liM~i ($immä'on) thirsty ground
these chambers around the temple proper (1 Kgs
(Deut 8: 15; lsa 35:7).
6:5; Ezk 41:6). lt also indicates a board ofwood
used für a wall or a floor (1 Kgs 6: 15). And it Israel is a dry land, with some desert regions
stands for the leaves of a folding door (1 Kgs and hot dry summers. Whoever travels in this
6:34). For I Kgs 7:3 KB gives ·•girder" or land, especially in the wilderness or the Negeb,
··moulding"; but others (as J. Gray) understand experiences parching thirst. Such thirst can drive
that it continues to mean ""side chambers" in this one to extreme distress. The Psalmist was driven
passage. to intense agony by his enemies, for they gave
The most crucial passage in which tfe/ii' ap- him vinegar for his thirst, an accepted drink but
pears is, of course, the one explaining the origin one which would increase his thirst (Ps 69: 21
of woman (Gen 2:2If.). God created woman by [H 22]); Jesus' thirst on the cross and the offer of
taking ··a rib" from Adam while he was in a very vinegar parallels the Psalmist's experience (Jn
deep sleep (cf. tardemii). Conceivably this means 19:28ff.; Mt 27:48: Mk 15:36; Lk 23:36). [The
that God took a good portion of Adam's side, vinegar which Jesus took however may have
since the man considers the woman to be "bone been the dilute vinegar drink used by Roman sol-
of his bones" and flesh of his flesh (Gen 2:21f.). diers. lt was called posca and was a cheap acidu-
This picture describes the intimacy between man lated thirst quencher. R.L.H.] Thirst was espe-
and woman as they stand equal before God. cially feit during the siege of a city. With the
Since God made the woman, she is responsible to major water supplies cut off the besieged had to
him in worship. She is not a mere extension of ration their water. The terrible pain the children
man; she possesses a unique individuality in her encountered heightened the distress (Lam 4:4).
own right. There is no indication that woman is Thus thirst was considered a means of judgment
inferior. On the other hand, since her body is (Hos 2:3 [H 5]; cf. Ps 107:5: lsa 29:8). But a far
made from man's, there is a continuity between greater thirst is for God (Ps 42:2 [H 3]; 63:1

768
 1928 n~; ($ama}:i)

[H 2]). Amos teils of a future thirst brought by a plowed with twelve yoke of oxen (1 Kgs 19: 19).
lack of hearing the words of Yahweh (Amos Very wealthy, Job owned five hundred yoke of
8: ! !ff.). oxen (Job 1:3). $emed also stands for a measure
One ofthe ways to show hospitality was to give of land, perhaps the amount that a span of oxen
the thirsty a drink; e.g. Abigail brought food and can plow in one day (i.e. around a half acre (lsa
drink to relieve the weary men attending David in 5: 10; I Sam 14:14)).
the wilderness (II Sam 17:29). One was even to Bibliography: Scott, R. B., "Weights and
give water to his thirsty enemies (Prov 25:21; cf. Measures of the Bible," BA 22:22-40. Snaith,
Isa 21: 14). God too provides water for his N. H., Lev und Num in New Century Bib/e,
people 's thirst (Ps 107:4-9). In the journey across Greenwood, S. C.: Attic Press, 1967.
the Sinai desert God provided water from a rock J.E.H.
on two different occasions (Ex 17:1-7; Num
20:2-13; Isa 48:21; Neh 9:15, 20). God promises :irp; ($amma). See no. 1929a.
to meet the thirst of his people once again in a :,~r.i; (simmüq). See no. 1930a.
new Exodus (lsa 41:17f.; 49:10). Therefore lsa
cries, "Ho everyone who thirsts, come to the 1928 r,~; ($ämah) sprout, spring up.
waters; and he who has no money, come, buy
and eat" (55: 1), an invitation reminiscent of Jn Derivative
7:38. This indicates God is able to meet the 1928a tr,r:; ($emah) sprout, growth,
deepest longing of his people. Further, the bless- branch.
ing of the latter days is pictured in terms of the
desert blossoming forth abundantly, because at- There are thirty-two occurrences of this verb
tending the outpouring of the Holy Spirit is abun- and half as many different translations involving
dance of rain on the thirsty land (Isa 44:3; cf. the ideas of growing, budding, and sprouting.
32: 15; 35:6f.). Some connect it with the Arabic and Syriac root
J.E.H. "to shine forth," but the word is never so used in
Hebrew. Rather it is limited to the realm of grass,
liMrp; (.~imma'on). See no. 1926d. plants, and trees in the Qal and Hiphil forms (e.g.
Gen 2:5, 9; Ex 10:5; Gen 41:6, 23: Gen 2:9: Ps
1927 ,~; ($ämad) bind, join. 104:14; 147:8), and the abundant growth ofhair or
the beard (in the Piel stem. Jud 16:22; II Sam
Derivatives 10:5; and Ezk 16:7).
In addition, the Qal and Hiphil forms are used
1927a ti~; ($emed) coup/e, pair. metaphorically in connection with other objects:
1927b i•~t (samid) I, bracelet (Num
a posterity springing up (Isa 44:4), trouble (Job
31:50: Ezk 16:11).
5:6), the future (lsa 42:9). the restoration (lsa
1927c i•~; ($ämid) II, cover, of vessel-
58:8), and righteousness and praise (lsa 61: 11).
(Num 19: 15).
Especially significant are the passages related
The verb relates to fastening a sheath for a to the coming up of a shoot from the root or seed
sword to the loins (II Sam 20:8). Another use of David, i.e. the future messianic person (II Sam
describes the tongue's deliberate production of 23:5: Jer 33: 15: Ezk 29:21: Ps 132: 17: Zech 6: 12).
deceit; it frames deceit (Ps 50: 19). Three times
~emah. Sprout, growth, branch. The noun ap-
the verb is used to describe the seduction of the
pears twelve times and is used as a messianic
Israelites to idolatry at Baal-Peor under Balaam's
term in at least five passages.
suggestion to Balak, the king of Moab (Num 25:3,
A late Phoenician inscription discovered at
5; Ps 106:28; LXX has teleo, used by Herodotus
Larnaka, Cyprus dating from the third century
(4.79) for "to initiale into the mysteries,"
s.c. contains the phrase $emah $ede~ "the right-
Snaith). The people sacrificed to their gods, ate,
ful shoot" which meant that the individual was
worshiped, and participated in cult prostitution.
the legitimate heir to the throne. A similar idea is
The entire activity is powerfully described as
found in the fifteenth century s.c. Ugaritic Keret
yoking oneself to Baal-Peor. Perhaps the verb in-
epic which calls Keret sph l/pn, i.e. "the shoot or
dicates that the people even bound themselves to
this false worship in covenant. This verb con- progeny of Lrpn." Thus $emah is a technical
notes how tlagrantly obstinate their rebellion term signifying a scion or son. While the idea is
against Yahweh was. attested in Ugaritic with the root sph, so far the
only use of the root $mh attested in Ugaritic is in
~emed. Couple, pair, yoke. (Asv and RSV the several personal names.
same, but RSV "team" (Jer 51:23).) lt refers to As David retlects on the everlasting covenant
two animals yoked together or to those that ride which Nathan previously announced to him, he
side by side, like horsemen riding in pairs (lsa asks rhetorically; "Will not God cause all my sal-
21:7). Oxen were yoked for plowing; e.g., Elijah vation and all my desire to sprout?" (II Sam

769
1929 c~i (~mm)

23:5). The later biblical writers take up this theme the term "heighf' into the divine name and the
and answer, as did one of the Psalms of Ascent oT expression appears again.
(132:17), with a "yes!" In Jerusalem God will Additional evidence for this messianic concept
cause the hom of David to sprout up; in fact, it may be found in ne$er "branch" and /Jo(er
will spring forth for the whole house of Israel "shoot" (lsa 11:1) and yöneq "young plant" and
(Ezk 29:21). shöresh "root" (lsa 53:2).
The first writer to take up the thought of II Sam Bibliography: Baron, David, Rays of Mes-
23:5 and use the root ~·mb as a noun to designate siah's Glory: Christ in the OT, Zondervan, nd,
the Messiah is Isaiah (4:2). Many deny that lsaiah pp. 72-150. Beecher, Willis J., The Prophets and
is referring to the Messiah when he speaks of The Promise, Baker, 1963, pp. 335-40. Buda,
"the Branch or Shoot of Yahweh" because it is Joseph, .. $emah Jahweh: Investigationes ad
paralleled by the expression "the fruit of the Christologism Isaianam Spectantes," Bib
earth. ·' Therefore, 4:2 is simply a reference to the 10:10--26.THAT, II, pp. 563-65.
agricultural prosperity of the land. But this view W.C.K.
fails to notice that both of these expressions are
elsewhere messianic. lt also neglects to account i•~; ($ämid). See nos. 1927b,c.
for the unusual limitation of this fruitfulness "in c•rp; ($ammim). See no. 1929b.
that day"; the fruitfulness is for the survivors of l'lt'I'~; ($''mitüt). See no. 1932a.
Israel. Furthermore, they overlook the progress-
ive nature of revelation, for certainly II Sam 23:5 1929 C~l ($mm). Assumed root of the follow•
and perhaps Ps 132:17 are controlling ideas when ing.
we come to the eighth century e.c. Thus the 1929a :,~; ($ammil) woman's veil (lsa
"Sprout of Yahweh" (or as clarified by the cog- 47:2; Song 4: I, 3; 6:7).
nate studies, "the son ofYahweh") is an obvious 1929b c•rp; ($ammim) snare, trap (Job
reference to the divine nature of the $emal_i. Yet 5:5; 18:9). Meaning uncertain.
his human nature is also in view, for he is "the
Off spring or Fruit of the Earth." 1930 :,~; ($ämaq) dry up, shrivel (Hos 9: 14,
In Jer 23:5-6 and 33: 15-16, he is "the Righ- only).
teous Branch [or Sprout]" raised up for David to Derivative
reign as King. While focusing on his human, but
regal nature, this passage also stresses his deity 1930a :,~r.,; ($immüq) bunch of raisins
by calling him "the Lord our Righteousness." (1 Sam 25:18; 30:12).
Note that the context of both passages is the
1931 '"l~l ($mr), Assumed root of the following.
promise that Israel will retum to the land. Even
more pointedly, Jer 33:19--26 sets the $emab 1931a '"l~J ($emer) wool (lsa 1: 18; Ezk
promise in line with God's previous promises to 27:18).
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, the Levite priests, and 1931b l'I'.")~; ($ammeret) treetop (Ezk
David! f7:3, 22; 31:3, 10),
Zechariah (3:8) pictures the Branch (semal_i) as
l'lj~; ($ammeret). See no, 1931b.
the Lord's Servant. No doubt the allusion is to
lsaiah's archetypal statements conceming Yah- 1932 l'li,,; ($ämat) put an end to, cut off, destroy.
weh's Servant, Jesus Christ. In Zech 6: 12 the (ASV and Rsv vary frequently; Asv also
prophet proclaims, "Behold the Man" who is "a "consume"; RSV "vanish," "hem in,"
priest on his throne," a ruler, a counselor of "wipe out.")
peace, whose name is Branch. Zechariah sees the
high priest Joshua as a type of the promise, but Derivative
only a pledge of God's future fultillment in Jesus
Christ. 1932a l'll'.I'~~($' mitüt) completion, finali•
ty (Lev 25:23; 30).
The DSS use the phrase $emal_i däwid as a
Messianic term in explanation of the Davidic co- The word $ämat occurs fourteen times. The
venant of II Sam 7: 14 (JBL 77:353). verb is a very strong word for destruction or for
The NT makes at least two references to this completely silencing someone (KB; cf, Job
messianic title "Branch" using the LXX transla- 23: 17); e.g. friends vanish under stress like snow
tion of the root $m/J: anatole and anatellö. He- before the heat (Job 6: 15ff.). lt describes the in-
brews 7: 14 is to be translated ··our Lord sprang tense desire of one to obliterate completely his
forth (or sprouted) from Judah." But in Luke enemies (cf. ·Ps 143:12). David was able to van-
1:78 with its anatole exhypsous the equation of quish his foes, because God had caused them to
~·ema/J YHWH is complete. Therefore we trans- turn their backs (Ps 18:40 [H 41)) // mä/_la$ (Ps
late the verse, "Because of the tender mercy of 18:38 [H 39] as in Ugaritic 'nt II:7f. Ais WUS no.
our God by which the Branch from on High shall 2330). The Psalmist too was attacked by those
visit us." The only change needed is to convert who wished to eliminate him. The method of at-

770
 1943 it,J (~ä'ad)
tack included false charges of committing a theft Derivative
(Ps 69:4 [H 51). Consequently in his justice God
seeks to cut off from his city those who slander
1939a p~,, (.)"iinüa') modest (Prov 11:2,
only).
the righteous and those who possess an arrogant
heart (Ps 101:5f.; cf. Ps 73:27). When the Psalmist
1940 ~;, (.)"iinap) wrap, wind up together
encounters God's fierce assaults, he too feels that (Lev 16:4; lsa 22: 18).
he is being destroyed (Ps 88:16 [H 17]). Similarly
one who serves God zealously is consumed by Derivatives
that very zeal, especially when he sees his adver- 1940a ~,;, (.)"änip) turban (e.g. Zech
saries forgetting God's word (Ps I 19:139). He
3:5; Job 29: 14).
who lamented the destruction of Jerusalem also 1940b :i~rJ ($'' nepa) winding (lsa 22: 18
had his life jeopardized by being "tlung ... alive" only).
(Rsv; "cut off my life" Asv) into a dungeon with
1940c tri~t~~ (mi.)"nepet) turban of the
water that reached up to his head (Lam 3:53f.).
high priest.
Yet in faith these men continue to make their
prayer to Yahweh confident of deliverance (Ps mil,nepet. Turban; also a sign of royalty. (KJV
88; Lam 3:55ff.). renders it "mitre" and "diadem"; ASV,"mitre"
J.E.H. throughout; Rsv, "turban. ")
The term occurs twelve times, eleven in Ex
l;t (.)"en). See no. I936a. and Lev and once in Ezk (2I:31). lt was the dis-
tinctive headgear of the high priest. The refer-
1933 :'l~ll (.)"öneh), M~l (.)"öne') flocks ence in Ezk vividly foretells the cessation of
(Ps 8:8; Num 32:24). A by-form of .)"cfn. Davidic kings and Aaronic priests. The transla-
tion turban is supported by the derivation of the
:'ll? (sinna). See nos. 1937a, 1938a. word from .)"änap meaning "to wrap around."
pij, (.)"iinüa'). See no. 1939a. C.L.F.
,in: (.)"innor). See no. 1942a.

1934 ri;; (.)"iina!J) descend (Jud 1:14; Josh

15: 18; Jud 4:21). 1941 ,,::r (snq). Assumed root of the following.
1941a ;,),; (.)"inöq) pillory (Jer 29:26,
11';; (.)"iinip). See no. 1940a. only).

1935 c;; (.)"änam) dry up, harden (Gen 1942 ,,:r (.)"nr). Assumed root of the following.
41 :23). 1942a '1il; (.)"innor) pipe, spout, conduit
(II Sam 5:8; Ps 42:8). See Madvig,
i';; (.)"iinin). See no. 1936c. D. H., "Gutter," in ZPEB, II, p.
854.
1936 1,:r ($nn) I. Assumed root ofthe following, 1942b rii'1N1 (.)"ant'' r6t) pipes feeding
lamps with oil (Zech 4:12).
1936a l';t (.)"en) thorn, barb (Prov 22:5;
Job 5:5). Meaning uncertain.
1936b m:r (sinna) hook, barb (Arnos rii'1N1 (.)"ant'rol). See no. 1942b.
• 4:2, ~nly).
1936c 1•:; (.)"iinin) thorn, prick (Num 1943 '1l/, (:;ii 'ad) step, march.
33:55; Josh 23: 13). Derivatives

1937 1,:r (.)"nn) II. Assumed root of the follow- 1943a '1l/1 (.)"a'ad) step, pace (e.g. Prov
30:20; Jer 10:3).
ing.
1937a :'lf:\l (.)"inna) coolness (Prov 25: 13, 1943b :i,~; ($''äda) I,
Sam 5:24; I Chr 14:15).
marching (II
only).
1943c :i,~;
anklet
II,
($' ·ada)
(lsa 3:20; II Kgs 11: 12).
armlet,
1938 1,:r (.)"nn) III. Assumed root of the follow-
ing.
1943d ,~;~ step (Dan
(mi.)"'äd) 11:43;
Ps 37:23; Prov 20:24).
1938a :,~; (.)"inna) /arge shield (I Sam
17:7; II Chr 11:12). The smaller
l 943e :i,~,~(' e{ ada) arm/et, ankle chain
(Num 31:50; II Sam 1:10).
shield was called mägen.
1938b rq;:; (.)"in.)"enet) jar (Ex 16:33, .)"ii'ad means to walk in cadence (cf. II Sam
oniyJ. 6: 13). lt describes the manner in which one is
brought before the king (Job 18: 14). lt pictures
1939 *!Jil (.)"iina') be modest, humble. Occurs how one methodically takes the path to the house
only once, in the Hiphil (Mic 6:8). of the harlot, fully conscious of his direction but

771
1944 :,~; (~ä'b)

totally ignorant of its consequence-Sheol (Prov ous difficult situations which caused him to cry
7:8: cf. 5:5). The teacher instructs his student in out in desperation to Yahweh for direction (cf.
the way of wisdom in order that his pattem of Ex 17:4). One time God's response to Moses was
living (steps) will not bring him hardship and sor- simply for Moses to cease crying and get into
row (Prov 4: IOff.). action (Ex 14:15). Further it describes the re-
Yahweh watches the path that man takes (Job sponse of Esau to the loss of his blessing and of
34:21). God gives the Psalmist a wide place to the nation Israel to the loss of the ark of the
step on in order that he will not slip and fall Philistines (Gen 27:34; I Sam 4: 14). This word
(II Sam 22:37). Proverbs 16:9 states, 'iA man's often refers to the cry of those plundered and
mind plans his way, but Yahweh directs his ravaged in war (cf. Jer 49:21).
steps." This proverb carefully balances the A strong outcry frequently indicates that righ-
interplay between God and man in directing a teousness is absent or judgment is being exe-
person·s destiny. Man must initiale his course of cuted. Even though Yahweh established Israel as
action, but the füll consequence of the outcome a nation to produce justice and righteousness, he
belong to Yahweh. But the believer realizes that discovered bloodshed and a cry; i.e., the city was
he needs God's direction. Jeremiah in a repentant oppressing the unfortunate (lsa 5:7). The righ-
mood and seeking Yahweh's favor profoundly af- teous lament in loud cries over the loss suffered
firms, "I know, 0 Yahweh, that the way ofman by their nation (cf. lsa 33:7; Lam 2:18). They
is not in himself, that it is not in man who walks intercede for forgiveness by repenting of the sins
to direct his steps" (Jer 10:23). which led to this calamity and seeking God's help
In military terms it is used primarily for for the future. God listens to the cries of men,
Yahweh. He marches before Israel's army, sec- particularly when the righteous cry out under
uring the battle for them (Jud 5:4). As God goes affliction. The Hebrews cried under the weight of
forth, all the natural elements respond, acknow- their bondage in Egypt (Ex 3:7). God heard their
ledging his lordship and supporting his effort (Ps cry and came to deliver them through the mighty
68:7f. [H 8f.]; Hab 3: 12; cf. Jer 10:5). deeds at the Exodus. Because of the cry of the
J.E.H. oppressed in Sodom and Gomorrah, God came to
judge the oppressors (Gen 18:21; 19:13). God
1944 :,~; (Jä'ä) stoop, bend, incline (e.g. Isa especially promises to hear the cry of the aff-
51:14: Jer 2:20). licted, the alien, the orphan, and the widow (Ex
22:22f. [H 21f.]; cf. Ps 9: 12 [H 13]). The fact that
~•ll; (.i·a'ip). See no. 1946a. God hears the cries of his people and delivers
i•l,' 1 (Ja'ir). See no. 1948a. them from their distress distinguishes him as the
true, living God; formen cry to idols, but they do
1945 w; (~·ä'an) wander, travel (lsa 33:20, not respond (Ps 107:6, 28: lsa 46:7).
only). God, however, returns punishment to the
wicked in kind. In response to the outcry of the
1946 ~!1? (~·'p). Assumed root of the following. Hebrews, the Egyptians uttered a great cry be-
1946a ~•ll; (Jti'ip)wrapper, shawl or cause of their sorrow over the death of their
veil (Gen 24:65; 38: 14). firstborn (Ex 11:6: 12:30). In the end times a por-
tion of the punishment of the wicked will be cry-
C'll;P,t (Ja·a.yü'im). See no. 1891a. ing from a painful heart (lsa 65: 14).
God's suffering servant accomplishes his task
1947 ;,p; (.~a·aq) cry, cry for help, cal/. (Asv differently than earthly rulers who seek reform
and RSVsimilar, except Niphal Rsv "call and office. He will not cry in the streets (lsa
out," ASV"gather together.") 42:2): i.e. he will not seek through rhetoric to
Derivative arouse the multitudes to move against their pre-
sent rulers.
1947a :,i?~; (s'"aqa) cry, outcry.
In the Niphal and Hiphil Jii'aq means "to be
BOB suggests the original meaning in Arabic called into assembly" (cf. Jud 7:23f.). A leader
was "sound as thunder." This root means to call may summon the people together to pursue their
out for help under great distress or to utter an enemies. Saul was the first leader since the Con-
exclamation in great excitement (cf. II Kgs 2: 12). quest who was able to assemble the entire nation,
E.g., immediately on realizing that the pottage to go to battle against their enemies (1 Sam 13:4).
they were contentedly eating was poisonous, the The people could also be called into assembly in
sons of the prophets cried out in anguish (II Kgs order for their leaders to present an important
4:40). A woman who is raped is exonerated as matter. Samuel gathered such an assembly at
long as she cries for help. lf she does not, she is Mizpah in order to install Saul as king (l Sam
guilty of consenting to adultery (Deut 22:23-27). 10: 17).
Israel's leaders often had to petition God ear- Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 568-74.
nestly for help. As a leader, Moses faced numer- J.E.H.

772
 1951 .,~; (~·äpa)

1948 i1r:r (sd'ar) be or grow insignificant (e.g. 31:27). So too Yahweh is alert to what happens
Job i4:21; Jer 30:19). on earth in order that he may properly judge its
inhabitants (Prov 15:3; cf. Ps 66:7). lt also ex-
Derivatives presses the posture of faith; Micah says, .. As for
1948a ti•i,,; (sd'ir) little, insignificant, me, I will look to Yahweh, I will wait for the God
young. of my salvation; my God will hear me" (7:7).
1948b :,i•!)::t (s' 'ird) youth (Gen 43:33; Dhorme takes the form in Job 15:22 as a passive
·J~r 14:3: 48:4). ptc. ($äpü) meaning the result of being looked
1948c ,~;~ (mis'dr) a small thing (e.g. over, "choice" or "marked ...
Gen 19:20; Job 8:7). As a ptc. ($bpeh) it means "watchman," one
who was stationed on the wall and was responsi-
~ä'ir. Little, etc. ASV and RSV translate s1m1-
ble to inform the nation·s leadership of any
larly. In some cases the Rsv is superior (cf. I Sam
danger (cf. I Sam 14:16: II Sam 18:24ff.; II Kgs
9:21: Jer 14:3; cf. Jer 48:4; Ps 68:27 [H 281). Our
9: 17-20). Failure in his duties often carried the
root denotes that which is smallest in age and,
death penalty. The prophetic office is sometimes
therefore, least in significance, privilege, and de-
described in this language. To Ezekiel God says,
sirability (1 Sam 9:21: hence, Jer 14:3). There are
.. , have made you a watchman for the house of
Akkadian and Arabic cognates; its Ugaritic
Israel; whenever you hear a word from my
equivalent is ~'f:r (UT 19: no. 2182). For
mouth, you shall give them warning from me"
synonyms see qti(on; da/ (poor, weak, Jud 6: 15),
(3: 17: cf. 33:7; Jer 6: 17; Hab 2: 1). If Ezekiel failed
bäzd (despised, Ps 119:141). lts antonyms are
bäkorlbäkir (firstborn), rab (elder, Gen 25:23),
to give them God's warning he was liable for their
lives; but if he faithfully proclaimed the message,
y'shish (old, Job 32:6), and 'ii$üm (strong, lsa
he was free from any further responsibility re-
60:22).
gardless ofthe people's response (Ezk 3:18-21).
This word for last born child (the opposite of
Although God was faithful in sending Israel
bäkorlbäkir) also connotes insignificance. Even
watchmen, many became blind to their mission
as the firstborn received the double portion and
(lsa 56: 10). The failure of these watchmen and
blessing, the second born oftwo received a lesser
the rejection of the true ones were major reasons
portion and blessing. Similarly, Saul protested
for the downfall of Israel. Conversely, the true
his unworthiness on the grounds that his family
prophets will be the watchmen who are first to
was the least significant (cf. Ps 68:27 [H 28])
sing of the advance of God's new saving deeds
among the small/little Benjamites (Gen 43:33;
(lsa 52:7-10).
note that the scepter was not to depart from
Judah, although not the firstborn, Gen 49: 10). The use of the name Mispah in Gen 31:49 is of
Thus, our word connotes last born and/or insig- interest. lt has given its name to a Mispah bene-
nificant (Jer 49:20). The young (insignificant) are diction, "The Lord watch between me and thee."
But originally it was far from a benediction. lt
the unwise (Job 32:6) and the disdained (Job
was a sign of a kind of boundary between Jacob
30:1). Sometimes our word refers to servants or
slaves (Jer 14:3: 48:4). The Psalmist affirms his and his hostile father-in-law. Both parties here
promised to keep the peace.
humble estate and his obediance to God (Ps
J.E.H.
119:141;cf. 'änä).
L.J.C.
1951 :,~; (.yäpä) II, overlay.
1949 'i!:l::t (sdpad) draw together, contract
-(La~ 4:8). Derivatives
1951a •is::t ($ippüy) meta/ plating (lsa
1950 :,~; ($äpd) /, Look out or about, watch. 30:22: Ex 38:17, 19; Num 17:3-4).
1951b 1'1'!:ll ($dpi/) rug, carpet (lsa
Derivatives 21 :5).
1950a :,~s::t ($ippiyd) lookout post (Lam 1951c 1'1!;1:t($epet) p/ated capital of pil-
4: 17). l~r (II Chr 3: 15).
1950b :,!!I;~ (mi$peh) watchtower, lookout
point (lsa 21 :8; II Chr 20:24). Many of the fumishings in the tabemacle were
tobe overlaid with pure gold, including the ark of
$iipa conveys the idea of being fully aware of a the covenant inside and out (Ex 25: I0f., 13, 28),
situation in order to gain some advantage or keep the table (Ex 25:23f.), and the altar of incense (Ex
from being surprised by an enemy. The verb ap- 30:3, 5). The horns of the altar of bumt offering
pears in the sense "to lie watching in ambush"; were overlaid with bronze (Ex 27:2, 6).
the wicked watches the righteous to slay him (Ps Solomon overlaid the inside of the temple with
37:32). Conversely the wise woman watches gold (1 Kgs 6:20ff.) and many of its furnishings
(looks to) the ways of her household; i.e. she (1 Kgs 6:20, 22, 28, 30, 32). He also adorned the
diligently takes care of its every need (Prov house with precious stones (II Chr 3:6). Even his

773
1952 M!:I'!(~ph)

great ivory throne was overlaid with gold (1 Kgs protection or for sinister reasons. Moses was hid-
10:18). Apparently the gold overlay sometimes den at home for three months to protect him from
had tobe replaced. Hezekiah is said to have over- Pharoah's death decree against all Hebrew male
laid the doors and the doorposts of the temple children (Ex 2:2). The wicked hide themselves in
(II Kgs 18: 16). This gold was not the thin gold order to ambush the innocent (Prov 1: 11), but in
leaf used today: it could be stripped off and used the end it is their own lives for which the ambush is
as tribute (II Kgs 18: 16). set (1: 18). The wicked cannot conceal their in-
This root also is used for laying a wood floor iquitous deeds from God (Jer 16: 17). Sins are said
and panelling (1 Kgs 6: 15). Proverbs compares a to be stored up in the sense that they will receive
person with smooth speech but an evil heart to a their appropriate punishment on a day ofjudgment
pot glazed with silver dross (Prov 26:23). (But see (Hos 13:12; cf. Job 15:20; 21:19).
$ig for the possibility that silver dross in this Amidst trials and plots of men, God hides his
verse is one word, witnessed to in Ugaritic, people in his presence (Ps 27:5; 31:20 [H 21)).
meaning white glaze). lsrael's God displays his special concem for his
A difficult text is lsa 21:5; $äpöh haHöpit, people in giving them security and shelter. In fact,
which is taken by various scholars from either his people are referred to as the hidden ones (Ps
$äpa I, "they set the watch" (Asv), or :'füpa II, 83:3 [H 4], RSV"[thy] protected ones").
"they spread the rugs"' (Rsv). The latter seems to The word also connotes storing or treasuring
fit the context better. The nobles, engrossed in things on account oftheir value (Jer 36:29). There-
their own pleasure, continued to feast during the after Jeremiah refers to Judah's foe as Babylon.
darkening hours which threatened their nation's He goes on to prophesy that Babylon shall be
existence. defeated by a nation from the north (Jer 50:9;
J.E.H. 51 :48). Ezk too places Israel' s foes who will fight
the last climactic war as coming from the far
places ofthe north (Ezk 38:6, 15). The north, then,
rt;i; (:'füpa). See no. 1892b. becomes a harbinger of evil. In various
•i!ll; ($ippüy). See no. 1951a. mythologies it is the seat of demons.
iic; ($äpön). See no. 1953b.
•~ic; ($''poni). See no. 1953c. ~äpön. North. In Canaanite mythology the
'1i!ll; ($ippör). See no. 1959a. north was considered tobe the place for the meet-
ing of the assembly of the gods. The gods assem-
1952 MC:il (!fp/J). Assumed root of the following. bled on Mount $apan; $apan may be taken as a
1952a l'\l'.!!111($appaf:,at) jar, jug (e.g. I proper name. Here Baal reigned supreme. The
Kgs 17:12; I Sam 26:11). mountain is usually identified with Mount Casius,
1952b l'\1'.!'Q; ($' pif:,it) .flat cake, wafer Jebel el Aqra', to the north ofRas Shamra. Kapel-
(Ex 16:31, only). rud suggests that the tower for sacrifices in Baal' s
temple may have been called Sapan, a mythical
rir:,o; ($appaf:,at). See no. 1952a. connection between the mountain and the cultic
shrine (p. 58). This concept ofthe divine assembly
:i:~; ($ippiya). See no. 1950a.
on Mount ~apän is alluded to in Isa's oracle
1'11'.!'Q;
($' pif:,it). See no. 1952b.
rQ; (!fäpin). See no. 1953a. against Babylon in which he pictures the proud
ll'Ql ($äpia'). See no. 1955a. king saying, ·' I shall sit on the mount of assembly
'1'Ql (:'füpir). See no. 1962a. in the far north" (14: 13). The king asserts for
:i,•c:ii (s'pira). See no. 1960a. himself both universal and divine lordship. Such
ri•Q;' (!fi'lpit). See no. 1951b. arrogance was soon to encounter the fury ofGod's
wrath.
The fact that Ps 48:2 [H 3] places Mt. Zion
1953 ,~; (!fäpan) hide, treasure, store up.
figuratively in the far north means that God is the
Derivatives sole ruler of the universe. He alone is to be rev-
erenced and praised. lt is also possible that this
1953a ?'QJ ($äpin) treasure (Ps 17:14, verse should be taken more Iocally. yar' ka can
only). mean merely "side" (Ex 26:22 cf. yarek Num
1953b tiic; ($üpön) north (e.g. Gen
3:35). The temple was located on the north side of
13: 14; Jer 26:26).
David's city. God is sometimes pictured as ap-
1953c •~ic; ($' pöni) northern (Joel
2:20, only). pearing out of the north to one of his servants (Job
37:22); he moves from his throne to communicate
1953d ii111;~ (ma$pÖn) hidden treasure
his splendor directly. Ezk was overwhelmed by a
(Obadiah 6, only).
stormy wind coming out ofthe north, and from the
:'fäpan occurs thirty-six times. lt means to con- midst of the cloud he had a vision of Yahweh's
ceal something with a definite purpose, either for glory (Ezk 1:4ff.).

774
 God promises to bring his people back from the cates the sound produced by the dead (lsa 29:4)
north (lsa 43:6; 49: 12; Jer 16:15). There is no loca- and also by wizards and mediums perhaps
tion where an earthly power can banish them from mimicking the sound ofthe dead in their attempt to
his concem (Jer 31: 8). Job says that God stretches arouse them (lsa 8: 19). When Arie], the city of
out the north over the void (26:7). This statement David, is defeated, her end will be merely to Jet her
shows that God created even the sinister places or voice peep from the dust (lsa 29:4). Isaiah claims
the mountain of the gods from nothing. No evil that when God hides his presence from Israel, the
power or god or divine assembly, therefore, has people are advised to turn to the occult for direc-
any existence co-etemal with God or any poweror tion and counsel, but he asserts that Israel is to
existence outside of God's creative power (cf. Ps find her meaning in the teaching and the testimony
89:12 [H 131). given by God only (lsa 8: 19f.).
Bibliography: Gaster, Theodore H., Thespis, J.E.H.
Doubleday, 1961. Kapelrud, A. S., Baal in the
Ras Shamra Texts, Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad, :,~;ir; (saµsapa). See no. 1957a.
1952. Morgenstern. Julian, "Psalm 48," in He-
brew Union College Annua/ 16: 1-%. Oldenburg, 1958 "\~l (sapar) /. Meaning uncertain; oc-
V., The Conflict Between EI and Baal in Canaan- curs only in Jud 7:3.
ite Religion, Brill, 1967. Rowley, H. H., Job,
London: Thomas Nelson & Son, 1970. de Savig-
1959 "\!:l':t (spr) II. Assumed root of the follow-
nac, J. "Note sur le Sens du Therme Saphön Irans
ing.
quelques Passages de la Bible, ·· VT 3:95f. THAT, 1959a t"\it; (sippor) bird. (Asv and Rsv
II, pp. 575-81.
identical, except Ps 102:7 [H 8] ASV
J.E.H. has "sparrow. ")
1954 !.'!:l':t ( ~'P') I. Assumed root of the following. This word for bird is related to the "chirping"
1954a !.'~J (sepa·) poisonous serpent sound that a bird makes. God is concemed for the
(Isa 14:29, only). birds. He created them and gave them a place to
1954b •~il.'~f (sip'oni) poisonous ser- nest (Ps 104:17). He preserved them during the
p~nt (e.g. Isa 11:8; Prov 23:32). flood (Gen 7: 14). The sparrow makes its nest
even at Yahweh's altars (Ps 84:3 [H 4]). Apart of
1955 !.'!:l':t (sp') II. Assumed root of the follow- man's invested lordship is over the birds of the
ing. air (Ps 8:8 [H 9]).
1955a 1/'Ql (sapia') dung of cattle (Ezr Certain birds are considered clean. They are
4: 15). edible (Deut 14:11) and some of them, such as
doves, were even specified as acceptable sac-
1956 l.'!:l':t (sp') III. Assumed root ofthe follow- rifices. The majority, if not all, of the unclean
ing. birds are birds of prey.
1956a :,~'Ql (s''pi'a) offshoot (lsa An Israelite was bidden to show kindness even
22:24, only). Meaning uncertain. to birds; if he found a nest with eggs or young
ones, he could not take both young and the
•~i!.'~':t (sip'oni). See no. 1954b. mother bird as weil (Deut 22:6f.). Apparently
some birds were domesticated as pets (Job 41 :5
[H 40:29]). A bird, however, was never to be
1957 *l'l~f (säpap) chirp, peep.
used to represent the deity (Deut 4: 17), as was
Derivative done in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The bird served to convey many different pic-
1957a :i9;1ri (sapsapa) a kind of wil-
tures: 1) quick flight for safety (Ps 11:!); 2) one
low (Ezk 17:5, only).
being hunted (Lam 3:52); 3) one being snared un-
sapap occurs only four times, in Isa. lt appears suspectingly (Prov 6:5; cf. Ps 124:7; Eccl 9: 12);
in the Pilpel and is onomatopoetic. lt stands for the 4) straying from home (Prov 27:8); 5) flightiness
chatter of an angered bird (lsa 10: 14). In that pas- (Prov 26:2); 6) a strong feeling of loneliness (Ps
sage the Assyrian king boasts ofhis great prowess 102:7 [H 102:8]); 7) the manner of the retum of
and wisdom in conquering the nations and taking Israel from exile (Hos 11:II); 8) the peoples of
their wealth quite easily just as a man who robs a the various nations who shall inhabit the noble
nest without any bird making a sound. For this cedar, the Kingdom of God (Ezk 17:23); 9)-
boastful arrogance God is about to destroy As- Yahweh's protecting Jerusalem as a hovering
syria (Isa 10:15-19). According to Isa 38:14 bird (lsa 31:5).
Hezekiah expresscd his mouming for a fatal sick- Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Birds in the
ness in sounds like those from a swallow or a Old Testament," PEQ 87:5-20; 129-40.
crane. In a different line of thought the word indi- J.E.H.

775
1960 it,~ (.ypr)

1960 (~pr) III. Assumed root of the follow-

i!:I? Later he had to add twenty cities in Galilee to the
ing. payment, but Hiram was not satisfied (l Kgs
1960a :i,'Ql U'pirä) plait, chaplet (Ezk 9: 11-14). Solomon also joined with Hiram in
7:7, 10; lsa 28:5). merchant ventures to the African coast in search
of all sorts of exotic goods (l Kgs 10:22);
1961 i!:I? (.)pr) IV. Assumed root of the follow- Jehoshaphat unsuccessfully tried a similar joint
ing. adventure (1 Kgs 22:48f.). The greatest impact of
1961a ,-,·~?(sippören) fingernail. stylus Phoenician religion on Israel was under the zeal-
point (Jer 17:1; Deut 21:12). ous efforts of Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, King
of Tyre, married to Ahab. Her efforts created a
1962 i!:I? (spr) V. Assumed root of the follow- crisis for Yahwism, which was championed by
ing. Elijah and Elisha (1 Kgs 16:29-11 Kgs 10:35).
1962a °h'Qi (siipir) he-goat. (ASV and And her impact was extended to Judah with the
RSVthe same.) marriage of her daughter Athaliah to Jehoram,
King of Judah (II Kgs 8:16ff.: 11:1-20). Later
~·apir appears only in late texts (Dan, Chr and Tyre and Sidon once again supplied cedar trees
Ezr). The he-goat was one of the animals used for for the building of the second temple in exchange
a sin offering; e.g., twelve were offered at the for food, drink and oil (Ezr 3:7). But the mer-
dedication of the second temple (Ezr 6: 17; cf. chants ofTyre violated Jewish law by selling fish
II Chr 29:21 ). In a vision, Daniel saw a he-goat and other goods on the Sabbath (Neh 13:16).
with a horn between its eyes arise from the west The prophets composed many oracles and la-
(Dan 8:5-8). The goat is identified as the king of ments of destruction against Tyre for its arrogant
Greece, Alexander (Dan 8:21). Sometimes fierce, pride as the greatest merchant of the sea who
it is a symbol of power especially in domineering handled the finest and richest goods (lsa 23: Jer
sheep (cf Ezk 34: 17; Zech 10:3). 25:22: 47:4: Ezk 26-28: cf. Ps 45: 12 [H 13]). They
Bibliography: Montgomery, James A .. had gained enormous wealth through their out-
Daniel, in ICC. standing wisdom (Joel 3: 1-8 [H 4:4-8]: Zech
9:3f.; Ezk 28:3ff.). Skill and success had led its
1963 l/'.'1,1;1~
(~'pardea') Jrogs. prince to assert that he was a god (Ezk 28:2, 9). In
a lament Ezk describes him as perfect in the Gar-
i:::,c;($ippören). See no. 1961a. den of Eden. but he became corrupt with vio-
ri~; Uepef). See no. 1951c. lence in his trade. Therefore God had him cast
out of the garden and punished (Ezk 28: 12-19).
1964 1?i;'; (.~iqqiilön). Meaning doubtful, But through Isaiah God extended the hope of re-
perhaps garment (II Kgs 4:42). storation to Tyre. Her merchandise and her hire
then would be dedicated to Yahweh and she
1965 ,:r (sör) Tyre. (Asv and RSVthe same.) would supply food and fine clothing to those who
dwell before him (lsa 23: 17f.).
Tyre was one of the main city-states of the Bibliography: Blaiklock, E. M., ··Tyre,·• in
Phoenicians in the area of Lebanon. The center ZPEB, V, 832-35. Harden, Donald, The Phoeni-
of Tyre was located on a rocky isle, a short dis- cians, Praeger. 1963. Kapelrud, T. S., ··Tyre," in
tance from the coast. Such a location provided an lDB, IV, p. 721ff. Moscati, Sabatino, The World
excellent defense. With a long breakwater it of the Phoenicians. Praeger, 1970.
boasted one of the best harbors along the Pales- J.E.H.
tine coast. lts history paralleled the Hebrew oc-
cupation of Canaan. The Phoenicians were excel-
lent merchants of the seas and traders in purple. ,~ (.yör). See no. 1975b.
They worshipped many gods, including Baal. ,; (.~ar). See nos. 1973a,b, 1974a, 1975a.
At various periods they interacted with Israel,
commercially and religiously. David entered into 1966 *:::li? (särah) burn, scorch. Occurs only
covenant with Hiram, King of Tyre. He sent the ~~ce, ·in the Niphal (Ezk 21 :3).
famous cedar trees of Lebanon for the building of
the palace (II Sam 5: 1lf.). Hiram continued the Derivatives
agreement with Solomon and supplied him 1966a :::ii? (säräh) burning, scorching
lumber and gold needed for building the temple '(Pro~ 16:27, only).
and his own house (1 Kgs 5). Another Hiram, a 1966b ri:::ii:t (siirehel) scab, scar of a
skilled craftsman. was sent to instruct and help ~o~e (Lev 13:23, 28).
the Hebrew craftsmen in the various aspects of
building (1 Kgs 7: 13f.). In return Solomon fur-
nished King Hiram with !arge supplies of food. r,:::i-,;($ärebel). See no. 1966b.

776
 1972 ~jl ($ärap)

1967 ni:t (srh). Assumed root of the following. could serve as a sign of divine power (Ex 4:6; II
1967a •i; a kind of ba/sam (e.g.
(~·äri) Kgs 5:8).
Gen 37:25: Ezk 27: 17). The isolation of a leprous person was doubtless
a sanitary measure in order to avoid further con-
M?l üära). See nos. 1973c, 1974b. tagion. That a priest in Israel's theocracy was to
,;,; (~••'rar). See nos. 1973e, 1975c. diagnose the illness does not mean that today's
clergy should become health officers. But the
principle of God's concem for the health of
1968 Mjl ($ärafJ) /, cry, roar (Zeph 1: 14; Isa
bodies is not only seif-evident but remains an en-
43: 13).
during principle (cf. Jesus, Mt 8:2-3).
Diseases with eruptions affecting the skin are
1969 n,1 (srfJ) II. Assumed root of the follow- sometimes mild, sometimes, as in smallpox, scar-
ing. let fever, etc., both dangerous and highly con-
1969a l'.!'".11($'' riaf1) excavation, under- tagious. The only effective control in antiquity
ground chamber (e.g. Jud 9:49; would have been isolation. Only the Hebrew laws
I Sam 13:6). had this very valuable provision.
$ära'at is found primarily (twenty times) in the
•i; (sari). See no. 1967a. two chapters that govem the diagnoses and the
i:t•i; c~•·r1a~1). See no. 1969a. cleaning measures for one who had become un-
clean (täme', Lev 13, 14). In the nature of a con-
1970 ,,1(p·k). Assumed root of the following. tagion, $ära'at refers not only to eruptions on the
1970a "lil (~·arek)need(IlChr2:15,only). skin but to mildew or mold in clothing (Lev 13-
:47-52) or in houses (Lev 14:34-53); therefore
obviously the word is not specific for leprosy.
1971 IJjl ($ära') be diseased of skin, leprous.
The determination by the priest of an individual
(ASVand RSVsimilar). This denominative
as unclean meant separation from the commu-
verb is used chietly in the Pual.
nity, and ceremonial unfitness to enter the temple
Parent Noun (cf. II Chr 26:21). The cleansing measures tobe
performed upon recovery involved a ritual with
1971a tN/jl (~·ära'al) malignant skin dis-
two birds, which ritual according to KD was
ease, leprosy. Strictly, leucoder-
necessary for restoration to the community (Lev
mia and related diseases. (ASVand
RSVsimilar: "leprosy"). 14:2-9). An additional set of offerings followed,
1971b n~~l (sir'ä) hornet. notably the guilt offering, perhaps because dis-
ease is ultimately to be linked with sin (Lev
While usually rendered leper or leprous, the 14: 10--20).
term "leper" is not correct medically, since $ii· There is no Scriptural warrant for regarding
ra'at refers to a wider range of skin diseases (cf. leprosy as a type of sin, though the analogy can
"malignant skin disease," NEB). For conve- be helpful for illustrative purposes.
nience, however, the term "leper" can be re- Bib/iography: Harris, R. Laird, Man-God's
tained. Eternal Creation. Moody, 1971, pp. I42-43.
A person with leprosy. apart from the telltale Browne, S. G., '"Leper, Leprosy," in WBE. II,
malignant raw tlesh and white hair, was to be pp. 1026-27.
otherwise identified by tom clothes, announce- E.A.M.
ment of · · unclean · · when in the streets and was to
live isolated from the community. Four persons r,pj; ($iira'at). See no. 1971a.
are named in the OT as becoming leprous. Not
counting Moses (Ex 4:6: cf. also II Kgs 7:3),
1972 ~j; ($ärap) smelt, refine, lest. (Asv and
Rsv sometimes identical, others varied;
there were Miriam (Num 12: 10), Uzziah (II Kgs
both also "goldsmith," "refine," "try";
15:5), Gehazi (II Kgs 5:27) and Naaman, the Sy-
ASV also "founder," "purge"; RSV also
rian ( II Kgs 5: 1).
"silversmith," "cast," "smelt," "prove
God may inflict the disease of $iira'at as
true. ")
punishment for sins such as jealousy (cf.
Miriam), anger, and Jack of full compliance with Derivatives
God's commands (cf. Uzziah), and covetousness
1972a 'l:li'l (sör'pi) goldsmiths (Neh
(cf. Gehazi). One must not conclude, however, . 3:31, only).
that all sickness is a result of an individual's sin
(cf. Job; Lk 13: 1-5; Jn 9: 1-7).
1972b ~-i;r,, (ma$rep) crucible (Prov
i3:3; 27:21).
$ära'at was not necessarily incurable (cf. II
Kgs 5:7). Leprosy by contrast, was likely incura- ~·ärap is primarily used for goldand sil-
ble (Lev 13). In any event, healing of $ära'at versmiths and for the process of refining metals

777
1973 "ljl (~·arar)

before they were worked into fine vessels (Prov 119: 140) and take refuge in him as their shield
25:4). One of the great demands for the smith's (Prov 30:5).
skill was for the making of molten images (Jud Bibliography: Bowes, D. R., "Metals and
17:4). An idol could be gold plated and fitted with Metallurgy," in ZPEB, IV, pp. 206-12. Forbes,
silver chains which were cast for it (lsa 40:19). R. J., Studies in Ancient Techno/ogy, vol. 8,
The smith who practices his skill in making idols, Brill, 1964. Garber, P. L., "Refining," in IDB,
however, will be put to shame by his work, for IV, p. 23f. Singer, Charles; Holmyard, E. J. and
these images are nothing but a delusion (Jer Hall, A. R., A History of Technology, vol. 1,
10:14; 51:17). Oxford: Clarendon, 1965.
Various aspects of the refining process are J.E.H.
vividly used for judgment on and purification
from sin: e.g. a blazing furnace, bellows, lead, •,;,-:,i (ror''pi). See no. 1972a.
dross, refuse silver (e.g. Isa 1:25: Jer 6:27-30;
Ezk 22: 18-22). God seeks to remove from his
1973 ij; (riirar) /, bind, be narrow, be in dis-
people all wickedness and sin so that they can
tress (Qal): make narrow, cause distress,
endure his holy presence. Man has the responsi-
besiege (Hiphil).
bility of purifying himself so that he can be re-
fined; i.e. he must respond obediently to God's Derivatives
word in order to experience cleansing (Dan
1973a tiJ (rar) /, narrow, tight.
12: 10). Further, when his people are wayward
1973b ti; (rar) II, distress.
and violate the covenant, God seeks to bring
1973c t:,i:r (siira) straits, distress.
them back by refining them (Jer 9:7 [H 61). God
tries them in the furnace of affiiction (lsa 48: 10).
1973d *i~; (~ärar) suffer distress. This
denominative verb occurs only in
Although they have to endure difficult circum-
the Pie! (Jer 48:41: 49:22).
stances, as long as their faith in him remains firm,
1973e ,;,; (r"rör) bundle, parcel, pouch,
they will eventually experience deliverance (Ps
bag (e.g. Gen 42:35; Hag 1:6).
66:6-12). Between the promise and its fulfillment,
1973f ,;,; (merar) straits, distress (Ps
the word itself tests and refines the one who has
116:3; 118:5: Lam 1:3).
heard it (Ps 105:19). However, sometimes the
people become so obstinate that no matter how rärar may refer to anything which is narrow or
intense the refining fire becomes, it is in vain (Jer confining. A place may become too small for
6:27-30). Then God must come against his people people to inhabit when they increase in number
in judgment. But in the midst of this judgment, (II Kgs 6: 1; lsa 49: 19f.). Isaiah speaks of a blan-
God is still preparing a people for himself. Those ket too narrow to wrap oneself (28:20). lt also
who undergo the judgment as a refining shall turn refers to being restricted (II Sam 20:3), and it may
to God and enter into covenant with him once signify "to hamper something" (Prov 4: 12).
again (Zech 13:9). According to Mal, God shall $ärar means "to bind up" or ··to tie." lt is
refine the Levites as gold and silver; then they used for binding a stone in a sling (Prov 26:8),
will offer the sacrifices correctly and these sac- tying a kneading trough to a mantle (Ex 12:34), or
rifices will be accepted (Mal 3:2ff.). The climax of mending an old torn wine skin (Josh 9:4, Pual).
God's refining process will result in the estab- God is said to bind up the water in thick clouds
lishment of a city over which he has complete (Job 26:8; cf. Hos 4: 19). Hosea describes the sin
rule: that city shall be called "the city of righ- of Ephraim as bound up; i.e. it was kept in store
teousness, the faithful city" (lsa 1:25f.). for the time ofjudgment ( 13: 12). Since the people
The upright man endures Yahweh's faithful reject his message, lsaiah exhorts his disciples to
testing without despising it. He confidently af- preserve his teaching among themselves saying,
firms that the trial has discovered nothing amiss "Bind up the testimony, seal the teaching among
(Ps 17:3). In fact, when he seeks God's protec- my disciples" (8: 16). lt further is used for pre-
tion, he even prays that God will test or refine his serving one's life (1 Sam 25:29); "the life of my
innermost thoughts and attitudes so that his peti- Lord will be bound in the bundle of the living."
tion may indeed be worthy of being answered (Ps lt also may refer to the strong emotional re-
26:2). sponse that one experiences when pressed·exter-
God's word also is tried; or according to the nally by enemies or internally by wrong decisions
RSV "the promise of Yahweh proves true" (Ps or passions; e.g. Jacob's confrontation with Esau
18:30 [H 31 ]). That is, what God says is authen- (Gen 32:7 [H 81). Israel was frequently placed in
tic; since it has been refined, it is completely reli- sore distress by her enemies during the period of
able. Psalm 12:6 [H 7] compares Yahweh's the Judges (Jud 2: 15: 10:9). Even a great leader
speech to "silver refined in a furnace on the may be distressed by reaction to controversial
ground, purified seven times" (RSV). Therefore decisions (cf. I Sam 30:6). One can be obsessed
those who serve Yahweh love his word (Ps with a passion and be so bound up emotionally

778
 1975 ,,1 ($rr)
that he becomes ill; e.g. (Amnon·s distorted de- 1974b l"l?l (.rärti) vexer, rival
sire for his sister (II Sam 13:2). wife (1 Sam 1:6, only).
One curse for violating the covenant states that 1974c ,,:r (sarar) make a rival wife.
enemies will besiege lsrael's towns (Deut 28:52). -This ·denominative verb occurs
Similarly God brings distress on any who have only in Lev 18:18.
sinned (Zeph 1:17; Jer 10:18). Some under such
distress become more faithless, as did Ahaz (II This root deals with the harassment and tor-
Chr 28:22), while others humble themselves and ment engendered by an enemy. God promised
seek Yahweh, as did Manasseh (II Chr 33:12; cf. Israel victory over all her adversaries (Num
Deut 4:30f.). 24:8). However, if she should fail to drive the
This root or a very similar one describes the foreign nations from Canaan, those nations
emotional distress of a woman in travail (Jer would remain to vex Israel like thorns and pricks
48:41; 49:22). (Num 33:55). Their weapons included wiles such
as enticing the Hebrews into licentious idolatry
~ar /. Na"ow, tight. (ASV and RSV are similar
(Num 25: 18). In the postexilic period Haman,
for rest of derivatives). $ar I describes something
who sought to destroy the Jews by a decree from
as narrow, e.g. a place where one can travel in
a Persian King, is called „the enemy ofthe Jews"
only one direction (Num 22:26). A narrow river
(Est 3: 10; 8: 1, etc.).
has a rushing current (lsa 59: 19). Strength that is
Whenever a foe defeated Israel, he scoffed at
narrow has too short a span (Prov 24: 10).
Yahweh (Ps 74: 10, 17, 23). So too the believer
~r II. Distress, trouble. Describes the per- under oppression is taunted by his enemies. They
sonal anguish one encounters in adverse circum- ask, --where is your God?" (Ps 42: 10 [H 11); cf.
stances; e.g. the great distress which comes from 31:11 [H 12)). In response the people entreated
the death of a close friend (II Sam 1:26) or from God to deliver them for the sake of his honor or
God's refusal to give help or direction (Job 7: 11; reputation (Ps 74). His help on the basis of his
cf. I Sam 28: 15; Isa 25:4; 63:9). mercy and love demonstrates that he is the living
God (cf. Ps 143:12). He also uses unexpected
~ära. Straits, distress. lt indicates intense in-
ner turmoil (Ps 25:17). lt describes the anguish ways to confound his foes, even through the ut-
terance of the mouth of babes (Ps 8:2 [H 31: Ps
of a people besieged by an enemy. lt is compara-
105:24).
ble to the pain of a woman bearing her first child
God executes justice against his adversaries in
(Jer 4:31). lt refers to terror at the approach of a
order to cleanse (kipper) the land (Deut 32:41ff.).
raping army (Jer 6:24). lt defines the quality of
Israel, as God's instrument ofpunishment against
time when Judah suffers her severest punishment
other nations, is sometimes commanded to be-
for violating the covenant (Jer 30:7; cf. Ps 78:49).
come hostile toward one of her enemies and
The land of a people that reject the Lord's word
strike them (Num 25: 17). The Day of the Lord
is described as full of distress, darkness, and the
will be his climactic day of vengeance against all
gloom of anguish (lsa 8:22; cf. 30:6). Into such
his enemies (Jer 46: 10).
darkness Yahweh will bring the light of his salva-
J.E.H.
tion (lsa 9:1-2 [H 8:23-9:1)).
A brother provides help in adversity (Prov
17:17).Similarly the Lord helps his people out of
the times of affiiction (Ps 50: 15; 37:39). God 1975 ,,:r (.rrr) III. Assumed root of the follow-
graciously promises to save Israel from the trou- ing.
ble of the Day of the Lord (Jer 30:7). 1975a "'IJ (.)"ar) hard pebble, flint (lsa
5:28, only).
1974 "'ljl ($iirar) II, show hostility toward. 1975b 'll (.rör) flint (e.g. Ex 4:25; Ezk
3:9).
Derivatives 1975c ,;,i ($'"ror) pebble (II Sam
1974a "'IJ (~·ar) adversary, enemy. 17:13; Arnos 9:9).

779
 Mi' (qe'). See no. 2013a. 1980 *',;.;, (qäba/) take, receive (Pie! and
Hiphil only).
1976 M!'.li?(qä'at), Mt:Ci?(qä'ät) a bird, per-
haps pelican or a kind of owl (e.g. Lev Derivative
11: 18; Deut 14: 17). 1980a ,~:;, (q'' bo/) something in front, at-
tacking engine (Ezk 26:9).
:lt? (qab). See no. 1977a.
The basic idea represented by this verb is re-
ceiving something given. The usual Hebrew word
1977 :i:i;, ( qbb) I. Assumed root of the follow- is läqa!J (q. v .). Our root appears to be a loan
ing. word, perhaps from Aramaic (as suggested by
1977a :l;? (qab) a dry measure (II Kgs KB). lt occurs only in clearly late texts except for
6:25, only). Probably 1/6 of a seah, the technical sense of Ex 26:5; 36: 12. Our root
l/ 18 of an ephah (q. v .). occurs twelve times (its derivatives occur only in
1977b :i;p (qübba) large vaulted tent Ezk 26:9 and II Kgs 15:10).
(Num 25:8, only). This root can be used of receiving even though
circumstances might move one to reject the offer.
1978 :i;.;, (qiibab) II, curse. (Asv, Rsv trans- David received without prejudice Amasai and his
late similarly .) companions because of their oath of fealty (1 Chr
This word connotes the act of uttering a for- 12:18 [H 19]) even though their tribe opposed
mula designed to undo its object. Fora treatment him. The Levites took the uncleanness (even
of synonyms see the article on qälal. Our word though it was uncleanness) and carried it from the
occurs fifteen times. Distinguished from qbb, I city (II Chr 29: 16). Even gifts from the heathen
(BDB). were accepted to be used in the new temple (Ezr
This word may weil be a loan word since it 8:30). At other points the thing received has no
appears either on the lips of (or is applied to) negative overtones (II Chr 29:22). One can re-
Gentiles (or persons of mixed parentage, Lev ceive such intangible things as instruction (Prov
24: 11), or in poetical passages. At times it is dif- 19:20, parallel to "hear counsel"), punishment (1
ficult to teil whether the text represents qbb or II Chr 21: 11), good and evil (without complaint, Job
nqb (the lexicons and grammars disagree). 2: 10), and observance of a new holy day (Est
The most frequent use of our root relates to the 9:23).
incident involving Baalam and Balak. Certainly L.J.C.
the "magical" belief and intent of Balak is prom-
inent here. (For the effect of such cursing and 1981 11;.;, (qäba') rob (Mal 3:8; Prov 22:23).
Balaam·s understanding of it, see qälal and the Meaning uncertain.
discussion of Num 23:8.) Perhaps the same over-
tone is present in Lev 24: 11, where the man of 1982 r,p;p (qübba'at) cup (lsa 51: 17, only).
mixed parentage may have used the name of God Perhaps a loan word from Assyrian
as a magical formula. Elsewhere our root is used ~abu'tu.
apart from any magical connotation and as the·
uttering of a formula (as compared to 'iirar and r,p;p (qübba'at). See no. 1982.
qälal. q.v.), although the usage in Job 3:8 has
been disputed. Job there requests conjurers ( ?) to 1983 r;.;, (qäba$) gather, assemble. (ASVand
excise the day of his birth from history (see RSVtranslate similarly.)
Michael Fishbane, "Jeremiah, IV, 23-26 and Derivatives
Job, III, 3-13"; also "A Recovered Use of the
Creation Pattern," VT 21: 152. 1983a ri:i,'? (qibbü$) assemblage (cf. the
L.J .c. Israeli kibbutz).
1983b :i;;:i,;, (q'' bü$a) gathering,
1979 :i:i;, (qbh). Assumed root of the following. Our verb refers primarily to gathering people
1979a :i;1' (qebti) stomach, belly (Deut into one place. Cf. Ugaritic qb$ (AisWUS no,
18:3; Num 25:8). 2386).
The following Hebrew synonyms should be
l"llli? (qibbu$). See no. 1983a. compared: ·asap"to gathertogether, up," (much
:i,,:i,7 (q'büra). See no. 1984b. broader than our root, but is paralleled to it),

783
1984 ,,1?
(qäbar)

qähal "to assemble, congregate, especially for 1984 -,;i? (qäbar) bury. Used 132 times, al-
worship," gädad "to muster troops," and yä'ad ways of human burial.
"to meet, gather together, by appointment." The
root occurs 127 times. Derivatives
A few occurrences of our root denote gathering 1984a t-,;:!i-' (qeber) grave, sepulcher.
in general (cf. 'äsap), e.g. to gather food (Gen 1984b :-i;~i?(q'büra) :-i,,:=i? (q'büra)
41:35), money (II Chr 24:5), etc. The most com- grave, burial.
mon use, however, relates to the gathering of
people. The verb qäbar is translated with unusual uni-
First, people are gathered together for various formity as "bury" in the KJV and other versions.
social reasons: to ask Samuel for a king (1 Sam lt is not used figuratively of concealing or of caus-
8:4), to recognize David as king (II Sam 3:21; I Chr ing horror. lt is seldom used in poetry, only once
11:1). God reflects on the return from the exile (or in the Pss (79:3) where it is used of burial after a
in the eschaton [?]) saying they will gather to battle at Jerusalem.
select a king (Hos 1: 11). Also note: gathering to qeber. Grave, sepulcher. This word also is
work on the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 5: 16);gather- mostly usedjust for the literal tomb. lt is used only
ing nobles, etc., to enlist them according to three times in Pss (out of sixty-seven) and not
genealogy (God is concerned about covenant often in poetry elsewhere. lt is used for the cave of
(church) rolls-Neh 7:5), and gathering virgins to Machpelah, the graves of Egypt and the sepul-
select a queen (Est 2:3). chers ofthe kings as mentioned in Chr. The phrase
Second, the root often denotes the mustering of "open qeber" is applied to the throat of a wicked
troops (e.g. Josh 10:6; Jud 12:4). The people are man in Ps 5:9 [H 10]. lts usage in Ps 88 is interest-
assembled (as an army?) to stop the water sources ing. The Ps concerns those approaching sh' ·o/
outside Jerusalem (II Chr 32:4). During attack a (q.v.)(v. 3 [H4]), thosewhogodowntothepit bor
trumpet (qeren) served as the rallying point (Neh (q.v.) (v. 4 [H 5]), the dead metim (v. 5 [H 6]), the
4:20 [H 14)). After a battle Joab gathered his pit beneath Mr ta/:itiyyot (v. 6 [H 7)), the dead
troops to take account ofhis losses (II Sam 2:30). r' pä'im (v. 10 [H 11]), destruction 'llbaddon (v.
Does Elijah possibly ask Ahab to gather the 11 [H 12]), the place of darkness and the land of
people and false prophets as an army to do battle oblivion (v. 12 [H 13]). lt seems that qeber is used
(II Kgs 18: 19)? both in v. 5 and v. 11 [H 6 and 12) as a synonym
Third, people are gathered for religious needed to give a parallel to the other words more
functions. Jacob assembles his sons to deliver the often used in poetry. lt serves, however, to
blessing (Gen 49:2). David gathers the priests and suggest the meaning ofthe other words. A similar
Levites to transport the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr usage with these same synonyms is found in Ezk
13:2). The people assemble to renew their coven- 32 (given in some detail under sh' 'o/). Isa 14:19,
ant with God (l Sam 7:6; II Chr 15:9--10),ask his like Ezk has sh'" {)/ in parallel with bor which is
help (II Chr 20:4), to serve him (Ps 102:22 [H 23)), parallel with qeber and q•bura. qeber appears to
to vow to put away their foreign wives (Ezr I 0: 1, be the prose equivalent of these other words,
7, 9), etc. In the prophetic writings (Qal and which are used more in poetry.
Niphal) divine convocations are for judgment and R.L.H.
blessing (including salvation, Isa43:9; Joel 3: 11[H
4: 11]).
1985 ijl? (qiidad) /, bow down. (ASV and RSV
Finally, God pledges to assemble his people
translate the same.)
from the places where he had scattered them
(Deut 30:3-4). Even before the Babylonian exile This root refers to the bowing of one's head
David cites this promise as the cause of his accompanying and emphasizing obeisance (cf.
victories (1 Chr 16:35; cf. Ps 106:47). During the shä/:ia = l:zwy).Hence, it has a very restricted use,
great exile this promise is repeatedly recalled by unlike its Akkadian cognate qadadu. lt is to be
the prophets (e.g. lsa 11: 12). This hope they offer distinguished from all other words for "bow" by
the captives is rooted in the sovereignty of God this restricted use (cf. kara'). Our root occurs
(lsa40: 11). Contrariwise, God condemns Babylon fifteen times (perhaps sixteen; cf. qadar).
to "captivity" with no deliverer (lsa 13:14). In the This root is used to emphasize devotion and
eschaton this divine gathering is to extend to all thus occurs at especially crucial times. When
peoples (lsa 66: 18)-even the Gentiles (lsa J 1:12). Joseph's brothers return to Egypt with Benjamin,
By so accomplishing such a clear prophecy, God their obeisance is notably and understandably
exhibits his sovereignty and, therefore, sanctifies pronounced (Gen 43:28). Similarly, when Saul
himself in those gathered (Ezk 20:41). After the sees the vision of Samuel he is especially respect-
return God teils his people to remember his an- ful (1 Sam 28: 14). The deepest awe and reverence
cient promise (Neh 1:9), and so they did (Ps typifies one's attitude toward God at crucial
107:3). times, for example, when Eliezer's prayer is mi-
L.J.C. raculously answered (Gen 24:26), and when the

784
 1988 *Cj~ (qädam)

people celebrated at Hezekiah's consecration of 2208). Our verb occurs twenty-six times. lt is to
the temple (II Chr29:30). Israel reacted in this way be distinguished from the more common qärä'
when they saw Aaron's signs (Ex 4:31) validating "meet" (q.v.). See also mä~a· "find."
the announcement that God had sent Moses to The verb qädam is most often used against a
deliver them from Egypt, and when the Passover possible martial background. The confrontation
was initiated (Ex 12:27). thus set forth is either peaceable or hostile. In
God's giving the law a second time in spite of Deut 23:4 [H 51, Israel's "relations" did not meet
Moses' anger (sin) in the face of Israel's idolatry them (and hence their God) as relatives and allies
elicited this deep reaction from Moses. Each re- should have, so they incurred God's judgment
corded dedication of the temple met with this (Neh 13:2). David teils how his enemies came
deepest worship (1 Chr 29:20; II Chr 29:30; Neh against him in his calamity (II Sam 22: 19). He
8:6). prays God to confront his enemies, and cast them
L.J.C. down (Ps 17:13). A peaceable confrontation is
often in view. For example, Job complains about
1986 ,,:, (qdd) II. Assumed root of the follow- the help he received which caused him to live
ing, (3: 12). More important, God brings lovingkind-
1986a ,.,,i? (qoqöd) head, crown of ness (covenantal concem, Ps 59: 10 [H 11]) and
head (e.g. Deut 33:20; Jer 2: 16). tender mercies (cf. räJ:,am, Ps 79:8) to the faith-
1986b :i,:, (qiddil) a spiee, cassia (Ezk ful. But man cannot reciprocate by aiding God
27: 19; Ex 30:24). Derivation un- (Mic 6:6), for God Iacks no resource (Job 41:11
certain. [H 3]).

:i,:, (qiddti). See no. 1986b. qedem. East, antiquity,front. The noun qedem
lmi( (qiidum). See no. 1988g. has either a geographical meaning, "east," or a
!Uiii( (qädosh). See no. 1990b. temporal notion "ancient time, aforetime." This
noun occurs sixty-one times. lt denotes an idyllic
1987 Mji?(qädal:i) be kindled, kindle (e.g. state whereas ·oläm, 'ad denote perpetuity, zä-
Deut 32:22; Jer 15:14). qen, agedness, and ri'shon primacy (q.v.)
The "East" may have either good or bad con-
Derivatives notations. On the one hand it is the location of
1987a (qaddaJ:,at) Jever
1'11'.1':11;1 (Deut Eden, but on the other hand, it was the habitat of
28:22; Lev 26: 16). the men who built Babel (Gen 11:2). When denot-
1987b n,i?~ (' eqdäJ:,) fiery glow, sparkle ing the dwellers E or NE of Canaan, it frequently
of a gem (lsa 54: 12, only). refers to tribes hostile to Israel (Num 23:7; Jud
6:3, 33). But the prophets envision a day when
nr:,;11;1(qaddaJ:,at). See no. 1987a. they will be subject to Israel (lsa II: 14).
C'".!i? (qädfm). See no. 1988d. H. W. Wolff likens the Hebrew conception of
time to the situation of a man rowing a boat. He
1988 *Cji( (qädam) meet, confront, go before sees the past as before him (qedem); the future is
(Pie! and Hiphil only). Denominative behind his back ('aJ:,arit). There is truth in this,
verb. except that this was not necessarily the concept
of time of the Hebrews, for this etymological
Parent Noun usage was determined before the Hebrews
1988a tC:,i'- (qedem) east, antiquity, front. adopted the language (H. W. Wolff, lecture
1988b tC'.'![::I(qedem) east. notes).
1988c t:i~,11 (qadmil) antiquity, former es- In poetic passages qedem describes the
tate, before. created state. So Joseph is blessed with the chief
1988d tc'".li? (qädim) east wind, east. things of the ancient (idyllic) mountains (Deut
1988e ii~':111(qadmon) eastern (Ezk 47:8, 33: 15), and God is enthroned (abides) of old
only). (since creation, Ps 55: 19 [H 20)). Our word is
1988f ~~0".111 (qadmöni) former, ancient, used ofthe Exodus as typifying the intended ideal
eastern. (Mal 3:4). The Psalmist recalls the glorious works
1988g c,,i? (qädum) antiquity. of God performed then (Ps 44: 1 [H 2]), especially
in his times of distress (Ps 77:5 [H 6]). Surely,
The root qdm incorporates two basic concepts: these references recall the divine covenant (Ps
first, (and most often) "to confront (meet) some- 74:2).
one with either a good or bad intent," second, qedem is also used of the Davidic period (Neh
''to precede someone or something either tem- 12:46). All three ideas (creation-Exodus-Davidic
porally or geographically." lt occurs in Ug. reign) are joined in Ps 74: 12. So we see that the
(qdm) meaning "precede, draw near" (also "in three form a theological model. This is further
frontof(before)," and "eastwind(?)" UT 19: no. emphasized in statements about the Messiah

785
1989 'i:Ti?(qadar)

(Mic 5:2 [H IJ; Ezk 36: 11), and the eternal cove- mourning in such contexts. Hence, the great and
nant (Mic 7:20). Finally, Isaiah applies this model terrible day ofthe Lord is associated with mourn-
(from creation to perfection) to the Lord's com- ing by the heavenly bodies (Joel 2: 10). This day,
ing (Isa 45:23) according to the counsel of God. in turn, is directly connected with the
AU is known and done by him (Isa 45:21). eschaton-as is the blackening of the heavenly
bodies (Joel 3: 15 [H 4: 15]). [Conzelmann cor-
qedem. East. This noun may be simply qedem
rectly notes that in the ancient Near East bright-
plus a final he expressing direction toward (GKC
ness and darkness were regarded as very impor-
sec. a,c,) with which it always occurs. This noun
tant for life, thought, and religion ( TDNT, VII, p.
occurs twenty-six times. lt should be compared
with mizrä/:i (where the sun rises), which em- 427). Darkness denotes the whole range of what
is harmful or evil. Our root connects darkness
phasizes location rather than direction.
and sorrow-a connection not limited to the an-
qadmä. Antiquity, former estate. This is the cient Near East. Conzelmann says ofthis passage:
_abstract noun form of the derived meaning (an- .. Here it is no langer meant figuratively but liter-
cient, former) of qedem. An exception is the ally" (ibid., p. 430). For eschatological darkening
temporal use in Ps 129:6, "before," which ap- see Isa 13:10; Joel 2:30-31 [H 3:3-4); 3: 15 [H
pears to employ the locative he extended to time 4:15) (Acts 2:20); Zeph 1:15; Rev 6:12, 17; 8:12.
(GKC 90 h, qedem plus the locative he(?). Our But in spite of its threatening aspect, darkness is
ward occurs five times. only a penultimate entity with God. B.K.w.]
In the midst of oppression David confesses that
qädim. East wind, east. This noun denotes the
he is mourning, i.e. in an objective, noticeable
desert wind which brings feared destruction (Job
27:21; Ps 48:7 [H 8]), and which is, nonetheless, sense: he was dirty, unattended, andin mourning
absolutely controlJed by God (Job 38:24; Ps attire (KB). Jeremiah goes to such lengths of
78:26) even for good (Ex 14:21) when he so de- mourning over his people in view of the en-
sires. Occurring in Ezekiel fifty-two times, its croaching judgment (8:21).
most frequent usage is "east" (cf. Hab 1:9)- Job 5: 11 seems to attest the dir interchange (cf.
perhaps a dialectical variant for qedem. The Akk. qadädu).
word occurs sixty-nine times. Bibliography: Delekat, L., "Zum Hebräi-
schen Wörterbuch," VT 14:7-66.
qadmöni. Former, ancient, eastern. This is the L.J.C.
adjectival form of qedem (GKC, sec. 86/). lt oc-
curs ten times. m,,i? (qadrüt). See no. 1989a.
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 587-88. ri•;jii? (q'döranit). See no. 1989b.
L.J.C.
1990 !Ujl( (qädash) be ha/lowed, holy, sanctified;
ii~"!i? (qadmön). See no. l988e. to consecrate, sanctify, prepare, dedicate.
•;~'.Ti?(qadmöni). See no. 1988f. Denominative verb.

1989 ijl( (qadar) be dark, mourn. Parent Noun

1990a tiv:,·:;, (qödesh) apartness, holiness,
Derivatives sacredness.
1989a mi"!i:) (qadrüt) darkness, gloom 1990b tWi"!I( (qädosh) holy, Holy One,
(Isa 50:3, only). saint.
1989b ri•~j-"!i;J(q" dörannit) mourners 1990c tiv'.'.11((qädesh) maletempleprostitute
(Mal 3: 14). (Deut 23: 18; II Kgs 23:7).
1990d t!U'.'!i' (qedesh) Kedesh.
Asv and RSV translate this verb similarly, except
1990e tw~&(qädesh) Kadesh.
in Jer 14:2 and Job 30:28 (in both cases the con-
text supports the RSV). This root denotes black- 1990f tiv,i?~ (miqdäsh) holy place, sanc-
tuary.
ness (the absence of light, Jer 4:28; cf. v. 23) as
weil as the preparations surrounding mourning The verb qädash in the Qal connotes the state
rites. lt occurs nineteen times. Compare the more of that which belongs to the sphere of the sacred.
usual /:iäshak which is restricted to blackness Thus it is distinct from the common or profane.
.. kähä," growing dim, and 'arab "become eve- In the Pie! and Hiphil it connotes the act by which
ning. ·' Other roots relating to mourning are dä- the distinction is effected. lt is a denominative
' ab: inward attitude, 'änil, bäka, and 'äna/:i, the verb.
sounds of mourning; säpad, 'äbal: observing The suggestion that the root qdsh is derived
mourning rites in general. from an original biliteral qd ("cut") is attractive
The root is used in contexts of judgment where but tenuous in view of the uncertainties surround-
the heavens and heavenly bodies are to be black- ing the transmission of biliteral roots to the trilit-
ened (Jer 4:28). There is clearly an overtone of eral form. The meaning "to separate" is favored

786
 1990 W':r1?
(qädash)

by many scholars, but the fact that qdsh rarely. if of the sacred and which is thus distinct from the
ever, occurs in a secular sense makes any posi- common or profane. This distinction is evident in
tive conclusion in this regard difficult because of Lev IO:10 and Ezk 22:26 where qödesh occurs as
the limited evidence on which to base philological the antithesis of f:,6/ ("profane," "common").
comparison. There is some truth in the idea of R. Otto (see
The word occurs in several dialects of Akka- bibliography) that the word "holy" refers to the
dian with the basic meanings to be clean, pure,
00
mysterium tremendum. lt speaks of God with a
consecrated... In the Canaanite texts from measure of awe. lt can be used almost as a
Ugarit, the basic meaning of the word group is synonym of deity ... His holy name" is the name
.. holy ... and it is always used in a cultic sense. of God. The inner room of God's dwelling is
A definitive use of the term occurs in Num called the Holy of Holies-the most holy place.
16:38 [H 17:3]. The censers ofthe Korahites were But the biblical viewpoint would refer the holi-
regarded as holy because they had been devoted ness ofGod not only to the mystery ofhis power,
to the Lord. They were thus regarded as having but also to his character as totally good and en-
entered the sphere of the sacred by virtue of cul- tirely without evil. Holy objects therefore are
tic ritual ( v. 17 [ H 16: 18]) and were accorded a those with no cultic pollution which is symbolic
special place in the sanctuary. The devotion of of moral pollution. They are not merely dedi-
the censers seems to have created a condition of cated, but dedicated to what is good and kept
inviolable holiness that could not allow for their from what is evil. The Separation of men from
being treated in a common way. lt seems best to what defiles ceremonially is but typical of the hol-
see the root qdsh as serving to delineate the iness that is spiritual and ethical. .. Be ye holy for
sphere of the "holy." I am holy" is quoted from the oT (1 Pet 1: 16; Lev
In the Qal the verb qädash is used most fre- 19:1; 20:7, etc.) and the so-called holiness code is
quently to describe the state of consecration ef- heavily ethical. .. Man was made in the image of
fected by Levitical ritual. In Ex 29:21, 37; 30:29 God and capable of reflecting the Divine likeness.
certain articles used in the Levitical service were And as God reveals himself as ethically holy, he
consecrated to God and were thus recognized as calls men to a holiness resembling his own"
belonging to the realm of the sacred. Transmis- (ISBE, "Holiness").
sion of the state of holiness to anything that A basic element of lsraelite religion was the
touched a person or object so consecrated (Ex maintenance of an inviolable distinction between
29:37; 30:29; Lev 6: 18 [H 11], 27 IH 20]) does not the spheres ofthe sacred and the common or pro-
necessarily imply that a transferable divine fane (Num 18:32). That which was inherently
energy exists in the „ holy." Rat her, it seems that holy or designated so by divine decree or cultic
the person or object entered the state of holiness rite was not to be treated as common. The sab-
in the sense of becoming subject to cultic restric- bath was holy, and the restrictions connected
tions, as were other holy persons or objects, in with that day served to maintain its distinctive
order to avoid diffusion of the sacred and the nature and to guard against its being treated as
profane (cf. the state ofholiness ofthe priesthood common (Ex 16:23-26; lsa 58: 13, 14). Special re-
[Lev 21:1-81 and the strictures applied to a gar- strictions were placed on the priests to guard
ment accidentally sprinkled with the blood of the against profanation of its holy status (Lev
sin offering [Lev 6:27, H 20]). 21:6ff.). Sexual intercourse was not considered
In the Pie] the word is used most frequently of inmoral in the OTbut it did effect a state of Leviti-
the act of consecration. In Ex 19:23 the consecra- cal defilement (Lev 15: 18) which prohibited con-
tion of Mt. Sinai by establishing boundaries tact with that which was holy (1 Sam 21 :4). The
around it served to keep out all that might have same principle applied to the peace offering (Lev
profaned God's holy presence. 19:5-8), the holy oil (Ex 30:32-33), and holy in-
Tue ethical connotations ofthe concepts ofholi- cense (Ex 30:37).
ness find their basis in the proscriptions against That which was dedicated to God was con-
diffusing the real ms of the sacred and the profane ceived of as entering the sphere of the '"holy."
(Lev 22:32). This included the various elements of Levitical
In the Niphal the verb qädash may connote the worship called "holy things" in Lev 5: 15-16, the
concept "to prove one's holiness." God proves produce of the land (Lev 19:24), personal prop-
his holiness by judging sin (Lev l0:3; cf. 1-2; erty (Lev 27:28), and spoils obtained in military
Num 20:13; Ezk 28:22). His holiness is also dem- action (Josh 6: 19). The sacrifices that were tobe
onstrated in his adherence to his promises (Ezk eaten only by the priests were denominated
20:41; 28:25; 39:27). "holy" by virtue of their absolute dedication to
the sphere of the sacred as represented by the
qödesh. Apartness, holiness, sacredness, hal- priesthood (Lev 19:8).
lowed, holy (ASV, RSV, similar). The noun qödesh While the realm of the holy was conceptually
connotes the concept of "holiness," i.e. the es- distinct from the world with its imperfections, it
sential nature of that which belongs to the sphere could nevertheless operate within the world as

787
1990 ~:t:?(qiidash)
long as its integrity was strictly maintained. The tions were imposed on them that they might not
maintenance of the integrity of the "holy" was a engage in practices common to other peoples
function of the lsraelite cultus. The holy God (Lev 19:2; 20:7; Num 15:40). Their call to holi-
came to man in redeeming love within the context ness was based on the fact that they had become
of regulations and proscriptions that were de- God's possession by virtue of his separating them
signed to maintain the purity of holiness that from the nations (Lev 20:26; Deut 7:6; 14:2;
characterized God's essential nature. Even be- 26: 19).
fore the establishment of the Levitical system, lt is unthinkable that a holy God could condone
this principle was recognized (see Ex 3:5). sin; such a concept would involve a diffusion of
The cultus also effected the holiness of those the sacred and profane, thus destroying the na-
who participated in it. This was essential to the ture of holiness. The call to be holy was accom-
concept of redemption for, by definition, holiness panied by the imposition of certain restrictions
is separate from all that is sinful and profane. that served to ensure the continuing holiness of
God, therefore, calls man to holiness because he those who believed (Lev 11:44-45; 19:2ff.; Deut
himself is holy (qadosh) (Lev 19:2; cf. I Pet 1:15). 14:2, 21; Num 15:40).
Because of his holiness, God is above the Various aspects of the cultus were denomi-
weaknesses and imperfections of mortals and nated holy by virtue of their being conceived of
thus can accomplish the deliverance ofhis people as belonging to the realm of the sacred and were
(Ex 15: 11-12). Only those who are holy will dwell not to be treated as common. This included por-
in God's holy hill (Ps 15: lff.). Because God is tions of the sacrifices (Lev 6: 16; 7:6), the temple
holy by nature and separate from moral imperfec- and its aspects (Ps 65:4 [H 5]; Lev 6: 16, etc), and
tion, he can be trusted tobe faithful to his prom- the priests (Lev 21 :6, 8) and Levites (II Chr 35:3).
ises (Ps 33:21 ). The presence of God within the world de-
Inherent within the redemptive work of God is lineated a sphere that was holy, for God's holi-
the promise of the ultimate manifestation of ness cannot be diffused by the common (Deut
God's holiness in the glorification of his people 23: 14).
and the deliverance of the creation from the im- That which is "holy" is not only distinct from
perfections resulting from the edenic curse (Rom the profane but in opposition to it as weil. God,
8: 18-23). therefore, hates and punishes sin (Josh 24: 19; Isa
5: 16, 24). In the light of God's holiness, Isaiah
qädösh. Holy, Holy one, saint (Asv, RSV simi- saw himself and his people as sinners (lsa 6:3; cf.
lar). The adjective qadosh (holy) denominates V. 5).
that which is intrinsically sacred or which has
qädesh. Temple prostitute, male or female. The
been admitted to the sphere of the sacred by di-
adjective qadesh, like the name Kadesh, means
vine rite or cultic act. lt connotes that which is
"holy," but holy to what? The female
distinct from the common or profane.
functionaries in the pagan shrines were called
God is intrinsically holy and he calls his people
q'' desha, temple prostitutes, because that is what
to be holy, providing for them the standard of
they were. The name is a sad commentary on the
obedience whereby that holiness may be main-
licentiousness of Canaanite worship. The mas-
tained (Lev 19:2tT.). Because God is holy, he is
culine form is used similarly for the male coun-
free from the moral imperfections and frailties
terpart (Deut 23:17 [H 18]). In Gen 38:21-22 the
common to man (Hos 11:9) and can be counted
usage may be extended to refer to prostitution in
on tobe faithful to his promises (Ps 22:3-5). This
general.
aspect of God's character forms the basis of
Habakkuk's hope that his people would not per- qedesh. Kedesh. The name of several cities
ish (Hab 1: 12). cited in the OT. The name kedesh means ""holy."
The title "The Holy One of Israel" is applied 1. Kedesh in Naphtali. A settlement located in
to God numerous times in the OT, but is especially upper Galilee in the hill country of N aphtali. lt is
frequent in the prophecy oflsaiah (in all parts). lt generally identified with the modern Tell Qades.
serves to place the sins of lsaiah' s society in stark Kedesh was designated as one of the cities of
contrast to God's moral perfection (lsa 30: 11) and refuge in the !ist in Josh 20 (v. 7), and it was one
expresses God's absolute separation from evil of the Levitical cities of the Gershonite clan of
(lsa 17:7). Levites in the parallel lists in Josh 21 :27-33 and I
The inviolability of the spheres of the sacred Chr 6:71-76. lt was one of the fortified cities of
and the profane forms the ground for the ethical Naphtali according to Josh 19:37.
aspects of the concept of holiness. Because God The king of the Canaanite city of Kedesh is
is holy, the lsraelites could not serve him when cited in the !ist of kings defeated by Joshua (Josh
they persisted in their idolatrous practices (Josh 12:22). lt is generally thought that this Kedesh
24: 19ff.). They were to be separate from all that was the birthplace of Barak, but for another view-
was unholy (Lev 11:44-45; Deut 14:21). Stipula- see Y. Aharoni, The Land of the Bible, p. 204.

788
 1991 *',t!i: (qähal)

However, some identify it with Kedesh (see 2 in these cases. In keeping with the basic meaning
below). of the word group that it represents (qdsh), miq-
Kedesh is mentioned in II Kgs 15:29 as one of däsh denotes that which has been devoted to the
the lsraelite cities conquered by Tiglath-pileser. sphere of the sacred. When it refers to the
2. Kedesh in lssachar. In I Chr 6 a Kedesh is sanctuary, it connotes the physical area devoted
listed in the territory of lssachar (v. 72) as weil as to the worship of God. This area was sacred be-
in Naphtali (v. 76). In the parallel !ist in Josh 21, cause it was the place where God dwelled among
the city of Kedesh is omitted and replaced by the people (Ex 25:8) and its sanctity was not tobe
Kishion. lt is possible that this is a different name profaned (Lev 12:4; 19:30; 20:3; 21:12, 23).
for the same site (cf Jud 4: 11, 13). The word also designated sanctuaries that were
The location of the Kedesh in Josh 15:23 is devoted to false worship (Lev 26:31; lsa 16:12;
uncertain. lt has been identified with Kadesh Ezk 21:7; Arnos 7:9).
Barnea and Kadesh in southem Judah. The word is used for the articles of the taber-
nacle that were devoted to the Levitical worship
qädesh. Kadesh. The name of two cities in the
(Num 10:21). The portions of the sacrifices that
or. The name "kadesh" means "holy."
were particularly holy were called miqdäsh
1. Kadesh Bamea. An area of desert springs
located fifty miles southwest of Beersheba. lt is (Num 18:29). The word miqdäsh may refer to the
abode of God in Ps 68:35 [H 36], but some com-
sometimes called simply Kadesh. One of the
springs, · Ain Qedeis, preserves the ancient mentators seethis as the temple in Jerusalem.
Metaphorically the word is used to refer to a
name. The Masoretes made a vocalic distinction
place of refuge (lsa 8: 14; Ezk 11: 16).
between this qadesh and the other name qedesh,
Bibliography: Wood, A. S., "Holiness," in
but doubtless they came from the same form. The
ZPEB, III, 173-83; Girdlestone, R. B., SOT, pp.
name refers to a holy spot, but of course a spot
holy to the heathen pre-lsraelite worship. Such 175-78. Jones, 0. R., "The Concept of Holi-
ness," in TDNT, V, pp. 489-93. Lambert, J. C.,
"holiness · · would be an abomination to Israel.
"Holiness," in ISBE. Muilenberg, J., "Holi-
Kadesh Bamea is cited several times in con-
ness," in IDB. Otto, Rudolph, The ldea of the
nection with the patriarchs. In Gen 14:7 Kadesh
Holy, London: Oxford, 1926. Snaith, Norman,
occurs in what is evidently a very ancient tradi-
The Distinctive ldeas of the Old Testament, Lon-
tion describing a full-scale military action in
don: Epworth, 1953. Walker, Norman, "The
which Lot, Abraham's nephew, was captured.
Origin ofthe Thrice Holy," NTS 5 (1958, 1959).
The more ancient name of Kadesh, according to
THAT, 11,_pp. 589-608.
this account, was 'en mishpat ("spring of judg-
ment"). T.E.M.
Kadesh Barnea was in the itrea to which Hagar
tled (Gen 16: 14) and Abraham settled there for 1990.I 1"1:,i?
(qiiha) be blunt, dull.
some time (Gen 20: 1).
Kadesh figured prominently in the wildemess 1991 *':i0i? (qäha/) assemble. Denominative
period of Israelite history. lt was the site of a verb.
prolonged stay in the wildemess (Deut 2: 14) and
the place to which the spies returned from Ca- _Parent Noun
naan (Num 13:26). lt is also one of the sites men- 1991a t':i:,i? (qähäl) assembly, company,
tioned in the southern boundary of Canaan (N um congregation.
34:3-6; Josh 15:1-4; Ezk 47: 19; 48:28). According 1991b 1"1?::T/?(qe hi/la) assembly, congrega-
to Josh 10:41 it was the southemmost boundary tion (Neh 5:7; Deut 33:4).
of the Conquest. 1991c 1"1~1'.li'
(qöhelet) speaker in an as-
2. Kadesh on the Orontes. A Hittite capital .s.embly, Qoheleth.
situated on the Orontes River eighty miles north 1991d ',!!/?r, (maqhel) assembly.
of Damascus. The Rsv accepts a reading of the
The verb qähal conveys the idea of assembling
Lucianic recension of the LXX that includes without regard to purpose. lt is used in the Niphal
Kadesh in the extension ofthe Davidic empire (II
and the Hiphil. The LXX often translates this root
Sam 24:6).
as ekkaleö.
miqdäsh. Holy place, sanctuary, chapel, hallowed The Niphal carries the reflexive idea of a group
part. (Asv and RSVsimilar except that RSVtrans- assembling themselves. The assembling may be
lates "holy things" in Num 10:21, Ezk 44:8; for mutual defence (Est 8: 11; 9:2; 15-16, 18), to
"sacred area" in Ezk 43:21 and "temple" in Dan make war (Josh 22: 12; Jud 20: 1), to worship (II
11:31. Chr 20:26), to ask for idols (Ex 32: 1), for the
The noun miqdäsh is used most frequently in anointing of Aaron (Lev 8:4), for erecting the tent
the OT as the designation of the tabernacle and the of meeting (Josh 18: 1), for the transporting of the
temple. lt is frequently translated "sanctuary," ark to the temple (1 Kgs 8:2; II Chr 5:3), for the

789
1991 *':'ti:;(qähal)
assembling of a mob (Jer 26:9) for rebellion (Num munity. There is also the case where certain Is-
16:3; 20:2; II Sam 20: 14). raelite persons cannot enter the qähäl (Deut
The Hiphil, used for assembling of groups, 23:2). But elsewhere the two words are used in
such as the people (Deut 4:10), the officers and successive clauses in the same sense (Num 16:3)
elders (Deut 31:28), and the tribes (1 Kgs 12:21), and are joined together (Prov 5: 14). In general,
shows a similar variety in the purposes of assem- the terms are synonymous.
bly. In addition there is an assembly for the cen- qähäl may also designate the congregation as
sus (Num 1: 18), for the purification ofthe Levites an organized body. There is q''ha/ yifrü'e/ (Deut
(Num 8:9), for the consecration of Aaron (Lev 31:30), q''hal YHWH (Num 16:3, etc.), and
8:3), to bring water from the rock (Num 20:8), to q'' hal 'elöhim (Neh 13: 1) and then at other times
hear the words ofthe law (Ex 35:1; Deut 31:12, merely "the assembly" (haqqühäl). We en-
28); and to hear Moses' farewell (Deut 4: 10). counter "the asscmbly of the congregation of
(q'hal 'adat) Israel" (Ex 12:6), and the "assem-
qähäl. Assembly, company, congregation. Usu- bly of the people of God" (Jud 20:2). Of special
ally qahäl is translated ekklesia in the Lxx, but in interest is the phrase "congregation of the Lord"
thirty-six instances it is sunagoge. (q" hal YHWH) of which there are thirteen in-
qahal is a masculine noun from which the de- stances (Num 16:3; 20:4; Deut 23:2-4; Mic 2:5; I
nominative root qahal derives, but it is some- Chr 28:8). lt is the nearest oT equivalent of
times conjecturally derived from qol "to speak," "church of the Lord." The LXX ekklesia kuriou
hence a convocation (so KB suggests). The noun for this phrase.
occurs twenty-two times in the prophets, most
frequently in Ezk. The verb occurs thirty-nine qöhelet. Preacher, speaker in assemblies.
times in the Niphal and the Hiphil forms meaning qöhe/et is a Qal feminine participle from qahal,
"to assemble" or "to gather." The root qhl oc- which in the Niphal means "to come together"
curs thirteen times in the nonbiblical Qumran ma- and in the Hiphil "to bring together." The Qal
terials for gatherings and for groups of various form is used only here. The word is related to the
sorts, only one case ofwhich (Hodayot 2:20) is in noun qahal (assembly). The LXX chose
a worshiping context, paralleling the use in Ps ecclesiastes (a member of an assembly) as a
22:23. translation due to the alleged relation of qahal to
An assembly of any sort and purpose may be ecclesia (assembly, see above). The English re-
designated by qäha/. lt may be for evil counsel or ndering "Preachcr" follows Jerome's Latin con-
deeds (Gen 49:6; Ps 26:5), civil affairs (1 Kgs 2:3; cionatur ("speaker before an assembly"), how-
Prov 5: 14; 26.26; Job 30:28), or war (Num 22:4; ever the meaning of the Hebrew name is by no
Jud 20:2, etc.). The assembled armies see the means clear. The content of the book fits the wis-
fight between David and Goliath (1 Sam 17:47). dom literature category rather than the sermonic
The term may in other contexts designate an as- category. A second conjecture contends that the
sembled multitude of nations (Gen 35: 11), Qal form qohelet is used as though it were a Hiph
peoples (Gen 28:3; 48:4), and even the dead (Prov 1 and means "one who convenes an assembly,"
21: 16). lt may be of the retuming exiles (Jer 31 :8; The word has the definite article in Eccl 12:8
Ezr 2:64), and then the restored community in which lends credence to the claim that the word
Jerusalem is a qahäl (Ezra 10: 12, 14; Neh 8:2, is intended to be a description, not a personal
17). name.
But the qäha/ is especially an assembly for re- qohelet occurs seven times in the book of
ligious purposes. The experience at Horeb for re- Ecclesiastes (1: 1-2, 12; 7:27; 12:8--10) and
ceiving the Law was "the day of assembly" nowhere eise in biblical literature. As a noun de-
(Deut 9: 10; 10:4; 18:16). There were also as- signating the speaker, it also gives the Hebrew
semblies on other occasions for feasts, fasts, and name Qohelet to the book itself. Thc noun is or-
worship (II Chr 20:5; 30:25; Neh 5: 13; Joel 2: 16). dinarily construed with masculine forms ofverbs.
In these cases qähäl designates a gathering less The exception in Eccl 7:27 may be due to an er-
than the totality of the people of Israel. Such was roneous word division, since qöhelet identifies
the assembly when David exhorted the people to himself as a son of David, king in Jerusalem ( 1: 1,
build the temple (1 Chr 29: 1, 20). We encounter 12),
the idea of gathering (haqhil) the assembly (q- Bibliography: Campbell, J. Y., "The Origin
ähä/) (Num 10:7; 20: 10), which seems to distin- and Meaning of the Christian Use of the Word
guish between the assembly gathered and un- "ekklesia," " JTS 49: 130-42. Dahl, Nils A.,
gathered. Das Volk Gottes, Darmstadt: Wissenschaft
A distinction between 'eda and qähäl seems to Buchgesellschaft, 1963, p, 8. Zimmerman, F.,
be intended in "if the whole congregation ("eda) "The Root kahal in Some Scriptural Passages,"
commit sin ... and the thing is hidden from the JBL 50:311. TDNT, III, pp. 527-31. THAT, II,
eyes of the assembly" (qäh l.ev 4: 13). Here the pp. 609-18.
qähäl is the judicial representatives of the com- J.P.L.

790
 1994:,l:?(qäwa)

ri':>rti'(qöhelet). See no. 1991c. cut down, that it will sprout again, and that its
,~ · (qaw). See nos. 1992, 1994a. shoots will not cease" (Job 14:7). But his com-
plete frustration had been expressed in exclaim-
1992 ,i? (qaw). Mimicry of Isaiah's words, per- ing, "My days ... come to their end without
haps senseless. hope" (Job 7:6; cf. Prov 11:7).
The wicked too have hope. But since it has a
The word occurs in Isa 28: 10, 13. lts meaning is
false basis, it shall end with their death (Prov
debated. lt may mean "line" as qaw 11, espe- 11:7, 23; cf. 10:28). God himself will cut them off
cially a measuring line for judgment. Others (e.g. (Job 8:13; 27:8). Job says, "Their hope is to
BDB) take it as an onomatapoetic mimicry of
breathe their last" (Job 11:20).
lsaiah's prophesying. Cf. saw.
Hope has an eternal home in man's heart. As
long as there is a future, there is hope (Prov
1993 ?J;lii' (qoha') helmet (Ezk 23:24; I Sam
23: 18; probably an eternal future is intended).
17:38). Perhaps Philistine loan word. But only the believer can really express his hope
in the future, for it belongs to Yahweh alone. And
1994 :"l)~ (qäwä) /, wait, lookfor, hope.
God supplies wisdom to insure that future
Derivatives ( 'ahtirit) and to substantiate hope (Prov 24: 14).
The wicked have no such future, 'ahtirit (Prov
1994a tii? (qaw) line. 24:20), nor hope, tiqwii (Prov 10:28). God is the
1994b ,~li? (qawqäw) might (lsa 18:2, source of hope for his people, and he has prom-
7).
ised them a future and a hope (Ps 62:5 [H 6]; Jer
1994c :i~.i'~ (miqweh) hope. 29: 11). Jer says to besieged Judah, "There is
1994d :"l)i?1'1(tiqwa) /, cord (Josh 2: 18, hope for your future" (31: 17). Zechariah calls
21, only). God's people, "prisoners of hope." And he
1994e :"l)i?1'1(tiqwa) II, hope.
summons them to look forward to experiencing
This root means to wait or to look for with God's restoration (Zech 9: 12). Therefore,
eager expectation. lt is used for the wicked who Yahweh himself is called "the hope of Israel"
make an attempt to destroy the life of the right- (Jer 14:8; 17:13; 50:7; cf. Ps 71:5).
eous (Ps 56:6 [H 7]: 119:95). Waiting with steadfast God expresses hope in man. He planted Israel
endurance is a great expression offaith. lt means and made her a fully prepared vineyard. His hope
enduring patiently in confident hope that God will or purpose was for her success, i.e. that she yield
decisively act for the salvation ofhis people (Gen fruit; this was parabolically expressed by placing
49:18). Waiting involves the very essence of a a wine press in the vineyard (lsa 5:2ff.). How-
person's being, his soul (nepesh: Ps 130:5). ever, she only yielded wild grapes. Therefore he
Those who wait in true faith are renewed in had to judge her severely (v. 5f.). But his hope
strength so that they can continue to serve the continued, for he planned a new vineyard that
Lord while looking for his saving work (lsa could some day be productive (lsa 27:2-6).
40:31). There will come a time when all that God
has promised will be realized and fulfilled (Isa qaw. Line. ASV, RSV translate the same; except
49:23; Ps 37:9). In the meantime the believer sur- Ps 19:4 [H 5] RSV reads emended text "voice" but
vives by means of his integrity and uprightness as cf. the discussion of Dahood, in AB, Psalms 1, p.
he trusts in God's grace and power (Ps 25:21). 122. lt is used about seventeen times (cf. Isa 18:2,
His faith is strengthened through his testings, and 7 ASV margin). A line is basically a measuring line.
his character is further developed (Ps 27: 14). Is- lt stands parallel to plummet (lsa 28:17). A line
raelis encouraged to hold fast to love andjustice, was used to measure long linear distances (e.g.
i.e. they are to follow the law faithfully and main- Jer 31:39), and it served to measure round sur-
tain consistently the standards of justice, at the faces; (e.g. I K 7:23); e.g. the craftsman who
same time preserving an attitude of godly love carved a figurine to be his god used the line to
(Hos 12:6 [H 7]; cf. Ps 37:34; Job 4:6). mark his raw material (lsa 44: 13). Yahweh de-
During times of visitation and judgment, the scribed his creation of the earth as stretching out
righteous must exercise great faith (lsa 26:8; Lam a line over it (Job 38:5) i.e. everything about the
3: 19-33). Thus lsa confidently asserts, .. I will earth's constitution was subject to his exact spec-
wait for the Lord, who is hiding his face from the ifications. Zechariah speaks about the rebuilding
house of Jacob, and I will hope in him" (lsa 8: 17). of Jerusalem, "the measuring line shall be
When God arrives on the scene with redemptive stretched out over Jerusalem" (Zech 1: 16; cf. Isa
power, the response of those who have waited 34: 17). No doubt he means the city will be zoned
will be jubilant joy and great singing (lsa 25:9). for construction projects once again. Many times
Job amid his intense trial claimed that God was the idea of a measuring line connotes destruction
pulling up his hope like a tree (Job 19:IO). at hand. The line represents justice (lsa 28: 17).
Perhaps this statement is a response to his asser- Since the people or the nation against whom the
tion of faith: "For there is hope for a tree, if it be line is laid do not measure up to the Standard of

791
1995 *:"1J1?
( qawa)
justice, they come under judgment. The line de- 66:6, etc.). qöl should be distinguished from and
lineates exactly who and what will be destroyed compared to hegeh, higgäybn (a low noise or ut-
(cf. Lam 2:8; II Kgs 21: 13). In lsa 34: 11 the line is terance), hämbn (a tumultuous, agitated noise or
called a line of confusion (töhü); i.e. the land uttering), re·a, t" rü'a (a shout of alarm, or joy).
retums to the chaotic condition described in Gen Also see shä'ön "roar" t"shü'a "noise." Our
1:2. word is a common Semitic root (Ugaritic ql, UT
Bibliography: TDNT, IV, pp. 583-85; VI, pp. 19: no. 2213). Biblical occurrences number 506
193-202. THAT, II, pp. 619-28. (with the possible exception of Jer 3:9 which may
J.E.H. reflect Ugaritic "fall" ql (AisWUS no. 2408; see
KD, in. loc.).
1995 *:,ii? (qäwa) II, collect. Occurs in the The phrase "to lift up the voice and weep"
Niphal (Jer 3:17; Gen 1:9; Isa 60:9). embraces a wide diversity of emotions and situa-
tions, e.g. crying out for help (Gen 39: 14); moum-
Derivative
ing for real or expected tragedy (Gen 21: 16), the
·1995a :i1;,~ (miqweh) col/ection, collected sound of disaster (Ex 16:34) or joy (Gen 29: 11).
·mass (e.g. Gen 1:10; Ex 7:19). God having indicated that the ark was not to be
considered a palladium by speaking to Moses
1996 t:ii,, (qü() be grieved, loathe. (Asv and RSV from the mountain and, later, from above the
translate similarly, except Job 10:1.) mercy seat (Ex 25:22: Num 7:89; cf. Ex 20:22)
Our root denotes the deep emotional reaction confirmed it (1 Sam 4:6, 14). Later God's voice
of the subject issuing in a desired repulsion (or dispersed the Philistines (1 Sam 7: 10).
destruction) of the object. For synonyms, see The phrase "to hearken to one's voice" in-
qüs, the etymological equivalent; cf. the same cludes: to take note of and believe (Gen 4:23), to
shift from .r in Hebrew sür "rock" to / in follow one·s suggestion (Gen 3: 17), to obey a re-
Aramaic {ur "rock." Our word occurs seven quest (Gen 21:12), to obey a command (Gen
times. 21: 18), to answer (of God) a prayer (II Sam 22:7).
In the midst of his affiiction Job says he is so Theological themes in which our word figures
distressed and irritated that he "loathes" his life prominently are (for lack of better names): pro-
(Job 10:1; Sarah's statement, in Gen 27:46). phetic, thunder, covenantal, trumpet. These
David says he reacts thus toward the treacherous themes are often intertwined. In Ex the voice of
(Ps 119:158) and the enemies of God (Ps 139:21). God and the voice of Moses (later, the prophets)
are interchangeable (cf. Ex 3:18; 4:1; 7:1). God
This confession is interesting since historically it
is sandwiched between God's description of his gave him certain signs which would, in effect,
speak (Ex 4:8), miraculously confirming the in-
similar deep initation with the sinful Canaanites
tended identity (however, 5:2, cf. qäsha). The
(Lev 20:23, qüs.l and his description of Israel's
thunder symbolized God's absolute sovereignty
contriteness of heart while in exile (Ezk 6:9; cf.
by effecting judgment and evoking fear and sub-
Deut 30: !ff.), upon their restoration to the land
(Ezk 20:43), andin the eschaton (Ezk 36:31). The mission (Ex 9:23, 29; cf. Ps 29). God's qöl is the
roar of thunder, while man's qöl in approaching
last reference is relevant to the restoration, of
him is the tinkle of beUs (28:35). The covenantal
course, but it is especially meaningful in the age
theme is seen when, through Moses, God briefly
of fulfillment (cf. Heb 8:8ff.). True repentance
enunciated the principle that the commands
and contrition come from God's work in the heart
(voice) of his servant Moses are his commands
as Paul reveals in Rom 7-8.
(voice) and if the people obey (hearken) and keep
L.J.C.
his covenant ( 19:5) they will be blessed. If they
1997 t:lii' (qö{) break, snap (Job 8: 14). Deri- disobey they will be judged. All this is much evi-
denced at Sinai (especially in Deut; I Sam 12: 14-
vation uncertain.
18; the uses in Jer). The sovereign power ofGod
1998 ,,;, (qwl). Assumed root of the following. which thundered judgment on Pharaoh now ap-
pears as a sign of blessing ( 19: 16; cf. II Sam 22-
1998a ',i;, (qö/) voice, sound, noise. (ASV
:7-14; 3: 16 [H 4: 161, etc.). Finally, it is the sound
and Rsv are similar. RSVrenders into
a better idiom [e.g. I Sam 15: !].) of the trumpet which Moses heard at Sinai. The
trumpet blast signals divine power (Josh 6:5) and
köl primarily signifies a sound produced by the presence (II Sam 6: 15; I Kgs 1:40-45; I Cor
vocal cords (actual or figurative). In poetical pas- 15:52).
sages (for the most part) the denotation embraces In Elijah's battle with the false prophets of
sounds of many varieties. Infrequently, qol de- Baal (the thunder god of Canaan) it is God who
notes the thing said whether spoken (Gen 3: 17) or fills the claims with facts by bringing lightning,
written (II Kgs 10:6). Our word also serves as an thunder (1 Kgs 18:41), and rain (1 Kgs 18; cf. Ps
exclamative "hark" (cf. GKC, 146b; Isa 13:4; 29). Yet God shows that he is more than just a

792
 1999 =~;,(qum)

natural force (as was Baal) by speaking in the still 37:7), prophet (Deut 34: 10), judge (Jud 10:1).
small voice (1 Kgs 19:12). This battle with Baal is These offices are distinguished by their non-
part of a long complex confrontation between the hereditary succession (the word was not applied
two religions (cf. W. F. Albright, Yahweh and to the priestly office). Our word has a legal usage
the Gods <!fCanaan, Doubleday, 1968), as is evi- whereby it connotes the validity of one·s tes-
denced thr.oughout the prophets and poetry ofthe timony in a trial (Deut 19:15). A related usage is
OT. the sense of the valid transfer of property (Gen
Finally, one might weil consider that it was the 23: 17). Perhaps, God reflects on this legal sense in
sound of God's voice going on the wind that his statements that his word shall stand (Num
Adam heard in the garden (Gen 3:8; I Kgs 14:6). 23: 19: lsa 40:8; etc.). This usage often occurs in
Bibliography: TDNT, IX, pp. 280-90. THAT, contexts referring to covenants, and especially
II, pp. 629-34. the divine covenant. God announces his coven-
L.J.C. ant to men (Gen 9: 11), and asserts that he will see
that it is accomplished (Gen 17: 19). He notes at
1999 o~;, (qüm) rise, arise, stand. various historical moments that he has estab-
Derivatives lished (frequently a Hiphil of qüm) his covenant
(Ex 6:4). He makes sure that men recognize that
1999a t:,7ti;, (qöma) height. covenantal blessings are contingent on their
1999b t:i7ti;) (qäma) standing grain. obedience (Deut 28:9), although they should
1999c to•;, (qim) adversary. never forget that blessing does not come because
1999d t:i7t';, (qima) rising up. of their merit (Deut 9:5). The interchange of
1999e tri~•r;,i;:,i;, (qö,runiyiit) uprightness. kärat ··cut" and heqim "establish" with b'' rit
1999f o~;,• (y''qüm) substance, existence "covenant" is not due to different sources, J/E
(Gen 7:4, 23: Deut 11:6). and P respectively. but due to the semantic dif-
1999g t:,~1,,1;1 (t'"qüma) ability to stand. ference between initiating or making (kärat) a
1999h t0i;,7t ( mäqöm) place. covenant and confirming or establishing (heqim)
Our root refers essentially to the physical ac- one. Throughout lsrael's history these intercon-
tion "rising up. · · Derived denotations entail the nected themes emerge, and pious men affirm
end of such action: standing. Also, our root is God's faithfulness in carrying out his covenant
used of figurative rising and/or standing. The (e.g. I Kgs 8:20). Ultimately, all of man·s prom-
same usages appear in Ugaritic (cf. UT 19: no. ises will fail and only God's covenant will stand
2214). Our root occurs 1085 times. It should be (lsa 28: 18). God's temporal covenants are stages
distinguished from the more narrow shäkam in the unveiling of his eternal covenant which is
(=qi~). to rise from bed, 'äla, to go up, and the expression of his unbreakable counsel (lsa
'ämad to take a stand, or stand (cf. yä~ab, to be 46: 10) and purpose (lsa 14:24). His will (coven-
at one's place or station). ant) finds its most perfect and fullest expression
The verb qiim appears in many and varied con- in the person and work of Jesus Christ (e.g. Gai 3;
texts. Basically, it denotes rising up from a pros- Heb 9).
trate position (e.g. Josh 3: 16). In many instances Finally, our word is frequently used in martial
it refers to preparatory activity, especially (al- contexts. lt refers to preparation for (Jud 7: 15),
though not exclusively) pursuant to traveling engagement in (Ex 2: 17), and victory in war (or
(Deut 17:8, et al.). Thus in Gen 27: 19 "arise, sit struggle, Josh 7:2). Sometimes, qüm connotes
down"(!) merely means "now sit down." This anticipated or realized victory. When God en-
root can connote an action showing respect. gages in combat victory is certain. Thus the word
Balaam teils Balak to "rise up" to receive God"s may denote his creative, saving, and judging ac-
oracle (Num 23: 18). God commands his people to tion. Pious men frequently beseech him to rise in
··Jise up" before the aged (i.e. honor old men, their behalf (Num 16:35). This enlightens many
Lev 19:32). This emphasis is carried over into the Psalm texts in which this idea of victory is not
cult. When Moses entered the tent every man immediately apparent (Ps 3:7 [H 8]); 76:9 [H 101);
"rose up" at his door and worshiped (Ex 33: 10), 35:2). When God is on one's side he prevails over
thus showing due respect for God. When God his enemies. Those who are against God are
delivers his people, even kings will rise up (paral- warned of immediate (Ps 89:43 [H 44]) and ulti-
lel to worship, lsa 49:7). Further cultic usage em- mate (Ps 1:5) failure.
braces the setting up and consecrating of holy
qömä. Height, high. This noun modelled on
objects or shrines (Deut 27:4). God commands
the Qal infinitive absolute (plus a feminine end-
that idols not be sei up (Lev 26: 1). Indeed, in the
ing) is used of vertical dimension, i.e. what a
eschaton he will see this commandment is fulfil- thing has when it is raised upright.
led (lsa 27:9). Our verb also has an official usage.
That is, it applies to the assumption of a par- qämä. Standing grain. This noun (the normal
ticular office. e.g. religious head of a clan (Gen Qal participial form, plus feminine ending) is used

793
2000 tj·,i' (qbp)

of a cereal crop which can be harvested (Deut cause of Esau's wives (Gen 27:46). lf she is tell-
23:25 [H 26]), ground to make meal, may or may ing the truth perhaps their strange ways had so
not have heads (Hos 8:7), and like grass may be irritated her that her life had become unbearable.
planted on rooftops (II Kgs 19:26). At least this is probably what Isaac believed. lt is
such an irritation and loathing that is forbidden
qim. Adversary. This collective noun (partici-
toward God's fatherly reproof (qÜ$ is parallel to
ple) denotes those who stand up against. lt oc-
mä'as, q.v.). This word describes God's feelings
curs only in Job 22:20, but this usage ofthe root is
not rare (see below). toward the Canaanites (Lev 20:23) and toward all
idolatry (cf. qu[). Israel used it to describe their
q1ma. Rising. This noun (participle plus feelings toward the manna after prolonged feed-
feminine abstract ending) together with „ sitting ing on it (Num 21 :5). Several peoples are de-
down„ constitutes an expression denoting all ac- scribed as having such an irritating abhorrence of
tivity (Lam 3:63). Israel (Ex 1:12: Num 22:3: I Kgs 11:25), and Is-
rael feit the same toward her enemies (cf. Isa 7:6,
qömmiyut. Upright. This substantive denotes
16).
an upright position. In Lev 26: 13, however, it is
L.J.C.
an adverb (GKC sec. 86k).
t•·qumä. Ability to stand and resüt. This 2003 ri;, (qws) II. Assumed root of the follow-
abstract noun (GKC, 85r) represents the ability ing.
to stand and resist one·s enemies. 2003a ri;, ( qa$) thornbush, thorn (e.g.
Gen 3: 18; Hos 10:8).
maqom. Place. This mem preformative noun
2003b rii?~;, (q'' wü,~.~öt) locks of hair-
represents the physical location where something
(Song 5:2J.
is or ought to be, i.e. its station. So, it is trans-
lated "place," "home," "room." lnfrequently,
riii~;, (q'' wüH·al). See no. 2003b.
it applies to that where nothing is, hence, open
space (cf. 1 Sam 26: 13: lsa 5:8). i(?)e' (qawqäw ). See no. 1994b.
Bibliography: Sawyer, John F. A., .. Hebrew
Words for the Resurrection of the Dead," VT 2004 .,,;, ( qur) /, dig for water.
23:218-34. TDNT, VII, pp. 641-46. THAT, II, Derivative
pp. 635--40.
L.J.C. 2004a t-ii;,~ (mäqör) Jountain.
This root denotes the action of digging for
2000 t;i;, (qöp) ape (1Kgsl0:22=11Chr9:21). water, but not in the sense of digging a permanent
weil (apparently). Due to the aridity of Palestine,
2001 t;1i' ( q1,p ). Assumed root of the following. much attention was devoted to acquiring sources
2001a :,~1;,r;, (I '. qtipii) coming round, cir- of water. lt occurs only in the report of Sen-
cuit of time or space (Ex 34:22: nacherib' s boast (II Kgs 19:24).
II Chr 24:23 = I Sam 1:20: Ps
19:7). maqor. Fountain. ASV and RSVtranslate simi-
larly, with the Rsv consistently (rightly so) render-
2002 r,;, (qü.n /, be grieved, loath. (ASV and ing fountain. Basically, this noun of place em-
Rsv frequently translate differently, with phasizes the source of flowing water and the
product of one's effort (or at least, of change). lt
Rsv introducing the idea of "fear" or
"dread" !Ex 1:121 and probably [at least occurs eighteen times. Its near cognate ma'yän
in partj because ofthe seeming parallelism emphasizes the place of an ·ayin "spring" (a
with ,:tir 1111.) natural flow ofwater; cf. mahbua'). Cf. Ug. mqr
"fountain" (UT 19: nos. 2215, 2263).
qtis de not es the deep emotional reaction of the This word is probably a loan word, since it
subject issuing in a desired repulsion (or destruc- occurs primarily in poetical contexts (except Lev
tion) of the object. Compare the following 20: 18: 12:7). lnterestingly, this word is usually
synonyms: hü'ash "to be or become stinking, used figuratively. But its figurative use can be
odious," ,:a'al "to cast away as unclean, to best comprehended against the great importance
loathe, .. shäqa.~ "to detest as unclean," tä'ah attached to water sources in Israel. The womb,
"to treat as an abomination „ in a ritualistic and, e.g. is referred to not only as a fountain of blood
also. a moral and general sense, derä'ön "object but also as the fountain from which children issue
of contempt," and qti[, a variant spelling of our (Prov 5: 18; cf. Ps 68:26 [H 27]). God punishes
root. The root occurs nine times. nations by drying up their sources of water (Jer
Understanding the state of mind denoted by 51:36).
this root enlightens many passages. Rebekah The major theological use of mäq<ir occurs in
complained to Isaac that she loathed her life be- the phrase "fountain of life." In wisdom litera-

794
 2011 *i~:: (qii{ar)

ture it expresses the goal of prudent action. Thus The root q(n is frequently contrasted with
the phrase describes the blessing of the law of the gäd<il (e.g. II Chr 36: 18). Israel was forbidden to
wise (Prov 13: 14), understanding (Prov 16:22), carry two sets of weights (Deut 25: 13; cf. Arnos
and the mouth of the righteous (Prov 10: 11). lt 8:5). Rehoboam defiantly said that his small
can hardly be overlooked that the "fear of the (finger) would be more oppressive (cf. qäsha)
Lord" is so described (Prov 14:27). The source of than Solomon's loins (I Kgs 12: 10). God's word
life (indeed, of all that precedes) in the godly is binds his messengers (Num 22: 18). His sover-
God himself (Ps 36:9 [H 10]) whom the Israelites eignty is seen as upholding all sea creatures (Ps
forsook (Jer 2: 13) for broken cisterns which 104:25), indeed, all things.
neither produce nor retain lifegiving water (Jer The concept "little in years" (young) is also
17:13). In the covenant God reasserts his promise denoted by our root. Benjamin is described as the
(Deut 30) to restore his people, but this time he youngest (Gen 42: 15, qätön: 44:20, qätän; 43:33,
would open to them a fountain of life which re- ,rä'ir), as are Harn (Gen 9:24) and David (I Sam
moves sin and uncleanness (Zech 13: 1): Jesus 17: 14). Leprous Naaman followed a young (little)
(John 4: 13-14). This is another of the many wit- girl's (II Kgs 5:2) advice and ended up with skin
nesses to the deity of Christ. like that of a young child (v. 14). Elisha being
L.J.C. taunted (cf. qäla,r, qäraf:i) by young lads (perhaps
teen-age ruffians) (II Kgs 2:23) who as members
2005 ,,;, (q11·r) II. Assumed root of the follow- of covenant families ought to have becn taught
ing. God's law whereby cursing his servant was tan-
2005a ,,;, (qur) thread, film (Isa 59:5, tamount to cursing him and rightly punishable by
only). death (cf. qä/a/).
Often the little is the weak and the insignifi-
:i,i;, (q,ira). See no. 2068d. cant. Bathsheba seeks a not too insignificant
boon of Solomon (1 Kgs 2:20). When Jacob bles-
2006 iv1;, (qush) lay bait or lure (Isa 29:21, ses Joseph's sons, he says the younger (qä(ön
only). Gen 48:19: cf. 48:14. ,rä'ir. q.v.) shall be greater
2006.1 ~i? (qä() a sma/1 thing. Ezk 16:41, mean- (not just !arger, but more important) than the el-
ing uncertain. der. God reminds Saul that when he was insignif-
icant and weak in his own eyes (l Sam 15: 17:
2007 ::i~;, (q(h ). Assumed root of the following. 9:21 ). he made him king over the mighty ones of
2007a ::i~;, (qeteb) destruction (e.g. Israel. In the eschaton God will make the weak
Deut 32:24; Hos 13: 14). and insignificant among his people to be strong
and great (lsa 60:22), and it is the little child who
2008 ',~i? (qäta/) slay (Job 24: 14; 13: 15: Ps will lead the mighty (lsa 11:6). Our word is paired
139: 19). with "the great" (!~üdöl) representing all (1 Sam
5:9) men in Israel (Deut 1: 17). and lsrael's army
Derivative (1 Kgs 22:31 ). Josiah summoned all of Israel from
2008a ',~;, (qete/) slaughter (Ob 9. small to great to hear the law read (II Kgs 23:2;
only). cf. Jer 44: 12; 42:8: Ps 115: 13).
qätön. Young, insignificant, little. This adjec-
2009 ,~i? ( qä(ön) be small, imignificant. tive basically modifies its subject in terms of lit-
tleness in quantity or quality. lt occurs fifty-six
Derivatives times.
2009a t1lti? ( qä(än) young, insignificant.
qätän. Young, insignijicant, little. This adjec-
2009b t1~i? (qät,111) small, insignificant.
tive parallels qä(an in meaning. lt occurs forty-
2009c 1~,, (q'' tön) little finger (I Kgs
seven times.
12:10 = II Chr 10:10).
The root qtn denotes diminutiveness in quan- 2010 l:1~i?(qä(ap) pluck off or out (e.g. Ezk
tity or quality. For synonyms compare 'epriif:iim, 17:4; Deut 23:26).
g<izäl (young of birds). dak (thin, scarce, finel.
z' 'er (little, short), tap (little children, as com- 2011 *i~i? (qü/ar) /, burn incense or sacrifices.
pared to adults), ma'at (few, little of quantity, Denominative verb. Does not occur in the
and infrequently. of quality) . .yä'ir (younger. lit- Qal.
tle. insignificant and less privileged and/or dcsir-
able). and bäzüy (despised). lts antonyms are Parent Noun
güdol (great, etc.), and bä/:iur (fully developed, 201 la tl'1'.)-~i? (q''töret) incense.
vigorous. unmarried young man). The root oc- 201 lb tii~•;, (qi(ör) thick smoke (Gen
curs (with the derivatives here listed) 107 times. 19:28: Ps 119:83; 148:8).

795
201 l *"1~~ (qä(ar)

201 lct'1~i? (qitter) incense (Jer 44:21, is concerned only about external conformity, the
only). prophets repeatedly emphasized that the spiritual
2011d t'1~i?~ (miqtär) place of sacrificial is the essence oftrue sacrifice (cf. Vos's remarks
smoke. on Arnos 4:4-5 in BT, p. 286). Love in practice
201 le t-,~i?t? (müqtiir) incense (Mal means obedience (Deut 6:4-6; cf. qo/).
1: 11). The Piel stem (occurring only after the Pen-
201 lf tri'.')~i?~ ( miq(eret) censer. tateuch) can also represent the total act of ritual
201 Jg t:i;~~~ (m' qar,era) incense altar. in worship (II Chr 25: 14). Its occurrences trace a
downhill history through the kings of Israel and
The verb qii(ar is used only in the Hiphil and Judah. Apparently those acts described by using
Pie!, and their passives. this stem either consciously (on the part of the
qii(ar means "to cause to rise up in smoke." lt offerer) or judgmentally (on the part of the re-
is generally used cultically, but is used once corder) were acknowledged contrary to true wor-
non-cultically (of perfuming, Song 3:6). One ship. This certainly heightens the irony of
should compare the many Hebrew words for sac- Amos's statement (4:5). Such false offering imita-
rifice; especially ziihah (to sacrifice by offering tive of Canaanite worship (Al, p. 438) was blas-
blood), 'iilii (in Hiphil, to offer up to a deity), phemous (lsa 65:7), shameful (Jer 11: 17), evi-
qärah (to approach, engage in offering; cf. denced both forgetting (Jer 18: 15) and forsaking
nii{?ash). Also compare words for "to burn," God (Jer 19:4), and offered no hope or help to the
especially siirap (to destroy by burning), bii'ar idolater (Jer 11:12).
(the burning of wood, lamps, etc.), yiiqad (the In the eschaton God promises an eternal (Jer
burning with fire, i.e., kindled), etc. The Babylo- 33:18; Heb 7:23f.) and universal (Mal 1:11; cf. II
nian cognate is qatäru "to rise, cause to rise." Pet 2:9) priesthood.
Hebrew uses the root 190 times (115 times as a Old Testament ritual was permeated with in-
verb). cense burning (lsa 6:4). God orders that a special
Our verb is a technical expression denoting not gold-plated altar (the "golden altar") be placed
only the burning of incense but all other offerings before the veil ofthe innermost sanctuary (hence,
as weil (KD, Jeremiah, p. 46). lt may parallel Ex 30: 10). Every morning and evening burnt of-
ziiba!J (Hos 4: 13; 11:2: etc.), or be used of burn- fering as weil as the great offering of the annual
ing (offering) burnt offerings and incense (II Chr atonement was to be accompanied by burning in-
13: 11). The purpose of such burning is to render cense (Ex 30). lncense mixtures not divinely pre-
the thing offered into smoke which would ascend scribed were unacceptable (Ex 30:34), while the
(as the ethereal essence of the thing) to the deity divine prescription was not to be used for non-
as a sweet-smelling savor (KD, Pentateuch, II, cultic purposes (Ex 30:37). This holy incense was
p. 288). Most of these sacrifices consisted of to be ignited only by coals from the altar of burnt
common foods and as such served to consecrate incense (lsa 6:6) which had had the sacrificial
life (cf. diim, blood), one's calling, and the fruits blood upon them. Use of other (strange) fire was
(i.e. the blessings from God) of life to God punishable by death (Lev 10:1-2). lncense smoke
(OTOT, p. 262; cf. Jer 44: 15). Hence, the best represents prayer (cf. Ps 141:2; OTOT, p. 273; cf.
parts (fat, Lev 4: 10) and the firstborn of sacrifi- Lk 1:10; Rev 5:8; 8:3f). Even the prayers of
cial animals (as representing both the bestand the God's people need atonement (Ex 30: 10). Fi-
whole, Num 18:17) always belong to God. The nally, unwitting sin is atoned by smearing blood
offering represents both the surrender of the on the horns of the altar of incense (Lev 4:7).
thing offered to God and a vicarious substitution These are the only two instances in the per-
(death penalty) of the offering for the offerer petual rites of Israel where blood is smeared on
(Vos, BT, p. 186f.). This answers to the fulfill- the horns of an altar. A comparison of the places
ment in Christ (Jn 17: 19: Eph 5:2). of the smearings in their respective rituals will
The Hiphil stem is used for true (or at least reveal that the sprinkling and smearing of blood
what is thought to be true) sacrifices. Because are reversed-the great atonement ritual (Lev
man is a creature limited by creatureliness and 17: 18) placing the smearing first. Furthermore,
the fall (Gen 8:21; Rom 5: 12), the sovereign gra- the two rituals stipulate a different procedure of
cious Jehovah specifies the particulars of sac- the smearing with respect to which altar(s), etc.,
rifice. Almost every specification was broken at the blood is to be applied. The rite for unwitting
one time or another and violators blasphemously sin (Lev 4:7) symbolically restores the offender
demanded (or assumed) acceptance in God's to service in his proper covenantal role. The
sight. Eli's sons dishonored God by disregarding sprinkling in the great atonement serves as a
his claim to the choicest parts (1 Sam 2: 16; Lev purification of the respective altars, and hence,
7:31: 4: 10). The kings of Israel changed both the symbolically what they represent. Their defile-
how and where apparently intending the result to ment rests not upon any act of the nation, but
be acceptable before God (1 Kgs 12:33: II Chr upon the nature of the nation itself, i.e., it con-
28:4; II Kgs 16:13; cf. Ex 9). Lest one think God sists of a conglomerate of humanity. Therefore,

796
 2017 ri;l(qayin)
perhaps these smearing rituals are to teach the 2014 M;i? (qäyci) vomil (Jer 25:27). Probably a
people the close relationship, and yet distinct dif- by-form of qi'.
ference between original and unwitting sin.
-,;~•;;, (qitör). See no. 201 lb.
q"Jöret. lncense, perfume. ASV and RSV the
1:1•;;,(qfm). See no. 1999c.
same. This noun denotes that which produces a
sweet smelling odor (q'"(öret fommim) when
2015 1'i' (qyn). Assumed root ofthe following.
bumed; a perfume (Prov 27:9) or (more coni-
2015a 1'i? (qayin) spear (II Sam 21:16).
monly) an incense for cultic usage. Compare:
/' bönä, a spiee (frankincense) which may be used
as an incense and rq/J, perfume, ointment. Com-
2016 ri? {qayin), •rv (qenf) Kenite, Ke-
nites, Kain. (Asv and RSV translate the
pare Phoenician qtrt (H. Donner and W. Rollig same.)
KAI, II, p. 21). The noun occurs sixty times.
This tribe did not descend from Adam·s son
qiJör. Smoke, vapor. ASVand RSVdiffer only in
Cain (whose descendants were destroyed by the
Ps 148:8, which Rsv emends to ""frost." This flood), but were perhaps so named because of
non-cultic term (occuring four times) usually de-
their occupation, metalworking. Their origin
notes that which ascends from buming.
cannot be determined (KD, Pentateuch, 1, p.
q•Jörä. lncense. This hapax legomenon (Deut 218). Our word occurs fifteen times.
33: 10) is a variant (ancient?) spelling for q'' roret. These people appear as dwellers among the
Canaanites (Gen 15: 19) and later among the
qiJJer. lncense. This hapax legomenon repre- Midianites (Num 10:29), although probably not
sents all the elements of idolatrous worship (Jer physically descended from either (KD, loc. cit.).
44:21). lt may be the Northwest Canaanite spell-
The Kenites living in Canaan were among the
ing for q''(öret, cf. Ugaritic q(r ( UT 19: no. 2220).
enemies of Israel cursed by Balaam (Num
miqJär. Place of sacrijicial smoke. This hapax 24:21-22). The Kenites of Midian became allied
legomenon (Ex 30: 1) in conjunction with q' (öret to Israel (oT election was selective but not exclu-
specifies an altar (mizbea/J, q.v.) upon which to sive) when Moses married Zipporah and then
bum incense. Hobab went along to help Israel in the desert
(Num 10:29). They also intermarried among the
miiq~r. The kindling of incense. This hapax
Calebites (1 Chr 2:55). lt appears that the Canaan
legomenon denotes either the burnt offering dwellers joined their southem brothers in the al-
(KB), or (preferably) that which accompanies the
liance (cf. Jud 4; I Sam 15:6; et al.).
sacrifice, viz., the kindling of incense (KD, in
Much has been fabricated regarding the so-
loc.)
called Kenite origins of the Mosaic religion and
miqJeret. Censer. This word denotes the gol- documents (cf. R. K. Harrison, IOT: R. G.
den vessel held in the hand to carry coals (II Chr North, "The Cain Music,"" JBL 83:373-89). The
26: 19) and incense (Ezk 8: II). Kenites figure prominently in the recorded his-
tory of Israel especially through Rechab and his
m•qa,,erä. lncense altar. This noun, modelled
descendants. He was so well-known for his zeal
after the Piel participle, is used of idolatrous al-
for God that Jehu accepted him as an ally and
tars. Canaanite altars shaped like the one in the
identified with "him as an example of godly zeal
temple (but smaller) have been found from the (cf. qn', II Kgs 10: 15-24). Rechab"s son
time of Solomon (Al, p. 411).
Johonadab established a nomadic and religious
Bibliography: Haran, Menahem, "'The Uses
order which so perpetuated the godly zeal of Re-
of Incense in the Ancient Israelite Ritual," VT
chab even until Jeremiah's day that the prophet
10:113-29.
could use them as a living illustration of what
L.J.C.
God required (Jer 35). Of course, the concem
was with their zeal for God and not their zeal for
2012 „l:li? (qä(ar) II, shut in, enclose (Ezk nomadism.
46:22, only). Meaning dubious.
L.J.C.
Z'l'.'.)tli?
(q'' (öret). See no. 201 Ja. 2017 ri? (qayin) Cain. (ASVand Rsv translate
the same.)
2013 M•;;, (qf') vomit up, disgorge (e.g. Lev
18:28; Jon 2:11). This is the name of Adam's murderous son (cf.
KD for fuller treatment). The root has a late (but
Derivatives clear) connection with metalworkers (G. A.
2013a Mv (qe') what is vomited up (Prov Cooke, A Text-Book of North-Semitic lnscrip-
26: 11, only). tions, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903, pp. 286--
2013b M•;;, (qf') vomit (lsa 28:8; 19:14; 87). Perhaps this explains its application to
Jer 48:26). peoples of Abraham's day (Gen 15:19). lt occurs

797
2018 *~'i? (q1n)

sixteen times of Adam's son. Cf. qayin l, spear, 2020 l"i' (qys) II. Assumed root of the follow-
and II, Kenite, Kenites, Kain. As is usually the ing.
case in popular etymologies, however, the proper 2020a i"i? (qayis) summer (Gen 8:22),
name is probably not associated with this precise summer-fruit (Arnos 8: 1-2 where it
etymological root qyn ··to forge," but, as Gen 4: 1 is used in a play on words with qes
shows, by assonance and word play with another "end" from qasas).
root, qiina' "to possess" or "to bring forth." r;, (qi.)'). See nos. 2019, 2020, 904.
L.J.C. i::l',' (qi~·(m). See no. 2060b.

2018 *1'i' (qin) chant a dirge. This denomina- 2021 ii'i;)'i' (qiqiiyön) a plant (NIV, "vine,"
tive verb occurs only in the Polei stem. Jon 4:6, 7, 9, 10).
Parent Noun
2018a t:it;, (qina) Lamentation.
ii'?i;)'i' (qiqiilön ). See no. 2028f.

qin denotes that activity whereby mourners in- 2022 "\\, (qir) wall, side. Derivation uncer-
toned (sung: cf. Arnos 8: 10), a poem of bereave- tain. (ASVand Rsv translate the same.)
ment. lt differs from other words of mourning by
having this very limited use (cf. 'abal, mourning qir denotes a wide (proportionately) perpen-
rites, mouming in general; sapad, to perform the dicular structure (especially the surface) usually
lamentation; l Sam 25:1, etc.; Al, p. 60). Our made of stone, but possibly of other materials. lt
word occurs six times. occurs seventy-four times. Our word occurs in
Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 2265), and extra-biblical
qinä. Lamentation, dirge. ASV and RSV simi- Canaanite (H. Donner and W. Rollig, KAI, II,
lar. This noun represents a poem which is p. 22). Distinguish it from giider, a wall of stones
chanted (sung). lt is to be distinguished from without mortar, hbma, an enclosure, hayis, an
'aniya (mouming by uttering various ejaculatory outside or partition wall, kote/, the wall of a
sounds; cf. n'' hf), mi.sped (various acts of mourn- house, and shür. the wall around a weil or be-
ing, especially, beating the breasl), etc. The noun tween fields.
occurs eighteen times. "Wall" is frequently a symbol of refuge and
The lamentation was sung during the mourning strength. Arnos (5: 19) depicts the baseless hope
rites or prophetically of impending death and/or of hypocrites who long for the day of the Lord:
destruction (Jer7: 19; Ezk 2: 10). lt constituted the entering a house to escape danger, they lean on
chief funeral ceremony. Simpler forms consist of the wall and are bitten by a serpent. There is no
sharp repeated cries (Mic 1:8; l Kgs 13:30). This refuge for the ungodly when God judges. So,
rite was performed by close relations (Gen 32:2), lsaiah (22:5) declares that the walls will be hurled
close friends, everyone present (1 Sam 28:3). and down by siege artillery, and the echoing cries of
often by professional male or female mourners (II the unrepentant godless will be their only ans wer.
Chr 35:25: Arnos 5: 16}-but, especially, women Nor is there refuge and strength in the thin walls
(Jer 9: 16f.). The lamentation is the closest He- built by false prophecies (Ezk 13: 12-15). On that
brew poetry comes to using meter (T. Weir, in day an impenetrable iron wall will stand between
ISBE. p. 1836), although the qina meter could be the true prophet(s) and the godless (Ezk 4:3).
used for other purposes than mourning (cf. Ps Jehovah is the perfect wall which restrains all
19:7-9). Some scholars note that biblical elegies danger (lsa 25:4). The Psalmist"s enemies seeing
have no religious content (Al, p. 61), and al- his weakness (Ps 62:3 [H 4]) fail to see his real
though this is true in some instances (II Sam strength, which is not himself but God (1-2, 6 [H
1: 19ff.), it is not always the case since in the best 2-3, 71).
example of qina meter (Lam) there is much reli- L.J.C.
gious content (R. K. Harrison, Introduction to
the Old Testament, Eerdmans, 1969, p. 1066. '?i? (qa/), '?:, (qö/). See nos. 2028a,b.
Bibliography: Harrison, R. K., "Hebrew
Poetry," ZPEB, III, pp. 76-87. TDOT, III, pp.
150-52. Gevirtz, S., Patterns in the Early Poetry 2023 :'i?i? (qa/a) l, roast, parch.
of Israel, University ofChicago, 1973, pp. 12-13. Derivative
L.J.C.
2023a t•',i;) (qii/i), M'?i?(qii/i') roasted
grain.
'?1' (qeni). See no. 2016.
This root signifies what is done to cook grain.
2019 l"i' (qis) I, awake. This verb occurs lt is to be contrasted with bashal "bake, boil"
only in the Hiphil (e.g. II Kgs 4:31; Ezk meats and/or bread dough, sala "roast" flesh (cf.
7:6). Used of resurrection in Job 14:12 (cf. sali, the product, roasted flesh). Our root should
hiilap); Ps 17:15; and Dan 12:2. be distinguished from qa/a, II, disgrace, dis-

798
 2026 tQ',;, (q/()

honor, insignificant. Also, cf. Akk. qälü, (vS, qälön. Shame, disgrace, abuse, dishonor. This
AkkH. II, pp. 895-96). Our root occurs ten times. noun represents the effect on the object(s) of the
action exercised in the verb. lt denotes a state
qäli', qäli. Roasted grain. ASV and Rsv lranslate
wherein its referent is as if he were in a lower
the same. This noun represenls the product of
social position than he in fact occupies. This
qäla, i .e. roasted grain. This was a staple in the
noun occurs exclusively in poetical contexts, but
diet of the ancient Near East, and is still common
is not a late word. Cf. Ugaritic qlt (UT 19: no.
today.
2231).
Roasted grain ('äbib qälüy) was the primary
L.J.C.
element ofthe meal offering (min!Jä, q.v.) ofthe
firstfruits (Lev 2: 14). Israel was not supposed to
partake of the produce of Canaan until after such 2025 l"llj';,i? (qa/la!Jat) cauldron (1 Sam 2: 14;
an offering (Lev 23: 14). Mic 3:3). An Egyptian loan word.
Our root is also used (as is its Babylonian cog-
nate) to mean "to roast flesh," i.e. lhe manner of 2026 Q',;, (ql() l. Assumed root ofthe following.
Zedekiah's and Ahab's ignominious deaths. lt is 2026a tQ~~~ (miqlä() refuge, asylum.
to this end that the false prophets curse Jeremiah (ASV, and RSVtranslate the same.
(Jer 29:22: cf. Dan 3:6). Also, see Ps 38:7 [H 8)
This noun denotes the place of refuge from the
where this word is applied to David's loins: it is,
blood-avenger (go'e/, q.v.). lt should be distin-
perhaps, as though he had a fevered body.
guished from ma/Jseh. a place of refuge for man
L.J.C.
and/or animals, mänos, a place of escape to
which one flees, and misgäb, a place which is
2024 •:,7i?(qäla) II, disgrace, dishonor (Niphal
strong or high and, hence, inaccessible. miqläf
and Hiphil only).
occurs twenty times.
Derivative This noun is always used in connection with
the cities appointed to provide asylum for those
2024a t~i',i? (qälon) shame, disgrace.
guilty of involuntary manslaughter. Such a provi-
This root signifies the lowering of another's so- sion prevented excesses in the law of retribution.
cial position; cf. qälal (q. v .). Our root frequently Murder constitutes "a transgression against the
occurs as the opposite of glory and honor (käb- Creator and Lord of human life." The guilty per-
M). lt occurs twenty-three times. Distinguish son must be executed in order to purify the
qäla I "parched, roasted.'' theocracy from blood-guilt (OTOT, p. 237). Ini-
God orders his people not to punish a man who tially, those not guilty of homicide could seek
starts a pugilistic duel with more than forty asylum at the altar (Ex 21: 12-14), but those who
stripes lest hebe degraded (put in an unwarranted killed with premeditation should be dragged from
social position) in their sight, because he is a the altar and executed (cf. I Kgs 2:28-31, and
brother Israelite (Deut 25:3). In view of his mate- qeren ). Once settled in Palestine, distance would
rial and social inferiority (cf. rüsh), David de- render successful flight difficult for many. There-
clined becoming the king's son-in-law because fore, divine wisdom ordered cities of refuge
this would have degraded that position (1 Sam throughout the promised land (Num 35:9-34).
18:23). Fulfilling Saul's request he advanced his The justice of God is merciful and practical.
social position. lsaiah describes the ungodly The instruction to appoint cities of refuge is
chaos of his day wherein covenantal relationships first recorded in Num 35. Those who fled to such
were reversed. Brother oppresses brother, and cities were to receive temporary asylum until
the young exalt themselves over the aged (cf. Lev they stood trial to substantiate their innocence
19:32, qüm, q. v.), and the base (those who do not (regarding intentional murder) before the congre-
deserve honor) against those who are worthy of gation. lf vindicated, the fugitive was to be re-
honor (lsa 3:5). ceived into the city. He was to stay there until the
The Psalmist beseeches God to show his proud death of the high priest. Were the gv ·el to en-
enemies their place (Ps 83: 16 [H 17)). Knowledge counter him outside its environs, the fugitive
of one's true stance before God is required of all could be killed legally. After the death of the high
who are to seek God. God says that he will priest, the fugitive could return home a "free"
change lsrael's self-acclaimed glory into their man. Hence, one guilty of involuntary homicide
rightful social position-dishonor (Hos 4:7). He was imprisoned in a sense. To take life (even un-
will expose their true state for all to see (Jer intentionally) was to attack the image of God
13:26). Man's sinful heart leads him to self- (Gen 9:5-7), and therefore warranted death.
exaltation, claiming credit for the blessings Some believe that the only significance of the
graciously bestowed by God. But God thrusts his high priest's death was to sei a definite limit to
creations into an objective state more clearly re- the period of incarceration. However, in view of
flecting reality and thus engenders repentance the specific note that no ransom (köper, q. v .) was
(Deut 9:5). tobe exacted to effect the release (Num 35:32), it

799
2027 ~71?
(qäla()

seems that the priest's death stood in lieu of such emphasis of the intensive stems. So Nehemiah
a ransom-it propitiated for the offense. Ulti- (13:25) asserted a curse formula and saw it ef-
mately, the proper avenger was God himself (Gen fccted on its objects (those who married foreign
9:5-7). So, God the judge and avenger accepted women) by publicly disgracing them. The Psalm-
the death of the high priest as a propitiation for ist (Ps 109:28) contrasts his enemies' vilification
such crimes. lt can hardly be denied that in this ofhim with God's blessing and prays that the fate
the priesthood constituted a type of Christ. they desire for him be applied to them, i.e. that
Su bsequently, the elders of a town were as- they be put to shame (cf. Ps 62:4 [H 51).
signed (in addition to their other responsibilities) The noun q'' läla represents a formula express-
to be judges on behalf of the congregation (Deut ing Iowering from election. Thus, when informed
19:12). For the New Testament application, of Rebekah's scheme, Jacob fears he will bring a
compare the system of elder-judges established q'' la/a "a curse "-removed from the blessing of
by Christ (Matt 18: 17ff.) and the apostles (Acts election-upon himself (see Gen 27: 11-12; also
14:23; 15; I Tim 3; et al.). especially Jer 24:9). lt is used similarly in Deut
The cities of refuge were designated in two 27: 13 as the opposite of covenantal blessing.
groups after each major stage of the conquest When actually enunciated as covenantal sanc-
(Deut 4:41-43; 19:2; Josh 20:7-8). There is no tion, the word for "curse" is 'ärar (the state ac-
record as to how (or whether) these cities complished). So, our word represents the state
functioned, but this hardly proves that they did described and possible (as in Deut 11:26; 30: 19)
not so function. Finally, all these cities were where God sets before his people the result of
made levitical towns. breaking the covenant. God does not destroy
Bibliography: Cf. R. deVaux, Al, p. 16~3; humanity in his dealings with man (man is a
N. H. Ridderbos, "Cities of Refuge," in NBD. decision-making creation). Neither does God
L.J.C. give man the just recompense due his repeated
and essential rejection of the covenant. So with
2027 t:l7i;' (qälar) II, be stunted (Lev 22:23, Josiah, for example, God's grace is clearly oper-
only). ative (1 Kgs 22: 19; cf. Jer 26:6). The promise of
divine provision of etemal deliverance is, there-
•'?;;,(qa/i), M'7i?(qali'). See no. 2023a. fore, exhibited in this use. Finally, this noun in-
frequently depicts the end itself. According to
2028 ,';>:;,(qäla/) be slight, swift, trifling, of little Deut 21:23 the corpse of a crucified person, im-
account. pure and defiling, is to be burned before dark in
Derivatives order to avoid polluting the land.
The heathen feit that men could manipulate the
2028a t',i:) (qa/) swift. gods (God). Hence, Goliath cursed David (1 Sam
2028b ,;, (q6/) lightness, Jrivolity (Jer 17:43), and Balaam was called to curse Israel
3:9, only). (Num 22:6). The baseless curse, however, has no
2028c ,7;;, (qäläl) burnished (Ezk 1:7; effect (Prov 26:2). Only God's formulas are effec-
Dan 10:6). tive (Ps 37:22). As God said to Abraham: "he
2028d t:i7';>i7(q" läla) curse. who curses (qäla/) you" (pronounces a formula),
2028e t,r,·,i'? (q' loqe/) contemptible, "I will curse ( 'ärar) him" (put him in the state).
worthless. To curse God's prophet was to attack God and to
2028f tri',.;,•l'? (qfqälbn) disgrace. bring on one's head divine judgment, as was the
The basic meaning of this root sets forth the case with the boys who vilified (cf. qälas) Elisha
quality of "slightness" as to provision, speed and were cursed (qälal) by him (II Kgs 2:24). See
(where it means swift), or circumstance. In the also N eh 13:1-3 w here the descendants of Moab
latter instance the condition described is less than and Ammon are barred from worship (a form of
that deserved by or divinely intended for the ob- spiritual death).
ject. So, this root is used (especially in the inten- To enunciate a baseless formula is to intend or
sive stems) of intending a lowered position, tech- accomplish a violation (or reversal) of the created
nically, to curse. Our root occurs 130 times. structure and to intend real harm, as by sympa-
The primary meaning "to be light or slight," thetic magic. This is what children (or servants)
applied to individuals, is used of Hagar's esteem are forbidden to do with parents (or lords, life-
for Sarah (Gen 16:4-5). Sarah was not lowered in givers, Ex 21: l 7ff). Such an action is an attack on
position. As a barren women, however, she was God himself and is punishable by death (Lev
"lowered" in function and prestige. Hence, 20:9). lt is deep rebellion against God to curse
Hagar's attitude "struck home." A similar use one's parents and then assert one's ethical purity
occurs where David (II Sam 6:22, Niphal) teils (Prov 30: 11; cf. Ezk 22:7). The ultimate offense is
Michal that he will lower himself even more to rob God of his honor by using his name to
(paraUeled by shäpa/). This idea is the exclusive express anger or frustration (Lev 24: 11-23).

800
 2034 !.Q:';~(qämaO

qal. Swift. This adjective qualifies its object as 2030c 111;,;,(qela') II, curtain, hang-
to speed. When the Lord comes in judgment it is ing (e.g. Ex 27:9; Num 3:26).
upon a swift cloud (Isa 19:1). The Lord's recom-
pensing is effected speedily and swiftly in the day 2031 1171;'(qäla') 11,carve (IKgs6:29,32,35).
of judgment (Joel 3:4 [H 4:41). 35).
q•lalä. Curse. The primary emphasis here is Derivative
the absence (or reversal) of a blessed or rightful
state and lowering to a lesser state. q'lälii. also 2031a Z'l~J;,;,t,,(miq/a'at) carving (1 Kgs
stresses the formula whereby this is expressed. 6:18; 7:31).
Our word should be distinguished from ·älii. con-
noting oaths in general and curses as part of that ':>;,1?:,(q'loqel). See no. 2028e.
larger category, from 'ärar (which describes the
state of lifelessness (absence of blessing, Deut 2032 iiiu7;, (qill' shbn) forks. Meaning in de-
27: 16), from /:läram which signifies devotion to tail dubious (I Sam 13:21).
destruction or sacred use, and qäbab which has
to do with actually uttering the curse on some- :i11i;, (qöma), :"l7i'1;'
(qämii). See nos. 1999a,b.
thing (used mainly in the Balaam narrative and ivi~;, (qimmos). See no. 2037a.
Job).
q•löqel Worthless or vile. Complaining Israel 2033 M~;, (qm/:1). Assumed root of the follow-
thus described the food which the Lord provided init.
(Num 21:5). This word occurs only once.
2033a tm;;, (qema/:1) mealflour. (Asv and
qiqälön. The root idea "lowered"
Disgrace. Rs·vtranslate the same.)
honor predominates here and is intensified as is
clear from the sole use of the word (Hab 2: 16). Our word denotes the product resulting when
Bibliography: Blank, Sheldon H., "The grain (perhaps wheat) is ground. lt should be dis-
Curse, Blasphemy, the Speil, and the Oath," tinguished from sölet (q.v.), fine flour, and the
HUCA 23 (73-95). THAT, II, pp. 641-46. various unground grains. lt occurs in Ugaritic as
L.J.C. qm/:1 (UT, 19: no. 2237). and in Akkadian qemu
(vs, AkkH. II). Biblical usages number fourteen.
fi;,~ (qalon), n,~ (qälon). See no. 2024a.
This word denotes the common people's flour.
lt was the product of cereal grain plants and not
the plants themselves (Hos 8:7). lt was made by
2029 *O';>~ (qälas) mock, scoff (Piel and Hith- women (or slaves) using millstones (lsa 47:2). lt
pael only). was the staple of the woman of Zerephath (I Kgs
Derivatives 17:12), and part of David's (1 Chr 12:40) and Sol-
omon's (I Kgs 4:22 [H 5:2]) provender. Appar-
2029a 01;-i'.'(qe/es) derisioa. ently, it was mixed with oil and cooked to make
2029b :,~7,:;,(qalläsii) mocking. biscuits (Gen 18:6). Abraham served these bis-
This root denotes the scomful belittling issuing cuits to his mysterious guests and they ate. When
from an attitude which counts as valueless that Gideon served a similar meal to the angel of the
which is of real value. lt is to be compared to Lord as a sacrifice the offering was consumed by
hätal, "trifte," lä'ab "to make jest of," lä'ag fire (Jud 6: 19).
"to scomfully mimic," ·älal "to abuse, laugh God makes it clear that he does not depend on
at," $ähaqlsä/:laq "to make sport of, laugh at." man·s offerings for sustenance. How different
Ugaritic attests ql$, a near cognate (AisWUS no. from the pagan concept of God as reflected, for
2414). Our verb occurs four times. example, in the Enüma Elish (Roland de Vaux,
The primary meaning of this word is seen in AI. p. 448ff.). The usual flour involved in the meal
Ezk 16:31 where Jerusalem is compared to a offering was sölet, which was perhaps a finer va-
whore (temple prostitute) who gives herself riety of qema/:1 (cf. II Sam 17:28). Hence, in Num
freely, despising (q/s) the money, i.e. she counts 5: 15, since this "offering" was not to God, it
the money as of no value. consisted of secondary (and cheaper) flour with
no incense or oil added. In Gen 18:6 Abraham
parenthetically (perhaps) teils Sarah to prepare
2030 II'?~ (qäla') /, sling, hurt forth (e.g. Jud biscuits from not just qema/:1 (ordinary meal) but
20:16; I Sam 17:49). from sölet (finely ground meal). lt may weil be
Derivatives that this sölet reflects Akkadian salätu, crushed.
L.J.C.
2030a 1.1';>;,(qela') l, sling.
2030b 117~(qallä') slinger (II Kgs 3:25). 2034 t=l';i;' (qäma() seize (Job 16:8; 22: 16).

801
2035 ',~/?(qämel)
2035 '~i? (qärne/) be decayed (lsa 33:9; 19:6). was a severing of the body-a form of murder.
Because woman usurped man's position in Eden
l"\W~J?·:,(qörnrniyüt). See no. l 999e. the law was constructed to emphasize her subjec-
tion and man's leadership (Gen 3: 16). Hence,
2036 l'~i? (qiirna~) enclose with the hand, provision was made for a husband to accuse and
grasp (Lev 2:2; 5: 12; Num 5:26). discover suspected adultery (Num 5). Nor should
it be overlooked that this was also a means
Derivative whereby an accused but innocent woman could
2036a l'~i' (q6mq) closed hand, escape the accusation and wrath of ajealous hus-
fist (Gen 41:47; Lev 1:2; 5:12). band inasmuch as God himself would pronounce
her guiltless. The law provides a fit end for jus-
2037 tu~:, (qms). Assumed root of the follow- tified jealousy, the death of the otfender (IDB,
ing. III, p. 332).
2037a iui~:, (qirnmos) thistles or nett/es God is depicted as Israel's husband; he is a
(lsa 34: 13; Hos 9:6; Prov 24:31). jealous God (Ex 20:5). Idolatry is spiritual adul-
tery and merits death. Phinehas played the faith-
i:, (qen). See no. 2042a. ful lover by killing a man and his foreign wife, and
thus stayed the wrath of divine jealousy (Num
25: 11). Joshua repeated the fact that God is a
2038 *N;i? (qiinii') be jealous, envious, zealous
jealous God who would not tolerate idolatry and
(Pie! and Hiphil only). Denominative verb.
the people voluntarily placed themselves under
Parent Noun God's suzerainty (Josh 24: 19). Through idolatry
Israel incited God to justified wrath, e.g. in the
2038a +:,1-1):, (qin'ii)
ardor, zeal.
days of Ahab, and God punished them. Ulti-
2038b tN~~ (qannii') jealous.
mately, repeated warnings went unheeded and
2038c +1-tü:;,(qanno') jealous.
God gave his people thejustice due their spiritual
This verb expresses a very strong emotion adultery (Ezk 5: 13; 8:3, 5; 16:38). The Psalmist
whereby some quality or possession of the object identified the jealousy of God as the cause of the
is desired by the subject. This root occurs exile and he besought his Sovereign to quench his
eighty-seven times. There is a questionable oc- wrath against Israel (Ps 79:5). According to prom-
currence(s) of the root in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. ise God rested his jealous wrath against Israel
2246). The verb is (perhaps) a denominative of (Ezk 16:42; cf. Deut 30) and tumed against those
qin'ii (BDB). who had misused them (Ezk 36:5-6). So strong is
The term may be used in a purely descriptive his disposition to vindicate his name (Ezk 39:25)
sense to denote one of the characteristics of liv- and his people, that all the earth feit his wrath
ing men (Eccl 9:6), or in a derogatory sense to (Zeph 3:8). Thus it will be seen that the action
denote hostile and disruptive passions (Prov 27:4) informed by this intensity may result in ill and
or in a favorable sense to denote consuming zeal perdition and is associated with words denoting
focused on one that is loved (Ps 69:9 [H 101). wrath (Num 25: 11; Ezk 16:38, 42; 36:6; 38:9) and
lt may prove helpful to think of '"zeal" as the anger (Deut 29: 19 [H 201), and as a consuming
original sense from which derived the notions force with fire (Zeph 1:18; 3:8).
'"zeal for another's property" =··envy" and On the other hand the divine action accom-
"zeal for one's own property" = '"jealousy." plished with "jealousy" may result in good and
Accordingly, our root is often translated salvation. Thus this arduous love effected the re-
„ en vy." lt expresses the feeling which barren turn (Isa 42: 13). The restoration of Israel does
Rache! had toward prolific Leah (Gen 30: 1). not, however, exhaust God's gracious activities
Joseph's brothers were similarly related to him in behalf of his people. He will effect their salva-
after his fateful dream (Gen 37: 11). Edom's deep tion (the restitution of a perfect relationship be-
jealousy of Israel's favor before God accom- tween himself and his creatures), which they lost
panied anger and hatred (Ezk 35: 11). So, this root in father Adam, by a second Adam-Immanuel
does not express superficial emotion. God says (Isa 9:7 [H 61). Furthermore, the return from the
the righteous are not to long deeply after the ap- exile foreshadowed an even greater event-
parent (but short-lived) prosperity of the wicked God's creating and choosing a perfect bride
(Ps 37: 1). A consideration of their ultimate end through his Servant (lsa 42: 13). God's jealousy
led the psalmist to cease his envy (Ps 73:3). when offended issued in just retribution, but
The central meaning of our word, however, re- when stirred by his grace it resulted in eternal
lates to "jealousy" especially in the marriage re- love. Hence, the church is called the bride of
lationship. Adultery was punishable by death Christ. lt is now being perfectly prepared and
(Lev 20: 10; Deut 22:22). By marriage the "two preserved for the wedding.
become one flesh" (Gen 2:24). Hence, adultery God expects man to return his love. Love,

802
 2039 :iJ1?(qana)
however, is not simply an emotion. lt is a struc- in Ugaritic (where Gordon UT 19: no. 2245 and
tured relationship. To love God is to obey him. AisWUS no. 2426 do not separate the two roots).
So the word is used to denote a passionate, con- Biblical occurrences number 182.
suming ··zeal" focused on God that results in the The verb qänti is the usual word for "buying"
doing of his will and the maintaining of his honor something. Commercial transactions were ac-
in the face of the ungodly acts of men and na- complished in several ways (cf. AI, pp. l67ff.).
tions. Phinehas, Elijah and Jehu are particular Especially interesting is the ancient custom in-
examples ofthis zeal (TWNT, II, p. 878). Saul (II volving the giving of one's shoe (Ruth 4:8: Arnos
Sam 21:2) and Jehu (II Kgs 10: 16) were prompted 8:6 [H 71) to the purchaser symbolizing forfeiture
by their ardent zeal (jealousy) for God to commit of the hereditary right of redemption. Transac-
acts violating his commands. Thus, they stirred tions could either be recorded (Jer 32: 16) or, oth-
the wrath of God who is jealous for his name (Ezk erwise, publicly witnessed (Ruth 4: cf. laws of
39:25)-that it be vindicated by the keeping ofthe Nuzu, Al, p. 168).
whole law (Deut 29:20 [H 19]). The godly (esp. Because sacrifices were to be offered for one-
Messiah) are consumed, therefore, by an ardour self they must also come from one's own pos-
(jealousy) to exalt God by maintaining purity of sessions. Therefore, when David sought to make
worship (Ps 69:9 [H 101),and purity ofobedience a sacrifice to end the plague he feit compelled to
respecting the whole ofGod's word (Ps 119: 139). purchase the land (II Sam 24:21-24). As king and
perpetrator ofthe census it was his responsibility
qin'ä. Ardor of jealousy, zeal, anger. This
to personally appease divine anger (II Sam
noun, modelled after the Qal infinitive form, de-
24: 16). Temple repairs were not paid for from the
scribes the state wherein the subject is dominated
royal coffer but from the gifts of God's people (II
by qänä'-either positive or negative. This word
Kgs 12:12 [H 13]: 22:6).
is translated in the KJV in a bad sense in Song 8:6,
The laws of Israel safeguarded private owner-
"jealousy is cruel as the grave," but it could be
ship and the right to amass private capital (for a
taken in a good sense in parallel with the preced-
detailed study, see R. Rushdoony, Institutes qf
ing, "ardent zeal is as strong as the grave ...
Biblica/ Law. Nutley, N.J.: Craig, 1973, pp.
qannä'. Jealous. This noun, modelled after 448ff.). Since the land and all that is in it belongs
the Piel infinitive, is used solely ofGod andin the to God (Deut 25:23-24) it was not theirs to sell
context of idolatry. lt shows the parallel between but only to "rent." Other nations were not so
adultery and idolatry. As a husband holds his constituted. Hence, Abraham could purchase
wife to himself and is permitted to kill her and her land from Ephron and it became the perpetual
paramour in the case of adultery, so God relates possession of his family (Gen 25: 10; Josh 24:32).
to his people. lt occurs only in the Pentateuch In Egypt the Pharaoh bought all the land (Gen
(five times). 47: 19-20) except the land of the priests (v. 22).
God ordered the theocracy so that the original
qannö'. Jealous. This noun is also modelled
allotment of the land (which represented the
on the Piel infinitive. Its use is the same as
etemal rest) would be reestablished every fiftieth
qannti ·. lt appears only twice and outside the
year (Lev 25: l 5ff. ), the year of jubilee. This real-
Pentateuch.
lotment was to govern the real estate transac-
Bibliography: TDNT, II, pp. 878-80. THAT.
tions, as is evidenced by the injunctions regard-
II. pp. 647-49.
ing purchase prices (vv. 15-16). Land lost due to
L.J.C.
poverty could be redeemed by a kinsman, or, if
the original owner prospered, he could redeem it.
2039 :i;~ (qtinu) /, get, acquire, create.
lf no human redeemer was tobe found, the land
Derivatives was redeemed by God himself on the fiftieth year
(God being Israel's redeemer, Ps 74:2, and father,
2039a tl~r'' (qinytin) wealth. lsa 11: 11: see gä ·a/). This explains why houses in
2039b t:-t~i?~ ( miqneh) cattle. walled cities could be sold into perpetuity (i.e.
2039c t:-tJ,?~ (miqnä) purchase. they did not involve ancestral land rights, Lev
These radicals involve three (KB). not two 25:29-34), why Levitical houses were perpetually
(BDB) roots. In qänä we discern one root denot- redeemable (they were God's "personal" pos-
ing a commercial financial acquisition of move- sessions either because they were his allotment
able goods (except some uses in Prov where wis- for his personal staff [the Levites], or because
dom is to be acquired: 4:5, 7, etc.), and another they were ··returned" [and holyJ to him), and
root denoting · ·creation'' by God (bärä" ). For the why Levitical lands could never be sold at all
third root, see qäneh "reed." Distinguish qänti (they were eternally "redeemed").
from räkash (to get property by laboring, q. v .), Slavery was allowed in Israel under certain
gä'a/ (to redeem, buy back; but, also see Lev conditions. Only non-Israelites could be true
25:33, KD, in loc.). Both meanings of qänu occur slaves, i.e., property of an Israelite (Lev 25:44f.).

803
2040 :,~1?
(qäna)

All Jews were bTOthers and servants ( 'ebed. q. v .) it seems to be a form of qiina "create .. (Ps
of God (Lev 25:42-43). Hence, they could not 104:24). This word also is found in Old Aramaic
"own" one another. If because of poverty or (H. Donner and W. Rollig, KAI, II, p. 41).
punishment (for theft) a Jew went into bondage,
miqneh. Livestock, herd (or flock); purchase,
he was to be treated as a hired servant. He could
possession. A~v and Rsv translate similarly. This
be redeemed (bought out of bondage) either by a
mem-preformative noun denotes the thing pos-
kinsman or, if he pTOspered, by himself. If no
sessed. Most usually it refers to livestock in gen-
redemption was forthcoming he would be set free
eral (although it may refer to one or more
the seventh year (Lev 21:2; Deut 15: 12), or the
varieties thereof). lt refers to valuables as distin-
fiftieth year (Lev 25:39-46). Kinsmen were to
guished from money (Gen 13:2). lt also denotes
··buy back'" enslaved relatives (Neh 5:8). These
land fit for grazing (Num 32: 1, 4), and owners of
injunctions virtually establish the abolition of
livestock (II Chr 14: 14: Gen 46:32). Genesis 49:32
slavery for Jews. In the NT where there is neither
may weil be miqna. Cf. Phoenician mqn · (DR, p.
Jew nor Greek and the theocracy is eo-extensive
15).
with mankind (Gai 3:28; Eph 1:20--23) slavery is
also principally abolished. miqnä. Purchase, purchase price. ASVand RSV
In view of the above discussion it is significant translate almost the same. This noun denotes the
that God who redeemed (qiina parallel ga·a/ Ex thing purchased. and the price whereby a thing
15: 13, 16; Ps 74:2) Israel from Egypt pTOmised to may be purchased.
bring unrepentant Israel back to Egypt to be sold Bibliography: Katz, Peter, "The Meaning of
as bondsmen. But no one would purchase them the Root :i,;,," JJS 5:126-31. TDNT, III, pp.
(Deut 28:68). However, God himself would pur- 1005-28. THAT, II, pp. 650--58.
chase them out of the exile (Isa 11: 11). This was L.J.C.
by means of leaders of the exile like Nehemiah
(Neh 5:8). Certainly all this finds perfect fulfill- 2040 m;, (qnh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
ment in Christ (1 Cor 6: 19-20).
ing.
There are six places were qiina appears to 2040a t:,~i? (qaneh) reed, stalk, bone, bal-
mean "create": Ps 139:13 (cf. Gen 4:1: in Akka- ances. (ASVand Rsv translate simi-
dian the TOot can be used of man): Deut 32:6 (cf. larly.)
v. 13; Ps 74:2), and Gen 14: 19, 22 (see Ugaritic
and Phoenician parallels, AI, p. 310). lt is ques- This noun apparently denotes the Persian reed
tionable whether Ps 78:54 attests "create" or Arundo donax. However, vS. AkkH II, pp. 897-
"acquire" (in a general sense). although the 98 notes this TOOi represents several reed-like
former is to be preferred. Most interesting is the plants in Akkadian. FTOmthe primary denotation
use in Prov 8:22. Ifwe are right. then Prov teils us derives the second meaning, that which is shaped
of the eternal generation of Wisdom, i.e. Christ like a reed, i.e. a stalk, bone (only Job 31 :22),
(Jn 1; Lk 11:49). [The relation of these two TOOis balance part (lsa 46:6, lever). This word also rep-
or the two meanings of the one TOOi has been resents an aTOmatic spiee used in sacred ministra-
much debated. lt is of interest that all of the de- tion (cannot be "calamus," according to KD,
rivatives show the usual meaning ··acquire, .. lsaiah, 11, p. 199, n.1). Our word occurs sixty-
"possess." The Ug evidence seems to pTOve the two times. lt is to be distinguished from göme'
possible meaning "create" although several of (Cypenus Papyrus), s1ip (an Egyptian loanword
the usages are found in bTOken and difficult texts. meaning rushes in general), 'ä/Jü (marsh plant),
The main usage in Ug is the title of Asherah as and yiiräq (green plant). Cf. qäna. 1, "get, ac-
"creatress of the gods ... But the title of EI the quire, create."
chief deity is "creator" (hny). lt is probable that Egypt is called a bruised reed-an undependa-
the word qny in Ug should be interpreted as "one ble. weak staff (II Kgs 18:21). God pTOnounces
who brings forth „ rat her than „ creator." The NIV judgment on Egypt because she boasted of her
translates PTOv 8:22, "The Lord possessed me" selfmade power, and weaned Israel away from
with the footnote, "Or, The Lord bTOught me trusting him. When the t_est came. Egypt proved
forth ... R.L.H. 1 to be a weak support (bruised reed) and thus
caused Israel to suffer pain (Ezk 29:6-7). When
qinyän. Wealth, property, possessions. ASVand the Messiah comes he will gently lead his tlock,
RSVsomewhat similar with the Rsv more correctly not setting on them more than they can bear. The
preferring "pTOperty, possessions." This noun Lord's servant will establish justice even on a
denotes that which is acquired by purchase, bruised reed--either the poor of society or possi-
··movable goods. ·· Six of its ten occurrences con- bly Egypt (lsa 42:3: cf. II Kgs 18:21 ). This expec-
trast it with miqneh (see below). Three times it tation found fulfillment in Jesus· healing of the
refers to wealth in general or pTOperty considered crippled man, a truly bTOken reed, in the syna-
as wealth (Lev 22:11; Ps 105:21: Prov 4:7). Once gogue on the Sabbath day (Mt 12:9-21).

804
 2044 CQi?(qiisam)

The spiee qiineh was one of the four which God E/ekiel uses qii.1a1111n 13:9: 21:21. 23. 29: and
directed to be mixed and used as holy anointing oil. 22:28. The references in chap. 21 are to Nebuchad-
With it the instruments and ministers ofthe tabemacle nezzar's "divination „ with arrows. Apparently he
(and temple) were anointed (Ex 30:23). Later God chose the route of attack by llinging down a
berates his people for ignoring his appointed means of handful of arrows. This is the only passage to hint
worship in the midst of their great sin (lsa 43:24, at the actual process involved in qii.1a111.
sweet cane A v, calamus Ntv). Finally, he teils them Micah 3:6f. and Zech 10:2 also speak disparag-
that extemal sacrifice apart from inward devotion is ingly of the "diviners" comparing them with thc
useless (Jer 6:20). God's worship is holy to him. He false prophets and dreamers.
intends men to follow his directions specifically. lf
so, the result will be sweet smelling (acceptable) to qesem. Divination, witchcraft, sorcery, fortune-
him. If not, the result is unacceptable: rite and attitude te/ling, omen, lot, oracle, decision. The exact
must conform to his standard. L.J.C. meaning of this variety of occultism is unknown.
That fact accounts for the variety of translations.
Kil:;, (qannb'). See no. 2038c.
The account in Ezk 21:21-22 [H 27-28] is the only
1~~;, ( qinyiin). See no. 2039a.
clue to exactly how qesem may have been prac-
2041 1i~~;, (qinniimiin) cinnamon (Prov 7: 17; ticed. Shaking or flinging down arrows, consult-
Song 4: 14; Ex 30:23). ing teraphim, and hepatoscopy (looking at the
liver) may be subcategories of qesem. In any
2042 *1~;, (qinnen) make a nest. This de-
event, verse 22 [H 281 uses qesem as if it were
nominative verb occurs in the Piel and
one of the arrows tobe thrown down. In fact, the
Pual only (e.g. Isa 34:15: Ezk 31:6).
NEB translates the word as "augur's arrow" and
Parent Noun the NAB as "divining arrow." The JB uses
"omen" and ··Jot" in these two verses.
2042a 11' (qen) nest (e.g. Deut 22:6; Job
39:27). Another interesting use of qesem is at Num
22:7, where the word seems to indicate a "re-
2043 l'li' (qn$). Assumed root of the following. ward" or "fee" for "divination" (Berkeley Ver-
2043a r;.1' (qi!ne$) mare (Job 18:2). sion, sorcery; Amplified, foretelling: NEB, au-
2044 CQi;, (qiisam) practice divination. Denomi- gury) to be paid to Balaam. Later in that account
native verb. (Num 23:23) qesem is parallel to nafwsh (cf. II
Parent Noun Kgs 17: 17). In Jer 14: 14 it is parallel to "lying
vision, .. "a thing of nought," and "self-deceit"
2044a tCl:11' (qesem) divination, witchcraft. (cf. Ezk 13:6, 23).
2044b tC'?/?~ ( miqsiim) divination. A third noteworthy passage is Prov 16: 10.
Like the noun qesem, this verb describes some There the AV has "divine sentence," the Rsv "in-
variety of divination. And as with all other mani- spired decisions, .. and the JB, NEB, and NAB "ora-
festations of the occult, this practice was out- cles." Whereas qesem is generally forbidden
lawed in Israel and spoken of with scorn. (Deut 18: 10), or only used by non-lsraelites, in
The participial form appears in the long list of Prov 16: 10 it seems perfectly permissible and
such practices in Deuteronomy 18 (vv. 10, 14). commendable. The best known occurrence of
Balaam was such a "soothsayer" or "di- qesem is in I Sam 15:23, where Samuel confronts
viner." Both the participial and nominal forms Saul for disobedience in the matter of the spoils
are used in connection with him (Num 22:7; from the Amalekite victory. The prophet de-
23:23; Josh 13:22). clared:
Saul commanded the woman at En-dor to "di- To obey is better than sacrifice
vine" for him with 'ob (q.v.) in I Sam 28:8. The and to hearken than the fat of rams.
only other prose passages using qäsam are l Sam For rebellion is as the sin of qesem.
6:2 in reference to the Philistine · "diviners" and
The traditional rendering "witchcraft" is fol-
II Kgs 17:17, a !ist of Israelite offenses which
lowed by the ASV. Amplified and the NEB, while
prompted God to exile them. the JB has "sorcery" and the Berkeley Version
The major prophets lsaiah, Jeremiah, and has · •fortune-telling. ''
Ezekiel and the minor prophets Micah and
Zechariah all mention qiisam in a derogatory mtqsam. Divination. Ezekiel 12:24 and 13:7
sense. In lsa 3:2 the "diviner" is grouped with have the only occurrences of miqsiim. In the
the honorable professions of soldier, judge, pro- former reference the "divination" is charac-
phet. and elder as weil as enchanter (v. 3). But the terized by the adjective häläq (flattering or de-
"diviners" receive God\ curse in lsa 44:25. ceitful) and in the latter reference by kaziib (ly-
Jeremiah\ two uses are in 27:9 and 29:8. where ing).
he compares his own prophecy with thosc who Bibliography: Davies, T. W. "Witch," in ln-
would rather offer god omens. ternaTional Standard Bible Encyclopedia,

805
2045 *C~~ (qasas)
Eerdmans, 1955. Guillaume, Alfred, Prophecy The basic meaning of this root is most clearly
and Divination, London: Hodder and Stoughton, discemed in Deut 15:7 (opposite of "open,"
1938. Kitchen, K. A., "Magie and Sorcery," in pätal,i). A note of finality sounds there. This is
NBD, pp. 766-71. Liefeld, W. "Divination," in especially significant in considering the other bib-
ZEPB, II, pp. 146--49. Summers, Montague, The lical uses (cf. Ps 77:9 [H 101). Eliphaz having re-
History of Witchcraft and Demonology, Univer- counted the absolute sovereignty of God and his
sity Books, 1956. Reiner, Erica, "Fortune Telling love for the godly, concludes (rightly, cf. Ps
in Mesopotamia," JNES 19:23-35. 107:42) that this is the basis of hope for the godly
R.L.A. and thus closes the mouth of iniquity (Job 5: 16).
Isaiah (52: 15) contrasts the surprise of the many
2045 *Cl;!,? (qasas) strip off. Occurs only once, and the awe of kings. Even the most exalted of
in the Poel (Ezk 17:9). men will be struck speechless at the utter novelty
ofthe Salvation they will come to experience and
?'\!;lt'. (qeset). See no. 2080b. the one who brings it (E. J. Young, lsaiah, III,
2046 (q'q').
l)i:)l);, Assumed root of the follow- Eerdmans, 1972, p. 339).
ing. L.J.C.
2046a l1i?l/i? (qa'aqa') incision, tattoo r1' (qe$), See no. 2060a.
(Lev 19:28). 2052 ::ll,? (qä$ab) cut off, shear (II Kgs 6:6;
2047 "ll)i' (q'r). Assumed root of the following. Song 4:2).
2047a :,?~i' (q'' 'iira) dish, platter (e.g. Derivative
Num 7:85; Ex 25:29). 2052a ::i;1' (qe!feb) cut, shape (I Kgs
2047b :i?,"11/i?~(sh''qa'arfm1) depression · 6:25), extremity (Jon 2:7).
ho/low.
2048 H9i? (qäpii ·) thicken, condense, congeal 205 3 :,;,? (qä~·a) /, cut off.
(e.g. Zech 14:6; Zeph 1:12). Derivatives
Derivative 2053a t:i;,? (qä$eh) end, extremity.
2048a iiH~;, (qippä ·{m) congelation (Zech 2053b t:i;,r (qä$a) end, extremity.
14:6, only). 2053c t:,~1' (qe!feh) end.
2053d ti:ii? (qä$f.i) end, border.
iiH~;, (qippii'bn). See no. 2048a. 2053e tri;p (q•· ,vät) end.
2049 *il;I,: (qapad) gather together, roll up. The ASV and RSV translate variously, with the RSV
This verb occurs only once, in the Piel (lsa tending to present a superior translation. The RSV
38: 12). translation is sometimes confusing. Why does it
Derivatives render differently Neh 1:9, when it is obviously a
2049a ,c,';, (qippöd) porcupine (lsa direct reference to Deut 30:4 which uses the same
14:23: Zeph 2: 14; Isaal). Hebrew phrase. This verb denotes a cutting off. lt
is difficult to determine if this is a denominative of
2049b :i,9p (q' pada) shuddering (Ps the noun forms which in turn are derivatives of
119:20; Ezk 7:25). qä$G$. or if this is an original Canaanite root
2050 !Ci' (qpz). Assumed root of the following. (especially since q,rh [originally qpv] occurs in
2050a iic;, (qippöz.) arrow snake (lsa Phoenician; H. Donnerand W. Rollig, KAI, II, p.
34:15), or owl (Klotz, J. W., 22). We opt for an original root. The verb occurs
WBE 1, p. 89). only five times. Two of those occurrences (Lev
14:41, 43) may weil be the result oflater scribal
2051 l'~i? (qäpa.i·) close, shut. (ASV and RSV
error confusing the verb qäs' a of similar meaning
translate the same.) with qäsa. Our root occurs 152 times. Compare its
This root refers to the drawing together (shut- synonym qä$G$ (q. v .), and contrast f.:.ärat(q. v .)
ting, orclosing) ofthe mouth or hands. lt occurs as which is considerably broader in meaning.
Akkadian /.:.ap/biifiu.Biblical occurrences number q~eh. End, extremity. This is what GKC (n. l,
five. The apparent occurrence in Job 24:24 is best p. 269) terms the regular Hebrew noun form of
explained by assuming a b/p interchange (cf. lamed-he verbs. lt stresses the point at which a
qiibas), and in Song 2:8 by assuming the appear- thing is cut off, and therefore its extremity. The
ance of Akk. /.:.abäsu (used of armies marching following derivatives are distinguished more by
upon mountains: cf. vS. AkkH. 1, p. 443). Compare their orthographic history than by their meanings.
the following: ·ä(ar "shut a pit," .l'Üf?llr "shut a
door" (the nearest Hebrew root), and 'ä!far "re- qägä. End, extremity. GKC calls this an
strain." Aramaised form (loc. cit.). Perhaps it would be

806
 2055 ni:, (q~IJ)

better to consider it a dialectical form since deliverance. lsaiah sees the return from Babylon
Aramaised has connoted lateness to some. lts as a reenactment of the call of Abraham from the
meaning parallels qiiseh except that is applied to ends of the earth (Mesopotamia) to come to the
time and qiisii is not. Note that the two words are Holy Land (lsa 41 :9).
applied to the same object (Ex 26:4--5). On the other hand, the prophets foreseeing the
q~eh. End. In this noun the original waw is exile now predicted a salvation to all nations.
Even as Abraham was called from the ends of the
resolved ( GKC. Sec. 84a ce). lt appears only with
earth to begin a new program with a particular
a preceding 'en meaning "no limit."
people, so now when the exiles return, the Lord
qä~u. End, border. In this noun the original will bring universal salvation through his servant.
waw becomes a strong consonant again (GKC, God informs his servant that only to save the Jews
Sec. 24d). The word is applied only to extremities is less than his calling (cf. qt'ila/), so the Gentiles
of land. are also to be summoned into the kingdom "that
thou mayest be my salvation to the end of the
q•sat. End. This noun occurs only in the con- earth" (lsa 49:6). lndeed, in the eschaton the
struct. lt, too, denotes extremity.
end(s) ofthe earth are eternally pacified by God,
Compare this cycle of nouns to qes which
and they are transformed into the locus of songs of
applies to immaterial extremities (e.g. time), söp
praise to the Lord (lsa 42: 10).
which applies to the "last" of a thing, 'a/:zarit In view ofthe fact that the end(s) ofthe earth are
which denotes the "hinderpart," and 'epes which the source and place ofjudgment, it is noteworthy
denotes ··cessation, nothingness, limit".
that God is the only confidence of the ends of the
The nouns denoting extremity may refer to the
earth (Ps 65:5 [H 61), and that those who dwell
tip of a rod (1 Sam 14:27) or wings (1 Kgs 6:24), the
there fear God's providential control ofnature (Ps
edge of a curtain (Ex 26:4--5), the end or outskirts
65:8 [H 91). There sounds the declaration ofGod's
of a land (Num 20: 16). This helps us better under- glory (Ps 19:4 [H 5]). There God exercises abso-
stand I Kgs 12:30, where Jeroboam in establishing
lute control over war (Ps 46:9 [H 101), and all
his rival apostate cult disdained God's law by
things (Ps 135:7; cf. Jer 10:13) according to what
choosing priests from other than Levitical lines,
pleases him. So when Israel complains that God is
thus rejecting the cultic stipulations ofthe Sinaitic
unconcerned with their exile, lsaiah responds that
covenant. In Prov 17:24 we are told that fools fix
God's knowledge knows no bounds and that he
their eyes on the ends (horizon) of the earth-they
cares. He will remember his covenant (lsa 40:28).
seek the never attained earthly goals and reject
Creation and many providential acts, however,
wisdom (the fear of the Lord). The expression
are inscrutable outskirts ofGod's way (Job 26: 14).
should not be forced to imply an erroneous cos-
Man depends on God to learn his way. God's
mology of a flat earth with edges to fall off of. The knowledge rests on his sovereignty and, hence,
phrase sometimes only refers to national bound-
embraces all that is (or may be) known (Job 28:28).
aries "the ends of the land." Sometimes it is poe-
L.J.C.
tic for distant places. The extent ofthe earth from
lndia to Spain was weil known in antiquity and
2054 :i:t;, (q~-/1) II. Assumed root of the follow-
travel was extensive.
ing.
Especially significant is the recurring theologi-
2054a tri:;, (qt'isin) chief, ru/er (e.g. Jud
cal theme: the end(s) of the world/heavens. lt de-
11:6: Isa 3:67). ASV and RSV translate
notes both the source and place of Israel' s judg-
"leader," "chief."
ment and the area of universal salvation. This is
the abode of the people who were to bring judg- This word is a military term. lt signifies the man
ment (destruction) if (and when) Israel threw off responsible for recruiting, an administrator in the
the rule of the Lord (Deut 28:49). Such peoples army. lt appears to denote the one at the head
were summoned by God in fulfillment of Moses' (parallel to "head ones," Mic 3: 1, 9) of an army
prophecy (lsa 5:26). Indeed, God used different (Josh 10:24), or people (i.e. as political ruler; cf.
peoples tojudge Israel's "judgers" (lsa 13:5) and lsa 1:10: Mic 3:1). The cognate root in Arabic is
Elam (Jer 49:36). This phrase also represents the used for ajudge, the qadi. The word occurs twelve
place of judgment and suffering to which God will times.
scatter rebellious Israel (Deut 28:64), and from
which he will gather them (Deut 30:4). David de- i:t:;, (qt'isu). See no. 2053d.
scribing his sufferi ng places himself in the ends of
the earth (Ps 61:2 [H 3)). Nationally, God teils 2055 n:t;, (qs/:z). Assumed root ofthe following.
Jsaiah to declare deliverance to his people in exile 2055a Mli'.) (qe~·al:z) black cumin (lsa
at the ends of the earth (lsa 62: 11). Nehemiah 28:25, 27).
confesses thejustice ofthe exile (clearly recalling
Deut) and prays God to remember his promised i•;:;, (qäsin). See no. 2054a.

807
2056 *t.'i~ (qii$a')
:if'';i? (qe!fi'ii). See no. 2056a. break, snap off ... BDB renders the noun as proba-
'1';i? (qii.rir). See nos. 2062a,b. bly meaning "splinter" (as a simile for a helpless
king); GB as a "piece ofwood" (Holzstück); KB
2056 *l.';i?(qii!fa') /, scrape, scrape off. This as a "snapped-off branch (ahgeknickter Zweig).
noun occurs only once, in the Hiphil (Lev See qä~·ap II below.
14:41). Three times this noun is used in reference to
Derivatives men. In two of these instances (1 Kgs 3:27: Est
1: 18) it can be said this wrath ofmen is righteous or
2056a ;,f'•;i? (q'' !fi'ii)cassia (Ps 45:9). justifiable. Moses, Joshua, Isaiah, Jeremiah, the
2056b ;,f''1ti?~(maq!fü'ii) scraping tool, Chronicler and Zechariah either warn of or speak
used infashioning idols (lsa 44: 13). about the righteous wrath ofGod coming upon his
unfaithful covenant people.
2057 *l.';i? (qa!fa') //, cornered, sei in co~ners.
The following should be read after the reader
This denominative verb occurs only m the
has consulted the above discussion of the verb
Hophal (Ezk 46:22; Ex 26:23: 36:28).
qäsap and its synonyms.
Meaning uncertain.
The subject of the wrath of God has been dis-
Parent Noun cussed by the Church throughout the ages. The
2057a ~li?~ (miq!föa ·) place of corner consensus of opinion has been, and that correctly,
structure, inner corner-buttress that wrath in and of itself is not necessarily evil.
(e.g. Neh 3: 19; Ezk 46:21). Lactantius, who does not clearly distinguish be-
tween the various synonyms, spoke of "anger as
2058 ti;i? (qii!fap) /, be displeased, angry; frei the mind arousing itself for the restraining of
oneself. evil"; "wrath" is the expression of this an~er in
various ways to restrain evil, to correct the smner
Derivative and to punish the hardened and stiffnecked r~~el.
2058a tti;i' (qe!fep) wrath. However, wrath is not merely an energy of d1vme
justice which is concerned basically with the pres-
The verb qä!fap is used to give pointed expres-
ervation of the divine order. Rather, wrath (from
sion to the relationship between two or more per-
which retributive justice cannot be separated) is
sons, one or both ofwhich can be said to feel anger
concerned with the protection ofGod's holy inter-
('ap), have wrath (hemii), indignation (ka'as), or
ests; i.e. his holy nature, his love and the objects
express anger ('ebrii). Deuteronomy 9:19 pre-
ofhis love. Hence, wrath is inseparably related to
sents a good case. Moses, referring to the golden
God's love, holiness and jealousy. Indeed, the
calf incident, says he was afraid ofthe anger f.'ap)
wrath of God speaks directly of God maintaining
and wrath (ordispleasure) (hemii) with which G~d
himself completely and absolutely as a holy God
was wroth (qasap) against Israel. lt can be sa1d
who Ioves his covenant people with an infinite
then that here, as in most of the other thirty-three
passion and therefore is very jealous over them.
instances where this verb appears, qa!fap refers to
When either people from without, or the covenant
the relationship developed, held or expressed in
people themselves, profane, thwart or reject this
various ways when there is anger, heat, displea-
love ofthe covenant God, God expresses h1s vexa-
sure held or feit within one because of what
tion, agitation, displeasure, anger and/or hatred:
another has said or done. lt is said eleven times
he pours out his wrath.
that men were wroth, (e.g., Pharoah, Moses,
The wrath ofGod, then, must not be considered
Naaman, Philistine princes). Twenty-three times
a permanent attribute of God: it is an ever-present
it is said that God was wroth, whether against the
divine potential because ofthe ever-present d1vme
heathen or against his covenant people.
qualities of love, holiness, and jealousy. So,
Ofthe six main synonyms referring to anger, the
whenever God reveals his wrath, he always man-
strongest, probably, are qe!fep which often refers
ifests his own "unsearchable greatness ... lt must
to the Lord's anger, and hemii and härön both of
be that his wrath is expressed in harmony with his
which refer to a burning and consuming wrath.
justice. The guilt due to lawbreaking must be dealt
The noun ·ap taking its meaning of ··anger" from
with according to the just demands of the law
the dilation ofthe nostrils is the most widely used
(Deut 29: 13). However, the working out of Goct·s
word of the class. lt is used for anger both of God
wrath is tempered by his grace and mercy. In fac~.
and men and often with verbs like "kindle" harii.
it is in the midst of wrath that God may reveal h1s
The word 'ebrii emphasizes the overflowing or
mercy (Hab 3:2), manifesting and bestowin~ his
excess of anger. lt and the weaker words za·am
grace upon guilty sinners (Gen 3: 15). T?ere 1s_no
••indignation" and ka'as "vexation" are not used
question of "despotic rage" and there 1s noth1~g
as often.
of "the demonic in Goct·s nature" (contra Etc-
q~ep. Indignation, wrath. qesep in Hos _10:.'.is hrodt, ETOT, I, p. 262), which leads him to pour
derived from a qii!fap II, related to Arab1c to out his wrath or to determine the object, method

808
 and occasion for it apart from considerations of qes. End. This noun is used in a context of
condign justice. judgment. God brought an end to all flesh (Gen
Bibliography: Eichrodt, W., Theology of the 6: 13). So Ezekiel speaks about the end of Israel
O/d Testament, vol. I, SCM, 1961, pp. 258---69. (7:2-3). Contrariwise, the Messiah's kingdom
Jacob, E., Theology of the O/d Testament, New will know no end (lsa 9:7 [H 6]). This word, un-
York: Harper& Brothers, 1958, pp. 114-16. Lac- like qäreh is very seldom used of a geographical
tantius, · ·on the Anger of God," in Ante Nicene boundary.
Fathers, VII, reprint, Eerdmans, pp. 259-80. Bibliography: Barr, James, Biblical Words
Task er, R. V .J., The Biblical Doctrine of the for Time, SCM, 1962. THAT, II, pp. 659-62.
Wrath ofGod. London, Tyndale, 1970. THAT, II. L.J.C.
pp. 663-65.
G.V.G. 2061 i;i' (qärar) /, be short, impatient, vexed,
grieved.
2059 l'\lti' (qsp) II. Assumed root of the follow- Derivatives
ing.
2059a :i~;;, (q' fiipii)snapping or splin- 2061a °h:ti' (qarer) short.
tering (Joel 1:7, only). 2061b i:t;, (qoser) shortness (i.e. im-
2059b l'\~li? (qesep) splinter, twig (Hos patience, Ex 6:9, only).
10:7, only). The root designates that which is short (Ps
89:45 [H 46]; 102:23 [H 24]) or inadequate, such
2060 ni' (qäras) cut off. as a bed (Isa 28:20). Rhetorical questions ask if
the Lord's hand (Num 11:23; Isa 50:2; 59:1) or
Derivatives spirit (Mic 2:7), is short, i.e. unable to accomplish
2060a tri' (qes) end. the task. In some passages the root means dis-
2060b ~i:it•;, (qison) aJ the end, outermost couragement (Num 21 :4), vexation (Jud 10:16;
(Ex 26:4, 10; 36:11, 17). 16:16; Job 21:4), or loathing (Zech 11:8).
This root means "to sever," i.e. to separate in qälier. Short, shortened. This adjective occurs
two. lt should be compared to qäfii, its semantic in the construct state in idioms: "short of hand"
equivalent. Our root occurs in Ugaritic (UT 19: (feeble; ASV, of small power; RSV. shom of
no. 2259). Compare also Akkadian qariiru. The strength; II Kgs 19:26; lsa 37:27); "short of nos-
root occurs eighty-two times. trils" (irrascible; Asv: soon angry; Rsv: of quick
A woman who humbles a man by grabbing his temper; Prov 14:17); "short of spirit" (impatient;
genitals even when her action might be to save ASV: hasty of spirit; Rsv: hasty temper, Prov
her husband is to be punished by having her hand 14:29); and "short of days" (shortlived; ASVand
cut off (Deut 25: 12). Later David orders the sev- Rsv: few of days; Job 14:1). Of similar background
ering of the hands that beheaded lshbosheth and is the noun qö!!er "anguish," i.e. "compressed in
the feet that carried his head to David's presence. spiri t. ..
The act of the murderers-no doubt intended to J.P.L.
remove a rival claimant-was viewed as an at-
tack upon the Lord's anointed (the father, Saul, 2062 i;i' (qiirar) II, reap, harvest.
being continued in the son, II Sam 4: 12). David
distanced himself from that act even though (or Derivatives
perhaps because) he was the anointed ofthe Lord 2062a ti•;i' (qiisfr) I, harvest.
(1 Sam 24: 1-7). The emotion behind David's 2062b ti•;i' (qii!!ir) II, boughs, branches.
command is evidenced by the use of the Piel. In
Most frequently the root refers to the reaping
Jud 1:&-7 Adonibezek is punished as he had of crops of various kinds (Lev 23: 10, etc.). lt also
afflicted others. He had rendered them unable to
refers, metaphorically, to receiving the conse-
bear arms and to flee with speed, and unqualified
quences of one behavior, whether righteous or
to lead or religiously officiate before their people. wicked (Jer 12:13; Hos 8:7; 10:13; Prov 22:8).
The Piel (repetitive function) is used in describing
Hence harvest is a fitting symbol for a time of
how Nebuchadnezzer had the temple vessels cut judgment (cf. Arnos 9: 13).
in pieces (II Kgs 24: 13). The gold (representing
The Qal participle designates those who do the
the glory of God?) was ultimately delivered into
reaping, i.e.-the reapers (Ruth 2:3; II Kgs 4: 18,
the hands of heathen oppressors as tribute in
etc.).
spite of God's direct command forbidding it (II
Kgs 18:16, Piel). When God cuts the bonds q~ir /. Harvest. This masculine noun is used
(probably, reins) of the wicked (Ps 129:4), and for the process of harvesting (Gen 45:6; etc.), the
their spears (Ps 46:9 [H 10], he hacks them in harvest season (Gen 8:22; etc.), and that which is
pieces (Piel). harvested (Lev 19:9; Joel 1:11; etc.). The endless

809
2063 ~?i?(qärä')
cycles of "seedtime and harvest" and "plowing and W. Rollig, KAI. II, p. 22), and Ugaritic (UT
and harvest" are metaphors for the procession of 19: no. 2267). The most frequently recurring
the seasons (Gen 8:22; 45:6; Ex 34:21). In Pales- synonyms are !f/za'aq, shawa· (to cry out ur-
tine the grain harvest came between April and gently for help, Jer 20:8). The root occurs 689
June and was celebrated by the offering of the times.
first sheaf of grain (Ex 34:22; Lev 23: 10) and by The verb may represent the specification of a
the feast of harvest, one of the three pilgrimage name. Naming is sometimes an assertion of sov-
festivals (Ex 23: 16). The grape harvest followed ereignty over the thing named. God's creating en-
later in the summer. The Gezer calendar gives the tailed naming and numbering the stars (Ps 147:4),
sequence of the agricultural year to harvest. In the darkness (Gen 1:5), indeed all things (lsa
the oT events are dated by the wheat (Gen 30: 14; 40:26). God presented the animals to Adam to
Jud 15: 1, etc.) and the barley (II Sam 21:9; Ruth assert his relative sovereignty over them (Gen
1:22, etc.) harvests. Harvest was a hot (lsa 18:4), 2: 19). God sovereignly called Cyrus by name
busy season requiring diligence (Prov 6:8; 10:5) (note that election to a task is involved here, lsa
and prior work (Prov 20:4). Harvest was a time 45:4). Sometimes this idea of sovereignty is en-
appointed by the Lord (Jer 5:24). tailed even though the concept "naming" is omit-
Metaphorically, harvest is a time of retribution ted, e.g., God called all generations from the be-
(Hos 6: 11; Joel 3: 13 [H 4: 13]; Jer 51:33). Honor is ginning (lsa 41:4; cf. Arnos 5:8). In these in-
as unfitting to a fool as rain in harvest (Prov 26: !), stances the object must respond.
while a faithful messenger is as refreshing as the Frequently, the name given indicates a primary
cold of snow in harvest (Prov 25: 13). The passing characteristic ofthe thing named. Sometimes this
of opportunity is as the passing of harvest (Jer involves a play on words (Gen 27:36). Elsewhere,
8:20). this constitutes a confession, or personal evalua-
The gleanings of the harvested fie1d were left tion of the object (lsa 58:13; 60:14), or even a
for the poor (Lev 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 24: 19). recognition of an etemal truth, e.g. the child pro-
The yield was dependent upon the Lord's bless- phetically promised is divinely named "Im-
ings (lsa 17: 11). Labor was vain when the harvest manuel" (lsa 7: 14). God asserted his sovereignty
was devoured by locusts (Joel 1: 11) and by over Israel (lsa 41:2), and yet called them by
enemies (lsa 16:9; Jer 5:17). Harvest was not to another name (lsa 65: 15; "refuse silver," Jer
be reaped in the sabbatical year (Lev 25:5). 6:30). In Ex 33: 19; 34:6 and Deut 33:3, proclaim-
ing the name of God includes the description of
q~ir II. Boughs (Rsv, branches or boughs).
his attributes and/or sovereign acts.
The connection with the root qti!far is dubious.
Our verb also connotes calling one to a specific
Used of a tree (Job 14:9; Isa 27: 11) and in com-
task (cf. miqrä'). The maidservant of Pharaoh's
parisons of a man to a tree (Job 18:16; 29: 19) and
daughter asked if she is to go and "summon" a
of Egypt to a vine (Ps 80: 11 [H 12)).
nurse (Ex 2:7). The destruction of all the inhabi-
J.P.L.
tants of Canaan is to obviate all possibility of
friendships leading to the acceptance of personal
l"l'ti?(q" !ftil). See no. 2053e.
invitations to and involvement in idolatry (Ex
i:;i (qar), ,;, (qör). See nos. 2077a,b.
34: 15). The most prominent usage here has to do
2063 M,~ (qärii') /, call, call out, reciJe (read).
with calling on the name of God. U sually, the
context has to do with a critical (Ps 34:6, 81:7 [H
Derivatives 8]) or chronic need (e.g., after Cain killed Abel,
man realized the füll effects of the curse and
2063a M'.':i';,(qöre') partridge (l Sam
began to call on God's name--Gen 4:26). The
26:20; Jer 17:11; Jud 15:19).
godly recognize the presence of original sin by
2063b tM•-:,~(qari') called one, summoned
their continual calling on God (Gen 12:8; 13:4; Ps
(Num 1: 16; 16:2; 26:9).
116:2). God responds to all who thus call on him
2063c Mt''".1i?(q'ri'a) proclamation (Jon
(Ps 145:18). Indeed, the covenant people (includ-
3:2, only).
ing the stranger, I Kgs 8:43) are admonished to so
2063d tM?i?~ (miqra') convocation.
pray and are assured that God will reverse the
The root qr' denotes primarily the enunciation curse (lsa 55:6, 13). Not to so call on God is to
of a specific vocable or message. In the case of deserve (Ps 79:6) and justly receive God's wrath
the latter usage it is customarily addressed to a (lsa 65: 12). In the eschaton God's people are to
specific recipient and is intended to elicit a spe- be those whom God will sovereignly call, even
cific response (hence, it may be translated "pro- the cursed Gentiles (lsa 55:5), and they will run to
claim, invite"). Infrequently, qärä' denotesjust him. He will reverse Babel, and with a pure lan-
art outcry (e.g. Ps 147:9; lsa 34: 14). Our root with guage all those called of God will call on him and
the same semantic distribution occurs in Old serve him (Zeph 3:9). Even before they call he
Aramaic (KAI, II, p. 41), Canaanite (H. Donner will answer (lsa 65:24). Thus Eden is restored,

810
 2065 ~':11?
(qärab)

and the curse is fully annihilated. How tragic that Sam 19:15 [H 16]) him as an ally (cf. Josh 9: 11; II
Israel, to whom such promises were given, re- Kgs 10:15; Ps 59:4 [H 51). Such meetings are pur-
jected the Lord's call (lsa 65: 12). Salvation is poseful and intentional. In the cultic use the sub-
truly of the Lord. ject confronts the divine (Ex 5:3; 19:17; Num
23:3).
qäri'. Called one. This word is used (with
Hostile usages entail a formal confrontation of
·edii) to designate those among Israel „ called to
enemies martially (cf. II Kgs 23:29; Josh 8:5, 22)
the diets of the congregation" (KD, Pentateuch,
and non-martially (Ex 5:20; 7: 15). lt is not always
11, p. 15; cf. Deut 18).
clear to the parties which is involved (Gen 32:6
miqrä'. Convocation, reading. ASV and RSV [H 7]). This martial connotation is especially use-
similar. This noun denoting the result of qärä' is ful in helping to enrich Arnos 4:12, "Prepare to
used, first, for convocations exclusively cultic, meet thy God, 0 Israel" (see W. A. Brueg-
and secondly, of the result of reading aloud (N eh gemann, "Arnos 4:4-13 and lsrael's Covenant
8:8). One should compare its synonym mö'ed, an Worship," VT 15:1-15).
appointed time therefore also an appointed The infiniti ve of the root appears to be used as
gathering (q. v .) the preposition "against" in Ex 14:27; Jud 14:5.
miqra' designates the weekly Sabbaths (Lev Sometimes the infinitive is used as a finite verb
23:2) and the new moons (Ezk 46:3; cf. lsa 66:23). (II Kgs 20:26; cf. Huesman, Biblica, 76:271-95).
However, its most usual meaning is reserved for For more on the denotation "befall" see qärii.
the seven special convocation sabbaths. These L.J.C.
were observed in the course of the five annual
feasts (Passover and the Feast of Tabernacles
2065 :l".li?(qärab) /, come near, approach, enter
were opened and closed with a special convoca-
into.
tion Sabbath). Such days (and the weekly Sab-
bath as weil) included a formal summoning of Derivatives
people to worship by the blast of trumpets (Num
10:2, 10; cf. qol). Physical presence was manda-
2065a t:lji? (qäreh) near.
tory, however, only for the three festal pilgrim-
2065b t:,,i? (q'räb) battle, war.
age feasts and only formales (Ex 23:14, 17). The
2065c t:i;-:ii' (qirha) drawing near.
2065d t:,ii;;i (qärob) near, kinsman.
Sabbath and Day of Atonement were further dis-
tinguished by the divine prohibition excluding all
2065e t'!~':'i? (qorbän) offering.
labor (Lev 23:3, 31 ), indeed, any pursuit of non-
2065f ti;-:ii? (qürbän) supply.
cultic goals (lsa 58: 13f.). The godly were to focus Basically our root denotes being or coming into
their time and effort on worship. The six other the most near and intimate proximity of the ob-
special convocations did not exclude the prepara- ject (or subject). A secondary meaning entails ac-
tion offood even though servile labor was prohib- tual contact with the object (Ezk 37:7; the Piel
ited (Lev 23). imperative in Ezk 37: 17; GKC, 52n, 64h; also,
For more on feasts see OTOT, pp. 323-52. perhaps, Ex 14:20, Jud 19:13). Our root occurs
Bibliography: TDNT, III, pp. 700-702. about 455 times (verb, 279 times). lt is a common
THAT, II, pp. 666--73. Semitic root (cf. Akkadian qaräbu, qrh, UT 19:
L.J .C. no. 2268). Among its synonyms, note nägash
(very close to qärab in use), bo' (somewhat
wider in meaning and emphasizing movement
2064 K'i? (qära') II, encounter, against, befall.
toward).
(ASV and RSV translate similarly, with the
The various uses of the root surface in the
latter offering some improved renditions
verb. There are a few general non-technical uses
(Ex 5:20; I Sam 25:20.)
connoting approach or coming near apart from
This root denotes a planned encounter wherein any sense of intimacy (Gen 37: 18). The more es-
the subject intentionally confronts the object. lt sential significance of the root emerges in cases
is a by-form of qärii (q.v.). Compare the follow- where the "drawing near" renders the subject
ing synonyms: yä'ad "meet by appointment," close enough to the object to see it (Ex 32:29), to
ptiga' "come or fall upon, reach to," pägash "to speak to it (Num 9:6), or even to touch it (Lev
meet, encounter· · (of hostile or opposing sub- 10:4; Ex 36:2).
jects), mä~ä' (a close cognate including reach, Spatial proximity is a connotation of the adjec-
find), and nägash. Our word occurs 137 times tive qärob (e.g. Gen 19:20). lt is often coupled
(120 times as an infinitive with lamed). with "far" (rä!Joq) as a technical phrase for "all"
This word can represent friendly encounters (Ezk 22:5). Solomon repeats the phrase in the
like that of a host rushing out to meet a prospec- course of his prayer at the dedication of the tem-
tive guest (Gen 18:2; Jud 4:18), or going out to ple (l Kgs 8:46). The prophets employed our
meet someone in order to recognize or gain (II phrase quite frequently, e.g. the peoples "far and

811
2065 :lj:? (qarab)

near" will mock Israel (Ezk 22:5), yet God's clothes, and making sacrifices for themselves
preservation of his people will cause their (Lev 9:4, 8, 10). lnterestingly, the Hiphil stem
enemies to acknowledge his might (lsa 33: 13). becomes most frequently used to connote the
The temporal sense of imminence is used of sacrificial presentation of offerings by the people
joyous (Lev 15:9, the year of Jubilee: Num 24: 17, (Lev 1: 14), through the priests (Lev 1:5) unto the
the "scepter") and foreboding (Gen 27:41, death) Lord (Lev 1:13). Whatever is thus presented to
events. The second connotation (the sense of im- the priests is holy, and all parts not consumed in
pending doom) is used by Moses (Deut 32:35) of the sacrifice (or otherwise destroyed) belong to
the day of calamity and by the prophets for the those officially related to the cultus (Lev 3:7). A
day ofthe Lord (Lam 4:18: Isa 13:6; Zeph 1:3). most significant application of this official sense
The idea here is not just that a certain event is appears in Jer 30:21 where in future days God's
near, but that that event is foreboding. prince (the kingly linc'l) is to officiate at the altar
The general sense of the verb qärab develops (normally no king did this in the monarchy except
into still other technical uses. In martial contexts in apostasy, cf. II Kgs 16:12)!
it connotes armed contlict (Deut 2:19: 20:10). In difficult litigation God was the judge before
Sometimes qualifying words ("to fight," · ·unto whom they came (at the tabemacle, Lev 9:5: 1
battle") are omitted and the verb canies the full Sam l0:20f.). Hence. compare, cases like the de-
force of "entering into battle." Moses records tection of Achan (Josh 7: 14) with trial by lot, the
that Israel came not near the land of the children decision regarding the advisability of war (1 Sam
of Ammon (Deut 2:37) and that they did come 14:36) and the eschatalogical (and spiritual) as-
near them (2: 19). This seeming difficulty is semblage of peoples to hear the divine sentence
cleared up by understanding Deut 2:37 to refer on mankind (Lev 41:1: lsa48:16, etc.).
technically to closing in battle and 2:19 to ap- This cultic connotation is related to other oc-
proach in general. This martial connotation is currences of qärah as, for example, Lam 3:57
clear in Deut 25:11 and Josh 8:5. Especially note when the suppliant calls (qärä', q.v.) God is
Ps 27:2: 91: IO: 119:150, where the martial signifi- near, i.e. ready and willing to help (cf. Deut 4:7:
cance may weil be hidden to the casual reader. Ps 34:18 [H 19]). God under various attributes is
Another technical use relates to having sexual described as the ally (cf. Neh 13:4: Gen 45: 10) of
relations. So Abimelech affirms his innocence the faithful, e.g. his name (Ps 75: 1 [H 21,
with regard to Sarah (Gen 20:4). Also, compare 119:151), his salvation (Ps 85:9 [H 10]), and his
Deut 22: 14, the case of the groom who "draws righteousness (lsa 51 :5). The idea here is not pas-
near" and discovers no tokens of virginity in his sive (i.e. neamess), but active (i.e. a helper, ally).
bride: also Isa 8:3 where the prophet "draws Also, God's word is epistemologically near to
near" his wife and she conceives. Perhaps this is man (Deut 30:14). Jeremiah, however, perhaps
the connotation of qärob in Ezk 23:5 where it is reflecting on this (and the cultic sense) says of
parallel to "lovers" (m' 'ahabim) andin Ps 38: 11 Israel that God is near in their mouth but far from
[H 12) (cf. Ps 88:18 [H 191). their heart (Jer 12:2). Perhaps Solomon offers his
A final technical use of our verb is cultic and words to God as a continual sacrifice (1 Kgs
connotes every step man performs in presenting 8:59).
his offering to God. This idea begins to develop
qäreb. Near. This adjective equals qärob (in-
with Moses' drawing near to God (Ex 3:5). Later timate proximity), except its primary (nearly ex-
at Sinai the people exercised the same care in
clusive) usage is cultic. lt occurs eleven times.
approaching his holy mountain (Lev 4: II; Deut
5:23 [H 201). Having gathered as near as they q•rab. War, battle. Our noun (an Aramaic loan
were instructed, they commissioned Moses to word: cf. GKC, 84n) denotes the actual engaging
meet with (draw near to) God and receive his in battle. The Psalmist recounts both Jehovah's
instructions (Deut 5:27 [H 24]). Henceforth, they delivering him from battle (Ps 55:18 [H 19): cf.
met God at his designated place. They brought Zech 14:3), and his instruction in the art of war-
the materials for the tabemacle and presented fare (Ps 144:1). Compare as a synonym:
them as an offering (qorbän) before God. The mil/:zäma. The word occurs eight times.
Levites were presented as an offering (drawn
qirbä. Drawing near. Both occurrences of this
near) to serve God as custodians of the tabema-
infinitive construct reflect the cultic use (see be-
cle (Num 16:9: 18:4: cf. Josh 3:4) while Aaron
low) of our root (Ps 73:28: lsa 58:2).
and his descendants were presented as sole of-
ficiants (cf. Lev 10:3: Num 18:3, 22) ofthe sacred qäröb. Near, kinsman, neighbor. ASVand RSV
sacrifices. This official sense of drawing near en- translate similarly except in Neh 13:4 (Asv "al-
tails the special choosing by God and presenta- lied" is preferred), and Ps 75: 1 [H 2] (Rsv
tion by Israel (Ex 29:4). The officiants were en- emends). This adjective can indicate neamess in
joined to further purity (separating themselves space (Gen 19:20), time (Deut 32:35), family ties
from the ordinary) by washing, replacing their (Lev 21 :2), interest (Neh 13:4), or an epis-

812
 2068 :i-,~
(qära)
temological neamess (Deut 30: 14). lt has many qiirbän. Supply, offering. This appears tobe a
synonyms. e.g. 'e~el (at the side of), 'alyad, and variant pronunciation (or writing) of qorbän.
'amit (fellow, neighbor). rea' (companion), sha- This noun occurs only twice and in Neherniah.
ken (one who dwells beside), and gö' el (a respon- Bibliography: Snaith, Norman H., "Sac-
sible blood relative), sh''er (a blood relative). rifices in the Old Testament," VT 7:308-17.
etc. The word occurs seventy-three times. TDNT, III, pp. 860--64. THAT, II, pp. 674--80.
L.J.C.
qorbän. Offering, oblation. Asv usually ren-
ders "oblation" to the Rsv's "offering." This 2066 ::,,;, (qrb) II. Assumed root of the follow-
noun denotes that which is brought near, i.e. an ing.
"offering" to the deity both in the sense of that 2066a t::,,:, (qereb) midst, among, inner,
which is tobe "sacrificed" (as such it is used of ·pan.(Asv and Rsv translate simi-
all the cultic sacrifices and offerings), or merely larly, with Rsvfrequently improving
that which is destined to be used in the sanctuary the translation [Ps 82:1; 94:19], but
(Num 7:l3ff.; cf. KD, Pentateuch, II, p. 271: not in Ps 55: 15 [H 16]).
Vos, BT, p. 175). This word occurs eighty times
This noun denotes the intemal. lt can represent
and only in Lev, Num, and Ezk (20:28: 40:43).
the inward part(s) of human or anirnal bodies, or
Cf. Old Aramaic qrbn (H. Donner and W. Rollig
of groups of people, or of social structures (e.g .. a
KAI II, p. 41). For synonyms compare mattana city). lt frequently functions as a preposition "in
(a gift, broader than our word), min/Ja, and
the rnidst, arnong" (Hab 3:2: Num 14:13). Our
zabah.
word is used parallel to leb (heart, Jer 9:8 [H 7]),
Th~ noun qorban deserves considerably more
nepesh (soul, Isa 26:9), and various other intemal
attention than can be given here. The major ele-
organs (frequently as seats of various psycholog-
ments of a cultic offering include: first, what is
ical functions). A close synonym is tok (q. v .). lt
done by the offerer. His choice must retlect his
is found in Ugaritic (UT 19: no. 2269) and Akka-
self-sacrifice and consist of that which comes
dian (qerbu). Our word occurs 222 times
from his life's sustenance and products (Vos BT,
(perhaps Ps 49:11 [H 12] is better read q'bärim,
p. 175). lt must be without blemish because the
"sepulchres" with the LXX and Syriac [so NIV]).
best belongs to God. The offerer's love and con-
Theologically, it is significant that the inward
secration should naturally lead him to present the
attitudes (Gen 18:12) and thoughts (Ps 64:6 [H 7])
best (Gen 4:4), and only this could retlect the
of man are known to God. The spirit within man
moral purity of the necessary and perfect sac- (and all that constitutes a man's inner being) was
rifice (1 Pet 1: 19). The gift being divinely
created by God (Zech 12: 1). Hence, the Psalmist
specified (Lev 1-7) was brought to a divinely ap-
can pray that the Creator may create a right spirit
pointed place (KD, Pentateuch, II, p. 279). Ac-
within him (Ps 51:10 [H 12]). God can promise to
ceptable worship depends on meeting God's
do so (Ezk 11:19; 36:26). and more, by putting his
standards. Hands were laid on the living sacrifice own Spirit within man (Ezk 36:27). lt was God's
setting it apart for the task (KD, ibid.), transfer-
Spirit within Israel that made her posses~ Pales-
ring to it not only the intentions but the guilt of tine, granting victories over her enem1es (lsa
the offerer (Vos, BT, p. 180). The self-confessed
63: 11). The Trinity (Ex 23:21; 34:9) was ajealous
penalty of death was then vicariously intlicted God (Deut 6: 15: cf. qänä') assuring victory (Deut
upon the beast (Vos, ibid.). Thus, the blood (q.v.)
7:21: Josh 3:10) upon the condition of holiness
was procured as a covering (Heb 13:15), the flesh
(Deut 23:14 [H 15]: 17:7, etc.) and under the
as firefood (KD, op. cit., p. 280), and a human life
threat of death (Deut 20:5). If his people did not
was symbolically devoted to God. The priest re-
execute the penalties due rebellion, he would do
ceived the blood and flesh (or "meal") presenting
so, as he threatened (Deut 11:6: 31: 17).
it according to the specifications of the intended L.J.C.
rite. The whole was consummated by a divine
indication of acceptance. One should be careful i;,i? (qorbän), l;';li?, (qürbän). See
to note that unlike pagan concepts of sacrifice, nos. 2065e,f.
the biblical teaching indicates that there was no
transference of value to God (Vos, BT, p. 176). 2067 c,-:,;, (qardöm) axe (e.g. I Sam 13:20:
The central significance of lsrael's cult was .iud 9:48). Derivation uncertain.
spiritual (Ex 19:4--8: Jer 7:21ff.: Hos 14:3). In NT
times, qorban represented a vow whereby one_'s 2068 :i-,i? (qära) encounter, meet, befall, hap-
goods were ideally given to the temple (but m pen, build with beams.
reality retained), and hence could not be given to
others (Mk 7:11: Mt 15:5; ISBE., p. 709). (For Derivatives
further discussion see: KD, Pentateuch, ll, p. 2068a t:,'.'.1i?(qäreh) chance, accident.
265ff.: OTOT. p. 262: Vos, BT, p. 172ff.) 2068b t-i~ (q' ri) encounter.

813
2068 :i,:? (qiira)
2068c in'.')i'~ (miqreh) happening. providence (Eccl 2:14; 9:11; 3:19). Ecclesiastes
2068d t:i;,:, (qora) beam. concludes that man the creature should not ques-
2068e *t:i,;;, (qära) build with beams. De- tion but obey the Creator (12:13-14). lt has
nominative verb, does not occur in rightly been said that the idea offate or chance is
the Qal. utterly foreign to the Hebrew mind (G. H. Tre-
2068f t:"'1'.')i;'7?
(m'qareh) beamwork (Eccl vor, "Chance," ISBE, I, p. 593). Perhaps, how-
10:18, only). ever, the idea of fate is found in the mouth of the
2068g m;~i' (qirya) city, town. pagan Philistines (1 Sam 6:9), or the Egyptians
2068h M'.')i? (qeret) city. (Ex 1:10).
qäreh. (A nocturnal) accident. This noun de-
This root, a by-form of qära ·. has three conno- notes an occurrence beyond human control, the
tations: first, to meet, confront, and second, the nocturnal emission polluting a man whether it is
happening and/or occurring of that which is (for seminal or diarrheic (Deut 23: 10 [H 11] only).
the most part) beyond human control. For the
meaning, to build with beams, see the denomina- q"ri. (Hostile) encounter. This noun (only in
tive verb qara. For cognates see Ugatitic qry "to Lev 26) denotes a hostile meeting with the inten-
meet" (UT 19: no. 2277). Our root (the verband tion of fighting. Our noun occurs seven times.
its derivatives here listed) occurs fifty-one times. miqreh. Happening, lot. The RSVdiffers from
The first connotation of the root parallels the the ASVby introducing the idea of "fate." This
by-form qärä' in its cultic (cf. Ex 3:18; Num mem-formation noun denotes the consequences
23:2-3) and in the hostile (martial) uses (Deut of the verbal meaning "to happen, occur." lt ap-
25: 18). pears ten times.
The second meaning is clearly seen in cases
where as a general ptinciple men renounce qöra. Beam. This noun denotes something
human (or seif) control over events. Interest- that may be chopped down (II Kgs 6:2); it can
ingly, the Sctipture immediately corrects Ha- become part of a building (II Chr 3:7) over one's
man ·s wrong concept of events (Est 4:7) by mak- head (Gen 19:8). lt occurs five times. The con-
ing it clear that everything occurred by God's nection with qära may be the fitting of beam to
sovereign providence. When Jacob refused to !et beam.
Benjamin go to Egypt (Gen 24: 12) he used a word m'qäreh. Roof, rafters. This hapax /egome-
which was not judgmental toward the brothers. non denotes the structure covering one's home,
Apparently, he still did not suspect their misdeed which may sag (Eccl 10:18). lt is distinguished
toward Joseph (note use of qära', Gen 42:38; Ex
from the Pie! participle (which it duplicates in
1: 10). Saul assured the witch of Endor that plying
form) by the presence of a dagesh (indicative of
her art in his behalf would not cause her to meet
the definite article) even though mem over silent
with punishment. All would be held in sttictest
sh'wa normally rejects the dagesh (Ps 104:3).
confidence (1 Sam 28: IO).
L.J.C.
The second meaning is also seen in cases
where divine providence is the cause. Abraham·s qirya. City, town. (Rsv and ASV similar.)
servant prays for God to control events causing Perhaps derived from the root qärii which means
his request tobe met (Gen 24:12; cf. Gen 27:20). "to meet," the city being a meeting place of men.
God confronts the false gods (no-gods) challeng- A synonym, 'ir, is the more common word, with
ing them to unveil that which shall "happen" and qiryii being used primarily in poetry.
that which has. His omnipotence and omnis- Specific cities are designated by this word:
cience stand unrivalled. He knows because he Gilead (Hos 6:8), Sihon (Num 21:28) and Damas-
causes all things (lsa 41 :22-23; 46:8-11; cf. Num cus (Jer 49:25). Most frequently the city is
11:23), and, therefore, unveils future events at his Jerusalem. While it is a besieged city (lsa 29: 1-
own discretion (Dan IO:14; cf. the use of qara ', here called Atiel), it will not fall to the Assytians
Gen 49: 1; Deut 31:29). So, nothing happens by (lsa 33:20). lt is the city ofthe great King (Ps 48:2
chance, or fate. God controls all. Although (and [H 31) who is its certain defense.
because) this is so, man is responsible for that The term "Great King" had otiginally been the
which is unintentional or uncaused by him (cf. title of the kings of Babylon and Assytia (cf. II
Deut 23: IO [H 11]). He is bound by God's laws Kgs 18:19, 28; Judith 2:5). lt is now ascribed to
and cannot plead happenstance and/or expedi- the Lord (cf. Ps 47:2; 95:3; Mal 1:4). Even in the
ence to justify his violations (1 I Sam 1:6). The NT the term "city of the Great King" designates
major instance of this is, of course, the Adamic Jerusalem (Mt 5:35). Isaiah noted that Jerusalem,
sin. the once faithful city, was now a harlot, i.e. un-
The dilemma of Eccl is heightened by the os- faithful (1 :21; cf. Hos 4: 1) but justice will be re-
tensible meaningless of human accomplishment stored in her midst and she will again be called
and overriding control (Prov 16:33) of divine the city of righteousness and the faithful city

814
 2072 iji{ (qäran)

(1 :26). This means that not only will Jerusalem be The taunt (J. W. Kapp, "Baldness" lSBE, 1, p.
characterized as pious and loyal, she will also be 380f.) hurled at Elisha (II Kgs 2:23) is especially
firmly established (this expression is used of ignominious because it showed abject disrespect
Davidic dynasty, II Sam 7: 16: Ps 89:37 [H 38)). for God's prophet (qäla!$, q.v.) and God himself.
Jerusalem is known as the "Enduring City" even According to the Law, death was the punishment
as Rome is now known as the "Etemal City." (cf. qälal and Lev 20:9).
This word is used in its construct form with
qerea~. Bald. ASV and Rsv the same. This
other words as a proper noun: Kiriatharba---city
twice occuning noun denotes the state of qäral;..
of four (Josh 14:15; 15:13; 21:11), Kiriathbaal-
city of Baal (Josh 15:60), Kiriathhuzoth---city of qorha. Baldness. Asv and Rsv translate the
streets (Num 22:39), Kiriathjearim---city of same. This noun refers specifically to the shaved
forests (1 Sam 6:21) and Kiriathsepher---city of head expressing deep grief. lt occurs eleven
the scribe or of the recruiting officer; cf. söper times.
(Jud 1:11).
qära~at. Back-baldness. ASVand Rsv translate
Various characteristics and actions are as-
similarly. This noun (occuning four times) refers
signed the city. lt can be sinful (Hab 2: 12), but
specifically to baldness of the crown of one's
also faithful (lsa 1:21) and righteous (Isa 1:26). lt
head as compared to gabbal;.at, baldness of the
can be located strategically (Deut 2:36), be for-
front of the scalp (Lev 13:42).
tified (lsa 25:3) and be viewed as a place of secu-
L.J.C.
rity (Prov 10:15; Prov 18:11). The city can rejoice
(Prov II: 10; lsa 32: 13), be exultant (1 Kgs 1:41,
45; Job 39:7; Isa 22:2), and bc chaotic (lsa 24:10, 2070 M"li' (qrl;.) II. Assumed root of tbe follow-
Gen 1:2). ing.
Bibliography: THAT, Il, pp. 681-83. 2070a M'ji'. (qeral;.) frost, ice (e.g. Gen
c.s. 31:40: Ps 147:17).

M7ii? (qära). See nos. 2077c, 2068, 2068e. M':li? (qäral;.at). See no. 2069c.
,;,i? (qärob). See no. 2065d. '"11?(q' rf). See no. 2068b.
H'"li?(qärf'). See no. 2063b.
M;':11'(qiryii). See no. 2068g.
2069 M'ji;' (qäral;.) I, be bald.
Derivatives 2071 0':li;' (qäram) spread or lay something
over (Ezk 37:6, 8).
2069a tljji'. ( qereal;.) bald.
2069b t:ii;t':li?(qorl;.a) baldness. 2072 ~':li?(qiiran) shine (Qal): have horns
2069c tMl::t':li?(qäral;.at) back baldness. (Hiphil). Denominative verb.
Our root denotes the lack of hair on the human
head. This may result from shaving (Mic 1:16, Parent Noun
where gäzaz "to shear" is the parallel; Job 1:20; 2072a "hji'. (qeren) horn.
Jer 7:29), from plucking (mära(, Neh 13:25), from This denominative of qeren denotes first, those
leprosy (Lev 13:42), and other and natural causes rays of radiance streaming from Moses· face after
(Lev 13:40?). For synonyms see gäzaz, and gib- he met with God (Ex 34:29), and secondly, the
beal;. (forehead baldness). The root occurs
possession of horns (Ps 69:31 [H 32)). lt was this
twenty-three times.
mistranslation as "horn" in the Vulgate which
Ritualistic shaving of the head in imitation of
led Michael Angelo to place two small horns on
Canaanite mouming rites is prohibited for priests Moses' head in his famous statue. Note the same
(Lev 31:5; cf. Jer 41:5) and laity (Deut 14:1), be-
mistranslation in the KJVof Hab 3:4. The Qal
cause as holy servants and children of God they
usage denotes the form of a horn(s) rather than
were to keep themselves as from all idolatry (cf.
the substance. Our root is to be contrasted with
Barnes on Mic 1: 16). Not all baldness, however,
'ähal, 'or, hälal, et al. which denote the sub-
is unclean (Lev 13:40). lndeed, not all shaving of
stance of a "shining•· rather than a form. This
the head to express mouming is prohibited. God root occurs seventy-seven times (four times as a
commands (Mic I: 16) and expects his people (lsa
verb).
22:12) to show deepest mourning over their sin.
His punishment will effectuate mourning over qeren. Horr,, ray, hill. ASVand RSVtranslate
their dead (Ezk 7: 18; lsa 3:24), but even such the same. Our word primarily denotes the horn(s)
tragedy will not humble them. Ultimatejudgment ofvarious animals (ram, wild oxen). (Cf. Ugaritic
is preceded by a picture of widespread death and qrn, UT 19: no. 2279.) Elephant tusks were re-
a prohibition ofmourning (Jer 16:6). Baldness is a ferred to (or mistaken) as huge horns (Ezk 27: 15).
picture of mouming (Jer 47:5). A frequently occurring derived denotation relates

815
2073 0':I~ (qäras)

to strength, pride, and elan vitale. L. Schmidt ,c,i;i(qarsol). See no. 2073b.
rightly stated: "In the OT the hom is not only an
expression for physical power in symbolical pro-
phetic action (II Kgs 22: 11) or in visionary depic- 2074 !J".li;' (qiira') tear, tear in pieces.
tion ofthe might which has scattered Israel (Zech Derivative
2: 1-4); it is a direct term for power" (TWNT, III,
p. 669). (Cf Deut 33: 17; II Sam 22:3; Ps 18:2 [H 2074a !J':,i' (qüra') rag (e.g. l Kgs 11:30;
3]). Schmidt further notes that whereas teeth, Prov 24:21).
mouth and claws are images of violent exercise of qiira' has to do with rending cloth or a similar
force, the hom denotes physical might and substance (except Jer 4:30; 22: 14). lt occurs
power. lt is for God to exalt or trample down the sixty-three times. Distinguish it from biiqa'
hom; when men exalt their hom, it denotes arro- "split, cleave"-of making a channel through
gance (Ps 75:4-5). Consequently, "hom" be- hard objects, giizal "tear away from," piinaq
comes a symbol for men endowed with such "break in two," [iirap "rend flesh," ,riira( "skin
power (Dan 8:20-21). Our word is also used of something," shiibar "break in pieces," and cf.
hom-like projections, or hills (lsa 5: 1). Musical päram "tear," the synonym. Cf. Aramaic qrq
instruments (Josh 6:5) and flasks (1 Sam 16:1) (W. Donner and H. Rollig, KAI, II, p. 42), tear,
were made of homs. slander (?) (Ps 35: 15, "slander," Rsv).
The radiance of God's power beaming from qiira' may be used with a literal meaning of
Moses' face was fittingly described as horn-like cloth (Lev 13:56, I Sam 15:27), or figuratively of
(Ex 34:29; cf. also Hab 3:4). Subsequently, horns tearing a kingdom from a royal line (1 Sam 15:28,
were put on the altars to focus the symbolic pres- et al.). Most frequently it refers to an act of
ence and power of God. lt was especially on heartfelt and grievous affliction (tearing one's
these homs that blood to atone for original and upper and under garment in front of the breast
unwitting sin was to be applied (Ex 30: 10; Lev baring the sorrow of the heart; (cf. KD, Lev
4:7, et al.). Adonijah and then Joab recognized 10:6). This occurred at the first news of a death
this and took hold of the homs of the altar of (Gen 37:29) or other tragedy (Num 14:6; Josh
bumt offering, seeking forgiveness. The former 7:6). "Rending" of one's clothes could be ac-
having sinned "unwittingly" was forgiven, since companied by putting on sackcloth (saq, q.v.;
David long was aware of his designs on the Gen 37:34), putting dirt or ashes on the head (1
throne and had not corrected him (1 Kgs 1:5-6, Sam 4: 12), removing the shoes (II Sam 15:30),
53). The lauer was killed (1 Kgs 2:28, 34) for his and putting the hands on the head (II Sam 13:19).
duplicity. Also, this is entirely in keeping with On two occasions when the king of Israel confes-
Mosaic legislation regarding murder (Ex 21: 14). sed his impotence to heal or to provide food by
As homs are the focus of a beast's power, so tearing his garments, Elisha proved that the
God promises to grant strong horns to those of Lord, whom the people had forsaken, was indeed
his choosing (Deut 33: 17). Thus one could paral- the true king of Israel by healing Naaman and by
lel his heart and his "hom" as exalting in God (1 giving food (II Kgs 5:7ff.; 6:30ff.). (Cf. R. de-
Sam 2:1). One could defy God by lifting up his Vaux, AI, p. 59). Israel was forbidden to imitate
hom in arrogance (Ps 75:4-5 [H 5-6]). Actually, it the Canaanite (cf. qärah) mouming ritual of
was God who would cut off the evildoers' homs shaving the beard and head (Lev 21 :5: Deut 14:1).
and exalt the homs of the righteous (Ps 75: 10 [H So such practices when continued indicated the
11]). To have one's homs exalted by God is to lack of instruction even among the godly in Jere-
gain victory and salvation (Ps 92: 10 [H 11); miah 's day (Jer41 :5). Ezra (9:5) did not shave, but
David's hom is to bud, Ps 132:17). God is the plucked his hair indicating violent wrath and
source of all true salvation, hence he is termed moral indignation (KD). God will cause his re-
the hom of salvation (II Sam 22:3). bellious people to mourn-he will rend their
Bibliography: TDNT, VII, pp. 76--85. chests (Hos 13:8). Also, he tells his people to
L.J.C. repent and rend their hearts rather than their gar-
ments (Joel 2:13).
2073 0':,i;' (qiiras) bend down, stoop, crouch- Bibliography: DeWard, Eileen F., "Mouming
(lsa 46: 1, 2). Customs in I, II Samuel," JJS 23:1-27; 145-66.
Derivative L.J.C.
2073a 0ji' (qeres) hook (on edges of
.tabernacle curtains, Ex 26: 11 2075 l'".li;' (qiira~·) narrow, form .
36:13, 18).
2073b ',i:iii;I (qarsol) ankle (II Sam Derivative
22:37 = Ps 18:37). Probably derived 2075a l''.'1i' (qere.y) a nipping, i.e. nipping
from qiiras (so BDB and GB). or stinging insect (Jer 46:20).

816
 2084 ::,w~
(qäshab)

This root refers to a pinching together. lt is (qaswa). See no. 2080a.

applied to eyes, lips, and clay. lt occurs in Ug.
(UT 19: nos. 2280, 2281) meaning "to bite," and 2081 iow;, (qs{). Assumed root of the following.
"to shape" (clay into an effigy). Note also, Akk. 2081a :,~•W/?(q'sf(a) a unit of unknown
q/karii$u. Our root occurs six times. value (Gen 33:19; Josh 24:32; Job
In the Qal stem our root is associated with an 42: 11).
"'insidious malicious gesture" (KD, Psalms, l, p.
427). --winking" is not a felicitous translation (Ps
35:19, et al.) since it connotes merriment rather :,~•Wi?(q'sfra). See no. 2081a.
than hostility. Perhaps „narrow the eyes" would riitl[?Wit (qasqesef). See no. 2082a.
better represent a deceitful and malicious look.
Hence, "he who narrows his eyes causes sor- 2082 ww;,(qss). Assumed root ofthe following.
row" (Prov 10:10). Further support comes from 2082a riiq:,Wit (qasqeset) scale of fish
Prov 16:30 where the man of violence "shuts his ·(e.g.Deut 14:9, 10 = Lev 11:9, 10,
eyes" and „bars (qiira$) his lips." The apparent 12).
intent is to depict a harsh man whose eyes are
closed to others' troubles and who bars his lips in !Vit (qash). See no. 2091a.
hard cruelty.
A totally different connotation occurs in Job 2083 KW;, (qsh'). Assumed root of the follow-
33:6 where the Ugaritic/Akkadian meaning "to ing.
shape clay" figuratively applies to the creation of 2083a :,i,cw;, (qishshü'a) cucumber Num
mankind and, hence, to Job"s own origin. This 'iY5>.
usage is found in the Dead Sea Hodayot in de- 2083b :,~/?1=(miqsha) /, field of cucum-
pendence on the Jobpassage (Gaster, T. H., The bers (Isa 1:8; Jer 10:5).
Dead Sea Scriptures, Doubleday, rev. ed. 1964,
p. 183).
L.J.C.
2084 :it;;, (qäshab) hear, be attentive, heed.
Derivatives
2076 l,lit".)it (qarqa') jloor (e.g. I Kgs 6:15; 2084a ~Wi' (qesheb) attentiveness.
Arnos 9:3). Derivation uncertain. 2084b ~W~ (qashshiib) attentive.
2084c t:,W.it (qashshüb) attentive.
2077 *"1j;;, (qiirar) I, be cold (Hi phil only, Jer
6:7, NIV, .. pour out"). This root denotes the activity of hearing, em-
phasizing either paying close attention or obeying
Derivatives (heeding). Compare it to shäma' (a nearly identi-
2077a "1it (qar) cool (Prov 17:27; Jer cal synonym) and 'iizan "to give ear," and 'iina,
18:14; Prov 25:25). ··10 respond." Also, mä'an "to refuse" (an an-
2077b ,;, (qör) cold (Gen8:22). tonym). Our word appears in synonymous paral-
2077c :i,;;, (qiira) cold (e.g. Nah 3:17; lelism with ·asa in the sense of obedience to laws
Job 24:7). (Neh 9:34). lt appears fifty-four times, almost ex-
2077d :i,[?~ (m • qera) coolness (Jud clusively in poetry.
3:20, 24). God requires man to give close attention to (to
obey) his word. Saul wrongfully exalted the im-
2078 *"1j;;, (qiirar) II, tear down. Occurs only portance of sacrifice over obedience. Samuel in
once, in the Pilpel (Isa 22:5). reminding him that God prefers responsible con-
scientious obedience, enunciated the central
principle of or religion (1 Sam 15:22; cf. Deut
2079 iv,;, (qrsh). Assumed root of the follow-
6:4--6), and sacrifice. Through his prophets (e.g.
ing.
Jer 6: 17, 19), God repeatedly summoned his
2079a IV'.')[?(qeresh) board, boards (e.g.
people to heed the wamings of impending judg-
Ex 26:18; Ezk 27:6).
ment (Isa 28:23), but they did not (Isa 48: 18; Jer
6:19; 18:18). Finally, God called all nations to
r'lj[? (qeret). See no. 2068h. attest his promised deliverance to vindicate his
name (Isa 49: 1), and to judge all rebellion (Isa
2080 :iiv;, (qsh). Assumed root ofthe following. 34: 1). Those who do not hear (heed) are sover-
2080a :i)~it (qaswa) a kind of jug, eignly subdued so that they must heed. God's
jar (e.g. Ex 37: 16; I Chr 28: 19). request and command are executed. Man's re-
2080b ri~:, (qeset) pot for ink, inkhorn quests to God, however, beg attention without
(Ezk 9:2, 3, 11). Variant form of enforcing compliance (cf. Ps 10:17; 55:2 [H 3]; cf.
qeset. 'äna).

817
2085 :,~i?(qäsha)
qesheb. Attentiveness. This thrice-occurring q'shi. Stubbornness. ASVand RSVtranslate this
segholate noun is better translated by the RSvin I hapax legomenon (Deut 9:27) the same. Moses
Kgs 18:29 and II Kgs 4:31. lt makes concrete the used it to characterize lsrael's reaction to God's
action of the verb. · leading.
qashshäb. Attentive. This twice-occurring ad- Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 689-91.
jective (for form, see GKC 84bb) is employed L.J.C.
figuratively of God's ears being attentive. He re-
2086 :itvi' (qshh) II. Assumed root of the follow-
gards the petition addressed to him.
ing.
qashshüb. Attentive, an altemate spelling of 2086a :iw:,~ (miqsheh). A hapax lego-
qashshiib. ·menon of uncertain meaning used
Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 684--88. in Isa 3 :24. NIV, "well-dressed
L.J.C. hair"; KJV"well-set hair," referring
perhaps to the alleged artistry of the
2085 :,~i? (qiisha) /, be hard, severe. hairdo.
Derivatives 2086b :,~~~ (miqsha) II, hammered work,
2085a t:,~i? (qiisheh) hard, cruel. finely decorated cultic objects of gold
2085b 'MW~(q' shf) stubbornness. or silver (Ex 25: 18, 31; Num 10:2);
hence, ASV translates '"beaten"
The root qiisha apparently arose from an ag- (Rsv, "hammered"), and ASVmar-
ricultural milieu. lt emphasizes, first, the subjec- gin "tumed" (on basis of Isa 3:24).
tive effect exerted by an overly heavy yoke,
which is hard to bear, and secondarily, the rebel- 2087 *M~i?(qäsha!J) make hard. This verb
lious resistance of oxen to the yoke. For occurs only in the Hiphil (e.g. lsa 63: 17;
synonyms see kiibed (heavy, emphasizing the Job 39:16).
weight ofthe thing bearing down), /Jiizaq (strong,
emphasizing the pressure exerted), /Jiimas 2088 =w:,(qöshe!) bow (Ps 60:6). A variant
(violent, cruel), 'akziir (fierce). Note, qiishalJ ·spelling of qeshet (q. v .).
with the same variant spelling in Arabic has simi-
lar meaning to qiisha. Our root (with the deriva- 2089 ~tvi' (qsh!). Assumed root of the follow-
tives here listed) occurs sixty-four times. ing.
A number of passages use the metaphor of a 2089a ?;Wi' (qosh!) truth (Prov 22:21,
yoke ( 'öl,) which is hard (and, therefore, cruel · ·only).
and oppressive) to bear: the servitude in Egypt
(Ex 1:14), Solomon's rule (1 Kgs 12:4, hyperboli- 2090 ,~i? (qäshar) bind, conspire.
cally?), and the Babylonian exile (lsa 14:3).
Derivatives
Christ's yoke, however, is easy (Mt 11:29-30),
although it too requires submission (Phil 4:3) and 2090a tiwi' (qesher) conspiracy.
discipline (II Cor 6: 15). Other Situations em- 2090b ci•i~:, (qishshürim) bands, sashes
phasize only the idea "hard to bear" (Gen 35: 16; (lsa 3:20; Jer 2:32).
Gen 42:7; Ps 60:3 [H 5]); cf. the meaning "diffi- Basically this root denotes binding or tying
cult" (Deut 1:17; 15:18). The other side of the something to something. lt is also used of a bind-
word (cruel and oppressive) develops the mean- ing together of human beings. Its synonyms are
ing fierce (Gen 49:7; Isa 27:8). 'änad "bind" (occurs only twice, see Prov 6:21),
A frequent use of the word relates to the stub- 'äsar ''bind, tie up with a rope or thicker object, ''
bom (stiff-necked) subjects of the Lord. Like re- IJäbash "to wrap with a wide object." Synonyms
bellious oxen, calf-worshiping Israel quickly to the secondary meaning (conspire) are näbal
tumed aside from the Lord's service (Ex 32:9). "to show oneself deceitful," and kiirat b'rit "to
The spirit of Israel remained (for the most part) make a pact." Our root (with the derivatives
stubbom, intractable, and non-responsive to the listed) occurs sixty times.
guiding of their God (Deut 10: 16; Jud 2: 19; II Kgs The basic meaning of this root "to bind"
17:14: Neh 9:16) and ofhis Holy Spirit (cf. Acts emerges clearly in Gen 38:28 where Zerah's hand
7:5 )). Pharaoh stubbomly refused divine leading was marked by tying with a scarlet thread. Rahab
(Ex 13:15) in accordance with divine counsel (Ex was instructed to tie a scarlet thread to her win-
7:3). Hannah used this word to describe her im- dow to mark it (Josh 2: 18). God instructed Israel
passiveness created by great vexation (1 Sam to bind his laws (words) to their foreheads and
1:15). hands (Deut 6:8). Thus, their thoughts and ac-
qäsheh. Hard, cruel, obstinate, stiff. This ad- tions were to be govemed by his word. The
jective modifies its objects employing a semantic commandments of godly fathers and mothers
distribution parallel to that of the verb. (Prov 6:21) as weil as truth and kindness are to be

818
 2094 M~L?(qashshät)

bound to one's fingers (or neck. Prov 3:3), and 2092 WWi? (qäshash) II, gather stubble. sticks.
written on one 's heart (cf. Jer 3 I :3 !ff.). In the Occurs only in the Qal and Hithpoel, m
eschaton Zion is to display her restored children Zeph 2: 1. Meaning doubtful.
as a bride displays jewelry (lsa 49: 18). Perhaps
we might add that thus the pious are to display 2093 l'1Wi' (qeshet) bow. (ASV and RSV are the
God's word (H. Leuring, "Finger," in ISBE, II, same.)
p. 1111). The Judaism of Jesus· day had certainly
The word qeshet denotes the hunter's (Gen
fulfilled the commandment to Iiterally bind God's 27:3) and warrior's (1 Sam 31:3) weapon by which
word to themselves, but by adding thereto had
arrows are shot (1 Kgs 13: 15ff.). Its Ugaritic cog-
changed it from an ornament to a heavy weight
nate is qsht (UT I 9: no 2287). Our word occurs
(Mt 23:4).
seventy-seven times. Derivation uncertain.
God reminds Job that only he binds the stars in
The bow, a common weapon in the ancient
place (38:31) and controls wild (39: I0) and possi-
Near East, was not too common in early Israel.
bly mythological beasts (but cf. 40: I9) (41 :5 [H
The Benjamites, however, were noted archers
40:29]).
(Jud 20; 1 Chr 8:40). Jonathan used a bow (1 Sam
Our word can apply to human relationships.
20:20) and later the bow became the weapon of
Men can be bound together (inseparably) in love
leaders and kings (II Kgs 9:24: Ps 18:34 [H 35]).
(Gen 44:30; 1 Sam 18: I) or conspiracy (1 Kgs
Apparently David's lament became a permanent
16:9). Treasonous pacts if exposed were met with
part of training Israel' s army, so in II Sam 1: I 8
denunciation (II Chr 23: 13), and even death (II
the enigmatic qeshet may be the title (or part of
Sam 15:12; II Kgs 17:4). lt is noteworthy that in
the title) of the song so employed (II Sam 1: 18).
evil days prophets who declared God's counsel
By the time of Jeroboam the bow may weil have
were accused of treason (Arnos 7: 10; lsa 8: 12) by
been lsrael's national weapon (Hos 1:5, 7). In
the real enemies of the theocracy (Young, E. J.,
later times bows could be mounted with bronze
lsaiah, Eerdmans, 1%7, I, p. 3 I 1)-the leaders of
(Ps 18:34 [H 35]; however, see AI, p. 243), or
Israel (lsa 8: 13f.; Jer 11:9).
made ofhorns (Al, p. 243; B. Couroyer, "Corne
qesher. Conspiracy, treason, treaty ASV and RSV et arc," RB 73:510-21). Large battle bows were
translate similarly. This segholate noun in lsa strung by stepping on one end, hence, diirak
8: 12 denotes "a conspiracy with treasonable in- qeshet, tobend the bow, i.e. prepare to shoot (Jer
tent" (Young, op. cit. p.310). This is more than a 50: 14: cf. G. Eager. in ISBE, p. 233). The con-
mere alliance such as that of Syria and Israel joining of ··sword" and "bow" often represents
against Judah. Our noun occurs sixteen times (six all weapons, and even war itself (Gen 48:22; Josh
times as the cognate accusative of qiisrar). 24: 12). A "deceitful" bow (with a flaw) always
Bibliography: Driver, G. R., "Two Misun- misses the mark (Israel, Ps 78:57; Hos 7:16).
derstood Passages of the Old Testament," JTS Man's bow is controlled by God (Gen 49:24).
6:82--87. The arrow finds its mark because of God's guid-
L.J .C. ance (esp. I Kgs 22:34; II Kgs 13-16). The broken
bow can represent divinely imposed defeat (1
c•i11/;:,(qishshürim). See no. 2090b. Sam 2:4), and/or peace (God peaceably "hangs"
his bow, Gen 9; cf. Ps 76:3 [H 4]. 46:9 [H 10]; Hos
2091 *WWi?(qäshash) I, gather stubble. This 2: 18 [H 201).
denominative verb occurs only in the Poel Bibliography: Yadin, Y .. The Art of Warfare
(e.g. Ex 5:7; Num 15:32, 33). in Bib/e Lands, 2 vols„ McGraw-Hill, 1%3.
L.J.C.
Parent Noun
2091a w;:, (qash) stubble, chaff (e.g. lsa 2094 r,~;:, (qashshät) bowman (Gen 21:20:
5:24; Nah 1:10; Joel 2:5). Jer 4:29).

819
2095 :i~, (rä'a) see, Lookat, inspect.
, an authentic prophet in receiving oracles from
God. This is suggested first in the basic text, Num
Derivatives 12:6. God's part in revelation is denominated a
2095a MM"I (rä'eh) seeing (Job 10:15, mar'a (vision), a noun derived from rä'a, as also
~nly). in ten other texts (Gen 46:2: I Sam 3: 15: Ezk 1: 1;
2095b t:,~-, (rö ·eh) I, seer. 8:3: 40:2: 43:3; Dan 10:7-8, 16). See also mar'eh.
2095c :,!'.t·, (rii'eh) II, prophetic vision. More importantly, rä 'a is used many times in the
2095d riiM"I (r''ül) Look (Eccl 5:10, major and minor prophets in this precie manner:
only). Isa6:l;Jerl:11, 12, 13;Ezk 1:1,4, 15,27,28:2:9:
2095e 'M"I (r''i) mi"or (Job 37: 18, 8:2, 6, 7, 10, 15: 10:1, 9: 11:1. The synonym }:iäza
. only). (q.v.) is used in the same sense.
2095f 'M"I (rö'i) looking, appearance. A name for the näbi' (prophet) is rö 'eh (seer)
2095g :iii~ (mar'a) I, vision. suggesting that the act of seeing God's message
2095h :iNii; (mar'a) II, mi"or (Ex (by dreams or visions) was so important that the
T3i:8, only). spokesman (näbi') might be called one who sees
2095i t:iM"I~ (mar'eh) sight, appearance. (divine things), that is, a "seer" (1 Sam 9:9, 11, 18,
2095j 11;~K~(r' 'üben) Reuben. 19 and at least seven other times in the OT).This
The extended and metaphorical senses in the feature placed certain limits on prophetic com-
Qal include to regard, perceive, feel, understand, munication about the future and prophetic in-
learn, enjoy; Niphal, tobe seen or to reveal one- terpretation as God was careful to point out (Num
12:4-8) and as the prophets regretfully acknowl-
self; Pual, to be seen; Hiphil, to cause to see,
edge (Dan 8:27: 12:8). The vision often needed
show, make to feel or know or enjoy; Hophal, to
further interpretation.
be made to see, tobe shown: Hithpael, to look at
one another. rö'eh. Seer (synonym of näbf' "prophet,"
The literal sense of the verb calls for no special properly a Qal participle ofthe verb ra·a. "seeing
comment, for it is the common word for seeing or one who sees." lt is used many times in this
with the eyes (Gen 27: 1). But this word has ex- general sense. lt is used twelve times in the oT,
tended and metaphorical meanings. Some of these however, as an alternate for nabi' ''prophet. ··lt is
appear in the definitions above. Five, however, always rendered "seer." Inasmuch as the nabf',
are of special importance. ()) rä 'a designates the spokesman for God, received his message by see-
saving, understanding, believing acceptance of ing visions this name was appropriately em-
the Word of God as delivered by his accredited ployed. lt is always used with the article (harö'eh)
messengers. In lsa 6: 10 to see with the eyes is to except once at II Sam 15:27 where the sense re-
hear God's Word, to understand it, and to turn to quires the anarthrous form; sometimes it has the
him. On the other hand, in the same passage to holem full, (ro'eh), sometimes defective (rö'eh).
harden the heart against God's message is to shut Often this name designates a prophet whose name
the eyes (lsa 6: 10). In the previous verse, never- also is given: Samuel, Zadok, Hanani. The name
theless to "see indeed'" r•·'u rä'o (Qal imperative altemates with }:iözeh, used sixteen times, a word
masculine plural, followed by infinitive absolute) of almost the same meaning. Apparently rö' eh is
is used ofthe bare act ofintellectual perception of the earliest name, "For he that is now called a
the message of God's prophet. Further examples prophet (nabf') was beforetime called a seer
of the sense of believing understanding are to be (rö' eh, l Sam 9:9). Gad was both nabi' and }:iözeh
found: Isa 52:10, 15; II Chr 26:5; Ps 63:2 [H 3]; (II Sam 24: 11). These three terms are used for the
69:23[H 24J, et al. (2) rä' a has the sense of the act OTprophet in a single passage, "Now the acts of
ofacceptance, especially on the part ofGod. God David the king, first and last, behold they are
says to Noah,· Thee have I seen righteous'' (Gen written in the history of Samuel the seer (rö'eh),
7: )). Another example is Num 23:21. (3) Another and in the history of Nathan the prophet (näbf'),
sense is "to provide, ·' usually ofGod's provision: and in the history of Gad the seer (}:iözeh, I Chr
I Sam 16:1, Gen 22:8, 14 (as in English to see to 29:29).
something is to provide it). (4) "To have respect "Since, quite obviously, the same individual
to" is another, especially of God in acting with can be designated by the three terms, what if any,
mercy (lsa 38:5; Ps 138:6). See also Ps 66: 18 for a is the distinction between them? ... The word
similar sense. näbi' ... stressed the objective or active work of
(5) Of special importance is that rä ·a is em- the messenger of the Lord in speaking forth God' s
ployed far more than any other word for the act of Word. The terms rö'eh and }:iözeh, translated seer

823
2095 :itc,(rä'a)
on the other hand emphasized the subjectii•e ele- point in his career as far as human acceptance was
ment, namely the receiving of divine revelation by concerned. What does it mean? Taken (as it surely
seeing. In lsa-30: 10 the rebellious lsraelites say to must be) as a characterization ofwhat happened to
the seers, "See not." The term prophet em- his "physique" at the crucifixion, men have sup-
phasized the prophet's utterances, rö'eh and posed many things. Perhaps it refers to the physi-
hözeh indicated his method of receiving divine cal injuries-and no one was ever so injured
communication" (Hobart E. Freeman, An lntro- ("more than any man"). But quite a point is made
duction to the OT Prophets, Moody, 1968, pp. of the fact in the Gospels that not a bone of his
40-41). body was broken. People receive more disfiguring
See also Man ofGod (Deut 33: 1; II Kgs 4:9, etc.) injuries from fire, explosions, etc. every day and
and "servant" of the Lord (1 Kgs 14:18~ II Kgs live to bear the scars. Someone has suggested the
9:7; 17:13, etc.) and "messenger" of the Lord inward suffering of abandonment by God and
(Hag 1:13; Mal 1:1). man. But that has nothing to do with mar'eh,
Lexicons list one occurrence (lsa 28:7) of the outward appearance. The correct understanding
form rö 'eh II, as a noun meaning prophetic vision. of mar'eh here can be adequately interpreted ifwe
Inasmuch as Hebrew participles may be used as start with me'ish "than any man," better trans-
nouns and indeed partake of many noun charac- lated literally, "from a human adult male ... The
teristics (Gesenius, Hebrew Grammar, p. 116) it male of our species in his perfection, dignity, and
might bebest to regard this single occurrence as a privilege was most thoroughly degraded, not by
present active participle of rä'a meaning here the smashing him physically but by destroying all evi-
act of seeing, somewhat as the same form earlier in dence of that perfection, dignity, and privilege
the chapter (v. 4) means the "one who sees." which man has as viceregent lord of earth's crea-
tures. Convicted as a criminal, tortured as a
mar'eh. Sight, vision, appearance, countenance,
sneak-thief, abused as being of no status what-
beauty. This word merits attention in three re-
soever and then ignored by his executioners, as
spects: 1) its essential general meaning, 2) a spe-
they amused themselves with his attire-perhaps
cial meaning with reference to "the Servant ofthe this was how mishhat me'ish mar'ehti "ruined
LORD" in lsaiah and 3) a special meaning in con-
from a human male as regard his appearance „ was
nection with biblical prophecy.
fulfilled.
1. Essential general meanings. Being derived
b. In Isa 53:2 it is said of him, "And when we
directly from the verb rä'a "to see," by simple
shall see him there is no beauty (mar'eh) that we
addition of a familiar noun-making prefix, this should desire him ... Though close to the last-
word bears much of the variety of significance of
mentioned reference where the meaning is some-
that word. The verb appears in every main He-
what unique, here another nearly unique sense is
brew stem, except possibly Piel, and exhibits
employed. Without any qualifying adjective for
every conceivable sort of literal, metaphorical, beautiful, attractive, lovely, etc., the bare noun
and extended meaning of "to see "-as in English. means good appearance, hence rendered
As one would expect, the word rä' a appears hun-
"beauty" here and here alone in KJV. To get the
dreds of times. Our noun mar' eh can mean almost
sense here, think of what a husband means when
anything having to do with outward appearance,
he calls his new bride a "vision" as opposed to
the way things look. So the notions ofa "sight" or
what he might be thinking of if he called her a
phenomenon, the thing seen, whether usual (Lev
"sight." The missing "beauty" was regal trap-
13:3, and ten times in the chapter), or unusual (Ex
pings, prestigious accoutrements. Like John the
3:3) is common. The act of looking (lsa 11:3) and
Baptist, he wore none of the soft clothing and had
the faculty or function of seeing (Eccl 6:9) are two
no flabby muscles, characteristic ofthose who live
other senses; also ··appearance" in the sense of
in kings' courts. The Jews wanted a courtly pr-
how something seems outwardly to be, as op-
ince; God offered them a muscular carpenter.
posed to the inner reality (1 Sam 16:7). By a slight
3. Special meaning with reference to biblical
extension our word expresses the very common
prophecy. There is a nearly identical noun mar'a,
notion offace or countenance, the part of a person
distinguished from mar' eh only by the second
visible to the eye (Song 2: 14; 5: 15). Adjectives for
vowel. This related word is used almost exclu-
fair and desirable as weil as ugly and undesirable
sively for vision(s) as a vehicle of divine revelation
are commonly used with mar'eh.
to prophets. The words alternate in this obvious
2. Special meaning with reference to the Ser-
sense in Ezekiel and Daniel. See BDB, p. 909.
vant of the LORD."
a. The opening canto of the last "Song of the r•'uben Reuben. Behold a son! Jacob's first
Servant'' (lsa 52:13,-53:12) has this line: "His son, by Leah, was God's special favor to her and
visage(mar'eha) was more marred thanany man" as his name seems to hint, an unexpected blessing
(lsa 53:14). This strange Statement seems to give (Gen 39:31). Another meaning has been postu-
the reason why "many were astonished" at the lated, regarding it as abbreviated from rä'ti b•·
Servant when they saw him at Golgotha, the low- 'anyf "[Jehovah! hath seen my affliction"

824
 2097 ~~f-, (rö'sh)
[Leah'sJ; hence "pity ofGod." While derivations 2097c t~iWN".'1
(ri'shön) jirst, primary.
ofnames in the OTsometimes seem whimsical-as 2097d •~·WN".1
(ri'shoni) jirst (Jer 25: 1).
naming of children sometimes seems to be-the 2097e tr,•~W'.I (re'shit) jirst, beginning,
obvious meaning surely must be the designed one. best.
However, a name may be explained in a word play 2097f 1'1iW":lj~ (m'ra'ashvt) place at the
that does not depend on etymology. Indeed "Re- head, head place (e.g. Gen 28: 11,
uben" may mean "Behold, a son" and yet sound 18: I Sam 19:13, 16).
sufficiently like "he has seen my affiiction" to
have that mentioned. The primary meaning ofthis root is "head." lt is
common to all Semitic languages and appears in its
. R~u~n turned out to be a spirited but not very
d1sc1plmed person, connected with scrapes both root forms and derivatives nearly 750 times. It is
shameful and noble, constructive and very harm- used for the "head" as part of the body (Gen 3: 15)
ful (see Gen 37:22; 42:22, 37-38; 49:3-4). He and by extension for the notion of "chief' of a
committed one very repulsive crime (Gen 35:22) family (Ex 6: 14), as "chief officer·· of the di-
which must surely have occurred under condi- visions of Israel (Ex 18:25) and the like. The
tions of great enticement. But it cost him his rights unique Hebraic character of this usage is clear in
of firstborn-the pre-eminence of leadership the OT as the root is rarely applied to chiefs of
~oing to Judah (Gen 49:8-10) and the double por- Gentile nations. lt is used also for the top or sum-
uon t?Joseph's sons (Gen 48:5). His descendants, mit of ageographical feature such as a mountain or
the tnbe ofReuben, figure prominently at the time hill (Ex 17:9) and the upper part of a building or
of the conquest, being the first tribe settled, even architectural feature (Gen 11:4: II Chr 3: 15) and as
before the transfer of leadership to Joshua from a personification for such features (Ps 24:7, 9).
Moses (Nu,n 32). We hear very little ofthem after The root was utilized in many colloquial ex-
that. Th~y maintained their former nomadic ways pressions for plant names (Job I0:4) parts or por-
from their "headquarters" lands in the highlands tions of things (Gen 2: 10) and terms for artifacts.
of Moab north of the River Arnon [Arabic Wadi In this last category is the usage of the root for
Mojib ). The tribe was as "unstable" as their par- both "head stone" (Zech 4:7) and "chief corner
ent Reuben and were among the first to lose them- stone" (Ps 118:22). This passage and usage are
selves in the population transfers of antiquity (II carried over into the NTand quoted by Jesus con-
!(gs 10:33)_.Their towns appear in later history as cerning his being rejected by the Jews (Mt 21:42:
m possess1on of Moabites. The theological infor- Lk 20:17: Eph 2:20: I Pet 2:7). The root is widely
mation derived from Reuben is mainly ethical- used in the OTwith other terms in the sense of the
the _lessons quite obvious ones: evils of polygamy, superlative, since Hebrew does not have any sim-
penls of remoteness from worship centers, etc. ple form to express the third degree. There are
Bibliography: Delitzsch, F., Biblical Com- many examples ofthis usage (Ex 30:23) where the
mentary on Jsaiah, III: Freeman, H. E., An Jntro- meaning is „best,.. "foremost," the uniquely
duction to the OT Prophets, Moody, 1968. Mac- finest, which alone was fit for the service of God.
Rae, A. A., "Prophets and Prophecy" ZPEB IV, This theological meaning is carried over to the
pp. 875-903. officers of the temple (II Kgs 25: 18) and the best
musicians (Neh 11: 17). In most of the versions
R.D.C
there are divergencies in the translation of rö"sh
rm(-:, (r'' fit). See no. 2095d.
0
when it is used in the sense of "chief· as for
'l:t".1(r'"l), 'l:tj (rö'f). See nos. 2095e,f. example (Num 31 :26) and many similar passages
KJv reads "chief," NIVand Rsv read "head" but
(rä"am) rise (Zech 14:10, only). none are completely consistent. The root appears
C!'.C7,(r•··em) wild ox (e.g. Num in many passages in the sense of" sum" or "total"
23:22: Isa 34:7). (Prov 8:26) Rsv · 'first'' with a footnote which cities
2096b 1'1i~N, (rä'mot) corals (Job the difficulty ofthe Hebrew. The KJVconsistently
28: 16: Ezk 27: 16: Prov 24:7). reads "total," "sum" in passages dealing with the
census of Israel (Ex 30: 12: Num 1:2 etc.) and the
1'1i~N, (r{i'möt). See no. 2096b. Aramaic form appears in the unusual sense of the
"sum" or "substance" ofa dream (Dan 7:1). Al-
2097 WN·, (rcf.vh) /, head; top, summit, upper though many of the usages of the root can be
part, chief, total, sum. traced back to Akkadian and ultimately to Sume-
rian, the reliance on the nation·s "head" as a high
Derivatives officer or chosen personage is developed in He-
brew to much greater degree than the other lan-
2097a ~rvN".1(ri'shii) beginning time, early guages. The theological use of the root to desig-
time (Ex 36: 11, only). nate divinely appointed offices in the oT is carried
2097b ~rvNi (rö'shii) top, i.e. the topmost over into the NT in such terms as "head of the
stone (Zech 4:7, only). church" (Eph 5:23). a title ascribed to Christ.

825
2098 !UN·,(rö'sh)

ri'shön. First, primary (ordinal number). This different terms, the one in Hebrew and the other in
adjective, a derivative of the same root as rö'sh Babylonian (see White, W., "Enuma Elish," in
(q.v.), is cognate to Akkadian restu. The word ZPEB, II, p. 314). The proper interpretation of
occurs over 180 times in the oT in a very wide re' shit can be deduced from the other occurrences
variety of connotations and contexts. lt is used in and the witness of all ancient versions. The NT(Jn
three distinct senses and a number of special con- 1: 1) translates the Hebrew and follows the LXX
structions. The overwhelming number of occur- precisely in its reading of (Gen 1:1) the first phrase
rences are best translated "former," "first" of ofthe OT.The use of this root leaves no doubt that
two, of time (Gen 25:25); "previous" (Num Gen 1:1 opens with the very first and initial act of
21:26); "former men," "the patriarchs" (Deut the creation of the cosmos.
19:14): "former times," "form er events" (lsa Bibliography: Bartlett, J. R., "The Use ofthe
41 :22). The next most common usage is in the Word totf"Ias a Title in the Old Testament," VT
sense of "first," as in "first" of mankind (Job 19:1-10, THAT, II, pp. 701-14.
15:7); "first" day of a ritual (Deut 16:4); "first" to W.W.
fall in battle (1 Sam 14:14); "first" as "briefest"
(Ezr 9:6). The third most common usage is in the 2098 totf"I (rö'sh) II, galt, venom. (RSV usu-
sense of "before," "formerly" in time (Gen ally "poison".)
28: 19; Deut 13:10). There are other more
This is probably a Babylonian plant name which
specialized usages, "first in command" (II Kgs
originally meant "head" of some kind of plant. lt
20:17); "set out first" (Num 10:14); "to prepare
comes to mean "poison" and "poisonous" and
first" (1 Kgs 18:25). Since the Hebrew orthog-
occurs twelve times in the OT. The initial occur-
raphy at least in later days admitted no easy nu- rence is in Deut 32:32, "Their grapes are grapes of
merical notation, all ordinals are spelled out and
poison." lt is also used to describe bitter waters
vocalized in the MT.However, there is some scant (Jer 8: 14; 9: 14; 23: 15), "has given us poisoned
evidence that there was a notational system for
water to drink." The "poisoned" or "bitter"
both cardinal and ordinal numbers in use in an- water of Palestine may have merely been water
tiquity.
too salty to drink. The translation of rö'sh is dif-
re'shit. First, beginning, choicest, first/best of a
ficult in some passages, where it is parallel in
group. A feminine noun derived from the root
poetry to another term (Ps 69:21 [H 22]), "They
rö 'sh, it appears fifty times in nearly all parts of the gave me bitter herbs (rö'sh) for food, and for my
OT. The primary meaning is "first" or "begin- thirst they gave me vinegar to drink." BDB re-
ning" of a series. This term may refer to the initia- marks that the word is always used figuratively.
tion of a series of historical events (Gen 10:10; Jer w.w.
26: 1) but it also refers to a foundational or neces-
sary condition as the reverence or fear of God (Ps toKj (re'sh). See no. 2138a.
111:10; Prov 1:7) and the initiation, as opposed to 7itoK"I (ri' shon). See no. 2097c.
•~itoK-:, (ri'shoni). See no. 2097d.
the results, of a life (Job 8:7; 42:12). lt is used
frequently in the special sense of the choicest or l'l'WK'.'.1
(re'shit). See no. 2097e.
:") (rab). See nos. 2099a,b, 2100a.
best of a group or class of things, particularly in
,, (röb). See no. 2099c.
reference to items tobe set aside for God' s service
or sacrifice. The "first fruits" (Lev 2: 12; 23: 10;
2099 :;-, (riibab) /, be(come) many, much.
Neh 12:44) and "choicest" (Num 18:12) fruits are
so distinguished. Difficult usages of the term Derivatives
occur in several passages. In Deut 33:21 the KJV
reads "first part" which is followed by JPS,how- 2099a t:") (rab) l, much, many, great.
ever the Rsv, "best of the land" is preferred. In 2099b t::l") (rab) II, captain, chief.
Dan II :41 the KJVreads "chief of the children of 2099c -o·, (röb) multitude, abundance.
Ammon," but RSVreads "main part ofthe Ammo- 2099d ti;;, (r' biiba) ten thousand.
nites," the more probable reading is "best ofthe 2099e ti:n-:, (ribbo) ten thousand.
Ammonites." The most important use of re'shit in 2099f c•:;i•:;i, (r' bibfm) copious showers.
the oT occurs in Gen 1:1 where it is combined with A verbal root cognate to Akkadian and other
the proclitic preposition b (q. v.). There has been a Semitic languages, it appears twenty-three times
great deal of debate over this use of re' shit. Many in the OT in the Qal stem and once in the Pual
commentators both ancient and modern have tried stem. The initial occurrence appears in Gen 6: 1
to read the phrase as "when-" rather than "in the and many other passages in the sense of "become
beginning" as do several modern versions. The many" referring to human population, in other
chief modern justification for this interpretation of passages (Ex 23:29) referring to animal popula-
the root is to relate it to the phrase '' enüma e/ish'' tions. The usage of the term in the story of
which begins the Babylonian epic of creation. Sodom (Gen 18:20) is difficult and the versions
However there is no evidence to connect the two fail to agree except on riibab, which they all read

826
 2100 ::i;l? (räbab)
as ··great," when actually it is not the immensity (2) Nebo-Sarsechim, the Rab Saris (chief of the
of the cry of Sodom which is meant, but its man- eunuchs, or of the officers); (3) Nergal-Sharezer
ifold nature. In the single usage of the Pual stem the Rab Mag (a chief official). So NIV;some oth-
(Ps 144:13) in a very difficult parallelism, the term ers (Rsv) find four names. R.L.H.]
seems to be an indeterminate !arge quantity like
the Greek, myriad, and is usually translated "ten röb. Multitude, abundance. This root also ap-
thousand'' or more properly ··ten thousandfold. '' pears as roh in many occurrences. A masculine
Lexicons treat it as a denominative form from noun, it is derived from the Semitic verbal root
r' bäbii "myriad, "ten thousand." rbx, where "x" may be one of several different
consonants depending on the precise
rab /. Much, many, great. This is the common morphological form. In Hebrew the parent form
Hebrew adjective meaning "much," or "many." is probably rabab. röb appears 147 times in the
lt occurs 420 times in the or. The root, rab. is or. The highest number of usages is found in II
cognate both philologically and semantically to Chr, where it is used to describe the various
Ugaritic rb and Akkadian rabü. The primary quantities of materials and efforts required by Is-
meaning is "many," which occurs initially in Gen rael' s and later J udah · s kings (1 I Chr 1:15; 2 :8;
21:34. KJVtranslates "many•· in 190 occurrences 4: 18, et al.). In some cases röb can best be trans-
most dealing with objects (Gen 30:43), days (Gen lated by "long," as in "long time" (lsa 24:22;
37:24), times (Ps 106:43), and similar subjects. KJV,"many days," RSV,and JPSread the same).
The root is often used in contexts referring to röb also means "long" in "long way" (Josh
"many" people, as "many evildoers" (Ex 23:2). 9: 13). The root is straightforward and offers no
"Gentiles" (Deut 9:14), and "multitude" at the real difficulty in any of its occurrences.
Exodus (Ex 12:38). The other exceedingly com-
mon usage is in the sense of "great," the transla- r•babä. Ten thousand. This root is found also
tion used by the KJVand in most part by the RSVin in Ugaritic as rbt!rbbt, and appears in most West
128 occurrences. Many objects, institutions, and Semitic languages. Since the science of numera-
persons are said to be "great." Among the sub- tion is not weil developed in the West Semitic
jects so described with the adjective, rab, are: writing systems, more often than not, r' bäbii
"goodness" (Ps 31:20), "evil" (Gen 6:5), "aper- simply stands for a very large number, "a mul-
son·· (Ps 48:3). There are some special usages of titude." The initial usage is in Gen 24:60, "Our
the root which require more colloquial transla- sister, be the mother of thousands of ten
tion. rab with the prefix min is used as the com- thousands." In Hebrew parallel poetic structure,
parative degree of the adjective, "greater than" numbers are usually handled by using the number
(Deut 7: 1 et al.) In some texts the root means in the first phrase then the number plus one in the
"enough" (Gen 45:28); in others it has the conno- second phrase (Job 5:19). In the case of r'babii,
tation, "too much for" (I Kgs 12:28). This is the however, the parallelism is thousand // ten
proper translation of the difficult verse Prov thousand as in I Sam 18:7; Ps 91 :7. In other pas-
26: 10. U nfortunately the root is confused here in sages the root is used to communicate the enor-
the versions and there are a great many minor mity of the host involved Num 10:36, "Return 0
inconsistencies in their choice of translations Lord to the ten thousand thousands of Israel." lt
(KJV, "The great God"; RSV, NASB,and NIV is always used poetically and never used like
"archer" from rabab "to shoot"). ribbb in enumerations.
rab II. Captain, chief. A title of Babylonian ribbö. Ten thousand. Since this root is derived
origin which appears in both Hebrew and Ugari- from the same proto-Hebrew root as Ugari-
tic. lt designates the chief or executive of a group tic r' bäbii, but it does not appear earlier than I
such as a military detachment (II Kgs 25:8 et al.). Chr 29:7, "Ten thousand coins of gold," it is
lt is often a prefix as it is in Akkadian; cf. Jer probably a later form of r' bäbii. U nlike the
39:9-10. The term was adopted by the Neo- former root, ribbb is often used in multiple ex-
Babylonians (Dan 1:3), "his chief-eunuch," and pressions (Ps 68:17 [H 18]), ·•with mighty
by the Persians who succeeded them (Est 1:8), chariots, twice ten thousand" (Ezr 2:64, 69,
"all the captains of his house." There is no evi- where ribbb is written with an aleph added,
dence that the term was ever used except as a ribbb' ).
rank of foreign origin as in lsa 36:2, 4, 11, 12, 13, Bibliography: THAT, II, pp. 715-25.
22: 37:4, 8. w.w.
[An interesting use of the title is in Jer 39:3
where the names were long misunderstood, but 2100 ::,::,"\ (rabab) II, shoot (Gen 49:23: Ps
the consonants accurately preserved. Instead of -18:15).
six names as in the MT and KJVit is probable that
there are three names and three titles: ( 1) Derivative
Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar (The Babylonian dis- 2100a !:l'j (rab) III, archer (Jer 50:29;
trict of SinMagir with assimilation of the ·•m"); Job 16:13).

827
2101 i:3i (rbd)
2101 i::,, (rbd) I. Assumed root of the follow- Of the many words for locust, 'arbeh is the
ing. general word, and is used most frequently,
2101a i•::,i (räbid) chain, ornament for twenty-four times. The KJV translates it "locust"
',,~ck (Ezk 16:11: Gen 41:42). twenty times and "grasshopper" four times.
The 'arbeh plague (Deut 28:38) is listed as one
2102 ,,, (räbad) II, bespread, deck (Prov ofthe divine curses which would befall the Israel-
7: 16: l Sam 9:25). ites if they disobeyed God's commands. The 'ar-
beh is one of the plagues which Moses called
Derivative down upon Egypt (Ex I0:4ff.: Ps 78:46: 105:34).
2I02a ,;,i-, (marbäd) spread, coverlet Locusts are used in similes of vast numbers in
(Prov 7: 16; 31 :22). Jud 6:5: 7:12: Jer 46:23: Nah 3:15.
Locusts belong to the order of the Ortlzoptera,
2103 :i;, (räba) I, be(come)great, many, much, "straight-winged." With the grasshoppers they
numerous. belong to the subfamily Sa/tatoria, "leapers,"
which were considered edible (Lev 11:21-22).
Derivatives The biblical locust is not the cicada called "lo-
2103a t:i;.i,~ ('arbeh) a kind of locust. cust'' in some areas of the United States.
2103b l"t;l!':11'(marbeh) abundance (lsa Locusts belong to the family Acridiidae,
°33:23), increase ([sa 9:6). "short-horned grasshoppers ... Of the ninety-one
2103c :i;,~ (mirba) much (Ezk 23:32, species found in Palestine only the desert locust
only). (Schistocerca gregaria or Acridium peregrinum)
2103d tr,•~,~ (marbit) increase, multitude. has served to plague the near east from time im-
2l03e r,1~,M (tarbtit) increase, brood memorial.
(N~m 32: 14, only). At maturity these locusts are two and one-half
2!03f r,•;t, (farbil) increment, usury, in- inches long. They have two sets of wings and an
terest. enlarged pair of legs for jumping. In appearance
they are compared to horses (Joel 2:4: Job 39:20:
This is the West Semitic form ofa very common
Rev 9:7; cf. German Heupferd, ltalian caval-
term cognate to Ugaritic rb and Akkadian rabti.
/ette ).
This is the suffix common to so many
Babylonian-Assyrian names, e.g. ''Hammu- Desert locusts are phenomenal travelers. They
rabi" ="The god Harn (perhaps ·ammu) is are able to fly for seventeen hours at a time and
great." The root appears over two hundred times have been known to travel fifteen hundred miles.
in the oT. The two major differentiations in mean- The sound of their wings is compared to the
ing are connected with occurrences in the Qal sound of chariots (Joel 2:5; Rev 9:9). Their route
stem, 60, and the Hiphil stem, 155 in all. The of travel is determined by the prevailing winds
initial occurrence of the root is Gen 1:22. "Multi- (Ex 10:13, 19). In the plague of 1915, locusts
ply" is read by all of the versions, but in sub- came to Jerusalem from the northeast (cf. Joel
sequent usages a variety of translations appear, 2:20).
"increase" (Gen 7: 17-18): "be many" ([ Chr The Bible does not exaggerate when it speaks
23: 17); "so much" (Gen 43:34). In single in- of swarms of locusts covering the ground (Ex
stances a great many more meanings are in evi- 10:5). A swarm has been known to cover a
dence. In the Hiphil stem the standard and most hundred square miles and to be so dense as to
common meaning is "multiply," but a variety of blot out the sun. A truly !arge swarm may contain
other translations are also given: "ask much" ten billion locusts.
(Gen 34:12): "gather much" (Ex 16:18): "yield The four words used by Joel ( 1:4; 2:25) in his
much" (Neh 9:37): "give more" (Num 26:54); vivid description of the locust plague evidently
"to heap· · (Ezk 24: 10). The wide range of prof- represent stages of the locusts' development
fered meanings shows the latitude of the original (Rsv, NEB, JB, NAB), rather than separate species
Hebrew root. Although generally restricted to of insects (KJV, KB). In Joel 2:25 we have first the
quantitative contexts, the root räba has some use 'arbeh, the mature locust which deposits the
eggs. The yeleq may be the larva as it emerges
in metaphorical expressions. lt is used in the fol-
lowing special senses: "live long" (Job 29: 18); from the egg. The häsil may be the intermediate
"make words great," "to brag" against God (Job instar (stage between molts). The gä:,äm may be
34:37), and "have many children" (l Chr 7:4). the ravenous nymph which strips the bark from
the trees.
w.w. Unlike the Babylonians who resorted to magi-
'arbeh. Locust. The word is probably derived cal incantations to avert locust plagues, the 1s-
from the root räba "to become numerous." lt raelites asked God in fasting, repentance, and
occurs in Akkadian as erebu, arbti, etc. In the prayer to remove locust plagues (I Kgs 8:37: II
Ugaritic KRT text (103, 192), the king's army is Chr 6:28).
described as covering the field like locusts (irby). In Lev 11:22 the 'arbeh and three other types

828
 2107 t.';l' (räba')

of locusts (sol'äm, }JarKöl, /JiiRiib) are listed as exorbitant interest. The initial occurrence is in
edible insects. Bas reliefs from Nineveh show Lev 25:36 which is studicd by E. A. Speiser, who
servants bringing skewered locusts for Sen- shows that the practice forbidden thcre is the
nacherib' s table. John the Baptist subsisted on charging of additional interest after a defaulting
honey and locusts (Mt 3:4: Mk 1:6). Many Afri- debtor was taken into bondage. The primary
cans and Arabs after removing the wings, legs, interest was deducted in advance (discounted).
and heads eat locusts either cooked or ground up See the fuller discussion under nesek. The charg-
as flour. ing of nesek and tarbit is denounced in Prov 28:8
There are nine Hebrew words which designate and classed with other heinous sins in Ezk 18:8,
locusts: 'arbeh, gäzäm, gebii, only as plural 13, 17: 22:12. The KJV translates these words in
gebim, göbay, }Jägäb, }Jasf/, yeleq, sol'äm, Prov 28:8 "usury" and "unjust gain"; elsewhere
~•lä~a/. Akkadian recognizes eighteen names for "usury" and "increase"; the RSV always ·by
locusts, and the Talmud twenty names. "interest" and "increase."
Bibliography: Driver, S. R., The Books of Bibliography: Speiser, E. A., "Leviticus and
Joel and Arnos, Cambridge: University Press, the Critics" in Oriental and Biblical Studies,
1897, pp. 82-91. Whiting, John D., "Jerusalem·s University of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 131-41.
Locust Plague," The National Geographie w.w.
28:511-50. Koehler, L., "Die Bezeichnungen der
Heuschrecke im Alten Testament," Zeitschrift 2104 :i;, (räbä) II, shoot (Gen 21:20, only).
der Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, 49:328-31. Doubtless a by-form of räbab II.
Bodenheimer, F. S .. Anima/ Life in Palestine,
Jerusalem: Mayer. 1935, pp. 309-24. Seilers, i:!l".'\(ribbo). See no. 2099e.
Ovid R., "Stages of Locust in Joel," American C';';".'I (rebibim). See no. 2099f.
Journal of Semitic Languages, 52:81-85. "!':;)' · (räbfd). See no. 2101a.
Thompson. John A., "Joel's Locusts in thc Light 'IJ';-, (r"bi'i). See no. 2107c.
of Near Eastern Parallels," JNES 14:52-55. An-
dersen, F. I., "The Diet of John the Baptist," 2105 *i:i, (räba/.:) mix, stir (Hophal only,
Abr Nahrain 3:60-75. Palmoni, Y., "Locust," in Lev 6: 14; 7: 12: I Chr 23:29).
JOB, III, pp. 144-48. Uvarov, B., Grasslwppers
and Locusts /, Cambridge University Press, 2106 11::i., ( rb ·) I. Assumedroot of the following.
1966. Cansdale, George, All the Animals of the 2106a tl1;".l~ ( 'a rba ·) Jour.
Bible Lands, Zondervan. 1970, pp. 238-44. 2106b tc•v;,~ ('arbä'im) forty.
Baron, Stanley, The Desert Lornst, Scribner's,
1972. Klotz. J. W., "Animals of the Bible," in 2107 11:i, (riiha') II, squared, square. This
WBE I, pp. 87-8. Conley. Robert A. M., "Lo- denominative verb occurs only as a pas-
custs: 'Teeth of the Wind,'" National Geo- sive participle (e.g. Ex 27: 1: Ezk 45:2).
f<raphic 136:202-27. 2107a 11;)'.')(reba') fourth part (Ex 29:40).
E.Y. t'our sides (Ezk 43: 16).
marbit. Multitude, greatness, /arger part, in- 2107b 11;°"1(roba') fourth part (Num
crease, interest. The participial form of the root, 23: 10: II Kgs 6:25).
räba. it appears five times in the OT. The initial 2107c 't,I';".'\ (r'hi'i), l"l'IJ'::1"1(r'bi'it)
occurrence appcars in Lev 25:37 "interest," fourth (e.g. Gen 2: 14; I Kgs 6: 1).
"usury," in connection with nese/.: "usury" and 2107d p;".'I (ribbea') pertaining to the
tarbit "increase" (q.v.). In I Chr 12:30 the root is fourth (Ex 20:5=Deut 5:9).
read "greatest part" ofthe Benjamites. The same These are very ancient roots of East Semitic ori-
notion of "the grcater portion" is in evidence in gin. They are cognate to Akkadian arba'u, which
the usage of the root in II Chr 9:6, "the half of
appears frequently in some of the very earlicst cu-
your wisdom," while II Chr 30:18 rcads "mul- neiform inscriptions. The Hebrew form appears
titude" in describing the unclean participants in nearly 250 times, mostly in the Pentateuch and Eze-
the Passover. The only other usage of marbit in kiel. Since Hebrew numerical notation was very
the OT is in I Sam 2:33. the curse of Eli's house, limited in scope, numbers in texts (at least in our
wherein the root is read "incrcase" by all ver- copies including the DSS) were written out vocali-
sions.
cally. The word 'arba · is used to enumerate and
tarbit. Jncrease, usury, interest. This is a measure every possible type of object and situa-
feminine noun developed from the root räbii. lt tion. lt is universally translated "four" by the
appears four timcs in Ezk, three in one chapter, versions. The initial citation appears in Gen 2: 10,
and in only two other passages. In all cases it many citations are translated by the ordinal
appears with the masculine noun nesek q.v, The number form, "fourth" (1 Kgs 22:41). The plural
association with nese/.: "usury," which derives form means "forty" (Gen 5: 13) and appears weil
from thc verb „ to bite" suggests oppressive or over one hundred times. The plural form 'arbä'im

829
2108 lJ;l? (räha')
is used in some poetical and metaphorical pas- also Song 1:7). The image of the people ofGod as
sages in the sense of an indeterminate, long period sheep and the Lord as the good shepherd is used in
oftime(Gen 50:3; Ex 16:35et al.) [lt should also be both OTand NT. In the OTprophetic writings the
kept in mind that the number forty is not always final state of the blessed in the messianic kingdom
indeterminate. The wilderness wandering was is portrayed in pastoral imagery as a grazing flock.
thirty-eight years plus the time at Sinai (Deut räba$ is used in one unusual sense in lsa 54: 11,
2: 14). David's kingship was seven years in Hebron "Behold, I will set your stones in antimony, and
and thirty-three in Jerusalem (1 Kgs 2: 11). Caleb lay down (räba$) your foundations in lapis
was forty years old at Kadesh Barnea; forty-five lazuli."
years later he was eighty-five (Josh 14:7, 10). The
periods of rest and oppression during the Judges rebe~. Resting place. This nominal form of the
verbal root räba$, an Akkadian loan word in He-
varied. Only four out of seventeen figures men-
brew, is used four times in the oT. lt occurs in Jsa
tioned were forty years long. These figures may
35:7; 65: 10; Jer 50:6 and Prov 24: 15. RSV,"Do not
not always be precise, but neither are they to be
too easily discounted. R.L.H.] violence to his home," is in error, the text should
w.w. be translated, "Despoil not his resting place."
marbc~. Resting place, shelter. This masculine
2108 t.'::l'1 (räba') /1, lie stretched out, lie down noun occurs twice in the oT (Ezk 25:5; Zeph 2: 15),
-(.Ps 139:3; Lev 20: 16). Probably an Ara- "A shelter for beasts to lie in ...
maic form of räba$ (note the ~ to · shift.) w.w.
2109 r;, (räba$) lie down. 2110 i'::l'1 (rbq). Assumed root of the following.
Derivatives 2110a i'~".17; (marbeq) stall (e.g. Arnos
6:4; Mal 3:20).
2109a tr::r, (rebe$) resling place.
2109b tf:ll".17; (marbe$) resting place.
2111 ::)J'1 (rgb ). Assumed root of the following.
This verbal root is cognate to Akkadian rabä$U, 21 l la ::l~'.")(regeb) clod of earth (Job
a nominal form meaning "a stable," possibly "a 38:38; 21:33).
lying place. ··lt occurs in Ugaritic in the form, trb$ 21 llb :in!_,! ('argäb) heap,
which is obviously based upon this root. lt occurs mound (1 Sam 20: 19, 41 ).
thirty times in the OTand has the connotation of
"repose" or ··rest from exertion" rather than
sleep. The initial occurrence of the verb in Gen
2112 in (rägaz) tremble, quake, rage.
4:7, the interesting phrase, · •If you do not do weit, Derivatives
sin lies at the door. ·· This verse, of course, has 2112a tq·-, (rögez) trouble, turmoil.
been much discussed. Another view interprets 2112b t:iJn (rogza) trembling.
"sin" in the figure of a ferocious beast ready to 2112c tu, (raggäz) trembling.
spring. But this meaning of räba$ seems to be 2112d ij~!.C ('argäz) box, ehest (1 Sam
found only in Gen 49:9 (see below). Others, taking 6:8, 11, 15).
the usual meaning of räba$ take the word "sin'' as
· 'sin offering" which is lying available at the door. The primary meaning of this root is to quake or
Speiser offers a third view importing unnecessary shake, from which ideas such as shaking in anger,
mythology. He takes the part, röbe$ as a noun · ·a fear, or anticipation are derived.
demon" ready to spring (E. A. Speiser, Genesis, This verb may describe the literal quaking of
in AB). räba$ describes the "lying" of many liv- the earth (1 Sam 14:15). More often the "quak-
ing things, figurative of people as sheep (Ezk ing" is in a poetic expression such as the quaking
34: 14), "There they shall lie down in good grazing of the mountains before the thunderstorm which
land"; ofthe needy person (lsa 14:30), "And the marks the Lord's coming (Ps 18:7 [H 8]) or the
needy lie down in safety"; of flocks (lsa 13:20, "three things" under which the earth trembles
Hiphil stem), · 'No shepherds will make their (Prov 30:21).
flocks lie down there"; of sheep (Gen 29:2), lt is not clear whether physical displacement or
"Three flocks of sheep lying beside it"; of wild disturbance is involved in the promise to David
animals, specifically the lion (Gen 49:9), "He that God's people shall be planted and not "be
stoops down, he lies in wait as a lion"; of the moved" or "disturbed" (II Sam 7:10; I Chr 17:9).
leopard and goat in tranquility together (lsa 11:6), The Rsv rendering, "b