EL221 - ELECTRO MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

FAST-NU, LAHORE
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Created by: Mr. Umer Mumtaz, Mr. Ahmed Hassan, Ms. Rabia Khan

Date: 10th January, 2015

Last Updated by: Muhammad Khizer

Date: 3rd July, 2019

Supervised by: Mr. Abdul Majid

Approved by the HoD: Dr. S M Sajid

Date: 3rd July, 2019

Page | 2
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Table of Contents
Sr. No. Description Page No.

1 List of Equipments 5

Experiment No.1, Introduction to Electromechanical Systems

2 8
Lab
and Equipment
3 Experiment No.2, (a) Construction of Transformer 15
(b) Construction of Auto Transformer
4 20
Experiment No.3, Three Phase Transformer

Experiment No.4, Modeling of Transformer

(a) Open Circuit Test
5 25
(b) Short Circuit Test
(c) Efficiency and Voltage Regulation of a
Transformer
Experiment No.5, (a) No Load Characteristics of Self Excited DC
6 Shunt Generator 32
(b) Load Characteristics of Self Excited DC
Shunt Generator

7 Experiment No.6, Internal and External Characteristics of 37

Separately Excited DC Generator
8 Experiment No.7, Design a Speed Control Circuit for DC Shunt
40
Motor (Design Experiment)
Experiment No.8, (a) Speed Control of DC Series Motor using
9 Flux Control 42
(b) Speed Control of DC Series Motor using
Armature or Rheostat Control
10 46
Experiment No.9, Voltage Regulation of Alternator

Experiment No.10, Modeling of Synchronous Generator

11 (a) DC Test to find the Armature Resistance 48
(b) Open Circuit Characteristics
(c) Short Circuit Characteristics

12 Experiment No.11, Starting of Synchronous Motor 54

(a) Method I - Using Damper Winding

Page | 3
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

(b) Method II - Using Prime Mover

13 Experiment No.12, (a) Construction of V – Curve 58
(b) Torque Speed Characteristics of
Synchronous Motor

14 Experiment No.13, To study the Torque Speed Curve of the 62

Asynchronous Motor (Cage Rotor)
15 Experiment No.14, Starting and Torque Speed Characteristics of 3 64
phase Induction Motor (Wound Rotor)
16 Appendix A: LAB EVALUATION CRITERIA 68

17 Appendix B: SAFETY AROUND ELECTRICITY 69

18 Appendix C: GUIDELINES ON PREPARING LAB REPORTS 71

List of Equipment
POWER SUPPLIES

Page | 4
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

1 AC and DC Power Supply

TEST MOTORS

Sr. N
No Name PN(W) (r/min UIN(V) IIN(A) UF(V) IF(A)
. )

1 1-Phase Transformer 200VA 127 50

2 1-Phase Transformer 150VA 127 50

100VA
3 3-Phase Transformer 127 50
x3

4 DC Excited Generator 120 1000 110 1.1 110

5 DC Excited Motor 120 1000 110 1.58 110

6 DC Excited Motor 120 1000 110 1.25 110 0.26

3-Phase Cage
7 100 1420 220/Δ 0.5
Asynchronous Motor

8 3-Phase Wound Motor 120 1380 220/ Δ 0.6

3-Phase Synchronous
9 170 1500 220/Υ 0.45 14 1.2
Generator

3-Phase Synchronous
10 90 1500 220/Υ 0.35 10 0.8
Motor

1-Phase Capacitor
11 120 1420 220 1
Asynchronous Motor

3-Phase Dual Speed

2800/1 0.6/0.
12 Cage Asynchronous 120/90 220
400 6
Motor

13 DC Power Gauge 250 1500 110 2.8

Page | 5
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

DC Speed Measure
14 1500 36
Generator

Rotation Speed, Torque

15 and Mechanical Power
Meter

ACCESSORIES

Sr.
Description
No.

1 Variable Resistor 0-150 ohms, 150 W (1.0 A) (Module 7)

2 Resistor 500 Ohms 100 W (0.4A) (Module 7)

3 Variable Resistor 0-30 Ohms 100 W (1.8A) (Module 8)

4 Contactor KM1, KM2, KM3 (Module 9 & Module 10)

5 Thermal Relay FR1, FR2 (Module 10 and Module 11)

6 Intermediate Relay (Module 11)

Button SB1, SB2, SB3, SB4, emergency Stop Switch (Module 12 & Module
7
13)

8 Time Relay KT (Module 13)

9 Travel Switch (Module 13)

10 Low Voltage Transformer, Indicator Light, Light (Module 14)

11 3-Phase Knife Switch, Knife Switch x3 (Module 3 & Module 14)

12 Inductor L- 0.5H,1.0 A & Capacitor C- 50uf/400V (Module 3)

INSTRUMENTS AND METERS

Page | 6
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Sr.
Description
No.

1 DC Digital Voltmeters (Module 4)

2 DC Digital Ammeters (Module 4)

3 AC Digital Voltmeters (Module 5)

4 AC Digital Ammeters (Module 5)

5 AC Power Meters (Module 6)

6 Power Factor Meter (Module 6)

EXPERIMENT 1

Page | 7
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS LAB

AND EQUIPMENT

OBJECTIVE:
To become familiar with different modules of EMS trainer and all other equipment and
devices used in this lab.

BACKGROUND:

1. AC AND DC SUPPLIES
The first three modules are the AC and DC supplies that are assembled to a single large module.
These include the three-phase supply too, which is available in both separated three phases and the
combined three phase supply with a single neutral. The ratings of the different supplies are
indicated in the module. Three Phase and Single-Phase Power Supply module available in lab is
given in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1. Three Phase and Single-Phase Supply

2. DC VOLTMETER AND DC AMMETER

The fourth module consists of DC voltmeters and DC Ammeters. One must keep in mind that
Voltmeters are connected in parallel and the ammeters are connected in series. DC Ammeter and
DC Voltmeter module available in lab in shown in Figure 1.2

Page | 8
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 1.2. DC Voltmeter and Ammeter

3. AC POWER AND POWER FACTOR METER

As the name depicts, the AC Power and Power factor meter is used to determine these parameters
of your circuit. One must know that the term power factor is defined only for AC. There are
separate fuses which are attached to the devices in order to take care of the safety. The AC Power
and Power factor meter available in lab is shown in Figure 1.3

Figure 1. 3. AC Power and Power Factor Meter

4. AC VOLTMETER AND AC AMMETER

This module consists of AC voltmeters and AC Ammeters. One must keep in mind that Voltmeters
are connected in parallel and the ammeters are connected in series. Ratings of voltmeters and
ammeters are mentioned on the respective modue. This module is shown in Figure 1.4

Page | 9
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 1.4. AC Voltmeter and AC Ammeter

5. THREE PHASE VARIABLE RESISTOR

The three-phase variable resistor is used where we need a resistance that can be varied so that we
could observe the behavior of our parameters with respect to that of changing the resistor. The
three-phase module is shown in Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5. Three – Phase Variable Resistor

6. VARIABLE RESISTOR

The variable resistor is an important part of the circuitry which can be used for inserting an extra
resistance and then varies it when required. Whenever you have to control the current you can
insert a resistance. It could be variable of fixed depending on your requirements. Variable Resistor
module is shown in Figure 1.6

Page | 10
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 1.6. Variable Resistor

7. AC CONTACTORS

A contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power circuit similar to the
relay except with the higher current ratings. Contactors typically have multiple contacts and those
contacts are usually normally open, so that power to the circuit is shut off, when the coil is de-
energized. They are used to control electric motors, lighting, heating, capacitor banks and other
electric loads. The AC contactors module is shown in Figure 1.7

Figure 1.7. AC Contactor

Page | 11
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

8. THERMAL RELAY

Thermal relay is an electrical protection device which designed to disconnect the load from its
power supply to avoid any damage by sensing the heat produced from the flow of current. It
consists of bi metallic strip. The basic principle of thermal relay is that when it is heated by the coil
carrying over current of the system, it bends and makes normally open contacts. Thermal Relay
Module is shown in Figure 1.8

Figure 1.8. Contact and Thermal Relay

9. FUSE AND BUTTON SWITCH

A Fuse is a low resistance wire that acts as a sacrificial device to provide the over current
protection. It interrupts the excessive current so that further damage from over current or heating
can be prevented. Button switch is a simple switch used for controlling some aspects of machine or
process. They are made of hard material such as plastic or metal and their surface is such that to
accommodate the human finger or hand so that it can be easily pressed or pushed to make or break
the circuit. This Module is shown in Figure 1.9

Figure 1.9. Fuse and Button Switch

Page | 12
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

9. TRAVEL SWITCH AND TIME RELAY

Time relay exhibit the property of time delay actuation. Sometimes, momentarily faults occur in
the power system, which automatically vanishes after few seconds. Hence to avoid the tripping of
circuit in case of the momentarily faults, time relays are used. Time-delay relay contacts must be
specified not only as either normally-open or normally-closed, but whether the delay operates in
the direction of closing or in the direction of opening. The Module comprising Travel Switch and
Time Relay is shown in Figure 1.10

Figure 1.10. Travel Switch and Time Relay

10. SWITCH, FUSE, INDICATOR LIGHT AND LAMP

Switches used to connect or disconnect the circuit manually. A Fuse is a low resistance wire that
acts as a sacrificial device to provide the over current protection. It interrupts the excessive current
so that further damage from over current or heating can be prevented.
Indicator light or lamp is a small device which shows whether the power is on or off. When the
circuit is closed, it will glow, otherwise it will not. This Module is shown in Figure 1.11

Figure 1.11. Switch, Fuse, Indicator Light and Lamp

Page | 13
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is the use of CTs and PTs?

2. How we can measure high DC voltages and currents?
3. Differentiate between fuse and circuit breaker?

Page | 14
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

EXPERIMENT 2

(A) CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER

(B) CONSTRUCTION OF AUTOTRANSFORMER

OBJECTIVE:
 To construct a 1:1 transformer.
 To study the construction and working of autotransformer

EQUIPMENT:
 Winding machine Single
 Bobbin
 Iron core stampings
 Insulating paper
 Laminated copper wire
 Nuts and bolts

BACKGROUND:

a) Transformer
A transformer is a device that converts one AC voltage to another. It’s simply a device
used for either stepping-up or stepping down an applied input AC through magnetic
induction in between its two windings.

Basically, a transformer will have the following main components:

a) Iron core stampings (configured either as U/T or E/I, generally the latter is used
more extensively).
b) Central plastic or ceramic bobbin surrounded by the above iron core stampings.
c) Two windings (electrically isolated and magnetically coupled) using super
enameled copper wire made over the bobbin.
d) Normally the winding which is designated to receive the input supply is termed as
the “Primary” and the winding which in response to this input produces the required
induced voltage as the output is termed as the “secondary” winding.
e) Designing your own transformer as per a specific application can be interesting,
but not feasible without calculating the various parameters typically involved with
them. The following discussion will take you through a few important steps and
formulas and explain how to make a transformer.

Page | 15
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

b) Autotransformer

The autotransformer is somewhat more efficient than transformers having separate

windings because it has smaller core and copper losses. It is used primarily where a
requirement exists for comparatively small increases or decreases in voltage; for
example, to boost a power line voltage in order to compensate for losses caused by
lengthy transmission lines or to reduce motor starting voltages, thus holding the starting
currents within reasonable values. In industrial applications where several voltages are
required for complex circuit systems a multi-tapped autotransformer would be used. The
principal disadvantage of the autotransformer is the absence of isolation between
windings. It is generally inadvisable to use it as a large ratio step-down device because, if
the low voltage section of the winding should open up, the high voltage input would be
placed across the low voltage load.

There is a special type of transformer, which physically has only one winding.
Functionally, though, the one winding serves as both the primary and secondary. This
type of transformer is called an autotransformer. When an autotransformer is used to step
tip the voltage, part of the single winding acts as the primary and the entire winding acts
as the secondary. When an autotransformer is used to step down the voltage, the entire
winding acts as the primary and part of it acts as the secondary. Figure 2.1 below shows
autotransformer connected for both step-up and step-down operation.
C

Es
SOURCE LOAD

AC Ep

Figure 2.1. The Autotransformer

The action of the autotransformer is basically the same as the standard two-winding
transformer. Power is transferred from the primary to the secondary by the changing
magnetic field, and the secondary in turn, regulates the current in the primary to setup the
required condition of equal primary and secondary power. The amount of step-up or step-
down in voltage depends on the turn ratio between the primary and secondary, with each
winding considered as separate, even though some turns are common to both the
primary and secondary.

Voltages and currents in the various windings can be found by two simple rules:
a) Primary apparent power (VA; equals Secondary apparent power (VA)).

Page | 16
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

b) The primary (source) voltage and the secondary (load) voltage are directly
proportional to the number of turns N.

These equations depend upon one important fact, that voltage E3 to E7 add in the same
direction and do not oppose each other. We have assumed that the voltages are in
phase. The load current, of course, cannot exceed the current carrying capacity of the
winding. Once this is known it is relatively easy to calculate the VA load, which a
particular autotransformer can supply.

A disadvantage of the autotransformer is the lack of isolation between the primary and
secondary circuits, because the primary and secondary both use some of the same turns.

PROCEDURE:

a) Transformer

1. Calculate the number of turns for primary using the formula

Where TPV stands for Turns per Volt (Available wire in lab has 7.5 turns/V)
2. Calculate the number of turns for secondary using the formula
Secondary Number of Turns = TPV × secondary voltage

3. Make counter of winding machine to 0.

4. Take a bobbin of 1” * 1” (as shown in Figure 2.2). At point 1 wrap insulating paper,
take one end of primary winding out from point 2, mount the bobbin on winding
machine then start winding copper wire around the bobbin. Until the desired
number of turns for primary are completed. Cut the wire and take it out from point
3.

Figure 2.2. The bobbin

5. Wrap insulating paper on primary turns.

Page | 17
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

6. Take out one end of secondary from point 4 and start winding copper wire around
the bobbin until the desired number of turns for secondary is completed. Cut the
copper wire and take out other end of secondary from point 5.
7. The next step is assembling the core. Start inserting E laminations from alternating
sides. After all E's have been inserted, the I's are slid into the voids. Align
laminations with each other, and specially, align the screw holes of all the
laminations.
8. Using nut and bolt tight the laminations. At this point, the transformer is truly ready
for trying.

b) Autotransformer

1. Calculate the number of turns using the formula:

Total Number of Turns= TPV × Total Volts

Where TPV stands for Turns per (Available wire in lab has 7.5 turns/V)

2. Make counter of winding machine to 0.

3. Take a bobbin of 1’’ * 1” (as shown in Figure 2.2) at point 1 wrap insulating paper,
take one end of winding out from point 2, mount the bobbin on winding machine
then start winding copper wire around the bobbin. For creating taps of an
autotransformer take out the copper wire of desirable length (don’t cut the copper wire)
and after it again start winding until the desired number of turns are completed. Cut
the wire and take it out from point 3.
4. Wrap insulating paper on windings.
5. The next step is assembling the core. Start inserting E laminations from alternating
sides. After all E's have been inserted, the I's are slid into the voids. Align
laminations with each other, and specially, align the screw holes of all the
laminations.
6. Using nut and bolt tight the laminations. At this point, the transformer is truly ready
for trying.

OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE – I (Voltage and Number of Turns in Primary and Secondary)

Transformer Autotransformer

Primary Number of Turns

Secondary Number of Turns

Page | 18
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Primary voltage

Secondary voltage

Connect the constructed autotransformer in step up and step-down mode and note down
the following values:

TABLE – II (Voltages on Primary and Secondary side in Step-Up and Step-Down Mode for Auto Transformer)

Step - up mode Step - down mode

Primary voltage

Secondary voltage

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is the effect of frequency on mutual induction of Transformer?

2. What is an autotransformer?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of an autotransformer?

Page | 19
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

EXPERIMENT 3

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

OBJECTIVE:
To connect transformers in Δ and Υ configurations

BACKGROUND:

Single-phase transformers can be connected to form three-phase transformer banks for

raising or lowering the voltages of three-phase systems. Four common methods of
connecting three transformers for three-phase transformations are the delta-delta, wye-
wye, wye-delta, and delta-wye connections. The three-phase transformer is shown below
in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Three Phase Transformer

An advantage of the delta-delta connection is that if one transformer becomes damaged

or is removed from service, the remaining two can be operated in what is known as the
open-delta or V connection. By being operated in this way, the bank still delivers three
phase currents and voltages in their correct phase relationship, but the capacity of the
bank is reduced to 57.7 percent ()of what it was with all three transformers in service.In
the wye-wye connection only 57.7 percent of the line voltage is impressed upon each
winding, but full line current flows in each transformer winding. The wye-wye connection
is seldom used.

The delta-wye connection is well adapted for stepping up voltages since the voltage is

Page | 20
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

increased by the transformer ratio multiplied by the factor. The wye-delta connection can
be used for stepping down voltages. The high-voltage windings of most transformers are
wye-connected.
The three-phase transformer may be a single transformer’ or three separate single-phase
transformers connected in delta or wye. Sometimes only two transformers are used.
Commercial three-phase voltage from the power lines is generally 380 volts, and the
standard values of single-phase voltage (220V) can be supplied from the line as shown in
Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Phase and Line voltages of a three-phase transformer

The windings a, b and c represent the three wye-connected transformer secondary

windings. The three-phase lines are designated A, B and C and the single-phase
connections are from A, B or C to neutral (ground). Three-phase transformers must be
properly connected to threes lines in order to operate. Four of the most widely used
transformer connections are given below:

a) Primary windings in delta, secondary windings in delta, or delta-delta (Δ-Δ).

b) Primary windings in wye, secondary windings in wye, or wye-wye (Y-Y).
c) Primary windings in wye, secondary windings in delta, or wye-delta (Y- Δ).
d) Primary windings in delta, secondary windings in wye, or delta-wye (Δ-Y).

Of these four combinations, the one used most extensively is the last one listed i.e. delta-
wye.

PROCEDURE:

Part I

The circuit shown in Figure 3.3 has three transformers connected in a delta- delta
configuration.

Page | 21
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 3.3. Delta – Delta (Δ- Δ)

Record the values in the spaces provided.

For Δ-connection, VL= VØ

Input Voltage =70V

TABLE – I (Primary and Secondary side Phase and Line Voltages for Δ – Δ configuration)

Primary Secondary

VØ(Measured)

VL(Measured)

VØ(Calculated)

VL(Calculated)

Part II

a) The circuit shown in Figure 3.4 has three transformers connected in a delta wye
configuration.

Figure 3.4. Delta-Wye (Δ-Y)

b) Record the values in the spaces provided.
For Y-connection:

VL= .VØ

Page | 22
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

VØ= VL/

For Δ-connection:

VL= VØ

Input Voltage =70

TABLE – II (Primary and Secondary side Phase and Line Voltages for Δ – Y configuration)

Primary Secondary

VØ(Measured)

VL(Measured)

VØ(Calculated)

VL(Calculated)

Part III

a) The circuit shown in Figure 3.5 has three transformers connected in a wye delta
configuration.

Figure 3.5. Wye-Delta (Y-Δ)

b) Record the values in the spaces provided.
For Y-connection
VL= .VØ

VØ= VL/

For Δ-connection VL= VØ

Input Voltage =127V

TABLE – III (Primary and Secondary Phase and Line Voltages for Y – Δ Configuration)

Primary Secondary

Page | 23
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

VØ(Measured)

VL(Measured)

VØ(Calculated)

VL(Calculated)

Part IV

a) The circuit shown in Figure 3.6 has three transformers connected in a wye – wye
configuration.

Figure 3.6. Wye-Wye (Y-Y)

b) Record the values in the spaces provided.
For Y-connection
VL= .VØ

VØ= VL/
Input Voltage =127V

TABLE - IV (Primary and Secondary Phase and Line Voltages for Y – Y configuration)

Primary Secondary

VØ(Measured)

VL(Measured)

VØ(Calculated)

VL(Calculated)

Page | 24
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Which type of transformer connections are used at the distribution side?

2. Write the type of transformer used in lab with respect to cooling?

EXPERIMENT 4

MODELING OF TRANSFORMER
(A) OPEN CIRCUIT TEST
(B) SHORT CIRCUIT TEST
(C) VOLTAGE REGULATION
(D) EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
OBJECTIVE:
 Modeling of a transformer.
 To find the core resistance and reactance by using open circuit test. (No Load
Test).
 To perform short circuit test on transformer.
 To study the voltage regulation of the transformer.
 To study the efficiency of transformer.

BACKGROUND:

The three quantities must be determined in order to describe the transformer model:
1. The equivalent resistance of Primary and Secondary side.
2. The equivalent reactance of Primary and Secondary side.
3. The resistance of the core.
4. The reactance of the core (Magnetization Reactance)
After finding these values we can draw approximate equivalent circuit model of
transformer. The equivalent circuit of transformer is shown in Figure 4.1

Page | 25
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 4.1. Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Figure 4.2 shows the approximate equivalent circuit of transformer.

Figure 4.2. Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

The mentioned quantities can be determined by performing the following two tests:
1. Open-circuit test
2. Short circuit test.

An approximate method to determine the resistance of the core and the magnetization
reactance one has to perform the open circuit.

Open Circuit Test:

The resistance and inductances in a transformer are necessary to find. It is really

important that one would find out these values for modeling the approximate model of
transformer. In order to perform the open circuit test of the transformer, the secondary
side of the transformer is left open. The full rated line voltage is being applied at the
primary side of transformer. If you look at the figure drawn above it is clear that in such a
test, the input current flows through the excitation branch of the transformer. The

Page | 26
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

equivalent resistance of the primary and secondary windings is too small as compared to
the core ( and ) so they will not create significance difference. So, all the input voltage will
drop at the excitation branch. The circuit diagram for open circuit test is shown in Figure
4.3

Figure 4.3. Open Circuit Test of Transformer

Short Circuit Test:

The short circuit test is performed by taking care of the applied voltage. In a short circuit
test the secondary side is short circuited while the input voltage is applied to the primary
side of the transformer. While applying input voltage, one must take precautions not to
exceed it beyond a safe level. So it is important to make it sure that the voltage applied
should be within the limits otherwise the windings of the transformer can burn out. In the
short circuit test the negligible current flows through the excitation branch so most of the
current flow through primary and secondary windings. The short circuit test is used to find
the equivalent resistance and reactance of the primary and secondary windings. The
circuit diagram for short circuit test is shown in Figure 4.4

Figure 4.4. Short Circuit Test of Transformer

Voltage regulation:
An ideal transformer has no series impedance in it. But in case of real transformer there is
the series impedance within it. The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load

Page | 27
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

even if the input voltage remains constant. So, to conveniently compare transformers in
this respect, it is customary to define a quantity called as voltage regulation. Full load
voltage regulation is the quantity that compares the output voltage of a transformer at no
load with the output voltage at full load.

The voltage regulation can be found mathematically by using another formula.

For an ideal transformer VR = 0%. In case of real transformer, the voltage regulation is
not equal to zero. It varies depending on the kind of load.

The circuit diagram for finding Voltage Regulation is shown in Figure 4.5

Figure 4.5. Voltage regulation

Efficiency

Transformers are also compared and judged depending on their efficiencies. The
efficiency of a device is defined by the following formula.

Since the input power comprises of both the output power along with losses so it is quite
evident that we have to include the losses to evaluate the efficiency of transformer. There
are two kinds of losses in a transformer. These losses include the core losses and the
copper losses. When we include both of these losses the expression gets changed. The
new expression for the efficiency of transformer is given below.

Page | 28
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

PROCEDURE:

Open Circuit Test

1. Make the connection as show in diagram carefully.

2. Apply the full line voltage to the primary side of the transformer.
3. Measure the input voltage, input current and the power of the transformer.
4. Determine the power factor of input current by using the following formula.

5. Measure the magnitude and angle of excitation impedance.

6. The admittance is calculated by using and .

Short Circuit Test

1. Apply the line voltage to the primary side of the transformer and increase the voltage
until the current through the secondary windings is equal to its rated value.
2. Measure the input voltage, input current and the power of the transformer.
3. Determine the power factor of input current by using the following formula.

4. Measure the magnitude and angle of excitation impedance.

5. The short circuit impedance is calculated by using the measured values of and.

Voltage Regulation

1) Using your Transformer Trainer connect the circuit as shown in Figure 4.5. Turn on
the power supply and adjust for exactly rated Vac as indicated by volt-meter V1.
2) Apply the rated Voltage on the low voltage side of transformer.

Page | 29
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

3) Place all of the Resistance Module switches in their open position for zero load
current.
4) Measure and record the output voltage E2which is the voltage at no load
5) Now switch the resistance modules in such a way that the maximum load is being
applied at
the transformer.
6) Note down the value of E2 at this load. This is equal to full load voltage.
7) Calculate the transformer regulation using the no load and full load output voltages.

Efficiency

1. Using your Transformer Trainer connect the circuit as shown in Figure 4.4.
2. Connect an ammeter on the high voltage side to measure the Current Is.
3. Switch all of the Resistance Module switches to give a constant load.
4. Turn on the power supply and adjust for exactly rated Vac as indicated by volt-meter
V1
5. Apply the rated Voltage on the low voltage side of transformer.
6. Measure and record the output voltage E2= Vs which is the voltage at a specified
load.
7. Measure and record the output current Is which is the current at a specified load.
8. Power factor is dependent on the type of load.
9. Calculate the specified copper losses and core losses.
10. Calculate the transformer efficiency by using calculated values

MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS:

Open Circuit Test

Voc=

Ioc =

Poc =

Short Circuit Test

Vsc =

Isc =

Psc =

Parameters found are:

Rc = …………. .

Page | 30
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Xm = …………..

Req = …………..

Xeq = …………..

Voltage Regulation

Efficiency

Vs =

Is =

Parameters found are:

VR =

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Why the voltage on primary side of transformer is kept low?

2. While performing experiment on which side you referred your transformer?
Primary or secondary.
3. What is voltage regulation? Why voltage regulation is important?
4. What are the advantages offered by a three-terminal regulator?
5. What are the factors that affect the secondary voltage of a transformer?
6. At ideal cases what will be the percent of regulation?
7. What is difference between input (line) regulation and load regulation?
8. Does the primary winding VA equal the secondary winding VA for every value of
load in part 1? Explain.

Page | 31
Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Page | 32
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

EXPERIMENT NO 5

NO LOAD AND LOAD CHARACTERISTICS CURVE OF SELF

EXCITED DC SHUNT GENERATOR
OBJECTIVE:
 To observe the no load characteristics of separately exited DC shunt generator
(open circuit characteristics curve O.C.C).
 To draw the load characteristics curve of self-excited D.C shunt generator

BACKGROUND:

(A) No Load Characteristics

The Generators in which field magnets are energized by the current supplied by them are
called Self excited generators. In these types of generators, field coils are internally
connected with the armature. Due to residual magnetism, some flux is always present in
the poles. When the armature is rotated, some emf is induced; hence some induced
current is produced. This small current flows through the field coil as well as the load and
thereby strengthening the pole flux. As the pole flux strengthened, which will produce
more armature emf, which cause further increase of current through the field. This
increased field current further raises armature emf and this phenomenon continues until
the excitation reaches its rated value.

The magnetization characteristics also known as “No load” or “Open circuit”

characteristics are the relation between emf generated and field current at a given speed.

Due to residual magnetism in the poles, some emf is generated even when filed current is
zero. Hence the curve starts a little way up. It is seen that the first part of the curve is
practically straight. This is due the fact that at low flux densities reluctance of iron path is
being negligible, total reluctance is given by air gap reluctance which is constant. Hence
the flux and consequently the generated emf are directly proportional to exciting current.
However, at high flux densities iron
path reluctance is being appreciable and straight relation between emf and field current
no longer holds good. In other words, saturation of poles starts. The circuit diagram for No
Load characteristics is shown in Figure 5.1

Page | 33
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 5.1. Circuit Diagram for No Load Characteristics

(B) Load Characteristics

Load characteristic curve is the graphical representation which shows change in terminal
voltage with respect to change in load. After building up of voltage, if a shunt generator is
loaded then terminal voltage drops with increase in load current. There are three main
reasons for the drop of terminal voltage for a shunt generator under load.
i) Armature reaction

Armature reaction is the effect of magnetic field set up by the armature current on the
distribution of flux under main poles of a generator. Due to demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction, pole flux is weakened and so induced emf in the armature is
decreased.

ii) Armature resistance

As the load current increases, more voltage is consumed in the resistance of armature
circuit. Hence the terminal voltage () is decreased where “E” is the emf induced in
armature under load condition.

iii) Drop in terminal voltage

The drop in terminal voltage () due to armature resistance and armature reaction results
in decreased field current, which further reduces emf induced.
For a shunt generator
Ra = 9.7 Ω
=+

The circuit diagram for Load Characteristics is shown in Figure 5.2

Page | 34
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 5.2. Circuit Diagram for Load Characteristics

PROCEDURE:

(A) No Load Characteristics

1. Connect the shunt field to armature terminal through the ammeter, switch and
rheostat.
2. Connect the multi-range voltmeter across the terminals of armature.
3. Increase the voltage of permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor (prime mover) by the
help of power supply until it reaches at normal speed (i.e. 110V DC).
4. Note the reading of voltmeter which indicates the voltage due to residual
magnetism.
5. Close field switch and excite the field at low current.
6. Increase the field current in steps and note the voltage each time.
7. Take at least 5 readings.
8. Tabulate the readings in Table - I and draw the curve between armature induced
emf and
Field current

(B) Load Characteristics

1. Make the connections as shown in Figure 5.2.

2. Increase the voltage of permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor (prime mover) by the
help of power supply until it reaches at normal speed (i.e. 110V DC).
3. Increase the voltage of permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor (prime mover) by the
help of power supply until it reaches at normal speed.
4. When motor reaches rated speed, close the shunt field switch.

Page | 35
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

5. Now connect load to the armature terminals through ammeter.

6. Close the switch of load and vary the load current by means of load rheostat.
7. Note down the meter readings from all meters carefully and note them in Table –
II.

OBSERVATIONS:

(A) No Load Characteristics

TABLE – I (Internal Generated Voltage corresponding to Field Current)

INTERNALLY GENERATED
FIELD CURRENT
Sr.No. VOLTAGE or TERMINAL
IF (A)
VOLTAGE / VT(V)

No Load Characteristics Curve:

Page | 36
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

(B) Load Characteristics

TABLE – II (Terminal Voltages corresponding to Load current and Field current)

Sr. No. If(A) IL(A) Ia=If + IL(A) VT(V) =(V)

Load Characteristics Curve:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Draw the magnetization curve of self-excited Dc shunt Generator?

2. Why the curve starts somewhat above the origin?

Page | 37
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

3. The voltage increases rapidly at first and then changes a little in value at higher
excitations.
4. At which point terminal voltage of DC shunt Generator was maximum and why?
5. What are the different types of Self excited DC Generators?

Page | 38
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

EXPERIMENT 6

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR
OBJECTIVE:
To draw the internal and external characteristics of separately excited DC shunt
generator.

BACKGROUND:
The generators in which field coils are excited from some external source for e.g.
batteries, are called separately excited DC generators. They are of low voltage and high
current rating. They are used in Electroplating, Electro traction and Electro Refining of
Metals. The load or external characteristic of a generator is the relation between the
terminal voltage and load current IL. The characteristic expressed the manner in which
the voltage across the load varies with I, the value of load current. The internal or total
characteristic of a generator is the relation between the emf actually induced in the
generator and the armature current. The internal characteristic of the generator, which
is separately excited, can be obtained as below:

Let:
= Terminal voltage, = Armature current, = Armature resistance

Then,

Ia = IL

Therefore, if we add drop of armature (IaRa) to terminal voltage Vt we get actually

induced emf (E). The three main reasons for decrease in terminal voltage of Shunt
Generator under load condition are armature reaction, armature resistance and drop in
terminal voltage as discussed above. The circuit diagram for determining Internal and
External Characteristics is shown in Figure 6.1

Page | 39
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 6.1. Circuit Diagram for Internal and External Characteristics

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the circuit as shown in circuit diagram in Figure 6.1.

2. Increase the voltage of permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor (prime mover)
with the help of DC power supply until it reaches at normal speed.
3. When motor reaches rated speed, close the shunt field switch.
4. Now connect load to the armature terminals through ammeter.
5. Close the switch of load and vary the load current by means of load rheostat.
6. Note down the meter readings from all meters carefully and note them in
Table - I

OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE – I (Terminal Voltage corresponding to Field and Load Current)

Sr.
IL (A) IF (A) VT (V) Ea = Vt + Ia Ra (V)
No.

Page | 40
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Internal Characteristics:

External Characteristics:

Page | 41
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Draw the internal characteristics of separately excited Dc shunt Generator?

2. Draw the external characteristics of separately excited Dc shunt Generator?
3. Why the terminal voltage across DC shunt generator decreases as the load
increases?
4. What is the conclusion at which you reached from the above experiment?

EXPERIMENT 7

DESIGN A SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT FOR DC SHUNT

MOTOR (DESIGN EXPERIMENT)
OBJECTIVE:
 Design a control circuit to operate the DC Shunt motor in a range of speed

PROBLEM STATEMENT:
You have to design a control circuit that operates the DC Shunt Motor in a range
between its Rated Speed (SRated) and Speed (S2). You have to select the value of Speed
(S2) by putting your Section no and last two digits of your Registration no in the given
formula:

You are required to use only the following resistors or a combination of these to achieve
your desired value of resistor
4.7Ω, 10Ω, 47Ω, 100Ω, 220Ω, 1kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 4.7kΩ, 10kΩ, 12kΩ

You are required design a value of resistor for the following values of speeds

TABLE – I (Designed Resistors corresponding to speeds)

Speed Speed Resistor

S2 – 50

Page | 42
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

S2 – 100

S2 – 150

Implement the circuit in lab after designing a resistor.

Measure the speed using a Tachometer.
Calculate the error between measured and desired speed interpret the difference.
Make a valid conclusion.

OBSERVATIONS:
TABLE – II (Measured speeds corresponding to designed resistors)

Sr. No. Resistor Speed (rpm)

NOTE:
Rated Voltage of DC MOTOR=110 V
Rated Field current =0.26 A
Rated Speed=1000 RPM

Page | 43
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

EXPERIMENT 8

SPEED CONTROL OF DC SERIES MOTOR

OBJECTIVE:
 Speed control of a DC series motor by using flux control method.
 Speed control of a DC series motor by using armature resistance control
method.

BACKGROUND:

(A) Using Flux Control

Dc series motor gets their name from the way that their armature and field winding are
connected together in a series circuit. Their prominent characteristics are high starting
torque and poor speed regulation. Their main disadvantage is that they cannot operate
safely in an unloaded condition. They are widely used for starting heavy industrial high
torque loads such as cranes, elevators, trolleys etc.

In flux control method, a variable resistance also called flux diverter is connected in
parallel with the field winding. Its purpose is to divide some portion of line current from
series field winding, there by weakening the flux and increasing the speed since speed
is inversely proportional to flux . The lowest speed obtainable is that corresponding to
zero current in the diverter and it is also the normal speed of the motor. Consequently,
this method can only provide speed above the normal speed of motor. The circuit
diagram for speed control of series motor using Flux Control Method is shown in Figure
8.1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Page | 44
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 8.1. Speed control of DC series motor using flux control

(B) Using Armature Resistance Control

Dc series motor gets their name from the way that their armature and field winding are
connected together in a series circuit. Their prominent characteristics are high starting
torque and poor speed regulation. Their main disadvantage is that they cannot operate
safely in an unloaded condition. They are widely used for starting heavy industrial high
torque loads such as cranes, elevators, trolleys etc.

In Armature resistance control method, a variable resistance is directly connected in

series with the supply to the motor. This reduces the voltage available across the
armature and hence the speed falls. By changing the value of variable resistance, any
speed below the normal speed can be obtained. This is the most common method to
control the speed of DC series motor. Although this method has poor speed regulation,
but this has no significance in case of series motors, because they are used in varying
speed regulations. The loss of power in series resistance for many applications of series
motors is not too serious, since in these applications the control is utilized for large
portion of time for reducing speed under light load conditions and is only used
intermittently when the motor is carrying full load. The circuit diagram for speed control
of series motor using Armature Control Method is shown in Figure 8.2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Page | 45
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 8.2. Speed control of DC series motor using armature resistance control

PROCEDURE:

(A) Using Flux Control

1. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram by placing a variable

resistance in parallel with the field winding.
2. Keep the motor starting rheostat at its maximum position and field rheostat at its
minimum position while starting motor.
3. Start the motor by pressing switch "ON" without load and provide 40 volts approx.
4. Adjust the motor start rheostat to its minimum value.
5. Increase the value of field flux diverter step by step and take readings of field
current and speed from digital tachometer at every step and note them in Table -
I. Adjust the flux diverter to note the maximum speed at which motor can be
operated safely.

(B) Using Armature Resistance Control

1. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram by placing a variable

resistance in series with the armature and field winding.
2. Keep the motor starting rheostat at its maximum position and field rheostat at its
minimum position while starting motor.
3. Start the motor by pressing switch "ON" without load and provide 40 volts approx.
4. Adjust the motor start rheostat to its minimum value.
5. Increase the value of rheostat step by step and take readings of armature voltage
and speed from digital tachometer at every step and note them in Table - II.
Adjust the rheostat to note the minimum speed at which motor can be operated
safely.

OBSERVATIONS:
(A) Using Flux Control

TABLE – I (Speed corresponding to change in field current)

Page | 46
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Field Current If
Sr.No. Armature Current IA (A) Speed N (rpm)
(A)

Graph between Field Current and Speed:

(B) Using Armature Resistance Control

TABLE – II (Speed corresponding to Armature Voltage)

Sr. No Armature Voltage (V) Speed (RPM)

1
2
3
4
5

Graph between Armature Voltage and Speed:

Page | 47
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1) Why it is not suitable to start the DC series without load?

2) Plot the speed and armature current characteristics of DC series motor?
3) By using armature diverter, what range of speed of DC motor can be obtained?
4) If the rated speed of DC series motor is 15000 rpm and you want to run the
motor on a speed of 1000 rpm, which method would you choose to achieve the
desired speed and why?
5) Plot the armature voltage vs speed at different readings?
6) What are the factors on which the speed of Dc series motor depends?

EXPERIMENT 9

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

OBJECTIVE:
To get familiarize with voltage regulation of synchronous generator

BACKGROUND:

It is clear that when change in load occurs, there is a change in terminal voltage of
alternator. Magnitude of this change not only depends on the load but also on the load
power factor. Voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the “Rise in voltage when
full load is removed (field excitation and speed remaining the same) divided by the rated
terminal voltage.

% voltage regulation=

(-V) is the arithmetical difference.

The circuit diagram for determination of synchronous generator is shown in Figure 9.1

Page | 48
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 9.1. Voltage regulation of synchronous generator

PROCEDURE:

In case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading procedure is
as follows:

1. The No Load voltage is set to be 110V using field current rheostat.

2. The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is
adjusted to its rated value V.
3. The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for purpose)
indicate the rated values at defined P.F.
4. Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and field excitation are kept
constant. The open circuit or no-load voltage is read. So, voltage regulation can
be calculated using formula given above.

OBSERVATIONS:
Rated Voltage =

Rated Load Current =

Rated Power =

RPMs =

Power Factor =
TABLE – I (Voltage Regulation corresponding to different values of Field Current)

Sr.No. No load Full Load Field Current Voltage Regulation

Phase Phase Voltage () (V.R)
Voltage (V) (V)

Page | 49
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1) What is meaning of V.R?

2) What is significance of V.R.?
3) What should be the value of V.R. in ideal cases?

EXPERIMENT 10

MODELING OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

OBJECTIVE:
 To find the equivalent circuit of the synchronous generator by finding its
parameter.
 To learn how to find out the resistance of armature winding.
 To draw magnetization curve of synchronous generator
 To perform short circuit test on synchronous generator.

BACKGROUND:

The three quantities must be determined in order to describe the generator model:
1. The relationship between field current and flux (and therefore between the field
current IF and the internal generated voltage.
2. The synchronous reactance.

Page | 50
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

3. The armature resistance.

After finding these values we can draw synchronous generator equivalent model as
given in Figure 10.1

Figure 10.1: Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit

Since – for balanced loads – the three phases of a synchronous generator are identical
except for phase angles, so per-phase equivalent circuits are often used.
The above-mentioned quantities can be determined by performing the following three
tests:
1. DC test
2. Open circuit test
3. Short circuit test

(A) DC Test (To find the Armature resistance)

The purpose of the DC test is to determine Ra. A variable DC voltage source is

connected between two stator terminals.
The DC source is adjusted to provide approximately rated stator current, and the
resistance between the two stator leads is determined from the voltmeter and ammeter
readings.
Then

If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator resistance is

If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase stator resistance is

The circuit diagram for DC Test when the stator is connected in Y-connected is shown
in Figure 10.2

Page | 51
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 10.2. DC test

(B) Open Circuit Test (Effect of Field Current on Internal Generated Voltage)

The magnitude of internal generated voltage induced in a given stator is

Where K is a constant, is rotation speed of rotor.

Since flux in the machine depends on the field current through it, the internal generated
voltage is a function of the rotor field current.

The generator is rotated at the rated speed, all the terminals are disconnected from
loads, the field current is set to zero first. Next, the field current is increased in steps
and the phase voltage (which is equal to the internal generated voltage EA since the
armature current is zero) is measured.

Therefore, it is possible to plot the dependence of the internal generated voltage on the
field current – the open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of the generator

Since the unsaturated core of the machine has a reluctance thousands of times lower
than the reluctance of the air-gap, the resulting flux increases linearly first. When the
saturation is reached, the core reluctance greatly increases causing the flux to increase
much slower with the increase of the mmf. The circuit diagram for open circuit test is
shown in Figure 10.3

Figure 10.3. Open circuit test

Page | 52
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

(C) Short Circuit Test

Figure 10.4. Short circuit test

PROCEDURE:

(A) DC Test
1. Connect the armature in star connection.
2. Make connections according to circuit diagram.
3. Apply Vdc across two phases of armature and note down the current Idc.
4. Calculate armature resistance using formula given above.
5. Take average.

(B) Open Circuit Test

1. Make the connection as show in Figure 10.3 carefully.
2. Run the rotor with help of prime mover at rated speed (PMDC).
3. Note down the line voltage at zero excitation. If there exist any voltage, this is due to
residual magnetism.
4. Now increase the field excitation step by step and note down the corresponding
values of generated voltage.
5. Draw a graph between generated voltage and field current.

(C) Short Circuit Test

1. The generator is rotated at the rated speed.

2. All the terminals are short-circuited through ammeters.
3. The field current is set to zero first. Next, the field current is increased in steps and the
Armature current IA is measured as the field current is increased.
4. Plot the graph between armature current (or line current) and the field current. The graph is a
Straight line since, for the short – circuited terminals, the magnitude of the armature current
Is:

Page | 53
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

OBSERVATIONS:
(A) DC Test
TABLE – 1 (Armature Resistance corresponding to Applied Voltage)

Sr. Applied Curren DC Resistance Armature

No. Voltage t (A) (Rdc) Resistance (Ra)
(V)
1
2
3
4

So average armature resistance = …………………

(B) Open Circuit Test

TABLE – II (Phase Voltage corresponding to field current)

Field Phase
Sr. No. Speed (RPM)
Current(A) Voltage(V)

(C) Short Circuit Test

TABLE – III (Synchronous Reactance)

Sr. No. RPM Phase Field Current Armature

Page | 54
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Voltage (V) (A) Current (A) Xs

An approximate method to determine the synchronous reactance XS at a given field

current:

1. Get the internal generated voltage EA from the OCC at that field current.

2. Get the short-circuit current IA, SC at that field current from the SCC.

3. Find XS from

Results

Parameters found are:

Ra=…………...

Xs=…………...

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1) What is importance of DC test?

2) How AC resistance differs from DC resistance?
3) Explain the graph plotted between If and Vp.
4) What is modeling of synchronous machine?

Page | 55
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

5) What are the parameters needed for modeling of Synchronous Machine?

6) Explain graph of and

EXPERIMENT 11

STARTING METHODS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

OBJECTIVE:
Learn how to start a synchronous motor. And why we need these methods to start
synchronous motor.

BACKGROUND:

Consider a 60 Hz synchronous motor.

When the power is applied to the stator windings, the rotor (and, therefore its magnetic
field BR) is stationary. The stator magnetic field BS starts sweeping around the motor at
synchronous speed.
Note that the induced torque on the shaft (τind= kBR*Bs) is zero at t = 0 since both
magnetic fields are aligned.

Page | 56
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

At t = 1/240 s the rotor has barely moved but the stator magnetic field BS has rotated by
900. Therefore, the torque on the shaft is non-zero and counter-clockwise.

At t = 1/120 s the rotor and stator magnetic fields point in opposite directions, and the
induced torque on the shaft is zero again.
At t = 3/240 s the stator magnetic fields point to the right, and the induced torque on the
shaft is non-zero but clockwise.
Finally, at t = 1/60 s the rotor and stator magnetic fields are aligned again, and the
induced torque on the shaft is zero.
During one electrical cycle, the torque was counter-clockwise and then clockwise, and
the average torque is zero. The motor will vibrate heavily and finally overheats

Three basic approaches can be used to safely start a synchronous motor:

1. Reduce the speed of the stator magnetic field to a low enough value that the
rotor can accelerate and two magnetic fields lock in during one half-cycle of field
rotation. This can be achieved by reducing the frequency of the applied electric
power (which used to be difficult but can be done now).
2. Use an external prime mover to accelerate the synchronous motor up to
synchronous speed, go through the paralleling procedure, and bring the machine
on the line as a generator. Next, turning off the prime mover will make the
synchronous machine a motor.
3. Use damper windings or Amortisseur windings.

We will use 2ndand 3rd method in the lab to start the synchronous motor.

(A) Method 1- Using Damper Winding

Page | 57
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

The torque acting on a synchronous machine is counter-clockwise and then clockwise

during one electrical cycle, and the average torque is zero. The motor will vibrate
heavily and finally overheats.
So, a synchronous machine cannot be started by direct applying the two supplies i.e. 3-
phase supply to Armature winding and DC supply to field winding. So, for this purpose
synchronous machines are always provided with Damper winding also known as
Amortisseur winding.
Damper windings are special bars laid into notches carved in the rotor face and then
shorted out on each end by a large shorting ring.

Figure 11.1. Damper Winding

Figure 11.2. Starting of synchronous motor by damper winding

(B) Method 2- Using Prime Mover

Page | 58
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

To use an external prime mover to accelerate the rotor of synchronous motor near to its
synchronous speed and then supply the rotor as well as stator. Care should be taken to
ensure that the direction of rotation of the rotor as well as that of the rotating magnetic
field of the stator is the same. This method is usually followed in the laboratory- the
synchronous machine is started as a generator and is then connected to the supply
mains by following the synchronization or paralleling procedure. Then the power supply
to the prime mover is disconnected so that the synchronous machine will continue to
operate as a motor.

Figure 11.3. Starting of synchronous motor using prime mover

PROCEDURE:

(A) Method 1- Using Damper Winding

1. First, main filed winding is short circuited.

2. Reduced voltage approximately 70V AC with is applied across stator terminals.
The motor starts up.
3. When it reaches a steady state speed a weak dc excitation i.e. 50V is applied by
removing the short circuit on the main filed winding. If excitation is sufficient, the
machine will be pulled into synchronism.
4. Full supply voltage is applied across stator terminals.
5. The motor may be operated at any desired P.F by changing the D.C excitation.

(B) Method 2- Using Prime Mover

1. Apply 3-phase supply to armature circuit.

2. Rotate the armature with help of prime mover at rated speed.
3. Apply field excitation.

Page | 59
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

4. Vary field excitation until machine runs at constant speed. At that instant
machine interlocks electrically.

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Write down different parameters to define the synchronous machine rating.

2. What do you mean by rated value i.e. rated voltage, rated current, rated
power, rated speed etc.
3. What is the difference between induction machine and synchronous
machine?
4. What happens when field circuit of synchronous motor is disconnected?

EXPERIMENT 12

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

OBJECTIVE:

 To learn how armature current varies with its field current.

 To have the understanding of torque and speed of synchronous motor.

BACKGROUND:

(A) Construction of V Curve (Effect Of Field Excitation On Armature Current)

The V-curves of a synchronous motor show how armature current varies with its field
current when motor input is kept constant.

Page | 60
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

These are obtained by plotting A.C. armature current against D.C. field current while
motor input is kept constant and are so called because of their shapes.
The magnitude of Ia varies with excitation. Current has large value for both low and high
values of excitation (though it is lagging for low and leading for higher excitation). In
between it has minimum value corresponding to certain excitation.

Figure 12.1. Construction of V curve

(B) Torque Speed Curve

Steady state speed of synchronous motor is constant from no load to maximum torque
that motor can supply (pullout torque).

Page | 61
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Figure 12.2. Torque speed curve

PROCEDURE

(A) Construction Of V-Curve

To draw these curves experimentally the motor is run from constant voltage and
constant frequency bus bars. Power input to motor is kept constant at a definite value.
Next, field current is increased in small steps and corresponding armature currents are
noted. When plotted, we get V curves for a particular constant motor input.

(B) Torque Speed Curve

1. Couple synchronous motor with PMDC generator mechanically.
2. Run synchronous motor using any of above-mentioned methods.
3. Now start increasing load on the generator in small steps.
4. Note down corresponding values of torque and speed.
5. Make a plot between torque and speed.

OBSERVATIONS;

(A) Construction of V Curve

TABLE – I (Armature current corresponding to Field current)

Field Current Armature Current

Sr.No.
Ia (A)

Page | 62
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Curve between Field Current and Armature Current (V Curve):

(B) Torque Speed Curve

TABLE – II (Torque and Speed corresponding to Load)

Sr.No. Load Torque (N) Speed (ω)

(A) Torque Speed Curve

Page | 63
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1) What is the significance of V characteristics of synchronous motor?

2) What is the effect of dc excitation on power factor?
3) Draw graph between armature current and field current. It should be V
shaped.
4) Plot graph between Torque and Speed.
5) Describe the graph between torque and speed.
6) What is the effect of increasing load on torque?
7) What is the effect of increasing load on speed?

Page | 64
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

EXPERIMENT 13

3 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR (CAGE ROTOR)

OBJECTIVE:
To study the torque speed curve of the induction motor (Cage Rotor)

BACKGROUND:

The cage rotor induction motor is quite different from the synchronous motor so its
behavior will also vary. The induction machine is the one which has only the
Amortisseur windings. The machine is called as an induction machine because the
voltage is being induced in the rotor of the induction machine rather than being supplied
by the external source. The torque of the machine varies by changing the load. The
behavior of an induction machine is being observed in this experiment.

Figure 13.1. Torque speed curve of Induction motor (Cage rotor)

PROCEDURE:

1. According to the given diagram connect the different electrical wires.

2. Supply the Three phase voltage to the 3 Phase cage asynchronous Motor.
3. In order to take necessary precautions, connect a relay and thermal connector
between the two.
4. The 3 Phase cage Asynchronous motor is coupled to the DC motor that acts as a
generator.

Page | 65
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

5. Connect the generator to the Torque Power Measurement gauge.

6. The load is connected to the Generator through an ammeter.
7. Switch on the 3 Phase power supply and measure the Torque, Speed, Power
and current at no load
8. Now increase the load by a single step and note down the readings in the given
table.
9. You can measure the speed through a tachometer.
10. Find the torque using formula of. Keep in mind that w is the speed in radians per
second.
11. Plot the graph of Torque vs. Speed from the data recorded in the table.

OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE – I (Power, Torque and Speed corresponding to Load)

Sr. No Rload(Ω) Speed (rpm) Power (W) Torque (Nm) Current(A)

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1) Draw a graph between Torque and Speed from the above noted values.
2) How much torque can an induction motor supply at the starting conditions?
3) How does the speed of an induction motor vary as the load gets changed? Explain it
with respect to the graph you plotted.
4) What is the difference between cage rotor and wound rotor?

Page | 66
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

EXPERIMENT 14

STARTING AND TORQUE SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF 3

PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR (WOUND ROTOR)
OBJECTIVE:
 To observe the torque speed characteristics of the induction motor (Wound
Rotor)
 To observe the starting of the induction motor (Wound Rotor)

BACKGROUND:

(A) Torque Speed Characteristics

A wound rotor has a complete set of three phase windings that are mirror images of
stator windings. The wound rotor induction motor is quite different form cage rotor just
because of its construction of rotor. The wound rotor induction motor has a slightly
different behavior as compared to that of cage rotor. The torque of a motor depends on
a number of factors. In this experiment we will discuss the torque speed curve of the
induction motor.

Figure 14.1. Torque speed curve of Induction motor

(B) Starting of 3 Phase Induction Motor (Wound Rotor)

Page | 67
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

3 Phase asynchronous motor is also called as an induction motor. Induction motors do not
present the types of starting problems that synchronous motors do. In many cases, induction
motors can be started by simply connecting them to the power line. However, there are
sometimes good reasons for not doing so. For wound rotor motors the starting current can be
achieved at very low currents by inserting extra resistance in the rotor circuit during starting.
This extra resistance not only increases the starting torque but also reduces the starting current.

Figure 14.2. Starting of Induction motor

PROCEDURE:

(A) Torque Speed Characteristics

1. According to the given diagram connect the different electrical wires.

2. Supply the Three phase voltage to the 3 Phase cage asynchronous Motor.
3. In order to take necessary precautions, connect a relay and thermal connector
between the two.
4. The 3 Phase cage Asynchronous motor is coupled to the DC motor that acts as a
generator.
5. Connect the generator to the Torque Power Measurement gauge.
6. The load is connected to the Generator through an ammeter.
7. The rotor that is Y-connected internally should be connected to a rheostat in a Y-
connection
8. Switch on the 3 Phase power supply and keep the connection of Y-connected
rheostat to the rotor for 20 seconds
9. After 20 seconds, remove the rheostat and short the windings of the rotor.
10. Observe the behavior of asynchronous motor.
11. Measure the Torque, Speed, Power and Current at no load.
12. Now increase the load by a single step and note down the readings in the given
table.

Page | 68
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

13. You can measure the speed through a tachometer.

14. Find the torque using formula of Keep in mind that w is the speed in radians per
second.
15. Plot the graph of Torque vs. Speed from the data recorded in the table

(B) Starting of 3 Phase Induction Motor

According to the given diagram connect the different electrical wires.

1. Supply the Three phase voltage to the 3 Phase cage asynchronous Motor.
2. In order to take necessary precautions, connect a relay and thermal connector
between the two.
3. The 3 Phase cage Asynchronous motor is coupled to the DC motor that acts as a
generator.
4. Connect the generator to the Torque Power Measurement gauge.
5. The load is connected to the Generator through an ammeter.
6. The rotor that is Y-connected internally should be connected to a rheostat in a Y-
connection
7. Switch on the 3 Phase power supply and keep the connection of Y-connected
rheostat to the rotor for 20 seconds
8. After 20 seconds, remove the rheostat and short the windings of the rotor.
9. Observe the behavior of asynchronous motor.
10. Measure the Torque, Speed, Power and Current at no load.

OBSERVATIONS:

(A) Torque Speed Characteristics

TABLE – I (Speed, Power and Torque corresponding to Load)

Sr. No Rload Speed Power Torque Current

1.

2.

Page | 69
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

3.

4.

5.

(B) Starting of 3 Phase Induction Motor

Torque:

Speed:

Power:

Current:

POST LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Draw a graph between Torque and Speed from the above noted values.
2. Write the relation between torque and Power. How are they related?
3. What is the speed of an induction motor at the synchronous speed?
4. What do you know about the pullout torque or break down torque? Can you
identify this term in your own graph?
5. Why the starting torque on the motor is slightly larger than the full-load torque?
6. Why the extra resistance is being added for the starting of the induction motor?
7. On what parameters does the starting current of an induction motor depend?
8. Is there any other method for starting the induction motor besides adding
resistance? If yes then explain it?

Page | 70
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria

Labs with projects

1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 15%
3. Final evaluation 35%
a. Project Implementation 60%
b. Project report and quiz 40%

Labs without projects

1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 20%
3. Final Evaluation 30%
i. Experiment 60%
ii. Lab report, pre and post
experiment quiz 40%

Notice:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of
copying may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be reported to
DC. This may result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.

Page | 71
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Appendix B: Safety around Electricity

In all the Electrical Engineering (EE) labs, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen
accidents during conduct of lab experiments, following preventive measures and safe
practices shall be adopted:

 Remember that the voltage of the electricity and the available electrical current in
EE labs has enough power to cause death/injury by electrocution. It is around
50V/10 mA that the “cannot let go” level is reached. “The key to survival is to
decrease our exposure to energized circuits.”
 If a person touches an energized bare wire or faulty equipment while grounded,
electricity will instantly pass through the body to the ground, causing a harmful,
potentially fatal, shock.
 Each circuit must be protected by a fuse or circuit breaker that will blow or “trip”
when its safe carrying capacity is surpassed. If a fuse blows or circuit breaker
trips repeatedly while in normal use (not overloaded), check for shorts and other
faults in the line or devices. Do not resume use until the trouble is fixed.
 It is hazardous to overload electrical circuits by using extension cords and multi-
plug outlets. Use extension cords only when necessary and make sure they are
heavy enough for the job. Avoid creating an “octopus” by inserting several plugs
into a multi-plug outlet connected to a single wall outlet. Extension cords should
ONLY be used on a temporary basis in situations where fixed wiring is not
feasible.
 Dimmed lights, reduced output from heaters and poor monitor pictures are all
symptoms of an overloaded circuit. Keep the total load at any one time safely
below maximum capacity.
 If wires are exposed, they may cause a shock to a person who comes into
contact with them. Cords should not be hung on nails, run over or wrapped

Page | 72
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

around objects, knotted or twisted. This may break the wire or insulation. Short
circuits are usually caused by bare wires touching due to breakdown of
insulation. Electrical tape or any other kind of tape is not adequate for insulation!
 Electrical cords should be examined visually before use for external defects such
as: Fraying (worn out) and exposed wiring, loose parts, deformed or missing
parts, damage to outer jacket or insulation, evidence of internal damage such as
pinched or crushed outer jacket. If any defects are found the electric cords
should be removed from service immediately.
 Pull the plug not the cord. Pulling the cord could break a wire, causing a short
circuit.
 Plug your heavy current consuming or any other large appliances into an outlet
that is not shared with other appliances. Do not tamper with fuses as this is a
potential fire hazard. Do not overload circuits as this may cause the wires to heat
and ignite insulation or other combustibles.
 Keep lab equipment properly cleaned and maintained.
 Ensure lamps are free from contact with flammable material. Always use lights
bulbs with the recommended wattage for your lamp and equipment.
 Be aware of the odor of burning plastic or wire.
 ALWAYS follow the manufacturer recommendations when using or installing new
lab equipment. Wiring installations should always be made by a licensed
electrician or other qualified person. All electrical lab equipment should have the
label of a testing laboratory.
 Be aware of missing ground prong and outlet cover, pinched wires, damaged
casings on electrical outlets.
 Inform Lab engineer / Lab assistant of any failure of safety preventive measures
and safe practices as soon you notice it. Be alert and proceed with caution at all
times in the laboratory.
 Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the EE Labs.
 Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a
direction or part of a procedure, ASK YOUR LAB ENGINEER / LAB ASSISTANT
BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH THE ACTIVITY.
 Never work alone in the laboratory. No student may work in EE Labs without the
presence of the Lab engineer / Lab assistant.
 Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Carefully follow all
instructions, both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed.
 Be prepared for your work in the EE Labs. Read all procedures thoroughly
before entering the laboratory. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay,
practical jokes, and pranks are dangerous and prohibited.
 Always work in a well-ventilated area.

Page | 73
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

 Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and
tidy at all times.
 Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. Do not wander around
the room, distract other students, startle other students or interfere with the
laboratory experiments of others.
 Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and
loose or baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must be tied
back, and dangling jewelry and baggy clothing must be secured. Shoes must
completely cover the foot.
 Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including
fire extinguisher. Know what to do if there is a fire during a lab period; “Turn off
equipment, if possible and exit EE lab immediately”.

Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab

Reports
Each student will maintain a lab notebook for each lab course. He will write a
report for each experiment he performs in his notebook. A format has been developed
for writing these lab reports.

For hardware-based labs, the format of the report will include:

1. Introduction: Introduce area explored in the experiment.

2. Objective: What are the learning goals of the experiment?
3. Measurements: In your own words write how the experiment is performed (Do
not copy/paste the procedure).
a. Issues: Which technical issues were faced during the performance of the
experiment and how they were resolved?
b. Graphs, if any
4. Conclusions: What conclusions can be drawn from the measurements?
5. Applications: Suggest a real-world application where this experiment may apply.
6. Answers to post lab questions (if any).

Sample Lab Report: Hardware Experiments

Introduction

Page | 74
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

An RC circuit is a first order circuit that utilizes a capacitor as an energy storage

element whereas a resistor as an energy wastage element. RC circuits are building
blocks of electronic devices and their thorough understanding is important in
comprehending advance engineering systems such as transistors and transmission
lines.

An RC circuit can be operated with both DC and AC sources. In this lab we study
transient response of RC circuits with a square wave as a DC source. During the DC
operation of an RC circuit the voltage across the capacitor or the resistor show energy
storing (capacitor charging) and dissipating (capacitor discharging via resistor)
mechanisms of the circuit. The capacitor charging or discharging curves then lead to
determine time constant of the circuit where the time constant signifies time required by
the RC circuit to store or waste energy.

Objective:

To study transient response of a series RC circuit

Measurements:

The circuit used for the experiment is shown in Fig. 1. Both input (a square wave)
and output (voltage across capacitor) waveforms are monitored on an oscilloscope. The
capacitor charging is observed during "on" part of the square waveform whereas the
capacitor discharging is observed during "off" part of the square waveform (Fig. 2). We
measure the time constant from the capacitor charging or discharging curve. While
keeping the capacitor value constant, we also measure time constants with various
resistor values (Table 1).

Fig.1. The circuit used in the experiment

Page | 75
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Issues:

Mention any issue(s) you encountered during the experiment and how they were
resolved

Conclusions:

From the measurements following conclusions can be drawn:

a) The capacitor charging and discharging curves are exponential.

b) The time constant is directly proportional to the resistor value.

Both of the above conclusions are also easily verifiable by solving differential
equation for the RC circuit.

Applications:

An RC circuit can be employed for a camera flash. The capacitor discharges through
the flash light during a picture taking event.

INPUT VOLTAGE VOLTAGE ACROSS A CAPACITOR

Fig. 2. Input and Output waveforms

TABLE I. Time constant as a function of the resistor values

Resistance 270 Ω 330 Ω 470 Ω 1 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 3.3 kΩ

(Nominal)

Page | 76
 Lab Manual of Electromechanical Systems

Resistance

(Measured)

Time constant

(Calculated)

Time constant

(Measured)

Capacitance

(Measured)

Page | 77