Chapter4

MUSLIM NATIONALISM THE EVOLUTION OF TWO-NATION THEORY

Meanings of Two-Nation Theory

The term Two-Nation Theory has often appeared to be a difficult connotation for the readers. However,
it is not that difficult to understand and define the term. It requires a deep and intensive observation of
the historical facts which contributed a great deal towards the development and origin of the Two-Nation
concept.

The Two-Nation theory in its simplest way, means the cultural, Political, religious, economic, and social
dissimilarities between the two major communities, Hindus, and Muslims, of the sub-continent. These
differences of outlook. in fact. Were greatly instrumental in giving rise for partition of India into two
independent states. It was mainly due to these differences of culture, religion, and history that the
Muslims of the sub-continent, at last, decided to demand a separate homeland in order to provide
safeguards to their separate and distinct identity as a nation.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE TWO-NATION THEORY (HISTORICAL BACKGROUND)

Quaid-i-Azam once said, "Pakistan was established the day when the first Indian national embraced
Islam." The saying of the Quaid-i-Azam proves that two nationalities were born the day the first Indian
national entered the fold of Islam, meaning thereby that a separate Nation was born in the sub-continent
whose understanding of life was quite distinct from the other nationalities.

Hindus and Muslims, in spite of living together for centuries, could not forget their individual cultures and
civilization and kept away from each other. They could not amalgamate in each other's way of life to
become one nation. Al-Beruni who came to India with Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1001 A.D. records his
experience of the Hindu outlook and way of life in his famous book Kitab-ul-Hind and says, "the Hindu
fanaticism is directed against those who do not belong to them-and more particularly against the
Muslims whom they call as Maleecha impure, and forbid having any relation with them, be it by any
kind of relationship by sitting, eating, and drinking with

“The Hindu society maintained this peculiar character over the centuries. The two societies, Hindu and
Muslim, like two streams, have sometimes touched but never merged, each following its separate
course." The main reason for this difference of culture, civilization and outlook was the religion of Islam
which cannot be assimilated in any other system. These differences, in fact, were responsible for giving
rise to the Muslim feelings of separateness which compelled them to demand a separate homeland. These
differences are discussed in detail in the following lines to give a clearer picture of the Hindu antagonistic
approach towards the Muslims.

1. Religious Differences

Hindus and Muslims belong to different religions, Hinduisms, and Islam, which stand poles apart in their
attitudes of life. Both religions differ with each other in their basic philosophies. Islam believes in Tauheed
(oneness of God.) In Islam there is no one who could share the sovereignty of God and to consider anyone
equal to God is the greatest sin in Islam. On the other hand, Hinduism 1s based on the concept of multiple
gods. How a nation which believed in the multiplicity of gods could repose its belief in oneness of God and
there lies the basic difference between Hindu and Muslim way of thinking.
Islam is based on monotheism and believes in the equality of mankind before law, while Hinduism is
immensely flexible in its attitude towards God. 1slam gives a message of peace and brotherhood. It
teaches toleration, social justice, and equality. Belief in God, the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) and
Holy Book are the basic tenets of Islam, whereas there is no such concept in Hinduism. Islam does not
believe in colour, caste, creed, or social status. No importance has been given to geographical or linguistic
affiliations in Islam. Hinduism, unlike Islam, preaches the most ignoble caste system which has divided the
society into four privileged and under-privileged classes as Brahmins, Kashtriya, Vaish and Shudra. Islam
deals with every aspect of life while Hinduism deals with few selected aspects of life. Hinduism lacks
homogeneity and its approach is very narrow towards life, while Islam is a universal concept with more
cohesive approach towards life.

l There is a long history of conflict between Islam and Hinduism. They co-existed but could not integrate.
R.C. Maujamdar says, "The followers of Islam settled in large number, but they did not merge
themselves into the Hindu pattern. So, for the first time in the Indian history two distinct communities
and cultures stood face to face and India was permanently divided into two powerful units". Islam split
the Indian society into two sections from top to bottom and two separate nations came into being from
the very beginning. According to Panikar, "Two parallel societies were established on the same soil. At
all steps they were different and hardly any social communication and intermingling of life existed
between them". The followers of Islam and Hinduism co-existed in the same society with a manifest
hatred and animosity towards each other.

lslam and Hinduism co-existed in the same society with a manifest hatred and animosity towards each
other.

2. Hindu Nationalism

A number of Hindu nationalist movements, which emerged from time to time in the Indian history, added
fuel to the fire by playing up the tension and antagonism which already existed between the two
communities. Dr. Ashoke Maujamdar, the son of the well-known Indian historian R.C. Maujamdar writes
in Advent of Independence that it were the Hindus who took lead in Hindu-Muslim separatism by
launching the nationalist movements. The leaders of these Hindu nationalist movements had based them
on the Hindu religion which were directed against the Muslims. Raja Ram Mohan, the founder of Brahmo
Samaj and his followers were Hindu religious or social reformers. The main objective of these movements
was to strengthen the British rule so that the Muslims could be oppressed and persecuted with the British
blessings.

The rise of Arya Samaj in the 19th Century greatly intensified the Hindu nationalism as it was rooted
through antagonism against the Muslims. The followers of Arya Samaj openly declared that they would
soon settle their accounts with the Muslims. They adopted a programme of Suddhi- conversion to
Hinduism of all non-Hindus for the spread of Hindu nationalism. Brahmo Samaj was another Hindu
religious movement which created deep feelings of religious nationalism among Hindus and widely
promoted communal jealousies. The founders of Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj, Dayanand Sarswati and
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, were highly prejudiced personalities who were deadly against Islam and the
Muslims. They wrote extensively against political, social, and economic fields of the sub-continent. The
Hindu nationalist leaders totally ignored the great contribution made by the Muslims in the Indian society
by way of promoting education and other social activities. Their writings and ideas flared up the communal
discord between Hindus and Muslims to further pollute the political condition.
 3. Cultural and Social Differences

The Hindus and Muslims belonged to different cultures based on their divergent outlook towards life. The
two communities inherited cultural background with glaring Contrasts of outlook, history, religion, and
civilization. Their beliefs, thinking and approach towards various aspects of life were easily distinguishable
from each other. The Hindus and Muslims followed different social customs and traditions. The Hindus
burnt their dead bodies while Muslims buried them. Their language and communication reflected peculiar
and different ways and styles. Hindus considered the Mother Cow as a Sacred animal and worshipped it
while the Muslims slaughtered it for eating and Sacrificial purposes. The Hindus and Muslims did not
intermarry nor did they interdine. The Muslims were taken as Maleecha impure and anything touched by
a Muslim was polluted and extensively washed and cleansed with the sacred water of Ganga.

“Hindu and Muslim families which lived in the same neighborhood for rations could be distinguished at
a glance from each other. The clothes, the foods, the household utensils, the layout of homes, the words
of salutation, the gestures and everything about them will be different and will immediately point to
their distinctive origin." The Muslims were meat-eaters while the Hindus loved to eat vegetables and
pulses.

The Hindus took themselves as a superior race and avoided connections with other communities. They
were particularly very sensitive about the relations with the Muslims whom they considered as a sordid
section of the Indian society. They would never allow a Muslim to enter their kitchen. If ever a Muslim,
touched the household article or a person of a Hindu, the same was taken as polluted and to be washed
and cleansed immediately to shed away the impurity and pollution thus caused by a Muslim.

4. Economic and Educational Difference

With the fall of Moghal empire in 1857 the Muslim's political power in South-Asia was completely
annihilated. The British held the Muslims responsible for the war and put them under great suppression
and humiliation. As the British had snatched power from the Muslims, they were very keen to ensure that
the Muslims should not be in a position to regain their lost political power. The British, therefore, adopted
a harsh and severe policy against the former rulers of India. The aftermath of the War of 1857 closed all
doors of economic prosperity on the Muslims. Trade policies, extremely detrimental to the Muslim
interests were enforced in order to crush the economic condition of the Muslims. The Muslims were
thrown out of the government service in addition to the confiscation of their estates and properties. The
harsh policy adopted by the British destroyed the economic conditions of Muslims who found themselves
at the brink of social and economic disaster.

On the other hand, the British extended enormous favour to Hindus and allowed them a free access to
prosper and progress economically. All attractive and high ranking jobs were reserved for the Hindus while
the Muslims were declared ineligible for government service. The Hindus, with the blessings of the British
government, tried their best to crush the Muslims in the economic field. The Hindus quickly monopolised
the economic resources due to the opportunities thrown to them by British rulers. They worked in a united
and disciplined manner with an objective of humbling down the Muslims in the economic sector.

The Hindus had also advanced in the educational field because they quickly and readily took to the English
education. It helped them a great deal to progress economically. The Muslims did not receive modern
education which heavily affected their economic condition. The Muslims were not in a position to
compete with the Hindus because they did not possess sufficient know how essential for competing in the
economic field. The Muslims were mostly the creditors because they lacked economic resources and
sufficient capital to embark upon economic struggle. They had to depend on the Hindu money-lenders for
pursuing their trade and business and fell an easy prey to the most cruel exploitation by the Hindus.

5. Political Differences

Political differences between Hindus and Muslims have played an important and significant role in the
development and evolution of the Two-Nation theory in the sub-continent. The Hindi-Urdu controversy
1in 1864 was the first glimmering of the political tussle which impaired the relations between the two
communities. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 1867, very rightly observed and expressed to the Commissioner of
Benaras, that the Hindu attempt to replace Urdu by Hindi would strike at the roots of the Hindu-Muslim
unity, Hindus demanded that Urdu should be replaced by Hindi as an official language. The Hindus
launched a violent agitation to press the Government to accede to their demand of scrapping Urdu as an
official language. The Hindu agitation against Urdu intensified Muslim apprehensions about Hindu
domination in the cultural, social, economic and political spheres. The Hindu attitude to Muslim interests
genuinely created fears among the Muslims about the heinous Hindu designs.

The All-India National Congress was established in 1885 at the initiative of A.O. Hume, a retired civil
servant. With the establishment of Congress the political interests of the Muslims were gravely
jeopardized. The Congress claimed at its inception, that it would strive for the safeguards of the interests
of all the communities in India irrespective of their religion or political leanings. For some time in the
beginning, Congress did adhere to its promises and displayed a posture of a national organization. But
with the time it turned into a pure Hindu body working for the safeguard of the interests of the Hindus
only. The demands which were projected from Congress platform, appeared very innocent and
democratic but were actually aimed at the complete elimination of the Muslims from the Indian society.

Congress demanded the introduction of representative democracy on British pattern. The representative
democracy stands for majority rule and places the minority under the mandate of the majority for all
political matters.

Congress made another demand that all appointments on high civil posts should be made through
competitive examinations. By making this demand the Congress, in fact, wanted to oust the Muslims from
the Government services. The acceptance of this demand would have rendered the Muslims economically
ruined and destroyed.

In 1905 the province of Bengal was divided on purely administrative grounds being a very large area. The
partition of Bengal ensured a number of political benefits for ne Muslims who saw in this action of the
government a slender chance of happy and Stable political future for themselves. The entire Hindu
community and the Congress itself, erupted into a volcanic agitation against the partition. The main
reason behind Hindu agitation against the partition was that it brought the prospects of better future for
the Muslims which the narrow-minded Hindus would never tolerate. The government succumbed to the
violent Hindu agitation and a good decision, bound to ameliorate the oppressed Muslim masses, was
undone to the great dismay of the entire Muslim population of the sub-continent. The partition of Bengal
was annulled in 1911 reverting the Muslims to their old position of subservience. The Muslims took the
cancellation of the partition as a deliberate attempt by the Hindu majority to forcibly subjugate the
Muslim population of India.
The blatant Hindu opposition to the Muslim interests aroused the feelings of insecurity among the
Muslims and convinced them of the need for protecting their interests. They, therefore, demanded a
system of separate electorate as a first step to provide safeguards to their political interests. The Simla
Deputation demanded adequate safeguards for the Muslims in the wake of Hindu and Congress
propaganda against the Muslims.

Political animosity, between the two nations surmounted the previous scales in 1930's when Congress
was saddled into political power. Congress assumed the Government in eight provinces after winning the
elections held under the Act of 1935, it adopted atrocious methods to settle their old accounts with the
Muslims living in Congress ruled provinces. The attitude of Congress ministries proved to be the decisive
factor which led the Muslims to the final conclusion that the future of the Muslims was not safe in the
united India. They found that there was no other way open to them except demanding a separate
homeland which was the only answer to the Muslim sufferings.

The above discussion shows that there was an unbridgeable gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims.
The two communities were glaringly distinctive from each other ideologically, culturally, politically,
socially, and economically. In the presence of such deep-rooted contrasts of thinking and approach, how
the Muslims and Hindus, could develop the common nationality as claimed by Gandhi.

The intense and deep-rooted feelings of cultural, social, political, and economic differences are, in fact,
the Two-Nation Theory which became the basis of the establishment of Pakistan. The Muslims demanded
Pakistan in order to protect their cultural, political, and economic distinctiveness which was precariously
threatened in the united India under the Hindu and Congress hegemony.

THE PROBLEMS OF INDIAN INDEPENDENCE AND THE MUSLIMS

The Britishers who had come to India as traders began to indulge in the political affairs of the country.
They first of all acquired control of revenue collection in Bengal and very soon established their hold on
the political matters of the province. They had quickly sensed the long-standing hatred and animosity
between the Hindus and Muslims and rightly decided to play up the conflict to their own advantage. The
British felt that the Muslims were the main hurdle in their ascendency to the political power in India and,
therefore, adopted a harsh policy towards them. They came nearer to the Hindus in view of their
numerical and political nuisance and extended enormous favours to them in order to win their confidence
against the Muslims.

The War of Independence of 1857 ended in disaster and established the direct British rule all over India.
The Moghal empire was liquidated, and the emperor was imprisoned along with his family. The Muslims,
who had a proud history of glorious over India, fell from their position of eminence to that of a humiliated
and downgraded community. The British rule had come as an opportunity for the Hindus to settle their
account with the Muslims who had subjugated them for centuries in spite of their majority.

After destroying the economic conditions of Muslims, the British and Hindus, connived to ruin the political
future of Muslims as well. All Indian National Congress was established in 1885. The Congress demanded
the introduction of western type of democracy which establishes the majority rule. It also demanded that
all appointments on the higher civil position be made through competitive examinations. These demands.
On the face of it, were very innocent and democratic but were in fact aimed at the total elimination of the
Muslims from all walks of life.
Muslim Reaction

Muslim reaction to the biased and cruel policy of the British was bitter and strong. The Muslims were
greatly disappointed to see both Hindus and the British working against their interests. The attitude of
the British and the Hindus sent a wave of shock and anxiety among the Muslim masses.

Muslims, however, could not reconcile with the downgraded position and were not prepared to see their
downfall as a nation. They decided to effectively challenge the Hindu and British designs in order to
protect their national image. The great Muslim saints, mystics and sufis like Hazrat Mujadid Alf Sani, Hazrat
Shah Wali Ullah, Syed Ahmad Shaheed and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan came forward to guide the Muslims in
their despair and asked them to wage a valiant struggle for the revival of Islam in the sub-continent. A
large number of revival movements were launched under the dynamic and dauntless leadership of these
reformers for the renaissance of the Muslims in the sub-continent.

Demand of Separate Electorate

The humiliated treatment which the Muslims got at the hands of the British and Hindus, developed
feelings of unrest and suspicion among them. They felt insecure and their future appeared to have been
doomed forever in wake of highly prejudicial attitude of the Hindus and the British. The Muslim suspicion
and apprehensions were further strengthened by the attitude of the Hindus in the later stages who keenly
desired to enslave the entire Muslim population of India. The Hindu agitation against Urdu and partition
of Bengal is an ample proof of the heinous Hindu objectives of perpetually subduing the Muslims.

Muslims, therefore, in order to safeguard their future demanded the system of separate electorate for
their representation in the legislatures and other representative bodies. The simla deputation demanded
the separate electorate besides other safeguards for the Muslims which was conceded by the Minto-
Morley reforms of 1909.

The establishment of Muslim League in 1906 infused a new spirit among the Muslims who now decided
to struggle for independence and throw off the yoke of Hindu domination. The Muslim League provided
the dedicated leadership to the Indian Muslims who took them to their cherished destination of a separate
homeland.

CHANGE IN MUSLIM POLITICS

Hindus Prejudice Towards Muslims

Muslims had extended full co-operation to Hindus by concluding the Lucknow Pact in 1916. Hindus for
some time, also expressed their willingness to accept Muslim demands and gave their approval to the
scheme of separate electorate. The atmosphere of co-operation and amity, between the Muslims and
Hindus, could not last very long after Gandhi's betrayal to the Muslim cause during the Khilafat movement.
Gandhi's unilateral decision of calling off non-cooperation movement did irreparable damage to Khilafat
Movement which failed to accomplish its objective. The failure of Khilafat movement put an end to the
Hindu Muslim unity which was accomplished through the sincere efforts of the Quaid-i-Azam at Lucknow
Pact in 1916.

Meanwhile some extremist Hindu movements emerged on the Indian politics which aroused communal
jealousy and discord between the two communities. The most significant was Hindu Mahasabha
established in 1921 by Pandit Madan Mohan Malvia Moonje. The organization soon became very popular
among the Hindus who now looked towards the Muslims with revived hatred and narrow mindedness.

The Hindu Mahasabha initiated a number of movements with an objective of converting the Muslims to
Hinduism. The movement of Shuddi was started by Munshi Ram, later on known as Shardha Nand, under
the personal supervision of Dr. Moonje. The Shuddi meant to convert all non-Hindus to Hinduism by all
means of violence or by incentives. The Congress leaders also extended their blessings to the programme
of Shuddi.

The other movement started by Dr. Moonje of Hindu Mahasabha was known as Sanghtan and was a
militant movement. It gave military training to the Hindus and preached violence against the Muslims.

9Congress and Hindu prejudice against Muslims did not stop here. An organized campaign of vilification
was launched against Muslims and their national heroes. The Muslim leaders, reformers and conquerors
were presented as looters, oppressors a persecutors. The miserable state of untouchables and Shodaras
was attributed to the result of oppressive and tyrannical rule of Muslims. Hindus and founder of Shuddi
levelled objectionable and ignoble allegations against the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) in the most
painful manner. The Muslims, however, effectively faced this shameful campaign against their highly
revered personalities. A brave Muslim Qazi Abdur Ras killed Shardha Nand and Ghazi llam Din, a young
lad of Lahore, finished a Hindu publisher who published a book on the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him)
containing highly objectionable and shameful material. The publication of the book immensely infuriated
the Muslims of India who were stirred into shocking unity.

DELHI PROPOSALS

The conclusion of Lucknow Pact was a milestone in the history of the sub-continent as it had achieved
Hindu-Muslim unity which always appeared an uphill task The credit for this stupendous achievement
goes to the Quaid-i-Azam who worked most sincerely for this noble objective. The Congress, too, came
out with open mind and expressed its readiness to accept Muslim demand of separate electorate. There
is no doubt that Congress attitude during Lucknow Pact, helped a great deal in developing friendly
relations between the two communities. Due to the Lucknow Pact, the next few years of Indian politics
saw the sense of unity and brotherhood prevailing in the country leaving a soothing impact on every
aspect of society.

By the year 1926, Hindu Mahasabha managed to get hold of the Congress leadership. The new Congress
leadership. with a highly prejudicial tinge in its politics, started a violent propaganda against Lucknow Pact
and the Muslim demand of separate electorate. Since the new leadership had assumed an effective
control in the Congress hierarchy, their views carried importance in the Congress policy formulation.

Pandit Nehru, in view of the new development in the Congress politics, requested to Quaid-i-Azam in
1927, that if the Muslim League surrenders its demand of separate electorate, the Congress shall accept
any other demand presented by the Muslim League in its place. The Quaid-i-Azam till then was a great
advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity and wanted to keep it intact. He gave a serious thought to Congress offer
and convened a meeting of Muslim leaders on March 20, 1927 in Delhi. The meeting discussed in detail
the offer made by the Congress and finally decided to surrender the demand of separate electorate for
the Muslims. The meeting presented a set of proposals in place of separate electorate which are known
as Delhi Proposals, which are as follows:
 1) Sindh should be separated from Bombay.
2) Reforms should be introduced in Baluchistan and N. W.F.P. and they should be given status of the
province.
3) The Muslims should have 1/3 seats in the central legislature as already granted.
4) The Muslims should be given representation in Bengal and Punjab in accordance with their
strength.

The Lahore Group of Muslim League, headed by Sir Muhammad Shafi, Separated itself and expressed its
disapproval of the Delhi proposals. The Congress and Hindu leaders, in the beginning welcomed the Delhi
proposals but afterwards began opposing them. The extremist Hindu attitude to the liberal approach of
the Muslims proved the irrefutable fact that the Hindus did not want to give any safeguard to the Muslims.
Instead, they eagerly desired to establish their hegemony on every Muslim of India.

SIMON COMMISSION

When the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms were introduced in 1919, the government announced that a
Commission would be sent to India after ten years to examine the effects of the reforms and to suggest
more reforms for India. Accordingly, in 1927 the British government appointed a commission under Sir
John Simon to report on the constitutional progress of India for introducing more reforms as had been
promised. The most important work of the commission was to evaluate the political conditions of India
for the introduction of constitutional reforms. Since the commission had no Indian member the Congress
and a section of Muslim League, under the leadership of Quaid-i-Azam, decided to boycott the
commission. The other group of Muslim League, headed by Sir Muhammad Shafi, was in favour of co-
operating with the commission.

There were large scale agitations against the Simon Commission in India. The commission had to face
violent re-action by the people where It went. The commission was received in the midst of hostile
demonstration. The people received the commission with the slogans, Simon go back, Simon go back.

In spite of non-c0operation from the Indian political leaders, the Commission began its work and prepared
a detailed report for constitutional reforms in India. The report was sent to the government for approval.
A scheme of constitutional reforms on the basis of the recommendations of the Simon commission, was
prepared by the government. The congress and Muslim League both refused to accept the
recommendations of the Simon commission.

NEHRU REPORT

When the recommendations of the Simon commission were presented in the parliament in October, 1927,
for approval, India was passing through a political turmoil of unprecedented intensity. The Congress and
Muslim League had rejected the recommendations of the Simon commission and stood face to face with
regard to the future constitutional pattern of India. Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India was
greatly annoyed with diverse public opinion prevailing in India. He was very much offended on the
treatment extended to the Simon commission. When the Indian political parties rejected the
recommendations of the Simon commission he declared in the parliament, "The Indians are so divided,
opposed and fed up of each other that they are unable to produce a unanimously accepted constitution."

The statement of Lord Birkenhead stirred the vanity of Indian political leaders who accepted the challenge
to produce a unanimous proposal on the constitution. An all parties conference was convened in February
1928 to prepare a draft for the constitutional reforms. The conference appointed a Committee to
determine the principles for future constitution of India. The committee was presided over by Moti Lal
Nehru, the leader of the Swarajya Party. The other members of the committee were Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru,
G.R. Pardhan, M.R. Jaikar, N.A. Joshi, Sir Ali Imam and Shoaib Quershi (Muslim member). The
representation of the Muslims on the Committee was or an insignificant nature. The Muslim members
were unrepresentative of their community and had long ago been rejected. The Muslim members
attended only one meeting and put their signatures when the report was placed before them. The report
submitted by the committee is known as Nehru Report which contained the following recommendations:

1) Full responsible government on the model of the constitution of the self-governing dominions to
be introduced in the sub-continent.
2) Separate electorate should be replaced by the joint electorate with reservation of seats for the
minorities in proportion to their population.
3) The foreign affairs, defence and army should be placed under the control of parliament and
Viceroy.
4) Sindh should be separated from Bombay to a new province if it were capable of bearing its
expenditures.
5) Full provincial status should be given to N. W.F.P. and Baluchistan.
6) Unitary form of government to be established in the centre.
7) Hindi should be made official language.

The Nehru Report was published in August 1928. It had failed to make an impact on the public as it aired
the Hindu-Muslim rift. It recommended a full responsible government in the center in which the majority
was to have a sway in political authority.

The Report clearly reflected the Hindu prejudicial approach and was based on anti-Muslim sentiments.
The Muslims had a shocking effect over the recommendations of the report. The members of the central
and provincial assemblies were not prepared to agree to the report. There could hardly be a reasonable
person who would agree to the degrading proposals of the report.

The Congress immediately accepted the report and issued a threat to the government to launch a non-
cooperation movement against the government if the report was not implemented by December 1929.
The Muslims were completely disillusioned to find the congress coming out with its true nature as a Hindu
body.

An All Parties National Convention was held in Calcutta, in December 1928 to consider the Nehru Report.
The Quaid-i-Azam proposed three amendments in the Nehru Report which were as follows:

1) 1/3 representation for the Muslims in the Central legislature.

2) Muslim representations in the Punjab and Bengal on the basis of population.
3) Residuary powers be given to the provinces instead of central government.

The amendments proposed by the Quaid-i-Azam were very reasonable and did not reflect a sharp contrast
of ideas and point of view. Dr. Ambedkar says, "These amendments show, that the gulf between the
Hindus and Muslims was not in any way a wide one. Yet there was no desire to bridge the same." All
these amendments. proposed by the Quaid-i-Azam when put to vote, were rejected by the Hindu
majority. The Quaid-i-Azam declared. "The Nehru Committee has adopted a narrow-minded policy to
ruin the political future of the Muslims. I regret to declare that the report is extremely ambiguous and
does not deserve to be implemented."

An All Parties Muslim Conference was held in Delhi under the Chairmanship of Sir Agha Khan in January
1929. The conference put up the following demands from the Muslim community.

1) Separate electorate should be retained for the Muslims.

2) Federal system should be introduced in the centre with full provincial autonomy.
3) 1/3 seats should be given to the Muslims in Central legislature.
4) The Muslims should be given representation in central and provincial ministries.
5) Muslim majority should be revived in the Muslim majority provinces.

FOURTEEN POINTS OF THE QUAID-I-AZAM

The Quaid-i-Azam decided to give his own formula for the constitutional reforms in reply to the Nehru
Report. He convened the meeting of the Muslim League in 1929 Delhi and gave his famous fourteen points
formula. While delivering his presidential Address, the Quaid-i-Azam declared that no constitution shall
be accepted by the Muslims of India without the fourteen points which were as follows:

1) The form of future constitution should be federal with the residuary powers vested in the
provinces.
2) A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces.
3) All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite
principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in even province without
reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality.
4) In the central legislature Muslim representation shall not be less than one-third.
5) Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by separate electorates provided that it
shall be open to any community, at any time, to abandon its separate electorate in favour of joint
electorate.
6) Any territorial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the
Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal, and Khyber Pakhtunkhawa.
7) Full religious liberty, that is liberty of belief, worship, and observance, propaganda, association
and education shall be guaranteed to all communities.
8) No bill or resolution or any part, thereof, shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected
body if three-fourths of the members of any community in that particular body oppose it as being
injurious to the interests of that community.
9) Sindh should be separated from the Bombay presidency.
10) Reforms should be introduced in the Khyber Pakhtunkhawa and Balochistan on the same footings
as in the other provinces.
11) Muslims should be given adequate share along with other Indians in the services of the State.
12) The constitution should embody adequate safeguard for the protection of Muslim culture and for
the promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, and civilization.
13) No cabinet, either Central or Provincial, should be formed without at least 1/3rd of the Muslim
Ministers.
14) No change shall be made in the constitution by the central legislature except with the concurrence
of the states constituting the Indian federation.
The reasonable and moderate demands, contained in the Fourteen Points, were rejected by the Hindu
leaders which considerably widened the gulf between the two communities. Meanwhile the Congress
made an abrupt demand that new constitution must be given to India by 31st December 1929. The
Government turned down thus demand and the Viceroy Lord Irwin, in October 1929, made a two-fold
declaration. The first part related to the constitution. He said, "I am authorized by His Majesty's
government to state clearly that in their judgment it is implicit in the Declaration of 1017 that the
natural issue of India's constitutional progress, as there contemplated the attainment of Dominion
Status". The second was the announcement of the Round Table Conference at which the British
government would meet the representatives of British India and the princely States for the purpose of
seeking the greatest possible measures of agreement on constitutional proposals.

With the rejection of fourteen points by the Congress and other Hindu leaders, the Nehru Report was also
doomed. The Nehru Report created great deal of suspicion in the Muslims who were now seriously
thinking for the attainment of a separate homeland for themselves.

ALLAMA IQBAL'S PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS AT ALLAHABAD, 1930

The fourteen points of Quaid-i-Azam had infused a new political insight in the Indian Muslims. These
points developed greater confidence amongst the Muslims who had gathered behind their leaders. The
Muslims of the sub-continent were now fully of their distinct national character and identity. They were
convinced that the Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations which could not be welded together
by any political system.

The annua! session of the All-India Muslim League was held at Allahabad in 1930 which was presided over
by Allama lqbal. Allama lqbal was a poet, philosopher and thinker who had gained country-wide fame and
recognition by 1930. He awakened the Muslims of the sub-continent to demand a separate homeland. He
had deeply studied Islam as a religion and system of life and believed that Hindus and Muslims were two
separate and distinct nations who could never become one nation. He expressed his views while delivering
his presidential address at Allahabad.

In his address Allama Iqbal discussed the political situation of the sub-continent at length. His address is
regarded as an authentic document on Islam as being the system of life. The address is a great asset of
true Muslim history of the sub-continent with regard to their struggle for independence.

He declared Islam as a complete code of life and gave very sound and strong arguments in support of his
views. He said that Islam guides the people with respect to every aspect of life. He said that I am fully
convinced that the Muslims of India will ultimately have to establish a separate homeland as they cannot
live with Hindus in the united India. Allama Iqbal was of the view that Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and
N.W.FP. should be grouped together to make a separate state which should be given dominion Status
within or outside the British Empire He declared, "India is a continent of human beings belonging to
different languages and professing different religions. To base constitution on the conception of
homogeneous India is to prepare her for Civil War. 1, therefore, demand the formation of the
consolidated Muslim State in the best interests of the Muslims of India and Islam. The formation of a
consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least
of North West India."
Allama Iqbal's presidential address further clarified the Two-Nation theory and demanded a separate
homeland for the Muslims. It was the first occasion when a demand for a separate homeland was made
from the Muslim League platform. The Lahore resolution passed in 1940 was in fact based on this historic
address of Allama lqbal.

First Round Table Conference

o0The Simon commission report was published in March, 1930, which invited criticism, as anticipated,
from the political parties. Congress in its annual meeting at Lahore December, 1929, had authorized its
working committee to start a civil disobedience movement when it felt necessary. The working committee
of Congress accordingly launched its movement under Gandhi's leadership in April, 1930. The movement
was declared as illegal, and Gandhi and Nehru were arrested. The Muslims reserved their decision
knowing that the report was not final. The political situation had become tense in the country.

The government, however, did not want to confront the political parties and decided to hold a Round
Table Conference in which all parties were to be invited to present their point of view.

The first session of the Round Table Conference began in London on 12th November, 1930. All the parties
were represented except the Congress which had given the ultimatum that unless the Nehru Report was
enforced completely as the constitution of India it would have nothing to do with the future constitutional
discussions. Since the Muslims had separated themselves from the Civil Disobedience Movement of the
congress, they decided to attend the Conference despite the Congress boycott. The Muslim delegation
included Agha Khan, Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Quaid-i-Azam, Maulvi Fazal-ul-Haq, Sir Muhammad
Shafi, Sir Shah Nawaz, Chaudhri Zafar Ullah and Ghulam Husain Hidayat Ullah.

The most important decision taken at the Conference was the approval of the federal system for India.
The Princely States declared that they would extend maximum co-operation to form an All India
Federation. There was unanimous agreement on all points. Muslim delegation favoured Sapru's proposal
for dominion status and responsible government at centre by putting an end to the system of Dyarchy in
the provinces. The delegates also agreed on giving Sindh a separate identity and for establishing a
responsible government in the provinces.

Eight sub-committees were formed to deal with different matters i.e., federal structure, provincial
constitution, franchise, province of Sindh, the N.W.F.P. defence services and minorities. There was a
deadlock on the question of the distribution of subjects i n the federal system. The deliberations of the
minorities sub-committee could not reach a conclusion. The Muslim delegation declared in the end that
in those circumstances the only course was to repeat our claim that no advance is possible without
sufficient safeguards for the Muslims of India.

The First Round Table Conference ended on 19th January, 1931. The British Prime Minister issued a
statement that the government had accepted the proposals for full responsible government in the
provinces and a federal system in the Centre.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

The Congress was feeling repentful on its decision of boycotting the First Round Table Conference. The
Civil Disobedience Movement had failed which exposed the Congress position. Congress now wanted to
wriggle out of this situation in a dignified manner. They were looking for an opportunity to come to terms
with the Government. On the other hand, the government, too, was desirous of Congress' participation
in the Second Round Table Conference. The government had realized the importance of Congress and had
understood that without Congress, any step for constitutional reforms, would be difficult to implement.
The government, therefore, decided to make peace with the Congress.

Lord Irwin extended invitation to Gandhi for talks. Gandhi agreed to call off the civil disobedience without
laying down any pre-conditions. The talks between Gandhi and Irwin continued from 17th February, 1931
to 19th February, 1931. The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was singed on 5th March, 1931.
Following were the salient proposals of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact:

1) The Congress will call off its Civil Disobedience Movement.

2) The Congress will attend the Second Round Table Conference.
3) The government would withdraw all ordinances which were meant to curb the Congress.
4) The government would withdraw all notifications/ enactments relating to offences not involving
violence.
5) The government would release all persons detained during Civil Disobedience Movement.

Accordingly, the government released all the persons detained during the Civil disobedience movement
launched by the congress. On the other hand, the congress, as decided by the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, decided
to attend the Second Round Table conference.

Second Round Table Conference

The Second Round Table Conference opened on 7th September, 1931 in London and lasted till 1st
December, 1931. Gandhi was there as the sole representative of the Congress. Maulana Muhammad Ali
Jauhar had died by the time the Second Round Table Conference began. The Muslim delegation in the
Second Round Table Conference Included an important personality, Allama Muhammad Iqbal, who had
gained great importance and fame as a poet, thinker, philosopher, and politician in India.

Two committees were set up to carry out the work of the Conference on Federal structure and minorities.
The most sensitive issue before the Conference was the Hindu-Muslim relationship. Gandhi was the
member of the two committees.

Gandhi adopted a stubborn and unreasonable attitude on all matters in the beginning. When the minority
issue came up for discussion in the Conference, Gandhi refused to accept any rights of the minorities and
demanded that the minority commit. should be disbanded. He claimed that he, being the representative
of the Congress represented the Indian people. He refused to accept the representative character of other
delegates as they did not belong to the Congress. After adopting the stiff attitude Gandhi sat back to
quietly observe the proceedings of the committee. He did not at all give any practical suggestions of his
own for reaching a settlement.

Gandhi did his best to prove India as one nation and nationality so that he could claim to represent the
Indian people alone. When the communal problem came up for discussion, a great difficulty was faced in
convincing Gandhi who had rejected the presence of any other community except the Hindus in India.
Gandhi insisted that there was only one nation in India which were Hindus. But the Quaid-1-Azam replied
that Indian Muslims were also a separate nation of India which had its own interests.
During the proceedings of the Conference Gandhi continued with his resolute and stubborn attitude and
demanded that the work of constitution making be started by putting aside the minorities issue. Sir Shafi
did not agree to this proposal and insisted that minorities issue must be resolved before taking up
constitution making. Sir Shafi also demanded that the Fourteen Points of the Quaid-i-Azam should be
inducted in the future constitution of India which Gandhi refused to accept.

No settlement of minorities issue could be reached because of Gandhi's rigid behaviour. Gandhi put
forward his own scheme to resolve the minorities issue which was based on the recommendations of the
Nehru Committee. The minorities, therefore, adopted a stiffer approach for the solution of their
problems. As a counter to Gandhi’s scheme the minorities presented a joint statement of claims. All
minorities entered into an agreement on their demands and insisted on its acceptance as a whole. Gandhi
refused to accept this settlement. The Second Round Table Conference, therefore, ended without
reaching at any conclusion mainly because of the rigid attitude of Gandhi.

Third Round Table Conference

The Third Round Table Conference began on 17th November, 1932 and ended on 24th November, 1932.
The Congress once again abstained from the Conference because Gandhi had started his civil disobedience
movement. Quaid-i-Azam did not take part in the conference. In his absence Sir Agha Khan led the Muslim
delegation.

The Third Round Table Conference could not solve the long-standing Hindu-Muslim problem and proved
a mere formality. There was an unbridgeable gulf between the ideas of the two major communities of
India. Gandhi, Nehru, and other prominent leaders of the Congress were in jail. The conference, therefore,
ended after a meetings without achieving anything.

Communal Award

The British government gave enough time and enance to the Indian leaders to come with a workable
constitutional set up. However, after vainly waiting for some mutual settlement among the Indians
themselves, the British government published their own scheme known as Communal Award in August
1932. It retained separate electorate for the Muslims and for all other minorities. But the Muslim
majorities in Punjab and Bengal were reduced to minorities.

The Indian political parties rejected the award. Gandhi, however, managed to win over Dr. Ambedkar to
renounce the award for the untouchables. The Muslims, too, were not happy with the award as it reduced
their majorities in few provinces.

Government of India Act, 1935

The Round Table Conferences could not achieve anything in spite of their best efforts to solve he
constitutional problems of India. However, there was one important factor in the holding of these
conferences that they amply manifested the public opinion to enable the government to fully understand
the problems and to take some concrete steps to solve them.

The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences were contained in a white paper which was
published in 1933 and discussed in the parliament. A committee was set up under the chairmanship of
Lord Linlithgow, the Viceroy of India, to consider the recommendations of the white paper. The other
members of the committee were the Agha Khan, Muhammad Zafar Ullah Khan, Shafaat Ahmad Khan,
Abdur Rahim and A.H. Ghaznvi.

The report of the committee was published in 1934 which was contained in a Bill of Law. The report along
with the Bill was presented in the British Parliament for approval. The Parliament passed the Bill which
after the Royal assent on 24th July 1935 was enforced in the country as Government of India Act, 1935.

Salient Recommendations of the Act of 1935

The Act contained 14 parts and 10 schedules and consisted of two parts. Part I pertained to provincial
subjects while Part II contained federal list of subjects. The Act came into operation on Ist April, 1937
except Part II which could not be enforced until a Specific number of princely states acceded to the Indian
federation. The Act introduced federal system in the centre. The provincial reforms were as follows:

1) The provinces were given more authority and powers and for the first time the provinces were
made the separate entities.
2) The system of Dyarchy' was scrapped in the provinces and introduced in the centre.
3) Three lists of subjects were drawn up which were the federal list, the provincial list, and the
concurrent list.
4) The provincial legislatures were given powers of legislation on provincial and concurrent subjects.
5) The provincial executive was handed over to the representatives of the people who were
accountable before the provincial legislatures.
6) The country was divided into 11 provinces.
7) Responsible parliamentary system was introduced in the provinces. The provinces were given
complete autonomy. The Ministers were to be chosen from the representatives of the people.
8) Every province was given a council of ministers whose advice was binding on the Governor.
However, in the discharge of his responsibilities the Governor was to act under the general control
of the Governor-General.
9) Special powers were given to the governors for the protection of the rights of minorities.

An Appraisal of the Act of 1935

political leaders of India rejected it for it did not meet the demands of the different political factions.
Quaid-i-Azam declared it as a defective document. Rajagopalacharia, too, declared it as worse than the
system of Dyarchy.

The Act of 1935 failed to satisfy ,various political sections of the country. The Federal System introduced
by the Act of 1935 was defective in many ways. There was no guarantee of individual liberties neither it
could give a workable dominion status. The people were not given their rights. All authority was vested in
the Parliament which was under British influence.

The system of Dyarchy which had failed in the provinces was introduced in the centre without any
prospective results. Vast authority was given to the Governors in the provinces a.id to the Viceroy in the
centre which was against the principle of democracy and provincial autonomy. The minister of state could
interfere in the government services without any reasons.
The central part of the Act could not be enforced and was suspended for some time. However, the
provincial part of the Act was enforced on 1st April, 1937, under which the elections were to be held in
the country.

1937 Elections

The government announced to hold elections to the provincial legislative assemblies in 1936-37. There
were 1771 seats of the provincial assemblies which were be filled by these elections. Although both
Muslim League and the Congress had rejected the Act of 1935, still they decided to contest the elections.

Both Muslim League and Congress issued their manifestoes. The Muslim League laid down two main
principles on which its elected representatives would work:

1) The present provincial constitution and proposed central constitution should replace, by a system
of self-government.
2) In the meantime, the representatives of Muslim League would sincerely work to get the maximum
benefits out of the present constitution.

The Congress, too, came forward with somewhat similar slogans of public welfare, freedom, and liberty
and for the release of the political prisoners.

The results of the elections were shocking for the Muslims of India and Muslim League as well, which
could not get mentionable support from the voters. Congress achieved a big victory and managed to get
clear majority in five provinces. It, however, manoeuvered to form coalition governments in few other
provinces to form its ministries in eight provinces, Congress got clear majority in Madras, Bihar, Orissa,
United Provinces and Central Provinces. In Bombay, the Congress won some independent groups to form
a coalition ministry. The Muslim League managed to get few seats in the Muslim minority provinces but
failed in the Muslim majority areas.

Formation of Congress Ministries

Congress adopted rigid attitude after winning elections in majority. The Congress leaders behaved in a
dictatorial manner and imposed their own will. On 1st April, 1937 the Governors of Bombay, Madras,
Central Provinces, United Provinces, Orissa and Bihar invited the leaders of the Congress parliamentary
groups in their respective provinces to form ministries. In reply to these invitations the Congress leaders
put a condition on the government to give assurance that the Governors would not use their special
powers of interference granted by the constitution for the protection of the minority’s rights. This
otherwise meant asking the government functionaries not to perform their duties. The government
clearly expressed their inability to give such an assurance. However, Lord Linlithgow, the Viceroy, issued
a statement on 21st June, 1937 in which he clarified that the Governors would use their special powers in
matters of utmost urgency and that the ministers would be allowed to work freely. After this statement
the congress working committee on 7th July, 1937 passed a resolution permitting the Congress to accept
the office.

Congress took office in eight provinces. In Punjab the Unionist Party of Sir Sikander Hayat formed ministry.
Muslim ministry was formed in Sindh which was dissolved because of the Congress conspiracies. A
coalition was formed in Bengal with Maulvi Fazal-ul-Haq of Krishak Praja Party as the leader of the
coalition. Muslim League could not form Ministry in any province. Congress formed its ministry in Khyber
Pakhtunkhawa as well which brought the number of Congress ruled provinces to six. In Bombay and
Bengal, the Congress formed coalitions with other groups.

As Muslim League had got sizeable success in the Muslim minority provinces, it was hoped that the
Congress would include Muslim League in the government in the Muslim minority provinces. But the
Congress was reluctant in sharing the power with Muslim League and laid down degrading conditions for
the Muslim League to be included in the Ministry. Discussions were held between Congress and Muslim
League leaders. Maulana Abu-al-Kalam Azad, a member of Congress high command communicated to
Chaudhri Khaliq-uz-Zaman, the leader of the Muslim League, the following terms on which the Congress
was prepared to let the Muslim League enter the provincial government:

1) The Muslim League group in the U.P. legislative assembly shall be dissolved.
2) The members of the Muslim League in the U.P. assembly shall join the Congress and would come
under the party discipline.
3) The Muslim League members who will join the Congress shall carry out the instructions issued by
the Congress Party leaders pertaining to their work in the assemblies.
4) The Muslim League parliamentary board shall be dissolved.

The above-conditions proposed by the Congress clearly exhibited the rigid and dictatorial attitude which
the Congress had adopted after winning the elections. No part with a slightest feeling of self-respect
would have accepted these degrading terms. The Muslim League, therefore, rejected these terms and a
pure Congress ministry was formed in the United Provinces.

CONGRESS ATROCITIES ON THE MUSLIMS

Congress had formed its ministries in eight provinces. The Muslims living in these provinces under
congress rule, were subjected to. most inhuman treatment and made to bear the oppressive and
tyrannical rule of the Congress for two and a half years Congress adopted every means to completely
obliterate the Muslim population of the provinces under its rule.

Congress had adopted an unconstitutional method to rule the provinces and its administration did not
conform to the parliamentary system as laid down in the Act of 1935. The Congress ministries were not
accountable to the Parliament. They received all instructions from the Congress high command and were
answerable to it for all matters. The Congress High command made and removed the ministers. A
parliamentary sub-committee was set up by Congress to deal with the work of legislatures in all provinces.
This committee was to guide and advise the legislatures in their functions. It consisted of Maulana Abu-
al-Kalam Azad, Rajendra Prasad and Sardar Vallabhai Patel. The provinces were distributed amongst the
three members of the committee, Maulana Azad was given the charge of Bengal, United Provinces, the
Punjab and the Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Rajendra Prasad got Bihar, Orrissa and Assam. Vallabhai Patel was
allotted Bombay, Madras, the Central Provinces and Sindh. This sub-committee was given enormous
authority to deal with all matters in the Congress ruled provinces. The Congress regime was an absolutist
rule and was in fact an oligarchy dominated by Mr. Gandhi.

With the installation of Congress ministries, the Hindus came out to impose Hindu nationalism on the
Muslims. Congress began its rule by imposing its will on the Muslim minorities in the provinces under its
rule. The Muslims were forbidden to eat beef. Severe punishments were awarded to those who
slaughtered the Mother Cow Every effort was made to humble and humiliate Islam the religion of
Muslims. A systematic policy was framed by the Congress to erase Muslim culture. Hindi was enforced as
the official language in all the provinces under the Congress rule. Azan was forbidden and organized
attacks were made on Muslim worshippers busy in the mosques. Noisy processions were organized to
pass near the mosques at prayer times. If a Muslim had to kill a cow for sacrifice, hundreds of Muslims
including their children and women were to be killed as a reprisal. Pigs were pushed into the mosques
and Azan was frequently interrupted.

Hindu-Muslim riots were maneuvered in various places to make a pretext for severe action against the
Muslims. The Muslims were openly and freely mauled and molested. The government agencies offered
no protection to the Muslims who fell a prey to Hindu domination and high-handedness. If the Muslims
lodged complaints with the authorities the decisions were always against the Muslims.

1. Bande Matram

Bande Matram was a song in which degrading verses were used against Muslims and their religion Islam.
The song was written by a Bengali novelist Bankim Chatterjee in his novel Anadamath and urged all the
non-Muslims to wage war against the Muslims in order to expel them from Hindustan which meant for
the Hindus only. In order to strengthen the Hindu nationalism, the Congress members in the Assemblies,
under the instructions from the Congress High Command, insisted on commencing the day's beginnings
by the recitation of the song Bande Matram. Bande Matram was also adopted as a national anthem and
was to be recited before the start of official business every day.

2. Wardha Scheme

The Wardha Scheme was the outcome of Gandhi's philosophy. It preached Hindu nationalism and
principles of non-violence. It aimed to develop a high respect among the young minds about the Hindu
heroes and religious leaders. The Wardha and Widdia Mander schemes sought to isolate the young
generation of the Muslims from their religion, culture, and civilization. The Muslims, therefore, rightly
feared that the education policies introduced under these schemes, were completely segregated from
their religion, tradition, and culture, and would subvert all what they (Muslims) loved so much. The main
objective of these schemes was to destroy the Muslim culture and secure perpetual domination of Hindu
culture. It aimed at injecting the political ideas of one political party, the Congress, into the minds of the
Muslim children. It completely ignored religion and favoured Hindi at the cost of Urdu.

3. Hoisting of Three-Colored Flag

Congress, after taking over the government in the provinces, immediately ordered the hoisting of three-
colored flag with the British Union Jack to prove that there were only two powers in India which were the
British and the Congress.

4. Widdia Mander Scheme

Another attempt was made to erase the Muslim culture by introducing a new educational system. The
education policy was known as Widdia Mander Scheme and meant to convert the non-Hindus to
Hinduism. It was introduced in all schools, colleges, and educational institutions. Under this scheme the
students were asked to pay respect and homage to Gandhi's picture every day in their assemblies in the
schools. The students were asked to bow before Gandhi's picture and sing hymns in his praise. Dr. Zakir
Husain, a Congress Muslim, was the author of this scheme.
 5. Hindu-Muslim Riots

Hindu-Muslim riots were usual during the Congress rule. Organized attempts were made on the honour,
property, and lives of the Muslims by indulging in the communal and religious feuds. The Hindus were
free to assault the innocent Muslims in any area. The Muslim houses and property were set on fire and
their women and children abducted. Muslim massacre and plundering of their localities were the scenes
of the day.

6. Muslim Mass Contact Campaign

Congress started a Muslim mass contact campaign. The main objective of this campaign was to damage
the popularity of Muslim League amongst the Muslims. It was Nehru's imagination to destroy the image
of Muslim League as the only representative party of the Muslims. The campaign began by directly
contacting the Muslim masses with a view to win them over to the Congress.

MUSLIM LEAGUE'S ROLE DURING CONGRESS RULE

Muslim League remained very active during the atrocious rule of the Congress, It continued drawing
attention of the masses, through its resolutions, to anti-Muslim policies of the Congress and appealing to
the Congress to change its biased attitude towards the Muslims. The Muslim League protested against
anti-Muslim policies of the Congress and openly condemned its various steps like the recitation of Bande
Matram as the national anthem, Wardha Scheme, Widdia Mander Scheme and Congress's attitude
against Islam. The Muslin. League expressed its grave concern over the communal riots in the United
Provinces, Bihar, the Central Provinces and Bombay. Quaid-i-Azam criticised the Congress rule and
declared it as Hindu Raj which worked and existed to annihilate every other community. He said that the
Congress rule was a fascist and authoritarian set up which uprooted all norms of democracy.

End of the Congress Rule

The Second World War began in 1939. Britain declared war against Germany. The government appealed
to all political parties for help and assist in this hour of need.

Congress convened its meeting to consider government's appeal and put the following conditions for
assistance in war:

1) The British Government should explain the objective of the war.

2) The government should announce that the elected legislature would draft the constitution of
India.
3) The members of the Viceroy's Executive Council should be those only who enjoy the support of
the central assembly.

The acceptance of these demands would have meant the transfer of power to the Congress as these
demands clearly showed that the Congress was asking for the right constitution making. The government
could not accede to these demands as it wanted to pacify, both Congress and the Muslim League. Viceroy
declared that due consideration would be given to the point of view of every party and that, dominion
status would give to India after the war.

Congress did not believe the promises of the government. Congress leaders expressed their utter
disappointment on the decision of the government. Congress with a view of putting more pressure on the
government, refused to extend co-operation government in the war activities and announced to resign
from the ministry. The Congress High Command asked its ministers to tender resignations in protest
against the decision of the government. In November, 1939 the Congress ministries resigned from their
office. The poor Muslim population took a sigh of relief as they have been relieved of the most tyrannical
and oppressive rule of the Congress.

Day of Deliverance

With the resignation of the Congress ministries the Muslims of India were relieved of the most dreadful
domination of the Congress and Hindu majority. The two and half years of the Congress rule was a bitter
and painful experience for the Muslims of India who had seen the real Hindu mentality. The Quaid-i-Azam
appealed to the people to observe the Day of Deliverance on 22nd December, 1939 and bow their heads
before Almighty Allah who relieved them from the yoke of Congress. The Quaid-i-Azam appealed that the
day should be observed with peace. The Muslims of India, in accordance with the appeal of the Quaid-i-
Azam celebrated the day with happiness. Public meetings were held, and thanksgiving prayers were
offered in token of relief from the tyranny, oppression, and high-handedness of the Congress regime.

CHAUDRI REHMAT ALI AND PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

The name of Chaudri Rehmat Ali will always go in history with utmost esteem and reverence for the
dedicated services which he rendered to the cause of the Muslims of India. He played a commendable
role in the establishment of a Muslim state in the sub-continent. He is known as the architect of the idea
of Pakistan in the history of Muslim India.

Chaudri Rehmat Ali was born in 1893 in the district of Hoshiarpur. He joined Islamia College, Lahore from
where he took his bachelor’s degree. He joined service in a newspaper known as Kashmir. He then
switched over to the teaching profession and joined Aitchison College, Lahore as a lecturer. Chaudri
Rehmat Ali went to England for higher studies and obtained his master’s degree from the Cambridge
University and later on did his Bar-at-Law from the University of Dublin.

Chaudri Rehmat Ali, a great and fiery orator, was full of nationalist sentiments. He had his firm belief in
the separate identity of the Muslims and considered them a distinct nation. He was very much in favour
of a separate homeland for the Muslims of India and considered it the ultimate destiny of the Muslims. In
1915 while addressing a meeting of Bazm-i-Shibli, he said, "The western part of India is a Muslim majority
area which we will make an independent Muslim State. This can only be possible when we separate
ourselves from the common nationality and sever our relations from the rest of India."

During his studies at Cambridge, Chaudri Rehmat Ali and his three other Comrades issued a pamphlet in
1933 entitled as Now or Never. In this article Chaudri Rehmat Ali extremely criticised those Muslim
leaders who were advocating the federal system in India. He declared in Now or Never that the Indian
federation was not suitable to the Indian Muslims. He said that the Muslims were a separate nation with
their own culture and civilization distinct from the Hindu culture and civilization. He said that to yoke
together two different and distinct nations in one political system would lead to utter confusion and
bitterness. He pleaded that the only solution to this dilemma was to divide the sub-continent to establish
a separate Muslim state consisting of Punjab, Balochistan, N.W.EP. Kashmir and Sindh. He suggested the
name of PAKISTAN for the new Muslim state.
Chaudri Rehmat Ali set up Pakistan National Movement in England in 1933. He launched a vigorous
movement of Pakistan from the platform of this organization. Pakistan National Movement was extremely
opposed to the idea of making India a federation and did not like the Muslims to have any connections
with India. This movement gave a clear explanation and clarification of the Two-Nation theory and
expressed its firm belief in it. The Pakistan National Movement extended its endeavours to other parties
of Europe and America. This organization cultivated awareness among the Muslims about their national
image. Chaudri Rehmat Ali issued an article from the platform of Pakistan National Movement entitled as
"Objectives of Pakistan National Movement." In this article the aims and objects of the Pakistan National
Movement were discussed and the name of South Asia was proposed for the Indian Sub-Continent. In
1937 Chaudri Rehmat Ali demanded a Muslim State comprising of Bengal and Assam and proposed the
name of Bang-i-Islam for it. He also suggested the name of Usmanistan for the Muslim state of
Hyderabad.

Chaudri Rehmat Ali intensified his efforts during the Round Table Conference and urged the Muslim
participants of the conference to reject the proposal of Indian federation. Chaudri Rehmat Ali was a great
benefactor of the Muslims of India. His ideas and thoughts aroused hope among the Muslims of India. His
scheme of a separate Muslim state created anguish among the Hindus and British who vehemently
negated his ideas. Chaudri Rehmat Ali not only coined the name of Pakistan but also launched an effective
movement for the accomplishment of Pakistan. His ideas gained wide range popularity among the Muslim
youth of India. It was Chaudri Rehmat Ali who declared the Lahore Resolution as Pakistan Resolution
which was finally accepted by the Quaid-i-Azam and all the Muslims of India.

PAKISTAN RESOLUTION

Partition Proposals

By 1937, the political conditions of the sub-continent compelled the Muslim political leaders io seriously
consider the partition of India. The atrocious Congress rule had intensified the Muslim apprehensions who
feared the Hindu domination in the event of the British leaving the country. The Muslims, therefore,
rightly decided to demand the partition of India during the British rule so that the Muslims could avoid
the prospective Hindu domination after the British.

In fact, the idea of the Indian partition was not a new one. A number of partition proposals had already
been forwarded by leading politicians and reformers. Syed Jamal-ud-Din Afghani, the great reformer and
a staunch advocate of the Pan-Islamism proposed to make the northern part of the sub-continent an
independent Muslim State. He percepted of an independent Muslim republic comprising of the present
Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.

Maulana Abdul Halim Sharar, the famous Urdu novelist and critic, suggested in article on 23rd August,
1890, that India should be divided into two Hindu and Muslim States to put an end to the long-standing
hatred and antagonism between the two Communities. He also suggested that the population of both
States should be exchanged to allow the people to go to their country of choice.

In 1917 another proposal for the partition of India was offered by the two brothers known as Khairi B
rothers. Dr. Abdul Jabbar Khairi and Prof. Abdul Sattar Khairi proposed the partition of the sub-continent
in the Socialist International Conference held at Stockholm. They stressed on giving self-rule to every
administrative unit of the sub-continent.
In 1920, Muhammad Abdul Qadir Bilgrami advocated the division of the sub-continent between the
Hindus and Muslims giving a list of districts which were not too different from the present boundaries of
East and West Pakistan. Three years later in 1923, in his evidence before the Frontier Enquiry Committee,
Sardar Gul Muhammad Khan of Dera Ismail Khan had proposed a partition of India by which the Muslims
were to get the area from Peshawar to Agra. Lala Lajpat Rai, the founder of Hindu Mahasabha in 1924
suggested the partition of India into Hindu and Muslim States.

The poet philosopher, Allama Muhammad Iqbal, while delivering his presidential address at the Annual
Session of the Muslim League at Allahabad in December, 1930 said, "I would like to see Punjab, Khyber
Pakhtunkhawa, Sindh and Balochistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-Government within the
British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be
the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India."

Dr. Abdul Lateef came out with a comprehensive proposal of partition. He proposed population exchange
on a much larger scale and suggested the division of the sub-continent into four Muslim and eleven Hindu
zones, to establish national unity. He rejected the Congress view of Indian nationalism and declared that
the Hindu and Muslim cultures are ridden with glaring dissimilarities. He was of the opinion that to
consider Hindus and Muslims as one nation, in the presence of cultural difference, was a blunder.

CHAUDRI REHMAT ALI'S SCHEME

The above-mentioned proposals, however, could not attract desired attention until a concrete scheme
for the establishment of the Muslim State, came for the first time, from a person of high intellectual
stature and prestige. With Chaudri Rehmat Ali, a student at Cambridge University, propounding his
scheme of partition of India, the Muslims, instead of looking upon themselves as a downtrodden minority,
now saw themselves as a proud nation entitled to build a just social order on the basis of Islam in their
homeland.

Punjab, Cha A Rehmat Ali coined the word PAKISTAN in which "P" stand for Punjab ,"A” tor Afghan
(Khyber Pakhtunkhawa) “K” for Kashmir, “S “for Sindh and “Tan” for Balochistan. The word PAKISTAN
itself means the Land of the Pure. Chaudri Rehmat Ali expanded his scheme in his famous pamphlet known
as Now or Never and gave it a wide publicity. He wrote a book as Pakistan the fatherland of Pak Nation,
in which he declared that the northern part of the sub-continent is a Muslim majority area which we shall
make an independent Muslim state. He openly rejected the idea of One Nationality and advocated
separation from India.

Muslim League set up a committee to examine the partition proposals extended from time to time from
different quarters. The Committee was required to submit a detailed report highlighting the possibilities
of a separate homeland for the Muslims of India. The committee included the Quaid-i-Azam (Chairman),
Abdul Mateen Chaudri Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din, Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab Ismail Khan and Syed Abdul Aziz.

Meanwhile the Muslim League branches of Sindh and U.P. passed resolutions demanding a separate
homeland for the Muslims of India. The Sindh Muslim League, in its session of 1938, passed this resolution
and thus took lead in demanding a separate homeland for the Muslims. All these resolutions were
despatched to the central offices of the Muslim League which set out with the preparations to put forward
the demand for Pakistan in its next annual sessions of 1940.
The Annual session of the Muslim League, which abruptly changed the political horizons of India began
on 22nd March, 1940 at the famous Minto Park ground Lahore, which later on came to be known as Iqbal
Park. The Muslims, from all over India, thronged the meeting place in a large number and expressed their
firm support in favour of the Muslim League and the Quaid-i-Azam.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS OF THE QUAID-I-AZAM

The Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah presided over this highly important and significant meeting of
the Muslim League. He delivered a historic address at this moment highlighting the separate and distinct
national character of the Muslims of India. The Quaid-i-Azam, addressing the mamoth audience at Lahore
said, "The 2 1/2 years of Congress rule are a soaring experience for us. The years of Congress rule have
given us a very bitter lesson and have created fear of the Hindu domination. The Muslims are a nation
by every definition of the word Nation. It is absolutely wrong to consider the Muslims as a minority,"
The Quaid-i-Azam criticised the federal scheme for India as envisaged in the Act of 1935. In his address he
pointed out the shortcoming of this scheme and rejected it openly. He declared, "It has been taken for g
ranted mistakenly that the Mussalmans are a minority. The Mussalmans are not a minority The
Mussalmans are a nation by any definition. What the unitary Government of India for 150 years has
failed to achieve cannot be realised by imposition of a central federal system except by means of force.
The problem in India is not an inter-communal character but manifestly of an international one, and it
must be treated as such. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different civilizations which are based
mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. To yoke together two such nations under a single State,
one as a numerical minority and the other as majority, must lead to growing discontent and the final
destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for government of such a state.”

The Quaid-i-Azam in his presidential address discussed the political situation of the Sub-continent at large
and suggested remedies to the political problems. He was particularly critical of those elements who did
not consider Muslims as a separate nation. The Quaid-i-Azam emphatically made it clear that the Muslims
of the sub-continent will accept any system which will establish Hindu domination over the Muslims.

THE RESOLUTION

On 23rd March, 1940, the famous resolution, which came to be known as Pakistan Resolution was moved
and passed by the participants unanimously. The Resolution was moved by the Bengal Chief Minister
Maulvi Fazal-ul-Haq, known as Sher-e-Bengal, and seconded by Chaudri Khaliq-uz-Zaman and others. The
resolution stated that "No constitutional plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to the
Muslims unless it is designed on the following basic principles, namely, that the geographically
contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted, with such territorial re-
adjustments as may be necessary, that the areas in which the Muslims are in a majority as in the north-
western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent States in which the
constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign. Adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards
should be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities for the protection of their religious,
cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights."

The Resolution was unanimously accepted by the participants who had assembled at the meeting place
in a large number. The resolution was seconded by a number of prominent Muslim leaders from all over
the country. Those who seconded the resolution were "Maulana Zafar Ali Khan and Dr. Muhammad Alam
(Punjab), Begum Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Abdul Hamid Badayuni, Chaudri Khaliq Uz-Zaman and
Syed Zakir Ali (U.P.), Sir Abdullah Haroon (Sindh), Sardar Aurangzeb Khan (Khyber Pakhtunkhawa), Qazi
Muhammad Issa (Balochistan), Nawab Muhammad Ismail (Bihar), Syed Abdur Rauf Shah (C.P.), Abdul
Hamid Khan (Madras), and I. I. Chandigarh (Bombay).

Although the Resolution did not contain the word Pakistan, but the word Pakistan Resolution had gained
wide popularity due to Chaudri Rehmat Ali's endeavours. Moreover, the Hindu Press also circulated it
widely in an ironic manner and the Muslims readily accepted the word for their State. The Muslim League
to0, after some time, declared the Resolution as Pakistan Resolution.

IMPORTANCE OF PAKISTAN RESOLUTION

The Pakistan resolution is a landmark in the history of the Muslim India as it eventually decided the future
of the sub-continent. The attitude of the Hindus and congress had intensified Muslims' apprehensions
who feared Hindu subjugation. They reconvinced that their future as a Nation was not secure in the united
India and, therefore, decided to demand a separate homeland.

The Muslims responded to the Resolution with amazement and hope for better future, They gathered
under the dynamic leadership of Quaid-i-Azam who gave new meaning and shape to their quest for
independence. With the passage of Pakistan Resolution, the Muslims began to acquire new hope and
confidence in their destiny. The Resolution infused high spirits among the Muslims who were now
determined to fight to the last end for the accomplishment of Pakistan. The Muslims were convinced that
there Was no other solution of the Indian problems except the creation of two separate and sovereign
states of Hindustan and Pakistan. They demanded Pakistan because they were not accepted by the Hindus
to live with them in peace in spite of their efforts and wishes The Muslims were tormented by the fear
that being Muslims, they would not be acceptable to Hindu majority in the united India. Pakistan,
therefore, was not demanded on the basis of hatred for the Hindus but for the safeguard of the Muslim
civilization and culture.

The acceptance of Pakistan resolution strengthened the Two-Nation Theory which was the basis of
Muslim struggle for independence. The demand for Pakistan was based on Muslim Nationalism which
meant the Muslim cultural, religious, and national freedom. The Two-Nation Theory was the
manifestation of the principle and philosophy of Muslim nationalism on which the whole Pakistan
movement was based. The words and contents for the partition of the sub-continent was on the theory
that there were two major and distinct nations in the sub-continent. The passage of the Pakistan
resolution gave impetus to the freedom movement. The Pakistan resolution was a demand for the
protection and safeguard of the national identity of the Muslims.

CONGRESS REACTION TO THE PAKISTAN RESOLUTION

The Hindu reaction to the Pakistan Resolution was hostile. The Hindu leaders condemned it and referred
to the partition as vivisection of mother India. The Hindu leaders tried to arouse Hindu religious feelings
to build up agitation against the partition. Gandhi called it a moral wrong and a sin to which he would
never be a party.

The Hindu Press came out with the most aggressive propaganda against the resolution and declared it as
a conspiracy against the unity of country. A number of Muslim Nationalist Ulema also criticised the
resolution and tried to prove it as absurd and baseless philosophy. Rajagopalacharia expressed his feeling
on the partition proposal and said, "Jinnah's demand of partition is just like a quarrel between the two
brothers on one cow who want to slaughter it into two pieces to divide amongst them." Maulana Abu-al-
Kalam Azad gave his comments on the demand of Pakistan, "I just cannot swallow the word Pakistan. It
appears from it as if some parts of the world are sacred while some are polluted and impure. It is highly
unethical and un-Islamic to divide the areas on the basis of being pure and impure. The division is
absolutely un-Islamic and rather a sheer deviation from Islam. Islam does not recognize any such
division."

The Quaid-i-Azam emphatically rejected these objections against the Pakistan Resolution and the partition
of India. He said, "We maintain and hold that the Muslims and Hindus are two distinct nations by any
definition and test of a nation We are a nation of 100 million what is more we are a nation with our
own distinct culture and civilization and, therefore, have every right to have our separate homeland".

CONGRESS ATTITUDE DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR

In the initial stages of the Second World War, the Congress extended its co-operation to the British
government. The Allied countries came under heavy pressure from Germany and Japan within few years
of the beginning of the war. The Congress, in view of the precarious position of Britain in the war, decided
to extract maximum benefit from the situation so that the government can be made to accede to Congress
demands about the future of the sub-continent. Congress, therefore, began asking for the establishment
of an independent legislative assembly. In fact, Congress strategy was that both Muslims and Hindus
together should first try to get independence from the British and then settle their differences mutually.

On the other hand, the Muslim League was not prepared to agree to any such proposal which was to
establish Hindu hegemony over the Muslims on the basis of their numerical superiority. The Muslim
League could not accept any constitution which was not based on the joint agreement between the
Hindus and the Muslims. The Quaid-i-Azam said, "The Commonwealth of Britain want to rule over India
and Gandhi wants to rule over Muslim India. We will not allow both to rule us, even if they make a joint
endeavour."

AUGUST OFFER

Germany achieved quick victories in the second world war to pose difficulties for the British who stood
alone with the fall of France. The results of war in North Africa and South-East Asia were discouraging and
humiliating. The Japanese forces, which were fighting by the side of Germany, had entered Singapore on
15th January, 1942. It appeared to many in India that the Japanese could overrun India with the same
ease with which they had conquered South-East Asia. The security of the sub-continent was gravely
threatened which created great concern for the British Government.

The sudden revelation of British weakness produced shock and surprise in India. The British government
was faced with a number of problems and wanted to win the co-operation of the Indian people and
political parties to cope with the war requirements. On August 8, 1940, the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, made
an offer on behalf of the British government to expand the executive council by including the
representatives of the parties, and to set up a war advisory council containing representatives of Indian
states and of other interests. After the war, an Indian constitution making body would be set up to devise
a new constitution with due regard for the minorities. The British government, however, made it clear
that they could not think of transfer of power to any party at Present, whose authority was directly denied
by a large and powerful elements India’s national life. Nor could they be a party in suppressing those
elements to install a government. They hoped that co-operative endeavour for victory in war would pave
the way towards the attainment by Indi of that free and equal partnership in the British Commonwealth
which remains the proclaimed and accepted goal of Imperial Crown of the British parliament.

The Muslim League and Congress, both rejected the offer made by the Viceroy Congress wanted the
transfer of power at all costs, while the Muslim League rejected it because it promised inadequate
representation to the Muslims in the government. In fact, the British wanted to win the war first and
transfer of power afterward, the Congress demanded power at once, and a Hindu-Muslim settlement
afterwards. The two communities, Hindus, and Muslims stood at daggers drawn to further pollute the
political climate of the country. The people were not prepared to co-operate with the government in war
without getting a positive assurance from the government about their demands, the Government was
unable to cope with the war without the co-operation of the people. Prime Minister Mr. Churchill declared
that a responsible delegation would soon be sent to India for talks with Indian leaders to suggest
recommendations for the constitutional reforms in India.

CRIPPS MISSION

The British government appointed a delegation under the Chairmanship of Sir Stafford Cripps, a
prominent member of the war cabinet of England. The Cripps Mission reached New Delhi on March 23,
1942 to hold discussions with Indian leaders. The Cripps Mission could not hold talks with the Indian
leaders and left after a fortnight. The Cripps Mission, however, submitted its own suggestions to the
government in April 1942 for constitutional reforms which were as follows:

1) A constituent assembly consisting of elected representatives from the provinces and nominated
representatives from the states, shall be formed immediately upon cessation of hostilities to
frame the future constitution of India.
2) The constitution framed by the constituent assembly shall have to be accepted on the following
grounds:
a) Any province or State should be free either to adhere or not to adhere to the new constitution.
b) Meanwhile the British government would retain the control of the defence of India.
c) A fresh agreement would have to be concluded between the constituent assembly and the British
government to settle the issues pertaining to the transfer of power.
d) The government of India Act, 1935 shall remain in force until the cessation of war.
e) The Commander-in-Chief and Finance Minister shall be a British national.

3. The suggestions are to be accepted or rejected as a whole and there shall be no amendments.
4. The recommendations would be implemented only if both Muslim League and Congress accept
them unanimously.

Congress rejected the Cripps proposals on the advice of Gandhi who regarded it as a post-dated cheque
on a failing bank The Muslim League also rejected them because the proposals-did not concede Pakistan
unequivocally. Gandhi now began to press for an immediate withdrawal of the British from India and the
transfer of power to the Congress without any prior settlement with any other party.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

The Congress, in order to put more pressure on the Government, launched Quit India Movement against
the British government. The Congress had decided on 8th August, 1942, to get independence from the
British by putting greater pressure on the government. The congress wanted to capture political power in
India at all cost with a view of stopping the creation of Pakistan. Violent agitation was launched to press
the British to quit India.

The Quaid-i-Azam considered Quit India movement as anti-Muslim action of the Congress and declared it
as political Black-mailing. The Muslim League, in reply to Quit India' slogans by the Congress, demanded
Divide India and go. Quaid-i-Azam said, "The Quit India Movement, in fact, is a conspiracy to establish
Hindu Raj and to finish Muslim demands."

The government took stern action against Quit India Movement. The prominent leaders of this movement
including Gandhi, were arrested, and put in jails. The movement lost its momentum and very soon failed.

GANDHI-JINNAH TALKS

Gandhi-Jinnah talks occupy great significance with regard to the political problems of India and Pakistan
Movement. The talks began between two great leaders of the sub-continent in response to the general
public desire for a settlement of Hindu- Muslim differences.

Gandhi wrote to the Quaid-i-Azam on 17th July, 1944 in which he expressed his desire to meeting the
Quaid-i-Azam. The Quaid-i-Azam asked for permission of meeting Mr. Gandhi from the Muslim League
which was duly accorded.

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks began on 19th September, 1944 in Bombay and lasted up to 24th September, 1944.
The talks were sometime held directly and sometime through correspondence. Gandhi told the Quaid-i-
Azam that he had come in his personal capacity and was not representing the Hindus or Congress.

Gandhi's real concern was to extract from Jinnah's mouth that the whole of Pakistan proposition was
absurd. Quaid-i-Azam painstakingly explained the basis for the demand of Pakistan. "We maintain, "he
wrote to Gandhi, "That Muslims and Hindus are two major nations by any definition or test of a nation
of hundred million. We have our own distinctive outlook on life and of life. By all the canons of
international law, we are a nation". He added that he was, "convinced that the true are not only of the
Muslims but of the rest of India lies in the division of India as proposed in the Lahore Resolution."

Gandhi on the other hand maintained that India was one nation and saw in the Pakistan Resolution
"Nothing but ruin for the whole of India." “If, however, Pakistan De conceded, the areas in which the
Muslims are in an absolute majority should be demarcated by a Commission proved by both Congress
and Muslim League. The wishes of the people of these areas will be obtain Referendum. These areas
shall form a separate dominion. There shall be a treaty of separation which should also provide for the
efficient and satisfactory administration of foreign affairs, defence, internal communication, custom
and like which must necessarily continue to be the matters of common interest between contracting
countries."

This meant, in effect, that power over whole of India should first be transferred to Congress, which
thereafter would allow Muslim majority areas that voted for separation to be constituted, not as
independent sovereign State, but as part of an Indian Federation Gandhi con tended that his offer gave
the substance of the Lahore Resolution. The Quaid-i-Azam did not agree to the proposal and the talks
ended.

WAVELL PLAN

Lord Wavell came to India as Viceroy in March 1943. He was a reputed military commander and had
successfully commanded the British armies in the second world war Before coming to India he was the C-
in-C of the British forces which were fighting against the German forces in North Africa. Being a military
Commander Lord Wavell possessed great administrative experience. When he took over as Viceroy the
tide pf the second world war was turning in favour of the Allies. Lord Wavell declared that the British
government wanted to see India as an independent unit.

Lord Wavell offered a scheme for the settlement of future political problems of India which is known as
"Wavell Plan". In his scheme he offered to set up a new executive council in which the Muslims were to
get seats equal to the share of caste Hindus. The council was to have 14 seats of ministers in which 5 seats
came in Muslims share after giving representation to caste Hindus, low caste Hindu, Sikhs and Parsis. The
scheme envisaged that the new cabinet would run the administration of the country for interim period
and also will seek public mandate to draft the future constitution of the Country.

SIMLA CONFERENCE

When the war ended Lord Wavell convened conference of Indian political leaders at Simla on 24th June,
1945 to discuss his plan. The conference began in Simia on 24th June, 1945 and lasted till July 1945.
Muslim League was represented by the Quaid-i-Azam, Liaquat Ali Khan, Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din, Ghulam
Husain Hidayat Ullah, Sir Muhammad Asad Ullah and Husain Imam. The Congress was represented by
Maulana Abu-al-Kalam Azad, Khizar Hayat Tiwana, Dr. Khan Sahib and some other leaders.

The Viceroy proposed an interim central government in which all the portfolios except that of war would
be given to the Indians. There was to be parity of representation between the Muslims and Hindus. There
was a deadlock over the Muslim League demand that all five members of the Executive Council should be
the nominees of the Muslim League. The Viceroy was of the opinion that four members should be taken
from the Muslim League while the fifth member should be a Punjabi Muslim who did belong to the Muslim
League. The Viceroy's insistence on having a non-League in the executive council was in accordance with
the advice given by the British and Hindu Khizar Hayat Tiwana in his stand against the Muslim League.
Khizar Hayat Tiwana Chief Minister of Punjab had demanded that one seat of the Executive Council, out
of Muslim quota, should be given to his Unionist Party which was happily accepted by the viceroy. The
Congress also supported Khizar Hayat in his stand against Muslim League. The Congress denied the Muslim
League's claim of being the sole representative of the Indian Muslims.

The Quaid-i-Azam took a strong stand on these two issues and the conference failed to achieve anything.
At the end of the conference the Quaid-i-Azam demanded that general elections should held in the
country to prove that who is the sole representative of which community. The Viceroy on 21st August,
1945, announced that general elections, to determine the representative character of both Muslim
League and Congress shall be held in the winter of 1945.
 ELECTIONS

The second world war finally came to an end in August, 1945. Labour Party returned to power with clear
majority in the general elections in England in July, 1945. The Congress leaders, who had cultivated close
relations with the leaders of Labour Party, felt elated at this unexpected turn of events. The Congress
leaders expected support from the Labour Party because the Labour Party had favoured the United
pattern of India as a single administrative and political entity. It was the main cause of dispute between
the Congress and the Muslim League.

The general elections to the provincial and central legislatures were held in India in 1945-46. Both
Congress and Muslim League contested these elections, with utmost efforts because on these elections
depended, the future of India. The results showed a decisive victory for Pakistan. The Muslim League won
all the Muslim seats in central assembly and 446 out of 495 Muslim seats in the Provincial Assemblies. The
Congress Won the similar victory in the Hindu constituencies and came to power in all the provinces with
Hindu majority. In Bengal the Muslim League won 113 out of 119 Muslim seats and was able to form
Ministry with H.S. Suhrawardy as Chief Minister. In N.W.F.P. the Muslim League could not get majority
and won only 17 out of 36 Muslim Seats. The Congress formed a Ministry in the N.W.F.P. with Dr. Khan
Sahib as the Chief Minister.

The elections of the 1945-46 proved that the Muslim League alone represented Muslims of India. The
sweeping majority of the Muslim League increased Congress hostility towards the Muslim League. Instead
of acknowledging the undeniable majority of Muslim League and coming to terms with it, Congress
persisted in its policy of the Muslims and denying political power to the representatives of the Muslim
community even in the provinces where the Muslims were in majority. In this way congress deepened
Muslim suspicion, intensified communal discord, and made an amicable settlement impossible.

CABINET MISSION PLAN

The new British government headed by Prime Minister Lord Attlee announced on February 19, 1946, that
a special Mission consisting of three ministers would be sent to India to discuss the constitutional issues
with the Viceroy and the Indian political leaders. Lord Attlee, during a debate in the House of Commons
on March 15, 1946, On the visit of Cabinet Mission to India said, "I am well aware, that I speak of the
country containing congress of races, religions and languages, and know well the difficulties thereby
created but these difficulties can only be overcome by the Indians. We are mindful of the rights of the
minorities. On the other hand, we cannot allow a minority to place a veto on the advance of a majority.

Attlee's words pleased Congress and caused concern in Muslim League circles Quaid-i-Azam said, "We
acknowledge the Hindu majority of India, but the Muslims are a separate nation, and they must have
the right of self-determination."

The Cabinet Mission which consisted of Lord Pathic Lawrence, the Secretary of State of India, Sir Stafford
Cripps, the President of the Board of Trade and Mr. A.V. Alexander the first Lord of the Admiralty, arrived
in India on March 24, 1946. There was a great deal of unrest and political activity in India as to the future
of the sub-continent and the people looked towards the Mission with expectation and hope. Freedom
was in sight, but the hands that reached out for it grappled with each other in conflict. Strife between the
two major communities, Hindus, and Muslims, was mounting day by day. The country's political and
economic conditions were deteriorating and becoming unstable every day. The war had come to an end
and the bulk of men, recruited during the war, had to be reabsorbed into the civil life. The inflationary
conditions that prevailed during the war strained the economy almost to the breaking point. The Spector
of unemployment was rising.

Quaid-i-Azam made it clear to the Mission that the Muslim majority areas should be grouped together to
make a sovereign and independent Pakistan. He said, "India had never been a symbol of unity of Hindu-
Muslim civilization. It is not possible for the British Government to create homogeneity between Hindu
and Muslim cultures and civilization as the two systems are distinctively opposed to each other. There
is no way other than the partition of India."

The most active member of the Mission was Sir Stafford Cripps who openly sympathized with the
Congress. The Mission held negotiations with the top leaders of the Congress and Muslim League and
arranged a joint conference at Simla. The Congress was represented by Maulana Abu-al-Kalam Azad,
Jawahar Lal Nehru, Vallabhai Patel and Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Muslim League was represented by the Quaid-
i-Azam, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab Ismail and Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar.

Congress Party 1nsisted on the single constituent Assembly to make the constitution for an All India
Federal government. It also wanted to have a Legislature dealing with foreign affairs, defence,
communications fundamental rights, currency customs and planning and power were to be vested in the
provinces or units. Groups of provinces may be formed, and such groups may determine the provincial
subjects which they desire to have in common.

On the other hand, on April 9, 1946, the Muslim League's central and provincial legislators, had demanded
through a resolution that the six provinces of Bengal and Assam in the North-East, and the Punjab, Khyber
Pakhtunkhawa, Sindh and Balochistan in the North-West be constituted into a sovereign and independent
State of Pakistan and that two separate constitution making bodies be set up by the people of Pakistan
and Hindustan for framing the respective constitutions. In the light of this resolution the Muslim League
proposed to the Cabinet Mission that two constitution making bodies, one for the six provinces in the
Pakistan group and the other for the group of six Hindu provinces be set up.

There was a deadlock as neither party could accept the proposals of the other. The fundamental issue was
that whether there should be one sovereign state for the whole sub-continent or two independent states.
The mediation of the Cabinet Mission could not bridge the gulf between the Congress and Muslim League.

On May, 1946, the Cabinet Mission and the Viceroy published a statement containing their own solution
of the constitutional problem. The focal point of their plan was the preservation of the single federal
system for India which the British had laboured to build up. On economic, administrative, and military
grounds, they rejected the proposal of two independent sovereign states. The Mission was, however, of
the opinion that the Muslim culture might become submerged in a purely unitary India dominated by
Hindus. These considerations led them to formulate a three-tier constitutional plan which was as follows:-

1) First there should be a union of India embracing both British India and states which should deal
with the subjects of foreign affairs, defence and communications and have power to raise
necessary finance.
2) Second there should be three groups of provinces; Group A, comprising the six Hindu majority
provinces; Group B, the provinces of the Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Sindh and Balochistan,
and Group C, the provinces of Bengal and Assam.
 3) Third, the provinces and states should be the basic units. All subjects other than the union subjects
and all residuary powers would vest in the provinces; the States would retain all subjects and
powers other than those ceded to them.

The Plan also proposed that in the constituent Assembly each province should have seats in proportion
to its population. Each of the three groups A, B, C of the constituent assembly should settle the
constitution for the provinces included in each group. The new legislature of any province shall be free to
opt out of the group. The Mission also proposed of setting up of an interim central government in which
all portfolios shall be held by the Indian nationals.

Gandhi criticised the plan and made his own interpretations. He maintained the plan was an appeal and
an advice" and that the constituent assembly as, a sovereign body, could vary the plan. The Congress
working committee, in its resolution of May 24, Followed the line given by Gandhi and demanded transfer
of power to Hindu dominated legislature.

The Muslim League Council met on 3rd June, 1946 and deliberated for three days. The Muslim League
after weighing the pros and cons, decided on June 6, 1946 to accept both the long term and short term
plan of the Cabinet Mission. The Muslim League Council affirmed that the Muslim League would join the
constitution making body. With regard to the proposed interim government, it authorized its President to
negotiate with the government.

FORMATION OF INTERIM GOVERNMENT

Negotiations for the formation of Interim government proved difficult beyond expectations. The Congress
refused to accept Viceroy's proposal to include Muslim League in the Interim government. The Congress
wanted to include the Muslim League in the Interim government with lesser seats and objected to giving
equal number of seats to the Muslim League. The Viceroy distributed twelve seats of government, five
Congress, five Muslim League, one Sikh and one Christian. Congress refused to accept this arrangement
and demanded that one seat out of Muslim League share should be given to a non-Leaguer Muslim
appointed by the Congress. The Viceroy again proposed that there should be 13 seats, six Congress, five
Muslim League and two representatives of the minorities. Congress did not agree to this proposal too.

The Viceroy then issued invitations to 14 persons at his own to join the Interim government. The list
included the name of the Quaid-i-Azam who refused to join. The Viceroy also declared that it was the
intention of the government to proceed with the formation of the Interim government even if any of the
two major parties refusing to join. The Viceroy declared that in the event of any major party refusing to
join the government, the Interim Government would be formed with the party willing to join.

A secret agreement was reached between Gandhi, Patel, and Cabinet Mission. Gandhi was given
assurance that if Congress refused to join the Interim government, Muslim League would not be invited
to join the government alone. In keeping with the understanding reached between Gandhi and Cabinet
Mission the Congress refused to join the Interim government but accepted the Long Term Plan of the
Cabinet Mission about constitution making.

Immediately following the rejection by the Congress, the Muslim League passed a resolution agreeing to
join the Interim government on the basis of Viceroy's and Cabinet Mission statement. In terms of that
statement the Viceroy should have called upon the Muslim League to form the government along with
others willing to join the government. But despite Quaid-i-Azam’s reminders the Viceroy formed a
Caretaker government of permanent officials. Quaid-i-Azam said, "I maintain that the Cabinet Mission
and Viceroy have gone back on their words within ten days of publication of their final prop0sal in not
implementing their statement, statesmen should not eat their words."

The Muslim League, betrayed by the Viceroy and the Cabinet Mission, decided to take direct action, and
withdrew its approval of the short term and long term plan of the Cabinet Mission. Congress immediately,
on Muslim League's decision of withdrawing its approval of the Cabinet Mission plan, announced its
acceptance to join the Interim government. The Viceroy gave invitation to the Muslim League to join the
government which the Muslim League accepted in the larger interest of the Muslims of India.

STEPS FOR TRANSFER OF POWER

Prime Minister Attlee declared in Parliament that India would be freed by 20th February, 1948. He said in
the House of Commons, "It is a mission, it is a mission of fulfilment."

Lord Mountbatten had been appointed as the last Viceroy of India who was to replace Lord Wavell. Lord
Mountbatten arrived in India on March 22, 1947. He came charged with the mission to make a peaceful
transfer of power from British to Indian hands by June 1947.

Lord Mountbatten was told by the Prime Minister Atlee to hand over the power to the Indians by 1st June,
1948. The Prime Minister in a letter directed the Viceroy to do his utmost to keep the unity of India. The
Prime Minister wrote that it was the definite objective of His Majesty's Government to obtain a unitary
government for British India in accordance with the Cabinet Mission Plan.

Upon his arrival in India, Lord Mountbatten had to face many problems regarding a peaceful transfer of
power. Muslim League was demanding partition of India and was not prepared to accept anything less of
Pakistan. On the other hand, Congress was pressing hard for the transfer of power to the Hindu dominated
Constituent Assembly. Another set of problems was created by the choice of June 1948, as the effective
date for the transfer of power. The fifteen months were to0 short a period for the Innumerable political,
constitutional, and administrative decisions involved.

Lord Mountbatten soon began negotiations with the political leaders of India. Having successfully
completed his task. Mountbatten entered into discussions with Indian leaders on the constitutional
problems.

JUNE 3 PLAN

After prolonged talks, Mountbatten had worked out a partition plan by the middle) April 1947. It was felt
that if the partition came it should be the responsibility of the Indians.

The working committee of Congress met on May 1, 1947 and gave its acceptance of the partition plan.
Muslim League also gave its approval to the final draft of the Partition plan.

Mountbatten went to England to seek the approval of the British government which was duly accorded.
The plan was issued on June 3, 1947 and is known as June3 Plan. The main characteristics of the plan are
as follows:

1) The Legislatures of the Punjab and Bengal shall decide whether the provinces should be divided
or not.
 2) The Indian people shall make the constitution of India. This constitution shall not be applicable to
those areas whose people reject it.
3) Referendum shall be held in N.W.F.P.
4) Province of Balochistan shall adopt appropriate way to decide its future.
5) States shall be free and independent to join one or the other country.
6) A Boundary Commission shall be set up after partition which will demarcate the boundaries of
the two countries.
7) Both countries shall have their own Governor-Generals who will be the Executive Heads of their
respective countries.
8) Military assets shall be divided amongst two countries after partition.

RADCIIFFE AWARD

It was provided in June 3 Plan that as soon as the legislatures of Punjab and Bengal decided in favour of
partition, a Boundary Commission should be set up to demarcate the boundaries. Since the legislatures
of Bengal and Punjab had voted in favour of partition, Boundary Commissions were set up for Punjab and
Bengal under the Chairmanship of Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a prominent lawyer of London.

Each Boundary Commission was to consist of an equal number of representatives of India and Pakistan
and one or more impartial members. The claims of India and Pakistan were bound to conflict and there
was little chance that the representatives of India and Pakistan on the Boundary Commissions would reach
any agreement among themselves. There was a proposal to put the problems of boundary demarcation
into the hands of UNO which Nehru refused to accept. The Quaid-i-Azam wanted three law Lords from
the United Kingdom to be appointed to the Boundary Commission as impartial members, Mountbatten
insisted on Radcliffe who would have the power to make the award in case of the deadlock.

The members of the Punjab Boundary Commission were Justice Din Muhammad and Justice Muhammad
Munir on behalf of Pakistan and Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan and Justice Tej Singh on behalf of India. The
members of the Bengal Boundary Commission were Justice Abu Saleh Muhammad, Justice M. Akram and
Justice S.A. Rahman on behalf of Pakistan and Justice C.C. Biswas and Justice B.K. Mukerjee on behalf of
India.

The Commissions were set up by the end of June, 1947. Radcliffe arrived in India on July 8, 1947. The two
Commissions were assigned the responsibility of demarcating the boundaries of the two parts of the
Punjab and Bengal on the basis of the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims.

India and Pakistan agreed to accept the award of the Boundary Commission and to take proper measures
to enforce it. Radcliffe did not take part in the public sittings of the Commission, in which arguments were
presented by the Muslim League, the Congress, the Sikhs and other interested parties. He studied the
record and proceedings of the meetings and held discussions with other members of the Commission. As
expected, the members of the Boundary Commission were unable to reach agreement on the boundaries.
Lord Radcliffe, as a Chairman, gave his award.

DIVISION OF BENGAL AND CALCUTTA PROBLEM

The Radcliffe award was unfair to Pakistan because it awarded many Muslim majority areas in the Punjab
and Bengal to India. In Bengal. the great city of Calcutta occupied immense importance. It was the capital
of the province, its only major port and the biggest industrial commerce and educational centre. Being
the centre of all activities Calcutta was the most developed area of the province. The entire development
of Calcutta was mostly based on the toil of Muslim peasantry of Bengal. East Bengal produced most of the
raw material which had to be sent to Calcutta because all the factories and mills were in or around
Calcutta. Without Calcutta Eastern Bengal would prove to be a rural slum. For Pakistan, separated by one
thousand miles of Indian territory, the importance of sea communications and hence of Calcutta could
not be ignored. For that very reasons the Congress leaders were determined to deny Calcutta to Pakistan
and insisted on retaining it in India. Mountbatten was in favour of giving Calcutta to India. Radcliffe, in
accordance with the desires of Mountbatten, awarded Calcutta to India despite the Muslim claim to it.

Although the Muslims formed only a quarter of the population of Calcutta, but the hinterland on which
the life of Calcutta depended was a Muslim majority area Calcutta had been built mainly on the resources
of East Bengal. Pakistan, therefore, had a strong claim upon Calcutta and its environs. Mountbatten had
entered into a secret agreement with the Congress leaders to get Calcutta for India. Sardar Patel declared
in a speech in Calcutta on January 5, 1950: "We made a condition that we could only agree to partition if
we did not lose Calcutta. If Calcutta is gone then India is gone.

DIVISION OF PUNJAB

in case of Punjab the award was again partial and against Pakistan. The award that Radcliffe gave in the
Punjab chopped off a number of contiguous Muslim majority areas from Pakistan. In case of India not a
single non-Muslim area was taken away from her. In Gurdaspur district two contiguous Muslim majority
Tehsils of Gurdaspur and Batala were given to India along with Pathankot tehsil to provide a link between
India and the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Muslim majority tehsil Ajnala, in the Amritsar district was
also handed over to India. In Jullundur district the Muslim majority areas of Zira and Ferozepur in the
Ferozepur district, were also given to India. All of these areas were contiguous to the Western Punjab.

Commenting on Radcliffe's award in a radio speech the Quaid-i-Azam said, “The division of India is now
finally and irrevocably effected. No doubt we feel the carving out of this great independent Muslim
State has suffered injustices. We have been squeezed inasmuch as it was possible, and the latest blow
that we have received Was the award of the Boundary Commission. It is an unjust, incomprehensible,
and perverse award. It may be wrong, unjust, and perverse; and it may not be a judicial but a political
award, but we have agreed to abide by it, and it is binding upon us, As honorable people we must abide
by it. It may be our misfortune, but we must bear up this one more blow with fortitude, courage, and
hope.”

INDEPENDENCE ACT OF 1947

On July 4, 1947, the Viceroy announced the Partition Plan on Radio. According to this Plan, India was
divided into two sovereign states of Pakistan and India and the British control over India would come to
an end on 15th August, 1947. The princely states were given the option to join one or the other country.
They were also authorized to have their independent legislatures, constitutions, and other administrative
departments. The Act of 1935 was to remain in force until both countries draft their own constitutions
Both countries would have right to remain in the British Commonwealth if they so desire The agreements
between the princely States and the British government would come to an end with the end of British
control over India. The British parliament approved the Independence Act on 14th July, 1947 by which
Pakistan came into existence as the biggest Islamic State of the world.
 TRANSFER OF POWER

Two sovereign states came into existence on 14th August and 15th August, 1947 according to the June 3
Plan of Lord Mountbatten. Lord Mountbatten keenly desired to become the joint Governor-General of
India and Pakistan. Congress had agreed to this proposal knowing Mountbatten's soft corner for the
Congress and Hindus. The Congress approval to Mountbatten's appointment as the Governor-General
was based on the Congress's designs to extract maximum benefits with Mountbatten's assistance in the
division of assets and the demarcation of boundaries.

The Quaid-i-Azam was fully aware of Mountbatten relationship with Congress leaders and particularly
with the Nehru family. He was also aware of pro-Hindu and pro-Congress sentiments of Lord
Mountbatten. Apart from that the Quaid-i-Azam believed that the partition of India and the emergence
of Pakistan should commence in an unambiguous manner and that no pre-conditions be laid down with
this prime objective for which the Muslims had struggled so hard. He, therefore, rejected the proposal of
having a joint Governor-General for Pakistan and India. Muslim League also rejected this proposal and
decided to appoint the Quaid-i-Azam as a first Governor-General of Pakistan.

The Quaid-i-Azam reached Karachi on 7th August, 1947 where he was given a tremendous welcome. Lord
Mountbatten announced the establishment of the government of Pakistan on 15th August, 1947 in
Assembly Building at Karachi. The Quaid-i-Azam took oath as the first Governor General of Pakistan on
15th August, 1947 the last Friday of the holy month of Ramazan. The National Flag with the Crescent and
the Star was unfurled. Cabinet was sworn in and Pakistan was born.

QUESTIONS/EXERCISE

1) Discuss the factors responsible for the evolution of Two-Nation Theory.

2) Examine various proposals for the partition of India.
3) In what respects the Presidential address of Allama Iqbal at Allahabad carries importance in the
history of freedom movement.
4) The Lahore Resolution showed new dimensions to the Muslims of the sub-continent. Discuss.
5) How far it is correct to assume that the Congress rule in 1937 was predominant in strengthening
the Muslim separation in India?
6) Critically examine the Cabinet Mission Plan and its proposals.
7) Fill in the Blanks:
a) The Two-Nation Theory …….... of Pakistan.
b) Cultural, religious……….. differences. …………... responsible................... of …………….........
c) The pamphlet issued in England by …………. in ………………….. demanding national status for the
north-west of Indian sub-continent with the name of Pakistan was entitled ……………....
d) Members of the Cabinet Mission included………………………….. and……………………………..
e) The Lahore Resolution was…………….. by ………….. and seconded by ………………….. and
many…………………

Answer to fill in blanks

a) was the basis.

b) Political and economic, were for the evolution, Two Nation-Theory.
c) Chaudhri Rehman Ali, 1933, as 'Now or Never.
d) Lord Pathic Lawrence, sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander.
e) Presented, Maulvi Fazal-ul-Haq (Sher-i-Bengal) Chaudhry Khaliq-uz-Zaman, others.
8. Write Short notes on the following:
a) Fourteen points of the Quaid-i-Azam.
b) Radcliffe award.
c) Chaudhri Rehmat Ali and Pakistan National Movement.
d) Day of Deliverance.
e) Formation of Interim Government.