Unit: 5 Comparative education in developing countries

1. Introduction

China is located in East Asia, bordering fourteen other countries. It is the world most populous

developing country. China has the largest education system in the world. Today, about 99.7%

population has achieved 9-years compulsory education, in which the percentage of Male is 98.2% and

the percentage of Female is 94.5%[ CITATION Sha16 \l 1033 ].

In this assignment, we have discussed the education system of China in detail. We have discussed the

key objectives of educational system of China, Structure of China’s Education system, teaching

strategies that are commonly used in China and their examination system, based on different

programs that they offer for teacher education in detail.

2. Key Objectives of China Education System

Following are the key objectives of China’s education:

 Education attainment for all people should be markedly better and a basic socialist education

framework shaped according to Chinese characteristics and oriented to serve the needs of the

twenty-first century, should be put into place

 Nine-year compulsory should become universal

 There should be no more illiterates among youth and adults

 Senior secondary education should be expanded

 Vocational education and adult education should be developed more energetically

 The percentage of people with higher education should be close to that of developed countries
  Education at various levels should enjoy better conditions under which operate schools and

both its quality and efficiency should be improved

 All citizens should have the right and obligation to pursue education

 All citizens should have equal opportunities of education regardless of nationality, race, sex,

occupation, social conditions and religious belief

 Education shall be carried out in the spirit of inheriting and expanding the fine historical and

cultural traditions of the Chinese nation and assimilating all the fine achievements of the

civilization progress of human beings[ CITATION WDE06 \l 1033 ].

3. Specific Goals of Education System of China

 The remaining illiterates should become literate and a functional literacy program should be

launched to reduce the illiteracy rate among youths an adult to about 1%, so as to increase

adult literacy rate to over 90%

 A nine-year compulsory education should be achieved in regions where 92-95% of the

population lives; kindergarten enrolment rate should reach 50%. Primary schools should have

an enrolment of 130 million, while junior secondary schools should have an enrolment at 63

million, with an enrolment rate of about 95%

 Regions following the eight-year primary program and junior secondary schools shall

gradually introduce the nine-year compulsory program, region where the school admission

age is 7 years or above shall strive to lower the admission age to 6 years

 Enrollment at various types of senior secondary schools shall be increased to about 34 million,

with an enrolment rate of over 50%

  The number of students enrolled in higher education institutions should be increased to around

9.5 million, with an average of 700 university students per 100,000 people and with a gross

enrolment rate of about 11%. Post-graduate program should accommodate 300,000 students

and over 100,000 people should be awarded master’s and doctoral degrees of every year

 Pre-service and in-service training, job-transfer training and continuing education should be

further developed, so as to establish a comprehensive, modern system of social education and

life-long education, adapted to the requirements arising from socialist market economy,

employment pressure and increasingly greater sophistication of the people[ CITATION

WDE06 \l 1033 ].

4. Structure of China Education System

The structure of china education system is described in a tabular form that is explained as follows

Sr. No Level Grade Time Duration Age Duration

1 Pre-primary  Nursery Lasts for 4 years 2-6 years
education  Kindergarten
 Pre-school

2 Elementary  Primary education Lasts for 5-6 6-12 years

Education years
3 Secondary  Middle education Lasts for 5-6 12-18 years
Education  Vocational education years

4 Higher  Under-graduate education Lasts for 6-7 18-25 years

Education  Graduate education years
 Short-term Vocational
education
.1. Pre-Primary Education

Pre-primary education is an important but not compulsory component of education in China. Pre-

primary is given more in urban areas than rural areas. Division of age level in different grades of pre-

primary education is as follows:

 Nursery = 2-3 years of age

 Lower/Junior Kindergarten = 3-4 years of age

 Upper/Senior Kindergarten = 4-5 years of age

 Pre-School = 5-6 years of age

.1.1. Aims of Pre-Primary Education

There are two main aims of pre-primary education in China. These are as follows:

 To take care and give early education to a child

 To inculcate moral, intellectual, physical and artistic development in a child[ CITATION

Int20 \l 1033 ].

.2. Elementary Education

Elementary education is compulsory for all citizens It is also known as primary education and it lasts

for five years in most of the country except the two major cities of China that are Shanghai and

Beijing. In these two cities primary education lasts for six years. In Shanghai and Beijing students

start elementary education at the age of six years while at rest of the country students start schooling

at the age of seven years because they are not eligible at the age of six. The yearly-schedule of

elementary education is as follows:

 Starting of session = September

  Ending of session = June/July

 Time duration of a session = lasts for nine months

 School days = Five days in a week

 School timing = 8:00am-5:00pm

 Time duration of one period = 45 minutes

 Summer vacation = July-August

 Winter vacation = January-February[ CITATION Int20 \l 1033 ].

.2.1. Aims of Elementary Education

The main aims of elementary education in China are as follows:

 To foster moral development of a child and to make patriotic towards their country and nation

 To enable students to obtain basic education

 To develop skills of reading and writing, in students

 To encourage study habits

 To foster physical development of a child. At least one hour a day, students are mandatory to

perform physical activities or exercise[ CITATION Pow20 \l 1033 ].

.3. Secondary Education

It is divided into two groups;

 First group includes junior-middle education

 Second group includes senior-middle education, vocational education and technical education.
.3.1. Junior-Middle Education

It lasts for three years from the age of twelve to fifteen years. It is compulsory for all citizens of

China. China has made it mandatory for all citizens to achieve primary education and junior-middle

education. This compulsory education lasts from six to fifteen years of age and is known as ‘Nine-

Year Compulsory Education’. They are mostly funded by the government but some schools may

charge minimal tuition fees. After completing 3 years of junior-middle education students are

provided with the choice that either they want to achieve senior-middle education, vocational

education or technical education. To continue regular senior-middle educations students have to take

‘Zhongkao-senior high school entrance test’. According to the scores of this test, students can choose

the next educational program[ CITATION Int20 \l 1033 ].

.3.2. Senior-Middle Education

It lasts for three years from the age of fifteen to eighteen years. Senior-middle education is

significantly costly. It is not compulsory for everyone to achieve senior-middle education. The main

purpose of this education is to prepare students for higher education and to clear the test for taking

admission in higher school. In senior-middle education, routine of students become more tough. They

have to do more hard work than primary and junior-middle education[ CITATION Int20 \l 1033 ].

.3.3. Aims of Senior Education

The main aims of senior education are as follows:

 To make students patriotic towards their country

 To develop the spirit of internationalism

 To build moral character of students

  To enable students, have mastery on the knowledge and skills of mathematics, foreign

language, Chinese, etc

 To develop problem-solving skills in students

 To develop the habit of self-study

 To inculcate values, attitudes and good habits in students

 To prepare them for their daily life challenges[ CITATION Pow20 \l 1033 ].

.4. Higher Education

It lasts for six to seven years. The age duration of higher education is eighteen years to twenty-five

years old. Students can enter in higher schools only if they have passes higher school graduation

exam or entrance test, named as ‘GaoKao’. This is very difficult that only 40% of students pass it at

the first attempt. This test checks the knowledge skills of students about Chinese, Mathematics,

Foreign language and few other optional subjects (for Arts’ students optional subjects are politics,

history and geography while for science’ students optional subjects are physics, chemistry and

biology)[ CITATION Noe20 \l 1033 ].

Higher Education is divided into three sub-categories;

 Under-graduate Education

 Graduate Education

 Vocational Education

.4.1. Under-Graduation

Universities offer 4-years undergraduate program in different disciplines. It is also known as

bachelor’s program. It leads towards the graduation.

.4.2. Graduation

It lasts for two-three years. After the completion of graduation, students become a specialist in a

certain field or discipline. It leads towards the masters or doctoral degrees[ CITATION Int20 \l 1033 ]

.4.3. Vocational Education

Vocational education provides subject and occupation-specific education and training. It provides

professional education. It is employment-oriented education that enables a graduate to get a job

easily. It opens a way to achieve further education and provides opportunity to become a vocational

specialist[ CITATION Roy16 \l 1033 ].

Vocational Education is divided into three levels, which are as follows;

 Junior-Vocational Education

 Secondary Vocational Education

 Tertiary Vocational Education

.4.3.1. Junior-Vocational Education

It is a part of Nine-Year Compulsory Education. It is provided mostly in rural areas. Its purpose is to

provide basic professional knowledge and skills.

.4.3.2. Secondary-Vocational Education

It is provided after completing junior-middle education and it lasts for three to four years. It is

practice-oriented education.

.4.3.3. Tertiary-Vocational Education

It is provided to secondary-vocational graduates for their professional development of skills. It is

provided in high school. It is not mandatory for every student. It lasts for two years.
.4.3.4. Vocational-Training Courses

They are short-term courses that are managed by the department of education and labour but provided

by the employers [ CITATION Wig10 \l 1033 ].

5. Teacher Education

“Teacher education refers to the policies and procedures that are designed to equip prospective

teachers with the knowledge, attitude, behaviours and skills they required to perform their task

effectively in the classroom, schools and wider community”[ CITATION Roy161 \l 1033 ].

.1. Teacher Education Models in China

Following are the different models of teacher education that are used by the universities of China, to

teach subject knowledge and teaching skills at bachelor’ and master’s level[ CITATION YUT13 \l

1033 ].

.1.1. At Under-Graduate Level

 “2+2” Model

 “2.5+1.5” Model

 “3+1” Model

Sr. No Model Division of Degree

st nd
1 “2+2” Model 1 -2 academic year: Subject knowledge studying
3rd-4th academic year: Teaching skill training
2 “2.5+1.5” Model First 2.5 academic year: Emphasizing on subject theory
learning (including some teaching practices)
Last 1.5 academic year: Focusing on teaching training, practical
training is the key point.
3 “3+1” Model 1st-3rd academic year: Subject knowledge and education theory
studying
4th academic year: Teaching practices
.1.2. At Post-Graduate Level

 “4+2” Model

Sr. No Model Division of Degree

st th
1 “4+2” Model 1 -4 academic year: Subject knowledge studying (Bachelor of
the subject)
5th-6th academic year: Teaching skill training (Master of
education)

.2. Sub-Systems of Teacher Education

Teacher education comprises two distinct sub-systems, which are as follows:

 In-service Teacher Education

 Pre-service Teacher Education

.2.1. Pre-Service Teacher Education

Pre-service education of teacher means, education of teacher before they enter into service as teacher.

During this time duration of teacher education programs, teaching practices goes side by side, while

they are getting knowledge about theory papers[ CITATION Soo13 \l 1033 ].

In China, four-year teacher training institutions including normal universities and colleges, three-year

teacher training colleges and secondary teacher training schools primarily conduct pre-service

education. They train teachers for kindergarten, primary schools, senior and junior secondary schools

and special education institutions[CITATION EMB04 \l 1033 ].

.2.2. In-Service Teacher Education

“In-service education is the education a teacher receives after he has entered to teaching profession

and after he has had his education in a teacher’s college”[ CITATION Law13 \l 1033 ].
It includes all the educational, social and other programs in which the teacher takes a virtual part, all

the extra education which he receives at different institutions by way of refresher and other

professional courses and travels and visits which he undertakes.

In China, in-service training for kindergarten, primary and secondary school is conducted by;

 Education institutes

 In-service teacher training schools

 Correspondence education program

 Evening schools

 Satellite TV education[ CITATION EMB04 \l 1033 ].

6. Curriculum

The Chinese education system consists of primary, elementary, secondary and higher education. First

nine years of school are compulsory for all citizens of China. After completing compulsory education,

students are given choice to continue further education or not. Across China today, 95% of students

choose to continue their studies.

.1. National Curriculum

China has a national curriculum. Until 1988, China used standardized syllabi and centrally issued

textbooks. In that year, the Ministry of Education (MOE) began to approve the use of multiple texts

and resources. Schools can now choose their materials from a ministry-approved list. Before 1980’s,

the focus of parents, teachers and students is on grades. Students want to achieve higher grades

because it was necessary to have grades to continue higher studies. But then, parents, teachers,

students and other stakeholders realized that emphasis placed only on high grades hinder the
intellectual development of students and the development of many key skills and competencies. Many

schools used to promote this focus by ignoring other extraneous subject such as art, music and

physical education. They removed these subjects from their schedule so that more hours would be

given to students to focus on exam subjects. Since late 1980’s, focus on grades has been de-

emphasized. Now the focus has shifted towards the conceptual and experimental

learning[ CITATION NCE20 \l 1033 ].

.2. Three-Block Curriculum

In 1988, Shanghai established a three-block curriculum. This model of curriculum enabled students to

participate in required and elective courses as well as extracurricular activities as part of their

schooling, which was a major change from the previous curriculum focused solely on core subjects.

In short, the heart of curriculum has moved from the acquisition of knowledge to the development of

student capacity to acquire and effectively use knowledge over time[ CITATION NCE20 \l 1033 ].

.3. Curriculum Reform

China now considers curriculum reform to be an important priority. These reforms in curriculum

helps an individual to meet their needs and societal needs.

.3.1. Objectives

Following are the specified objectives of Basic Education Curriculum Reform of China:

 Change from a narrow perspective of knowledge transmission in classroom instruction to a

perspective concerned with learning how to learn and developing positive attitudes.

 Change from the subject-centered curriculum structure to a balanced, integrated and selective

curriculum structure to meet the diverse needs of schools and students.

  Change from out-of-date and extremely abstruse curriculum content to essential knowledge

and skills in relation to students’ lifelong learning.

 Change from a passive-learning and rote-learning style to active and problem-solving learning

styles to improve students’ overall abilities of information processing, knowledge acquisition,

problem-solving and cooperative learning.

 Change the function of curriculum evaluation from exclusive identification and selection to

the promotion of student growth, teacher development and instructional improvement as

additional functions.

 Change from centralization in curriculum control to a joint effort between central government,

local authorities and schools to strengthen the relevance of the curriculum to local

situations[ CITATION Cui14 \l 1033 ].

.3.2. Learning Domains

The 1998 reforms organized the curriculum around eight learning domains, which were meant to

encourage active inquiry and interdisciplinary understanding. These domains are as follows:

 Language and Literature

 Foreign Language

 Mathematics

 Natural Science

 Social Sciences

 Technology

 Arts

 Physical Education
  Political Education

 Practicum

With these domains and components in mind, schools were encouraged to adapt the government’s

curriculum frameworks to meet their students’ needs. After piloting thesis reforms in Shanghai, the

government has since extended the curriculum nationwide[ CITATION NCE20 \l 1033 ].

.4. Curriculum of Chinese Education

Subjects that are taught in different levels, in China are as follows[ CITATION Sha16 \l 1033 ]:

Sr. No Levels Subjects

1 Primary Education Moral Education, Chinese Language, Mathematics, Social
Studies, Natural Science, Physical Education, Music, Arts
and Labour Services.
2 Secondary Education Politics, Chinese Language, Mathematics, Foreign
Language, History, Geography, Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Physical Education, Music, Art and Household
Skills.
3 GaoKao Test To enter higher education, students need to pass ‘GaoKao’
test which includes following subjects: Chinese Language
and Literature, Mathematics, Foreign Language (often
English), Physics, Chemistry, Biology, History, Geography,
Political Education.
4 Higher Education Subjects depends upon the discipline/degree.

7. Teaching Strategies

China is known for having educational success. One of the important reasons of this success is

Chinese teaching strategies that they use to educate their students effectively. Chinese teachers use

different teaching strategies in their classroom, some of the teaching strategies are as

follows[ CITATION Khl20 \l 1033 ] and [ CITATION Neu20 \l 1033 ].

 Teacher-Led Strategy

 Student-Led Strategy
  Independent Learning

 Sustained Silent Reading

 Fluency Writing

 Summarizing Summaries

 Chalk and Talk Strategy

 Black Marker Poetry

.1. Teacher-Led Strategy

In this strategy, teacher is the centre of attention to deliver lecture to the students. Students depends

on the teacher. Students remain passive. They do not participate actively during the lecture. They

break their silence only when they have some query about lecture. Teacher is responsible for what

student needs. In this strategy, learning is shallow and memorized. This is well-known effective

strategy because Chinese believe that students learns best by memorizing information supplied

through repetition and note taking[ CITATION Tea17 \l 1033 ].

.2. Student-Led Strategy

In Student-led strategy, student is the centre of attraction. Students are active participants. They

discuss their topic with teacher and their peers. Due to active participation of students, listening and

speaking skills are also developed which help them in variety of situations. This strategy tends to

build social skills and confidence in students[ CITATION Emm19 \l 1033 ].

.3. Independent Learning

In this strategy, students are not totally dependent on teacher. They do independent learning. Teacher

use this strategy by showing them a video or taking them to the library and suggest them a book to

read independently and summarize that book in their own words[ CITATION Khl20 \l 1033 ].
.4. Sustained Silent Reading

In this strategy, teacher provide some paragraphs or reading materials to students which they have

read independently. This reading material must be in simple language that should easy to understand

so that students feel pleasure while reading. This strategy increases student’s vocabulary and reading

skills. As students read with pleasure, their learning abilities also enhance[ CITATION Neu20 \l 1033

].

.5. Fluency Writing

This strategy is similar to brainstorming, in which teacher assign a topic to students. They have to do

brainstorming within a limited time that is given to them by their teacher. They have written whatever

comes to their mind about that topic. There is no option for editing in this strategy, once a thing or

information is written it cannot be removed or changed. This strategy helps a teacher to know at what

level her students are passionate about learning and what is their thinking and critical

level[ CITATION Khl20 \l 1033 ].

.6. Summarizing Summaries

This is the fun and challenging activity for the students, in which teacher gives a paragraph to

students to summarize. This paragraph may be of fifteen to twenty sentences. Students have to

summarize it in ten sentences then they have to summarize these ten sentences to five sentences. In

the next step, they have to summarize it in three sentences and then to one sentence. It means that

students have to do step by step summarization. They have to summarize a full paragraph into a

single, meaningful and understandable sentence. This strategy enhances the critical thinking of

students and develops the habit of comprehend reading, writing and thinking[ CITATION Aca20 \l

1033 ].
.7. Chalk and Talk Strategy

This is a silent activity, in which no one is allowed to talk in the classroom. This strategy is similar to

teacher-led strategy. Teacher is the center of attention to deliver lecture. Teacher write whole lecture

on the board and students have to copy it on their notebooks. This strategy is used as a classroom

activity that remains only fifteen to twenty minutes[ CITATION Sat18 \l 1033 ].

.8. Black Marker Poetry

This is fun activity for students, which they enjoy most. They are provided with the printed reading

material, in which there are some unwanted words. Students have to highlight these words after

reading the whole material. After highlighting unwanted words, students have to make poem from the

words that are left behind and then, exchange their poems with each other. They read the poem of

each other in front of class. This strategy develops creative writing and critical thinking in

students[ CITATION Khl20 \l 1033 ].

There are many other teaching strategies that are used in China. These are top and most effective

teaching strategies that are easy to conduct in the classroom.

. Assessment Strategies Used in China

.1. Basic types of Assessment

There are two basic types of assessment that are used in China, which are as follows:

 Formative Assessment

 Summative Assessment
.1.1. Formative Assessment

It is such out of assessment which is done during a process or educational course. It can be done in

many different ways such as assignment, activity, observation, etc. It is designed to measure students’

comprehension of a concept or a task in order to identify areas that requires some modification or

changings. It emphasizes the mastery of classroom content and skills instead of earning

grades[ CITATION Che09 \l 1033 ].

.1.2. Summative Assessment

It is a type of assessment which is done at the end of process of course. It is done in term of final

exams. It assesses how much someone has learned throughout the course. It is also known as final

evaluation.

Example:

When the cook tastes the soup, that is formative assessment and when the customer tastes the soup,

that is summative assessment.

.2. Assessment of Three Basic Subjects

Assessment method of the basic subjects of Chinese education is same for all levels but it mainly

focuses the assessment of secondary level. Following is the assessment framework for three basic

subjects, in China[ CITATION Xin17 \l 1033 ]:

 Assessment Framework for Mathematics

 Assessment Framework for Physical Education (P.E)

 Assessment Framework for Arts

.2.1. Assessment Framework for Mathematics

Mathematics Assessment Framework

Academic Emotions Contextual Information
Performance Attitudes
Its academic It assesses the  Class hour  Teacher’s  Media
performance following criteria: per week education equipmen
following criteria  Interest  Homework backgrou t
or skills are  Confidence hours nd  Internet
assessed:  Age usage
 Operation  Teaching
 Space Behaviou
 Data Analysis rs
 Reasoning
 Solving

.2.2. Assessment Framework for Physical Education

P.E. Assessment Framework

Questionnaire Test Spot Test
 Interest P.E. Physical Health Condition
 Attitude Implementation
 Habit in School

 Voluntary  Curriculum  Height Body Function: Physical

Exercise  P.E. Activities  Weight  Vital Ability:
 Sleeping Time  Facilities  Body Mass Capacity  Power
 Teaching Index (BMI)  Vision  Speed
 Endurance

.2.3. Assessment Framework for Arts

Arts Assessment Framework

Music Visual Arts
 Knowing and Appreciation and Performance and Creation
Understanding Evaluation
Knowledge and Identifying and evaluating Signing and Drawing and
understanding of music the genres, forms, themes creating the reflecting upon
and visual arts elements and styles, emotion of music simple melody their own
and terms; and visual art works. and rhyme. artworks.
Knowledge of the
personal, historical and
cultural characteristics
of Chinese and foreign
classic works.

.3. Assessment Tools

Following are the assessment tools that are used for assessing the students in China[ CITATION

Xin17 \l 1033 ]:

 Paper and Pencil Assessment

 Performance Assessment

.3.1. Paper and Pencil Assessment

It includes the assessment that is done by taking assignment, exams and other written techniques.

.3.2. Performance Assessment

It includes the assessment that is done by observing and performing different activities.

.4. Assessment Cycles and Schedule

Here is the three years cycle, which has the following schedule[ CITATION Xin17 \l 1033 ]:

 1st Year = Mathematics and Physical Education

 2nd Year = Arts and Chinese

 3rd Year = Science and Moral Education

3 Years a
Cycle
 3rd Year 1st Year
 Science  Mathematics
 Moral Mid-June  Physical
Education Education

2nd Year
 Arts
 Chinese

. Grading System in China

High schools, colleges, and universities in China usually have their own grading system that follows

either five (A, B, C, D, and F) or four (A, B, C, and F) scale standard classifications [ CITATION

Uni20 \l 1033 ]:

Sr.No. Grade Percentage Reward

%
1 A 100 – 85% Excellent
2 B 84 – 75% Good
3 C 74 – 61% Average
4 D 60% Pass
 5 F 59% Fail

Education System and Practices in Bhutan

1.Introduction

Western style education was introduced to Bhutan during the reign of Ugyen Wangchuck (1907-

26). Until the 1950s, the only formal education available to Bhutanese students, except for

private schools in Ha and Bumthang, was through Buddhist moasteries. In 1950s several private

secular schools were established without government support and several others were established

in major district towns with government backing. By the late 1950s there were twenty-nine

government and thirty private primary schools but only 2500 children were enrolled.(Wikipedia)

2.Key Objectives

 Education is compulsory in Bhutan.

 The Royal Government of Bhutan has been giving high priority to improving the quality

of learning in primary schools and expanding access to secondary education.

 The 10- year ‘Bhutan Education Blueprint (BEBP 2014-2024)’ focuses on transforming

the education system to increase access, quality, equity and efficiency.

 The education policy of the Royal Government of Bhutan is to offer a minimum of nine

years, free quality basic education to all its citizens.

 As articulated in the Bhutan 2020(Planning Commission, 1999) the vision is to provide a

quality education the achievement of which must meet following objectives: prepare
young people for the world of work, ensure the realization of the innate potential of each

and every child, teach them both traditional and universal values.
  English was used as the language of instruction throughout the junior high and high

school system.

 The department of education was responsible for producing textbooks, preparing course

syllabi and in-service training for teachers.

 The Bhutan Board of Examination is responsible for organizing and monitoring national

examinations, i.e All Bhutan Primary Certificate Examination at the end of grade 6 the

examination at the end of the basic education programme (grade8) and at the end of

grade

10. The latter examination is conducted jointly with the council for Indian School

Certificate Examination in Delhi.

 The Ministry of Education us responsible for making all level curriculum (UNESCO)

3.Structure

3.1.Level of Education

The level of education are

 Pre-Primary Education

 Primary Education

 Secondary Education

 Higher Education

3.1.1. Pre-Primary Education

Children are admitted into the pre-primary class (PP) at the age of (2-4) years. Primary education

incorporates one year of pre-primary education, which provides an opportunity for all children to
prepare for the formal education programme. It is generally accepted that the Bhutanese culture
provides a high level of interaction between children, parents and other family members in the

child’s early formative years. In addition to this, the health sector has been promoting mother

and childcare in order to achieve a reduction in infant and child mortality rates. Therefore no

specific targets or goals were set for this dimension.(Ministry of EducationGeneva2010)

3.1.2. Primary Education

Children are admitted into the primary education at the age of 6. At the primary level a school is

either called a primary school or a community primary school. Both schools offer, in principle,

seven years of education from PP to grade 6. The objective of the primary education is to impart

basic literacy and numeracy skills, to provide knowledge of the country’s history, geography,

culture and traditions and to teach the fundamentals of agriculture, health and hygiene and

population education. Moral and value education (Buddhism) are given special attention.

Activity-based learning is used uniformly across the country to teach these skills and knowledge.

(Ministry of EducationGeneva2010)

3.1.3. Secondary Education

Secondary education comprises two years (grade 7 and 8) of lower secondary ( previously called

junior high school) two years of middle secondary (grades 9 and 10) and two years of higher

secondary education ( grade 11 and 12 formally called junior college) At the end of grade 8

students used to sit the All Bhutan Grade 8 examination ( previously the Lower Secondary

School Certificate Examination) administered by the Bhutan Board of Examination (BBE) since

2006 the responsibility of conducting the examination was transferred to the schools. At the end

of grade 10 the final year of basic education students sit the Bhutan Certificate of Secondary
Education (BCSE) examination conducted by the BBE. Admission to grade 11 in government-

funded schools depends on the student’s performance in this examination. Students who are not

selected can attend private higher secondary schools at their own expense or can join vocational

courses that are state-funded or organized by private firms. While grades 9 and 10 are provided

in all high schools, grades 11 and 12 (also known as pre-university classes or higher secondary

and conceived as post-basic education) are provided only in selected high schools. Higher

secondary education is organized into three streams: arts, commerce and science. At the end of

grade 12 students sit the Bhutan Higher Secondary Education Certificate (BHSEC) examination

administrated by the BBE. At the secondary level the classification of a school depends on the

final grade that is taught. Schools that offer upto grade 8 are called lower secondary, while

schools that have grade 10 or 12 as their terminal classes are called middle secondary and higher

secondary schools respectively. (Ministry of EducationGeneva2010)

3.1.4. Higher Education

Tertiary and higher education is mainly provided by the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB)

which comprised ten colleges and institutes in 2010, including the Jigme Namgyel Polytechnic ,

the National Institute of Traditional Medicine, the Paro College of Education and the Samste

College of Education . Admission to the RUB is based on the BHSEC examination results.

Professional and general programmes are offered full-time, part-time, and through distance

learning provision. Diploma programmes normally last five semesters to three years. Most

programmes leading to the award of a bachelor’s degree take four years to complete (technology,

engineering, education and business administration: five years in the case of the Bachelor of

Medicine in traditional medicine). The Samste College of Education also offers a one year
postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE) programme for B.ED holders. (Ministry of

Education Geneva 2010)

3.2.Curriculum

The curriculum is central to education and plays a vital role in achieving the purpose of

education .It secures the right of all children and young people to a board and balanced

education. It also should promote the country’s unique culture and tradition, values while

learning to participate actively in the progress of building an educated, enlightened and cohesive

society.

 The curriculum shall provide opportunities for learners to purse diverse academic and

vocational pathways.

 The curriculum shall be designed to suit local contexts and enable students to be innovate

and creative lifelong learners and prepare them for the world of work.

 Any school curriculum revision and reform shall follow the standard curriculum

development cycle

 Curriculum design and development shall integrate vocational skills in relevant subjects

across all level.

 All educational institutes shall encourage strong reading habits to foster a reading culture

and study skills among students for their personal growth and intellectual development.

 Curriculum shall be based on current research to remain relevant, dynamic and current

whilst preserving and promoting traditional knowledge, values and cultural heritage.

 Dzongkha as the national language shall be taught in all schools to ensure that all

students acquire high proficiency.

  English shall be the medium of instruction in schools .Efforts shall be made to ensure

that all students acquire high proficiency in English and continually improve the standard

of English teaching and learning (Gyamtso,D.Cand Dukpa 2000)

3.3.Examination System in Bhutan

3.3.1. Introduction

Bhutan has only since the mid-twentieth century developed a secular education system

(Maxwell, 2008). An important part of this has been the development of curriculum and

assessment systems. Both have drawn from Indian influences and have been characterized by a

strong national testing programme. However, only recently has the idea of a national approach to

assessment, intended to reach particular systemic educational objectives, been considered. In this

paper we provide a brief history of assessment in Bhutan that serves to illustrate the move from

external (Indian) control to (1) Bhutanese school control over student promotion and (2)

Bhutanese systemic control of key examinations. Concerns about the quality of education and

the response to the 2003 National Educational Assessment of Bhutan’s primary education are

discussed. Future issues in assessment for Bhutan are also canvassed in relation to system

improvement at different levels. Thus the purpose of this paper is to trace the history of school

assessment in Bhutan, briefly, as a background to considering the present and future assessment

practices in response to pressures emanating from education quality concerns, with the intention

of providing insight for countries at a similar stage of development. In so doing, we chart the

evolution of assessment in Bhutan and propose a model.

3.3.2. The history of assessment in schools

With the start of modern education system in the country in the 1960s, the assessment system
varied from school to school across the country. The schools administered written (paper-and-

pencil) tests at the end of the year to check the extent to which students had mastered the content

taught. Successful students were promoted. Over time, the school assessment of students for

promotion evolved.

3.3.3. Annual examinations

Schools had some form of end-of-year written examinations as a dominant feature of assessment

since the early days of the Bhutanese modern education system. In some schools, the teachers

wrote both the questions and their answers on the blackboard, and the students reproduced those

answers in the examinations. The performance of the students in the annual examinations was

the basis for their promotion to the next higher class. (RGOB, 2003). Clearly a purpose of the

early assessment system was to “sort” children;

those who passed the test at each class level were promoted. This made sense for a country

whose education facilities were meager.

3.3.4. Two-term system: half-yearly examinations

Some schools had a system of half-yearly examinations since the early 1970s. Schools would

conduct examinations at the end of each half of the academic year. The half yearly/yearly

examination system was followed until the three-term system was adopted.

3.3.5. Three-term system: terminal examinations

In the early 1980s, the academic year was divided into three terms. There was an examination at

the end of each of the three terms (terminal), and the schools based the promotion of students on

the three terminal examinations.

3.3.6. Monthly and weekly tests

Apart from examinations in the 1970s, monthly and weekly class tests were also conducted

in schools. Some schools had tests every month. Some conducted weekly tests in different

subjects to ensure a high academic standard of students and schools.

3.3.7. Trial examinations

When the national level “All Bhutan Common Examinations” for Classes 5 and 8 were started in

the1970s (see below), trial examinations were introduced for these classes. Schools conducted

the trial examinations to make candidates ready, test-wise, for the Common Exams. During this

early period of the 1970s and 1980s, the assessment emphasis was almost entirely summative

and factual. Such practices were still observed in some schools in the 1990s (Hughes, Murphy, &

Grobe, 1998). They found that “only in rare instances is there any evidence of continuous

assessment being linked to the on-going monitoring of learning for the purpose of helping the

student to learn better” (p. 40). In 1986, the Bhutan Board of Examinations was established, and

over the next two decades, major responsibilities were shared and then transferred to it from

India.

3.3.8. Assessment reform

Internal examinations

Over time, and as the curriculum became “Bhutanized”2 in the 1980s and 1990s, the

examination system was transferred to the Bhutanese Ministry of Education. A new primary

school curriculum called the New Approach to Primary Education (NAPE) was launched in

1986. By 1996, NAPE was implemented in all schools from PP (Pre-Primary, the first year at

school, usually children 5–6 years old) to Class 5. Under NAPE, assessments were to be carried
out by schools as follows:

Ongoing evaluation: This was to assess the progress of the students through regular evaluation,

mostly observing behaviour and social and academic skills, and thus be formative in each

subject/topic. This was a major innovation. It had an overall weighting of 30% in the final

evaluation for promotion.

Mid-year evaluations: This included both oral and written tests with an overall weighting of

30%.

End-of-year evaluations: It also included both oral and written tests with questions covering all

the topics. The weighting given was 40%.

This policy of three forms of assessment remains for PP to Class 5 in all the schools but with

some changes in weighting for ongoing as well as mid-year and end-of-year examinations. For

Classes 6 and 8, internal assessments were carried out at the end of the term. With the

introduction of ongoing evaluation in Classes 6 and 8 since 1994, similar changes in weighting

for ongoing evaluation were implemented in Class 7.

From 1996, a uniform assessment weighting for different classes from PP–8 was introduced.

This is intended to be in practice to the present time. Ongoing evaluation was renamed

continuous assessment.

From 1999, for Class 6, weightings from continuous assessment and tests/examinations became

similar to PP–5. The Bhutan Board of Examinations (BBE) end-of-year examination was and is

conducted, and the papers evaluated, at the school level. The question papers, model answers and

marking schemes are provided by the BBE to the schools. From the 2004 academic session, once

more all schools started following the three-term system. During each term, assessments were

done through small tests in all subjects. The schools were encouraged not to conduct major
examinations during the term.

Recently there have been important developments at the Class 8 level. From 2006, for Class 8,

the BBE end-of-year external examination has been changed, with the papers evaluated at the

school level. The question papers, model answers and marking schemes are again provided by

the BBE to the schools. However, from 2009, the conduct of Class 8 assessments was completely

handed over to schools without any BBE support. The two main reasons for these changes were

that (1) the schools were now more confident in carrying out assessment on their own, and (2)

national level examination at Class 8 no longer served any purpose to select candidates for jobs

as more and more students are encouraged to progress to Class 10. For many years, Class 8 had

been the attendance benchmark.

In summary, out-of-school control (India and then BBE) has slowly given way to school-based

evaluation of student performance in non-key examinations. In-school examinations remain an

important part of the school calendar at all levels. Continuous assessment (formative) is still not

well developed in Bhutan (Rinchen, 2000).

3.4.Assessment system in Bhutan

 3.4.1.Large-scale Assessments and Policies

Current policies or framework that guide learning assessment

BCSEA erstwhile Bhutan Board of examinations was delinked form the parent Ministry

of Education and become semi-autonomous in terms of governance and operation in

2011. As an internationally recognized educational assessment and monitoring agency it

provides quality services to build the integrity and profile of the education system. It is

mandated to drive quality and standard of student learning, to play a pivotal role in
promoting quality and standard in Curricula, to enhance teaching and learning through

advocacy, policy advice and support, to specialize knowledge and skills, and services.

Following are the core thematic areas of BCSEA;

a) Conduct of secondary school examinations,

b) Assessment and monitoring of education,

c) Professional development in assessment,

d) Research and publications and

e) Consultancy services.

The core mandate of BCSEA as described in the strategic framework and also in

assessment and examination draft policy framework that guide learning assessment

are derived from the following

creating research capability and assessment practices of international quality,

improving the standard of public examinations and assessment practices in schools,

monitoring through feedback and input regarding levels of student’s learning,

providing professional development to principals, teachers and other personnel in

the field of examinations and assessment,

conducting research into policies and programmes to improve the quality of student

learning and teaching,

providing insight and support to study existing school-based assessment practices and

strengthen the same,

developing and publishing research-based support materials to strengthen school based

process and practices,

providing examples of best practices,

 conducting national and international conferences, seminars, symposia etc. in areas

of assessment.

facilitating exchange programmes with other international institutes of repute.

In Bhutan, the national level testing of pupils has been the singular instrument used in the

systematic measuring and monitoring of the performance of individual pupils, schools and the

national education system. Pupil assessment forms an integral part of teaching and learning and

thus, ultimately, an instrumental factor in improving the quality of education. Historically, the

primary aim of national testing was to create a standardized method of assessment with a

significant impact on students’ progress. It included national tests for the award of certificates at

the end of the school such as in the case of Class X Bhutan Certificate of Secondary Education

Examinations introduced in 2001, and also for the purpose of promotion or streaming at the end

of an academic year. In 2006, the BCSEA took over the complete conduct of the Class XII

examination, called Bhutan Higher Secondary Education Certificate Examination (BHSEC) from

the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), New Delhi.

Types of existing large-scale international as well as National Assessments and main highlights

of the assessment results

The large-scale national assessment in Bhutan is called National Education Assessment (NEA).

NEAs are conducted based on the need and concern of a country for information on its education

quality. BCSEA is responsible for conducting all activities related to assessment such as

preparing test specifications, developing instruments, piloting, revising instruments, conducting

final tests, doing analysis, generating reports and dissemination of findings. Normally, it takes at

least two years to complete such an assessment.

National Education Assessment (NEA) as a system-wide assessment program is designed to

investigate and monitor the ‘health’ of the education system.

3.4.2. The main purposes are to provide

policy-makers with information to monitor standards over time, to monitor the impact of

particular programmes, and to make decisions about resource allocation, schools and teachers

with information about whole school, class and individual pupil performance so that they can

make decisions about resource allocation and to support learning in the classroom and the

national system with information that will help to compare its performance with the international

standards.

3.4.3. National Assessment selected for the purpose of LEAP programme

The National Education Assessment 2013 has been selected for the purpose of LEAP

programme. The first round having been conducted in 2006, the NEA 2013 for Class X English

literacy and Mathematics literacy was the second round of assessment in the same subjects and

level. This was planned to assess the learning achievements in the two crucial subjects for those

who were completing the basic education of 16 years of education.

NEA 2013 for Class X English literacy and Mathematics literacy aimed to:

. determine performance in English and Mathematics,

. relate performance to conditions or context,

. review curriculum development process, teaching pedagogy, resource allocation and policy

based on the performance,

. compare with the 2006 assessment,

. measure abilities to solve problems based on cognitive, affective and cognitive domain of

learning, and relate student achievements to the quality of Bhutanese education,

. relate student achievements to the quality of Bhutanese education,

. provide recommendations for improving the teaching-learning environment and

. provide recommendations for improving the design/development of curriculum

Out of the total of 114 secondary schools in the country, 61 were middle secondary schools and

53 higher secondary schools. Among them, 45 schools (25 middle secondary schools and 18

higher secondary schools and 2 private higher secondary schools) were randomly selected as the

sample population for the NEA 2013 for Class X English literacy and Mathematics literacy tests.

3.4.4.To get a balanced representation of the population, the selection was based on

remoteness (urban, semi-urban, semi-rural, semi-remote or rural), ownership (government or

private) and levels (middle or higher secondary schools).

The final sample consisted of 4 rural, 8 semi-remote, 7 semi-rural, 4 semi-urban and 22 urban

schools across 20 Dzongkhags(districts) and 2 Thromdeys(cities). The target was to get at least

40% of the total student population of 11,104 in Class X to participate in the assessment

conducted by means of tests and questionnaires. A total of 82 English teachers and 83

Mathematics teachers also responded to the teacher questionnaires.

A total of 45 test administrators were involved in the test administration for English literacy and

Mathematics literacy NEA 2013 in 20 Dzongkhags(districts) and 2 Thromdeys(cities). The

Orientation included familiarization of Test Manual which highlighted on the conduct of English

literacy and Mathematics literacy tests. In addition to this, 3 forms were used. One was the Test

Administration Form (TAF) in which the administrators needed to fill in with problems and

challenges encountered in the conduct of the tests. The other form was Teacher Tracking Form

(TTF) where the test administrators were required to keep the record of all Class X English and

Mathematics teachers who responded to Teachers Questionnaire. The final form was Student
Tracking Form (STF) which was intended to keep the record of the students who appeared both

the tests and Student Questionnaire. The tests administrators were responsible for the smooth

conduct of NEA English Literacy and Mathematics Literacy tests and the questionnaire

administration.

3.5.The Methods of Teaching in Bhutan

3.5.1. Pedagogical Orientation

The quality of education would largely depend on the type of pedagogical knowledge for

teachers have as well as pedagogy they use. Therefore it is crucial that techers practice a wide

variety of strategies in their daily teaching learning process. The interview data reveals that

teachers broadly make use of the following strategies while teaching, questioning method,

discussion, presentation, demonstration, question answer, inquiry learning, Cooperative method,

explanation and group work, deductive and inductive strategies, field trips, project method, role

play and simulation, lecturing etc.

3.5.2. Questioning technique

Questioning techniques are an important part of classroom instruction. Proper questioning can be

used to develop critical thinking skills in students as well as assess whether your students

understand what you're teaching. There are many things to keep in mind when constructing

questions for students.

3.5.3. Discussion method

Discussion methods are a variety of forums for open-ended, collaborative exchange of ideas

among a teacher and students or among students for the purpose of furthering students thinking,

learning, problem solving, understanding, or literary appreciation.

3.5.4. Presentation method

Presentation method that is, the way in which you deliver a presentation , is just as important as

organizing your material ahead of your presentation. How you deliver your message is actually a

vital component of the message itself.

3.5.5. Demonstration method

Demonstration method demonstration is a teaching method used to communicate an idea with

the aid of visuals such as flip charts, posters, power point, etc. A demonstration is the process of

teaching someone how to make or do something in a step-by-step process. As you show how,

you “tell” what you are doing.

3.5.6. Inquiry learning

Inquiry-based learning is an approach to learning that emphasizes the student's role in the

learning process. Rather than the teacher telling students what they need to know, students are

encouraged to explore the material, ask questions, and share ideas.

3.5.7. Cooperative learning

This is how your transform a typical classroom discourse into an inquiry-based learning

experience. Simply defined, cooperative learning is students working together in small groups,

learning through interaction with each other while the teacher coaches the process.
 3.5.8. Field trip

A field trip or excursion is a journey by a group of people to a place away from their normal

environment. Teachers often take the time to learn about the destination and the subject

before the trip. Activities that happen on the field trips often include: lectures, tours,

worksheets, videos and demonstrations.

3.5.9. Project method

The project method is an educational enterprise in which children solve a practical problem

over a period of several days or weeks. It may involve building a rocket, designing a

playground, or publishing a class newspaper.

3.5.10. Role play

Role playing is a learning structure that allows students to immediately apply content as

they are put in the role of a decision maker who must make a decision regarding a policy,

resource allocation, or some other outcome.

3.5.11. Inductive and deductive strategies

The inductive approach begins with a set of empirical observations, seeking patterns in

those observations, and then theorizing about those patterns. The deductive approach begins

with a theory, developing hypotheses from that theory, and then collecting and analyzing

data to test those hypotheses.

Education system and practices in INDIA

1 Education system
An education system refers to the economic and social factors that typically make up public

schools at the federal, state or community levels. Such factors include public funding, school

facilities, staffing, compensation, employee benefits, teaching resources and more. Education

systems refer to the coordination of individuals among teachers, administrators, and students.

Infrastructure (including safe facilities and transportation) and functioning institutions and

processes. (top hat, n.d.)

2 India

• India is divided into 28 states and 7 territories.

• Hindi is the official language of India but English is used the most in higher education,

politics and trade and industry. (Kuma, 2020)

Education system in India

• Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as private sector, with control

and funding coming from three levels: central, state and local.

• Under various articles of Indian constitution free and compulsory education is provided

as a fundamental right to the children between the ages of 6 and 14. (Kuma, 2020)

1. Aims, goals and objectives

• To promote national progress

• A sense of common citizenship and culture

• To strengthen national integration

• To develop skillful pupil, formation of high character, development of personality

• Development of civic and social values

• Promotion of social efficiency, spread of national culture.

• Improvement of vocational efficiency.

• To promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage, social equality, cultural

democracy and secularism

• Removal of social barriers and observance of small family norms

• Development of leadership which means training pupil to fulfill their duties

efficiently. (babar, 2018)

2. Structure

2.1 Level of education

Education system in India is divided into five main parts primary school, upper primary/ middle

school, secondary education, upper secondary, Higher education.

• Primary school: (class, 1-5) (Age, 6-11)

• Upper primary/ middle school: (class 6-8) (age 11-14)

• Secondary education: (class 9-10) (age 14-15)

• Upper secondary: (class 11-12) (age 16-17)

• Higher education: (graduation or professional programs). (mukharjee, 2008)

3 Curriculum: Primary stage (5 years)

Curriculum includes:

• Grade 1 and 2:

1. One language: The mother tongue/ regional language

2. Mathematics’

3. Art of healthy and productive living

• Grade 3-5

1. One language: The mother tongue/ regional language

2. Mathematics’

3. Environmental studies

4. Art of healthy and productive living

• Upper primary/middle stage (3 years)

Grade 6-8 curriculum includes:

1. Three languages: The mother tongue/ regional language, Hindi and English

2. Mathematics

3. Science and technology

4. Social science

5. Work education

6. Art education (fine arts: visual and performing)

7. Health and physical education

• Secondary stage grade 9 and 10 (2 years)

The curriculum includes:

1. Three languages: mother tongue, Hindi, English (some schools offer electives

other languages such as Sanskrit, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Russian ,Spanish,

Persian )

2. Mathematics

3. Science and technology

4. Social sciences

5. Work education or pre-vocational education

6. Art education
7. Physical and health education

• Upper secondary education:

The curriculum includes:

• The majority of students exit school after grade 10 (approximately age 15)

• Science (math’s, physics, chemistry, biology)

• Commerce (economics, accounting, mathematics and commerce)

• Humanities (arts) (history, geography, political science, philosophy, psychology,

language, arts music)

4 Education board in India

CBSE: CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

CISCE: COUNSIL FOR THE INDIAN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION

NOS: NATIONAL OPEN SCHOOL

SSC: STATE SCHOOL BOARD

5 Teacher training

• Nursery level teacher: a diploma course of nursery teacher training (NTT)

• High school teacher: B. Ed

• Physical education teacher: post graduate in physical education (M.P.Ed) from a

reorganized university

• University level teaching: National Eligibility test (NET)

• Primary school teacher: higher secondary with Junior Basic Training (JBT)

• Secondary school teacher: at least bachelor degree from recognized university/ B.Ed.

from recognized university

• Higher secondary school teacher: post graduate qualifications with specialization in

branch of the subject with graduation in the subject concerned.

• Heads of schools/ principle: Master or Honors degree equivalent to the master degree/

At least 5 year experience od administrative charge. (babar, 2018)

6 India Technical and Vocational Education system.

The technical education and vocational training system in India produces a labour force through

a three-tier system — graduate and post- graduate level specialists (eg, Indian Institutes of

Technology (IIT) and engineering colleges) trained as engineers and technologists; diploma-level

graduates. Technical and vocational education and training' (TVET) is understood as comprising

education, training and skills development relating to a wide range of occupational fields,

production, services and livelihoods. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in
India is known as vocational education and training (VET) and aims to provide lifelong learning

opportunities, develop a healthy attitude among students towards work and life, enhance student

employability, and reduce the mismatch between the demand and supply .In light of low

educational and employment outcomes, policy in India has focused on skill development through

the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) sector. The primary objective of

these policies is to significantly improve the rate at which youth and young adults participate in

these programs. (central board of secondary education, n.d.)

7 Indian Examination System

All India Secondary School Examination is a centralized public examination that students in

schools affiliated with the Central Board of Secondary Education in India take after class 10. The

board conducts the examination during the period of February every year even after

implementing the ambitious project of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation. Now that the

board has ended the Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation pattern as a result Joint

Employment Test, NEET, etc., the exam is conducted by the National Testing Agency instead. In

this exam, mathematics, science and S.S.T. (history, geography, democratic politics, economics)

are compulsory with any two languages (official language and foreign/schedule languages).

Students can also opt skill subject such as information technology, painting, yoga, or artificial
intelligence. Successful candidates are awarded the Secondary School Completion Certificate, a

Statement of Marks, and a Migration Certificate stating that the candidate has completed

Secondary Schooling and can pursue higher education The Central Board of Secondary

Education (CBSE) is a national level board of education in India for public and private schools,

controlled and managed by Union Government of India. CBSE has asked all schools affiliated to

follow only NCERT curriculum. There are approximately 20,299 schools in India and 220

schools in 28 foreign countries affiliated to the CBSE. (edissertation, 1472)

1. Key Objectives

 Bangladesh Literacy rate of Bangladesh is 73.91%.

 Jhalokati tops with literacy rate (65.34%) among 64 districts in Bangladesh.

 Education in Bangladesh is overseen by the country's Ministry of Education.

 In Bangladesh, all citizens must undertake twelve years of compulsory education which

consists of eight years at primary school level and four years at high school level.

 Primary and secondary education is financed by the state and free of charge in public

schools.

 The general system sees students for five years at the primary level and seven years at the

secondary level.

 After the first three years of secondary school, students can choose one of several

different paths:
 i. The Madrasah system allows students to receive an Islamic religious education right

alongside their regular studies.

ii. The vocational system starts at the secondary level, allowing students to choose a trade

after the first three years.

 Students can receive their lessons in either Bangla or English classes, though many

private schools often tend toward English. Public school often tend towards Bangladesh.

 The Ministry of Primary and Mass Education is responsible for implementing policy for

primary education and state-funded schools at a local level.

 At all levels of schooling, students can choose to receive their education in English or

Bangla.

 Private schools tend to make use of English-based study media while government-

sponsored schools use Bangla.

 Cadet Colleges are important in the education system of Bangladesh. A cadet college is a

room and board collegiate administered by the Bangladesh Military. Discipline is

compulsory at all cadet colleges[ CITATION Wik205 \l 1033 ].

2. Education system of Bangladesh

Education system of Bangladesh consists of following levels:

I. Pre-primary (3-6).

II. Primary level (class 1–8).

III. Secondary level (9-10).

IV. Higher secondary (11-12)

.1. Pre-Primary Level of Education

Pre-primary Education refers to the stage of education for children aged below 6 before their

primary education starts. Pre-primary education is usually divided in two stages: kindergarten/

nursery/playgroup for children of 3-5 years; and pre-primary or kindergarten for children aged 5-

6 years. There is, however, another kind of arrangement in some schools: play group for children

aged 3-4, nursery for 4-5, KG-1 for 5-6, and KG-2 for children aged 6-7[ CITATION Yas20 \l

1033 ].

.2. Primary Level of Education

 It is compulsory until the grade eight.

 Its duration is eight years.

 Children must enter into the elementary education at the age of six.

 The Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) is responsible for conducting the two public

examinations:

 Primary Education Certificate (PEC) (5 grade)

 Junior School Certificate (JSC) (8th grade)[ CITATION Tri19 \l 1033 ].

.3. Secondary Level of Education

 The secondary level of education is controlled by the nine General Education board.

 Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) are responsible for conducting

the two public examinations:

 Secondary School Certificate (SSC) (10th grade).

 Its duration is 2 years from class 9-10.

 There is no School management Committee (SMC) to run the school.

  The headmaster is fully responsible for running the school.

 It is supervised by the deputy director of the respective zone[ CITATION Ban15 \l

1033 ].

.4. Higher Secondary Level of Education

In Bangladesh higher education consists of a 3-year pass-course or a 4-year honors course for the

bachelor's degree, followed by a two-year Master's course for pass graduates and a one-year

Master's course for honors graduates. There are just over 1 million students studying at higher

education level in the country[ CITATION Mon10 \l 1033 ].

3. Grading system in Bangladesh

Two types of grading systems are available in this country, Grade Point Average (GPA) &

Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA).

.1. Primary Level

In Bangladesh, grade equal or above 33% (or one third) is considered as a passing

grade[ CITATION Wik205 \l 1033 ].

.2. Secondary Level

Under the new grading system, students will get 'excellent grade' who will get above 90 marks in

JSC, SSC and HSC exams, A+ for 80 to 89 marks, A for 75 to 79 marks and A- for 70 to 74

marks. Other grades will be B +, B-, B, C+, C-, C, D+, D-, D, E+, E- and E where difference will

be five marks[ CITATION Has20 \l 1033 ].

4. Teaching methodology or strategies used in Bangladesh

  Teacher control teaching (Lecture method, Demonstration method, Lecture method,

Team teaching method, Individualized instructions, Historical method).

 Interactive procedure of teaching (Q/A method, Interactive method, Group discussion

method, Tutorial method, Seminar method, Panel method, Symposium method).

 Learning controlled teaching (Programmed instruction, Self-directed learning, Library

method, Computer assisted instructions, laboratory method, Assignment).

 Group controlled teaching (Problem solving methods, Project method, Simulation

method, Role paly method, Narrative method, Workshop, Storytelling).

 Clinical teaching method (Client family centered method, Observation, Conferences)

[ CITATION Dha20 \l 1033 ].

5. Examination system in Bangladesh

i. Examination system is design to test knowledge and skills.

ii. To check curriculum, teacher and student’s performance, attitude, behavior.

iii. There are two terms in school section in an academic year. An exam is held after each

term;

 1st term (January-June)

 2nd term (July-December)

iv. Weekly test is taken in accordance with class routine for certain marks as decided from

time to time.

v. Class test taken on specific date for certain marks as decided from time to time, spot test

is another testing device.

 vi. Many evaluation tests are taken before the primary and junior scholarship exams, SSC

and HSC[ CITATION BNM18 \l 1033 ].

6. Curriculum

Bangladesh has three main educational systems: general education, Madrasah education and

vocational education. The general system sees students for five years at the primary level and

seven years at the secondary level. After the first three years of secondary school, students can

choose one of several different paths. The Madrasah system allows students to receive an Islamic

religious education right alongside their regular studies. The vocational system starts at the

secondary level, allowing students to choose a trade after the first three years. Students can

receive their lessons in either Bangla or English classes, though many private schools often tend

toward English. The government runs most of the public schools, helps pay for some of the

private schools and also pays for a number of colleges. Part of the Bangladeshi constitution even

states that children between the ages of six and eighteen receive free education at the secondary

level.

Subjects in primary level include Bangla (the mother tongue), mathematics and environmental

studies, social studies, science, arts and crafts, physical education, music. English language and

religious studies (with emphasis on the ways of life and moral education) will be introduced in

class III.

There are six compulsory subjects in the secondary stage: Bangla, English, Mathematics,

Religious Education, Social Science, Home Economics, Agriculture, Social Science or General

Science[ CITATION Fut20 \l 1033 ].

7. Conclusion

There are many problems in Bangladesh. It is improving day by day Bangladesh also want to

conform to the education for all objectives. The millennium development goals (MDG) and

international declaration articles 17 ensure that age of 6 and 18 years received Secondary

Education free of charge.

Although growth in the primary and secondary education sectors in Bangladesh is quite

satisfactory, the quality of education is not. However, the country is striving hard to achieve this

quality and, in this context, many efforts have been undertaken with the help of domestic and

expatriate experts to improve the curriculum[ CITATION Mia16 \l 1033 ].

Literacy rates and educational attainment levels rose steadily after Sri Lanka became an

independent nation in 1948 and today the youth literacy rate stands at 97%.The number of

schools has increased by 50 percent. In fact, the number of students has increased by 300

percent. The government gives high priority to improving the national education system

and access to education. The medium of language could be Sinhala, Tamil or English.

English is taught as a second language.

1. KEY OBJECTIVES:

Sri Lanka’s educational objectives can be summarized as follows:

a. To develop and understand the cultural and religious heritage and the democratic traditions

of the country, as well as an appreciation of the contributions made by the different ethnic

groups to the national culture.

b. To develop a basic understanding of the environment and skills relevant to the needs of life

and society.

c. To cultivate an appreciation of the arts, literature and science.

d. To develop attitudes conducive to harmonious relations among the different ethnic groups.

e. To promote moral, spiritual and physical development.

f. To inculcate a sense of commitment to national development.

g. To develop and promote a system for the acquisition of technical knowledge and vocational

skills to meet the manpower needs of the country.

h. To promote lifelong education and knowledge renewal through programmes of formal and

non-formal education.

i. To promote the democratization of education[ CITATION Ydo95 \l 1033 ]

2. STRUCTURE

LEVEL GRADES YEARS AGE

Kindergarten 2 3-5

Primary 1-5 5 5-10

Middle Junior Secondary Level 6-9 4 10-14

Secondary Senior Secondary Level 10-11 2 14-16

Post- Undergraduate Programs 12-13 2 16-19

secondary(Collegiate)

Vocational 2 17-29 Ag

Bachelor 3-4 20+

Master 2

Doctorate 3-5

2.1 LEVEL OF EDUCATION

Sri Lanka's education structure is divided into five parts: primary, junior secondary, senior

secondary, collegiate, and tertiary. Primary education lasts five years (Grade 1 to Grade 5) and at
the end of this period, the students may elect to write a national exam called the Scholarship

exam. This exam allows students with exceptional skills to move on to better schools. After

primary education, the junior secondary level (referred to as middle school in some schools) lasts

for 4 years (Grades 6-9) followed by 2 years (Grades 10-11) of the senior secondary level which

is the preparation for the General Certificate of Education (G.C.E) Ordinary Level (O/Ls).

According to the Sri Lankan law, it is compulsory that all children go to school till grade 9 (age

14) at which point they can choose to continue their education or drop out and engage in

apprenticeship for a job or farming. However, the Ministry of Education strongly advises all

students to continue with their studies at least till the G.C.E Ordinary Level. Students who are

pursuing tertiary education must pass the G.C.E O/Ls in order to enter the collegiate level to

study for another 2 years (grades 12-13) to sit for the G.C.E Advanced Level. On successful

completion of this exam, students can move on to tertiary education, there for the GCE A/Ls is

the university entrance exam in Sri Lanka.

2.1.1. Kindergarten:

Age 3-5

 Languages

 Mathematics

 Religion

 Environment-related activities

2.1.2. Primary education:

  Grade 1 to grade 5

 Boys and girls schooled together

 Scholarship Examination

Follow a national curriculum that consists of six subjects;

 first national language

 second national language

 English

 Mathematics

 Religion

 Environment (a combination of social, biological, and physical sciences).

2.1.3. Junior Secondary Level

Grades 6 to grade 9, GCE(General Certificate of Education) (O/L) examination

 First language English

 Second national language(Sinhala/Tamil)

 Mathematics

 Religion

 History

 Science and technology

 Health and physical education

 Practical and technical skills

 Social studies

 Life competencies and aesthetic studies.

2.1.4. Senior Secondary Education

Grades 10 and 11. , GCE (O/L) examination

“Six core subjects and three or four optional subjects.”

 First language English

 Second national language(Sinhala/Tamil)

 Math

 Science

 History

 Religion.

Other subjects can include

 Civics

 Art

 Dancing

 Commerce

 Agriculture

2.1.5. Post-Secondary Education:

Grades 12 and 13. ,GCE (A/L) examination

 Physical Science (Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry)

 Biological Science (Biology, Physics and Chemistry)

  Commerce and Accounting

 Arts

2.1.6. Vocational Education

 Managed by the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission of the Ministry of

Vocational & Technical Training

 National Vocational Qualifications Exam

Non-formal vocational education program

 Dressmaking

 Hairdressing

 Stitching

 Carpentry

 Plumbing

 Painting

Tertiary and vocational education commission monitors the registration of private course

 Hospitality courses

 Basic accounting courses

 Management courses

2.1.7. BACHELOR’S DEGREE PROGRAMS

 3-4 year Program

  BA/BSc – (General degree) – 3 years

 BA/BSc – (Special degree) Bachelor

 of Commerce degrees – 4 years

 LLB-3years

Most common degrees:

 Bachelor of arts (BA)

 Bachelor of science (BSc)

 Bachelor of commerce

 BSC special honours degree(IT)

 Bachelors in business administration(BBA)

 B.Tech

 B.Eng

[ CITATION Mor08 \l 1033 ].

2.2. CURRICULUM

The Sri Lankan national curriculum is divided into five parts – Primary, Junior Secondary,

Senior Secondary, Collegiate and Tertiary.

Primary education lasts for 5 to 6 years (Grades 1-5), Junior/Secondary lasts for 4 years (Grades

6-9) and Senior Secondary lasts for 2 years (Grades 10 and 11) in preparation for the GCE O-

Levels. Students must pass GCE O-Levels to enter the collegiate level and study for another 2

years (Grades 12 and 13) to sit for GCE A-Levels, which is the university entrance examination.

It is optional for students to sit for the scholarship examination during the final year of Primary
School (Grade 5) and based on the marks of this extremely competitive examination the students

may get an opportunity to get transferred to a prominent national school.

The Sri Lankan GCE O-Level and A-Level examinations are conducted by the Department of

Examinations. It is based on the British O-Level and A-Level qualifications, respectively. The O-

Level examination is a qualification in its own right but more often taken as a pre-requisite for

the more in-depth and academically rigorous A-Levels. It is taken by students at the end of the

Senior Secondary School or by non-school external candidates. The A-Level examination is

taken by school candidates at the end of Collegiate Level or by non-school external candidates.

This qualification is used as an entrance examination for Sri Lanka national universities.

There are 4 major fields of study at Collegiate Level and students should study for 2 years at this

level before taking the examination.

a. Physical Science (Combined Maths, Physics and Chemistry)

b. Biological Science (Biology, Physics, Chemistry)

c. Commerce and Accounting

d. Arts

In each stream, students should face a minimum of 3 subjects. Additionally, there is a General

English Test and Common General Test. The results of the General English Test are not taken in

to consideration for the University Entrance selection criteria, but students are required to obtain

a pass mark for the Common General Test[ CITATION Ban71 \l 1033 ].
2.3. TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND STRATEGIES

The study found that only 42% of the teacher trainers know about activity based teaching.

Therefore, it was obvious that 58% of the sample have a narrow view of activity-based learning

methods. 77% disagreed that they had skills on using activity-based teaching methods. It was

revealed that 72% of sample was of the view that they have difficulties in the classroom to use

activity-based teaching methods and also, 72.3% of the sample agreed that many teachers in

schools do not use activity-based teaching methods.

It could be concluded that many primary teachers in Sri Lankan schools do not use activity-based

teaching methods in schools. However, 87% of the sample agreed that activity-based teaching

methods can give students a sense of participation and collaborative learning. Also, 84.4% of the

teacher trainees agreed to use activity-based teaching methods as these are helpful in improving

classroom interaction. This outcome is very encouraging as it will help in improving the activity-

based teaching and learning process of primary mathematics in schools.

Alongside the traditional forms of teaching – lectures, demonstrations and examinations based

on lectures and literature – instruction makes increasing use of other methods, such as essays,

projects, seminar and group work. The use of new information technologies in instruction has

also increased. The aim has been to increase students’ independent and self-motivated

study[ CITATION Eri18 \l 1033 ].

2.4. EXAMINATION SYSTEM

the students may elect to write a national exam called the Scholarship exam. This exam allows

students with exceptional skills to move on to better schools. After primary education, the junior

secondary level (referred to as middle school in some schools) lasts for 4 years (Grades 6-9)
followed by 2 years (Grades 10-11) of the senior secondary level which is the preparation for the

General Certificate of Education (G.C.E) Ordinary Level (O/Ls). According to the Sri Lankan

law, it is compulsory that all children go to school till grade 9 (age 14) at which point they can

choose to continue their education or drop out and engage in apprenticeship for a job or farming.

However, the Ministry of Education strongly advises all students to continue with their studies at

least till the G.C.E Ordinary Level. Students who are pursuing tertiary education must pass the

G.C.E O/Ls in order to enter the collegiate level to study for another 2 years (grades 12-13) to sit

for the G.C.E Advanced Level. On successful completion of this exam, students can move on to

tertiary education, there for the GCE A/Ls is the university entrance exam in Sri

Lanka[ CITATION Bid19 \l 1033 ]

2.5. ASSESSMENT METHOD

2.5.1. Paper pencil tests

The most common assessment practice followed by the teachers in schools is paper pencil tests.

The word assessment does not exist in the teacher vocabulary and they use the word ‘test’. A

recent study (Bandara, 2014) of three schools in Mawanella in the Kegalle District indicates that

teachers in Grade XI Science classes rarely use formative assessment but rather concentrate more

on note giving and test questions. This is very common even in a school in the Gampaha

education zone. The team observed the lessons in Grade XIII and Grade XI classes (exam-bound

classes). It was taking down notes and answers to questions, which are very much examination

oriented. The Buddhism teacher of one school in Gampaha was repeatedly referring to the

examinations, the topics and the short answers. There was no questioning of students to see

whether they understood the subject, but they were being asked to take down notes or answers

for possible questions. However, in the same school the primary school teacher of Grade-five
was exceptionally good and she was the type of teacher the schools should have as she was so

effectively using formative assessments and also effectively distributed the learning for every

student to learn it. She was also achieving the examination objectives but naturally, not coaching

for the scholarship examination. One of the observed teachers in the Gampaha education zone

started the lesson in grade 10, saying that for the public examination there will be a question on

the topic. Then she showed several past questions and coached how to write the answers for

those questions rather than teaching. It was found that not only this particular teacher, but also

the emphasis of other teachers was to coach students for the public examination. Similar

observations were made in the schools in Galle, Badulla and Bandarawela education zones.

Exploring Malaysian schools, Lim (2009) states that this type of teaching is, “Drill and practice”

and teachers do it as it is the most common and expedient way to cover the heavy load of

content, but as a result students find learning boring and meaningless. Sedere (2009) reports that

the efforts taken to bring public examinations in Sri Lanka to international standards were not

successful. This was further proven by the interviews and field visits done in this study

2.5.2. Home work assignments

Very frequently homework assignments are given. These assignments are mostly paper pencil

question and answer type assignments. Rarely does a teacher give an assignment to assess skills

and affective qualities of a student. Sometimes the teacher himself/herself marks the assignment

and these are mostly paper-pencil type home work. Most of the times, the common….. Practice

is that students or his or her friend marks the assignment when the teacher discusses the answers.

Term tests
In Sri Lankan Schools at the end of every school term, a paper-pencil type term-test is given. The

tests are collectively prepared test papers by subject teachers or sometimes a test paper given by

the division/zone. Then each subject teacher who teaches in the class marks the paper using a

marking scheme prepared by the subject teacher, or the division/zone. Usually only the term test

paper marks are reported in the report cards. However, teachers rarely follow the listed learning

outcomes given in the Teacher Instructional Manuals (TIMs). Except in Aesthetic subjects, the

term test too is a paper-pencil test. Term Tests have a long history and highly accepted by

parents and teachers because it provides an assessment of the student every three months. This if

employed correctly is a powerful feed-back mechanism for learning. This could be well utilized

as a School-Based Assessment system. Despite SBA providing a better assessment scheme

linked to teaching learning, centrally devised and produced Term Tests were given very high

priority from about 2006. The Term Tests and the marking process take several weeks out of the

time available for teaching-learning. It is usual to see children out-of-school during school hours

and loafing about because the teachers are employed in marking papers. The adverse effects of

these highly regarded Term Tests need to be taken note of. The entire Term Test scheme being

summative, and content loaded, negates the purpose of having SBA to support formative

assessment linked to teaching-learning.

2.5.3. Preferences in assessment

The Bandara (2014) study also presented 23 different types of assessment a teacher could use in

classroom teaching. Students indicated that the most common was the tests, and 90% of the time

the teachers used tests in Grade XI science classes. The short written test is the one over 90%

indicated as the most common practice of assessment by the teachers. It is a positive thing to

observe that 70% have indicated Group work and Practical tests as the 2nd and 3rd most
common practices. All other listed assessment methods, selected 23 from the SBA Guidelines

provided in 2008 by MoE, received less than 30% and a few such as speech, presentations,

projects received less than 20% rating. This was also observed as the same in the FGD which

were conducted in Kandy and Kegalle by the PGIS MSc students.

2.5.4. Assessment of projects

The GCE A-L examination has made project work mandatory. Also the GCE A-L examination

Grade Card reports a grade for the project on a 4-point scale. Although it is mandatory, no one

takes account of the project grades for the awarding of the AL certificate. The Commissioner

General of Examinations also indicated that the Department of Examinations has no faith in the

project grade, but they process the examination results. It is well known to all that the projects of

the GCE A-L students are not genuinely done by the student. Often these project reports are

made by others, and even there are cases where one can get it done for a fee. Therefore, at

present these valuable approaches to student learning assessment are all mismanaged, misused

and undervalued in the process.

2.5.5. Assessment of skills

Assessment of practical skills is in practice in several aesthetic subjects such as Music, Dancing,

Singing and Drawing/Art. Although there are many similar subjects where the skills can be

assessed such as Agriculture, Commerce and Science subjects, these are rarely assessed. Though

the GCE A-L science subjects require laboratory assessments for School-Based Grades, these are

never seriously done. However, there are schools where many types of assessments are done in

the implementation of SBA. Such schools are exceptions and not the norm[ CITATION Sed16 \l

1033 ].
2.6 EVALUATION METHOD

The effectiveness of the teaching learning process can be measured and judged by evaluation.

Therefore, evaluation is very important to the students as well as to the teachers. By Educational

Reforms of 1998, School Based Assessment (SBA) was introduced to the school system in Sri

Lanka. At present it has been implemented from grade 6 to grade 13 in all the government

schools in Sri Lanka. Inclusion of SBA Grades in the certificate commenced in 2002 for GCE

(O/L) and in 2005 for GCE (A/L). Overall aim of SBA is to improve the quality of learning,

teaching and assessment. The aims of the study were to; Identify the teachers‟ and students‟

attitudes towards SBA, Find out the assessment tools that are used in SBA, Investigate the

problems faced by the teachers and the students in using SBA tools The study was limited to four

Educational Zones in Colombo district: twelve Schools were selected randomly to represent

1AB, 1C and type 2 schools. Twenty students from Grade 11 and two teachers were selected

from each school. Total student sample was two hundred and forty. Attitude tests and short

questionnaires were used to collect data. Approximately 21 assessment tools were identified as

used under SBA. When considering the school type, high positive attitude on SBA can be seen in

1C schools students. Various problems were identified related to the assessment tools. Among

them, the main problem was the lack of physical resources in type 2 schools. The conclusion of

the study is that teachers should pay more attention to use student centered assessment methods.

Steps should be taken to improve the validity of SBA marks. There should be a very close

relationship among teachers to minimize the difficulties faced by the students because of the

many assessments at any given time[ CITATION CNi11 \l 1033 ].

2.7 TEACHER EDUCATION

Teachers are either trained at 19 national Colleges of Education overseen by the National

Institute of Education (NIE) or in Bachelor of Education programs at Sri Lanka’s public

universities. Elementary and lower-secondary school teachers must hold a Trained Teachers

Certificate, which is a three-year program that is typically entered on the basis of A-Levels, and

comprises of two years of class room instruction and one year of in-service teaching.

Teaching in upper secondary schools requires a Bachelor of Education degree, respectively a

Diploma of Education or Postgraduate Diploma in Education, a credential earned upon

completion of a one-year graduate program following a bachelor’s degree in another

discipline[ CITATION Moo17 \l 1033 ].