Engineering Drawing

Drawing
 The graphical representation of any idea or object by systematic lines on paper is called
drawing.
 Drawing is the language of an engineer so, an engineer must be well conversant with
drawing.
Drawing can be prepared either by:
 Using free hand
 Using drawing instruments
 Using computer programs
Types of Drawing
There are two types of drawing:
i. Artistic Drawing
ii. Engineering Drawing
1. Artistic Drawing
 The drawing representing any object or idea which is sketched in free hand using imagination
of artist is called artistic drawing.
 Proper scaling and dimensioning is not maintained in artistic drawing. Examples: Paintings,
Posters, Arts, cinema slides, advertisement board etc.
2. Engineering Drawing
 Engineering drawing is the art of representation of engineering objects such as buildings, roads,
machines etc.
 Engineering Drawing is the Universal Language for Engineers
 One picture/drawing is equivalent to several sentences
 Engineering drawing gives information about the shape, size and dimension of any object.
Difference between Artistic and Engineering Drawing
Artistic Drawing Engineering Drawing
1. Purpose of artistic drawing is to convey 1. Purpose of engineering drawing is to convey information
emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way about engineering object or idea
2. Can be understood by all 2. Need some specific knowledge or training to understand
3. No special requirement of engineering 3. Engineering drawing instruments are used to make
instruments the drawing precise
4. Scale maintaining is not necessary 4. Scale maintaining is necessary
5. An artistic drawing may not be numerically 5. An engineering drawing must be numerically
specific and informative specific and informative

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6. Standard drawing code need not to be 6. Standard drawing code (like ISO, ANSI, JIS, BS etc,)
followed must be followed
Applications of Engineering Drawing
 It helps in preparing bill of quantities
 It helps in preparing cost estimation
 It helps to improve initial design
 Engineering drawing acts as the language of engineers
 For manufacturing of machines, automobiles etc.
 For construction of buildings, roads, bridges, dams, electrical and telecommunication structures
etc.
 For manufacturing of electrical appliances like TV, Phone, Computers etc.

Types of Engineering Drawing

1. Geometrical Drawing
 The art of representing geometric objects such as rectangles, squares, cubes, cones,
cylinders, spheres etc. on a paper is called geometric drawing
a) Plane Geometrical Drawing
 If the object has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth, it is called Plane
geometrical drawing. Examples: Rectangles, Squares, Triangles etc.
b) Sold Geometrical Drawing
 If the object has 3 dimensions i.e. length, breadth and thickness/depth, it is
called Solid geometrical drawing. Examples: Cube, Sphere, Prism, Cylinder
etc.

2. Mechanical Engineering Drawing

 The art of representing mechanical engineering objects such as machines, machine
parts etc. on a paper are called mechanical engineering drawing or machine drawing.
 It is used by mechanical engineers to express mechanical engineering works

3. Civil Engineering Drawing

 The art of representing civil engineering objects such as buildings, roads, bridges,
dams etc. on a paper are called civil engineering drawing.
 It is used by civil engineers to express civil engineering works and projects for actual
execution
There are two types of Civil Engineering Drawing:
i. Architectural Drawing
a) Plan
 It shows the position of different objects and elements of the structure
in a two dimensional view.
 Only length and width of objects are shown in plan.
b) Elevation and Section
 It shows a view along the height of structure.
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 In elevation view either height and length or height and width are
shown.
ii. Structural Drawing
 It shows the detail requirement of reinforcement and their arrangement in
structure.
 It also shows the specification and properties of construction materials like
concrete, steel, timber etc.
4. Electrical & Electronics Engineering Drawing
 The art of representing electrical engineering objects such as motors, generators,
transformers, wiring diagrams etc. on a paper are called electrical engineering
drawing.
 It is used by electrical engineers to express electrical engineering works and projects
for actual execution.
 The art of representing electronic circuits of TV, Phones, computers etc. on a paper
are called electronic engineering drawing or electronic drawing.
 It is used by electronic engineers to express electronic engineering works and
projects for actual execution
Drawing Standards
 There are some drawing standards or drawing codes that accumulates the rules of
engineering drawing for a certain region. Well known drawing codes and their
application region is expressed below:
S.N. Country/Region Code/Standard Full Meaning
1 Worldwide ISO International Organization for
Standardization
2 USA ANSI American National Standards Institute
3 Japan JIS Japanese Industrial Standards
4 UK BS British Standards
5 India BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
In Nepal, it is usual practice to follow ISO standards. However, in some stances ANSI, BS,
BIS are also followed.

Drawing Instruments and Accessories/ Drafting Tools and Equipment’s

Following instruments and accessories are required to have perfection in manual drawing:
1. Drawing Board
The drawing boards are prepared from well-seasoned good quality soft wood
Designation Length × Width Thickness (mm) Recommended for
(mm) use with sheet sizes
D0 1500 × 1000 25 A0
D1 1000 × 700 25 A1
D2 700 × 500 15 A2
D3 500 × 350 15 A3
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 Table 1: Standard Drawing Board Sizes
2. Drawing Sheet
 Drawing sheet is the medium on which drawings are prepared by means of pencils or pen.
 A standard A0 size sheet is the one with an area of 1 m2 and having dimensions of 1189
x 841.

 Each higher number sheet (A1, A2, A3, etc. in order) is half the size of the immediately
lower numbered sheet. (The surface area of two successive size are in the ratio
1:2)
 The sides of each size drawing sheet being in the ration of 1: √2.

Table 2: Standard Sizes of Drawing Sheets

Figure 2: Recommended Sizes Obtained for Various Drawing Sheets

3. Mini Drafter
 This is a device used to draw parallel or inclined lines very effectively.
 This is mounted on the top left corner of the drawing board by means of a clamping
mechanism which is an integral part of the device.
 An L-shaped scale which is graduated in millimeters acts as the working edge of the
mini-drafter.
 The L-Shaped scale also has a degree scale for angle measurement.
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  The working edge can be moved to any desired location on the drawing board.

Figure 3: Mini Drafter

4. T-Square
 It is made of hard wood, plastic or celluloid.
 It has two parts Stock and Blade
 The stock is used to move the T-square along the working face of drawing board
 Blade may be used as a base for set square as well as to draw parallel lines

Figure 4: T-Square
S.N. Designation Length of working edge (mm)

1 T0 1500 ± 10
2 T1 1000 ± 10
3 T2 700 ± 5

4 T3 500 ± 5

Table 3: T-Square Standard Sizes

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5. Set Squares

 Set square are made of wood, tin, celluloid or plastics.

 Triangle in shape with one of its angle right angle.

 Set squares are a set of 45° set square and 30°-60° set-square.

 They are used to draw all straight lines except horizontal lines.
 to sets of set square will produce line making an angle 15, 30, 45, 60,75 ,90 degree (i.e.
multiple of 15)

Figure 5: Set Squares

6. Compasses
 These are used to draw arcs or circles.
 Each compass consists of a needle point and pencil point.

 Lengthening bar are used to draw very large circles, bow compass are used to
draw small circles and drop compass are used to draw very small
diameters circle

Figure 6: Compass

7. Divider
 Dividers are used to transfer lengths to the drawings either from scales or from
the drawing itself
 Similar to the compasses, two sizes of dividers are used in technical drawings.
One large divider and the other small spring bow divider.

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8. Pencils/lead sticks/Pencil sharpener/eraser /sand paper box
 The primary tool used in technical drawings is the pencil or lead sticks.
 The grade of pencil lead is usually shown by figures and letter marked at one of its end
 H and HB pencil are suitable for lettering, dimensioning and sketching.
 4H, 5H and 6H pencil is used for drawing very fines and minute drawing
 Letter HB indicates the medium grade of pencil, where ‘H’ indicates hard and ’B’
indicates black
 Erasing shield is used to protect the adjacent lines on the drawing when some part of a
line is being erased.
 Sand paper box is used to sharpening the pencil led (115mm Х 50mm Х12mm dimension)
 Eraser is used to erase the unnecessary part of the pencil drawing

Figure 8: Pencil Grades

9. French Curves/Flexible Curves

 French curve are made of wood, plastics or celluloid.
 It is used for drawing irregular curves that are not circular acr( Which are not drawn by
compass)

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 10. Protractor
 Protector are used for measuring or constructing angle which can’t be obtained with set square.
 The common type of protector is semi-circular and 100mm diameter.

Fig: Protector

Drawing Sheet and Its Essential Components

 Every engineering drawing has to follow standard format
 The drawing sheet consist of drawing space, title block and sufficient margins
 After fixing the drawing sheet on the drawing board, margins should be drawn
 The layout should facilitate quick reading of important particulars
 Drawings are prepared at various locations and shared and quick references should be
located easily

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  Drawing sheet consists of the following essential components as shown in below figure:

Figure 11: Drawing Sheet Layout

a) Boarders
 Space left all around in between the trimmed edges of the sheet.
 Boarder for A0 and A1 is 20mm and A2, A3, A4 and A5 is 10 mm minimum
 Margin/Border of paper can be increased according to requirements and setting

b) Filling margin
 20 mm minimum on left hand side with border included
 This is provided for taking perforations
c) Title Block
 It gives information of prepared drawing
 It is provided in the drawing at bottom right hand corner
 The standard size of title block given by ISI is 185mm x 65 mm.

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Lines
 It is the combination of at least two points.
 In engineering drawing, the details of various objects are drawn by different types of lines.
 Each line has definite purpose and sense to convey.
 A line may be curved, straight, continuous, segmented. It may be drawn as thin or thick.

(a) center line

 Center line are drawn to indicate the axis of
cylinder, conical or spherical objects, centers of
circles and arc.
 They are thin, long chain line composed of
alternate long and short dashes.

(b) construction line

 These lines are drawn for constructing figure and not appeared in finished drawing
 These are continuous thin light lines drawn by H or 2H pencil.

(c) Cutting plane lines

 It is long, thin and thick at the ends
 To show the location of the cutting plane

(d) Dimension line

 Used to the dimension detail of the object
 These lines are continuous thin lines and
terminated at outer end by pointed arrow head
 The length of arrow head is about three times its
width

(f) Extension or projection line

 These are continuous thin line and used for dimensioning purpose
 These line extend about 3 mm beyond the dimension line.

(g) Hatching line

 Used to indicate the cut portion of the object.
 Continuous thin line and drawn at an angle 45 degree
to the main line.

(h) Hidden line /Dotted line

 To show the interior or hidden edge of the object
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  They are of medium thickness made up of short dashes

(i) Leader line

 Leader line are drawn to connect a note with the features
to which applies.
 Drawn at angle 30, 45 and 60 degrees but not less than
30 degrees.

(k) Break line

 Used to show break of object in order to shorten the view
of the long part
 Drawn by continuous thin and wavy line

Pencil Uses Guidelines for Various Lines

Conventions Used in Lines

 International systems of units (SI) – which is based on the meter
 Millimeter (mm) - The common SI unit of measure on engineering drawing
 Individual identification of linear units is not required if all dimensions on a drawing are in the same
unit (mm)

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 The drawing should contain a note: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM (Bottom left corner outside
the title box)

Figure 4: Typical Use of Various Line

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Texture of Different Materials in Drafting
 In engineering practice, there are various types of material used for manufacturing of parts of machine.
 Different symbolic convention is adopted to differentiate various materials for convenience in drawing.
 The ISI:696-1972 has recommended the convention for various types of materials as below
Symbols for Various Features

Dimensioning
 The expression of information’s on a drawing by use of lines, symbols and figures and notes is
known as dimensioning.
 The information’s are distances between surface, location of holes, kind of finish, types of
materials, number required etc.
 The dimensions are written either above the dimension lines or inserted at the middle
by breaking the dimension lines
 Normally two types of dimensioning system exist. i.e. Unidirectional system and the
Aligned system

i. Unidirectional System
 The dimensions are so oriented such that they can be read from the bottom of the drawing.
 It is also known as horizontal system
 This system is preferred to aligned system
ii. Aligned System
 All the dimensions are oriented to be read from the bottom or right side of the drawing
 In the aligned system the dimensions are placed perpendicular to the dimension line
.

Rules to be followed in dimensioning

 Each feature is dimensioned and positioned only once.
 Dimension should be placed outside the view, as far as possible.
 The crossing of dimension line should be avoided, if possible.
 Dimension never be crowded. If the space is insufficient, arrowhead may be replaced by dots.
 As far as possible, dimension should be given in one unit, preferably in mm.
 Every solid has three dimensions, each of the geometric shapes making up the object must have
its height, width, and depth indicated in the dimensioning
 A gap of 1mm has to be kept between extension line and visible line
 An extension line should be extended about 3mm from the outmost dimension line
 Extension lines are drawn usually perpendicular to dimension lines
 Dimensioning consists of the following:
a) Dimension lines
b) Dimension lines should be placed at least 10 mm away from the outline
c) Other parallel dimensions should be at least 6 mm apart, or more, if space permits
 The important elements of dimensioning consist of extension lines, arrow head, dimension figure
of text, leader lines and notes.
 a) Extension Line
 A thin, solid line perpendicular to a dimension line
 There should be a visible gap of 1 mm between the feature’s corners and the end of the
extension line.
b) Leader Line
 Leaders are used in engineering drawing for dimensioning of arcs, circles etc.
 They are also used to present note, symbols, item number or part number etc.
 A leader should be terminated by either an arrowhead or a small dot of about 1.5mm
diameter.
c) Arrow heads
 Arrow heads are used to terminate dimension line
 The length of the arrow head is about three times its width (Generally length 3mm)
d) Dimension line
 Dimension line is a thin continuous line used to indicate the measurement shown by
figure.
e) Dimension text
 A numerical that indicate the size of particular features is dimension text or dimension

Scales
There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects, some are very large and some are very small.
There is a need to reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper.
 The proportion by which the drawing of an object is enlarged or reduced is called the scale of
the drawing.
 A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a
drawing to the actual dimensions of the same object.
 The following are the size of scales used in engineering
a) Full scale (Actual size is drawn on paper)
b) Reduced scale (Actual measurement of the object is reduced to some proportion)
c) Enlarged scale ( Actual measurement of the object is increased to some proportion)

Representative Fraction (R.F.) or Scale Factor (S.F.)

 The ratio of the length of the drawing to the corresponding actual length of the object is known as
the representative fraction (R.F.) or the scale factor (S.F.).

 It is to be remembered that for finding RF the distances used for calculation must be in same unit.
Being a ratio of same units, R.F. itself has no unit
𝑅. 𝐹. = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
When 1 cm long line in drawing represents 1 m length of the object,
𝑅. 𝐹. = 1 𝑐𝑚 1
=
1 ∗ 100 𝑐𝑚 100
Plan
It is the projection of the features on the horizontal surface it gives only two dimension.

Map
Projection of features on the horizontal plane in a small scale.

Site plans
It shows building footprint, travel ways, parking, drainage facilities, sanitary swear lines, water
lines, lightening, garden elements etc.

Layout of drawing sheet

The selection of suitable scale, allotment of suitable scale, margin, title block, revision panel etc.

Notes: As per public work directives the suggested scale for plan and longitudinal section of
different structures are
(i) Road and Irrigation Work Horizontal 1:2500 and vertical 1:250
(ii) Bridges 1:200
(iii) Buildings 1:250
(iv) Detailing 1:50 to 1:100
(v) Foundations 1:100 to 1:200

Topographic Maps
 It shows all natural details, such as lakes, streams, forests, fields, mines etc.
 It also shows important human made permanent creations such as building, bridges
and houses
 They are prepared by USGC on a small scale (1:250000, 1:100000, 1: 50000)
Cadastral map

 These map shows property line, political boundaries and few important features (streams, roads
and towns)

 It shows less details and prepared on large ales.

Engineering maps

 These are prepared for engineering purposes (either reconnaissance or construction purpose)

 They are prepared on large scale and show accurate position and location of all features

 Such as detailing of structures, road cross section, bridge cross section, right of way, alignment
section etc.

Types of Drawing

a) Concept drawing

 Drawing provided by client to contractor for tendering work

 It is also called tender drawing or preliminary drawing

b) Working drawing

 This drawing is provided to contractor after agreement for the execution of work

 The main purpose of working drawing is to provide layout for construction of structures.

c) As built drawing

 This type of drawing is prepared if variation in drawing occurs in site

 Such types of changes noted and provided to the client after the completion of work for
maintenance in future.

d) Presentation drawing

 These are used to illustrate the design concept to clients.

 The main aim of this drawing is to understand the key areas of design by the client

e) Structural drawing

 A structural drawing, a type of engineering drawing, is a plan or set of plans and details for how a
building or other structure will be built

 Structural drawings are generally prepared by registered professional engineers, and based on

information provided by architectural drawings.
  Structural drawing are also used for preparation of reinforcement detailing

 They do not address architectural details like surface finishes, partition walls, or mechanical
systems.

CAD

 Computer Aided Design (Design with the help of computer)

 Has become backbone technology

 Used in Engineering and production, Architecture, Aerospace engineering etc.

 Gives high accuracy and precision

 It may be used to design curves and figures in 2D and 3D also.

Conics
 Cone is formed when a right-angled triangle with an apex and angle Ө is rotated about its
altitude as the axis. The length or height of the cone is equal to the altitude of the triangle
and the radius of the base of the cone is equal to the base of the triangle. The apex angle
of the cone is 2Ө.
 When a cone is cut by a plane, the curve formed along the section is known as a conic.
For this purpose, the cone may be cut by different section planes and the conic sections
obtained are shown in figures below.
 Figure 3: Right Cone and Engineering Curves

Ellipse
 When a cone is cut by a section plane B-B at an angle, α more than half of the apex angle
i.e., Ө and less than 90°, the curve of the section is an ellipse. Its size depends on the
angle α and the distance of the section plane from the apex of the cone.
 An ellipse is also defined as a curve traced by a point, moving in a plane such that the
sum of its distances from two fixed points is always the same

Figure 4: Another Definition of Ellipse

Parabola
If the angle α is equal to Ө i.e., when the section plane C-C is parallel to the slant side of the
cone, the curve at the section is a parabola. This is not a closed figure like circle or ellipse.
The size of the parabola depends upon the distance of the section plane from the slant side of
the cone.
Hyperbola
If the angle α is less than Ө (section plane D-D), the curve at the section is hyperbola. The
curve of intersection is hyperbola, even if α = Ө, provided the section plane is not passing
through the apex of the cone. However if the section plane passes through the apex, the
section produced is an isosceles triangle.
Eccentricity
 Conic is defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane such that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant. The ratio is called
eccentricity.
a) Fixed point is called Focus
b) Fixed line is called Directrix
 The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is the axis of the
curve. The point at which the conic section intersects the axis is called the vertex or apex
of the curve.

Figure 5: Eccentricity
When eccentricity
<1 Ellipse
=1 Parabola
>1 Hyperbola
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which type of line is part of dimension line?
a) Break lines
 b) Phantom lines
c) Extension lines
d) Cutting plane lines
2. Which type of line is particular to section drawing?
a) Break lines
b) Phantom lines
c) Extension lines
d) Cutting plane lines
3. Which line type is thin and light?
a) Visible lines
b) Center lines
c) Construction lines
d) All of the above
4. Which line type is thick and black?
a) Visible lines
b) Center lines
c) Construction lines
d) All of the above
5. Another name of a cube is a
a) Hexahedron
b) Tetrahedron
c) Octahedron
d) None of the above
6. Which of the following represents reducing
scale? a) 1:1
b) 1:2
c) 2:1
d) None of the above
7. Which of the following is full size scale?
a) 1:1
b) 1:2
c) 2:1
d) None of the above
8. Which of the following is enlarging scale?
a) 1:1
b) 1:2
c) 2:1
d) None of the above
9. The following line is used for visible outlines.
a) Continuous thick
b) Continuous thin
c) Chain thin line
d) Short zigzag thin
10. The following line is used for dimension line.
a) Continuous thick
b) Continuous thin
c) Chain thin line
d) Short zigzag thin
11. The dotted line represents
a) Hidden
b) Projection
c) Center
d) Hatching
12. Hatching lines are drawn at degree to reference line
a) 30
b) 45
c) 60
d) 90
13. In aligned system of dimensioning, the dimensions may be read from
a) Bottom or right hand edges
b) Bottom or left hand edges
c) Only from bottom
d) Only from left side
14. The internal angle of regular pentagon is degree.
a) 72
b) 108
c) 120
d) 150
15. The internal angle of regular hexagon is degree.
a) 72
b) 108
c) 120
d) 150
16. The number of line types used in below figure is

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
17. The Length to Width ratio in case of an arrow head
is a) 1:1
b) 2:1
c) 3:1
d) 4:1
18. The following are the Polyhedron except
a) Prism
b) Pyramid
c) Cube
d) Cylinder
19. The following are the Solids of revolution except
a) Prism
b) Sphere
c) Cone
d) Cylinder
20. A tetrahedron has four equal faces
a) Square
b) Rectangular
c) Triangular
d) None of the above
21. The following is formed by revolving rectangle about one of its sides which remains fixed
a) Cylinder
b) Sphere
c) Hemi sphere
d) Cone
22. When drawings are drawn smaller than the actual size of the objects the scale used is said to
be
a) Enlarging scale
b) Reducing scale
c) Small scale
d) Decreasing scale
23. When drawings are drawn larger than the actual size of the objects the scale used is said
to be
a) Enlarging scale
b) Reducing scale
c) Small scale
d) Decreasing scale

24. Which of the following is not a line segment?

a) Bamboo
b) Ruler
c) Laser beam
d) Pencil
 Projection and Working Drawing
Projection
 In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a 2-dimensional
media. The act of obtaining image of an object is known as “Projection”. The image obtained by
projection is known as “View”. A simple projection system is shown in figure below:

Figure 6: A Simple Projection System

 All projection theory are based on two variables:

1. Line of sight/projector
o The lines or rays drawn from the observer to object and to the plane are called line of
sight/projectors
2. Plane of Projection
o A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon
which the image created by the line of sight is projected. The image is produced by
connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the projection plane. In effect, 3-D
object is transformed into a 2-D representation, also called projections.
Projection Techniques
 There are generally two types of projection techniques:
1. Parallel
2. Perspective
 In parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel and the observer is assumed to be stationed at
infinite distance from the object. In most of the cases parallel projection technique is used. In
perspective technique of projection, the observer is assumed to be stationed at finite distance from
the object. The height of the object appears to be reducing as we move away from the observer. In
perspective technique, all lines of sight start at a single point
 Figure 7: (a) Parallel Projection (b) Prospective Projection

Parallel Vs Perspective Projection

Parallel Projection
 Distance from the observer to the object is infinite
 Projection lines are parallel
 Object is positioned at infinity
Perspective Projection
 Distance from the observer to the object is finite and object is viewed from a single point
 Projectors are not parallel
 Perspective projection technique mimic what the human eyes see, however, they are difficult to
draw
Types of Projection
 There are generally four types of projection:
1. Orthographic/Multi-view Projection
2. Axonometric Projection
3. Oblique Projection
4. Perspective Projection
1. Orthographic/Multi-view Projection
 'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled drawing. When the projectors
are perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained, it is known as orthographic
projection. Following six views are possible in orthographic projection of a solid object
a) Top view
b) Front view
c) Left view
d) Right view
e) Rear view
f) Bottom view
 Figure 8: Viewing the Object from all Six Sides

2. Axonometric Projection
 It is a type of pictorial projection. The Projections in which the description of the object is
completely understood in one view is known as pictorial projection. They have the advantage of
conveying an immediate impression of the general shape and details of the object, but not its true
dimensions or sizes. Axonometric projection is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which an
object appears to be rotated to show its all three dimensions. Axonometric projections are
generally.three types:

Figure 9: Axonometric Projections

 i. Isometric Projection
o In isometric projection, all three angles are equal and all three corners are also equal. The
lengths of the projected lines are equal to the cosine of 35° 16’, or 0.8165 times the true
length. A drawing produced using a scale of 0.8165 is called an isometric projection and
is a true representation of the object.
o As shown in figure below, isometric scale is produced by positioning a regular scale at 45
° to the horizontal and projecting lines vertically to a 30° line

Figure 10: Illustration of Construction of Isometric Scale

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑠45°

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = =
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 0.8165
𝐶𝑜𝑠30°
Isometric Length = 82 % of true length (approximately)
Isometric Views of Some of Standard Shapes
 Square appears as rhombus in isometric view.
 A rectangle appears as a parallelogram in isometric view.
 The isometric view or isometric projection of a circle is an ellipse.
3. Oblique Projection
 It is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which projectors are parallel to each other but they
are not perpendicular to the picture plane. The angle is usually kept 15-45 degree. Mostly used
angle is 45 degree
 Oblique projection may be of two types:
i. Cavalier Projection
ii. Cabinet Projection
i. Cavalier Projection
 In this case, the dimensions along all the axes are plotted in full scale
ii. Cabinet Projection
 In this case, the dimensions along the diagonal axis are plotted by reducing it to half of
the actual value. Dimensions along other axes are plotted in full scale.
 Figure 11: Oblique Projection

4. Perspective Projection
 It is a type of pictorial projection in which projectors are not parallel to each other and they occur
at an angle to the picture plane in such a way that they converge to a point as if an observer sees
the view on the picture plane from that point. In case of perspective projection observer is
considered to be at finite distance where in case of any other type of projection observer is
considered to be at infinity

Figure 12: Perspective Projection

Projection Methods
 There are two methods of projection
1. First Angle Projection
2. Third Angle Projection
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The straight lines which are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to meet a plane are
called as
a) Connecting lines
b) Projectors
c) Perpendicular lines
d) Hidden lines
2. In the Oblique projection an object is represented by how many views?
a) One view
b) Two views
c) Three views
 d) Four views
3. In orthographic projection, each projection view represents how many dimensions of an object?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 0
4. When the projectors are parallel to each other and also perpendicular to the plane, the projection
is called
a) Perspective projection
b) Oblique projection
c) Isometric projection
d) Orthographic projection
4. The object we see in our surrounding usually without drawing came under which projection?
a) Perspective projection
b) Oblique projection
c) Isometric projection
d) Orthographic projection
5. In orthographic projection an object is represented by two or three views on different planes which

a) Gives views from different angles from different directions

b) Are mutually perpendicular projection planes
c) Are parallel along one direction but at different cross-section
d) Are obtained by taking prints from 2 or 3 sides of object
6. The front view of an object is shown on which plane?
a) Profile plane
b) Vertical plane
c) Horizontal plane
d) Parallel plane
7. What is additional 3rd view on orthographic projection in general for simple objects?
a) Front view
b) Top view
c) Side view
d) View at 45 degrees perpendicular to horizontal plane
8. If isometric projection of an object is drawn with true lengths the shape would be same and size is
how much larger than actual isometric projection?
a) 25%
b) 29.5%
c) 22.5%
d) 33.3%
9. If an isometric projection is drawn with true measurements but not with isometric scale then the
drawings are called
a) Isometric projection
b) Isometric view
c) Isometric perception
d) Orthographic view
10. If an isometric drawing is made with use of isometric scale then the drawings are called
a) Isometric projection
b) Isometric view
c) Isometric perception
d) Orthographic view
11. The angle between the isometric axes is
a) 180 degrees
b) 60 degrees
c) 90 degrees
d) 120 degrees
12. The value of the ratio of isometric length to true length is
a) 0.141
b) 0.372
c) 0.815
d) 0.642
13. The length in isometric drawing of line is 20 cm. What is the true length of it?
a) 24.53 cm
b) 15.46 cm
c) 19.31 cm
d) 23.09 cm
14. Isometric view of cube is drawn the angle between the edge of cube and horizontal will be
 a) 15 degrees
b) 120 degrees
c) 45 degrees
d) 30 degrees
15. Isometric view of cube is drawn and faces of cube are seen as
a) Square
b) Rectangle
c) Rhombus
d) Parallelogram
16. Isometric view of equilateral triangle will be
a) Equilateral triangle
b) Scalene triangle
c) Isosceles triangle
d) Right angled triangle
17. Lines of sights (projectors) for oblique projection will be
a) Parallel to each other and perpendicular to projection plane
b) Not parallel to each other and perpendicular to projection plane
c) Parallel to each other and inclined to projection plane
d) Not parallel to each other and inclined to projection plane
18. Lines of sights (projectors) for orthographic projection will be
a) Parallel to each other and perpendicular to projection plane
b) Not parallel to each other and perpendicular to projection plane
c) Parallel to each other and inclined to projection plane
d) Not parallel to each other and inclined to projection plane
19. Which are not usually used as angle between the projection plane and receding lines for
oblique projection?
a) 30 degrees
b) 50 degrees
c) 45 degrees
d) 60 degree
20. In oblique projection, the object is assumed to be placed with one face
a) Parallel to plane of projection
b) Parallel to adjacent edge
 c) Perpendicular to plane of projection
d) Perpendicular to adjacent edge
21. When the receding lines are drawn to full size scale then the oblique projection is
a) Cabinet projection
b) Isometric projection
c) Orthographic projection
d) Cavalier projection
22. When the receding lines are drawn to half size scale then the oblique projection is
a) Cabinet projection
b) Isometric projection
c) Orthographic projection
d) Cavalier projection
23. Which of the following statement is wrong in case of oblique projection?
a) The object is drawn with the reduced dimensions
b) Projectors are parallel to each other and inclined to projection plane
c) The choice of the position of the object depends upon the shape and size
d) The faces of object which are perpendicular to the plane of projection will be distorted
25. The faces parallel to projection plane are having size and shape in oblique projection.
a) Actual
b) Double
c) Half
d) Increased
26. In cavalier projection the receding lines are drawn
a) Half of its actual size
b) Double of its actual size
c) Full size
d) Increased or decreased to a particular ratio
27. In perspective projection the projectors are to each other and to picture plane.
a) Parallel, perpendicular
b) Not parallel, inclined
c) Parallel, inclined
d) Not parallel, perpendicular
Working Drawing
Suitability of Scales
1. Topographic Maps/Drawings
1 cm = 0.5 km 1:50000
1 cm = 1 km 1:100000
1 cm = 2.5 km 1:250000
2. Town Surveys
1 cm = 50 m 1:5000
1 cm = 0.1 km 1:10000
1 cm = 0.25 km 1:25000
1 cm = 0.5 km 1:50000
3. Sketch Drawing
1 cm = 1 m 1:100
1 cm = 2 m 1:200
1 cm = 5 m 1:500
4. Large Scale Survey and Layout
1 cm = 5 m 1:500
1 cm = 10 m 1:1000
1 cm = 20 m 1:2000
5. Working Drawings, Plans, Elevation and Sections
1 cm = 50 cm 1:50
1 cm = 1 m 1:100
1 cm = 2 m 1:200
 As per Public Works Directives (Part III 7.5) the suggested scale for plan and longitudinal sections of
different structures are as follows:
1. Roads and Irrigation Works: 1:2500 horizontal and 1:250 vertical
2. Bridges: 1:200
3. Buildings: 1:250
4. Typical Details: 1:50 to 1:100
5. Foundations: 1:100 to 1:200
6. Drainage: 1:50 to 1:100
7. Utilities: depending on nature and extent