THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOANALYSIS 35:147-156 (1975)

DREAMWORK IN A GESTALT THERAPY CONTEXT

Lewis S. Alban and William D. Groman

Unfettered by most of the limits of physical reality, spatial dimensions, social

mores, and conventional clock time and schedules, the act of dreaming during sleep
approaches a metaphysical (beyond-physical) happening. Dreaming only approaches, it
does not retain, being completely a metaphysical occurrence, since three basic inter-
related realms of constraint active in the physical world operate during this covert
drama. These three realms are biological, psychological, and social in character. Within
the biological realm, the physical mechanisms and systems of the body provide both
the capacity to dream and to know the dream. The psychological and social realms pro-
vide the determinants of the dream story, including all content.
What gives the dream the character of going beyond physical events is, first, that the
dream content, at the time of dreaming, may convincingly defy or alter all real physical
relationships and laws. From images of objects in the real world, the dreamer may
create new forms or relationships of forms. Such production of new forms and relation-
ships is common to all fantasy and to many kinds of disciplined artistic expression.
Second, at the time of dreaming, the experience is taken as real, regardless of how
bizarre the dream.
What may make the dream events and situations seem real is not only the intimate
relationship of the dreamer (who is both dreamer and witness) to the characters and
objects of the dream, but also the artificial distance between the dreamer and certain
aspects of the drama. Some of the characters in dreams appear to have points of view
other than those with which the dreamer identifies, and thus the impression of a multi-
plicity of individuals is created. However, the individuality of the characters is illusory;
it is the dreamer who has produced these characters and their motivations, the plot,
and the setting of the dream. Nevertheless, in the dream the dreamer does not identify
with the characters' viewpoint or action; he identifies only with "himself." This
illusion of individuality creates in the dream the impression of a reality of social inter-

Lewis, S. Alban, M.S., Graduate Student, Clinical Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University.
William D. Groman, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University.

147
148 LEWIS S. ALBAN AND WILLIAM D. G R O M A N

action. Furthermore, these individual characters, or projected aspects of the dreamer's

personality, are generally familiar enough not to be completely unrecognizable and
unintelligible, yet alien enough to be personified as individual entities or "objectified"
in the dream scenario.
A dreamer may recall that his viewing of the events of the dream is from an audience
position and/or predominantly through one character. The combination of the
personality projections and the dreamer's ability to reflect or view his own actions and
the actions of "others" functions to artificially reconstruct in the dream the kind of
physical distance that resembles, for example, the experience one has in a theater while
viewing a play. However, within the c~eam, the range of interactions appears more
fluid, and more combinations of'the relationships may occur than in the waking state.
An impression of viewing in depth, as either a distinct or blurred spectator, the social
interactions among characters or among several characters and the "self" or between
one other character and the "self" is thus created. Virtually all human experiences,
overt and covert, all expression, all movement of thoughts and feelings may be em-
bodied in the context, scenery, mood, and script of dreams.
Although all of us are familiar with dreaming, each new dream is almost always felt
as a new activity~ In the waking state an activity is often experienced as both familiar
and unique. It is familiar in that it is being done once again, and it is unique in that it is
done for the first time during a specific time interval, the actual present. During dream-
ing, however, the sense of familiarity is much diminished and the uniqueness of each
dream much heightened. Dreaming lacks the sense of continuity most generally found
in waking experience.
From a Gestalt therapy theory point oT view, dreams are meaningful in that they
reveal the various relationships of the drearier to the physical environment, to his own
organism, and to different aspects of his personality. However meaningful, these re-
lationships are often obscure and not immediately apparent. Gestalt therapy theory
holds that the dream embodies aspects of the dreamer's life and personality that have
been rejected or divorced from his self-concept. Such unaware aspects of self exist in
the person, but are experienced in the dreams as external to the dreamer.
By way of analogy, the dream can be thought of as a message in code or as a jigsaw
puzzle. The pieces of the puzzle need to be fit together to form a picture of the total
personality. The dream itself can be conceptualized as the organism's attempt to put
all the parts together in their proper place. Ideally, upon waking the dreamer would
recognize the whole picture in all its parts as himself. However, this rarely is the case.
The person in the waking state usually continues to deny or reject unwanted aspects of
self, and only some of the relationships of the dream elements are accepted in aware-
ness as a part of the self.
When a dream is described, a skillful therapist may be able to identify those relation-
ships that are within the awareness of the dreamer, as well as those relationships
alienated from awareness, byknowing the person's habitual modes of living, by listening
to the dream story, noting the theme(s), conceptualizing the dream forms, sensing the
emotion of the study and the emotion of the way it is being related, noting the verbal
and gestural styles that occur during the telling of the dream, and maintaining a self-
 DREAMWORK IN GESTALT THERAPY 149

other differentiation sufficient to minimize the probability of contributing the

therapist's own thoughts or fantasies to the patient's fantasy life. Nevertheless, the
therapist cannot share the dream experience of the patient and the true meaning of the
dream experience, for that meaning can only be discovered by the dreamer himself,
just as only the dreamer can discover and experience the validity of the dream's meaning.
Nevertheless, the therapist can employ three guideposts to help him understand the
symbolic or metaphoric message of the dream. These are (I) the reversal of reality,
(2) the condensation of reality, and (3) the resistance against reality. These three dream
forms are found extensively in dream reports. The difference between these forms
varies greatly with the content of the dreams. The functional similarity of the forms is
that they all relate to some avoidance. Thus "messages" may be "decoded" from the
themes of the dream, together with a knowledge of the dreamer's personal, charac-
teristic style of behavior.
The reversal of reality converts an aspect of reality to an opposite or incompatible
relationship with reality. This form of covert avoidance behavior may reverse an un-
acceptable present-day situation. For example, if penniless, the dreamer may dream of
winning a sweepstakes, if belittled, he may dream of grandiose acclaim, or if he cannot
acquire what he wants, he may dream the world is at his feet. I Note that in these ex-
amples an impoverished situation is reversed. Reversal of surfeit or excess may also
occur. For example, a man with heavy responsibilities might dream of being a beach
comber, or a man overly stimulated by many other people might dream of a beautiful
but isolated setting.
The condensed reflection message is often found in themes pertaining to idealized
or abstracted personalities. The glorious hero, be he do-gooder, gangster, hero, or
villian, is, when played in the dream and dreamed repeatedly, a capsule description of
roles played out unawares in the waking state. The implication of such messages is that
th~ dreamer maintains an imaginary-like existence of roles and games; he is in poor
contact with what he senses and experiences, responding more to pseudosituations
than to actual ongging events. 2
Perhaps the moist important of the dream forms is the one pertaining to resistances
against reality. Resistances express themselves more openly in dreams than in the
Waking state. 1 Resistances may be construed as psychic difficulties that throttle and
prevent full and open experience by inhibiting constructive efforts, interests, and ex-
citements. Furthermore, resistances generate anxiety. ~ Resistances are revealed in the
imagery and action of the dream. What is resisted is that which is alienated from the
self. Perls gives a good example of resistance in a dream offered by a client during his
therapy:
A patient dreams he is leaving my office and goes to Central Park. And he goes across the bridle
path, into the Park. So I ask him, "Now play the bridle path." He answers indignantly, "What?
And let everybody shit and crap on me?''2
The resistance in this example is against assimilation into the self of a certain aspect of
the dream, the bridle path. The patient associates the bridle path of the dream with
being shit upon. He resists identifying with an aspect of himself or of his behavior that
evokes interpersonal relationships leading to whatever being shit upon means for him.
150 LEWISS. A L B A N A N D W I L L I A M D. G R O M A N

As mentioned, the commonality between these three kinds of dream forms is avoid-
ance. In one of the reversal examples, the dreamer avoids penury by dreaming about
winning money. In the condensed reflection examples, the dreamer plays a role(s),
avoiding the reality of his being, experiences, or real needs. In the resistance example
the dreamer avoids coming in contact with certain aspects of himself. Dreams, then, are
existential messages of what is missing or excessive in our lives, that is, of how we
avoid doing and living. 2
What often seems paradoxical about the act of dreaming is that even when avoid-
ances and antiawareness modes of behavior such as sleep and fantasy occur, the mean-
ings are made available to awareness. The dream does convey information about aspects
of the self or unfinished situations to which the waking person may, if he elects, attend.
Yet it is just this paradox which confirms the problem-solving, integrative function of
the dream.
From a Gestalt therapy point of view, perhaps the most meaningful kind of dream
to work on is the repetitive or recurrent dream. Within the dream, the avoidances of
the dreamer are stabilized into a recurring story or variation on a particular theme or
themes. The avoidances are embodied w~thin the story. However, the repetition of the
dream may also represent a persistent attempt to come to grips with the life problems
of the dreamer rather than another avoidance behavior. 2 The repetition makes sense in
that it signifies that a Gestalt has not been closed. A problem which has not been com-
pleted and finished cannot recede from the foreground to the background. It remains
unassimilated. From this theoretical viewpoint, we may hypothesize, on the one hand,
that the person who has repetitive dreams is one who continues to avoid difficulties
that arose in the past and are perpetuated in ~he present, and, on the other hand, that
he is attempting to come to a resolution through the dream repetition. The content
of such avoidances consists of disowned parts of the personality. 2 The result of dis-
owning parts of the personality and carrying forward incomplete situations is, in effect,
an impoverishment and shrinking of the personality. The attempt at resolution, the
repetition, is the impoverished self's attempt to become whole.
A class of dreams that contains very obvious avoidance themes and is very often
repetitive is the nightmare. In the nightmare the dreamer frustrates himself and then
tries (unsuccessfully) to overcome the frustrations. 2 Typically, the avoidance is mani-
fested in running away. In an attempt to resolve the tense situation arising from the
unresolved and confused Gestalt, the nightmare is frequently repeated. Perhaps this is
one reason why most reported dreams are, according to Perls, nightmares.

Dreamwork Techniques

The harmonious coordination of behavior, personality, and environment is the over-

all goal of most psychotherapies. Differences between therapies stem from differencies
in theory and techniques. We will now discuss some techniques of Gestalt therapy as
they are used in working with a patient's dreams.
The way in which Gestalt therapy techniques of dreamwork are used calls for a
highly developed skill which at its best achieves the virtuosity of an art form. As in
 D R E A M W O R K IN GESTALT T H E R A P Y 151

most art, with practice, and after mastering specific techniques, the artist develops a
sense of competency, spontaneity, flexibility, and freedom of movement and expression.
With experience, the therapist develops a refined ability to listen, to focus upon the
relevant figure of the moment, and to attend to the kinds of movement and the flow of
contextual meaning, to verbalization, to qualities of voice, and to the body movements
and gestures of the patient. He also develops the ability to attend to his own experi-
encing of the patient and to note his own interactions and interventions.
The following description of techniques does not mean to imply that there is a
mechanical, step-wise procedure to dreamwork. Rather, the following is our effort to
make an orderly presentation and description of techniques. The spont/meity and the
nuances of the therapy situation, considering the multiplicity of communication
channels, are far too rich and subtle to be adequately described in words.
The Gestalt therapy approach to dreamwork is integrative. 2 Rather than the thera-
pist intellectually stepping back from the dream material and analyzing it as if it were
a specimen - that is, from outside, apart from the system of the dream - the goal is
that the patient will, with the facilitation of the therapist, phenomenologically immerse
himself in the material and enact or reenact the dream in an experiential sense in the
present. A search for reasons or causes is not the goal of the dreamwork. The goal is an
identification with and assimilation of those aspects of the dream initially regarded by
the patient as foreign. The Gestalt approach is experiential, not analytical, a
What is perhaps even more important is that the Gestalt therapy dreamwork ap-
proach avoids any interpretation by the therapist. First, it is often very difficult to
distinguish and differentiate between what we project and what we see and hear. 2
Second, it is assumed that the pati6nt has far better access to the meaning of the dream
than does the therapist who, of necessity, can only understand but not share the dream
experience. And third, the noninterpretive approach enables the patient to progress at
his own pace and to discover the meaning of the dream in his own life framework. 4
Perhaps one of the most important understandings of Gestalt therapy is that the
activities of the patient during dreamwork are real actions and real reactions to the
fantasy of the dream in the present. The fantasy components of the dream are experi-
enced to a greater or lesser degree as real by the patient, but not at an aware level.
When the dreamer is asleep he experiences fixed and "passive" identification with only
a facet of the dream. The Gestalt approach has the advantage of a safe therapeutic en-
vironment which permits the patient to enter the dream material in a new and
different way.
The physical arrangement in one mode of working in Gestalt therapy' has been called
"hot seat" work. 2 The patient sits in a chair, the "hot seat." Nearby is an empty chair
which is used to facilitate playing the roles of all kinds of objects involved in the dream,
such as wheels, horses, authorities, peers, headaches, anger, silence, and so on, and
verbal contact is made with these fantasy objects. A dialogue is produced in which the
patient speaks for each of the "parties" in turn. In a Gestalt therapy theory framework,
intrapersonal encounter means coming into contact, meeting, or entering into dialogue
with alien aspects of one's personality. The patient addresses the empty chair as if a
component part of the dream (an alien aspect of the personality) is seated opposite
152 LEWIS S. ALBAN AND WILLIAM D. G R O M A N

him, present in the empty chair.This kind of encounter will be discussed more fully below.
Perls suggests working on dreams with another person, not by oneself alone, s This
idea is based upon the ol~servation that patients avoid the obvious in various ways, such
as suddenly getting sleepy or having something else very important to do. One gener-
alization that can be made about most patients (neUrotics) is that they deceive them-
selves (by avoidance) and imagine they deceive others, s The value of working with
another person is that the other person can point to the avoidance behavior and that
he can do this as it occurs. Understanding the dream means realizing where the obvious
is avoided. One risk involved in working with another person is that the therapist may
intervene prematurely and "inform" the patient of what he is doing before the patient
fully experiences the difficulty or process of discovering himself. 2
If one wishes to experiment with working alone, it is useful to first write down the
dream fragments as completely as possible, including every person, animal, mood, and
so on. 2 It may also be helpful to write down the dream in the present tense. This may
help sustain or recapture the feeling of the dream. As long as the dream or fragment is
remembered and available, and still contains an unfinished, unassimilated situation,
dreamwork can be pursued. In the therapy situation, the patient is instructed to tell the
dream in the present tense and first person. Using "1" language has two purposes: (1)
the dream telling becomes more emotionally vivid, an involved dramatization of the
dream, in the present, and (2) the therapist may relate to the immediacy of the
dreamer's statements. 3
In his early Gestalt therapy dreamwork, Perls attempted to work through every part
of the entire dream, s However, he and other Gestalt therapists have found that many
clients have difficulty in reidentifying with every aspect of the dream. The difficulty of
reidentification is thought to be identical with the degree or amount of self-alienation, s
Because of the difficulty of reidentification,I i many Gestalt therapists work only on some
aspect of the dream. The portion of the dream that is worked on contains a great deal
of material. 2 The therapist's selection of what portion of the dream to work with will
be discussed.
If a person cannot remember his dreams but wishes to do dreamwork, the patient
may develop a dialogue with the absent dream. 2 Similarly, a group in workshop that
wishes to do dreamwork, but offers no dream or wishes to know how to elicit for-
gotten dreams, can be asked to perform (in concert) a dialogue between each of
themselves and their absent dreams.
This dialogue might start in the following way: (1) Begin by summoning the dreams:
"Dream(s), where are you?" (2) Address the absent dream(s) as if they are personified:
"Dream(s), you are frightening me," "1 don't know about you," etc.; verbalize what
you imagine experiencing the dream(s) would be like. (3) Continue summoning the
dream(s) for a few minutes. (4) Reverse the role, identify with and speak for the dream.
If in a group, talk to the entire group as i f y o u are the dream talking to yourself. 2 Act
out being that entity you imagine is the dream. Express verbally what is experienced
as the dream entity, for example, "1 only seldom come to you and then only in bits
and pieces."
 DREAMWORK IN GESTALT THERAPY 153

During this process of encountering absent dreams, most patients realize that they
do not like to reveal or express the dream parts of their personalities. 2 However, when
they are expressed, the person who expresses them realizes they are aspects of his
own personality. When he hears the dream for the first time, the Gestalt therapist
assumes that the content and features of a dream are projections of parts of the
dreamer's personality. 1 Since the dreamer is the creator of the dream, then what is in
the dream must have been available in the dreamer for its construction. The externalized
parts of the dreamer's personality, that is, each and every aspect of the dream, are
understood to represent alienated portions of the personality of self. 4 As the therapist
becomes familiar with the patient and his dream, the therapist may then be able to
select parts of the dream which appear to be obvious and important projections. The
following is an illustration of this process of selection.
An adult patient precedes the telling of his dream to this therapist with this preamble:
Patient: I'm in bed. I've turned on the hall light so that my bedroom is not com-
pletely dark. I'm about 6, 7, 8 years old when I dreamed this dream. I'm afraid of
the dark and so I usually leave a light turned on. My parents sometimes turned the
light off.

Therapist: Did your parents know you were afraid of the dark?

Patient: No, I didn't tell them. Then I would turn the light on again and return to
my bed. I never told my parents the dream or why I left the light on.

This preamble conveys several important bits of information to be noted by the thera-
pist: (1) The dream is an old one which occurred in youth. Hence the associations are
old and long-standing. (2) The patient was afraid of the dark. (3) The patient did not
express his fears of the dark and his dream to his parents.
The patient then tells the dream:
Patient: I'm in bed. I see the image of gray and red colored smoke or I~aze. A devil
comes toward me. He is dressed in traditional devil garb: a red colored costume,
pitchfork, tail, horns, accented black eyebrows slanting toward the brim of his nose.
He beings to jab at me with the pitchfork. He jabs at my chest, shoulders, neck, and
face. He doesn't penetrate my skin. He keeps iabbing me and I wake up. That's
the dream.
Therapist: Did you say anything in the dream?
Patient: I was yelling and telling him to go away.
Therapist: How did you feel when you awoke?
Patient: I was scared, terrified, hot, and exhausted.
From the dream we hear that: (1) The primary concern is fear. The contest is in a good-
evil religious or mythological frame of reference. (2) The primary action is attack and
near penetration near the breathing apparatus. (3) Red is associated with destructive
behavior, the devil with evil and torture. (4) The dreamer identifies with the oppressed,
154 LEWIS S. A L B A N A N D W I L L I A M D. G R O M A N

not with the aggressor. Combining the information from the preamble and the dream
we may create the following hypotheses: (1) The patient fears the dark, the unknown,
and destruction by evil, especially when vulnerable. (2) Bad, as defined by the preamble
and dream, is that which the patient does not tell his parents.
In order to choose a character or part of the dream to work on, the patient must
help choose the parts that are most important to him. The two apparent options here
are fear and destructive impulses. The therapist may choose the course of action if the
patient is unable to decide which is most important to him. If the therapist chooses, he
relies on his impression of the patient and his own associations. In either case, the
therapist remains alert to important and obvious projections in the dream. An obvious
projection could be some behavioral pattern that is manifest in the dream, but has a
latent or with a low probability of occurrence in the waking life of the dreamer. Usually,
the patient is unaware of this or it is one that he performs with minimal awareness.
Knowledge of the client is important here. We could hypothesize, from the above
example, that this patient typically identifies with the weak, oppressed, and persecuted
and that he typically projects destructive and aggressive impulses, but does not identify
with these behaviors. From the Gestalt view, projections are important because they
significantly diminish the energy level of the patient, making him less capable of effect-
ing change and preventing him from becoming a person who can make the best of
almost any si.tuation he is in.
Besides being parts of the personality, dreams (as mentioned earlier) often point to
what the dreamer avoids. 2 These avoidances frequently involve behaviors regarded as
socially undesirable, such as killing or injuring another or sexual behavior of a kind the
patient regards as taboo. The Gestalt therapist, in attempting to guide the patient to
what he avoids, may emphasize the point at which the dreamer awakes from the dream.
Frequently, the moment the dreamer interrupts his dream and wakes is the moment in
which the avoidance might become apparent. When the dream does not terminate in
avoidance, it is more difficult to find out what is avoided, s
Dreams may have any setting. An idea of the kind of existence the patient feels he
leads or his existential background can be gotten by attending to the dream locale. 2
For example, a dream staged in court suggests that the dreamer is concerned with
judgment, accusation, guilt, and innocence. The connotative meanings of the settings
may also increase the amount of information about the patient's life style.
Once the dream has been told, the therapist may suggest some order in which the
dream components may be addressed and a dialogue enacted. Feedback from the
patient may modify the order. Enright states that he normally makes contact by pro-
ceeding from less vivid images to more vivid ones. 4 However, this procedure is by no
means a rule. That which is deemed important may be contacted first. Another function
of the therapist is tO deal with tendencies of patients to talk about experiences and
interpretations, thereby avoiding the emotional experiencing of the dream. A third
important function of the Gestalt therapist is to encourage the patient to explore the
relationship of dream components to his current life situation. 4
The therapist frequently selects opposing parts or characters of the dream for the
patient to personify. The dialogue is similar to the kind previously described, except
 D R E A M W O R K IN GESTALT T H E R A P Y 155

that the dialogue of opposing forces usually begins with a verbal argument, especially
if the correct opposites are chosen. 2 The expectation is that, by expressing and
elaborating on opposing or conflicting aspects of his personality, the patient will clarify
and appreciate and ultimately resolve these differences. The immediate purpose of this
technique is for the patient to reintegrate what he dreams by reexperiencing the dream
in the present. 2 The long-range goal is to enable the client to reown the disowned parts
of his personality.
In the process of dreamwork, the patient can learn that he is responsible for all the
aspects of his dream and that their every aspect is indeed a part of him. With such
realization the parts begin to function, come together, and become fully identified,
instead of being distanced and alienated from the rest of the self, 2 Perls has observed
that patients resist playing the alienated parts of the self. 2 This resistance is seen as a
desire to maintain those parts as other than the self. By disowning and resisting change,
the patient impoverishes himself. If the patient can overcome his resistances, he may
begin to grow and to gain in potential, s For the therapist, the advantage of Gestalt
therapy dream techniques is that he forms a clearer picture of the fantasies of the
patient. For the patient, the therapeutic advantage is that through these procedures he
may learn to function more fully. 2
Cohn has characterized the Gestalt dreamwork procedure as fiction writing in reverse:
The invented fictional parts talk to their author, who has not been aware of inventing them. The
patient now listens to his self-invented creatures, who rise from the status of rejected or unknown
procreations to emotionally exciting and accepted parts of the personal s e l f . 3
Theoretically, if each and every image, character, and component of the dream was
worked through using the Gestalt therapy method, all the alienated aspects of the
patient's personality would be reidentified and assimilated, and the patient would be
"cured". 2 As mentioned before, the difficulties experienced by patients prohibit a com-
ple[e working through. However, the material that is worked through becomes enriching
and a part of the self. 2 The intrapersonal civil wars diminish and end, and the patient's
energies become available for his struggle with the outer world. 2 Well-integrated and
fragmented people both dream, but Well-integrated people's dreams are not nightmarish.
They tend to be more immediate and direct attempts to cope with unfinished sittJa-
tions that have arisen during daily life; they become efforts toward filling in personality
deficits. 2
It is necessary to add a word of caution about this technique. Since it is extremely
potent and may invoke powerful abreaction, it is definitely not a method Of choice in
work with psychotics. Dreams of complete stasis, containing no life of any kind or
dwelling only upon corpses and death, may indicate the presence of a psychotic re-
action. Such dreams when brought up by the patient should be dealt with by other
methods.
This paper has described an approach to the function of the dream and a technique
for therapeutic work with dreams based upon Gestalt therapy. It is thought that this
method provides a useful and powerful adjunct in psychotherapy.
156 LEWIS S. ALBAN AND WILLIAM D. GROMAN

Summa~

From a Gestalt therapy viewpoint, dreams are important because they reveal the
various relationships of the dreamer to thephysical environment and to different
aspects of himself, aware and unaware. The identification and experiencing of these
relationships by the patient, in conjunction with the therapist's use of Gestalt dream-
work techniques, can facilitate the personality integration, communication, and social
functioning of the patient, as well as increase the therapist's repertoire of resources and
his ability to employ these within theoretical frameworks of his own choosing.

REFERENCES

1. Perls, F. S., Hefferline, R. F., and Goodman, P. Gestalt Therapy. New York: Delta, 1951.
2. Perls, F. S. Gestalt Therapy Verbatim. New York: Bantam, 1969.
3. Cohn, R. C. "Therapy in Groups: Psychoanalytic, Experiential, and Gestalt." In ]. Fagan and
I. Shepherd (Eds.), Gestalt Therapy Now. Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1970.
4. Enright, ]. "An Introduction to Gestalt Technique." In Gestalt Therapy Now, ]. Fagan and
I. Shepherd (Eds.). Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1970.
5. Perls, F. S. "Four Lectures." In Gestalt Therapy Now, J. Fagan and I. Shepherd (Eds.). Palo
Alto: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1970.

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