This article was downloaded by: [FU Berlin]

On: 09 July 2015, At: 05:46

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: 5 Howick Place, London, SW1P 1WG

The Design Journal

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rfdj20

What Is Human Centred Design?

a
Joseph Giacomin
a
Human Centred Design Institute, Brunel University, UK
Published online: 28 Apr 2015.

Click for updates

To cite this article: Joseph Giacomin (2014) What Is Human Centred Design?, The Design
Journal, 17:4, 606-623

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175630614X14056185480186

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever
as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any
opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the
authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the
Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary
sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions,
claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities
whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in
relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms
 & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/
terms-and-conditions
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015
 The Design Journal VOLUME 17, ISSUE 4 REPRINTS AVAILABLE PHOTOCOPYING © BLOOMSBURY
PP 606–623 DIRECTLY FROM THE PERMITTED BY PUBLISHING PLC 2014
PUBLISHERS LICENSE ONLY PRINTED IN THE UK
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

What Is Human
Centred Design?
Joseph Giacomin
Human Centred Design Institute,
Brunel University, UK
The Design Journal  DOI: 10.2752/175630614X14056185480186

Abstract  Reflections upon the meaning

of the word ‘design’ are made and a relatively
complete definition of the paradigm of human
centred design is formulated. Aspects of both
the background and the current practice of the
paradigm are presented, as is a basic structural
model of the design questions addressed.
Examples are provided of the economic benefit
of human centred design in business settings
as an approach for designing products, systems
and services which are physically, perceptually,
cognitively and emotionally intuitive. Examples
are further provided of the coherence of the
paradigm with the logic and structure of several
currently popular marketing and banding
frameworks. Finally, some strategic implications
of adopting human centred design as a
business strategy are suggested.

KEYWORDS: people centred design, human centred

606

design, design process, innovation model

 What is Human Centred Design?

Design
In the English language the word ‘design’ takes on a variety of noun
and verb meanings. In its noun form, standard dictionaries suggest
concepts of sketch, drawing, plan, pattern, intention or purpose,
or the art of producing them. In its verb form the same dictionaries
suggest elements of definition involving representing an artefact,
system or society, or the fixing of its look, function or purpose. The
word ‘design’ therefore has meanings ranging from the abstract
conception of something to the actual plans and processes required
to achieve it. The concept of design as a way of making sense of
things has been the subject of many studies (Krippendorff, 1989), as
has the design thinking process itself (Brown, 2008, 2009).
Since ‘design’ can be used to express intention as opposed to the
actual materials, forms, processes and markets, it is often used to
describe the driving force of the creative thought itself. In this usage
the word ‘design’ assumes a role similar to that of postmodern dis-
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

course, as defined by Foucault and others (Butler, 2002; Foucault,

2010), thus it refers to language which is absorbed and exchanged
between people, providing the basic units of meaning. In this usage
‘design’ can signify the shaping power described in philosophical
analysis by terms such as ‘thought processing’ (Heim, 1993) and
‘instrumental realism’ (Ihde, 1991, 1998) or in applied linguistics by
terms such as ‘professional vision’ (Goodwin, 1994). In this usage
design can act as the pragmatic and applied approach for identifying
what Holt and Cameron (2010) call ‘ideological opportunities’ and for
performing what they call ‘cultural design’.
When attempting to characterize the major movements which
operate within the world of design today, three in particular seem
to each be characterized by specific discourses and values (see
Figure 1) and to be practised by large numbers of designers and

Figure 1
Three major design
paradigms.
The Design Journal
607
 Joseph Giacomin

other professionals. Technology driven design, sustainable design

and human centred design are major movements which usually lead
to distinguishably different results despite operating within the same
legal, regulatory, contextual and economic constraints. The different
core discourses based on technical novelty, planetary impact or
human meaning lead to notable differences in the resulting product,
system or service.

Human Centred Design

Human centred design has its roots in fields such as ergonomics,
computer science and artificial intelligence. The echoes of this past
can be noted in international standards such as ISO 9241-210
‘Ergonomics of human-centred system interaction’ which describes
human centred design as an ‘approach to systems design and
development that aims to make interactive systems more usable
by focusing on the use of the system and applying human factors/
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

ergonomics and usability knowledge and techniques’ (International

Organization for Standardization, 2010: 2). ISO 9241-210 specifi-
cally recommends six characteristics:

• The adoption of multidisciplinary skills and perspectives

• Explicit understanding of users, tasks and environments
• User-centred evaluation driven/refined design
• Consideration of the whole user experience
• Involvement of users throughout design and development
• Iterative process.

Such engineering based approaches address well the needs of

the users of tools since tools have predetermined functions. The
difficulty in the case of consumer products, systems and services
is that the customer does not always adopt the point of view of
a ‘user’ of a ‘tool’. As Susan Gasson (2003: 41) has highlighted
‘user-centred system development methods fail to promote human
interests because of a goal-directed focus on the closure of prede-
termined, technical problems’. Designing for a ‘user’ usually involves
optimizing the characteristics of the product, system or service
based on a set of fixed preconceived cognitive plans and schema.
Such a view leads to designs which are efficient towards one or
more predetermined usage patterns (Degani, 2004) but which are
often characterized by only limited degrees of interactivity, explora-
The Design Journal

tion and learning.

Fixed preconceived cognitive plans and schema have been
identified as a significant weakness by Lucy Suchman, who has
researched the situatedness of human interactions with products.
Suchman (2007: 177) has noted that:

… the coherence of action is not adequately explained by

608

either preconceived cognitive schema or institutionalized

 What is Human Centred Design?

social norms. Rather, the organization of situated action is an

emergent property of the moment-by-moment interactions
between actors, and between actors and the environments of
their action.

According to this view, interactions and meanings are the result

of a process of communication and learning which cannot be fully
anticipated within the original physical, perceptual and cognitive
objectives of the design.
The evolution of design practice beyond ergonomics and human
factors was noted by Maguire (2001), who suggested the need to
carefully identify stakeholders and contexts of use, and to apply cre-
ative processes. The development of contextual design techniques
(Beyer and Holtzblatt, 1998; Holtzblatt et al, 2004) in particular
facilitated the probing, classification and description of the interac-
tions which occur between people and their environments, and the
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

increasing use of personas and scenarios has provided a basis for

describing people and contexts (Carroll, 2000; Mulder and Yaar,
2006). Further, the recent tendency to focus on emotional engage-
ment (Chapman, 2005; Cohan and Allen, 2007; Hill, 2010; Jordan,
2000; Kamvar and Harris, 2009; Norman, 2005; Oatley et al, 2006)
during the design process has also distanced design practice from
the systems engineering approach.
Krippendorff (2004: 48) has raised the bar further though his view
that:

Human-centeredness takes seriously the premise that human

understanding and behavior goes hand-in-glove; that what
artifacts are is inseparably linked to how their users perceive
them, can imagine interfacing with them, use them and talk
about their stake in them with others. Human-centred design
is concerned less with assuring that artifacts work as intended
(by their producers, designers, or other cultural authorities)
than with enabling many individual or cultural conceptions to
unfold into uninterrupted interfaces with technology.

The implication of Krippendorff’s view is that the heart of any

design activity is the identification of the meaning which the product,
system or service should offer to people. Such a view suggests that
design activity should concentrate first and foremost on questions
The Design Journal

of motivation, discourse and learning before proceeding to identify

the means of implementation. The definition of human centred de-
sign presented in this paper is fully consistent with Krippendorff’s
view of a multidisciplinary activity which has as its ultimate goal the
clarification of purpose and meaning, and is fully consistent with the
assertion that design itself is a pragmatic and empirical approach
for making sense of the world around us. Further, the definition of
609

human centred design presented in this paper is a pragmatic and

 Joseph Giacomin

applied approach for identifying what Holt and Cameron (2010) call
‘ideological opportunities’ and for performing what they call ‘cultural
design’.
Today’s human centred design is based on the use of techniques
which communicate, interact, empathize and stimulate the people
involved, obtaining an understanding of their needs, desires and
experiences which often transcends that which the people them-
selves actually realized. Human centred design is thus distinct from
many traditional design practices because the natural focus of the
questions, insights and activities lies with the people for whom the
product, system or service is intended, rather than in the designer’s
personal creative process or within the material and technological
substrates of the artefact.
Practised in its most basic form, human centred design leads to
products, systems and services which are physically, perceptually,
cognitively and emotionally intuitive. The word ‘intuitive’ is used here
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

to refer to the compatibility of the physical and information attributes

of the product, system or service with the full range of human char-
acteristics including the basic and higher cognitive emotions (Oatley
et al, 2006). A product, system or service can be considered to be
‘intuitive’ if it can be physically manipulated with immediacy and
ease, if its sensory stimuli are easily detectable, if its information
and meaning are immediately obvious and if any emotion-inducing
characteristics which it possesses, or intelligent behaviours which it
exhibits, are compatible with the anticipated emotional state of the
person.
Such elementary application of human centred design is consist-
ent with the definition proposed by Norman and Verganti (2011) which
limits interactions within existing semantic and cognitive frameworks.
Interacting with stakeholders from within the boundaries of existing
products, systems, services and meanings leads naturally to incre-
mental innovation of some degree. Design examples which illustrate
such intuitive outcomes are presented in Figures 2 to 5.
The elementary application of human centred design does not,
however, completely describe the design processes behind many
of today’s most successful products, systems and services. In the
21st century a growing abundance of sophisticated and relatively
low cost technologies has shifted the focus away from physical
considerations towards instead metaphysical considerations. Well-
known brands such as Alessi, Armani, Apple, Facebook, Ferrari,
The Design Journal

Google, IKEA, Nokia, Phillips and Virgin have led the way. Focusing
on emotional engagement has made the difference in cases such as
Alessi, while defining new meanings has been instrumental in grow-
ing companies like Apple into major commercial forces.
This shift in emphasis is evident in the progression of design
paradigms which have evolved and prospered over the years start-
ing with ergonomics and moving through human factors, usability,
610

user centred design, inclusivity, interaction design, empathic design,

 What is Human Centred Design?

Figure 2
Example of a physically
intuitive design: ‘Cosy All
the Time’ by Sam Weller is
an energy-efficient heater
built into a sealed pocket
within a blanket which is
recharged by electrical
induction. Its heating and
charging functions follow
standard stereotypes and
are physically obvious.
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

Figure 3
Example of a perceptually
intuitive design: ‘Energy
Sixth Sense’ by Joseph
Giacomin utilizes a thermal
imaging display on the front
of home heating thermostat
to render the thermal
situation of the room
perceptually obvious.

Figure 4
Example of a cognitively
intuitive design: ‘Bathe
Safe’ by Oliver Wooderson
utilizes a large colour
screen to monitor bath
The Design Journal

temperature to avoid
the dangers of scalding.
Colours, typography and
visuals combine to render
the situation cognitively
obvious.
611
 Joseph Giacomin
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

Figure 5
Example of an emotionally
intuitive design: ‘Tio’ by design for product experience, design for customer experience,
Tim Holley is a light switch
design for emotion, emotionally durable design, sensory branding,
which encourages children
to reduce energy usage. It neurobranding, service design and finally, most recently, the umbrella
uses a face-like shape and paradigm of human centred design. What began as the psychologi-
colour changes to provide cal study of human beings on a scientific basis (Meister, 1999) for
an emotionally recognizable purposes of machine design has evolved to become the measure-
state which varies from
ment and modelling of how people interact (Moggridge, 2007) with
relaxed to angry.
the world, what they perceive and experience, and what meanings
(Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Krippendorff, 1989,
2004) they create.
The most successful examples of 21st-century human centred
design practice are probably best described as processes which
answer an incremental set of questions regarding the relationships
which a design artefact either creates for a person or facilitates. A
simple new representation of such a scheme is the human centred
design pyramid of Figure 6 in which the classical rhetorical questions
of antiquity of Quis (who), Quid (what), Quando (when), Quem ad
Modum (in what way) and Cur (why) have been associated with
current design semantics to structure the growing layers of complex-
ity. This new interpretation of human centred design is based on
a hierarchy which has at its base the scientific facts about human
The Design Journal

physical, perceptual, cognitive and emotional characteristics, fol-

lowed by progressively more complex, interactive and sociological
considerations. At its apex the model contains the metaphysical
meaning which individuals form based on contact with the design.
In the view which is summarized by the model the metaphysical
meaning, whether pre-existing or still to be created through contact,
is considered the key to social acceptance, commercial success,
612

brand identity and business strategy.

 What is Human Centred Design?

Figure 6
The human centred design
pyramid.
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

As summarized by the model, human centred design consists of

a series of questions and answers which span the spectrum from the
physical nature of people’s interaction with the product, system and
service to the metaphysical. Designs whose characteristics answer
questions and curiosities which are further up the pyramid would
be expected to offer a wider range of affordances to people, and to
embed themselves deeper within people’s minds and everyday lives.
In particular, a product, system or service which can introduce a new
meaning into a person’s life would be expected to offer ample op-
portunities for commercial success and for brand development, as
historic examples such as Ferrari sports cars or Apple IPods seem
to suggest.
The model of human centred design proposed here has ele-
ments which are similar to those of the ‘golden circle’ proposed by
Sinek (2011). Specifically, the order of priority of the ‘why’, ‘how’
and ‘what’ questions is the same because the apex of the human
centred design triangle, and the centre of the ‘golden circle’, contain
the issue of most decisive effect. Further, the neurophysiological
parallels to the operation of the limbic system and neocortex which
were drawn by Sinek may possibly also apply in the case of the
human centred design triangle since the progression up the triangle
can be interpreted, to a first approximation, as a journey from the
The Design Journal

more physical and physiological questions to the more metaphysical

questions.
The model of human centred design proposed here is not con-
sistent with the definition proposed by Norman and Verganti (2011)
which limits interactions within existing semantic and cognitive
frameworks. Interacting and empathizing with stakeholders from
within the confines of existing products, systems, services and
613

meanings leads naturally to incremental innovation of some degree.

 Joseph Giacomin

The model of human centred design proposed here is instead con-

sistent with the definitions and examples proposed by Pullin (2009),
who accepts the need for problem solving, but who emphasizes
instead openness of mind, the challenging of existing constraints
and the influencing of behaviours and social structures.
The model proposed here takes the wider view that meanings
can either be adopted from existing practice as in the case of incre-
mental innovation, or defined ex-novo based on new observations
and ideas which arise from interactions with people. While marketers
and designers are familiar with the ‘wall’ which is often faced when
discussing revolutionary new concepts with members of the general
public, new ideas, new concepts and new designs are nevertheless
routinely achieved in practice through judicious use of interaction
tools. It is the author’s position that disruptive innovation is as natural
an outcome of human centred design as is incremental innovation.
The model proposed here does not directly articulate a set of in-
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

dividual design questions due to the situatedness of human centred

design, which must of necessity ask questions which are specific
to the individuals involved and to the target environment (Giacomin,
2009, 2012). Nevertheless, the model does identify a hierarchy of
questions and issues which starts with the physical, perceptual,
cognitive and interactive affordances of the human body and ends
with the ultimate meanings which the product, system or service will
either occupy or create within the psychological, sociological and
societal space of the individual.

Human Centred Design Tools

Today’s human centred designer is a relatively transparent figure
who does not impose preferences on a project, but who instead
stimulates, conveys and translates the will of the people involved.
The toolbox of human centred design techniques grows continu-
ously, sometimes by borrowing from fields such as psychology or
sociology (Berg, 2001), and sometimes instead by defining new
approaches which emerge from design practice. Card decks such
as those by IDEO (2003), LUMA (LUMA Institute, 2012) and PLEX
(Lucero and Arrasvuori, 2010) and design texts such as those of
Dunne (2008), Jordan (2000), Mulder and Yaar (2006), Norman
(2005), Schifferstein and Hekkert (2007) and Van Gorp (2012) are
routinely deployed by human centred designers.
Human centred design tools can be classified based on their in-
The Design Journal

tended use. The most basic form of tool consists of facts about peo-
ple such as anthropometric, biomechanical, cognitive, emotional,
psychophysical, psychological and sociological data and models.
Such items of information, which are often treated as matters of
ergonomics or human factors, provide basic factual statements re-
garding the abilities and limitations of humans. Such tools define the
boundaries within which to operate, and usually act more to inform
614

the human centred design process than to drive it.

 What is Human Centred Design?

Some human centred design tools consist instead of methodolo-

gies and techniques for interacting with people in such a manner as
to facilitate the detection of meanings, desires and needs, either by
verbal or non-verbal means. Cognitively inspired, language-based
techniques such as ethnographic interviews (Spradley, 1979), ques-
tionnaires, role playing and focus groups (Stewart et al, 2007) tend
to dominate this category historically. A growing number of methods
are, however, used to investigate those areas of human mental activ-
ity which are not always directly accessible to conscious thought.
Participant observation (Spradley, 1980), body language analysis
(Navarro, 2008; Wharton, 2009), facial coding analysis (Hill, 2010),
electroencephalograms (Du Plessis, 2011) and other approaches for
measuring and analysing non-verbal information are being increas-
ingly deployed by marketers and designers.
Finally, a growing set of human centred design tools are used for
simulating intuitions, opportunities and possible futures for purposes
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

of emersion, reflection and discussion. From the currently popular

approach of co-design (Von Hippel, 2005) to the more speculative
techniques such as real fictions and para-functional prototypes
(Dunne, 2008), creative new approaches are being developed and
deployed which immerse people in one or more possible futures,
providing them with the opportunity to socially experiment the envis-
aged product, system or service and to form personal perspectives
and opinions.
Table 1 provides a partial list of the most frequently deployed
human centred design tools. The individual semantics have been
chosen based on the likelihood of the given name being familiar to a
wide range of designers and practitioners. The origin of the individual
technique is not suggested due to the many contradictory claims
and variants which characterize many of the methods. Finally, the
table has been organized along approximately temporal lines, i.e.
based on whether the technique involves historical data, current
contexts and values, or the simulation of possible futures.

Human Centred Design as a Business Strategy

In recent years many businesses have shifted their emphasis away
from matters of technology and manufacture, moving instead to-
wards a growing preoccupation with how their products, systems or
services are perceived and experienced by the consumer (Verganti,
2009). The commercial imperative of this shift is demonstrated by
The Design Journal

statistical analysis such as the work of Eric Von Hippel (2007: 28) of
the MIT Business School who has noted that ‘70% to 80% of new
product development that fails does so not for lack of advanced
technology but because of a failure to understand users’ needs’.
Empirical evidence from product failures supports the claim that
human centred design improves commercial success.
Numerous marketing and branding studies (Aaker, 2002; Du
615

Plessis, 2011; Gobe, 2009; Hatch and Schultz, 2008; Hill, 2010;
 Joseph Giacomin

Table 1  Frequently deployed human centred design tools

Human Data and Models Capture of Needs, Desires Simulation of

and Meanings Possible Futures

– Anthropometric data sets and models Verbally based – Focus groups

– Biomechanical data sets and models – Ethnographic interviews – Lead user design
– Psychophysical data sets and models – Questionnaires – Co-design
– Cognitive data sets and models – Day-in-the-life analysis – Storyboard futures
– Emotional data sets and models – Activity analysis – Experience prototypes
– Psychological data sets and models – Cognitive task analysis – Para-functional prototypes
– Sociological data sets and models – The five whys – Role playing
– Philosophical data sets and models – Conceptual landscape – Real fictions
– Word-concept association
– Think aloud analysis
– Metaphor elicitation
– Be your customer
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

– Customer journey
– Extreme users
– Personas
– Scenarios
– Brainstorming
– Contextual inquiry

Non-verbally based
– Game playing
– Cultural probes
– Visual journals
– Error analysis
– Fly-on-the-wall observation
– Customer shadowing
– Body language analysis
– Facial coding analysis
– Physiological measures
– Electroencephalograms

Lindstrom, 2005, 2008; Shaw et al, 2010; Schultz et al, 2005; Von
Hippel, 2005) have noted the importance of addressing the percep-
tual, cognitive and emotional needs of customers. Further, the recent
deployment of neuroimaging technologies has permitted (Du Plessis,
2011) the direct measurement of how the perceptual, cognitive and
emotional characteristics of products, systems and services impact
The Design Journal

upon human neural pathways and human neural function. Sales and
customer service data from the cited marketing and branding stud-
ies, as well as direct neurological evidence, support the claim that
human centred design improves commercial success.
Human centred design is also well aligned with several of the most
popular corporate branding frameworks (Aaker, 2004; Olins, 2008)
which businesses use to present themselves to the world and to
616

position themselves with respect to their competitors. For example,

 What is Human Centred Design?

the well-known four vector model of corporate identity proposed by

Olins (2008) is based on the positioning of the brand within a refer-
ence system consisting of the axis labelled as ‘products/services’,
‘environments’, ‘communications’ and ‘behaviour’. Such a system
is heavily human centred, with a strong emphasis on interaction,
communication and meaning. Other popular branding frameworks
can be even more human centred. For example the ‘4D Brand
Mind Space’ proposed by Gadd (2001) positions a given product or
service within a space defined by four basic types of human need:
‘functional’, ‘social’, ‘mental’ and ‘spiritual’.
In terms of corporate branding it can be suggested that human
centred design contributed only marginally to what Schultz et al
(2005) refer to as the ‘first wave of corporate branding’ of the 1990s
in which the product branding approach was extended to include
brand essence and brand expressiveness. While the marketing-
driven communication of identity did draw from sociological and
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

human centred design resources for verbal and visual attributes, the
increased clarity was achieved mostly through historical and narra-
tive analysis within the confines of the existing products, systems,
services and meanings. It can be suggested, however, that human
centred design has been contributing in a more substantial way to
what Schultz et al (2005) refer to as the ‘second wave of corporate
branding’ which involves an integrated and cross-disciplinary un-
derstanding of the organization’s reason for being, its structure and
its internal and external relationships. The sets of questions which
constitute human centred design offer pragmatic tools in support of
‘second wave’ activity, and would be expected to prove even more
useful in the ‘third wave of corporate branding’ as the role of the
brand shifts from being mostly the voice of the organization to being
instead the values and discourse themselves, co-developed and
co-evolved with the full range of stakeholders.
As a business strategy, human centred design is not consistent
with the well-known paradigm of ‘technology push’ (see Figure 7).
The value propositions (Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010) which
emerge from ‘technology-push’ activity are not necessarily directly
related to the expectations, needs or desires of the customers.
Instead, they are usually based on characteristics of technical nov-
elty or technical optimization.
As a business strategy, human centred design is not necessar-
ily consistent with the well-known paradigm of ‘market pull’ (see
The Design Journal

Figure 7). Despite involving significant interaction with customers,

‘market-pull’ activity will normally be performed within the limits and
confines of existing semantic and cognitive frameworks. Interacting
with customers from within the boundaries of existing products,
systems, services and meanings most naturally produces only incre-
mental innovation of some degree.
When practised as a process of questions and answers regarding
617

the relationships which a design artefact either creates or facilitates

 Joseph Giacomin

Figure 7
Comparison of the
technology-push and
market-pull business
strategies.

for a person, it is the author’s proposal that human centred design

assumes the form of a ‘hybrid market-pull’ business strategy which
involves the business proposing new meanings and possible futures
to people, then responding to the commentary and feedback. While
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

sensitive to characteristics of creativity, ideation and identification of

possible futures, human centred design depends even more critically
on widespread communication, interaction and co-creation (Sanders
and Stappers, 2008). As a business strategy, human centred design
therefore normally involves:

• A change from the existing business strategy (Hatch and Schultz,

2008)
• Identification and integration of ethical challenges (Arnold, 2009;
Brown, 2005)
• Better communication of the vision (Sinek, 2011; Temporal and
Alder, 1998)
• Greater communication within the business (Gray et al, 2010)
• Greater interaction with the customers (Von Hippel, 2005)
• Greater communication between the customers (Cesvet et al,
2009)

While not without drawbacks (Steen, 2012) such as the risk of

preconceived stereotypes and meanings unintentionally entering into
the human centred design process, the paradigm does nevertheless
provide an umbrella approach for developing products, systems and
services based on matters of perception, interaction, learning and
meaning. Further, since meaning is given pride of place in the hier-
archy, questions and answers regarding matters of ethics can occur
The Design Journal

more frequently and more naturally than in the case of technology-

push or market-pull business strategies.

Conclusions
Reflections upon the meaning of the word ‘design’ have been made,
and a relatively complete definition of the paradigm of human cen-
tred design has been formulated. A brief overview has also been
618

provided of the logical trajectory which has led to the ergonomic

 What is Human Centred Design?

science of human performance evolving into its more recent and

complete manifestation as a design paradigm based on human
behaviours and meanings.
A new structural model has been presented for describing human
centred design. The model consists of a series of questions and an-
swers which span the spectrum from the physical nature of people’s
interaction with the product, system and service to the metaphysi-
cal. The model attempts to qualitatively describe the hierarchy of
considerations involved, and visually captures the typical quantity of
questions which arise at each logical level. A partial list of the most
frequently deployed human centred design tools has also been
provided.
Examples have been cited of the economic benefit of human
centred design as a business strategy. A distinction has been made
between the characteristics of the human centred design busi-
ness strategy and those of the more common ‘technology push’
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

and ‘market pull’ business strategies. By considering potential new

meanings and possible futures, it is proposed that human centred
design provides additional human and market insights beyond those
of the traditional business strategies.
Examples have also been provided which suggest the coherence
of the human centred design paradigm with the logic and structure
of several of the currently popular marketing and banding frame-
works. In many current business settings it is not unusual to note
some degree of separation between the activities of the marketing,
branding and design teams, whose individual objectives and targets
are not always common. It is proposed that human centred design
provides an important unifying approach which has the potential for
simplifying and focusing the work of the different teams of experts
within a given business.

References
Aaker, D. A. (2002). Building Strong Brands. London: The Free
Press, Simon & Schuster.
Arnold, C. (2009). Ethical Marketing and the New Consumer.
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Berg, B. L. (2001). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social
Sciences. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Publishers.
Beyer, J. and Holtzblatt, K. (1998). Contextual Design: Defining
Customer-centered Systems. San Francisco, CA: Morgan
The Design Journal

Kaufmann Publishers.
Brown, M. T. (2005). Corporate Integrity: Rethinking Organizational
Ethics and Leadership. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, T. (2008). ‘Design thinking’. Harvard Business Review, June:
1–9.
Brown, T. (2009). Change by Design: How Design Thinking
Transforms Organizations and Inspires Innovation. New York:
619

HarperCollins Publishers.
 Joseph Giacomin

Butler, C. (2002). Postmodernism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.
Carroll, J. M. (2000). ‘Five reasons for scenario-based design’.
Interacting with Computers, 13: 43–60.
Cesvet, B., Babinski, A. and Alper, E. (2009). Conversational Capital:
How to Create Stuff That People Love To Talk about. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Chapman, J. (2005). Emotionally Durable Design: Objects, Experi­
ences and Empathy. London: Earthscan Publishers.
Cohan, J. A. and Allen, J. B. (eds) (2007). Handbook of Emotion
Elicitation and Assessment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Rochberg-Halton, M. (1981). The Meaning
of Things. Boston, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Degani, A. (2004). Taming HAL: designing interfaces beyond 2001.
New York: St Martin’s Press, Palgrave-Macmillan.
Dunne, A. (2008). Hertzian Tales: Electronic Products, Aesthetic
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

Experience, and Critical Design. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Du Plessis, E. (2011) The Branded Mind: What Neuroscience Really
Tells Us About the Puzzle of the Brain and the Brand. London:
Kogan Page Publishers.
Foucault, M. (2010). The Order of Things, London: Routledge.
Gadd, T. (2001). 4D Branding. London: Pearson Education.
Gasson, S. (2003). ‘Human-centered vs. user-centred approaches
to information system design’. The Journal of Information Techno­
logy Theory and Application (JITTA), 5(2): 29–46.
Giacomin, J. (2009). ‘It’s all about you, engineering designer’.
Institution of Engineering Designers, November/December.
Giacomin, J. (2012). ‘Human centred design of 21st century
automobiles’. ATA Ingegneria dell’ Autoveicolo, November:
32–44.
Gobe, M. (2009). Emotional Branding: The New Paradigm for
Connecting Brands to People. New York: Allworth Press.
Goodwin, C. (1994). ‘Professional vision’. American Anthropologist,
96(3): 606–633.
Gray, D., Brown, S. and Macanufo, J. (2010). Gamestorming: A
Playbook for Innovators, Rulebreakers, and Changemakers.
Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media.
Hatch, M. J. and Schultz, M. (2008). Taking Brand Initiative. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Heim, M. (1993). The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality. Oxford: Oxford
The Design Journal

University Press.
Hill, D. (2010). Emotionomics: Leveraging Emotions for Business
Success, 2nd edn London: Kogan Page.
Holt, D. and Cameron, D. (2010). Cultural Strategy: Using Innovative
Ideologies to Build Breakthrough Brands. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Holtzblatt, K., Burns Wendell, J. and Wood, S. (2004). Rapid
620

Contextual Design: A How-to Guide to Key Techniques for

 What is Human Centred Design?

User centered Design. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann

Publishers.
IDEO (2003). IDEO Method Cards: 51 Ways to Inspire Design. San
Francisco, CA: W. Stout Architectural Books.
Ihde, D. (1991). Instrumental realism: the interface between phil­
osophy of science and philosophy of technology. Bloomington,
IN: Indiana University Press.
Ihde, D. (1998). Expanding Hermeneutics: Visualism in Science.
Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
International Organization for Standardization (2010). ISO 9241-
210: Ergonomics of Human-centred System Interaction – Part
210: Human-centred Design for Interactive Systems. Geneva:
International Organization for Standardization.
Jordan, P. W. (2000). Designing Pleasurable Products: An Intro­
duction to the New Human Factors. London: Taylor & Francis.
Kamvar, S. and Harris, J. (2009). We Feel Fine: An Almanac of
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

Human Emotion. New York: Scribner.

Krippendorff, K. (1989). ‘On the essential contents of artifacts or on
the proposition that “design is making sense (of things)”’. Design
Issues, 5(2): 9.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). ‘Intrinsic motivation and human-centred
design’. Theoretic Issues in Ergonomics Science, 5(1): 43–72.
Lindstrom, M. (2005). Brand Sense: How to Build Powerful Brands
through Touch, Taste, Smell, Sight and Sound. London: Kogan
Page Publishers.
Lindstrom, M. (2008). Buyology: How Everything We Believe about
Why We Buy Is Wrong. London: Random House Business.
Lucero, A. and Arrasvuori, J. (2010). ‘PLEX cards: A source of
inspiration when designing for playfulness’. Proceedings of the
3rd International Conference on Fun and Games, September
15–17, Leuven, Belgium, pp. 28–37.
LUMA Institute (2012). Innovating for People: Planning Cards,
Pittsburg, PA: LUMA Institute.
Maguire, M. (2001). ‘Methods to support human-centred design’.
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 55: 587–634.
Meister, D. (1999). The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics.
Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Moggridge, B. (2007). Designing Interactions. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Mulder, S. and Yaar, Z. (2006). The User is Always Right: A Practical
The Design Journal

Guide to Creating and Using Personas for the Web. Berkeley, CA:
New Riders Publishers.
Navarro, J. (2008). What Every BODY Is Saying: An Ex-FBI Agent’s
Guide to Speed-reading People. New York: Harper-Collins.
Norman, D. A. (2005). Emotional Design: Why We Love (or Hate)
Everyday Things. New York: Basic Books.
Norman, D. A. and Verganti, R. (2011). ‘Incremental and radical
621

innovation: Design research versus technology and meaning

 Joseph Giacomin

change’. 5th Conference on Designing Pleasurable Products and

Interfaces, 22–25 June, Politecnico di Milano, Milan.
Oatley, K., Keltner, D. and Jenkins, J. M. (2006). Understanding
Emotions, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Olins, W. (2008). The Brand Handbook. London: Thames & Hudson.
Osterwalder, A. and Pigneur, Y. (2010). Business Model Generation:
A Handbook for Visionaries, Game Changers, and Challengers.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Pullin, G. (2009). Design Meets Disability. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Sanders, E. B. N. and Stappers, P. J. (2008). ‘Co-creation and the
new landscapes of design’. CoDesign, 4(1): 5–18.
Schifferstein, H. N. J. and Hekkert, P. (2007). Product Experience.
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Schultz, M., Antorini, Y. M. and Csaba, F. F. (2005). Corporate
Branding: Purpose/People/Process. Copenhagen: Copenhagen
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

Business School Press.

Shaw, C., Dibeehi, Q. and Walden, S. (2010). Customer Experience:
Future Trends & Insights. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sinek, S. (2011). Start with Why: How Great Leaders Inspire
Everyone to Take Action. London: Penguin Books.
Spradley, J. P. (1979). The Ethnographic Interview. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant Observation. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Steen, M. (2012). ‘Human-centered design as a fragile encounter’.
Design Issues, 28(1): 72–80.
Stewart, D. W., Shamdasani, P. N. and Rook, D. W. (2007). Focus
Groups: Theory and Practice, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Suchman, L. A. (2007). Human-Machine Reconfigurations: Plans
and Situated Actions, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Temporal, P. and Alder, H. (1998). Corporate Charisma: How to
Achieve World-Class Recognition by Maximising your Company’s
Image, Brands, and Culture. London: Piatkus Publishers.
Van Gorp, T. (2012). Design for Emotion. Waltham, MA: Morgan
Kaufmann.
Verganti, R. (2009). Design-Driven Innovation: Changing the Rules of
Competition by Radically Innovating What Things Mean. Boston,
The Design Journal

MA: Harvard Business Press.

Von Hippel, E. (2005). Democratizing Innovation. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Von Hippel, E. (2007). ‘An emerging hotbed of user-centered
innovation, Breakthrough ideas for 2007’. Harvard Business
Review, Article R0702A, February.
Wharton, T. (2009). Pragmatics and Non-Verbal Communication.
622

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 What is Human Centred Design?

Biography
Professor Joseph Giacomin is the Director of the Human Centred
Design Institute (HCDI) of Brunel University. He teaches Human
Factors with emphasis on matters of perception and emotion, and
guest lectures widely at universities, governmental organizations and
businesses. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Ergonomics & Human
Factors (FErgS), a Fellow of the Royal Society for the encouragement
of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (FRSA), a member of the
Associazione per il Disegno Industriale (ADI) and a member of the
Royal Photographic Society (RPS).

Address for Correspondence

Professor Joseph Giacomin, Human Centred Design Institute, Brunel
University, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK.
Tel: +44 1895 265 340
Fax: +44 1895 269 763
Downloaded by [FU Berlin] at 05:46 09 July 2015

Email: joseph.giacomin@brunel.ac.uk

The Design Journal

623