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Chapter 1 Graphs

1 GRAPHS
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
• be able to use the language of graph theory;
• understand the concept of isomorphism;
• be able to search and count systematically;
• be able to apply graph methods to simple problems.

1.0 Introduction
This chapter introduces the language and basic theory of graphs.
These are not graphs drawn on squared paper, such as you met
during your GCSE course, but merely sets of points joined by lines.
You do not need any previous mathematical knowledge to study
this chapter, other than an ability to count and to do very simple
arithmetic.

Although graph theory was first explored more than two hundred
years ago, it was thought of as little more than a game for
mathematicians and was not really taken seriously until the late
twentieth century. The growth in computer power, however, led
to the realisation that graph theory can be applied to a wide
range of industrial and commercial management problems of
considerable economic importance.

Some of the applications of graph theory are studied in later chapters of

this book. Chapter 2, for example, looks at several different problems
involving the planning of 'best' networks or routes, while Chapter 6
considers the question of planarity (very important in designing
microchips and other electronic circuits). Chapter 7 deals with
problems to do with the flow of vehicles through a road system or oil
through a pipe, and Chapters 12 and 13 show how to analyse a
complex task and determine the most efficient way in which it can be
done. All these applications, however, depend on an understanding of
the basic principles of graph theory.

1.1 The language of graphs

A graph is defined as consisting of a set of vertices (points) and
a set of edges (straight or curved lines; alternatively called arcs):
each edge joins one vertex to another, or starts and ends at the
same vertex.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

The diagrams show three different graphs, representing A B C

respectively the major roads between four towns, the friendships
among a group of students, and the molecular structure of acetic
acid - the theory of graphs can be applied in many different
ways. D
A road system
There are several things to note. One is that although nearly all
the edges in these graphs have been drawn as straight lines, this
is purely a matter of convenience. Curved lines would have
done just as well, because what matters is which vertices are
joined, not the shape of the line joining them. Second, each Jack Jill
edge joins only two vertices, so that ABC in the first graph is
Jane
two edges (AB and BC) rather than one long one. Third, the
crossing in the middle of the second diagram is not a vertex of
Peter Paul
the graph; the only points counted as vertices are the ones
identified as such at the start.
Mary
The degree of a vertex is defined as the number of edges which
Friendships
start or finish at that vertex - an edge which starts and finishes at
the same vertex (in other words, a loop such as the one at A in
the first graph) is counted twice. So, for example, the degree of
the vertex A in the first graph is 4, and the degree of the vertex
'Peter' in the second graph is 3. In the third case, the degree of
each vertex corresponds to the valency of the atom.
H
There is actually something a little unusual in the third graph -
two edges joining the same two vertices. A multiple edge of this H C C O H
kind can be of great importance in some situations: the
difference between saturated and unsaturated fats in a healthy H O
diet, for example, is largely a matter of multiple edges in their
molecular structure. In other cases, however, such as the second Acetic Acid CH3COOH
graph here, a double or triple edge would be meaningless. A
graph with no loops and no multiple edges is called a simple
graph.

There is an oddity in the second graph too. Jack and Jill are
friends with one another but with no one else, so that the graph
'falls apart' into two quite separate pieces. Such a graph is said
to be disconnected. A connected graph is one in which every
vertex is linked (by a single edge or a sequence of edges) to
every other. If every vertex is linked to every other by a single
edge, a simple graph is said to be complete.
Jane
A subgraph of a graph is another graph that can be seen within
it; i.e. another graph consisting of some of the original vertices
Peter
and edges. For example, the graph consisting of vertices 'Jane',
'Mary' and 'Peter' and edges from 'Jane' to 'Mary' and from
Mary
'Mary' to 'Peter' is a subgraph of the friendship graph above.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

Exercise 1A
Note The answers to these questions will be used 2. Say which (if any) of the graphs in Question 1
in later sections, and should be kept safely are
until then. (i) simple (ii) connected and/or (iii) complete.
1. For each of the graphs shown below, write down 3. Draw graphs to fit the following descriptions:
(i) its number of vertices, (a) The vertices are A, B, C and D; the edges join
(ii) its number of edges, AB, BC, CD, AD and BD.
(iii) the degree of each vertex.
(b) The vertices are P, Q, R, S and T, and there
(a) (b) (c) are edges joining PQ, PR, PS and PT.
(c) The graph has vertices W, X, Y and Z and
edges XY, YZ , YZ, ZX and XX.
(d) (e) (f) (d) The graph has five vertices, each joined by a
single edge to every other vertex.
(e) The graph is a simple connected graph with
four vertices and three edges.

1.2 Isomorphism
Look at your answers to Question 3 from Exercise 1A, and
compare them with those of other students. You will probably
find that some of the drawings look different from others and
yet fit the descriptions equally well.

Two graphs which look different, but both of which are A B A B

correctly drawn from a full description are said to be
isomorphic - the word comes from Greek words meaning 'the
same shape'. Isomorphism is a very important and powerful
idea in advanced mathematics - it crops up in many different
C D D C
places - but at heart it is really very simple.
Two possible answers to
Question 3 (a)
For example, the two graphs shown in the upper diagram each
match the full description in Question 3(a) and so are
isomorphic to one another. The graphs in the lower diagram
each match the description in Question 3(e), but these are not
isomorphic. The description did not say which vertices were to
be joined by the edges, and the two graphs have joined the
vertices differently.
Two possible answers to
Question 3 (e)
If you are to say that two graphs are isomorphic, there must be
a way of labelling or relabelling one or both of them so that the
number of edges joining A to B in the first is equal to the
number of edges joining A to B in the second, and so on
through all possible pairs of vertices. In the upper diagram this
is clearly possible: the labelling already on the graphs satisfies
this condition, and indeed many people would say that the two
graphs are more than isomorphic - they are identical. In the
lower diagram, however, no such labelling can ever be found.
The second graph has one vertex which is joined to three others,
and no labelling of the first graph can ever match this.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

Testing for isomorphism

If you can match the labels it certainly shows that two graphs are
isomorphic, but suppose you cannot. What does that show? It
might mean that the graphs are not isomorphic, or it might
simply be that you have not yet tried the right labelling
combination.
How can you know if the two graphs are isomorphic?

The clue is in the argument that has already been given. If one
graph has a vertex of degree three, and the other does not, then
no matching can ever be found and the graphs are not
isomorphic. This idea can be extended to provide a partial test: a
necessary condition for two graphs to be isomorphic is that the
two graphs have the same number of vertices of degree 0, the
same number of vertices of degree 1, and so on. If this condition
is not satisfied the graphs are certainly not isomorphic. But it is
not a sufficient condition; in other words, if the condition is
satisfied you still do not know whether or not the graphs are
isomorphic and you must go on looking for a match.

Exercise 1B
Look at the graphs below, and say which of them are
isomorphic to which others.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

Counting graphs
You may be wondering by now how many different simple 1 vertex
graphs can be drawn with just a few vertices. With only one 1 graph
vertex (and no loops allowed) there is clearly only one such ...........................
graph - the one with no edges.
2 vertices
With two vertices there are two possibilities: there is one graph 2 graphs
with no edges and one with one edge, making two possible ...........................
graphs altogether. You are counting simple graphs, remember,
so multiple edges are excluded.
3 vertices
With three vertices there are four possibilities: one each with no 4 graphs
edges, one edge, two edges and three edges respectively. Any other
simple graph on three vertices must be isomorphic to one of these.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

*Activity 1 Simple graphs

These results can be put into a table:

Vertices 1 2 3 4 5 6 ...

Graphs 1 2 4 ... ... ... ...

Try to predict the number of different simple graphs that can be

drawn on four vertices, and then check your prediction by
drawing them. It is worth doing this in discussion with another
student to ensure that you do not leave out any possible graphs
nor include two that are actually isomorphic.

When you have got a firm result for four vertices (and corrected
your prediction if necessary), try to extend your prediction to
five and/or six vertices.

Activity 2 Handshakes
At the beginning of the lesson, greet some of the other members
of your group by shaking hands with them. You don’t have to
shake hands with everyone, and you can shake hands with the
same person more than once if you like, but you must keep
count of how many handshakes you take part in.

At the end, some members of the group will have been involved
in an odd number of handshakes, and others in an even number,
so consider this bet: if the number of people involved in an odd
number of handshakes is odd, your teacher lets you off
homework for a week, but if it is even you get a double dose -
does that seem fair?

You may guess that this is not a good bet at all from your point
of view - not unless you like doing maths homework, that is! In
fact you can never win, because the number of people who
shake hands an odd number of times is always even.

Look at your answers to Question 1 in Exercise 1A. Any

handshaking situation can be represented by a graph, with
people as vertices and handshakes as edges; it may have
multiple edges, but not loops. For each graph, find the sum of
the degrees of the vertices, and compare it with your other data.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

The handshake lemma

You can see at once that the sum of the degrees of the vertices is
always twice the number of edges. This is known as the
handshake lemma - a lemma is a mini-theorem - and is easy to
prove. The degree of each vertex is the number of edge-ends at
that vertex, and since each edge has two ends, the number of
edge-ends (and hence the total of the vertex degrees) must be
twice the number of edges.

This lemma leads quite easily to the unwinnable bet. If the total
of individual handshakes is twice the number of handshakes, as
the lemma requires, it is certainly an even number. Some
members of the class shook hands an even number of times, and
the total of any number of even numbers is even. So the total for
the rest must be even as well, and since they each shook hands
an odd number of times, this can happen only if there are an
even number of people. So the number of people involved an an
odd number of handshakes must always be even.

The handshake lemma may seem trivial, but it has some quite
important consequences and comes up again in Chapter 6.

Activity 3
Try the handshaking exercise again, and this time keep count not of
the number of handshakes, but of the number of people with whom
you shake hands (once or more times makes no difference). What
are the chances that at the end there will be two people who have
shaken hands with the same number of others?

The pigeonhole principle is considered in more depth in Chapter 3.

It will perhaps not surprise you to learn that such a coincidence

is certain to happen. The proof of this depends on a simple but
important principle known as the pigeonhole principle. If n
objects have to be put into m pigeonholes, where n > m , it says
that there must be at least one pigeonhole with more than one
object in it. Like the handshake lemma, the pigeonhole principle
seems obvious but has a number of uses.

For example, suppose there are nine people in the room: each must
have shaken hands with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 others. Of course,
if anyone has shaken hands with 8 others - that is, with everyone
else - then there cannot be anyone who has shaken hands with 0
others, and vice versa. So among the nine people there are at most
eight different scores and the pigeonhole principle says that at least
two people must therefore have the same score. You can apply the
same argument to any number of people more than one.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

1.3 Walks, trails and paths

If you have read any other books about graph theory, you may
find this next section rather confusing. Graph theory is a
relatively new branch of mathematics, and as yet there is no
universal agreement as to the meanings to be given to certain
terms. The consequence is that what is called a trail here might
be called a walk in another book and a path in a third - the ideas
are common but the words are different. The definitions to be
used in this book are as follows:

A walk is a sequence of edges of a graph such that the second

vertex of each edge (except for the last edge) is the first vertex A B
of the next edge. For example, the sequence CD, DA, AB, BD,
DA defines a walk (which might be called a walk from C to A)
in the graph shown in the diagram. A walk can be the trivial one
with no edges at all!

A trail is a walk such that no edge is included (in either D C

direction) more than once in the sequence. The walk above is
not a trail because the edge DA occurs twice, but CD, DA, AB,
BC, CA is a trail from C to A.

A path is a trail such that no vertex is visited more than once

(except that the first vertex may also be the last); the trail above
is not a path because both A and C are visited more than once,
but CD, DA, AB is a path from C to B.

Exercise 1C
1. Referring to the graph in the diagram below, list 2. Which (if any) of the shapes below can you draw
A completely without lifting your pencil from the
paper or going over any line twice?
B
P Q (If you invent appropriate vertices and imagine
them as graphs, then you are looking for a trail
C which includes all the edges)

(a) all the paths from P to Q; (a) (b) (c)

(b) at least three trails from P to Q which are not

paths;
(c) at least three walks from P to Q which are not
trails;
(d) all the paths which start and finish at P.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

1.4 Cycles and Eulerian trails

Cycles
Puzzles involving trails and paths have been popular for many
years, and you may well have seen some or all of the graphs above
in books of recreational mathematics. Of particular interest are
walks, etc which start and finish at the same place; a walk, trail or
path which finishes at its starting point is said to be closed, and a
closed path with one or more edges is called a cycle.

Modern graph theory effectively began with a problem

concerning a closed trail. In the 18th century the citizens of the
Prussian city of Königsberg (now called Kaliningrad) used to
occupy their Sunday afternoons in going for walks. The city Konigsberg bridges
stood on the River Pregel and had seven bridges, arranged as
shown in the diagram. The citizens’ aim was to find a route that
would take them just once over each bridge and home again.

Activity
.. 4 Königsberg bridges
Try to find a route crossing each bridge just once and returning
to the starting point.

If you failed, don’t.. worry - so did the people of Königsberg! 1 2 6

They began to realise that such a route was impossible, but it 5
was some years before the great Swiss mathematician Leonhard
Euler (1707-83) proved that this was indeed so. The modern
3 4 7
proof, developed from Euler’s, is very simple once the bridges
are represented by edges of a graph.
..
Konigsberg bridges
How can you be sure that there is no closed trail
.. using all the
edges of this graph? in graph form

Eulerian trails
The four vertices of the graph have degrees 3, 3, 3 and 5
respectively - all odd numbers. Any closed trail, on the other hand,
goes into a vertex and out of it again, thus adding 2 to its degree on
each visit. A closed trail using all the edges cannot exist, therefore,
unless every vertex has even degree. (If there are just two vertices
with odd degree, they could be the start and finish of a non-closed
trail using all the edges.) In fact the opposite is also known: if a
connected graph has every vertex of even degree then there does
exist a closed trail using all the edges (and if there are just two
vertices of odd degree then there is a non-closed trail using all the
edges).

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As a mark of respect for Euler’s work in this area, a trail which

includes every edge of a graph is called an Eulerian trail. If the trail
is closed, the graph itself is said to be Eulerian; a semi-Eulerian graph
is one that has a non-closed trail including every edge.

Exercise 1D
By considering the degree of each vertex, determine (a) (b) (c)
whether each of the graphs shown opposite is Eulerian,
semi-Eulerian, or neither. In the case of Eulerian and
semi-Eulerian graphs, find an Eulerian trail.

(d) (e) (f)

1.5 Hamiltonian cycles

Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1805-65) was a nineteenth-
century Irish mathematician who invented in his spare time a
game called the Icosian Game, based on the vertices of an
icosahedron. The idea was essentially simple: given the first
five vertices, the player had to find a route that would pass
through the remaining fifteen and return to the start without
using any vertex twice.
A

G
Activity 5 Icosian game
E F L M H B
The diagram shows a graph representing a dodecahedron. Try R
S
to find such a route - a closed path, to use the modern phrase - Q
beginning with ABCIN in that order. K T N
P
O
J I

D C
A closed path that passes through every vertex of a graph is
called a Hamiltonian cycle, and a graph in which a Hamiltonian
cycle exists is said to be Hamiltonian. The dodecahedron is a
Hamiltonian graph, and there are actually two Hamiltonian
cycles beginning with the five vertices given:

ABCINHMSTPOJDEFKQRLGA

and ABCINHMGLFKQRSTPOJDEA.

Distinguishing Hamiltonian from non-Hamiltonian graphs is not

easy, and there is no simple test corresponding to the even-
degree test for Eulerian graphs.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

* Exercise 1E
Decide by trial and error whether or not each of the
graphs shown below is Hamiltonian.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

1.6 Trees
A connected graph in which there are no cycles is called a tree.

Look at the graphs below and decide which of them are trees.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Activity 6
Look again at the graphs you have identified as trees, and count
their vertices and their edges. Can you state a general theorem
connecting the numbers of vertices and edges for trees? If so,
can you prove it?

It is fairly easy to guess from the examples that the number of

edges of a tree is always one less than the number of vertices.
The proof too is straightforward: if the tree is built up one vertex
at a time, starting with one vertex and no edges, each new vertex
needs exactly one edge to join it to the body of the tree.

Trees of this kind occur quite often in real life - a biology book
may include a 'tree' showing how all living creatures are
ultimately descended from the same primitive life forms; a
geography text may include a diagram of the entire Amazon
river system; and you may find in a history book a diagram of
the Kings and Queens of England, although a certain amount of
from being truly a tree as defined above.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

Hierarchies
Trees are also commonly used to represent hierarchical
organisations. The first diagram below shows part of the
management structure of a college, for example, while the
second is an extract from a computer’s hard disk directory.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

Game strategies
Another application of trees is in setting out strategies for
playing certain games. For example, the diagram shows the
first few stages of a strategy tree for the first player in the game
“Noughts and Crosses”. You may like to try to complete it.

O
x O x

O x
x x O x

O any x any
x x O other O x other
O

A strategy tree for 'Noughts and Crosses'

Counting trees
There is clearly only one tree with one vertex, one with two, and 1 vertex
one with three, as shown in the diagram - any other is isomorphic 1 tree
to one of these. There are two non-isomorphic trees with four ..............................
..
vertices, however, and these figures can be set out in a table: 2 vertices
1 tree
Vertices 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ... ...............................
.
3 vertices
Trees 1 1 1 2 ... ... ... ...
1 tree
..............................

*Activity 7 Counting trees 4 vertices

2 trees
Draw all the different trees with five vertices, and all those with
six, and try to predict from your results the number of seven-
vertex trees. Check your prediction by drawing them.

*Organic chemistry
In fact there is no simple formula for unlabelled trees - it turns
out to be much easier to count trees if their vertices are labelled

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Chapter 1 Graphs

- but even the few results in your table can be of use in H H H

identifying chemical compounds.
H C C C H
The group of chemicals known as alkanes have molecules made H H H
up of a carbon 'tree' surrounded by hydrogen: each hydrogen
atom is bonded to one carbon, and each carbon atom is bonded Propane
to four other atoms, of either kind. The diagram shows a
molecule of propane (the fuel used in some camping gas stoves), H H H H
which has three carbon and eight hydrogen atoms and so has
H C C C C H
molecular formula C 3 H 8 .
H H H H
The molecule can actually be represented completely by its
carbon tree, because once all the carbon atoms have been Butane
bonded in some formation the hydrogen atoms must go wherever
there is a free bond. Now according to the table above there is H H H
only one possible carbon tree for CH 4 (methane), only one for H C C C H
C 2 H 6 (ethane), and only one for C 3 H 8 (propane), so each of
these molecular formulae represents only one compound. But H H
there are two distinct trees with four vertices, so the formula H C H
C 4 H10 can represent either butane or isobutane, two different
H
compounds with different properties.
Isobutane
(or 2-methyl-propane)
* Exercise 1F
1. How many different compounds have the 2. How many different compounds have molecular
molecular formula C 5 H12 ? (If you are studying formula C 5 H14 ? Think carefully before you
A Level Chemistry, what are their names?) answer.

* 1.7 Coloured cubes

You may have seen in the shops a puzzle consisting of four
cubes with different colours or other designs on their sides. The
aim of the puzzle is to stack the cubes in a tower so that each of
the long faces shows four different colours or designs. A trial-
and-error approach is very difficult, but the application of a little
graph theory can lead directly to a solution.
Cube 1 Cube 2
Example
red opposite yellow red opposite red
Suppose that the four cubes
are coloured as shown. green opposite yellow green opposite blue

blue opposite red blue opposite yellow

Cube 3 Cube 4

red opposite green red opposite yellow

blue opposite green green opposite blue

blue opposite yellow green opposite yellow

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Chapter 1 Graphs

Transfer all this information to a graph as shown in the diagram, 2

4
joining the vertices representing opposite colours by an edge R Y
numbered to show the cube to which it belongs. 1

From this graph, extract two disjoint subgraphs - that is, two 4
subgraphs with no edges in common. Each subgraph must consist 3 3 2
1
of four edges of the original graph, chosen in such a way that
4
(i) the edges include one of each number, in any order, 2
1 G B
3
(ii) each of the vertices R, Y, G, B has degree 2 in each
subgraph.
A graphical representation
Two subgraphs satisfying these conditions are shown in the lower
of the four cubes
diagram opposite.

The subgraphs now tell you how to stack the cubes:

From first subgraph From second subgraph

1 3
Front Back Left Right 2
4
Cube 1 green yellow red blue

Cube 2 red red blue yellow 3 2

4
Cube 3 yellow blue green red

Cube 4 blue green yellow green 1

Two disjoint subgraphs

In this particular case there are two other solutions - there is a third
subgraph that could have been chosen with either of the two above.

Activity 8
Find the third subgraph and interpret it in the same way as in the
example.

Some patterns of cubes have only one solution, however, and

others have no solution at all.

Activity 9
Try to get hold of a commercially-made puzzle of this kind, or
make your own, and then amaze your family and friends (and
perhaps yourself!) by using mathematics to solve it in just a few
minutes.

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Chapter 1 Graphs

1.8 Miscellaneous Exercises

1. Draw two simple connected graphs, each with 11. Consider the following graphs G 1 and G 2 :
four vertices and four edges, which are not A B C D
isomorphic.
2. If the vertices of a graph have degree 1, 2, 2, 2
and 3 respectively, how many edges has the
graph? Draw two simple connected graphs, each G1
with this vertex set, which are not isomorphic.
3. If P, Q, R, S and T are the vertices of a complete E F G
graph, list all the paths from S to T. v
4. Determine whether each of the following graphs
is Eulerian, semi-Eulerian or neither, and find an G2
Eulerian trail if one exists. y z
(a) (b) (c) x
u w
(a) Determine whether each of these graphs is
Eulerian. In each case, either give an
Eulerian trail or state why such a trail
5. You are given nine apparently identical coins, cannot exist.
eight of which are genuine, the other being
counterfeit and different in weight from the rest (b) Determine whether each of these graphs is
- either heavier or lighter, but you do not know Hamiltonian. In each case, either give a
which. You are also given a two-sided balance Hamiltonian cycle or state why such a cycle
on which to compare the weights of coins or cannot exist.
groups of coins. Draw a tree to show a strategy 12. A simple graph G has five vertices, and each
for identifying the counterfeit coin in no more of those vertices has the same degree d.
than three weighings.
(a) State the possible values of d.
*6. How many different compounds have molecular
formula C 7 H16 ? (b) If G is connected, what are the possible
values of d?
*7. Find a Hamiltonian cycle on the graph shown in
the diagram. (c) If Eulerian, what are the possible values
of d?
(AEB)
13. Consider the following graph of G.
A D

E F
A four-dimensional cube in graph form
B C
*8. Prove that among any group of six people, there
are either three who all know one another or
three who are mutual strangers.
(a) Is G Eulerian? If so, write down an
*9. Given that there are 23 different unlabelled trees Eulerian trail.
with eight vertices, draw as many of them as you
can. (b) Is G Hamiltonian? If so, write down a
Hamiltonian cycle.
*10. A set of four coloured cubes has opposite faces
coloured as follows:
Cube 1 R-B, R-Y, B-G;
Cube 2 R-B, Y-Y, Y-G;
Cube 3 R-Y, R-B, B-G;
Cube 4 R-G, G-G, B-Y;
Either find a solution to the four-cube problem
or explain why such a solution is impossible.

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