Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria

The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (Coptic: Ϯⲉⲕ̀ⲕⲗⲏⲥⲓⲁ

ⲛ̀ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ ⲛ̀ⲟⲣⲑⲟⲇⲟⲝⲟⲥ, romanized: ti.eklyseya en.remenkimi
en.orthodoxos, lit. 'The Egyptian Orthodox Church') is an Oriental Coptic Orthodox
Orthodox Christian church based in Egypt, servicing Africa and the Patriarchate of Alexandria
Middle East. The head of the church and the See of Alexandria is the ϯⲉⲕ̀ⲕ ⲗⲏⲥⲓⲁ ⲛ̀ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ
Patriarch of Alexandria on the Holy See of Saint Mark, who also
ⲛ̀ⲟ ⲣⲑⲟⲇⲟⲝⲟⲥ
carries the title of Coptic Pope. The See of Alexandria is titular, and
today the Coptic Pope presides from Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox
Cathedral in the Abbassia District in Cairo. The church follows the
Alexandrian Rite for its liturgy, prayer and devotional patrimony.
With approximately 10 million members worldwide, it is the country's
largest Christian denomination.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

According to its tradition, the Coptic Church was established by Saint

Mark, an apostle and evangelist, during the middle of the 1st century
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox
(c. AD 42).[8] Due to disputes concerning the nature of Christ, it split
from the rest of Christendom after the Council of Chalcedon in Cathedral, Cairo, Egypt
AD 451, resulting in a rivalry with the Greek Orthodox Church of Classification Eastern Christian
Alexandria. In the 4–7th centuries the Coptic Church gradually
Orientation Oriental Orthodox
expanded due to the Christianization of the Aksumite Empire and of
two of the three Nubian kingdoms, Nobatia and Alodia, while the Scripture Bible
third Nubian kingdom, Makuria, recognized the Coptic patriarch after Theology Miaphysitism
initially being aligned to the State church of the Roman Empire.
Polity Episcopal
After AD 639 Egypt was ruled by its Islamic conquerors from Governance Holy Synod of the
Arabia, and the treatment of the Coptic Christians ranged from Coptic Orthodox
tolerance to open persecution. In the 12th century, the church Church
relocated its seat from Alexandria to Cairo. The same century also
saw the Copts become a religious minority. During the 14th and 15th Head Pope Tawadros II
centuries, Nubian Christianity was supplanted by Islam. In 1959, the Region Egypt, Libya,
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly. Sudan, South
This was extended to the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church in Sudan, Middle
1998 following the successful Eritrean War of Independence from East, and diaspora
Ethiopia. Since the Arab Spring in 2011, the Copts have been
suffering increased religious discrimination and violence.[9] Language Coptic, Arabic
Liturgy Alexandrian Rite
Headquarters Saint Mark's Coptic
Contents Orthodox
Cathedral, Cairo,
History Egypt
Apostolic foundation
Founder St. Mark the
Coptic Language in the Church
Evangelist
Contributions to Christianity
(Traditional)
Catechetical School of Alexandria
Cradle of monasticism and its missionary work Origin AD 33
 Role and participation in the Ecumenical Councils Alexandria, Egypt
Council of Nicaea Separations Coptic Catholic
Council of Constantinople Church (1895)
Council of Ephesus British Orthodox
Council of Chalcedon Church (2015)
From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of Egypt Members 10
Muslim conquest of Egypt million[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]
Under Islamic rule (640–1800) Other name(s) Coptic Church
From the 19th century to the 1952 revolution Coptic Orthodox
Present day Church
Fasting, liturgy and canonical hours
Demographics
Persecution
Jurisdiction outside Egypt
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Around the world
Official titles of the Patriarch of Alexandria
Episcopal titles
Honorary titles
Historical evolution of the ecclesiastical title
Modern Issues
Internal church disputes
Pope Shenouda Vs. Father Matta El Meskeen
Consolidation of Papal control
Child sexual abuse cases
Father Reweis Aziz Khalil (Yousef Aziz Khalil)
Administration
Cathedrals
Monasteries
See also
References
Bibliography
External links

History

Apostolic foundation

The Egyptian Church is traditionally believed to be founded by St Mark around AD 42,[8] and regards itself as
the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. Isaiah the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says "In that
day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border".
The first Christians in Egypt were common people who spoke Egyptian Coptic.[10] There were also
Alexandrian Jewish people such as Theophilus, whom Saint Luke the Evangelist addresses in the introductory
chapter of his gospel. When the church was founded by Saint Mark during the reign of the Roman emperor
Nero, a great multitude of native Egyptians (as opposed to Greeks or Jews) embraced the Christian
faith.[10][11]

Christianity spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Saint Mark's arrival in Alexandria, as is clear
from the New Testament writings found in Bahnasa, in Middle Egypt, which date around the year AD 200,
and a fragment of the Gospel of John, written in Coptic, which was found in Upper Egypt and can be dated to
the first half of the 2nd century. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and
scriptures were translated into the local languages, namely Coptic.

Coptic Language in the Church

The Coptic language is a universal language used in Coptic churches in every country. It is derived from
ancient Egyptian and uses Greek letters. Many of the hymns in the liturgy are in Coptic and have been passed
down for several thousand years. The language is used to preserve Egypt's original language, which was
banned by the Arab invaders, who ordered Arabic to be used instead.[12] Some examples of these hymns are
Coptic: Ⲡ̀ⲟⲩⲣⲟ, romanized: ep.ouro, lit. 'The King',Coptic: Ⲕ̀ⲥⲙ
̀ ⲁⲣⲱⲟⲩⲧ, romanized: ek.esmaro'oot, lit. '(Thou)
Blessed', Coptic: Ⲧⲁⲓϣⲟⲩⲣⲏ, romanized: tai.shouri, lit. 'This Censer', and many more.

Contributions to Christianity

Catechetical School of Alexandria

The Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest catechetical school in the world. St. Jerome records that
the Christian School of Alexandria was founded by Saint Mark himself.[13] Around AD 190, under the
leadership of the scholar Pantanaeus, the school of Alexandria became an important institution of religious
learning, where students were taught by scholars such as Athenagoras, Clement, Didymus, and the native
Egyptian Origen, who was considered the father of theology and who was also active in the field of
commentary and comparative Biblical studies.

Many scholars such as Jerome visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas and to communicate directly
with its scholars. The scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects; science, mathematics and
humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15
centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write.

The theological college of the catechetical school was re-established in 1893.[14] The new school currently has
campuses in Ireland, Cairo, New Jersey, and Los Angeles, where Coptic priests-to-be and other qualified men
and women are taught among other subjects Christian theology, history, the Coptic language and art–including
chanting, music, iconography, and tapestry.

Cradle of monasticism and its missionary work

Many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, and remained there to pray and work and
dedicate their lives to seclusion and worship of God. This was the beginning of the monastic movement,
which was organized by Anthony the Great, Saint Paul of Thebes, the world's first anchorite, Saint Macarius
the Great and Saint Pachomius the Cenobite in the 4th century.
Christian monasticism was born in Egypt and was instrumental in the formation of the Coptic Orthodox
Church character of submission, simplicity and humility, thanks to the teachings and writings of the Great
Fathers of Egypt's Deserts. By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands
of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. A great number of these monasteries are still
flourishing and have new vocations to this day.

All Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example: Saint Basil the Great
Archbishop of Caesarea of Cappadocia, founder and organizer of the monastic movement in Asia Minor,
visited Egypt around AD 357 and his rule is followed by the Eastern Orthodox churches; Saint Jerome who
translated the Bible into Latin, came to Egypt, while en route to Jerusalem, around AD 400 and left details of
his experiences in his letters; Benedict founded the Benedictine Order in the 6th century on the model of Saint
Pachomius, but in a stricter form. Countless pilgrims have visited the Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual,
disciplined lives.

Role and participation in the Ecumenical Councils

Council of Nicaea

In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a theological dispute about the nature of
Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism. The Ecumenical Council of
Nicea AD 325 was convened by Constantine after the Pope Alexander I of Alexandria requested to hold a
Council to respond to heresies,[15] under the presidency of Saint Hosius of Cordova to resolve the dispute.
This eventually led to the formulation of the Symbol of Faith, also known as the Nicene Creed.[16] The Creed,
which is now recited throughout the Christian world, was based largely on the teaching put forth by a man
who eventually would become Saint Athanasius of Alexandria, the chief opponent of Arius, and 20th bishop
of Alexandria and therefore a Pope according to Coptic Christians.

Council of Constantinople

In the year AD 381, Pope Timothy I of Alexandria presided over the second ecumenical council known as the
Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, to judge Macedonius, who denied the Divinity of the Holy Spirit. This
council completed the Nicene Creed with this confirmation of the divinity of the Holy Spirit:

We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, who
with the Father through the Son is worshiped and glorified who spoke by the Prophets and in
One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic church. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and
we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the coming age, Amen.

Council of Ephesus

Another theological dispute in the 5th century occurred over the teachings of Nestorius, the Patriarch of
Constantinople who taught that God the Word was not hypostatically joined with human nature, but rather
dwelt in the man Jesus. As a consequence of this, he denied the title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) to the
Virgin Mary, declaring her instead to be "Mother of Christ" Christotokos.

When reports of this reached the Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark, Pope Saint Cyril I of Alexandria acted
quickly to correct this breach with orthodoxy, requesting that Nestorius repent. When he would not, the Synod
of Alexandria met in an emergency session and a unanimous agreement was reached. The Patriarch of
 Alexandria, Cyril I of Alexandria, supported by the entire See, sent a
letter to Nestorius known as "The Third Epistle of Saint Cyril to
Nestorius." This epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic
Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian
Orthodoxy: "The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril." In these
anathemas, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the
teachings of Nestorius. For example, "Anyone who dares to deny the
Holy Virgin the title Theotokos is Anathema!" Nestorius however, still
Coptic Icon in the Coptic Altar of the would not repent and so this led to the convening of the First
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Ecumenical Council of Ephesus (AD 431), over which Cyril
Jerusalem presided.

The Council confirmed the teachings of Saint Athanasius and

confirmed the title of Mary as "Mother of God". It also clearly stated that anyone who separated Christ into
two hypostases was anathema, as Cyril had said that there is "One Nature [and One Hypostasis] for God the
Word Incarnate" (Mia Physis tou Theou Logou Sesarkōmenē). Also, the introduction to the creed was
formulated as follows:

We magnify you O Mother of the True Light and we glorify you O saint and Mother of God
(Theotokos) for you have borne unto us the Saviour of the world. Glory to you O our Master and
King: Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous,
firmness of the churches and the forgiveness of sins. We proclaim the Holy Trinity in One
Godhead: we worship Him, we glorify Him, Lord have mercy, Lord have mercy, Lord bless us,
Amen. [not dissimilar to the "Axion Estin" Chant still used in Orthodoxy]

Council of Chalcedon

When in AD 451 Emperor Marcian attempted to heal divisions in the

Church, the response of Pope Dioscorus–the Pope of Alexandria who
was later exiled–as that the emperor should not intervene in the affairs
of the Church. It was at Chalcedon that the emperor, through the
imperial delegates, enforced harsh disciplinary measures against Pope
Dioscorus in response to his boldness. In AD 449, Pope Dioscorus
headed the 2nd Council of Ephesus, called the "Robber Council" by
Chalcedonian historians. It held to the Miaphysite formula which
upheld the Christology of "One Incarnate Nature of God the Word"
(Greek: μία φύσις Θεοῦ Λόγου σεσαρκωμένη (mia physis Theou
Logou sesarkōmenē)),[17] and upheld the heretic Eutyches claiming
he was orthodox.

The Council of Chalcedon summoned Dioscorus three times to

appear at the council, after which he was deposed. The Council of
Chalcedon further deposed him for his support of Eutyches, but not
necessarily for Eutychian Monophysitism. Dioscorus appealed to the
conciliar fathers to allow for a more Miaphysite interpretation of
St. Mark Coptic Cathedral in
Christology at the council, but was denied. Following his being
Alexandria
deposed, the Coptic Church and its faithful felt unfairly
underrepresented at the council and oppressed politically by the
Byzantine Empire. After the Byzantines appointed Proterius of Alexandria as Patriarch to represent the
Chalcedonian Church, the Coptic Church appointed their own Patriarch Timothy Aelurus and broke from the
State church of the Roman Empire.

The Council of Chalcedon, from the perspective of the Alexandrine Christology, has deviated from the
approved Cyrillian terminology and declared that Christ was one hypostasis in two natures. However, in the
Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, "Christ was conceived of the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary," thus the
foundation of the definition according to the Non-Chalcedonian adherents, according to the Christology of
Cyril of Alexandria is valid. There is a change in the Non-Chalcedonian definition here, as the Nicene creed
clearly uses the terms "of", rather than "in."

In terms of Christology, the Oriental Orthodox (Non-Chalcedonians) understanding is that Christ is "One
Nature—the Logos Incarnate," of the full humanity and full divinity. The Chalcedonians' understanding is that
Christ is recognized in two natures, full humanity and full divinity. Oriental Orthodoxy contends that such a
formulation is no different from what the Nestorians teach.[18] This is the doctrinal perception that makes the
apparent difference which separated the Oriental Orthodox from the Eastern Orthodox.

The council's findings were rejected by many of the Christians on the fringes of the Byzantine Empire,
including Egyptians, Syriacs, Armenians, and others.

From that point onward, Alexandria would have two patriarchs: the non-Chalcedonian native Egyptian one,
now known as the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Apostolic See of St.
Mark, and the Melkite or Imperial Patriarch, now known as the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria.[19]

Almost the entire Egyptian population rejected the terms of the Council of Chalcedon and remained faithful to
the native Egyptian Church (now known as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria).[20] Those who
supported the Chalcedonian definition remained in communion with the other leading imperial churches of
Rome and Constantinople. The non-Chalcedonian party became what is today called the Oriental Orthodox
Church.

The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria regards itself as having been misunderstood at the Council of
Chalcedon. There was an opinion in the Church that viewed that perhaps the Council understood the Church
of Alexandria correctly, but wanted to curtail the existing power of the Alexandrine Hierarch, especially after
the events that happened several years before at Constantinople from Pope Theophilus of Alexandria towards
Patriarch John Chrysostom and the unfortunate turnouts of the Second Council of Ephesus in AD 449, where
Eutychus misled Pope Dioscorus and the Council in confessing the Orthodox Faith in writing and then
renouncing it after the council, which in turn, had upset Rome, especially that the tome which was sent was
not read during the council sessions.

To make things even worse, the Tome of Pope Leo of Rome was, according to the Alexandria School of
Theology, particularly in regards to the definition of Christology, considered influenced by Nestorian heretical
teachings. So, due to the above-mentioned, especially in the consecutive sequences of events, the Hierarchs of
Alexandria were considered holding too much of power from one hand, and on the other hand, due to the
conflict of the Schools of Theology, there would be an impasse and a scapegoat, i.e. Pope Dioscorus. The
Tome of Leo has been widely criticized (surprisingly by Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox scholars) in
the past 50 years as a much less than perfect orthodox theological doctrine. By anathematizing Pope Leo
because of the tone and content of his tome, as per Alexandrine Theology perception, Pope Dioscorus was
found guilty of doing so without due process; in other words, the Tome of Leo was not a subject of heresy in
the first place, but it was a question of questioning the reasons behind not having it either acknowledged or
read at the Second Council of Ephesus in AD 449. Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria was never labeled as heretic
by the council's canons. Copts also believe that the Pope of Alexandria was forcibly prevented from attending
the third congregation of the council from which he was ousted, apparently the result of a conspiracy tailored
by the Roman delegates.[21]
Before the current positive era of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox dialogues, Chalcedonians sometimes used to
call the non-Chalcedonians "Monophysites", though the Coptic Orthodox Church in reality regards
Monophysitism as a heresy. The Chalcedonian doctrine in turn came to be known as "Dyophysite". A term
that comes closer to Coptic Orthodoxy is Miaphysite,[22][23] which refers to a conjoined nature for Christ, both
human and divine, united indivisibly in the Incarnate Logos. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
believes that Christ is perfect in his divinity, and he is perfect in his humanity, but his divinity and his humanity
were united in one nature called "the nature of the incarnate word", which was reiterated by Saint Cyril of
Alexandria. Copts, thus, believe in two natures "human" and "divine" that are united in one hypostasis
"without mingling, without confusion, and without alteration". These two natures "did not separate for a
moment or the twinkling of an eye" (Coptic Liturgy of Saint Basil of Caesarea).

From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of Egypt

Prior to Chalcedon, the Imperial Church's main division stemmed from Nestorianism, eventually leading the
Church of the East to declare its independence in AD 424. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, the
Coptic Church and its hierarchy felt suspicious of what they believed were Nestorian elements within the
Chalcedonian Church. As a result, the anti-Chalcedon partisan, Timotheos Aelurus, consigned himself to
depose the Chalcedonian Pope of Alexandria, Proterius of Alexandria, and to set himself up as the Pope of
Alexandria in opposition to the Chalcedonian Church. Copts suffered under the rule of the Byzantine Empire.
The Melkite patriarchs, appointed by the emperors as both spiritual leaders and civil governors, massacred
those Egyptians they considered heretics. Many were tortured and martyred in attempts to force their
acceptance of the Chalcedonian terms, but the Egyptians remained loyal to the Cyrillian Miaphysitism. One of
the most renowned Egyptian saints of the period is Saint Samuel the Confessor.

Muslim conquest of Egypt

The Muslim invasion of Egypt took place in AD 639. Relying on

eyewitness testimony, Bishop John of Nikiu in his Chronicle provides a
graphic account of the invasion from a Coptic perspective. Although the
Chronicle has only been preserved in an Ethiopic (Ge'ez) text, some
scholars believe that it was originally written in Coptic.[24] John's account is
critical of the invaders who he says "despoiled the Egyptians of their
possessions and dealt cruelly with them",[25] and he vividly details the
atrocities committed by the Muslims against the native population during the
conquest:

And when with great toil and exertion they had cast down the
walls of the city, they forthwith made themselves masters of it,
and put to the sword thousands of its inhabitants and of the
soldiers, and they gained an enormous booty, and took the
Makurian wall painting
women and children captive and divided them amongst
depicting a Nubian bishop and
themselves, and they made that city a desolation.[26] Virgin Mary (11th century)

Though critical of the Muslim commander (Amr ibn al-As), who, during the
campaign, he says "had no mercy on the Egyptians, and did not observe the covenant they had made with
him, for he was of a barbaric race",[27] he does note that following the completion of the conquest, Amr "took
none of the property of the Churches, and he committed no act of spoilation or plunder, and he preserved them
throughout all his days."[28]
Despite the political upheaval, the Egyptian population remained mainly Christian. However, gradual
conversions to Islam over the centuries had changed Egypt from a Christian to a largely Muslim country by the
end of the 12th century.[29] Another scholar writes that a combination of "repression of Coptic revolts", Arab-
Muslim immigration, and Coptic conversion to Islam resulted in the demographic decline of the Copts.[30]
Egypt's Umayyad rulers taxed Christians at a higher rate than Muslims, driving merchants towards Islam and
undermining the economic base of the Coptic Church.[31] Although the Coptic Church did not disappear, the
Umayyad tax policies made it difficult for the church to retain the Egyptian elites.[32]

Under Islamic rule (640–1800)

The church suffered greatly under the many regimes of Islamic rule. Sometime during the 2nd millennium AD,
the leadership of the church, including the Pope, moved from Alexandria to Cairo. In 1798, the French
invaded Egypt unsuccessfully and the British helped the Turks to regain power over Egypt under the
Muhammad Ali dynasty.[33]

From the 19th century to the 1952 revolution

The position of Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of the
Muhammad Ali Dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit.
In 1855 the jizya tax was abolished by Sa'id Pasha.[34] Shortly thereafter, the Copts started to serve in the
Egyptian army.[35]

Towards the end of the 19th century, the Coptic Church underwent
phases of new development. In 1853, Pope Cyril IV established the
first modern Coptic schools, including the first Egyptian school for
girls. He also founded a printing press, which was only the second
national press in the country. The Pope established very friendly
relations with other denominations, to the extent that when the Greek
Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long
period of time, he left his Church under the guidance of the Coptic
Patriarch.[35]

The Theological College of the School of Alexandria was Coptic monks, between 1898 and
reestablished in 1893. [14] It began its new history with five students, 1914
one of whom was later to become its dean. Today it has campuses in
Alexandria and Cairo, and in various dioceses throughout Egypt, as
well as outside Egypt. It has campuses in New Jersey, Los Angeles, Sydney, Melbourne, and London, where
potential clergymen and other qualified men and women study many subjects, including theology, church
history, missionary studies, and the Coptic language.[35]

Present day

In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted its first own Patriarch by Pope Cyril VI.
Furthermore, the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church similarly became independent of the Ethiopian
Orthodox Tewahedo Church in 1994, when four bishops were consecrated by Pope Shenouda III of
Alexandria to form the basis of a local Holy Synod of the Eritrean Church. In 1998, the Eritrean Orthodox
Tewahedo Church gained its autocephaly from the Coptic Orthodox Church when its first Patriarch was
enthroned by Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria.
 These three churches remain in full communion with each other and
with the other Oriental Orthodox churches. The Ethiopian Orthodox
Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church do
acknowledge the Honorary Supremacy of the Coptic Orthodox
Patriarch of Alexandria, since the Church of Alexandria is technically
their Mother Church. Upon their selection, both Patriarchs (Ethiopian
& Eritrean) must receive the approval and communion from the Holy
Synod of the Apostolic See of Alexandria before their enthronement.

Since the 1980s theologians from the Oriental (non-Chalcedonian)

A modern Coptic cathedral in Aswan.
Orthodox and Eastern (Chalcedonian) Orthodox churches have been
meeting in a bid to resolve theological differences, and have
concluded that many of the differences are caused by the two groups
using different terminology to describe the same thing.[36]

In the summer of 2001, the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Patriarchates of Alexandria agreed to
mutually recognize baptisms performed in each other's churches, making re-baptisms unnecessary, and to
recognize the sacrament of marriage as celebrated by the other.[37] Previously, if a Coptic Orthodox and Greek
Orthodox wanted to get married, the marriage had to be performed twice, once in each church, for it to be
recognized by both. Now it can be done in only one church and be recognized by both.

In Tahrir Square, Cairo, on Wednesday 2 February 2011, Coptic Christians joined hands to provide a
protective cordon around their Muslim neighbors during salat (prayers) in the midst of the 2011 Egyptian
Revolution.[38]

On 17 March 2012, the Coptic Orthodox Pope, Pope Shenouda III died, leaving many Copts mourning and
worrying as tensions rose with Muslims. Pope Shenouda III constantly met with Muslim leaders in order to
create peace. Many were worried about Muslims controlling Egypt as the Muslim Brotherhood won 70% of
the parliamentary elections.[39][40]

On 4 November 2012, Bishop Tawadros was chosen as the 118th Pope. In a ritual filled with prayer, chants
and incense at Abbasiya cathedral in Cairo, the 60-year-old bishop's name was picked by a blindfolded child
from a glass bowl in which the names of two other candidates had also been placed. The enthronement was
scheduled on 18 November 2012.

Fasting, liturgy and canonical hours

According to Christian tradition and Canon Law, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria only ordains
men to the priesthood and episcopate, and if they wish to be married, they must be married before they are
ordained. In this respect they follow the same practices as all other Oriental Orthodox Churches, as well as all
of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Traditionally, the Coptic language was used in church services, and the scriptures were written in the Coptic
alphabet. However, due to the Arabisation of Egypt, service in churches started to witness increased use of
Arabic, while preaching is done entirely in Arabic. Native languages are used, in conjunction with Coptic,
during services outside Egypt.

The liturgical calendar of the Coptic Orthodox Church is the Coptic calendar (also called the Alexandrian
Calendar). This calendar is based on the Egyptian calendar of Ancient Egypt. Coptic Orthodox Christians
celebrate Christmas on 29 Koiak, which corresponds to 7 January in the Gregorian Calendar and 25
December in the Julian Calendar. Coptic Christmas was adopted as an official national holiday in Egypt in
2002.
Communicants of the Coptic Orthodox Church use a breviary known as
the Agpeya to pray the canonical hours at seven fixed prayer times while
facing in the eastward direction, in anticipation of the Second Coming of
Jesus; this Christian practice has its roots in Psalm 119:164, in which the
prophet David prays to God seven times a day.[42][41][43] Church bells
enjoin Christians to pray at these hours.[44] Before praying, they wash
their hands and face in order to be clean before and present their best to
God; shoes are removed in order to acknowledge that one is offering
prayer before a holy God.[42][45] During each of the seven fixed prayer
times, Coptic Orthodox Christians pray "prostrating three times in the
name of the Trinity; at the end of each Psalm … while saying the
'Alleluia';" and forty-one times for each of the Kyrie eleisons present in a
canonical hour.[45] In the Coptic Orthodox Church, it is customary for
women to wear a Christian headcovering when praying.[46]

All churches of the Coptic Orthodox Church are designed to face the The Agpeya is a breviary used in
Coptic Orthodox Christianity to
eastward direction of prayer and efforts are made to remodel churches
pray the canonical hours at seven
obtained from other Christian denominations that are not built in this
fixed prayer times of the day, in
fashion.[47]
the eastward direction.[41]
With respect to Eucharistic discipline, Coptic Orthodox Christians fast
from midnight onwards before receiving the sacrament of Holy
Communion.[48] They fast every Wednesday and Friday of the year (Wednesdays in remembrance of the
betrayal of Christ, and on Fridays, in remembrance of His crucifixion and death).[48] In total, the number of
fast days in a year for Coptic Orthodox Christians numbers around 240, with the fasts for Advent and Lent
being forty-three days and fifty-five days, respectively.[48] In August, before the celebration of the Dormition
of the Mother of God, Coptic Christians fast fifteen days; fasting is also done before the feast of Feast of Saints
Peter and Paul, starting from the day of Pentecost.[48]

Demographics
Available Egyptian census figures and other third party survey reports have not reported more than 4 million
Coptic Orthodox Christians in Egypt.[1][2] However media and other agencies, sometimes taking into account
the claims of the Church itself, generally approximate the Coptic Orthodox population at 10% of the Egyptian
population or 10 million people.[3][4][5][6][7] The majority of them live in Egypt under the jurisdiction of the
Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Since 2006, Egyptian censuses have not reported on religion and
church leaders have alleged that Christians were under-counted in government surveys. In 2017, a government
owned newspaper Al Ahram estimated the percentage of Copts at 10 to 15% and the membership claimed by
the Coptic Orthodox Church is in the range of 20 to 25 million.[49][50][51][52][53][54]

There are also significant numbers in the diaspora outside Africa in countries such as the United States,
Canada, Australia, France, and Germany. The exact number of Egyptian born Coptic Orthodox Christians in
the diaspora is hard to determine and is roughly estimated to be close to 1 million.[55][56][57][4][58]

There are between 150,000 and 200,000 adherents in Sudan.[59][60]

Persecution

While Copts have cited instances of persecution throughout their history, Human Rights Watch has noted
"growing religious intolerance" and sectarian violence against Coptic Christians in recent years, and a failure
by the Egyptian government to effectively investigate properly and prosecute those responsible.[61][62] Over a
hundred Egyptian copts have been killed in sectarian clashes from 2011 to 2017, and many homes and
businesses destroyed. In just one province (Minya), 77 cases of sectarian attacks on Copts between 2011 and
2016 have been documented by the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights.[63] The abduction and
disappearance of Coptic Christian women and girls also remains a serious ongoing problem.[64][65]

Jurisdiction outside Egypt

Besides Egypt, the Church of Alexandria has jurisdiction over all of Africa.

In addition, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox

Tewahedo Church are daughter churches of the Coptic Orthodox Church of
Alexandria. Both the Patriarchate of Addis Ababa and all Ethiopia and the
Patriarchate of Asmara and all Eritrea acknowledge the supremacy of honor and
dignity of the Pope of Alexandria on the basis that both patriarchates were
established by the Throne of Alexandria and that they have their roots in the
Apostolic Church of Alexandria, and acknowledge that Saint Mark the Apostle is
the founder of their Churches through the heritage and Apostolic evangelization of
the Fathers of Alexandria.

Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

Jesus Christ in a
Ethiopia received Christianity next to Jerusalem, through Jesus's own apostle, only Coptic icon
a year after Jesus was crucified (Acts 8: 26–39). Christianity became a national
religion of Ethiopia, under the dominion of the Church of Alexandria, in the 4th
century. The first bishop of Ethiopia, Saint Frumentius, was consecrated as Bishop of Axum by Pope
Athanasius of Alexandria in AD 328. From then on, until 1959, the Pope of Alexandria, as Patriarch of All
Africa, always named an Egyptian (a Copt) to be the Archbishop of the Ethiopian Church. On 13 July 1948,
the Coptic Church of Alexandria and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church reached an agreement
concerning the relationship between the two churches. In 1950, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
was granted autocephaly by Pope Joseph II of Alexandria, head of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Five
Ethiopian bishops were immediately consecrated by the Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa, and
were empowered to elect a new Patriarch for their church. This promotion was completed when Joseph II
consecrated the first Ethiopian-born Archbishop, Abuna Basilios, as head of the Ethiopian Church on 14
January 1951. In 1959, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Abuna Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia.

Patriarch Basilios died in 1971, and was succeeded on the same year by Abuna Theophilos. With the fall of
Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1974, the new Marxist government arrested Abuna Theophilos and
secretly executed him in 1979. The Ethiopian government then ordered the Ethiopian Church to elect Abuna
Takla Haymanot as Patriarch of Ethiopia. The Coptic Orthodox Church refused to recognize the election and
enthronement of Abuna Takla Haymanot on the grounds that the Synod of the Ethiopian Church had not
removed Abuna Theophilos, and that the Ethiopian government had not publicly acknowledged his death, and
he was thus still legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the two churches were halted,
although they remained in communion with each other.

After the death of Abuna Takla Haymanot in 1988, Abune Merkorios who had close ties to the Derg
(Communist) government was elected Patriarch of Ethiopia. Following the fall of the Derg regime in 1991,
Abune Merkorios abdicated under public and governmental pressure and went to exile in the United States.
The newly elected Patriarch, Abune Paulos was officially recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Church of
Alexandria in 1992 as the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the Coptic Church of
Alexandria and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church were resumed on 13 July 2007. Abune Paulos died
in August 2012.
Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church

Following the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia in 1993, the newly independent Eritrean government
appealed to Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria for Eritrean Orthodox autocephaly. In 1994, Pope Shenouda
ordained Abune Phillipos as first Archbishop of Eritrea. The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church obtained
autocephaly on 7 May 1998, and Abune Phillipos was subsequently consecrated as first Patriarch of Eritrea.
The two churches remain in full communion with each other and with the other Oriental Orthodox Churches,
although the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, along with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
does not recognize the deposition of the third Patriarch of Eritrea, Abune Antonios.

Around the world

The Coptic Orthodox Church has a presence in many countries

outside Egypt, including:

Africa
Asia
Australia and Oceania
Europe
Britain and Ireland
France St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church in
North America Bellaire, Texas

United States
Canada
Mexico
South America

Official titles of the Patriarch of

Alexandria

Episcopal titles Archangel Raphael Coptic Orthodox

Church – Houston, Clear Lake City,
The leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is Texas
known as Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of all Africa on
the Holy See of St. Mark the Apostle.
His full title is Patriarch and Lord Archbishop of the Great City of Alexandria on the Holy
Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle that is, in Egypt,
Pentapolis, Libya, Nubia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and all Africa.
The Successor of St. Mark the Evangelist, Holy Apostle and Martyr, on the Holy Apostolic
Throne of the Great City of Alexandria.
Pope of Alexandria, being the Diocesan Bishop of the Great and Ancient Metropolis of
Alexandria, that is in Alexandria and the metropolitan province of Greater Cairo.
Elder Metropolitan Archbishop of the Egyptian Province.
Primate of Egypt, Pentapolis, Libya, Nubia and Sudan.
Father of Fathers.
Shepherd of Shepherds.
 Hierarch of all Hierarchs.

Honorary titles
The Dean of the Great Catechetical School of Theology of
Alexandria.
The Ecumenical (Universal) Judge (Arbitrator) of the Holy
Apostolic and Catholic (Universal) Church.
The 13th among the Holy Apostles.
The Pillar and Defender of the Holy, Catholic (Universal), St Mark's Coptic Orthodox Church in
Apostolic Church and of the Orthodox Doctrine. London, England.

Historical evolution of the ecclesiastical title

The patriarch of Alexandria was originally known merely as bishop

of Alexandria. However, this title continued to evolve as the Church
grew under Theophilus and his nephew and successor Cyril
(AD 376–444), and especially in the 5th century when the Church
developed its hierarchy.

The bishop of Alexandria, being the successor of the first bishop in

Roman Egypt consecrated by Saint Mark, was honored by the other
bishops as first among equals primus inter pares. Under the sixth
canon of the Council of Nicaea, Cyril was raised to prelate or chief
bishop at the head of the episcopates of Egypt, Libya, and the
Pentapolis without the existence of intermediate archbishops as
existed in other ecclesiastic provinces.[66] He had the privilege of
choosing and consecrating bishops.[66]

The title of "pope" has been attributed to the Patriarch of Alexandria

since the episcopate of Heraclas, the 13th Patriarch of Alexandria. All Pope Shenouda III, the 117th
the clergy of Alexandria and Lower Egypt honored him with the title Patriarch of Alexandria on the Holy
papas, which means "father" as the archbishop and metropolitan Apostolic See of Saint Mark the
Evangelist (1971–2012).
having authority over all bishops, within the Egyptian province, who
are under his jurisdiction. Alexandria, while the ecclesiastical and
provincial capital, also had the distinction as being the place where
Saint Mark was martyred.

The title "Patriarch" originally referred to a clan leader or head of a familial lineage. Ecclesiastically it means a
bishop of high rank and was originally used as a title for the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem,
Antioch, and Alexandria. For the Coptic patriarch, this title was "Patriarch of Alexandria and all Africa on the
Holy Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist," that is "of Egypt". The title of "Patriarch" was first used
around the time of the Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus, convened in AD 431, and ratified at Chalcedon
in AD 451.

Only the Patriarch of Alexandria has the double title of "Pope" and "Patriarch" among the Eastern Orthodox
and Oriental Orthodox ecumenical church heads.

Modern Issues
Internal church disputes

Pope Shenouda Vs. Father Matta El Meskeen

Pope Shenouda III was criticized by the prominent monk Father Matta El Meskeen for the church's strong
links with the Egyptian government under the dictator Hosni Mubarak. As the dispute began to grow,
Shenouda explicitly denounced Matta's thoughts, labelling some of his writings "heresies". In turn, Matta
promoted a radical focus upon personal faith in contrast to institutional religion and ecclesiastical authority.
Shenouda, however, was heavily involved in politics and keen to extend the church's influence over the social
lives of Copts.[67][68]

Pope Shenouda III, eventually banned Matta's books in Coptic churches- a ban which would be maintained
for four-decades. He also restricted Father Matta to the monastery. Despite this Fr. Matta's writings continued
to widely influential across the Christian world, most notably among theological giants like the Russian
Orthodox Seraphim Rose of Alaska and the Protestant Roger Schultz of Taizé.

After Fr Matta's death Pope Shenouda sought to eliminate the theologian's legacy and break up his following
in the Monastery of St. Macarius. The Pope moved some his sympathizes away and brought in monks who
were loyal to the papacy.

Upon the ascension of Pope Tawadros II, he reversed the decisions of Pope Shenouda. He ended the ban on
Fr. Matta's writings and even installed a follower of Matta as the bishop over the monastery.

Consolidation of Papal control

Under the guidance of Pope Shenouda, the church underwent a large transformation that allowed him to hold
greater authority than any previous pope. Writing in 2013, the theologian Samuel Tadros stated "Today's
Coptic Church as an institution is built solely on his vision".[69]

Child sexual abuse cases

Father Reweis Aziz Khalil (Yousef Aziz Khalil)

On 12 July 2020, Sally Zakhari began a series of posts on Facebook and Instagram in which she accused the
now defrocked Hegomen Reweis Aziz Khalil of sexual assault.[70][71][72] In one leaked report the priest is
referred to as Reweis Aziz Khalil. Zakhari showed evidence that church leaders were aware of several sexual
assaults perpetrated by Khalil in his service as a priest across North America for around 22 years.[73] The
incident has sparked many reports of sexual assault and generated debate among church laity.

Zakhari maintains that she was assaulted around the age of 11–12 (1998–1999) during the sacrament of
confession, while he was serving temporarily in the church of St. Mary and Archangel Michael's Coptic
Orthodox Church in Orlando Florida. She claims to have reported the incident to Bishop Youssef of the Coptic
Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States at the age of 17 (likely in 2003–2004). She claims that
Youssef was aware of Khalil's proclivities and that Youssef knew that several other girls had accused Khalil of
similar actions. Soon after, Khalil was sent to Egypt. Zakhari persisted for years to bring about accountability
by contacting members of the Coptic Church hierarchy, including correspondence with the offices of Pope
Tawadros II of Alexandria and the late Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria, neither took any concrete actions in
bringing Khalil to justice.[70]
After learning that Khalil continued to serve across the U.S., Egypt, and Canada, Zakhari wanted him
excommunicated. An investigation was conducted by Fr. Samuel Thabet in Chicago, Illinois and another priest
assisting with the investigation in October 2019 and the final report was hand delivered to Pope Tawadros II of
Alexandria on 12 Feb 2020. The redacted report was leaked including summaries of interviews from priests
and medical doctors, whose names were all redacted. The interviewees corroborated Sally's story and revealed
new details. The report was posted in its entirety on Zakhari's Instagram page, with select details being referred
to in published news sources.[70][71][72] She did not receive any response despite several attempts at following
up. In order to pressure the church into action Zakhari made her complaint public on social media on 12 July
2020 (6 months after Pope Tawadros received the final report concerning the abuse allegations).[70]

Following Zakhari's public demand for Reweis's excommunication, on 18 July 2020 Pope Tawadros officially
laicized Khalil, he was returned to his pre-ordination name of Yousef Aziz Khalil.[73] Despite the laicization
and calls for the excommunication of Khalil, Pope Tawadros has refused to excommunicate him. Zakhari
reported Khalil to law enforcement in 2013, but was informed her statute of limitations was expired. Since
then, additional evidence has surfaced including the Coptic church's investigational report, laicization, and 12
additional victims of Khalil in the U.S. and Canada who were abused after Zakhari. Khalil was reported to the
authorities in the U.S. again on July 15, 2020 with this new evidence. Zakhari's statute of limitations still
remains expired per Florida law, and Khalil has not been charged or arrested (as of December 18, 2020). In an
article published by the Associated Press about Zakhari's case titled "For Coptic Church, changes, questions
after priest ouster", reporter Mariam Fam writes "In response to questions and a request to interview Khalil, his
attorney, Michelle Suskauer, said by e-mail: “Mr. Khalil will not be responding to your questions and denies all
allegations against him.”[74]

Administration
The Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria is governed by its Holy
Synod, which is headed by the Patriarch of Alexandria. Under his
authority are the metropolitan archbishops, metropolitan bishops, diocesan
bishops, patriarchal exarchs, missionary bishops, auxiliary bishops,
suffragan bishops, assistant bishops, chorbishops and the patriarchal vicars
for the Church of Alexandria. They are organized as follows:

Current Pope is Pope Tawadrous the Second Pope number

118
16 metropolitanates, out of which 12 metropolitanates are in
Egypt, one metropolitanate in the Near East, one in Europe,
one in the US and one in Africa; served by two metropolitan
archbishops and 14 metropolitan bishops; out of the 16
hierarchs, one metropolitan archbishop is in the Near East, one
metropolitan archbishop in Egypt, while 11 metropolitan
bishops are in Egypt, one metropolitan bishop in Europe, one
metropolitan bishop in the US and one metropolitan bishop in
Africa.
67 dioceses with 41 diocesan bishops are in Egypt, 13
diocesan bishops are in Europe, 7 diocesan bishops are in
North America, two diocesan bishops are in South America, Coptic icon of Saint Mark the
two diocesan bishops are in Sudan, and finally two diocesan Evangelist, the apostolic
bishops are in Australia. founder of the Church of
one suffragan dioceses, with one suffragan bishop in North Alexandria
America.
six auxiliary bishops, with two auxiliary bishops for dioceses in
Egypt and four auxiliary bishops in North America.
 12 assistant bishops in Egypt for 12 suffragan dioceses within an archdiocese under the
Patriarch's jurisdiction;
five patriarchal exarchates, with one patriarchal exarch in Africa, one patriarchal exarch in
North America and three patriarchal exarchs in Egypt.
13 bishop abbots for 11 patriarchal monasteries in Egypt, one patriarchal monastery in
Australia and one patriarchal monastery in Germany
two general bishops, patriarchal emissary at large in Egypt and abroad.
five general bishops, administrators of patriarchal institutions in Egypt.
one hegumen in the capacity of grand economos, patriarchal vicar for Alexandria.
one hegumen as administrative patriarchal vicar for Cairo.

Cathedrals
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Alexandria
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Abbassia, Cairo
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Azbakeya, Cairo
Cathedral of the Nativity in Cairo
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Markham, Ontario, Canada

Monasteries
Monastery of Saint Anthony (Red Sea)
Monastery of Saint Paul the Anchorite (Red Sea)
Monastery of Saint Fana
Monastery of Saint Macarius the Great
Monastery of the Martyrs
Monastery of Saint Matthew the Potter
Monastery of Saint Mina
Paromeos Monastery
Monastery of Saint Pishoy
Red Monastery
Syrian Monastery
White Monastery
Monastery of Saint Antony (California)[75]
Monastery of Saint Mary and Saint Moses the Strong (Texas)[76]
Monastery of Saint Shenouda the Archmandrite (Sydney, Australia) (http://www.stshenoudamo
nastery.org.au/)

See also
Pope of Alexandria
General Congregation Council
Copts
Coptic atheists
Coptic saints
Coptic Orthodox churches
 Institute of Coptic Studies
Coptic Orphans
Oriental Orthodoxy
Christianity in Africa
Holy Family in Egypt
Zabbaleen
2011 Alexandria bombing

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External links
Associated Press: For Coptic Church, changes, questions after priest ouster (https://apnews.co
m/article/egypt-media-florida-social-media-sexual-abuse-by-clergy-26e17b7551434e77e58806
77e807bc51/)
Coptic Orthodox Electronic Publishing, has various e-books and resources covering many
areas and topics (https://web.archive.org/web/20140126011303/http://www.coepaonline.org/)
An overview of Coptic Orthodoxy (https://ukmidcopts.org/coptic)
Video archive of Coptic Hymns for Learning (http://www.deacontube.com/)
More Information on the Coptic Church, its Beliefs, Practices, and Liturgical Life (http://www.cop
ticchurch.net/)
Downloadable Coptic hymns, chants, songs, liturgies, live webcasts, and forum (http://www.tas
beha.org/)
HisVine – Coptic Orthodox Church Directory for Australia (http://www.hisvine.com/)
St. Mina (Menas) Coptic Orthodox Monastery in Mariut, near Alexandria, Egypt (http://www.stmi
na-monastery.org/)
 Coptic Church History at www.St-Takla.org (http://st-takla.org/Coptic-church-1.html)
CoptNet – The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt (http://www.coptic.net/Encyclopedia
Coptica/)
History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria – to 849 A.D. (http://www.tertullian.
org/fathers/index.htm#History_of_the_Patriarchs_of_the_Coptic_Church_of_Alexandria)
Agpeya: Coptic Book of Hours (http://www.agpeya.org/index.html) – also see Canonical hours
Severus of Al'Ashmunein (=Hermopolis), History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic church of
Alexandria (http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/severus_hermopolis_hist_alex_patr_00_eintro.htm)
Article on Coptic Orthodox Church by Ronald Roberson on CNEWA website (https://cnewa.org/
eastern-christian-churches/toc/oriental-orthodox-churches/the-coptic-orthodox-church/)
(in French) Coptipedia.com (http://www.coptipedia.com/)
(in French) France-copte.net (https://web.archive.org/web/20100407092011/http://www.france-c
opte.net/)
Common Declaration of Pope Paul VI and Pope Alexandria Shenouda III, 1973 (https://www.va
tican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/anc-orient-ch-docs/rc_pc_christuni_doc_197
30510_copti_en.html)
European Centre for Law and Justice (2011): The Persecution of Oriental Christians, what
answer from Europe? (http://www.eclj.org/pdf/ECLJ_ReportantiChristianpersecution20110120.
pdf)

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