BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Department of Mathematics
Manipal Institute of Technology
Manipal Academy of Higher Education Manipal
Manipal

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Contents

1 Binary relations

2 Lattice

3 Distributive and complemented lattice

4 Boolean lattice and boolean algebra

5 Boolean functions and boolean expressions

6 Reference

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 Binary relations

A binary relation R from a set A to B is a subset of A × B. That is,

R = {(a, b)|a ∈ A, b ∈ B} ⊆ A × B. If (a, b) ∈ R, then we say that
the element ’a is related to b’ and write aRb.
A binary relation from set A to A is said to be a binary relation on A.

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 Binary relations

Types of relations:
1 Reflexive relation: A binary relation R on a A is said to be a
reflexive relation if (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A.
Ex: Let A be the set of positive integers and R be the binary relation
on A defined by (a, b) ∈ R if and only if a divides b. Then R is
reflexive as every integer divides itself.
2 Symmetric relation: A binary relation R on a A is said to be
symmetric if (a, b) ∈ R =⇒ (b, a) ∈ R for all a, b ∈ A.
Ex: The relations “is parallel to ”and “is perpendicular to ”are
symmetric relations on the set of all straight lines.

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 Binary relations

3 Antisymmetric relation: A binary relation R on a set A is said to

be antisymmetric if (a, b) ∈ R =⇒ (b, a) ∈ / R unless a = b.
Ex: The binary relation R defined by (a, b) ∈ R if and only if a ≥ b is
antisymmetric on the set of positive integers.
4 Transitive relation: A binary relation R on a A is said to be
transitive if (a, c) ∈ R whenever both (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R.
Ex: The relation “is parallel to ”is transitive, but the relation “is
perpendicular to ”is not transitive on the set of straight lines.
5 Equivalence relation: A binary relation on a set is said to be an
equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

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 Binary relations

3 Partial ordering relation: A binary relation on a set is said to be an

equivalence relation if it is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. A
nonempty set A with a partial ordering relation R is a partially
ordered set (abbreviated as poset). For each ordered pair
(a, b) ∈ R, we write a ≤ b instead of aRb where ≤ is a generic
symbol and commonly read as “less than or equal to ”. It is
often denoted as (A, R) or hA, Ri or (A, ≤).
Ex: Let A be the set of positive integers and R be the binary relation
on A defined by a ≤ b if and only if a divides b. Then (A, ≤) is a
poset.

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 Binary relations

Comparable elements: Let (A, ≤) is a poset. Two elements

a, b ∈ A are said to be comparable if either a ≤ b or b ≤ a.
Chain: Let (A, ≤) is a poset. A subset of A is called a chain if every
two elements in the subset are comparable. The number of elements
in a chain is known as the length of the chain.
Antichain: Let (A, ≤) is a poset. A subset of A is called an
antichain if no two distinct elements in the subset are comparable.
Totally ordered set: A poset (A, ≤) is called a totally ordered set if
A is a chain. In this case, the binary relation ≤ is called a total
ordering relation.
Cover of an element: Let (A, ≤) is a poset. An element b ∈ A is
said to cover an element a ∈ A if a ≤ b and there is no element c ∈ A
such that a ≤ c ≤ b.

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 Binary relations

Hasse diagram
A poset (A, ≤) is graphically represented by Hasse diagram. The following
steps are to be followed to draw Hasse diagram corresonding to a given
poset (A, ≤).
Each element of A is represented by a small circle or a dot.
The circle for x ∈ A is drawn below the circle for y ∈ A if x ≤ y . A
line is drawn if y covers x.
If x ≤ y but y doesn’t cover x, then x and y are not connected
directly by a single line.

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 Binary relations

Example 1.1.
6 30
4

10 3
6 15

2 3 2

2 5 1
3
1 The poset (C, )
where C={1,2,3,4}
The poset (A, |) where
A={1,2,3,6} 1

The poset (D, |) where

D={1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}

Here | is the relation “divides ”and ≤ is the relation “less than or equal to
”.

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 Binary relations

We note the following terminologies for a given poset (A, ≤).

Maximal element: An element a ∈ A is said to be a maximal
element of A if there is no b ∈ A such that a 6= b and a ≤ b. We
note that 6,30 and 4 are the maximal elements of (A, |), (D, |) and
(C , ≤) respectively.
Minimal element: An element a ∈ A is said to be a minimal element
of A if there is no b ∈ A such that a 6= b and b ≤ a.1 is the minimal
element of (A, |), (D, |) and (C , ≤).
Upper bound: Let a, b ∈ A. An element c ∈ A is said to be an
upper bound of a and b if a ≤ c and b ≤ c.
Lower bound: An element c ∈ A is said to be an lower bound of a
and b if c ≤ a and c ≤ b.

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 Binary relations

Least upper bound (lub): An element c ∈ A is said to be a least

upper bound of a and b if c is an upper bound for a and b, and there
is no upper bound d of a and b such that d ≤ c.
In (D, |) of example 1.1, the element 30 is an upper bound of 2 and
3, but it is not the least upper bound. The lub for 2 and 3 is 6.
Greatest lower bound (glb): An element c ∈ A is said to be an
greatest lower bound of a and b if c is a lower bound for a and b, and
there is no lower bound d of a and b such that c ≤ d.

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 Lattice

Lattice:
A partially ordered set is said to be a lattice if every two elements in the
set have a unique glb and unique lub. Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. For any two
elements a, b, let
a ∨ b : lub of a and b and a ∧ b : glb of a and b.
Then (L, ≤, ∨, ∧) is an algebraic system defined by the lattice (L, ≤).
Example 2.1.
Let P(S) be the power set of a nonempty set S. Then (P(S), ⊆) is a
lattice where A ∨ B = A ∪ B and A ∧ B = A ∩ B. This defines the
algebraic system (P(S), ⊆, ∪, ∩).

Example 2.2.
Let N + be the set of all positive integers. Then (N + , |) (a|b if a divides b)
is a lattice where a ∨ b = lcm(a, b) and a ∧ b = gcd(a, b).

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 Lattice

Theorem 2.3.
For any elements a, b in a lattice (A, ≤),
a ≤ a ∨ b and b ≤ a ∨ b
a ∧ b ≤ a and a ∧ b ≤ b

Theorem 2.4.
For any elements a, b, c, d in a lattice (A, ≤), if a ≤ b and c ≤ d
a∨c ≤b∨d
a∧c ≤b∧c

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 Lattice

Duality Principle
Let (A, ≤) be a poset. Let ≥ be a binary relation on A such that for any
a, b in A, a ≥ b if and only if b ≤ a. We note that (A, ≥) is a poset.
If (A, ≤) is a lattice, then so is (A, ≥)
The join operation of the algebraic system defined by the lattice
(A, ≤) is the meet operation of the algebraic system defined by (A, ≥)
and vice versa.
Consequenntly, given any valid statement concerning the general
properties of the lattices, we can obtain another valid statement by
replacing the relation ≤ with ≥, the meet operation with the join
operation and the join operation with the meet operation. This is
known as principle of duality for lattices.
If the statement remains the same after dualism, then such a
statement is called self dual.

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 Lattice

Properties of aglebraic systems defined by lattices:

Let (A, ≤, ∨, ∧) be the algebraic system defined by the lattice (A, ≤). For
any elements a, b, c ∈ A,
1 Commutative property:
a∨b =b∨a
a∧b =b∧a
2 Associative property:
(a ∨ b) ∨ c = a ∨ (b ∨ c)
(a ∧ b) ∧ c = a ∧ (b ∧ c)
3 Idempotent property:
a∨a=a
a∧a=a
4 Absorption property:
a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a
a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a

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 Distributive and complemented lattice

Distributive lattice: A lattice is said to be a distributive lattice if the

meet operation is distributes over the join operation and the join operation
s distributes over the meet operation. For any a, b, c
a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)

Example 3.1.
Let S = {a, b, c}. Then (P(S), ⊆) is a distributive lattice.
S={a,b,c}

{a,c}
{a,b} {b,c}

{a} {c}
{b}

{}

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 Distributive and complemented lattice

Theorem 3.2.
If the meet operation is distributive over the join operation in a lattice,
then the join operation is also distributive over the meet operation. If the
join operation is distributive over the meet operation in a lattice, then the
meet operation is also distributive over the join operation.

Proof.
Given that a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
To prove a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c),
Consider (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c) = [(a ∨ b) ∧ a] ∨ [(a ∨ b) ∧ c] from (1)
= a ∨ [(a ∨ b) ∧ c] (absorption law)
= a ∨ [c ∧ (a ∨ b)] (commutative law)
= a ∨ [(c ∧ a) ∨ (c ∧ b)] from (1)
= [a ∨ (c ∧ a)] ∨ (c ∧ b) (associative law)
= a ∨ (c ∧ b) (absorption law)
= a ∨ (b ∧ c) (commutative law)
Second part follows from the principle of duality.
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 Distributive and complemented lattice

Problems:
Q1. Let a and b be two elements in a lattice (A, ≤). Show that a ∧ b = b
if and only if a ∨ b = a.
Sol.
Let
a ∧ b = b − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)
Consider a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a (absorption law)
a∨b =a from (2)
Conversely, let a ∨ b = a − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
Consider b ∧ (a ∨ b) = b (absorption law)
a∧b =b
Q2. Let a, b, c be elements in a lattice (A, ≤). Show that
i. a ∨ (b ∧ c) ≤ (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)
ii. (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) ≤ a ∧ (b ∨ c)

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 Distributive and complemented lattice

Sol.
i. a ≤ a ∨ b and a ≤ a ∨ c =⇒ a ≤ (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c) − − − − − − − − (4)
b ≤ a ∨ b and c ≤ a ∨ c =⇒ b ∧ c ≤ (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c) − − − − − − − (5)
From (4) and (5), a ∨ (b ∧ c) ≤ (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c). (By Theorem 2.4)
ii. (a ∧ b) ≤ a and (a ∧ c) ≤ a =⇒ (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) ≤ a − − − − − (6)
(a ∧ b) ≤ b and (a ∧ c) ≤ c =⇒ (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) ≤ (b ∨ c) − − − − − (7)
From (6) and (7), (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) ≤ a ∧ (b ∨ c). (By Theorem 2.4)

Q3. Let a, b, c be elements in a lattice (A, ≤). Show that if a ≤ b, then

a ∨ (b ∧ c) ≤ b ∧ (a ∨ c).
Q4. Let (A, ≤, ∨, ∧) be an algebraic system where ∨, ∧ are binary
operations satisying absorption law. Show that ∨ and ∧ also satisfy
idempotent law.

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 Distributive and complemented lattice

Q5. Let (A, ∨, ∧) be an algebraic system where ∨, ∧ are binary operations

satisying commutative, associative and absorption laws. Define a binary
operation ≤ as follows: for all a, b ∈ A, a ≤ b if and only if a ∧ b = a.
Show that ≤ is a poset. Also show that a ∨ b is lub of a and b and a ∧ b is
glb of a and b in (A, ≤).
Q6.(Cancellation laws) Let (A, ≤) be a distributive lattice. Show that if
a ∧ x = a ∧ y and a ∨ x = a ∨ y for some a, then x = y .
Q7. Show that a lattice is distributive if and only if for any elements
a, b, c in lattice (a ∨ b) ∧ c ≤ a ∨ (b ∧ c).

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 Distributive and complemented lattice

Universal lower and upper bounds: An element a in a lattice (A, ≤) is

called a universal lower bound if for every element b ∈ A, a ≤ b. We use
‘0’to denote universal lower bound. An element a in a lattice (A, ≤) is
called a universal upper bound if for every element b ∈ A, b ≤ a. We use
‘1’ to denote universal upper bound. If a lattice has a universal lower
(upper) bound, then it is unique. In the lattice (P(S), ⊆), the nullset φ
and the set S are the universal lower and upper bounds respectively.
Theorem 3.3.
Let (A, ≤) be a lattice with universal upper and lower bounds 1 and 0. For
any elements a ∈ A
•a ∨ 1 = 1 •a ∧ 1 = a
•a ∨ 0 = a •a ∧ 0 = 0
Complement of an element: Let (A, ≤) be a lattice with universal upper
and lower bounds 1 and 0. For any element a ∈ A, an element b is said to
be a complement of a if a ∨ b = 1 and a ∧ b = 0

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 Distributive and complemented lattice

An element in a lattice may have more than one complement. Not all the
elements in a lattice have complements. It’s evident that ‘0’is the unque
complement of ‘0’and vice versa.
Complemented lattice: A lattice is said to be a complemented lattice if
every element in the lattice has a complement. Clearly, a complemented
lattice has a universal lower and upper bounds.
Example 3.4.
1

c
a

Complement of a and b is c. Complement of c are a, b.

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 Distributive and complemented lattice

Theorem 3.5.
In a distributive lattice, if an element has a complement, it is unique.

Proof.
Suppose an element a has two complements b and c. i.e.
a ∨ b = a ∨ c = 1 and a ∧ b = a ∧ c = 0.
Consider b = b ∧ 1
= b ∧ (a ∨ c)
= (b ∧ a) ∨ (b ∨ c)
= 0 ∨ (b ∨ c)
= (a ∧ c) ∨ (b ∨ c)
= c ∧ (a ∨ b)
=c ∧1
=c
Thus b = c

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 Boolean lattice and boolean algebra

Boolean lattice: A complemented and distributive lattice is called a

boolean lattice.
Example 4.1.
(P(S), ⊆) is a boolean lattice.

Let (A, ≤) be a boolean lattice. Since every element a has a unique

complement ā, we have another unary operation known as
complementation and denoted by − . Thus we can say that the lattice
(A, ≤) defines an algebraic system (A, ≤, ∨, ∧) where ∨ and ∧ are the join
and meet operations respectively. The algebraic system defined by a
boolean lattice is known as boolean algebra.
Theorem 4.2.
DeMorgan’s laws: For any elements a, b in a boolean algebra (A, ≤, ∨, ∧),
a ∨ b = ā ∧ b̄
a ∧ b = ā ∨ b̄

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 Boolean lattice and boolean algebra

Proof.
We have to prove that (a ∨ b) ∨ (ā ∧ b̄) = 1 and (a ∨ b) ∧ (ā ∧ b̄) = 0.
Consider (a ∨ b) ∨ (ā ∧ b̄) = [(a ∨ b) ∨ ā] ∧ [(a ∨ b) ∨ b̄] (distributive law)
= [ā ∨ (a ∨ b)] ∧ [a ∨ (b ∨ b̄)] (associative law)
= [(ā ∨ a) ∨ b] ∧ [a ∨ 1] (associative law)
= [1 ∨ b] ∧ [a ∨ 1]
=1∧1=1
Similarly, (a ∨ b) ∧ (ā ∧ b̄) = (ā ∧ b̄) ∧ (a ∨ b) (commutative law)
= [(ā ∧ b̄) ∧ a] ∨ [(ā ∧ b̄) ∧ b] (distributive law)
= [a ∧ (ā ∧ b̄)] ∨ [(ā ∨ b̄) ∧ b] (commutative law)
= [(a ∧ ā) ∧ b̄] ∨ [ā ∨ (b̄ ∧ b)] (associative law)
= [0 ∧ b̄] ∨ [(ā ∧ 0]
=0∨0=0
The second part follows from principle of duality.

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 Boolean lattice and boolean algebra

Uniqueness of finite boolean algebras: We show that a finite boolean

algebra has 2n elements for some n. An element of a boolean algebra is
called an atom if it covers 0.
Lemma 4.3.
In a distributive lattice, if b ∧ c̄ = 0, then b ≤ c.

Proof.
We know that 0 ∨ c = c
(b ∧ c̄) ∨ c = c (given)
c ∨ (b ∧ c̄) = c (commutative law)
(c ∨ b) ∧ (c ∨ c̄) = c (distributive law)
(c ∨ b) ∧ 1 = c
(c ∨ b) = c
(b ∨ c) = c
Thus b ≤ b ∨ c =⇒ b ≤ c.

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 Boolean lattice and boolean algebra

Lemma 4.4.
Let (A, ≤, ∨, ∧,− ) be a finite boolean algebra. Let b be any nonzero
element in A and a1 , a2 , . . . , ak be all the atoms of A such that ai ≤ b.
Then b = a1 ∨ a2 ∨ . . . ak .

Proof.
Since a1 ≤ b, a2 ≤ b, . . . , ak ≤ b, it follows that
a1 ∨ a2 ∨ . . . ak ≤ b − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(8)
For notational convinience, let c = a1 ∨ a2 ∨ . . . ak . Suppose b ∧ c̄ 6= 0,
then there exists an atom a such that a ≤ b ∧ c̄.
Now a ≤ b ∧ c̄ and b ∧ c̄ ≤ b =⇒ a ≤ b − − − − − − − − − − − − − (9)
a ≤ b ∧ c̄ and b ∧ c̄ ≤ c̄ =⇒ a ≤ c̄
From (9), a is equal to one of the atoms a1 , a2 , . . . , ak . Also a ≤ c.
Combining a ≤ c and a ≤ c̄, we get a ≤ c ∧ c =⇒ a ≤ o, which is
impossible. Thus b ∧ c = 0 =⇒ b ≤ c. That is
b ≤ a1 ∨ a2 ∨ . . . ak . − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(10)
Form (8) and (10) and antisymmetric property, a1 ∨ a2 ∨ . . . ak = b.
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 Boolean lattice and boolean algebra

Lemma 4.5.
Let (A, ≤, ∨, ∧,− ) be a finite boolean algebra. Let b be any nonzero
element in A and a1 , a2 , . . . , ak be all the atoms of A such that ai ≤ b.
Then b = a1 ∨ a2 ∨ . . . ak is the unique way to represent b as a join of
atoms.

Proof.
Suppose that we have alternatinve representation b = aj1 ∨ aj2 ∨ . . . ajt .
Since b is the lub of aj1 , aj2 , . . . ajt , it is true that
aj1 ≤ b, aj2 ≤ b, . . . , ajt ≤ b. Consider an atom aju (1 ≤ u ≤ t). Since
aju ≤ b.
we have aj ∧ b = aju
aju ∧ (a1 ∨ a2 ∨ . . . ak = aju )
(aju ∧ a1 ) ∨ (aju ∧ a2 ) ∨ . . . (aju ∧ ak ) = aju
Then for some ai (1 ≤ i ≤ k), aju ∧ ai 6= 0.
Since aju and ai are atoms, we must have aju = a1 . Thus each atom in the
alternative representation is an atom in the original one, and the lemma
follows.
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 Boolean lattice and boolean algebra

From the above lemmas, it is clear that there is one to one correspondence
between the elements of a boolean lattice and subset of atoms. As a
matter of fact, there is one to one correspondence from (A, ≤) to
(P(S), ⊆), where S is the set of all atoms.
Theorem 4.6.
Let (A, ∨, ∧,− ) be a finite boolean algebra. Let S be the set of all atoms.
Then (A, ∨, ∧,− ) is isomorphic to the algebraic system defined by the
lattice (P(S), ⊆).

It follows from the above lemmas that there exists a finite boolean
algebra of 2n elements for any n > 0.

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 Boolean functions and boolean expressions

Boolean expression: Let Let (A, ∨, ∧,− ) be a finite boolean algebra. A

boolean expression over (A, ∨, ∧,− ) is defined as follows:
An element of A is a boolean expression.
Any variable name is a boolean expression.
If e1 and e2 are boolean expressions, then e1 , e1 ∨ e2 and e1 ∧ e2 are
boolean expressions.

Example 5.1.
0 ∨ x, (x1 ∨ x2 ) ∧ (2 ∨ 3)

Let E (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) be a boolean expression of n variables over a boolean

algebra (A, ∨, ∧,− ). By assignment of values to the variables
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , we mean an assignment of elements of A to be the values of
the variables. For an assignment of values to the variables, we can
evaluate E (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) by substituting the variables in the expression by
their values.

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 Boolean functions and boolean expressions

Two boolean expressions of n variables are said to be equivalent if thet

assume the same vales for every assignment of values to the n variables. If
E1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and E2 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) are equivalent, then we write
E1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = E2 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
Example 5.2.
(x1 ∧ x2 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x¯3 ) is equivalent to x1 ∧ (x2 ∨ x¯3 ).

Boolean function: A function f : An → A is said to be a boolean

functionnif it can be specified by a boolean expression of n variables.

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 Boolean functions and boolean expressions

Minterm: A booleam expression of n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is said to be

a minterm if it is of the form x˜1 ∧ x˜2 ∧ · · · ∧ x˜n where x˜i is either xi or x¯i .
Disjunctive normal form (DNF): A boolean expression over
({0, 1}, ∧, ∨,− ) is said to be in disjunctive normal form if it is join of
minterms.
Example 5.3.
(x1 ∧ x¯2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x¯1 ∧ x¯2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 )

Maxterm: A booleam expression of n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is said to be

a maxterm if it is of the form x˜1 ∨ x˜2 ∨ · · · ∨ x˜n where x˜i is either xi or x¯i .
Conjunctive normal form (CNF): A boolean expression over
({0, 1}, ∧, ∨,− ) is said to be in conjunctive normal form if it is meet of
maxterms.
Example 5.4.
(x1 ∨ x¯2 ∨ x3 ) ∧ (x¯1 ∨ x¯2 ∨ x3 )

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 Boolean functions and boolean expressions

DNF: Given a function {0, 1}n → {0, 1}, we can obtain a boolean
expression in DNF corresponding to this function by having a minterm
corresponding to each ordered n tuple of 00 s and 10 s for which the value of
the function is 1. For each n tuple with the(functional value is 1, we have
xi if i th componet is 1
the minterm x˜1 ∨ x˜2 ∨ · · · ∨ x˜n where x˜i = .
x¯i if i th componet is 0
CNF: We can obtain a boolean expression in CNF corresponding to this
function by having a maxterm corresponding to each ordered n tuple of 00 s
and 10 s for which the value of the function is 1. For each n tuple with the
functional
( value is 0, we have the minterm x˜1 ∨ x˜2 ∨ · · · ∨ x˜n where
xi if i th componet is 0
x˜i =
x¯i if i th componet is 1

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 Boolean functions and boolean expressions

Q8. Let E (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 ∧ x2 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x¯2 ∧ x3 ) be a boolean

expression over ({0, 1}, ∧, ∨,− ) . Write the boolean expression in both
DNF and CNF.
Sol:
(x1 ∧ x2 ) (x1 ∧ x3 ) (x¯2 ∧ x3 ) f
000 0 0 0 0
001 0 0 1 1
010 0 0 0 0
011 0 0 0 0
100 0 0 0 0
101 0 1 1 1
110 1 0 0 1
111 1 1 0 1

DNF : (x¯1 ∧ x¯2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x¯2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x¯3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 )

CNF :(x1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 ) ∧ (x1 ∨ x¯2 ∨ x3 ) ∧ (x1 ∨ x¯2 ∨ x¯3 ) ∧ (x¯1 ∨ x2 ∨ x3 )

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 Reference

References

[1] Liu C L, Elements of discrete mathematics,2nd edition, McGraw Hill Book

Company, New Dehli, (2007).

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Reference

THANK YOU

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