 Introduction to Automotive Engineering

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Chapter 4: Suspension System Chapter 6: Steering System
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Chapter 5
Braking System

5.1 Introduction
The continual adjustment of speed in response to the road condition and
traffic density ensures the safety of the driver in a ground transport. This
requirement can be effectively met by the braking system, the effective
design of which completely ensures the vehicle safety and its reliability.
An effective braking system should assure a smooth stop within the
shortest possible distance in an emergency situation. Also, the braking
should enable the driver to operate the vehicle safely in hilly and muddy
terrains without any discomfort to the passengers. For example, a
statistical report published points out that braking problems have been
observed in approximately 31.4% of the heavy trucks involved in fatal
accidents in the state of Michigan [2]. Based on these requirements and
operating conditions, braking systems are commonly classified as service
brakes, emergency brakes and parking brakes. The various elements of a
brake system are incorporated such that they perform all the aforesaid
functions effectively. The braking action can be obtained commonly by
following modes (i) By mounting brakes on the respective wheels (ii) By
employing brakes on the transmission lines. The former are called
foundation brakes whereas the latter are termed retarders. Retarders
provide higher braking force on wheels whereas they can only provide
minimal braking torque at low speeds, due to which they are used in
addition to the foundation brakes. This chapter provides an overview of
braking systems used in automobiles, the types of braking systems used in
modern automotive systems, and common troubleshooting techniques.

5.2 Background of Brake System

Handbrakes used in cars are used to make them stationary and stop the
vehicle while it is moving up a slope. Sudden applications of the brake can
put the vehicle out of control and lead to skidding. Most of these brakes
are hydraulically operated.

5.3 Classifications of Brake System

1. On the basis of mode of actuation:

1. Foot brake (also called the main brake) operated by foot pedal.

2. Handbrake – it is also called parking brake operated by hand.

2. On the basis of mode of operation

1. Air brakes

2. Electric brakes

3. Hydraulic brakes

4. Mechanical brakes

5. Vacuum brakes

3. On the basis of action on front or rear wheels

1. Front-wheel brakes

2. Rear-wheel brakes

4. On the basis of method of application of braking contact

1. Externally – contracting brakes

2. Internally – expanding brakes

5.4 Air or Pneumatic Brake System [3]

The application of the brake by pressing the brake pedal makes the
compressed air flow through the delivery port from the supply port. For
the front brake circuit, the air in the delivery chamber flows through the
pipelines to the frontal brake chamber which is mounted on the front
axles of the vehicle. The top bottom supply ports are linked to rear and
front reservoirs respectively, while the top and bottom delivery ports are
coupled to relay valve and front chambers respectively. Whenever the

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driver applies force to the plunger, the force transmits to the top piston
compressing the rubber plunger spring at the top chamber. If the
 force applied on the top piston is higher than that of preload and friction,
the top piston will move downwards. Meanwhile the exhaust port will be
blocked when the top piston makes contact with the top valve, and
whenever the force supplied to the top valve can prevail over the preload
on the top valve, the inlet port will tend to open. The pressure was kept
constant for both the inlet and exhaust ports when closed, thus the air
pressure in the top chamber was maintained constant. If the driver
reduces the force in the pedal, the balance of the top piston will be broken.
The top piston moves up for the force made by compressed air when it is
larger than pedal force.

5.4.1 COMPONENTS OF THE TYPICAL AIR BRAKE SYSTEM

1. Compressor and storage reservoirs [1]

Air compressor is the primary energy source for a typical air braking
system. Highly pressurized air from the compressor is securely stored in
the storage reservoirs or storage tanks where it is allowed to cool down to
ambient temperature. The foreign particles and impurities can be
expunged from the storage reservoirs by the automatic drain valve.

Figure 5.1 Operation of air brake system.

Figure 5.2 Reservoir.

Figure 5.3 Components of air brake system.

2. Treadle valve:

The treadle valve (brake application valve) modulates the amount of air
supplied to the brake chambers from the storage reservoirs. The
advantage of a dual circuit treadle valve is that partial braking is still
possible in the event of failure of one of the two circuits.

3. Quick release valve and relay valve:

A quick release valve is mounted on the front axle of the tractor and the
air from the secondary circuit of the treadle valve passes through it en
route to the two front brake chambers. It facilitates the quick exhaust of
the air from the front brake chambers when the brake pedal is released by
the driver. The relay valve also helps in the quick exhaust of air from the
rear brake chambers when the brake pedal is released by the driver.

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 Figure 5.4 Structure of relay valve.

4. Brake chambers

The brake chambers transfer the input energy from the pressurized air
into a mechanical energy that shifts the push rod which in turn activates
the foundation brakes.

5. Automatic slack adjuster: it converts translation motion of push

rod into rotation of cam shaft. The force from rake chamber falls as the
stroke of push rod exceeds its highest levels.

Figure 5.5 Brake chamber.

6. Foundation brakes: These units retard the motion of the vehicle and
are operated using safety valves which stop building of excessive pressure
in storage reservoirs.

7. Drainage valve: Removes dirt

8. Low pressure switch: Keeps an eye on air pressure

9. Parking brake control valve: Used to apply the parking brakes.

10. Pushrod: Transmits the force to the slack adjuster.

11. S-cam: Moves the brake pads during brake application

12. Drum-brake: Consists of two brake–shoes and lining supported on

a back plate bolted to the axle-casing

Figure 5.6 Brake drum.

5.4.2 COMMON PROBLEMS IN PNEUMATIC BRAKE SYSTEM

Insufficient brake.

Brake applies too slowly.

Brake releases too slowly.

Brakes do not apply.

Brake not released.

Brake grab or erratic brake.

Air pressure rises above normal.

Excessive oil or water in the brake system.

5.4.3 CAUSE OF THE PROBLEM

Low air pressure in the brake system.

Restricted tubing.

Improper functioning drum/shoe.

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system leakage.
 Defective governor.

Compressor passing excessive oil.

Restricted discharge line.

Improper alignment

5.4.4 AIR BRAKE SYSTEM TROUBLESHOOTING [4]

1. Dirt is the main cause of premature failure of air valves. So it is safe to
blow out the airlines and make sure that it is free of dirt.

2. Whenever the pipe dope is employed on fittings, use it sparingly. This can
also lead to failure.

3. It is not advisable to give overtight when installing fittings into a

remanufactured valve since it may cause cracking on the valve surface.

4. Make sure that the delivery lines are disconnected from the valve prior to
replacing a valve that has air leaking from its exhaust port.

5.4.5 LEAKAGE IN PNEUMATIC BRAKE SYSTEM [5]

A graduated Flow Control Valve (FCV) is mounted to get a firm control

over the degree of leak in the system. Four turns made on the FCV dial
open the valve fully. The main delivery of the treadle valve is connected to
one of the brake chambers (front) for all running conditions as depicted in
Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7 Schematic of the leak measurement setup.

To measure the mass flow rates of the air leaking out from the system, a
velocity transducer manufactured by All Sensors Corporation was
installed. The sensor was interfaced using the DAQ card and the voltage
outputs were recorded during the test runs. The voltage outputs from the
sensor were then converted to dynamic pressure using the calibration
curve of the sensor. This pressure data was then converted to velocity and
in turn to mass flow rate.

5.5 Hydraulic Brake System

A hydraulic brake is an arrangement of the braking mechanism which
uses brake fluid, typically containing glycol ethers or diethylene glycol, to
transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking
mechanism.

In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod

exerts force on the piston(s) in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the
brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber through a
compensating port. The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the
brake pads, pushing them against the spinning rotor, and the friction
between the pads and the rotor causes a braking torque to be generated,
slowing the vehicle. Alternatively, in a drum brake, the fluid enters a
wheel cylinder and presses one or two brake shoes against the inside of
the spinning drum. The brake shoes use a similar heat-tolerant friction
material to the pads used in disc brakes.

Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the springs in the

master cylinder assembly to return the master piston back into position.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there
is a leak in the system, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does
the fluid get consumed through use. Leakage may happen, however, from
cracks in the O-rings or from a puncture in the brake line.

Figure 5.8 Hydraulic brake system.

5.5.1 COMPONENTS OF HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM [6]

The common hydraulic brake arrangement of a commercial vehicle

consists of the following:

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hydraulic lines

Brake pedal or lever.

 Pushrod

Brake caliper assembly

A master cylinder assembly

5.6 Brake Drum Design

The design or capacity of a brake depends upon the following factors:

1. Pressure between the braking surfaces

2. Coefficient of friction

3. Velocity of the brake drum

4. Projected area

5. Heat dissipation rate

5.6.1 MATERIALS FOR BRAKE LINING

The material used for the brake lining should have the following
characteristics:

1. High coefficient of friction

2. Low wear rate.

3. High heat resistance.

4. High heat dissipation capacity.

5. Low coefficient of thermal expansion.

6. Mechanical strength.

7. Moisture and oil resistant.

5.6.2 SPECIFICATION
max Pressure (p)=1.75 MPa

Coefficient of friction= 0.2

diameter of the brake=240mm

Face width of the brake=30mm

a(the distance from center to the hinged shoe)=100mm

Allowable stress of cast iron=276 MPa

e = the perpendicular distance from the actuating force to the hinged

point (78+100cos24 = 169.35mm)

θ1=0°=0 rad

θ2=132°=2.303rad

Where, n &m are constant dimensionless characteristics of the shoe.

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Figure 5.9 Applying force in drum brake.
 Then we are going to identify the maximum pressure of brake sides

Left side

∆= –1 because the brake shoe is internal

δ= +1 because in the left side brake is trailing shoe

The actuating moment at the bottom of the hinged(M)

e=the perpendicular distance from the actuating force to the hinged point

Figure 5.10 Force in the left side.

e=78+100cos24=169.35mm

Let the applied force is 1N

ML=F*e=1N*169.35mm = 169.35N

Where, No is pressure parameter.

The maximum pressure in the left shoe

Next we will calculate the maximum pressure on the right shoe.

Right shoe

Δ= –1 because the brake shoe is internal

δ= –1 because in the left side brake is leading shoe

Figure 5.11 Apply force in the right shoe.

The actuating moment at the bottom of the hinged(M)

Mr=F*e=1N*169.35mm=169.35Nmm

e is the same with the left shoe

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 The maximum pressure in the right shoe

Then the maximum pressure required for the 1N applied force is in the
right side Pmax=0.4401kpa.

This pressure is less than the maximum limit pressure (1.75Mpa);

therefore our design is safe.

Next we will require the applied force formed by the Pmax

Then by cross multiplication the applied force becomes

Over all braking torque

For left shoe

Where, No in the maximum Force applied

Right shoe

Stress on the brake drum

D=diameter of the drake drum

W=face width of the brake drum

δh=stress

5.6 Result and Conclusion

We try to calculate the braking force, braking torque as well as the stress
in the drum brake of the pneumatic brake system at a pressure of
1.75Mpa,1.5Mpa and 1Mpa. Then the results are listed as follows:

Pressure 1.75Mpa 1.5Mpa 1Mpa

Force 3976.36N 3408.316N 2272.2N

Torque 406.9Nm 348.78Nm 232.52Nm

Stress 7Mpa 6Mpa 4Mpa

References
1. A diagnostic System for Air Brakes in Commercial Vehicles,
Web address:
http://www.academia.edu/34233797/A_Diagnostic_System_for_Air_Brakes_in_Commercial_Vehicles
(http://www.academia.edu/34233797/A_Diagnostic_System_for_Air_Brakes_in_Commercial_Vehicles)

Accessed on 18-04-2018.

2. S. F. Williams, R. R. Knipling, Automatic slack adjusters for

heavy vehicle air brake systems, Nat. Highway Traffic Safety
Administration

3. Modeling and Simulation Vehicle Air Brake System, Web address:

http://www.academia.edu/34233797/A_Diagnostic_System_for_Air_Brakes_in_Commercial_Vehicles
(http://www.academia.edu/34233797/A_Diagnostic_System_for_Air_Brakes_in_Commercial_Vehicles)

Accessed on 18-04-2018.

Find answers on the fly,4.https://www.suspensionspecialists.com/techinfo/Bepco_Air_Brake_Trbl_Chart.pdf

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Air Brake System Troubleshooting, Web Address:
 Accessed on 18-04-2018.

5. Development of a model for an air brake system with leaks,

Web Address:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0922/42de12e0afb3c3e81c41886a036793f9ad50.pdf
Accessed on 18-04-2018.

6. Hydraulic Brake, Web Address:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_brake Accessed on 18-04-2018.

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