Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Cement and Concrete Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconres

A review of mechanical properties of fibre reinforced concrete at elevated T

temperatures
Heyang Wu, Xiaoshan Lin , Annan Zhou
⁎

School of Engineering, RMIT University, 124 La Trobe Street, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) has gained increasing interest in recent years due to its superior mechanical
Fibre reinforced concrete properties compared to normal concrete. To apply FRC in civilian and strategically important buildings and
Elevated temperature other infrastructures, fire resistance is an inevitable matter of concern. According to the existing test results,
Heating method different fibre types, fibre dosages and cementitious matrix designs would affect the fire resistance of FRC. This
Mechanical properties
paper presents a comprehensive review of the recent research works on the fire resistance of FRC. In particular,
Empirical equation
the temperature-dependent mechanical properties of steel fibre reinforced concrete, polypropylene fibre re-
inforced concrete and hybrid fibre reinforced concrete are discussed, including permeability, spalling, com-
pressive strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus, toughness and mass loss. In addition, the currently available
predicting equations for FRC residual properties are summarised and compared.

1. Introduction have been mostly investigated. Besides, glass fibre [21,22], polymer
fibre [20,23,24], basalt fibre [25,26] and natural plant fibre [27] have
Concrete has been one of the principal construction materials in also been used as reinforcing materials for concrete to provide a variety
civil engineering structures which might be subjected to fire attack of unique properties, such as enhancement of crack resistance and
during their service life, causing severe damages to the structures and toughness of concrete exposed to high temperature [28,29]. Based on
resulting in tremendous casualties and property loss. In recent years, different functions in concrete fire resistance, reinforcing fibres can be
the application of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) in engineering generally divided into two groups. One group usually has good me-
structures has gained worldwide interest due to its superior material chanical properties under room temperature and good thermal stability
properties compared to conventional reinforced concrete, such as its under high temperature, such as steel fibre, carbon fibre and basalt
high first-crack strength [1], high compressive and tensile strength fibre. These fibres can provide strength to concrete during and after
[2,3], high fracture toughness [4,5], excellent energy absorption ca- fire, and the generation and propagation of microcracks can be re-
pacity [5], and great impact resistance [6–8]. However, the exposure of strained by fibre bridging effect. The other group is the fibres with low
cementitious materials to high temperatures can lead to deterioration of melting point, including PP fibre, PVA fibre and PE fibre. When FRC
their mechanical properties due to physicochemical changes that occur reinforced with these fibres is heated to a certain temperature, fibres
during heating process [9–11]. Therefore, to withstand the threat of will melt and provide pathways for water vaporization. Thus the mi-
fire, the investigation of mechanical properties of FRC at elevated crostructure of concrete is protected due to the reduced inner vapour
temperatures is of great significance. pressure. In addition, the temperature-dependent material properties of
The performance of FRC under high temperatures is affected by FRC can also be influenced by fibre dosage, fibre shape, fibre size, and
various factors, including the use of replacement materials and the fibre orientation, and their effects are similar to those under room
addition of reinforcing fibres [12–15]. It has been reported that the temperature [30–33].
residual properties of FRC after high temperature would be affected by On the other hand, the addition of replacement materials, such as
different fibre types [16–19]. At present, steel fibre [20] and PP fibre silica fume (SF) [34–39], fly ash (FA) [34,37,38,40,41], ground

Abbreviations: DIC, digital image correlation; FA, fly ash; FRC, fibre reinforced concrete; GGBFS, ground granulated blast furnace slag; HFRC, hybrid fibre reinforced
concrete; HPC, high performance concrete; HSC, high strength concrete; MIP, mercury intrusion porosimetry; MK, metakaolin; NSC, normal strength concrete; PE,
polyethylene; PFRC, polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete; PP, polypropylene; PVA, polyvinyl alcohol; SEM, scanning electron microscope; SF, silica fume; SFRC,
steel fibre reinforced concrete; UPV, ultrasonic pulse velocity; XRD, X-ray diffraction; XRF, X-ray fluorescence
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Lin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106117
Received 29 October 2019; Received in revised form 2 April 2020; Accepted 22 May 2020
Available online 08 June 2020
0008-8846/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) [34,37,38,40], metakaolin (MK) reported in literature. The temperature-dependent mechanical proper-
[34,37] and slag powder[37], is also a key influencing factor on the ties of FRC are discussed in Section 4, including permeability, spalling
performance of FRC at high temperature. These replacement materials resistance, compressive strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus,
usually generate a denser microstructure of concrete. Although the toughness and mass loss. The existing equations developed for FRC
strength is improved at room temperature, the internal vapour pressure compressive strength, tensile strength and elastic modulus are then
is difficult to release when being heated, which may lead to spalling summarised and compared in Section 5.
damage [42]. Additionally, aggregates may also affect the residual
performance of cementitious material [43–47]. Different aggregate size
2. Materials
[43], aggregate chemical component [44–48] will lead to different FRC
performance. For example, siliceous aggregates would cause a higher
The temperature-dependent mechanical properties of FRC can be
risk of spalling at high temperature than carbonate aggregates [48].
significantly affected by its constituent materials, such as reinforcing
Apart from FRC mix design, the design of heating curve in material
fibres, replacement materials and aggregates. In this section, these
testing, such as the heating rate, the maximum temperature, the tem-
constituent materials, as well as their performances in FRC affected by
perature holding time and the cooling method, would greatly affect the
high temperature, are discussed.
measured properties of FRC. Higher maximum heating temperature
would cause more damage to FRC microstructure and lead to worse
residual properties of FRC [49]. Heating rate is also a key factor re- 2.1. Fibres
sponsible for concrete spalling type [50]. Fast heating, such as those
following the ISO-834 standard fire curve, would cause severer spalling A variety of fibres can be used as reinforcements in FRC, such as
in FRC [51]. Moreover, the measured compressive strength of FRC has steel fibre, glass fibre, basalt fibre, PVA fibre, PP fibre and natural fibre.
been reported to be lower when the holding time at the peak tem- Several most commonly used reinforcing fibres are shown in Fig. 1, and
perature is longer [52]. In addition, different cooling methods, e.g. their typical material properties are summarised in Table 1. Different
nature cooling and water cooling, could lead to different testing results types of reinforcing fibres would play different roles in improving the
on residual strength of FRCs after exposure to high temperature [53]. performance of cementitious material, and they may also introduce
Due to the large variety of FRC mix compositions, their complex different properties to concrete. For example, the addition of fibres with
mechanical behaviours under high temperatures, and different heating high tensile strength, such as steel fibre and basalt fibre, would not only
methods adopted in material testing, a comprehensive review of the improve the tensile strength of concrete but also enhance the strain
existing studies on the temperature-dependent material properties of capacity, toughness and energy absorption capacity of the material
FRC is essential. In this paper, the current research results are classified [54,55]; a better impact resistance can be achieved by using steel fibre
and summarised to provide a relatively complete and reliable reference [56]; carbon fibre can improve the electrical conductivity, pressure
for researchers in this field. sensitivity and magnetic sensitivity of concrete [57–60]; and PP fibre
The structure of the paper is organised as follows. Section 2 dis- can increase the porosity of concrete after heating, thereby improving
cusses the effects of various reinforcing fibres, replacement materials the spalling resistance [18,61]. All these FRCs can be considered as
and aggregate types on the FRC performances under high temperature. ‘high-performance concrete (HPC)’, and steel and PP fibre reinforced
Section 3 presents the commonly used heating and cooling methods concrete are the focus of this paper.
Based on the physical properties of reinforcing fibres under high

Fig. 1. Reinforcing fibres used in concrete. a) steel fibre; b) basalt fibre; c) jute fibre; d) nylon fibre; e) PP fibre and; f) PVA fibre [15,62–66].

2
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Table 1 2.3. Aggregates

Properties of reinforcing fibres [23,57,62,63,67–80].
Fibre type Tensile Young's Elongation (%) Specific Melting Aggregate is one of the major components of concrete. Conventional
strength modulus gravity point (°C) aggregates can be divided into carbonate aggregates and siliceous ag-
(MPa) (GPa) gregates [99,100]. They behave differently when subjected to high
temperatures. The literature [101] reported that the first specific heat
Steel 200–2760 200 0.5–35 7.8 1370
Glass 1034–3792 72 1.5–3.5 2.5–2.7 860
peak of carbonate aggregates was between 150 °C and 400 °C, while
PE ~690 0.14–0.41 ~10 0.95 141.4 that of siliceous aggregates was around 500 °C. When the temperature
PP 552–690 3.45 ~25 0.9 170 exceeded 600 °C, due to the dissociation of dolomite, carbonate de-
PVA 1000–1600 22–42 6–7 1.3 220–240 composition would produce carbon dioxide gas. Because of this dis-
Basalt 872–2800 40–89 3.15 2.8 1500–1700
sociation process, carbonate aggregate concrete could absorb a lot more
Carbon 1550–6960 159–965 2.5–3.2 1.8 over 3000
Nylon 750–1000 2.5–5.17 15–30 1.14 231–252 heat (10 times) than siliceous aggregate concrete, providing better fire
Jute 400–800 13–26.5 1.8 1.3–1.45 – resistance.
In addition to conventional aggregates, recycled aggregates have
also gained increasing interest in recent years for the sake of reducing
temperature, it is possible to classify them into two categories. One is environmental pollution. In the experimental tests of SFRC with both
the fibres with strong thermal stability, such as steel fibre, basalt fibre fine and coarse recycled concrete aggregates [102], a relative residual
and glass fibre, and the other is the fibres with poor thermal stability, compressive strength (the ratio between residual compressive strength
like PP fibre, PVA fibre and PE fibre. The residual tensile strength of fc at temperature T and compressive strength fc′ at room temperature
fibres with good thermal stability can be maintained at a relatively high T0), of 85% was obtained after exposure to 200 °C high temperature,
level when FRC is exposed to a high-temperature environment, which and that decreased to 59% and 31% respectively when subjected to
could prevent the occurrence of microcracks and continuously provide 400 °C and 600 °C temperatures. Guo et al. [103] reported that, with
strength to the cementitious matrix [81–83]. The fibres with poor recycled concrete aggregate and crumb rubber, the compressive
thermal stability may fail and melt at the early stage of heating strength and residual compressive strength of SFRC would decrease
(180 °C–300 °C), forming fine channels inside concrete, which creates slightly. Crumb rubber with 16% volume fraction would cause a 30%
an outlet for the water vapour decomposed by the calcium silicate decrease in the compressive strength of SFRC at room temperature and
hydrate (C-S-H) gel, leading to reduced internal pressure and better 25% reduction at 600 °C compared to SFRC without crumb rubber. In
heat resistance of FRC [84–86]. addition, waste glass can also be used as aggregate for concrete to en-
hance fire resistance [104]. Waste glass aggregate concrete was found
2.2. Replacement materials to have similar compressive strength at both room temperature and
high temperature, and when the temperature exceeded 600 °C, molten
Reactive powders, such as silica fume, fly ash and ground granu- glass could fill in the microcracks in concrete, so that the concrete
lated blast furnace slag, have often been used to partly replace ordinary microstructure was re-densified [105]. In the experimental test [106],
Portland cement in high performance fibre reinforced concrete. They the concrete compressive strength could increase by 100% at 700 °C by
usually have a small particle size which could produce concrete with adding 10% waste glass aggregates.
dense microstructure. Many recent studies have shown that the addi-
tion of reactive powders could improve the mechanical properties of 3. Heating and cooling methods
concrete at room temperature [87–89]. The addition of silica fume can
promote the process of secondary hydration, thereby increasing the C-S- To investigate the temperature-dependent material properties of
H and forming a denser microstructure [90]. It has been reported by FRC, heating tests are usually conducted in a furnace as shown in Fig. 2.
Tanyildizi and Coskun [87] that the concrete with 20% of silica fume Different heating methods would affect the measured characteristics of
would have the highest compressive strength and splitting tensile FRC. At present, two heating processes have been widely adopted by
strength at various temperatures, and a better performance of concrete researchers. One is to simulate the real fire condition, in which tem-
with silica fume was obtained at the temperature between 200 °C and perature is raised logarithmically to achieve target temperature
300 °C [55,91]. Similar to silica fume, the addition of 20% fly ash could [12,18,107]; and the other is to increase the temperature at a constant
lead to a better performance of concrete at room temperature, and it
has also been reported to have the highest compressive strength at
800 °C compared to those with 40% and 60% fly ash dosage [92].
Ground granulated blast furnace slag could also reduce the concrete
porosity and generate positive influence on the strength of concrete
[93–95]. In the study conducted by Gao et al. [31], the best replace-
ment ratios of GGBFS are 40% for high-performance concrete and 30%
for concrete reinforced with steel and PP fibres under both ambient and
elevated temperatures. Besides, slag, nanosilica, nanoclay and meta-
kaolin have also been used as replacement materials in concrete
[14,96,97]. Although reactive powder can generally enhance the per-
formance of FRC at room temperature, it does not always benefit FRC
when exposed to elevated temperatures. For example, the compressive
strengths of FRC with metakaolin and silica fume were found to be
higher than FRC without replacement material at room temperature,
whereas an opposite result was obtained when the specimens were
heated to 800 °C [49], which might be due to the more compact mi-
crostructure in FRC with MK and SF, resulting in higher internal stress
from water vapour. In addition, silica fume was found to have no or
even negative influence on the residual strength of concrete under high
temperature [42,98]. Fig. 2. FRC samples in furnace before testing.

3
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Fig. 3. ASTM E119 and ISO-834 standard fire curves.

Fig. 4. Proportions of different FRC reported in literature.

rate and then maintain at the target temperature [13,53,101]. To si- generated if cooling process is fast (e.g. cooling in water), which would
mulate the real fire situation, a variety of fire curves have been speci- cause damage to the microstructure, leading to a significant loss of
fied. The standard fire curves given by ASTM E119 and ISO-834, as compressive strength [40].
shown in Fig. 3, have been the most widely used, and the two curves are At present, residual mechanical properties of FRC have been focused
almost overlapped. Other standard fire curves, e.g. KSF 2257 in Korea in most of the reported experimental studies [70,110,119,120]. In fact,
and JIS A 1304 in Japan, are also available, and they are equivalent to material testing while heating could better describe the real material
ASTM E119 [12,108]. At present, this method is more commonly used behaviour under transient heating conditions. This is because inner
to test the spalling resistance of FRC materials, such as the tests re- tensile stresses introduced by the expansion of aggregates have a rising
ported in [12,69,107]. However, it should be noted that, as the stan- trend during heating, which may significantly influence the material
dard fire curves would cause obvious material spalling, it is difficult to strength [121]. However, as this method has higher requirements for
perform the strength test after heating. testing facilities, it has been presented in very few studies.
In general, the temperature increase rate of the first heating method
by following the standard fire curve is much faster than the second 4. Properties of FRC at elevated temperatures
method. The rapidly increased environmental temperature may result
in large temperature gradient and cause thermal damage to concrete, The effect of temperature on the mechanical properties of FRC has
which could lead to different thermal stresses in different regions. On been investigated and reported in a number of studies since 2000, while
the other hand, a constant and relatively lower heating rate is adopted the major focus has been on the FRC reinforced with steel fibre (SFRC)
more often by researchers [12,31,49,53,109–111] to investigate the and PP fibre (PFRC) (Fig. 4). Tables 2, 3 and 4 and Fig. 5 summarise the
temperature-dependent material properties of FRC, because an un- reported experimental tests on SFRC, PFRC and concrete reinforced
broken test sample is more likely to obtain after heating by using this with other fibres at elevated temperatures. The variables considered in
method. It is worth mentioning that, although the slow heating method these experimental studies included reinforcing fibres, replacement
can reduce the temperature gradient, it could not completely prevent materials, aggregates and testing methods.
the occurrence of spalling. This is because, in addition to the tem- The spalling resistance, compressive strength, tensile strength,
perature gradient, the very high internal vapour pressure may also lead elastic modulus, mass loss and microscopic change of FRC have been
to FRC spalling. At present, various heating speeds (between 0.5 °C/min investigated (Fig. 5). In most of the reported studies, the temperature
and 30 °C/min) have been reported in the previous studies, and the was raised at a constant speed, and the majority of heating rates em-
rates between 1 °C/min and 10 °C/min have been most widely selected ployed by researchers were ≤10 °C/min.
[112–118]. When the target temperature is reached, it is usually
maintained for a set period of time, so that the same temperature level 4.1. Compressive strength
can be obtained inside the test specimen. While different holding times
would as well affect the measured mechanical properties. Qadi and The compressive strength of FRC at room temperature has been
Zaidyeen [52] reported that longer heating time could result in further extensively investigated in the past. In general, the effect of fibres is
loss of strength. In general, when the method of increasing temperature insignificant. With the addition of steel and basalt fibres, the com-
at a constant rate is used, it is recommended that the temperature rising pressive strength was found to slightly increase, whereas PP fibre might
speed to be controlled at between 0.5 and 10 °C/min and maintained at lead to a decrease in FRC compressive strength [49]. As for FRC at
the peak temperature for 1–2 h to ensure the integrity of samples or elevated temperatures, the reported studies have been mainly focused
structures. on the FRC reinforced with steel fibre and PP fibre (Fig. 4). In this
In the experimental test, the cooling method would also affect the section, the temperature-dependent compressive strength of SFRC,
measured residual properties of cementitious material. In the study PFRC and FRC reinforced with hybrid fibres will be discussed.
conducted by Luo et al. [53], more strength loss was found in the
samples cooled in water. As water has higher heat transfer capacity and
4.1.1. Steel fibre reinforced concrete
specific heat compared to those of air, a faster temperature transfer
The effect of high temperature on the compressive strength of SFRC
would occur in the specimens cooled in water. On the other hand, since
has been reported in several previous studies [102,103,115,123,124].
concrete has a low thermal conductivity, a large temperature gradient is
Fig. 6 summarises the relative residual compressive strengths (fc/fc′) of

4
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Table 2
Experimental tests on SFRC subjected to elevated temperatures.
Ref. Published year Dimension of fibre Volume fraction (%) Heating method Replacement materials Test properties

Length (mm) Diameter (μm) Peak T Heating rate

(°C)

[115] 2000 25 417 0, 1 800 5–7 °C/min SF, FA fc

[53] 2000 25 417 0, 1 1100 5–7 °C/min SF, FA fc
[49] 2004 25 417 0, 1 800 2.5 °C/min MK, SF fc, E
[112] 2004 25 500 0, 0.3, 0.6 800 10 °C/min SF, FA fc, ft
[122] 2006 25 400 0, 1 1200 Standard fire fc, fft, E
[111] 2006 30 200 0, 0.5, 0.9, 1.25 800 10 °C/min SF fc, ft, spalling
[16] 2009 30 600 0, 0.5 700 5 °C/min SF, FA fc, ft, spalling
[91] 2011 12 175 1, 2, 3 900 2 °C/min SF, quartz powder fc, E
[110] 2011 38 114 0, 0.5 600 2 °C/min FA, slag fc, ft, E
[109] 2011 30 380 0, 0.38, 0.51 600 1 °C/min fc, ft, fft, E, spalling, mass
loss
[31] 2012 32.6 950 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 800 10 °C/min GGBFS ft
[123] 2012 13.2 220 0, 1, 2, 3 900 4 °C/min SF, slag fc, E
[124] 2012 13 220 1, 2 800 4 °C/min SF, slag fc, mass loss
[55] 2012 60 220 0, 1, 2, 3 800 5 °C/min SF, slag fc, ft
[103] 2014 32 710 1 600 8 °C/min N/A fc, E, mass loss
[102] 2014 32 800 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 600 2.5 °C/min N/A fc, E, mass loss
[125] 2014 6 150 0.8 900 10 °C/min N/A fc
[126] 2015 13.2 220 0, 1, 2, 3 800 5 °C/min SF, slag fc, E
[127] 2016 13 200 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 600 5 °C/min SF fc, E, spalling, mass loss
[128] 2016 60 900 0.5, 0.75 800 8 °C/min FA fc, ft, E
[107] 2017 30 380 0, 0.39, 0.77 900 0.5 °C/min and standard N/A fc, E, spalling, mass loss
fire
[39] 2017 10 200 0, 0.5 800 13.3 °C/min SF fc, fft, E, spalling
[98] 2018 13 200 0, 1 800 5 °C/min SF fc, E
[129] 2018 60 750 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1 900 5 °C/min SF, FA, slag fc, ft, E, mass loss
[70] 2018 13 160 0, 0.5 600 60 °C/min FA spalling
[119] 2019 60 900 0, 0.5, 1 700 3 °C/min N/A fc,
[100] 2019 25 500 0, 1, 3 800 10 °C/min FA fc, ft, E, mass loss
[120] 2019 12.7 150 0, 0.65, 1.28, 1.92, 350 30 °C/min Microsilica fc, fft, E
2.56
[96] 2019 25 550 0, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25 600 2.5 °C/min FA, nanosilica fc, ft
[46] 2019 15 200 0, 2 700 Standard fire SF fc, spalling
[86] 2019 13 220 0, 1, 2, 3 900 Standard fire SF fc, spalling, mass loss

Notes: fc is the compressive strength, ft the split tensile strength, fft the flexural tensile strength, and E the elastic modulus. Standard fire represents ISO-834 or ASTM
E119.

concrete reinforced with 1% steel fibres under elevated temperatures, the case. Less strength improvement or even negative influence can be
which are calculated based on the reported test data from literature observed in SFRC with 20% SF and 0–2% PVA fibres [127] and SFRC
[49,115,126]. It is clear that the residual compressive strength of SFRC with 30% FA, 22.5% slag and 7.5% SF [129] when the fibre dosages
is highly dependent on the heating temperature. In most cases, the re- increase from 0.5% to 1% and from 0 to 0.5% respectively. Based on the
lative compressive strength of SFRC almost linearly decreases with the data shown in Fig. 7a and b, the best performance could normally ob-
increase in temperature, and the rate of strength reduction may be af- tain from SFRC with 1.5% and 2% steel fibres. SFRC with 1–2% steel
fected by the replacement material. It can be seen that, when the fibres also showed improved compressive strength in other reported
temperature is relatively low (room temperature to 200 °C), the re- studies [53,91,98,103,124]. In addition, no significant influence of steel
duction rates of relative compressive strength are similar for all SFRC fibre dosage can be observed for SFRC with 20% SF and 10% slag [123]
samples. After that, the relative compressive strength of SFRC with 20% in Fig. 7a, and a fibre dosage of 2% shows the best residual compressive
silica fume and 10% slag [126] drops much quicker than the others, and strength at 600 °C.
the SFRC without replacement material shows the highest relative
compressive strength. 4.1.2. Polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete
At room temperature, the steel fibre volume fraction would affect As mentioned previously, PP fibre has also been one of the major
the compressive strength of SFRC. In the experimental study conducted focuses in the past as a reinforcing material for concrete. At room
by Zheng et al. [123,126], SFRC with 1% steel fibres showed the lowest temperature, the compressive strength of FRC can be improved by
compressive strength, whereas SFRC with 3% steel fibres was the adding a small amount of PP fibres [129]. When subjected to high
strongest among the three volume dosages (1%, 2% and 3%). When temperature, PP fibre could effectively reduce the spalling damage to
being heated at elevated temperatures, fibre dosage may also affect the FRC, leading to an improved residual compressive strength. To under-
compressive strength of SFRC. Fig. 7a and b shows the effects of steel stand the mechanical properties of PFRC after exposure to high tem-
fibre dosage on the relative residual compressive strength of SFRC at peratures, experimental data collected from literature
400 °C and 600 °C, respectively. It can be seen that, the effect of steel [49,52,98,102,103,115,123–127,129,134] are normalised and sum-
fibre varies in different samples and at different temperatures. Gen- marised in this section. Fig. 8a and b shows the temperature-dependent
erally speaking, steel fibres could enhance the material strength under relative residual compressive strength of FRC with PP fibres of 0.11%
high temperature, and the degree of improvement is dependent on the and 0.22% by volume respectively and Fig. 9a, b and c illustrates the
fibre dosage. At 400 °C, the relative residual compressive strength of effect of PP fibre dosage on the residual compressive strength after
SFRC shows an increasing trend with the increase in fibre volume do- exposed to 400 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C high temperatures, respectively.
sage. However, when the temperature reaches 600 °C, this is not always In Fig. 8a and b, most of the experimental results show that the

5
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Table 3
Experimental tests on PFRC subjected to elevated temperatures.
Ref. Published year Dimension of fibre Volume fraction (%) Heating method Replacement Test properties
materials
Length Diameter (μm) Peak T Heating rate
(mm) (°C)

[115] 2000 19 53 0, 0.22 800 5–7 °C/min SF, FA fc

[53] 2000 19 53 0, 0.22 1100 5–7 °C/min SF, FA fc
[13] 2001 19 50–150 0, 0.06, 0.13, 0.20, 0.28, 600 Standard fire SF Mass loss
0.33
[49] 2004 19 53 0, 0.11, 0.22 800 2.5 °C/min MK, SF fc, E
[112] 2004 15 100 0, 0.3, 0.6 800 10 °C/min SF, FA fc, ft
[130] 2004 12.5/20 0, 0.17, 0.28, 0.39 1050 Standard fire fc, spalling
[12] 2005 19 70 0.05, 0.1 800 Standard fire FA fc, spalling, mass loss
[116] 2006 6 18 0.17 600 1 °C/min Spalling
[111] 2006 20 20 0, 0.03, 0.06 800 10 °C/min SF fc, ft, spalling
[16] 2009 30 0, 0.05 700 5 °C/min SF, FA fc, ft, spalling
[131] 2011 3–30 40 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15 900 Standard fire SF, FA fc, spalling, mass loss
[110] 2011 20 0, 0.11 600 2 °C/min FA, slag fc, ft, E
[109] 2011 6 18 0, 0.11, 0.22 600 1 °C/min fc, ft, fft, E, spalling, mass
loss
[14] 2012 20 0, 0.11 800 2 °C/min FA, slag fc, ft, E
[31] 2012 19 0, 0.067, 0.1, 0.133 800 10 °C/min GGBFS ft
[124] 2012 18–80 0.1, 0.2 800 4 °C/min SF, slag fc, mass loss
[30] 2013 13 20 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 800 Standard fire fc, E, mass loss
[117] 2013 6/12 25 0, 0.11 600 5 °C/min fc, spalling
[52] 2014 19 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15 600 5–10 °C/min FA fc
[125] 2014 12 22 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 900 10 °C/min fc
[69] 2014 12 110 0, 0.15 400 1.7 °C/min spalling
[132] 2015 9 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2 350 3 °C/min SF fc, ft, fft
[107] 2017 6/12 32 0, 0.08, 0.17 900 0.5 °C/min and standard fc, E, spalling, mass loss
fire
[133] 2017 0, 0.16 600 Standard fire fc, ft, fft, E
[129] 2018 65 850 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 900 5 °C/min SF, FA, slag fc, ft, E, mass loss
[118] 2018 12 33 0, 0.33 400 5 °C/min SF spalling
[119] 2019 0.22 700 3 °C/min fc
[134] 2019 6/12 78 0, 0.11, 0.17, 0.22 600 6 °C/min fc, E
[96] 2019 10 150 0, 0.04, 0.08, 0.12, 0.16 600 2.5 °C/min FA, nanosilica fc
[46] 2019 12 42 0, 0.3, 0.5 700 Standard fire SF fc, spalling
[86] 2019 12 30 0, 0.22, 0.44,0.66 900 Standard fire SF fc, spalling, mass loss

Notes: fc is the compressive strength, ft the split tensile strength, fft the flexural tensile strength, and E the elastic modulus. Standard fire represents ISO-834 or ASTM
E119.

residual compressive strength of PFRC decreases with the increase of with 30% FA, 22.5% slag and 7.5% SF [129], while the maximum re-
peak temperature. While different behaviour is also observed in some sidual compressive strength is obtained at 300 °C. This phenomenon
cases. PFRC with 25% FA and 10% SF [124] shows an increasing trend might be due to the increased C-S-H caused by the accelerated hydra-
for the residual compressive strength before reaching 400 °C, after tion under elevated temperatures at the initial stage of heating process.
which the residual compressive strength drops quickly and finally to the Same behaviour was also reported in the experimental tests conducted
same level as the others. Similar performance can be found in PFRC by Drzymala et al. [133] on PFRC with 0.17% PP fibres and basalt

Table 4
Experimental tests on other fibre reinforced concrete subjected to elevated temperatures.
Fibre type Ref. Published year Dimension of fibre Volume fraction (%) Heating method Replacement Test properties
materials
Length Diameter (μm) Peak T (°C) Heating rate
(mm)

PVA fibre [131] 2011 6/12 16 0.05, 0.1 900 Standard fire SF, FA fc, spalling, mass loss
[69] 2014 4 12 0, 0.15 400 1.7 °C/min Spalling
[127] 2016 12 200 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 600 5 °C/min SF fc, E, spalling, mass
loss
[70] 2018 12 38 0, 1.5 600 60 °C/min FA Spalling
[100] 2019 12 39 0, 3 800 10 °C/min FA fc, ft, E, mass loss
Basalt fibre [97] 2018 6 13 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 250 – FA, nanoclay fc, ft, fft, mass loss
Carbon fibre [112] 2004 5 7 0, 0.3, 0.6 800 10 °C/min SF, FA fc, ft
[131] 2011 900 Standard fire SF, FA fc, spalling, mass loss
Cellulose [131] 2011 2.92 15 0.15 900 Standard fire SF, FA fc, spalling, mass loss
Nylon fibre [131] 2011 6–36 12 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 900 Standard fire SF, FA fc, spalling, mass loss
0.05
Jute fibre [69] 2014 12 10–30 0, 0.075 400 1.7 °C/min Spalling
[46] 2019 12 10–30 0, 0.3, 0.5 700 Standard fire SF fc, spalling

Notes: fc is the compressive strength, ft the split tensile strength, fft the flexural tensile strength, and E the elastic modulus. Standard fire represents ISO-834 or ASTM
E119.

6
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

fibres and 0.22% PP fibres, is slightly higher than that of PFRC, but
lower than that of SFRC at both room temperature and 800 °C high
temperature. In the experimental tests reported by Yermak et al. [107],
HFRC reinforced with steel and PP fibres showed higher residual
compressive strength from 20 °C to 300 °C compared to normal con-
crete. At 300 °C high temperature, an increase of 16% was even ob-
tained for the residual compressive strength of FRC with 0.77% steel
fibres and 0.08% PP fibres. Similarly, in the study reported by Zheng
et al. [124], all FRC specimens with hybrid steel and PP fibres showed
an increased residual compressive strength from 20 °C to 200 °C com-
pared to the strength at room temperature, and at 300 °C temperature,
they still had equivalent compressive strength to that under ambient
condition. Fire resistance of FRC reinforced with blended fibres can be
affected by various factors, including fibre types, shapes, dosages and
concrete mix designs. At present, most of experimental tests have been
focused on the synergistic work of steel fibre and PP fibre, and the
reported research for other HFRC is still limited.
Generally, different grades of concrete behave differently when
being heated. In Varona et al.'s experiment [11], three groups of NSC
Fig. 5. Mechanical properties of FRC reported in literature.
(containing 1.5 kg/m3 PP fibres) and three groups of HSC (containing
2.5 kg/m3 PP fibres) were tested. After treated by high temperature up
chippings aggregate, in which the compressive strength firstly increased to 825 °C, the average relative residual compressive strength of the HSC
with the increasing temperature till 350 °C, and then slightly decreased groups (29%) was higher than that of the NSC groups (15%). However,
between 350 °C and 450 °C, followed by a rapid drop when the tem- the NSC groups (48.4%) performed better than the HSC groups (36.3%)
perature exceeded 450 °C. at 700 °C in Sideris et al.'s research [16] when the same PP fibre dosage
As can be seen in Fig. 9a, b and c, the effect of PP fibre on the was applied. The opposite results indicate that the grade of concrete
residual compressive strength of FRC vary a lot. For PFRC with 22% FA may not be a significant influencing factor on FRC fire resistance. The
[52], 0.05% fibre dosage has the best performance, and PFRC with 30% main difference between NSC and HSC in terms of high temperature
FA, 22.5% slag and 7.5% SF [129] also shows a similar result. While in performance is that HSC is prone to spalling at high temperatures.
other test results, the effect of PP fibre dosage seems to be insignificant While this phenomenon can be alleviated by adding fibres with low
[124,134]. At 800 °C, 0.2% PP fibre provides higher relative com- melting points. The details of spalling phenomenon can be found in
pressive strength for PFRC with 25% FA and 10% SF [124], while a Section 4.6.
decreasing trend is observed for PFRC with 10% silica fume [49]. This
difference may cause by the different curing and heating method. In
addition, the relative residual compressive strengths of PFRC with dif- 4.2. Tensile strength
ferent lengths PP fibres (6 mm and 12 mm) [134] are also shown in
Fig. 9a and b. It can be seen that PFRC has similar relative compressive For cementitious material, tensile strength is strongly related to the
when the fibre volume is < 0.15%, and for PFRC with 0.2% PP fibre generation and propagation of microcracks [135]. The addition of fi-
dosage, the group with 12 mm PP fibres shows higher strength than the bres in concrete could effectively control the microcracks and improve
group with 6 mm PP fibres. the tensile strength of the material [15]. At room temperature, the
tensile strength of concrete could be increased with the addition of high
tensile strength fibres (e.g. steel fibre and carbon fibre), while the ad-
4.1.3. Hybrid fibre reinforced concrete
dition of fibres with relatively low tensile strength, such as PP fibre,
In fibre reinforced concrete, different types of reinforcing fibres may
would have less effect on the improvement of concrete tensile strength
play different roles in fire resistance, e.g. steel fibres limit the genera-
[136]. Additionally, fibre length may also influence the tensile strength
tion and expansion of microcracks, and PP fibres provide channels for
of FRC. Generally speaking, longer fibres could better enhance the
releasing water vapour. To bring the advantages of different fibres,
tensile strength of FRC [137]. In this section, the temperature-depen-
hybrid fibre reinforced concrete has attracted researchers' interest. The
dent tensile strength of FRC is presented, and the effects of various fi-
combined effect of steel fibre and PP fibre on the performance of FRC
bres (i.e. steel fibre, PP fibre and hybrid fibres) are discussed.
has been reported in various studies [107,124,125]. According to Poon
et al.'s results [49], the compressive strength of HFRC with 1% steel

Fig. 6. Relative residual compressive strength of FRC with 1% steel fibres at elevated temperatures.

7
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Fig. 7. Effect of steel fibre volume fraction on relative residual compressive strength of SFRC after heated to (a) 400 °C and (b) 600 °C.

4.2.1. Steel fibre reinforced concrete and the crack generation and propagation could be limited by steel fi-
SFRC is known to have enhanced tensile strength and strain capacity bres [140]. In the experimental tests conducted by Ahmad et al. [120],
at room temperature, which is mainly attributed to the bridging effect the addition of steel fibre was found to increase the tensile strength of
of steel fibres [138,139]. To achieve better strengthening effect and concrete at both room temperature and high temperature up to 800 °C.
avoid fibre balling, steel fibre dosages of 1–2% have been commonly Fig. 10 shows the relative splitting tensile strength of SFRC with 1%
used in the reported studies [15,55,67,127]. Recently, it has been re- steel fibre addition under various temperatures. In general, the splitting
ported that, at high temperatures, SFRC also performed better than tensile strength is gradually decreased at the temperature between
normal concrete [120], owing to the better thermal stability of steel 20 °C and 300 °C, and a significant drop can be found when the tem-
fibres than the product of hydration in the cementitious matrix [31], perature exceeds 300 °C. For SFRC with 40% GGBFS [31], the loss of

Fig. 8. Relative residual compressive strength of FRC with (a) 0.11% PP fibres and (b) 0.22% PP fibres at elevated temperatures.

8
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Fig. 9. Effect of PP fibre volume fraction on relative residual compressive strength of PFRC after heated to (a) 400 °C, (b) 600 °C and (c) 800 °C.

Fig. 10. Relative residual splitting tensile strength of FRC with 1% steel fibres at elevated temperatures.

splitting tensile strength is slow between room temperature and 400 °C. tensile strengths are calculated and compared in Fig. 11a and b. In
After that, the strength loss accelerates, and at 800 °C, the relative re- general, concrete reinforced with steel fibres performs much better than
sidual tensile strength is similar to the SFRC with 20% SF and 10% slag those without fibre. For example, with the addition of 0.6% steel fibres,
[55]. Besides, for SFRC with 30% FA, 22.5% slag and 7.5% SF [129], the residual splitting tensile strengths of SFRC with 8.3% SF and 8.3%
the splitting tensile strength of the sample increased by 6% at 300 °C FA [112] at 400 °C and 600 °C are around 87% and 59% of the strength
high temperature. The slight increase in strength might be due to the at room temperature respectively, which are much higher than those of
variance of the test blocks. the concrete without reinforcing fibre (39% and 18% respectively).
Similar to SFRC in compression, one of the major influencing factors Similar behaviour can also be observed from the other test results in
of SFRC fire resistance in tension is the steel fibre dosage [55,129]. In both figures. In addition, for SFRC with 20% SF and 10% slag [55], 3%
this paper, the test results for the residual splitting tensile strengths of steel fibre addition provides greater residual splitting tensile strength
SFRC with various fibre dosages at 400 °C and 600 °C are collected from than those with 1% and 2% steel fibres at 800 °C. For SFRC with 40%
the existing literature [31,55,96,112], and the relative residual splitting GGBFS [31], 1% is the best steel fibre dosage at 400 °C. When SFRC

9
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Fig. 11. Effect of steel fibre volume fraction on relative residual splitting tensile strength of SFRC after heated to (a) 400 °C and (b) 600 °C.

contains 30% FA, 22.5% slag and 7.5% SF [129], the residual tensile PFRC with different fibre length [134], and longer fibre performs
strength has increased with the addition of steel fibres, and 1% steel better. However, this influence is insignificant in general. It is worth
fibre dosage provides better tensile strength after heated to 600 °C. noting that, when PFRC with 30% FA, 22.5% slag and 7.5% SF [129] is
Additionally, when FRC is mixed with 0–0.4% colloidal nanosilica and heated to 600 °C, the effect of fibre dose on the residual strength has
0–0.16% PP fibres [96], 0.5% of steel fibre addition could increase the fluctuated, which might be due to the uneven distribution of fibres,
relative splitting tensile strength under both 400 °C and 600 °C. At leading to anomalies in the test results. Although PP fibre has shown
present, although various test data have been reported, a solid con- limited effect on the residual tensile strength of FRC, it greatly helps
clusion with regard to the optimal steel fibre volume fraction still reduce spalling failure. In an experimental test of FRC reinforced with
cannot be drawn. 0.3% to 1.2% PP fibres, all specimens showed better spalling resistance
than the concrete without fibre, while the relative residual strengths
were found to be similar when being heated to 350 °C [132].
4.2.2. Polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete
PP fibre has been reported to potentially increase the strength and
modulus of FRC at room temperature [141], and it can also be used to 4.2.3. Hybrid fibre reinforced concrete
improve the fire resistance of concrete [43,52,84]. At present, a large As mentioned in Section 4.1, hybrid fibre reinforced concrete has
number of experimental tests have been carried out to investigate the attracted increasing interest nowadays, as the advanced mechanical
tensile strength of PFRC under fire condition [15,83,134,142]. Com- performance can be achieved by taking the advantages of different
pared to concrete without fibre, the tensile strength loss of FRC re- reinforcing fibres. Liu and Tan [144] reported that at 300 °C, concrete
inforced with PP fibres was reported to be reduced at elevated tem- reinforced with steel and PVA fibres had higher tensile strength than
peratures [14,129]. Fig. 12a and b shows the temperature-dependent those with PVA fibres only. In Deshpande et al.'s study [100], the
relative splitting tensile strength of PFRC with 0.11% and 0.22% PP uniaxial tensile strength of concrete with PVA fibres and/or steel fibres
fibres respectively. It can be seen that the tensile strength of PFRC decreased slightly from 20 °C to 200 °C. After that, the specimens with
generally decreases with increasing temperature. When the peak tem- PVA fibres only had a sharp decrease in tensile strength, and those with
perature is 600 °C, the residual strength is about 20% to 40% of the steel fibres showed a better performance, which might be attributed to
strength at room temperature. Differently, for PFRC with 30% FA, the fact that PVA fibres lost strength quickly once they reached their
22.5% slag and 7.5% SF [129], an increased in the residual tensile melting point (about 230 °C), while steel fibres could still function
strength of PFRC was observed from room temperature to 100 °C, which properly by limiting microstructure damages and continue to provide
might be attributed to the increased C-S-H from secondary hydration strength. In the experimental tests conducted by Gao et al. [31], the
inside concrete due to the external heating. best result was obtained for HFRC with 1% steel and 0.1% PP fibres
In addition, PP fibre dosage would also influence the residual tensile among all test specimens (i.e. normal concrete, SFRC, PFRC and HFRC).
strength of FRC [132,143]. Fig. 13a and b summarises the relationship FRC reinforced with various fibre combinations (carbon-steel, carbon-
between PP fibre volume fraction and the relative splitting tensile PP and steel-PP) were tested by Chen and Liu [112]. It was found that,
strength of PFRC after heated to 400 °C and 600 °C respectively. In when exposed to 800 °C, the steel-PP group had higher relative splitting
general, a clear trend of the effect of PP fibre on the relative splitting tensile strength (37%) than carbon-PP group (31%), carbon-steel group
tensile strength of PFRC cannot be concluded. As can be seen in (25%), and the control group with no fibre (8%). The higher strength
Fig. 13a, at 400 °C, the relative residual splitting tensile strength of obtained for steel-PP group and carbon-PP group might be attributed to
PFRC with 40% GGBFS [31] decreases from 93% to 81.6% when 0.1% the melting of PP fibres, which could provide expelling channels to
PP fibres are added. While an opposite behaviour is observed in PFRC water vapour from the decomposition of C-S-H matrix, and at the same
with 6% SF, 20% FA and 17% slag [14]. In addition, as shown in time, carbon and steel fibres could delay the generation and develop-
Fig. 13a and b, the influence of PP fibre varies with fibre dosage in ment of microcracks. Mahapatra and Barai [96] reported that, with the

10
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Fig. 12. Relative residual splitting tensile strength of FRC with (a) 0.11% PP fibres and (b) 0.22% PP fibres at elevated temperatures.

addition of steel fibres and PP fibres, the relative residual tensile 4.3. Elastic modulus
strength of FRC increased from 25% to an average of 41%. Based on the
abovementioned studies on the hybrid fibre reinforced concrete under Unlike homogeneous materials, the modulus of elasticity of concrete
elevated temperatures, it can be concluded that a higher residual generally depends on the bulk composition of the material and the
strength and better spalling resistance can be achieved by combining nature of the transition zone [34]. Due to the change of microstructure
fibres with high tensile strength (e.g. carbon fibre and steel fibre) and and rupture of chemical bond under high temperature, the elastic
those with low melting point (e.g. PP fibre and PVA fibre). modulus of FRC could decrease significantly [14,133]. For FRC at room
temperature, the addition of fibres has a negligible effect on the elastic

Fig. 13. Effect of PP fibre volume fraction on relative residual splitting tensile strength of PFRC after heated to (a) 400 °C and (b) 600 °C.

11
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

modulus of material [34]. Whereas, due to the improved microstructure speeds up when temperature exceeds 200 °C. The curves with 6 mm and
of FRC during heating process, the residual elastic modulus is enhanced 12 mm PP fibres [134] have the most significant downward trend,
[14]. which may be due to the poor fire resistance of the concrete proportion
It was reported by Khaliq and Kodur [14] that, to delay the modulus (0.3 water to bind ratio) selected for the test specimens, and the short
loss, PP fibres could be used to reinforce FRC, as the thermal damage air curing time (24 h). Additionally, Sanchayan and Foster [127] re-
could be reduced by the melting of PP fibres. Their experiment showed ported that the change of elastic modulus was highly dependent on the
that the relative modulus of elasticity was 22% higher in the group with damage of cementitious matrix, and the relative residual elastic mod-
PP fibres at 400 °C than that in the group without PP fibre. However, ulus for FRC with 1% PVA fibres and 1% steel fibres decreased linearly
Eidan et al. [134] and Pliya et al. [109] had an opposite view that PP with the increase of temperature. In the tests carried out by Wu et al.
fibre had little influence on the residual elastic modulus of FRC, and the [145], the loss of elastic modulus involved three steps. The first step
effects of fibre dosage and fibre type became insignificant when the was from room temperature to 200 °C, in which the modulus loss was
peak temperature exceeded 600 °C. Wu et al. [145] reported that after very slow; the second step was from 200 °C to 600 °C, where the
exposed to 900 °C high temperature, the addition of 1% steel fibres modulus decreased rapidly; and when the temperature exceeded
could slightly increase the modulus of FRC, while PP fibre had little 600 °C, the modulus loss rate slowed down again. This phenomenon
influence on the modulus. In the experiment conducted by Poon et al. was consistent with the findings reported in [14].
[49], the modulus of elasticity of FRC at 800 °C could be greatly en-
hanced by adding 1% of steel fibres, and it performed better than FRC 4.4. Toughness
reinforced with PP fibres and hybrid fibres. Yemark et al. [107] re-
ported that, compared to normal concrete, an 8% increment in residual Toughness is also an important property of cementitious material,
elastic modulus was found in FRC reinforced with both steel and PP which determines the energy absorption capacity of the material
fibres after exposed to 750 °C high temperature. When being heated to [146,147]. The toughness of concrete is generally defined as the area
800 °C, the elastic modulus of FRC with 1.5% steel fibre addition enclosed by the stress-strain curve. In general, the toughness of FRC
showed a significant increase compared to concrete without fibre (from decreases with the increase in temperature due to the loss of com-
0.74 GPa to 2.06 GPa). Tai et al. [91] reported that more steel fibres pressive strength [42]. The addition of steel fibres has been found to
(from 1% to 3%) would lead to higher residual elastic modulus, have a positive influence on the FRC toughness at room temperature
whereas the relative elastic modulus was the highest when 1% steel [148,149], while the effect of PP fibres is insignificant [49]. As for FRC
fibre dosage was employed. at high temperature, PP fibre was also found to have little effect on the
Fig. 14a and b shows the relationships between temperature and residual toughness in Kim et al.'s work [30]. Zheng et al. [123] and
relative residual elastic modulus of FRC calculated based on the re- Ahmad et al. [120] reported that an increase in steel fibre dosage would
ported test data from literature. As can be seen from Fig. 14a that the lead to an increase in both toughness and residual toughness. In addi-
elastic modulus of SFRC with 18.3% SF and 21.3% quartz powder [91] tion, in the study carried out by Li and Xu [150], a better toughness,
falls slowly between 20 °C and 200 °C, after which it drops significantly fracture energy and abrasion resistance could be achieved by using
till 800 °C. While probably due to the use of waste rubber particles basalt fibre as reinforcing material under both room temperature and
[103] or recycled aggregates [102,103] in the mix, the modulus of high temperature, even with a small amount of addition.
these curves decrease rapidly between 20 °C and 200 °C. In addition, Fig. 15 shows the relative residual toughness of FRC under elevated
SFRC without active powder [49] shows the highest relative residual temperatures. After being heated to 600 to 800 °C, although FRC re-
modulus of about 30% to 40% at 800 °C. In Fig. 14b, the modulus inforced with 1% steel fibres [49] shows the lowest relative toughness
decrease rate of the curve with 6% SF, 20% FA and 17% slag [14] is compared to normal concrete and PFRC with 0.22% PP fibres as shown
relatively low at temperature between 20 °C and 200 °C, and then it in Fig. 15, the absolute toughness of SFRC is actually higher than the

Fig. 14. Effect of temperature on the relative elastic modulus of FRC with (a) 1% steel fibres and (b) 0.11% PP fibres.

12
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Fig. 15. Relative toughness of FRC at elevated temperatures.

other two. The curve with 1% steel fibre, recycle aggregate and rubber accelerated heating failure of concrete [118,165].
crumb [102] shows a fluctuating trend, which might be caused by the One of the major causes of FRC thermal spalling is the thermal
variations in the test samples and the errors introduced during the ex- expansion of FRC during heating process [166]. Due to the low thermal
perimental tests. For FRC with 1% steel fibre and recycle aggregate conductivity of cementitious material, thermal stress would be gener-
[103], the toughness of SFRC has an increase from room temperature to ated by a large temperature gradient between the heating surface and
200 °C, and starts to decrease after 200 °C. The increasing trend before cool centre, leading to the damage of the material. Furthermore, the
200 °C may be caused by the increased peak strain with the rising increased pore pressure inside FRC is also a major contributor to the
temperature. However, with a similar mix proportion in [98], a dif- spalling damage. Under high temperature, water vapour is generated
ferent trend is obtained, which may be attributed to the poor thermal due to the vaporization of bound water. Since the microstructure of FRC
stability of the recycled concrete aggregate employed in the test. is usually dense, the vapour pressure is difficult to be expelled, which
may significantly increase the pore pressure in microstructure and
cause FRC spalling [13,18,115]. Compared to the thermal stress caused
4.5. Permeability
by temperature gradient, the increased pore pressure has been con-
sidered to have greater impact on FRC spalling [167].
Permeability is one of the important characteristics of FRC. High
Besides, heating rate will also influence the pore pressure inside
permeability usually means high porosity, which lowers the strength of
FRC, and hence generates an impact on the risk of concrete spalling.
material [114]. High permeability also allows chloride ions to easily
Generally speaking, the spalling risk is positively correlated with
enter the interior of concrete matrix, thus reduces the durability of FRC
heating rate. While exceptions also exist, such as cracks caused by high
[17]. However, in high-temperature environments, low permeability
temperature would help release water vapour and protect FRC from
may cause FRC spalling.
spalling. Bangi and Horiguchi [18] reported that, compared to a low
In general, permeability is closely related to changes in temperature
heating rate of 5 °C/min, rapid heating (ISO-834 curve) would result in
and composition of materials. It was found that the pore structure be-
a similar pore pressure at 10 mm depth from sample surface, and a
came coarse after the cementitious material is exposed to high tem-
doubled maximum pore pressure at 50 mm depth from sample surface,
perature [151,152], which would lead to the decrease in strength and
which was due to a lot of water vapour generated by the rapid tem-
increase in permeability [114,153,154]. Bošnjak et al. [17] reported
perature rise before capillary pores being vacated. However, Phan's
that the permeability of PFRC was instantaneously increased by > 100
research [168] showed contrary results that the 25 °C/min heating rate
times when the temperature was between 80 °C and 130 °C, and its
produced a lower maximum pore pressure than the 5 °C/min heating
residual permeability was maintained at a slightly higher level than it
rate, which might be attributed to the early microcracks introduced by
was before heating. On the other hand, the addition of PP fibres was
the higher heating rate. It is worth mentioning here that the moisture
found to greatly increase the permeability of the material when the
content in material also affects the spalling resistance of concrete. The
concrete was being heated (85 times increment for 0.33% PP fibre
higher the moisture content, the more likely the concrete will spalling
addition at 200 °C) [13]. In the experimental test carried out by Zeiml
[115]. This is because higher vapour pressure could be generated in
et al. [116], the permeability of PFRC with 0.18% PP fibre addition was
concrete pore structure during heating. Generally speaking, curing
three times higher than that without PP fibre at temperature between
method would affect the moisture content of FRC, and the FRC moisture
140 °C and 200 °C, and the gap between NC and PFRC was decreasing
content could be higher when being cured in water environment
when the temperature was further increased.
compared to steam curing.
In previous studies, the addition of PP fibre has been found to ef-
4.6. Spalling resistance fectively improve the spalling resistance of concrete [12,130,169,170].
In the standard fire tests conducted by Han et al. [12], the specimens
FRC spalling may occur when the material undergoes extreme were free from spalling when the volume fraction of PP fibre exceeded
conditions, such as rapid temperature rise, extreme heating, explosive 0.05%, while spalling failure was observed in all specimens without PP
shock and high chloride ion concentration [50,118,155–158]. In fact, fibre. Similarly, after exposure to 600 °C, spalling was found to be
spalling does not always take place in ordinary concrete under high avoided in high-performance concrete reinforced with 0.22% PP fibres
temperature [159]. As high-strength FRC usually has lower water to [13], and with a PP fibre dosage of 0.44%, spalling phenomenon was
binder ratio (w/b) compared to normal strength concrete, which means not observed in the ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) during an
its porosity is lower, it might not be able to provide sufficient pathway ISO-834 standard fire test [86]. On the other hand, Zheng et al. [55]
for water vapour to leave concrete, thus spalling is easier to occur and Pakravan et al. [75] argued that steel fibre could enhance the
[16,96,107,160–162]. Therefore, to investigate the fire resistance of spalling resistance of FRC by limiting and delaying crack development.
FRC, thermal spalling is often used as an important indicator to describe However, an opposite view was found in Yemark et al.'s study [107]
FRC performance under high temperature [12,86,163,164]. When that FRC with steel fibres had a higher risk of spalling due to the re-
spalling takes place at the outer surface of concrete, the inner part duced cracks which would hinder the release of pore pressure caused by
would be directly subjected elevated temperatures, leading to

13
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Fig. 16. Mass loss of FRC at elevated temperatures.

water vapour. It was reported by Sideris et al. [16] that, although the after 300 °C, the value of relative residual compressive strength turns to
addition of steel fibre was not able to eliminate the spalling risk of FRC, 0 due to the spalling failure at 300 °C. Whereas the group with 0.2% to
it could increase the temperature at which spalling occurred. In addi- 0.3% PP fibres shows an increasing trend from 100 °C to around 550 °C,
tion, the spalling resistance of FRC was found to be affected by fibre and then gradually decrease until 800 °C. This result shows that a
length, fibre dosage and fibre melting point, whereas the fibre diameter certain amount of PP fibre can improve FRC spalling resistance during
had little influence on the spalling of FRC under high temperature fire. The curves suggested by Zheng et al. [123,124] and Tai et al. [91]
[131]. show a similar trend. Better FRC performance is obtained from Tai
et al.'s equation [91], which may be due to the lower temperature in-
4.7. Mass loss creasing rate in Tai et al.'s experiment (2 °C/min) compared to the
heating rate adopted by Zheng et al. [123,124] (4 °C/min).
Mass loss is measured by the ratio of the lost mass after exposure to The reported equations and their respective key influencing factors
high temperature to the original mass at room temperature. When FRC are summarised in Table 5. It shall be noted that the regression equa-
is exposed to high temperature, the physicochemical changes would tion proposed by Ju et al. [132] generates a much higher relative re-
result in mass loss during heating. Fig. 16 shows the mass loss of various sidual compressive strength of 2.07 at 150 °C, which means that the
FRC from the reported literature [98,100,102,103,124,129]. It can be compressive strength of FRC has doubled at this temperature, which is
seen that higher peak temperature would cause greater loss of FRC inconsistent with the test results. An abnormal result is also obtained
mass. Also, the majority of mass loss occurs between 20 °C and 200 °C, from the equation developed by Tai et al. [91], which considers the
which is mainly because of the breakdown of C-S-H (calcium silicate effect of steel fibre dosage. The relative residual compressive strength of
hydrate) and the loss of physically absorbed water [102,171,172]. FRC with 3% steel fibres is calculated to be increased with temperature
However, FRC with 30% FA, 22.5% slag, 7.5% SF, crumb rubber and till 800 °C and ended up with 728%. Besides, Zheng et al.'s piecewise
1% steel fibre [129] performs differently from the others, in which the function [123] has a discontinuity at 700 °C, causing a significant data
mass loss of FRC is very little before reaching 300 °C. In addition, when jump before and after the breakpoint.
the concrete is mixed with fibres with low melting points, the loss of In addition to compressive strength, the reduction equations for FRC
fibres also contributes to the FRC mass loss, as demonstrated in the FRC splitting tensile strength have also been reported in several studies
with 55% FA and 2% PVA fibres [100], which has greater mass loss [31,55,132,173,174], and they are listed in Table 6. Fig. 18 shows the
than the others at 800 °C. temperature-dependent relative residual tensile strength curves plotted
based on the regression equations from literature. It can be found that
almost all curves are linearly descending with the increase of tem-
5. Regression equations for FRC at elevated temperatures
perature till 800 °C. Besides, Li and Liu [174] proposed a piecewise
linear regression equation for FRC with hybrid steel and PP fibres.
The temperature-dependent mechanical properties of FRC
However, unreasonable values are obtained from this equation for the
have been described using various regression equations by
temperature between 700 °C and 900 °C, where the relative residual
researchers based on their respective experimental data
tensile strength jumps from 32% to 328% at the discontinuity point
[31,49,55,91,123,124,126,132,173,174]. Fig. 17 shows the relation-
(700 °C).
ships between high temperature and relative residual compressive
Fig. 19 shows the relationships between temperature and FRC re-
strength calculated using the reported regression equations. The two
lative residual elastic modulus calculated using the existing equations
regression equations provided by Zheng et al. [173] overlap from 20 °C
from literature, and their formulas are listed in Table 7. In general, the
to 100 °C and then they deviate from each other. The group with <
elastic modulus of FRC decreases with increasing temperature. The
0.1% PP fibre has a decreasing curve between 100 °C and 300 °C, and

Fig. 17. Temperature-dependent relative residual compressive strength calculated using existing equations.

14
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Table 5
Reported regression equations for relative residual compressive strength of FRC.
Regression equations Key influencing factors References

Steel fibre (1–2%), PP fibre (0.1–0.2%), SF (20%), slag [124]

fc
fc
= 0.96 + 2.09 ( )
T
1000
8.71 ( )
T 2
1000
+ 6.06 ( ) , 20°C
T 3
1000
T 900°C, R2 = 0.994
(10%)
0.99 + 7.08 × 10 3T + 7.62 × 10 2Vf (25°C T 150°C, 0 Vf 1.2% PP fibre (0–1.2%), SF (15%) [132]
fc
= 0.83 + 2.07 × 10 3T + 1.32 × 10 2Vf (150°C T 300°C, 0 Vf 1.2%
fc
2.25 2.77 × 10 3T + 0.11Vf (300°C T 350°C, 0 Vf 1.2%
T Steel fibre (1–3%), SF (20%) and slag (10%) [123]
0.99 + 0.60 , 20°C T 120°C, R2 = 0.999
1000
T
1.09 0.28 , 120°C T 300°C, R2 = 0.999
1000
T
2.29 4.28 , 300°C T 400°C, R2 = 0.998
fc 1000
=
fc T
0.89 0.79 , 400°C T 600°C, R2 = 0.996
1000
T
2.14 2.86 , 600°C T 700°C, R2 = 0.995
1000
T
0.07 + 0.30 , 700°C T 900°C, R2 = 0.989
1000
Steel fibre (1–3%), SF (20%), GGBFS (10%) [126]
fc
fc
= 0.99 1.02 ( ), 20°C
T
1000
T 800°C

T T 2
T 3 Steel fibre (1–3%), SF (18%), quartz powder (21%) [91]
0.946 + 2.855 8.375 + 4.648 , Vf = 1%
1000 1000 1000
2 3
fc T T T
= 1.059 + 1.053 4.223 + 2.066 , Vf = 2% ,25°C T
fc 1000 1000 1000
2 3
T T T
0.984 + 9.782 3.923 + 1.919 , Vf = 3%
1000 1000 1000
900°C.
T Steel fibre (0–3%), SF (20%), slag (10%) [55]
1.06 3.04 , 20°C T 100°C, R2 = 0.94
1000
fc
= T T 2 T 3
fc 0.796 0.644 + 3.08 3.62 , 100°C T 800°C, R2 =
1000 1000 1000
0.87.
T PP fibre (0–0.3%) [173]
1.109 5.43 , 20°C T 100°C
1000
fc
= 2
fc
T T
0.448 + 2.17 8.31 , 100°C T 300°C 0 Vf 0.1%
1000 1000
0, 300°C T 800°C,
T
1.109 5.43
, 20°C T 100°C,
fc 1000
= 0.2%
fc T T 2 T 3
0.552 0.105 + 2.72 3.28 , 100°C T 800°C,
1000 1000 1000
Vf 0.3%
1.0, 20°C, Steel fibre (0–0.5%), PP fibre (0–0.11%), FA (20%), slag [110]
T (15%)
fc 0.99 2.0 , 100°C T 200°C,
= 1000
fc
T
0.73 0.5 , 200°C T 800°C.
1000

three curves from the equations proposed by Tai et al. [91] show a proposed by Khaliq and Kodur [110] in their study. However, those
similar descending trend in the figure, and the elastic modulus of FRC equations are not continuous between 20 and 100 °C, and an error
with 1% steel fibres decreases slower than those with 2% and 3% steel (negative elastic modulus) is obtained from the equation for SFRC after
fibres. While, at 800 °C, they have similar relative residual elastic 200 °C.
modulus. The curve obtained from Zheng et al.'s equation [126] shows
a sharp drop at the beginning, and maintains a steady decline as the 6. Conclusions
temperature rises and ends with 3% residual elastic modulus at 800 °C.
However, the curve calculated using Zheng et al. [123] equation shows In this paper, a comprehensive review on the behaviour of FRC at
an increasing trend between 20 °C and 150 °C, then drops to around elevated temperatures is conducted. The effects of reinforcing fibres,
18% residual strength at 800 °C. According to the information given by replacement materials and aggregates on the fire resistance of FRC have
Zheng et al. [123] and Zheng et al. [126], almost the same mix pro- been presented, and different heating and cooling methods, as well as
portion and steel fibre content were used to prepare SFRC in these two their influences on the tested results, have been discussed. The tem-
studies, however regression curves with very different trends were perature-dependent mechanical properties of FRC reinforced with var-
obtained (one increased first and dropped quickly after the peak; the ious fibres are carefully studied in this paper, including permeability,
other kept falling). This might be due to the different heating speeds spalling resistance, compressive strength, tensile strength, elastic
and peak temperature holding lengths adopted in the two studies. Be- modulus and toughness. Based on the literature review, the following
sides, a set of equations for elastic modulus of SFRC and PFRC were conclusions can be drawn.

15
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Table 6
Reported regression equations for relative residual tensile strength of FRC.
Regression equations Key influencing factors References

Steel fibre (0–3%), SF (20%), slag (10%) [55]

ft
ft
= 0.98 0.925 ( ), 20°C
T
1000
T 800°C, R2 = 0.95.
PP fibre (0–0.3%) [173]
0.82 ( ), 20°C
ft T
= 0.972 T 800°C.
ft 1000

1.04 + 1.0 × 10 3T + 0.12Vf (25°C T 150°C, 0 Vf 1.2% PP fibre (0–1.2%), SF (15%) [132]
ft
= 0.81 + 2.78 × 10 3T + 5.81 × 10 2Vf (150°C T 300°C, 0 Vf 1.2%
ft
2.05 1.56 × 10 3T + 0.13Vf (300°C T 350°C, 0 Vf 1.2%.

0.97 + 4.67 × 10 4T + 0.13Vf (25°C T 150°C, 0 Vf 1.2%

fft
= 0.75 + 1.80 × 10 3T + 0.18Vf (150°C T 300°C, 0 Vf 1.2%
fft
2.57 4.35 × 10 3T + 0.28Vf (300°C T 350°C, 0 Vf 1.2%.

T T 2 Steel fibre (1–2%), PP fibre (0.1–0.2%), SF (20%), slag (10%) [174]

1.01 0.44 0.78 , 20°C T 700°C, R2 = 0.997,
ft 1000 1000
=
ft T
0.32 + 4.17 , 700°C T 900°C, R2 = 0.995.
1000
ft 1 Steel fibre (0–2%), PP fibre (0–0.13%), GGBFS (0–50%) [31]
= , 20°C T 800°C
ft 1 + 8 × 10 8 × (T 20)2.68
1.0, 20°C, PP fibre (0–0.11%), FA (20%), slag (15%) [110]
ft
= T
ft 0.99 , 100°C T 800°C.
1000
1.0, 20°C, Steel fibre (0.5%), PP fibre (0–0.11%), FA (20%), slag (15%)
ft
= T
ft 1.1 , 100°C T 800°C.
1000

Fig. 18. Temperature-dependent relative residual splitting tensile strength calculated using existing equations.

Fig. 19. Temperature-dependent relative residual elastic modulus calculated using existing equations.

• The fire resistance of FRC can be affected by various factors, such as temperature gradient and internal pore pressure are reduced,
replacement materials, aggregates and reinforcing fibres (e.g. fibre leading to improved spalling resistance.
type, shape, and volume fraction). Also, different heating and • Spalling phenomenon generally occurs at the temperature between
cooling methods would result in discrepancies in the measured 200 °C and 400 °C, and more severe concrete spalling could be ob-
properties. served when the heating rate is fast.
• Fibres with high tensile strength, such as steel fibres, could limit the • The compressive strength and elastic modulus of FRC behave simi-
formation and development of microcracks through bridging effect larly at elevated temperatures. When the temperature is lower than
during heating and cooling. While the fibres with low melting 200 °C, they are comparable to the states at room temperature, and
points, like PP fibres, could provide channels for water vapour to then they decrease slowly between 200 and 350 °C, followed by a
escape at high temperature, so that the damages caused by rapid drop when temperature exceeds 350 °C.

16
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

Table 7
Reported regression equations for relative residual elastic modulus of FRC.
Regression equations Key influencing factors References

T T 2 Steel fibre (1–3%), SF (20%), slag (10%) [123]

0.96 + 2.12 8.70 , 20°C T 400°C, R2 = 0.996,
E 1000 1000
=
E T T 2
1.80 4.83 + 3.41 , 400°C T 900°C, R2 = 0.974.
1000 1000
E
= 0.012 + 1.089 exp( 0.00388T ), 20°C T 800°C. Steel fibre (1–3%), SF (20%), GGBS (10%) [126]
E

T T 2
T 3 Steel fibre (1–3%), SF (18%), quartz powder (21%) [91]
1.011 + 0.721 6.797 + 5.626 , Vf = 0.01
1000 1000 1000
2 3
E T T T
= 1.026 + 0.418 6.564 + 5.832 , Vf = 0.02 ,25°C T
E 1000 1000 1000
2 3
T T T
1.043 + 0.023 5.487 + 5.200 , Vf = 0.03
1000 1000 1000
900°C.
1.0, 20°C, PP fibre (0–0.11%), FA (20%), slag (15%) [110]
E
= T
E 0.84 , 100°C T 800°C.
1000
1.0, 20°C, Steel fibre (0.5%), PP fibre (0–0.11%), FA (20%), slag (15%)
T
E 1.1 2.0 , 100°C T 200°C,
= 1000
E
T
0.88 8.0 , 200°C T 800°C.
1000

• Adding steel fibre usually leads to an increase of compressive FRC material in structural design.
strength at both room temperature and high temperature, while the
effect of PP fibre is insignificant. Declaration of competing interest
• The tensile strength of FRC decreases as the temperature rises. FRC
containing steel fibres has higher residual tensile strength than those The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
without steel fibres. PP fibre also contributes to the enhancement of interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
FRC tensile strength at high temperature, but the strengthening ef- ence the work reported in this paper.
fect is generally lower than steel fibre.
• Fibres with high tensile strength and excellent thermal stability, like Acknowledgements
steel fibre and basalt fibre, could significantly improve the tough-
ness of FRC. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
• The mass loss of FRC is generally not related to the reinforcing fibre. agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
However, when the heating temperature is higher than the boiling
point of the fibre, the mass of the fibre should be considered in the References
mass loss.
• Due to different heating and cooling methods employed in the re- [1] J. Branston, S. Das, S.Y. Kenno, C. Taylor, Mechanical behaviour of basalt fibre
ported studies, the obtained FRC mechanical properties vary a lot. It reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 124 (2016) 878–886, https://doi.org/
is important that a standard testing method is established to facil- 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.08.009.
[2] S.T. Kang, J.-I. Choi, K.T. Koh, K.S. Lee, B.Y. Lee, Hybrid effects of steel fiber and
itate future research.
•
microfiber on the tensile behavior of ultra-high performance concrete, Compos.
Many experimental studies on the fire resistance of HFRC with steel Struct. 145 (2016) 37–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2016.02.075.
and PP fibres have been reported, while those on the HFRC re- [3] U. Larisa, L. Solbon, B. Sergei, Fiber-reinforced concrete with mineral fibers and
nanosilica, Procedia Eng 195 (2017) 147–154, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.
inforced with other fibres are still very limited. It would be bene- 2017.04.537.
ficial to explore the synergistic effect of different types of fibres on [4] M. Khan, M. Ali, Use of glass and nylon fibers in concrete for controlling early age
the improvement of fire resistance of FRC. micro cracking in bridge decks, Constr. Build. Mater. 125 (2016) 800–808,

• At present, most of the predicting equations for temperature-de-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.08.111.
[5] R. Solhmirzaei, V.K.R. Kodur, Modeling the response of ultra high performance
pendent FRC mechanical properties are based on their respective fiber reinforced concrete beams, Procedia Eng 210 (2017) 211–219, https://doi.
mix designs, and a comprehensive formula which could take into org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.11.068.
[6] L. Yang, X. Lin, R.J. Gravina, Evaluation of dynamic increase factor models for
account different influencing factors is still not available.
•
steel fibre reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 190 (2018) 632–644, https://
For normal concrete, Eurocode 2 Part 1-2 [175] provides a general doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.085.
rule of structure fire design. Several methods can be adopted to [7] L. Yang, X. Lin, H. Li, R.J. Gravina, A new constitutive model for steel fibre re-
prevent high strength concrete from spalling, which include adding inforced concrete subjected to dynamic loads, Compos. Struct. 221 (2019)
110849, , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2019.04.021.
2 kg/m3 propylene fibres into concrete mixture. In addition to the [8] L. Yang, C. Qi, X. Lin, J. Li, X. Dong, Prediction of dynamic increase factor for steel
structural thermal stability, relative residual compressive strength of fibre reinforced concrete using a hybrid artificial intelligence model, Eng. Struct.
normal concrete with different grades (55–90 MPa) at various 189 (2019) 309–318, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.03.105.
[9] Q. Ma, R. Guo, Z. Zhao, Z. Lin, K. He, Mechanical properties of concrete at high
temperatures are also recommended in Eurocode 2 as a reference for temperature—a review, Constr. Build. Mater. 93 (2015) 371–383, https://doi.org/
structural design. However, due to the complexity of FRC material 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.131.
composition and the diversity of performance, Eurocode 2 can only [10] M. Li, C. Qian, W. Sun, Mechanical properties of high-strength concrete after fire,
Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (2004) 1001–1005, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.
be used as a rough estimate of FRC performance and is not suitable 2003.11.007.
for structural design purpose. At present, as the design codes/stan- [11] F.B. Varona, F.J. Baeza, D. Bru, S. Ivorra, Influence of high temperature on the
dards for FRC structures subjected to fire are still not available, it is mechanical properties of hybrid fibre reinforced normal and high strength con-
crete, Constr. Build. Mater. 159 (2018) 73–82, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
recommended that fire resistance tests are performed when using

17
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

conbuildmat.2017.10.129. temperature of high performance concrete made with reactive and waste inert
[12] C. Han, Y. Hwang, S. Yang, N. Gowripalan, Performance of spalling resistance of powders, Eng. Sci. Tech. 20 (2017) 536–541, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.
high performance concrete with polypropylene fiber contents and lateral con- 2016.12.004.
finement, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (2005) 1747–1753, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [40] J.G. Jawahar, D. Lavanya, C. Sashidhar, Performance of fly ash and GGBS based
cemconres.2004.11.013. geopolymer concrete in acid environment, Int. J. Res. Sci. Innovation (IJRSI) 3
[13] P. Kalifa, G. Chene, C. Galle, High-temperature behaviour of HPC with poly- (2016) 101–104.
propylene fibres: from spalling to microstructure, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (2001) [41] Y. Xu, Y.L. Wong, C.S. Poon, M. Anson, Impact of high temperature on PFA con-
1487–1499, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00596-8. crete, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (2001) 1065–1073, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-
[14] W. Khaliq, V. Kodur, High temperature mechanical properties of high-strength fly 8846(01)00513-0.
ash concrete with and without fibers, ACI Mater. J. 109 (2012). [42] A. Behnood, H. Ziari, Effects of silica fume addition and water to cement ratio on
[15] R. Serrano, A. Cobo, M.I. Prieto, M. de las Nieves González, Analysis of fire re- the properties of high-strength concrete after exposure to high temperatures, Cem.
sistance of concrete with polypropylene or steel fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 122 Concr. Compos. 30 (2008) 106–112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.
(2016) 302–309, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.055. 2007.06.003.
[16] K.K. Sideris, P. Manita, E. Chaniotakis, Performance of thermally damaged fibre [43] Y. Li, K.H. Tan, E. Yang, Influence of aggregate size and inclusion of polypropylene
reinforced concretes, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2009) 1232–1239, https://doi.org/ and steel fibers on the hot permeability of ultra-high performance concrete
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.08.009. (UHPC) at elevated temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. 169 (2018) 629–637,
[17] J. Bošnjak, J. Ožbolt, R. Hahn, Permeability measurement on high strength con- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.105.
crete without and with polypropylene fibers at elevated temperatures using a new [44] J.-h. Xie, Y.-c. Guo, L.-s. Liu, Z.-h. Xie, Compressive and flexural behaviours of a
test setup, Cem. Concr. Res. 53 (2013) 104–111, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. new steel-fibre-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete with crumb rubber, Constr.
cemconres.2013.06.005. Build. Mater. 79 (2015) 263–272, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.
[18] M.R. Bangi, T. Horiguchi, Pore pressure development in hybrid fibre-reinforced 01.036.
high strength concrete at elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (2011) [45] S.L. Yang, S.G. Millard, M.N. Soutsos, S.J. Barnett, T.T. Le, Influence of aggregate
1150–1156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.07.001. and curing regime on the mechanical properties of ultra-high performance fibre
[19] D. Choumanidis, E. Badogiannis, P. Nomikos, A. Sofianos, The effect of different reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2009) 2291–2298,
fibres on the flexural behaviour of concrete exposed to normal and elevated https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.11.012.
temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 129 (2016) 266–277, https://doi.org/10. [46] M. Ozawa, S. Subedi Parajuli, Y. Uchida, B. Zhou, Preventive effects of poly-
1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.10.089. propylene and jute fibers on spalling of UHPC at high temperatures in combination
[20] K.M.A. Hossain, M. Lachemi, M. Sammour, M. Sonebi, Strength and fracture en- with waste porous ceramic fine aggregate as an internal curing material, Constr.
ergy characteristics of self-consolidating concrete incorporating polyvinyl alcohol, Build. Mater. 206 (2019) 219–225, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.
steel and hybrid fibres, Constr. Build. Mater. 45 (2013) 20–29, https://doi.org/10. 02.056.
1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.054. [47] A.M. Marques, J.R. Correia, J. De Brito, Post-fire residual mechanical properties of
[21] B. Mobasher, S.P. Shah, Test parameters for evaluating toughness of glass-fiber concrete made with recycled rubber aggregate, Fire Saf. J. 58 (2013) 49–57,
reinforced concrete panels, ACI Mater. J. 86 (1989) 448–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.02.002.
[22] S.P. Shah, D. Ludirdja, J.I. Daniel, B. Mobasher, Toughness-durability of glass fiber [48] V.K.R. Kodur, M. Dwaikat, A numerical model for predicting the fire resistance of
reinforced concrete systems, ACI Mater. J. 85 (1988) 352–360. reinforced concrete beams, Cem. Concr. Compos. 30 (2008) 431–443, https://doi.
[23] B. Arisoy, H. Wu, Material characteristics of high performance lightweight con- org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.08.012.
crete reinforced with PVA, Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (2008) 635–645, https://doi. [49] C.S. Poon, Z.H. Shui, L. Lam, Compressive behavior of fiber reinforced high-per-
org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.10.010. formance concrete subjected to elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (2004)
[24] A. Noushini, B. Samali, K. Vessalas, Effect of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibre on 2215–2222, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.02.011.
dynamic and material properties of fibre reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. [50] G. Choe, G. Kim, M. Yoon, E. Hwang, J. Nam, N. Guncunski, Effect of moisture
49 (2013) 374–383, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.08.035. migration and water vapor pressure build-up with the heating rate on concrete
[25] J. Sim, C. Park, Characteristics of basalt fiber as a strengthening material for spalling type, Cem. Concr. Res. 116 (2019) 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
concrete structures, Compos. Part B Eng. 36 (2005) 504–512, https://doi.org/10. cemconres.2018.10.021.
1016/j.compositesb.2005.02.002. [51] J. Zhao, J.-J. Zheng, G.-F. Peng, K. van Breugel, Numerical analysis of heating rate
[26] T. Bhat, V. Chevali, X. Liu, S. Feih, A.P. Mouritz, Fire structural resistance of basalt effect on spalling of high-performance concrete under high temperature condi-
fibre composite, Compos. Part A 71 (2015) 107–115, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tions, Constr. Build. Mater. 152 (2017) 456–466, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compositesa.2015.01.006. conbuildmat.2017.07.023.
[27] H. Savastano Jr., S.F. Santos, M. Radonjic, W.O. Soboyejo, Fracture and fatigue of [52] A.N.S. Al Qadi, S.M. Al Zaidyeen, Effect of fibre content and specimen shape on
natural fiber-reinforced cementitious composites, Cem. Concr. Compos. 31 (2009) residual strength of polypropylene fibre self-compacting concrete exposed to ele-
232–243, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.02.006. vated temperatures, J. King. Saud. Univ. Eng. Sci. 26 (2014) 33–39, https://doi.
[28] M. Colombo, M. Di Prisco, R. Felicetti, Mechanical properties of steel fibre re- org/10.1016/j.jksues.2012.12.002.
inforced concrete exposed at high temperatures, Mater. Struct. 43 (2010) [53] X. Luo, W. Sun, S.Y.N. Chan, Effect of heating and cooling regimes on residual
475–491, https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-009-9504-0. strength and microstructure of normal strength and high-performance concrete,
[29] P. Sukontasukkul, W. Pomchiengpin, S. Songpiriyakij, Post-crack (or post-peak) Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (2000) 379–383, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)
flexural response and toughness of fiber reinforced concrete after exposure to high 00264-1.
temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. 24 (2010) 1967–1974, https://doi.org/10. [54] J.D. Ríos, C. Leiva, M.P. Ariza, S. Seitl, H. Cifuentes, Analysis of the tensile fracture
1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.04.003. properties of ultra-high-strength fiber-reinforced concrete with different types of
[30] Y.-s. Kim, T.-g. Lee, G.-y. Kim, An experimental study on the residual mechanical steel fibers by X-ray tomography, Mater. Des. 165 (2019) 107582, , https://doi.
properties of fiber reinforced concrete with high temperature and load, Mater. org/10.1016/j.matdes.2019.107582.
Struct. 46 (2013) 607–620, https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-012-9918-y. [55] W. Zheng, B. Luo, Y. Wang, Compressive and tensile properties of reactive powder
[31] D. Gao, D. Yan, X. Li, Splitting strength of GGBFS concrete incorporating with steel concrete with steel fibres at elevated temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 41
fiber and polypropylene fiber after exposure to elevated temperatures, Fire Saf. J. (2013) 844–851, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.066.
54 (2012) 67–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2012.07.009. [56] X. Lin, Numerical simulation of blast responses of ultra-high performance fibre
[32] Z. Wu, C. Shi, W. He, L. Wu, Effects of steel fiber content and shape on mechanical reinforced concrete panels with strain-rate effect, Constr. Build. Mater. 176 (2018)
properties of ultra high performance concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 103 (2016) 371–382, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.066.
8–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.11.028. [57] K. Schneider, A. Michel, M. Liebscher, L. Terreri, S. Hempel, V. Mechtcherine,
[33] D.-Y. Yoo, N. Banthia, S.-T. Kang, Y.-S. Yoon, Effect of fiber orientation on the rate- Mineral-impregnated carbon fibre reinforcement for high temperature resistance
dependent flexural behavior of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete, of thin-walled concrete structures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 97 (2019) 68–77, https://
Compos. Struct. 157 (2016) 62–70, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2016. doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.12.006.
08.023. [58] Y. Goldfeld, O. Rabinovitch, B. Fishbain, T. Quadflieg, T. Gries, Sensory carbon
[34] V. Afroughsabet, L. Biolzi, T. Ozbakkaloglu, High-performance fiber-reinforced fiber based textile-reinforced concrete for smart structures, J. Intel. Mater. Syst.
concrete: a review, J. Mater. Sci. 51 (2016) 6517–6551, https://doi.org/10.1007/ Struct. 27 (2016) 469–489, https://doi.org/10.1177/1045389X15571385.
s10853-016-9917-4. [59] M. Chen, P. Gao, F. Geng, L. Zhang, H. Liu, Mechanical and smart properties of
[35] T. Gupta, S. Chaudhary, R.K. Sharma, Mechanical and durability properties of carbon fiber and graphite conductive concrete for internal damage monitoring of
waste rubber fiber concrete with and without silica fume, J. Clean. Prod. 112 structure, Constr. Build. Mater. 142 (2017) 320–327, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
(2016) 702–711, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.07.081. conbuildmat.2017.03.048.
[36] C.-T. Liu, J.-S. Huang, Fire performance of highly flowable reactive powder con- [60] A. Sassani, H. Ceylan, S. Kim, K. Gopalakrishnan, A. Arabzadeh, P.C. Taylor,
crete, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2009) 2072–2079, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Influence of mix design variables on engineering properties of carbon fiber-mod-
conbuildmat.2008.08.022. ified electrically conductive concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 152 (2017) 168–181,
[37] M. Abid, X. Hou, W. Zheng, R.R. Hussain, High temperature and residual prop- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.172.
erties of reactive powder concrete – a review, Constr. Build. Mater. 147 (2017) [61] J.-C. Mindeguia, P. Pimienta, A. Noumowé, M. Kanema, Temperature, pore
339–351, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.083. pressure and mass variation of concrete subjected to high temperature—experi-
[38] H.-s. Jang, H.-s. So, S. So, The properties of reactive powder concrete using PP mental and numerical discussion on spalling risk, Cem. Concr. Res. 40 (2010)
fiber and pozzolanic materials at elevated temperature, J. Build. Eng. 8 (2016) 477–487, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.10.011.
225–230, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2016.09.010. [62] A.B. Kizilkanat, N. Kabay, V. Akyüncü, S. Chowdhury, A.H. Akça, Mechanical
[39] M.H. Ali, Y.Z. Dinkha, J.H. Haido, Mechanical properties and spalling at elevated properties and fracture behavior of basalt and glass fiber reinforced concrete: an

18
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

experimental study, Constr. Build. Mater. 100 (2015) 218–224, https://doi.org/ [89] M. Jalal, A. Pouladkhan, O.F. Harandi, D. Jafari, Comparative study on effects of
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.10.006. Class F fly ash, nano silica and silica fume on properties of high performance self
[63] Z. Zhang, Q. Zhang, Matrix tailoring of Engineered Cementitious Composites compacting concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 94 (2015) 90–104, https://doi.org/10.
(ECC) with non-oil-coated, low tensile strength PVA fiber, Constr. Build. Mater. 1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.001.
161 (2018) 420–431, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.072. [90] K.-Q. Yu, J.-T. Yu, J.-G. Dai, Z.-D. Lu, S.P. Shah, Development of ultra-high per-
[64] A. Caggiano, S. Gambarelli, E. Martinelli, N. Nisticò, M. Pepe, Experimental formance engineered cementitious composites using polyethylene (PE) fibers,
characterization of the post-cracking response in hybrid steel/polypropylene fiber- Constr. Build. Mater. 158 (2018) 217–227, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 125 (2016) 1035–1043, https://doi.org/ conbuildmat.2017.10.040.
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.08.068. [91] Y.-S. Tai, H.-H. Pan, Y.-N. Kung, Mechanical properties of steel fiber reinforced
[65] S. Spadea, I. Farina, A. Carrafiello, F. Fraternali, Recycled nylon fibers as cement reactive powder concrete following exposure to high temperature reaching 800 C,
mortar reinforcement, Constr. Build. Mater. 80 (2015) 200–209, https://doi.org/ Nucl. Eng. Des., 241 (2011) 2416-2424. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.01.075. 2011.04.008.
[66] A. Razmi, M.M. Mirsayar, On the mixed mode I/II fracture properties of jute fiber- [92] A. Nadeem, S.A. Memon, T.Y. Lo, The performance of Fly ash and Metakaolin
reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 148 (2017) 512–520, https://doi.org/ concrete at elevated temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 62 (2014) 67–76, https://
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.034. doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.02.073.
[67] ACI Committee 544, Report on Fiber Reinforced Concrete, 4 (1982), p. 11. [93] H. Yazıcı, M.Y. Yardımcı, S. Aydın, A.Ş. Karabulut, Mechanical properties of re-
[68] V. Fiore, T. Scalici, G. Di Bella, A. Valenza, A review on basalt fibre and its active powder concrete containing mineral admixtures under different curing re-
composites, Compos. Part B Eng. 74 (2015) 74–94, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. gimes, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2009) 1223–1231, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compositesb.2014.12.034. conbuildmat.2008.08.003.
[69] M. Ozawa, H. Morimoto, Effects of various fibres on high-temperature spalling in [94] S. Kumar, R. Kumar, A. Bandopadhyay, T.C. Alex, B. Ravi Kumar, S.K. Das,
high-performance concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 71 (2014) 83–92, https://doi. S.P. Mehrotra, Mechanical activation of granulated blast furnace slag and its effect
org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.068. on the properties and structure of portland slag cement, Cem. Concr. Compos. 30
[70] J.-C. Liu, K.H. Tan, Mechanism of PVA fibers in mitigating explosive spalling of (2008) 679–685, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2008.05.005.
engineered cementitious composite at elevated temperature, Cem. Concr. Compos. [95] S.C. Pal, A. Mukherjee, S.R. Pathak, Investigation of hydraulic activity of ground
93 (2018) 235–245, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.07.015. granulated blast furnace slag in concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (2003) 1481–1486,
[71] M.M. Hilles, M.M. Ziara, Mechanical behavior of high strength concrete reinforced https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(03)00062-0.
with glass fiber, Eng. Sci. Tech. (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2019.01. [96] C.K. Mahapatra, S.V. Barai, Temperature impact on residual properties of self-
003. compacting based hybrid fiber reinforced concrete with fly ash and colloidal nano
[72] S. Liu, D. Zhu, Y. Ou, Y. Yao, C. Shi, Impact response of basalt textile reinforced silica, Constr. Build. Mater. 198 (2019) 120–132, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
concrete subjected to different velocities and temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. conbuildmat.2018.11.155.
175 (2018) 381–391, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.193. [97] M.H. Niaki, A. Fereidoon, M.G. Ahangari, Experimental study on the mechanical
[73] J. Militký, V.r. Kovačič, J. Rubnerova, Influence of thermal treatment on tensile and thermal properties of basalt fiber and nanoclay reinforced polymer concrete,
failure of basalt fibers, Eng. Fract. Mech. 69 (2002) 1025–1033, https://doi.org/ Compos. Struct. 191 (2018) 231–238, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.
10.1016/S0013-7944(01)00119-9. 2018.02.063.
[74] P. Behera, V. Baheti, J. Militky, P. Louda, Elevated temperature properties of [98] J. Xie, Z. Zhang, Z. Lu, M. Sun, Coupling effects of silica fume and steel-fiber on the
basalt microfibril filled geopolymer composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 163 (2018) compressive behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete after exposure to elevated
850–860, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.152. temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. 184 (2018) 752–764, https://doi.org/10.1016/
[75] H.R. Pakravan, M. Latifi, M. Jamshidi, Hybrid short fiber reinforcement system in j.conbuildmat.2018.07.035.
concrete: a review, Constr. Build. Mater. 142 (2017) 280–294, https://doi.org/10. [99] B. Georgali, P.E. Tsakiridis, Microstructure of fire-damaged concrete. A case study,
1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.059. Cem. Concr. Compos. 27 (2005) 255–259, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[76] Z. Wang, J. Ju, J. Yang, Z. Ma, D. Liu, K. Cui, H. Yang, J. Chang, N. Huang, L. Li, cemconcomp.2004.02.022.
The non-equilibrium phase diagrams of flow-induced crystallization and melting [100] A.A. Deshpande, D. Kumar, R. Ranade, Influence of high temperatures on the
of polyethylene, Sci. Rep. 6 (2016) 32968, , https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32968. residual mechanical properties of a hybrid fiber-reinforced strain-hardening ce-
[77] M. Kalaj, M.S. Denny Jr., K.C. Bentz, J.M. Palomba, S.M. Cohen, Nylon–MOF mentitious composite, Constr. Build. Mater. 208 (2019) 283–295, https://doi.org/
composites through postsynthetic polymerization, Angewandte Chem 58 (2019) 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.02.129.
2336–2340, https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201812655. [101] V.K.R. Kodur, M.A. Sultan, Effect of temperature on thermal properties of high-
[78] M. Safiuddin, M. Yakhlaf, K.A. Soudki, Key mechanical properties and micro- strength concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 15 (2003) 101–107, https://doi.org/10.
structure of carbon fibre reinforced self-consolidating concrete, Constr. Build. 1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2003)15:2(101).
Mater. 164 (2018) 477–488, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12. [102] G.M. Chen, Y.H. He, H. Yang, J.F. Chen, Y.C. Guo, Compressive behavior of steel
172. fiber reinforced recycled aggregate concrete after exposure to elevated tempera-
[79] K. Shirvanimoghaddam, S.U. Hamim, M. Karbalaei Akbari, S.M. Fakhrhoseini, tures, Constr. Build. Mater. 71 (2014) 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
H. Khayyam, A.H. Pakseresht, E. Ghasali, M. Zabet, K.S. Munir, S. Jia, J.P. Davim, conbuildmat.2014.08.012.
M. Naebe, Carbon fiber reinforced metal matrix composites: fabrication processes [103] Y.-c. Guo, J.-h. Zhang, G.-m. Chen, Z.-h. Xie, Compressive behaviour of concrete
and properties, Compos. Part A 92 (2017) 70–96, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. structures incorporating recycled concrete aggregates, rubber crumb and re-
compositesa.2016.10.032. inforced with steel fibre, subjected to elevated temperatures, J. Clean. Prod. 72
[80] B.-J. Kim, Y. Eom, O. Kato, J. Miyawaki, B.C. Kim, I. Mochida, S.-H. Yoon, (2014) 193–203, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.036.
Preparation of carbon fibers with excellent mechanical properties from isotropic [104] X. Yu, Z. Tao, T.-Y. Song, Z. Pan, Performance of concrete made with steel slag and
pitches, Carbon 77 (2014) 747–755, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2014.05. waste glass, Constr. Build. Mater. 114 (2016) 737–746, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
079. conbuildmat.2016.03.217.
[81] G.M. Giaccio, R.L. Zerbino, Mechanical behaviour of thermally damaged high- [105] T.-C. Ling, C.-S. Poon, S.-C. Kou, Influence of recycled glass content and curing
strength steel fibre reinforced concrete, Mater. Struct. 38 (2005) 335, https://doi. conditions on the properties of self-compacting concrete after exposure to elevated
org/10.1007/BF02479299. temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 34 (2012) 265–272, https://doi.org/10.1016/
[82] M.-X. Xiong, J.Y.R. Liew, Mechanical behaviour of ultra-high strength concrete at j.cemconcomp.2011.08.010.
elevated temperatures and fire resistance of ultra-high strength concrete filled [106] R. Yu, D.V. van Onna, P. Spiesz, Q.L. Yu, H.J.H. Brouwers, Development of ultra-
steel tubes, Mater. Des. 104 (2016) 414–427, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes. lightweight fibre reinforced concrete applying expanded waste glass, J. Clean.
2016.05.050. Prod., 112 (2016) 690-701. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.07.082.
[83] V.M. de Alencar Monteiro, L.R. Lima, F. de Andrade Silva, On the mechanical [107] N. Yermak, P. Pliya, A.L. Beaucour, A. Simon, A. Noumowé, Influence of steel and/
behavior of polypropylene, steel and hybrid fiber reinforced self-consolidating or polypropylene fibres on the behaviour of concrete at high temperature: spalling,
concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 188 (2018) 280–291, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. transfer and mechanical properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 132 (2017) 240–250,
conbuildmat.2018.08.103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.120.
[84] A. Noumowe, Mechanical properties and microstructure of high strength concrete [108] K. Chung, S. Park, S. Choi, Material effect for predicting the fire resistance of
containing polypropylene fibres exposed to temperatures up to 200 C, Cem. Concr. concrete-filled square steel tube column under constant axial load, J. Constr. Steel
Res. 35 (2005) 2192–2198, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.03.007. Res. 64 (2008) 1505–1515, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2008.01.002.
[85] J. Xiao, H. Falkner, On residual strength of high-performance concrete with and [109] P. Pliya, A.L. Beaucour, A. Noumowé, Contribution of cocktail of polypropylene
without polypropylene fibres at elevated temperatures, Fire Saf. J. 41 (2006) and steel fibres in improving the behaviour of high strength concrete subjected to
115–121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2005.11.004. high temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011) 1926–1934, https://doi.org/10.
[86] Y. Li, K.H. Tan, E.-H. Yang, Synergistic effects of hybrid polypropylene and steel 1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.064.
fibers on explosive spalling prevention of ultra-high performance concrete at [110] W. Khaliq, V. Kodur, Thermal and mechanical properties of fiber reinforced high
elevated temperature, Cem. Concr. Compos. 96 (2019) 174–181, https://doi.org/ performance self-consolidating concrete at elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr.
10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.11.009. Res. 41 (2011) 1112–1122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.06.012.
[87] H. Tanyildizi, A. Coskun, Performance of lightweight concrete with silica fume [111] G.-F. Peng, W.-W. Yang, J. Zhao, Y.-F. Liu, S.-H. Bian, L.-H. Zhao, Explosive
after high temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (2008) 2124–2129, https://doi. spalling and residual mechanical properties of fiber-toughened high-performance
org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.07.017. concrete subjected to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 723–727,
[88] C.-S. Poon, S.C. Kou, L. Lam, Compressive strength, chloride diffusivity and pore https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.12.014.
structure of high performance metakaolin and silica fume concrete, Constr. Build. [112] B. Chen, J. Liu, Residual strength of hybrid-fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete
Mater. 20 (2006) 858–865, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.07.001. after exposure to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (2004) 1065–1069,

19
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.11.010. [138] A. Abrishambaf, J.A.O. Barros, V.M.C.F. Cunha, Tensile stress–crack width law for
[113] C.-S. Poon, S. Azhar, M. Anson, Y.-L. Wong, Performance of metakaolin concrete at steel fibre reinforced self-compacting concrete obtained from indirect (splitting)
elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 25 (2003) 83–89, https://doi.org/ tensile tests, Cem. Concr. Compos. 57 (2015) 153–165, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
10.1016/S0958-9465(01)00061-0. cemconcomp.2014.12.010.
[114] C.-S. Poon, S. Azhar, M. Anson, Y.-L. Wong, Comparison of the strength and [139] L. Xu, L. Huang, Y. Chi, G. Mei, Tensile behavior of steel-polypropylene hybrid
durability performance of normal- and high-strength pozzolanic concretes at ele- fiber-reinforced concrete, ACI Mater. J. 113 (2016) 219, https://doi.org/10.
vated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (2001) 1291–1300, https://doi.org/10. 14359/51688641.
1016/S0008-8846(01)00580-4. [140] G.M. Chen, H. Yang, C.J. Lin, J.F. Chen, Y.H. He, H.Z. Zhang, Fracture behaviour
[115] Y.N. Chan, X. Luo, W. Sun, Compressive strength and pore structure of high-per- of steel fibre reinforced recycled aggregate concrete after exposure to elevated
formance concrete after exposure to high temperature up to 800 °C, Cem. Concr. temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 128 (2016) 272–286, https://doi.org/10.
Res. 30 (2000) 247–251, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00240-9. 1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.10.072.
[116] M. Zeiml, D. Leithner, R. Lackner, H.A. Mang, How do polypropylene fibers im- [141] P.S. Song, S. Hwang, B.C. Sheu, Strength properties of nylon- and polypropylene-
prove the spalling behavior of in-situ concrete? Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) fiber-reinforced concretes, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (2005) 1546–1550, https://doi.
929–942, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.12.018. org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.06.033.
[117] K.K. Sideris, P. Manita, Residual mechanical characteristics and spalling resistance [142] P.N. Hiremath, S.C. Yaragal, Performance evaluation of reactive powder concrete
of fiber reinforced self-compacting concretes exposed to elevated temperatures, with polypropylene fibers at elevated temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 169
Constr. Build. Mater. 41 (2013) 296–302, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat. (2018) 499–512, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.020.
2012.11.093. [143] S.L. Suhaendi, T. Horiguchi, Effect of short fibers on residual permeability and
[118] D. Zhang, A. Dasari, K.H. Tan, On the mechanism of prevention of explosive mechanical properties of hybrid fibre reinforced high strength concrete after heat
spalling in ultra-high performance concrete with polymer fibers, Cem. Concr. Res. exposition, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 1672–1678, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
113 (2018) 169–177, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.08.012. cemconres.2006.05.006.
[119] H. Caetano, G. Ferreira, J.P.C. Rodrigues, P. Pimienta, Effect of the high tem- [144] J.-C. Liu, K.H. Tan, Fire resistance of strain hardening cementitious composite
peratures on the microstructure and compressive strength of high strength fibre with hybrid PVA and steel fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 135 (2017) 600–611,
concretes, Constr. Build. Mater. 199 (2019) 717–736, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.204.
conbuildmat.2018.12.074. [145] B. Wu, X.-p. Su, H. Li, J. Yuan, Effect of high temperature on residual mechanical
[120] S. Ahmad, M. Rasul, S.K. Adekunle, S.U. Al-Dulaijan, M. Maslehuddin, S.I. Ali, properties of confined and unconfined high-strength concrete, ACI Mater. J. 99
Mechanical properties of steel fiber-reinforced UHPC mixtures exposed to elevated (2002) 399–407.
temperature: Effects of exposure duration and fiber content, Compos. Part B Eng. [146] K.H. Mo, K.K.Q. Yap, U.J. Alengaram, M.Z. Jumaat, The effect of steel fibres on the
168 (2019) 291–301, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.12.083. enhancement of flexural and compressive toughness and fracture characteristics of
[121] K. Watanabe, M.R. Bangi, T. Horiguchi, The effect of testing conditions (hot and oil palm shell concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 55 (2014) 20–28, https://doi.org/10.
residual) on fracture toughness of fiber reinforced high-strength concrete sub- 1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.12.103.
jected to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 51 (2013) 6–13, https://doi.org/10. [147] G.L. Golewski, Green concrete composite incorporating fly ash with high strength
1016/j.cemconres.2013.04.003. and fracture toughness, J. Clean. Prod. 172 (2018) 218–226, https://doi.org/10.
[122] A. Lau, M. Anson, Effect of high temperatures on high performance steel fibre 1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.065.
reinforced concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 1698–1707, https://doi.org/10. [148] L. Taerwe, A.V. Gysel, Influence of steel fibers on design stress-strain curve for
1016/j.cemconres.2006.03.024. high-strength concrete, J. Eng. Mech. 122 (1996) 695–704, https://doi.org/10.
[123] W. Zheng, H. Li, Y. Wang, Compressive stress–strain relationship of steel fiber- 1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(1996)122:8(695).
reinforced reactive powder concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures, [149] M.C. Nataraja, N. Dhang, A.P. Gupta, Stress–strain curves for steel-fiber reinforced
Constr. Build. Mater. 35 (2012) 931–940, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat. concrete under compression, Cem. Concr. Compos. 21 (1999) 383–390, https://
2012.05.031. doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(99)00021-9.
[124] W. Zheng, H. Li, Y. Wang, Compressive behaviour of hybrid fiber-reinforced re- [150] W. Li, J. Xu, Mechanical properties of basalt fiber reinforced geopolymeric con-
active powder concrete after high temperature, Mater. Des. 41 (2012) 403–409, crete under impact loading, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 505 (2009) 178–186, https://doi.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.05.026. org/10.1016/j.msea.2008.11.063.
[125] M. Canbaz, The effect of high temperature on reactive powder concrete, Constr. [151] G.A. Khoury, Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures: a reassess-
Build. Mater. 70 (2014) 508–513, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014. ment, Mag. Con. Res. 44 (1992) 291–309, https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.1992.44.
07.097. 161.291.
[126] W. Zheng, B. Luo, Y. Wang, Stress–strain relationship of steel-fibre reinforced [152] F.S. Rostasy, R. Weiβ, G. Wiedemann, Changes of pore structure of cement mortars
reactive powder concrete at elevated temperatures, Mater. Struct. 48 (2015) due to temperature, Cem. Concr. Res. 10 (1980) 157–164, https://doi.org/10.
2299–2314, https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-014-0312-9. 1016/0008-8846(80)90072-1.
[127] S. Sanchayan, S.J. Foster, High temperature behaviour of hybrid steel–PVA fibre [153] Y.N. Chan, G.F. Peng, M. Anson, Residual strength and pore structure of high-
reinforced reactive powder concrete, Mater. Struct. 49 (2016) 769–782, https:// strength concrete and normal strength concrete after exposure to high tempera-
doi.org/10.1617/s11527-015-0537-2. tures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 21 (1999) 23–27, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-
[128] F.U.A. Shaikh, A. Hosan, Mechanical properties of steel fibre reinforced geopo- 9465(98)00034-1.
lymer concretes at elevated temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 114 (2016) 15–28, [154] S.Y.N. Chan, G. Peng, J.K.W. Chan, Comparison between high strength concrete
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.158. and normal strength concrete subjected to high temperature, Mater. Struct. 29
[129] F. Aslani, J. Kelin, Assessment and development of high-performance fibre-re- (1996) 616, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02485969.
inforced lightweight self-compacting concrete including recycled crumb rubber [155] P.K. Mehta, P.J.M. Monteiro, Concrete Microstructure, Properties and Materials,
aggregates exposed to elevated temperatures, J. Clean. Prod. 200 (2018) 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2017.
1009–1025, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.323. [156] W.J. Copier, The spalling of normal weight and lightweight concrete exposed to
[130] A. Bilodeau, V.K.R. Kodur, G.C. Hoff, Optimization of the type and amount of fire, ACI Mater. J. 80 (1983) 219–236.
polypropylene fibres for preventing the spalling of lightweight concrete subjected [157] F.P. Figueiredo, S.-S. Huang, H. Angelakopoulos, K. Pilakoutas, I. Burgess, Effects
to hydrocarbon fire, Cem. Concr. Compos. 26 (2004) 163–174, https://doi.org/10. of recycled steel and polymer fibres on explosive fire spalling of concrete, Fire
1016/S0958-9465(03)00085-4. Technol (2019) 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00817-9.
[131] Y.S. Heo, J.G. Sanjayan, C.G. Han, M.C. Han, Critical parameters of nylon and [158] W. Zhu, R. François, Q. Fang, D. Zhang, Influence of long-term chloride diffusion
other fibres for spalling protection of high strength concrete in fire, Mater. Struct. in concrete and the resulting corrosion of reinforcement on the serviceability of RC
44 (2011) 599–610, https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-010-9651-3. beams, Cem. Concr. Compos. 71 (2016) 144–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[132] Y. Ju, L. Wang, H. Liu, K. Tian, An experimental investigation of the thermal cemconcomp.2016.05.003.
spalling of polypropylene-fibered reactive powder concrete exposed to elevated [159] A. Benmarce, M. Guenfoud, Experimental behaviour of high-strength concrete
temperatures, Sci. Bull. 60 (2015) 2022–2040, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434- columns in fire, Mag. Con. Res. 57 (2005) 283–287, https://doi.org/10.1680/
015-0939-0. macr.2005.57.5.283.
[133] T. Drzymała, W. Jackiewicz-Rek, M. Tomaszewski, A. Kuś, J. Gałaj, R. Šukys, [160] C.G. Han, M.C. Han, Y.S. Heo, Improvement of residual compressive strength and
Effects of high temperature on the properties of high performance concrete (HPC), spalling resistance of high-strength RC columns subjected to fire, Constr. Build.
Procedia Eng 172 (2017) 256–263, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02. Mater. 23 (2009) 107–116, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.01.011.
108. [161] L.T. Phan, J.R. Lawson, F.L. Davis, Effects of elevated temperature exposure on
[134] J. Eidan, I. Rasoolan, A. Rezaeian, D. Poorveis, Residual mechanical properties of heating characteristics, spalling, and residual properties of high performance
polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete after heating, Constr. Build. Mater. 198 concrete, Mater. Struct. 34 (2001) 83–91, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02481556.
(2019) 195–206, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.209. [162] V.J.S.P. Kodur, Fiber reinforced concrete for enhancing structural fire resistance of
[135] S. Bhanja, B. Sengupta, Influence of silica fume on the tensile strength of concrete, columns, ACI Mater. J. 182 (1999) 215–234.
Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (2005) 743–747, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004. [163] J.-C. Liu, K.H. Tan, Y. Yao, A new perspective on nature of fire-induced spalling in
05.024. concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 184 (2018) 581–590, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[136] W. Yao, J. Li, K. Wu, Mechanical properties of hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete at conbuildmat.2018.06.204.
low fiber volume fraction, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (2003) 27–30, https://doi.org/10. [164] L. Missemer, E. Ouedraogo, Y. Malecot, C. Clergue, D. Rogat, Fire spalling of ultra-
1016/S0008-8846(02)00913-4. high performance concrete: from a global analysis to microstructure investiga-
[137] A. Sivakumar, M. Santhanam, Mechanical properties of high strength concrete tions, Cem. Concr. Res. 115 (2019) 207–219, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
reinforced with metallic and non-metallic fibres, Cem. Concr. Compos. 29 (2007) cemconres.2018.10.005.
603–608, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.03.006. [165] Y.S. Heo, J.G. Sanjayan, C.G. Han, M.C. Han, Relationship between inter-

20
H. Wu, et al. Cement and Concrete Research 135 (2020) 106117

aggregate spacing and the optimum fiber length for spalling protection of concrete [171] A. Savva, P. Manita, K.K. Sideris, Influence of elevated temperatures on the me-
in fire, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (2012) 549–557, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chanical properties of blended cement concretes prepared with limestone and si-
cemconres.2011.12.002. liceous aggregates, Cem. Concr. Compos. 27 (2005) 239–248, https://doi.org/10.
[166] G. Sanjayan, L.J. Stocks, Spalling of high-strength silica fume concrete in fire, ACI 1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.02.013.
Mater. J. 90 (1993) 170–173, https://doi.org/10.14359/4015. [172] B. Zhang, Effects of moisture evaporation (weight loss) on fracture properties of
[167] K.D. Hertz, Limits of spalling of fire-exposed concrete, Fire Saf. J. 38 (2003) high performance concrete subjected to high temperatures, Fire Saf. J. 46 (2011)
103–116, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0379-7112(02)00051-6. 543–549, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2011.07.010.
[168] L.T. Phan, Pore pressure and explosive spalling in concrete, Mater. Struct. 41 [173] W. Zheng, B. Luo, Y. Wang, Microstructure and mechanical properties of RPC
(2008) 1623–1632, https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-008-9353-2. containing PP fibres at elevated temperatures, Mag. Con. Res. 66 (2014) 397–408,
[169] F. Ali, A. Nadjai, G. Silcock, A. Abu-Tair, Outcomes of a major research on fire https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.13.00232.
resistance of concrete columns, Fire Saf. J. 39 (2004) 433–445, https://doi.org/10. [174] H. Li, G. Liu, Tensile properties of hybrid fiber-reinforced reactive powder con-
1016/j.firesaf.2004.02.004. crete after exposure to elevated temperatures, Int. J. Con. Struct. Mater. 10 (2016)
[170] J. Novak, A. Kohoutkova, Mechanical properties of concrete composites subject to 29–37, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40069-016-0125-z.
elevated temperature, Fire Saf. J. 95 (2018) 66–76, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [175] Eurocode 2, Design of Concrete Structures; Part 1.2: Structural Fire Design,
firesaf.2017.10.010. European Prestandard, Brussels, 1995.

21