Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Unit 3: DC Machines

Prepared By,
Mr. Chinmay V. Deshpande
M.E. (Power System)
Department of Electrical Engineering
 Generating and Motoring Action

For a motor the input energy is electrical energy and the useful output energy is mechanical
energy.

For a generator the input energy is mechanical energy and the useful output energy is electrical
energy.
 Generating and Motoring Action

BASIS MOTOR GENERATOR

Function The Motor converts Electrical energy into The Generator converts Mechanical energy to
Mechanical Energy Electrical energy.
Electricity It uses electricity. It generates electricity
Driven The Shaft of the motor is driven by the The Shaft is attached to the rotor and is driven
element magnetic force developed between by mechanical force.
armature and field.
Current In a motor the current is to be supplied to In the generator current is produced in the
the armature windings. armature windings.
Rule Motor follows Fleming’s Left hand rule. Generator follows Fleming’s Right hand rule.
Followed
Example An electric car or bike is an example of Energy in the form of electricity is generated at
electric motor. the power stations.
 DC Generator Construction
A DC Generator is an electrical device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

It mainly consists of three main parts, i.e. magnetic field system, armature and commutator and brush gear.

The other parts of a DC Generator are magnetic frame and yoke, pole core and pole shoes, field or exciting
coils, armature core and windings, brushes, end housings, bearings and shafts.
DC Generator Construction

Yoke:
 The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke.
 It is made up of cast iron (small generators) or cast or rolled
steel (large size generators).
 It acts as protecting shield for generator.
 It provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also
carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
 DC Generator Construction

Field winding/ Pole coils:

 They are usually made of copper.
 Field coils are former wound and placed on each
pole and are connected in series.
 They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.
DC Generator Construction
Pole shoes function:
Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
• It carries and support the field winding.
• To support the filed winding: Pole Core provides this area to wound
the field winding.
• To spread out the flux in air gap: Pole core direct the magnetic flux
through the air gap, armature, and to the next pole.

Direction of flux is YOKE ⇒ POLE ⇒ ARMATURE ⇒

NEXT POLE ⇒ YOKE
 DC Generator Construction

Armature core/ rotor:

 Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine.
 It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding.
 The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses.
 It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes.
 Armature is keyed to the shaft.
 DC Generator Construction

Armature winding:
 The armature core slots are mainly used for holding the armature windings. These are in a closed circuit
winding form, and it is connected in series to parallel for enhancing the sum of produced current.
 DC Generator Construction

Commutator:
 The working of the commutator is like a rectifier for changing AC voltage to the DC voltage within the
armature winding to across the brushes.
 It is designed with a copper segment, and each copper segment is protected from each other with the help
of mica sheets. It is located on the shaft of the machine.
 DC Generator Construction

Brushes:
 The electrical connections can be ensured between the commutator as well as the exterior load circuit
with the help of brushes.
 They collect current from commutator. Made up of carbon or graphite.
DC Generator Construction_ (Draw in exam)
 DC Generator Construction_ In Short
Sr. No. Name of part Material Used Function
1. Yoke cast iron (small • main cover of the DC Generator
generators) or cast • acts as protecting shield for generator
or rolled steel (large • provides a mechanical support for the poles.
size generators). • It also carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
2. Field winding Copper • Each pole core has one or more field coils (windings)
/pole coils placed over it to produce a magnetic field.
• Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole
and are connected in series.
• They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.
3. Pole shoes Thin cast steel or Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or
wrought iron welding.
laminations which • It carries and support the field winding.
are riveted together • To support the filed winding: Pole Core provides this
under hydraulic area to wound the field winding.
pressure • To spread out the flux in air gap: Pole core direct the
magnetic flux through the air gap, armature, and to the
next pole.
 DC Generator Construction
Sr. No. Name of part Material Used Function
4. Armature built up of thin • Rotating part of DC machine.
core/ rotor laminated circular • It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature
silicon steel disks for winding.
reducing eddy current • It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air
losses. flow for cooling purposes.
• Armature is keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature Copper • Heart of the DC Machine. It is laminated to reduce
winding eddy current losses.
• The armature core slots are mainly used for holding
the armature windings. These are in a closed circuit
winding form, and it is connected in series to parallel
for enhancing the sum of produced current.
6. Commutator Made from a number • It is like a rectifier for changing AC voltage to the
of wedge-shaped hard DC voltage within the armature winding to across the
drawn copper bars or brushes.
segments insulated • It is designed with a copper segment, and each copper
from each other and segment is protected from each other with the help of
from the shaft. mica sheets. It is located on the shaft of the machine.
 EMF equation of DC machine
Let,
P= Number of poles of machine
Φ = Flux per pole in weber
Z = Total number of armature conductor
N = speed of armature in RPM
A = Number of parallel paths in armature winding

In one revolution of the armature, flux cut by one conductor is

flux cut by one conductor = P Φ weber ----------(1)

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as:

For N revolutions (i.e. speed) it takes time T. Hence in order to complete one revolution , it takes time say “t”

60
𝑡= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ----------(2) N:T
𝑁
1 revolution : t
Hence t= 1/N min
t = 60 sec /N
 EMF equation of DC machine
Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be:
PΦ
𝑒= 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 --------(3)
𝑡
60
Put (2) in (3) 𝑡= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ----------(2)
𝑁

𝑁PΦ
𝑒= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 --------(4)
60

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

The average induced emf across each parallel path will be

𝑵PΦ 𝒁
𝑬= ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎 𝑨
 EMF equation of DC machine
If the DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below:

𝑵PΦ 𝒁
𝑬𝒈 = ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎 𝑨

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below:

𝑵PΦ 𝒁
𝑬𝒃 = ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎 𝑨

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to the supply voltage.
 Back emf in Motor
When the current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the torque induces on the conductor, the
torque rotates the conductor which cuts the flux of the magnetic field.

According to the Electromagnetic Induction Phenomenon “when the conductor cuts the magnetic field,
EMF induces in the conductor”.

The Fleming right-hand rule determines the direction of the induced EMF.

It is seen that the direction of the induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage. Thereby the emf is
known as the counter emf or back emf.

The back emf is developed in series with the applied voltage, but opposite in direction, i.e., the back emf
opposes the current which causes it.
 What actually Back emf in Motor does? (Significance)
Back EMF represents that portion of the supply voltage which multiplied by the current equals the
mechanical work produced (roughly speaking). (The rest of the supply voltage is used up as I-R drop
and produces heat - it is wasted energy. So you really want your back EMF to be as close to the supply
voltage as possible).

The back EMF plays a self-regulating role by limiting current and energy flow through the motor. In
a parallel motor, it is only due to back EMF that if you apply a good voltage source to an armature with a
very low resistance, whether no-load or full-load, the motor would run nicely at a near-constant speed.
 What actually Back emf in Motor does? (Significance)
In order to understand the significance of back EMF, let us see what would happen if there were no
back EMF.

Let’s make up an example of a fictitious parallel DC motor with fixed magnets, supply voltage E of 12
V, Armature resistance of 0.1 Ohm.

If there is no back EMF, the armature will draw a current of 120 A.

𝑬 𝟏𝟐
E= I *R (Ohm’s Law) 𝑰= = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑨
𝑹 𝟎. 𝟏

It draws a power of 1440 watts (E x I) from the source

P= E *I 𝑷 = 𝑬 ∗ 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝑾

Produces a heating of 1440 Watts i.e. it is power loss I2R

All the power drawn from the source is gone into heating. There is no power left to do any mechanical work
(as per conservation of energy principle).
 What actually Back emf in Motor does? (Significance)
However, all the voltage is not dropped by I.R in the armature.

As the armature starts moving, the movement of the armature in the field induces a voltage in the
armature winding that ends up opposing and cancelling out part of the supply voltage. This opposing
voltage is what we call the back EMF.

Now the supply voltage of 12V applied across the armature gets
split internally as a sum of two drops - 1. the I.R drop and 2. the
back EMF drop.

E = Eb + (Ia * Ra )

E is supply voltage Eb is back EMF Ra is resistance of armature winding Ia is the armature current

In practice, the resistance of the armature is small enough that the I.R drop (at normal operating
currents) is really small compared to the supply voltage.

For the sake of simplicity, let’s try to neglect the I-R drop and see what happens !

E = Eb
 What actually Back emf in Motor does?
That is, in practical terms, the back EMF almost balances out the supply voltage (leaving
E = Eb only a small fraction of the supply voltage to be taken up as I.R drop in the armature).

When motor starts Armature is not moving Eb=0

The armature current is very high, only limited by the small resistance of the armature.

The initial torque is also very high

As the armature accelerates due to the torque, and gains rotational speed, the back EMF grows.

E = Eb + (Ia * Ra ) Eb = E - (Ia * Ra )

As the back EMF grows, the current drops, and the torque also reduces. It all settles at the point
where the torque is equal to the load.

For a reasonable load and a small armature resistance, the back EMF would be nearly equal to
the supply voltage.
 Torque Equation of DC Motor
Torque acting on a body is quantitatively defined as the product of force acting on the body and
perpendicular distance of the line of action of force from the axis of rotation.

The equation of torque is given by,

𝜏 = 𝐹𝑅 sin 𝜃 ------(1)

Qualitatively , torque is the tendency of a force to cause a

rotational motion, or to bring about a change in rotational
motion .

Visualize the below shown dc motor front-view . You will find that each
conductor experiences a force and the conductors lie near the surface of
the rotor at a common radius from its center. Hence torque is produced
at the circumference of the rotor and rotor starts rotating.
 Torque Equation of DC Motor
When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors carry current. These
conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap.

Thus, each conductor experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius
from its centre. Hence, a torque is produced around the circumference of the rotor, and the rotor starts
rotating.

When the machine operates as a generator at a constant speed, this torque is equal and opposite to that
provided by the prime mover.

When the machine is operating as a motor, the torque is transferred to the shaft of the rotor and drives the
mechanical load. The expression is the same for the generator and motor.

When the current-carrying current is placed in the magnetic field, a force is exerted on it which exerts turning
moment or torque F x r. This torque is produced due to the electromagnetic effect, hence is
called Electromagnetic torque.

The torque which is produced in the armature is not fully used at the shaft for doing the useful work. Some
part of it gets lost due to mechanical losses. The torque which is used for doing useful work in known as
the shaft torque.
 Torque Equation of DC Motor
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a DC motor, and its voltage
equation.
E is the supply voltage Eb is the back emf produced

Ia, Ra are the armature current and armature resistance

respectively

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 ------(2)

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque

equation of DC motor we multiply both sides of equation (2)
by Ia.
𝐼𝑎 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑎 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 2 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 ------(3)

Where, 𝐼𝑎 𝐸 is the electrical power input to the armature.

𝐼𝑎 2 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 is the copper loss in the armature.

 Torque Equation of DC Motor
We know that,
Total electrical power supplied to the armature = Mechanical power developed by the armature +
losses due to armature resistance

The mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm, 𝑃𝑚 = 𝐼𝑎 𝐸𝑏 ------(4)

Also, the mechanical power that rotates the armature can be given regarding torque T and speed n.

𝑃𝑚 = 𝜔𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 ------(5)

Where n is in revolution per seconds (rps) and T is in Newton-Meter.

Equate (4) and (5), we get 𝐼𝑎 𝐸𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎

𝑇=
2𝜋𝑛
𝑵PΦ 𝒁
But Eb is given by 𝑬𝒃 = ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 Where N is the speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and
𝟔𝟎 𝑨
𝑁
𝑛= Where n is the speed in (rps).
60
 Torque Equation of DC Motor
𝑵PΦ 𝒁 Where N is the speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and
𝑬𝒃 = ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎 𝑨

𝑁 𝟔𝟎 ∗ 𝒏 ∗ P Φ 𝒁
𝑛= Where n is the speed in (rps). 𝑬𝒃 = ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
60 𝟔𝟎 𝑨

ΦnZP
𝑬𝒃 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝑨

Hence we can write torque equation as,

𝑬𝒃 𝐼𝑎 ΦnZP 𝐼𝑎 ΦZP 𝐼𝑎 0.159 ∗ ΦZP 𝐼𝑎 𝟏

𝑇= 𝑇= 𝑇= 𝑇= = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟗
2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋𝑛𝑨 2𝜋𝐴 𝐴 𝟐𝝅

For a particular DC Motor, the number of poles (P) and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)
are constant.
ZP
𝑻 =K*Φ 𝑰𝒂 Where, 𝐾 =
2𝜋𝐴
 Torque Equation of DC Motor
𝑻 =K*Φ 𝑰𝒂

Thus, from the above equation, it is clear that the torque produced in the armature is directly proportional
to the flux per pole and the armature current.

The direction of electromagnetic torque developed in the armature depends upon the current in armature
conductors. If either of the two (flux or current) is reversed the direction of torque produced is reversed
and hence the direction of rotation. But when both are reversed, and direction of torque does not change.
 Types of DC Motor
Separately Excited DC Motor Self-excited DC Motor

As the name signifies, the field coils or field As the name implies self-excited, hence, in this
windings are energised by a separate DC source type of motor, the current in the windings is
as shown in the circuit diagram shown below: supplied by the machine or motor itself.

Shunt wound or shunt motor

Series wound or series motor

Compound wound or compound motor.

 Types of DC Motor
Self-excited DC Motor Shunt wound or shunt motor

This is the most common types of DC Motor. Here the field winding
is connected in parallel with the armature as shown in the figure
below:
 Types of DC Motor
Self-excited DC Motor Shunt wound or shunt motor

The current, voltage and power equations for a shunt motor are
written as follows.
By applying KCL at junction in the above figure.
𝐸𝑏
𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐹 ……(1)

𝑅𝑎 Where,
I or 𝐼𝑇 is the input line current
𝐼𝐴 is the armature current
𝐼𝐹 or 𝐼𝑠ℎ is the shunt field current

The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) for the field winding circuit.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ * 𝑅𝑠ℎ ……(2)

For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as:

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(3)
 Types of DC Motor
Self-excited DC Motor Shunt wound or shunt motor

The power equation is given as:

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the

armature + loss in the field.
𝐸𝑏
𝑅𝑠ℎ

𝑅𝑎 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑃𝑚 + 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ 2 𝑅𝑠ℎ ……(4)

𝑉
From (2), 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ * 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑠ℎ = Put this in (4),
𝐼𝑠ℎ

𝑉𝐼 = 𝑃𝑚 + 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑽 ∗ 𝑰𝒔𝒉 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑉𝐼 − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 − 𝑽 ∗ 𝑰𝒔𝒉 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑉(𝐼−𝐼𝑠ℎ ) − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎

From (1), 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐹 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒔𝒉 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑽𝑰𝒂 − 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎

𝑃𝑚 = 𝐼𝑎 (𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 )
 Types of DC Motor
Self-excited DC Motor Shunt wound or shunt motor
𝑃𝑚 = 𝐼𝑎 (𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 )

From (3), 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 * 𝑹𝒂

𝐸𝑏
𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑃𝑚 = 𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑬𝒃 ……(5)

𝑅𝑎
Multiplying equation (3) by 𝐼𝑎 we get the following equations.

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(3) 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 2 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 ……(6)

𝑉 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑃𝑚 + 𝐼𝑎 2 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 ……(7)

Where,
𝑉 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 is the electrical power supplied to the armature of the motor.
 Concept of Load Torque
Torque has 2 main components: load torque and acceleration torque.

Load torque is the amount of torque constantly required for application and includes friction load
and gravitational load.

Load torque: The torque which is generated due to load connected to the motor.

DC motor is meant to produce rotational kinetic energy and it does by exerting torque on the load.

That TORQUE, which it exerts upon the load through its shaft, is called the load torque.
 Types of Loads
Definition: The device which takes electrical energy is known as the electric load.

In other words, the electrical load is a device that consumes electrical energy in the form of the current and
transforms it into other forms like heat, light, work, etc.
 Types of Loads
Resistive Load

The resistive load obstructs the flow of electrical energy in the circuit and converts it into thermal energy,
due to which the energy dropout occurs in the circuit. Loads consisting of any heating element are classified
as resistive loads.

The lamp and the heater, incandescent lights, toasters, ovens, space
heaters and coffee makers are the examples of the resistive load.

The resistive loads take power in such a way so that the current and the
voltage wave remain in the same phase. Thus the power factor of the
resistive load remains in unity.
 Types of Loads
Inductive Load
The inductive loads use the magnetic field for doing the work.

These are found in a variety of household items and devices with moving parts, including fans, vacuum
cleaners, dishwashers, washing machines and the compressors in refrigerators and air conditioners. The
transformers, generators, motor are the examples of the load.

The inductive load has a coil which stores magnetic energy when the current pass through it. The current
wave of the inductive load is lagging behind the voltage wave, and the power factor of the inductive load is
also lagging.
 Types of Loads
Capacitive Load
In the capacitive load, the current wave is leading the voltage wave.

The examples of capacitive loads are capacitor bank, three phase induction motor starting circuit, etc. The
power factor of such type of loads is leading. In engineering, capacitive loads do not exist in a stand-alone
format. No devices are classified as capacitive in the way light bulbs are categorized as resistive, and air
conditioners are labeled inductive.
 Types of Electrical Loads in Power System
Domestic load
The domestic load is defined as the total energy consumed by the electrical appliances in the household
work. It depends on the living standard, weather and type of residence.
The domestic loads mainly consist of lights, fan, refrigerator, air conditioners, mixer, grinder, heater, ovens,
small pumping, motor, etc. Most of the domestic loads are connected for only some hours during a day. For
example, lighting load is connected for few hours during night time.

The domestic load consume very little power and also independent from frequency. This load largely
consists of lighting, cooling or heating.
 Types of Electrical Loads in Power System
Commercial load

Commercial load mainly consist of electrical loads that are meant to be used commercially, such as lightning
of shops, offices, advertisements, etc., Fans, Heating, Air conditioning and many other electrical appliances
used in establishments such as market restaurants, etc. are considered as a commercial load.

This type of load occurs for more hours during the day as compared to the domestic load.
 Types of Electrical Loads in Power System
Industrial Loads

Industrial load consists of small-scale industries, medium scale industries, large scale industries, heavy
industries and cottage industries.

The induction motor forms a high proportion of the composite load. Industrial loads may be connected
during the whole day.

The industrial loads are the composite load. The composite load is a function of frequency and voltage and
its form a major part of the system load.
 Types of Electrical Loads in Power System
Agriculture/Irrigation Loads

Motors and pumps used in irrigation systems to supply the water for farming come under this category.

Generally, irrigation loads are supplied during off-peak or night hours.

This type of load is mainly motor pumps-sets load for irrigation purposes. The load factor of this load is very
small e.g. 0.15 – 0.20.
 Types of Electrical Loads in Power System
Some Other Classifications Of Electrical Loads

According To Load Nature

• Linear loads: Linear loads like transformers, motors follow ohm’s law (as long as their core is not
saturated) i.e. their current change linearly with the change in applied voltage.
• Non-linear loads: non linear load like switching regulator current is not linearly changing with the
change in the applied voltage, it takes lesser current as applied voltage increases.

According To Phases
• Single phase loads
• Three phase loads
 Dynamics of Motor and Load Combination
When an electric motor rotates, it is usually connected to a load which has a rotational or translational
motion. The speed of the motor may be different from that of the load.

In the translational motion, the position of the body changes from point to point in space. The speed of the
load may be different from that of the motor.

If the load has different parts, their speed may be different. Some part of the rotor may rotate while others
may go through a translational motion.

J = Polar moment of inertia of motor load referred to

the motor shaft, kg-m2

ωm – instantaneous angular velocity of the motor

shaft, rad/sec.

T – the instantaneous value of developed motor

torque, N-m.

T1 – the instantaneous value of load torque, referred

to a motor shaft, N-m.
 Dynamics of Motor and Load Combination
Torque Equation of Motor Load System of Fig. can be
described by the following fundamental torque
equation:
𝑑
𝑇 − 𝑇1 = 𝐽𝜔𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜔𝑚 𝑑𝐽
𝑇 − 𝑇1 = 𝐽 + 𝜔𝑚 ………….(1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Equation (1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives, industrial robots.
For drives with constant inertia (a property of matter by which it continues in its existing state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line, unless that state is changed by an external force.), (dJ/dt) = 0.
𝑑𝜔𝑚 𝑑𝜔𝑚
𝑇 − 𝑇1 = 𝐽 𝑇 = 𝑇1 + 𝐽 ………….(2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
In the above equation the motor torque is considered as an applied torque and the load torque as a resisting
torque.
Equation (2) shows that torque developed by motor is counter balanced by a load torque T1 and a dynamic
torque J(dωm/dt). Torque component J(dωm/dt) is called the dynamic torque because it is present only
during the transient operations. i.e., when the speed of the drive varies.
 Dynamics of Motor and Load Combination
The acceleration or deceleration of the drive mainly
depends on whether the load torque is greater or less than
the motor torque.
𝑑𝜔𝑚
𝑇 − 𝑇1 = 𝐽
𝑑𝑡

Case 1) When 𝑻 > 𝑻𝟏

𝑑𝜔𝑚
>0
𝑑𝑡
i.e. the drive will be accelerating, in particular, picking, up speed to reach rated speed.

Case 2) When 𝑻 < 𝑻𝟏

𝑑𝜔𝑚
<0
𝑑𝑡
i.e. the drive will be decelerating and, particularly coming to rest.
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
Generally, three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors related to its performance
which are, (i) Torque vs. armature current, (ii) Speed vs. armature current and (iii) Speed vs. torque.

Here, supply voltage is constant. Same voltage is given to field winding

and armature.

𝐸𝑏 The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law

𝑅𝑠ℎ
(KVL) for the field winding circuit.

𝑅𝑎 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ * 𝑅𝑠ℎ
𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ = …………….(1)
𝑅𝑠ℎ

Where, As V and 𝑅𝑠ℎ are constant, the field current 𝐼𝑠ℎ is also constant.
𝐼𝑠ℎ = Filed current
𝑅𝑠ℎ = Field resistance which is constant As the field current 𝐼𝑠ℎ is also constant, flux Ф is constant in DC
V = supply voltage which is constant. shunt motor.
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as:

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(2)
𝐸𝑏 𝑅𝑠ℎ
But Back emf is: 𝑵PΦ 𝒁
𝑬𝒃 = ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝑅𝑎 𝟔𝟎 𝑨

𝑬𝒃 = 𝑲Φ 𝑵 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

P 𝒁
Where K is constant and it is 𝑲= ∗
𝟔𝟎 𝑨

As flux Ф is constant in DC shunt motor, hence 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑵 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 ……(3)

Where 𝑲𝟏 is constant and it is 𝑲𝟏 = 𝑲Ф

 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(2) 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑵 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 ……(3)

The armature torque is directly proportional to the product of the flux and the armature current i.e. Ta ∝ Φ.Ia

Ta ∝ Φ.Ia Ta =𝑲𝟐 Φ.Ia

Where K2 is constant

As flux Ф is constant in DC shunt motor, hence Ta =𝑲𝟑 .Ia ……(4)

Where 𝑲𝟑 is constant and it is 𝑲𝟑 = 𝑲𝟐 Ф

 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia) Refer following equations

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(2) 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑵 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 ……(3) Ta =𝑲𝟑 .Ia ……(4)

𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 𝑽 ……(5)
Put (3) in (2) 𝑲𝟏 𝑵 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 𝑵=− +
𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟏

Comparing equation (5) it with standard equation of a straight line, Y = mx+C

Y= 𝑵
𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎
𝒎𝑿 = −
𝑲𝟏
𝑽
𝑪=
𝑲𝟏
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We find that the characteristic is a straight line with intercept

V/K1 on speed axis equal to V/K1 , called no-load speed i.e when Ia is
negligibly small just to provide torque to overcome friction and
windage.

The characteristic show that dc shunt motor speed remains

almost constant from no-load ( Ia≃ 0) to full load ( Ia=rated
value) and that is why dc shunt motor is used in applications
where speed is required to remain almost constant throughout
the operation e.g Lathes, spinning and weaving machines,
drills etc.

If armature reaction is taken into account, speed drops

slowly, represented by the red curve.
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)

From (4) Ta =𝑲𝟑 .Ia

Therefore, in a dc shunt motor, the torque increases linearly

with armature current as shown by the black curve.

But, for larger Ia , the net flux per pole decreases due to the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and hence the curve
deviates from straight line as shown by red curve.
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
Speed Vs. Torque (N-T) Flux Ф is constant in DC shunt motor. Refer following equations

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(2) 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑵 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 ……(3) Ta =𝑲𝟑 .Ia ……(4)

𝐼𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 𝑽 ……(5)
𝑵=− +
𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟏

𝑇𝑎
From (4) Ta =𝑲𝟑 .Ia 𝐼𝑎 = Put this in equation (5)
𝐾3

𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 𝑽
∗ 𝑅𝑎 𝑽 ……(6)
𝐾3 𝑵=− +
𝑵=− + 𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟑 𝑲𝟏
𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟏

From this, it is observed that speed N is proportional

to torque.
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
Speed Vs. Torque (N-T)

𝑇𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 𝑽 ……(6)
𝑵=− +
𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟑 𝑲𝟏

From this equation speed-torque characteristics of dc shunt

motor can be drawn which turns out to be a straight line
shown by black curve.

When armature reaction is also considered i.e flux is no

longer constant , the speed-torque equation becomes
𝑇𝑎 ∗ 𝑅𝑎 𝑽
𝑵=− +
𝑲Ф𝑲𝟐 Ф 𝑲Ф
𝑲𝟏 = 𝑲Ф
𝑲𝟑 = 𝑲𝟐 Ф
Obviously, due to armature reaction, as flux decreases the
first term increases more than the second term , therefore the
speed drops more rapidly with increase in torque.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Back emf Eb of a DC motor is nothing but the induced emf in armature conductors due to rotation of the
armature in magnetic field. Thus, the magnitude of Eb can be given by EMF equation of a DC generator.

𝑵PΦ 𝒁
𝑬𝒃 = ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 ……(1)
𝟔𝟎 𝑨
(where, P = no. of poles, Ø = flux/pole, N = speed in rpm, Z = no. of armature conductors, A = parallel paths)

Eb can also be given as, 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(2)

thus, from the above equations (1)

𝑬𝒃 ∗ 𝟔𝟎 ∗ 𝑨
𝑵= ……(3)
𝑷𝚽𝒁

but, for a DC motor A, P and Z are constants 𝑬𝒃 ……(4)

𝑵∝
𝚽

This shows the speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf and inversely proportional to the
flux per pole.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
𝑬𝒃 ……(4)
𝑵∝ 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(2)
𝚽

𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 ∗ 𝑹𝒂
𝑵∝
𝜱

The above equation shows that the speed depends upon the supply voltage V, the armature circuit resistance
Ra, and the field flux Ф, which is produced by the field current.

In practice, the variation of these three factors is used for speed control. Thus, there are three general
methods of speed control of D.C. Motors.

Resistance variation in the armature circuit: This method is called armature resistance control or
Rheostat control.

Variation of field flux Ф. This method is called field flux control.

Variation of the applied voltage. This method is also called armature voltage control.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
The classification of speed control methods for a DC shunt motor are as follows. These two methods are:

1. Armature Control Methods

2. Field Control Methods

a) Armature Resistance Control

Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
b) Armature Voltage Control

Field Controlled DC Shunt Motor Variation in field flux This method is known as Field
Flux Control.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Resistance variation in the armature circuit: This method is called armature resistance control or
Rheostat control.

In this method, a variable series resistor Re is put in the armature

circuit. The figure (a) above shows the process of connection for
a shunt motor. In this case, the field is directly connected across
the supply and therefore the flux Ф is not affected by variation of
Re Re.

The voltage drop in Re reduces the voltage applied to the

armature, and therefore the speed is reduced.

Speed control of a d.c. Shunt motor by

armature resistance control.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Resistance variation in the armature circuit: This method is called armature resistance control or
Rheostat control.

For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as:

𝐸𝑏 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(2)

𝑅𝑎

DC Shunt Motor

For armature winding circuit with presence of Re, the equation will be
given as:
Re
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 * (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 ) 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 )

A large amount of power (I*R) is wasted in the external resistance Re. i.e. 𝐼𝑎 * (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 )
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Resistance variation in the armature circuit: This method is called armature resistance control or
Rheostat control.

𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 ∗ 𝑹𝒂
𝑵∝
𝜱
𝐸𝑏 𝑅𝑠ℎ

𝑅𝑎

DC Shunt Motor
Here value of flux also changes due to change in armature current. But
that change will be less compare to change in Eb value.

𝑵 ∝ 𝑬𝒃 ∝ 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 ∗ 𝑹𝒂
Re

As Eb value reduces due to addition of Re, speed decreases.

 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Resistance variation in the armature circuit: This method is called armature resistance control or
Rheostat control.

Drawbacks:

A large amount of power is wasted in the external resistance Re.

Armature resistance control is restricted to keep the speed below the normal speed of the motor and
increase in the speed above normal level is not possible by this method.

For a given value of Re, the speed reduction is not constant but varies with the motor load.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Variation of field flux Ф. This method is called field flux control.

Since the field current produces the flux, and if we control the
field current then the speed can be controlled.

In the shunt motor, speed can be controlled by connecting a

variable resistor Rc in series with the shunt field winding.

In the diagram below resistor, Rc is called the shunt field

regulator.

To control the flux , the rheostat (variable resistor Rc) is added

in series with the field winding will increase the speed (N),
Speed control of a D.C. shunt
because of this flux will decrease. So, the field current is
motor by variation of field flux.
relatively small and hence I2R loss is decreased.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Variation of field flux Ф. This method is called field flux control.

The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
for the field winding circuit.
𝐸𝑏 𝑉
𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ * 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝐼𝑠ℎ = …………….(1)
𝑅𝑠ℎ
𝑅𝑎

DC Shunt Motor

The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
for the field winding circuit when a variable resistor Rc in series with the
shunt field winding.
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ * (𝑅𝑠ℎ +𝑅𝑐 ) 𝐼𝑠ℎ = …………….(2)
(𝑅𝑠ℎ +𝑅𝑐 )
When Rc is added in series with field winding, current in equation (2) is less
compared with equation (1) for constant value of V. Hence flux decreases and
in turn we can control speed.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Variation of field flux Ф. This method is called field flux control.

Advantages:

This method is easy and convenient.

As the shunt field is very small, the power loss in the shunt field is also small.

The flux cannot usually be increased beyond its normal values because of the saturation of the iron.
Therefore, speed control by flux is limited to the weakening of the field, which gives an increase in speed (as N
is inversely proportional to flux Ф).

This method is applicable over only to a limited range because if the field is weakened too much, there is a
loss of stability.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Variation of the applied voltage. This method is also called armature voltage control.
In armature voltage control method the speed control is achieved by varying the applied voltage in the
armature winding of the motor.
This speed control method is also known
as Ward Leonard Method. This method
was introduced in 1891.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Variation of the applied voltage. This method is also called armature voltage control.
In the above system, M is the main DC motor whose
speed is to be controlled, and G is a separately excited
DC generator.

The generator G is driven by a 3 phase driving motor

which may be an induction motor or a synchronous
motor.

The combination of an AC driving motor and the DC

generator is called the Motor-Generator (M-G) set.

The voltage of the generator is changed by changing the

generator field current. This voltage when directly applied
to the armature of the main DC motor, the speed of the
motor M changes.
The motor field current Ifm is kept constant so that the motor
field flux ϕm also remains constant. While the speed of the
motor is controlled, the motor armature current Ia is kept
equal to its rated value.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Variation of the applied voltage. This method is also called armature voltage control.
The generated field current Ifg is varied such that the
armature voltage Vt changes from zero to its rated
value. The speed will change from zero to the base
speed.

Since the speed control is carried out with the rated

current Ia and with the constant motor field flux, a
constant torque is directly proportional to the
armature current, and field flux up to rated speed is
obtained.

The product of torque and speed is known as power, and it

is proportional to speed. Thus, with the increase in power,
speed increases automatically.
 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Variation of the applied voltage. This method is also called armature voltage control.

Advantages of Ward Leonard Drives

Smooth speed control of DC motor over a wide range in both the direction is possible.

It has an inherent braking capacity.

Uniform acceleration is obtained

Disadvantages of Ward Leonard Drives

Larger size and weight.

The initial cost of the system is high as there is a motor-generator set installed, of the same rating as that of
the main DC motor.

Maintenance of the system is frequent.

Higher losses and less efficiency.

 Speed control methods of DC shunt motor
Variation of the applied voltage. This method is also called armature voltage control.

Applications of Ward Leonard Drives

The Ward Leonard drives are used where smooth speed control of the DC motors over a wide range in both
the directions is required. Some of the examples are as follows:

 Rolling mills
 Elevators
 Cranes
 Paper mills
 Diesel-electric locomotives
 Mine hoists
 Reversal of direction of rotation of DC motor
DC motors can turn in either direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) and can be easily controlled by
inverting the polarity of the applied voltage.

The direction of force, and therefore rotation, is explained using Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule for Motors.

Your first finger represents the magnetic

field, pointing straight down to the floor.

Your middle finger represents the

current, pointing towards the
computer screen.

Your thumb represents the resulting

force, which points left.

This shows us that with the current flowing through the wire “into” the computer screen will cause a force
pushing left, in our model, this is equivalent to the motor turning counter-clockwise.
 Reversal of direction of rotation of DC motor
how we change the force so the wire travels in the opposite direction, causing our motor to rotate in ‘reverse’.

We can use Fleming’s left-hand rule again, with the same magnetic field, but this time use our thumbs to point
right instead of left. As a result, your middle finger should now point towards yourself, showing the current
flows out of the screen.

This shows that in order to

make the motor rotate
clockwise, we must reverse
the flow of current (i.e.
changing the flow of current
changes the direction of the
force by 180 degrees).

Of course, the direction of current is controlled by the polarity of the voltage.

So in order to change the direction of rotation, we can simply reverse the voltage, causing the current to flow
in the opposite direction, changing the force by 180 degrees and the motor to be driven ‘backwards’.
Reversal of direction of rotation of DC motor
 Reversal of direction of rotation of DC motor
It can be seen from the Fig. 2 that

if the direction of the main field in which current carrying conductor is placed, is reversed, force experienced
by the conductor reverses its direction (refer case a and c or b and d).

Similarly keeping main flux direction unchanged, the direction of current passing through the conductor is
reversed. The force experienced by the conductor reverses its direction. (refer case a and b or c and d).

However if both the directions are reversed, the direction of the force experienced remains the same.
 Reversal of direction of rotation of DC motor
So in a practical motor, to reverse its direction of rotation, either direction of main field produced by the field
winding is reversed or direction of the current passing through the armature is reversed.

The direction of the main field can be reversed by changing the direction of current passing through the field
winding, which is possible by interchanging the polarities of supply which is given to the field winding.
 Braking in DC motor
A running motor may be brought to rest quickly by either mechanical braking or electrical braking.
Electrical Braking is usually employed in applications to stop a unit driven by motors in an exact position or
to have the speed of the driven unit suitably controlled during its deceleration.

Electrical braking is used in applications where frequent, quick, accurate or emergency stops are required.

Electrical Braking allows smooth stops without any inconvenience to passengers.

When a loaded hoist is lowered, electric braking keeps the speed within safe limits. Otherwise, the machine or
drive speed will reach dangerous values.

When a train goes down a steep gradient, electric braking is employed to hold the train speed within the
prescribed safe limits.

Electrical Braking is more commonly used where active loads are applicable.

In spite of electric braking, the braking force can also be obtained by using mechanical brakes.
 Braking in DC motor
Disadvantages of Mechanical Braking

 It requires frequent maintenance and replacement of brake shoes.

 Braking power is wasted in the form of heat.

Types of Electrical Braking:

Electrical Braking:

Regenerative Dynamic or Plugging or

Braking Rheostatic Braking Reverse Current Braking.
 Regenerative Braking in DC shunt motor
In Regenerative Braking, the power or energy of the driven machinery which is in kinetic form is returned
back to the power supply mains.

A machine operating as motor may go into regenerative braking mode if its speed becomes sufficiently high so
as to make back emf greater than the supply voltage i.e., Eb > V.

For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as:

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 * 𝑅𝑎 ……(1)
𝐸𝑏 𝑅𝑠ℎ

𝑅𝑎

Obviously under this condition the direction of Ia will reverse imposing torque which is opposite to the
direction of rotation as Ta ∝ Φ.Ia.
 Regenerative Braking in DC shunt motor
The situation is explained in figures (a) and (b).

The normal motor operation is shown in figure (a)

where armature motoring current Ia is drawn from
the supply and as usual Eb < V.

𝒏𝟏 P Φ 𝒁
𝑬𝒃 = ∗ 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝑬𝒃 = 𝒌 ∗ 𝒏𝟏 Φ
𝟔𝟎 𝑨

Fig. (a) Machine operates as motor

The question is how speed on its own become large enough to make Eb < V causing regenerative braking.

Such a situation may occur in practice when the mechanical load itself becomes active.
 Regenerative Braking in DC shunt motor
Imagine the d.c motor is coupled to the wheel of
locomotive which is moving along a plain track
without any gradient as shown in figure (a).

Machine is running as a motor at a speed of n1 rpm.

Fig. (a) Machine operates as motor

However, when the track has a downward gradient
(shown in figure b), component of gravitational force
along the track also appears which will try to
accelerate the motor and may increase its speed to n2
such that 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑘𝜙𝑛2 > 𝑉.

In such a scenario, direction of Ia reverses, feeding

power back to supply.

Regenerative braking here will not stop the motor

Fig. (b) Machine enters regenerative braking mode.
but will help to arrest rise of dangerously high speed.
 Regenerative Braking in DC shunt motor
The necessary condition for regeneration is that the back EMF Eb should be greater than the supply voltage so
that the armature current is reversed and the mode of operation changes from motoring to generating.

Applications of Regenerative Braking

 Regenerative braking is used especially where frequent braking and slowing of drives is required.

 It is most useful in holding a descending load of high potential energy at a constant speed.

 Regenerative braking is used to control the speed of motors driving loads such as in electric
locomotives, elevators, cranes and hoists.

 Regenerative braking cannot be used for stopping the motor. It is used for controlling the speed above
the no-load speed of the motor driving.
 Thank
You
10/6/2020 Department of Electrical Engg. 81