Manufacturing Engineering-I(MEng3181)

Chapter 2
Traditional Machining Processes

Habtamu A. (Ph.D.)
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Haramaya Institute of Technology (HiT), Ethiopia.
 Lecture Contents

 CM process principles

 CM Process Kinematics

 CM tool geometry

 Measurement of machining responses

 CM: Conventional Machining

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 Objectives of the Chapter

 Understand the working principles of CMs,

 State the main purposes of machining
 Define with examples the concept of machining
 Know the configuration and classification of basic machine tools
and their use
 Understand machining parameters
 Understand measurement of machining responses

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Manufacturing Eng'g-I, III Year, MED, HiT
 What is Machining?
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which jobs are produced to the
desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material
from the preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved
past the work surface(s)

 Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all manufacturing processes in its
capability to produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric features
 Machining is used to produce a high accuracy and good surface products which
enables a product :
☑ fulfill its functional requirements
☑ improve its performance
☑ prolong its service
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… cont’d

 As shown in Figure 1, two types of machined parts can be produce using

machining processes
☑ Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape
☑ Nonrotational (also called prismatic) - block-like or plate-like

Figure 1: Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b) Nonrotational,
shown here by block and flat parts

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… cont’d

 The basic principle of machining is typically illustrated in Figure 2

Figure 2: Principle of machining (turning)

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… cont’d

 The essential basic requirements for machining work are schematically depicted in
Fig. 3

Figure 3: Requirements for machining

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… cont’d

A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and reasonably valued device or

system of devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape
and surface finish by removing excess material from the preformed blanks in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved past the work surface(s).

The physical functions of a Machine Tool in machining are:

☑ firmly holding the blank and the tool
☑ transmit motions to the tool and the blank
☑ provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action.
☑ control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed and depth of cut.
☑ structural body to support and accommodate those systems with sufficient
strength and rigidity.
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… cont’d

Machine Tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat, cylindrical or any
contour on the preformed blanks by machining work with the help of cutting tools.
As shown in Figure 4.

Fig. 4: Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling
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… cont’d

Machine Tool Drives

 Machine tools are driven by electric motors and use of some mechanisms like
belt-pulley, gears etc.
 Machine tools essentially need a wide ranges of cutting speed and feed rate to
enable
☑ Machining different jobs (material and size)
☑ Using different cutting tools (material, geometry and size)
☑ Various machining operations like high speed turning to low speed
thread cutting in lathes
☑ Degree of surface finish desired

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… cont’d

 Machine tool drives may be

☑ Stepped drive
o attained by using gear boxes or cone pulley (old method) along
with the power source
o very common in conventional machine tools
☑ Stepless drive
o Stepless drive is accomplished usually by
 Variable speed AC or DC motors
 Stepper or servomotors
 Hydraulic power pack
o modern CNC machine tools are provided with stepless drives
enabling optimum selection and flexibly automatic control of the
speeds and feeds.

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 Configuration of Basic Machine Tools and their use
1. Center Lathes
• A single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to generate a
cylindrical shape. Performed on a machine tool called a lathe. General configuration
of center lathe is given in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Schematic view of a center lathe

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… cont’d

☑ Major parts of center lathe are :

1. Head stock: it holds the blank and through that power and rotation
are transmitted to the job at different speeds
2. Tailstock: supports longer blanks and often accommodates tools like
drills, reamers etc. for hole making.
3. Carriage/saddle: accommodates the tool holder which in turn holds
the moving tools
4. Bed: headstock is fixed and tailstock is clamped on it. Tailstock has a
provision to slide and facilitate operations at different locations carriage
travels on the bed
5. Columns: on which the bed is fixed
6. work-tool holding devices

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• There are two tool feed mechanism in the engine lathes:
1. Feed rod 2. Lead screw
• Work is held in the lathe with a number of methods :

Figure 6:Four work holding methods used in lathes: (a) mounting the work between
centers
14 using a dog, (b) three-jaw chuck, (c)collet, and (d) face plate for noncylindrical
work parts.
… cont’d

Applications of center lathes

• Centre lathes are quite versatile and being used for various machining operations
• Some of common operations being performed by center lathes are shown in Figure 6 .

Figure 7: Some common machining operations done in center lathes.

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 Cutting tools and their geometry
• Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play very important roles on their performances in
achieving effectiveness, efficiency and overall economy of machining.
• The geometry and nomenclature of cutting tools used in turning is standardized by ISO 3002/1-1982

16 Figure 8: Cutting edges, surfaces and angles on the cutting part of a turning tool
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… cont’d

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 9: (a) tool holder, (b) different cutting insert, and (c) tool box
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… cont’d
Concept of rake and clearance angles of cutting tools
o Rake angle and clearance angle are the most significant for all the cutting tools.

Figure 10. Rake and clearance angles of cutting tools.

o Rake angle (γ): Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane. It provided for
ease of chip flow and overall machining
o Clearance angle (α): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface from the finished
surface
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… cont’d

Figure 11: Three possible types of rake angles

Advantages of rake angles are:

o Positive rake: helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement.
o Negative rake :to increase edge-strength and life of the tool
o Zero rake :to simplify design and manufacture of the form tools.
o Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the
machined surface which causes loss of energy and damages of both the tool and the
job surface
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 2. Milling Machine
 Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple cutting
edges. Milling is an interrupted cutting operation.
 Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called "teeth" and Machine tool
called a milling machine.
 The general configuration of knee type conventional milling machine with
horizontal arbour is shown in Fig.12 (a). Its major parts are
☑ Milling arbour: to hold and rotate the cutter
☑ Overarm: to support the arbour
☑ Machine table: on which job and job holding devices are mounted to provide the feed
motions to the job.
☑ Power drive with Speed and gear boxes: to provide power and motions to the tool-
work
☑ Bed: which moves vertically upward and downward and accommodates the various drive
mechanisms
☑ Column with base: main structural body to support other parts
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… cont’d

Figure 12: Schematic view of (a) horizontal knee-and-column milling machine, and
(b) vertical knee-and-column milling machine

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… cont’d

☑ There are two forms of Milling:

1. Peripheral milling
o Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined
2. Face milling
o Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled

Figure 13: (a) peripheral milling, and (b) face milling

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… cont’d

Advantage of Peripheral and Face Milling

Some of the advantages of peripheral

milling include:
 More stable holding of the cutter.
There is less variation in the
arbor torque;
 Lower power requirements;
 Better work surface finish

 High production rate is the advantage

of face milling.
 However, surface finish is worse than
in peripheral milling, and feed marks
are inevitable.

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 Applications of Milling
• Milling machines are also quite versatile and can do several
operations.

pocket milling surface contouring

profile milling

Figure 14: Some common milling operation

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… cont’d

• There are two basic types of Peripheral milling, as shown in the

figure 10:

Cutting edge takes Thick cut at entry

full thickness of cut with abrupt exist
at entry and exits at
zero thickness

(a) (b)

Figure 15: (a) Down (climb) milling and b) Up (conventional) Milling

☑ Down (climb) milling: the cutter rotation is in the same direction

as the motion of the workpiece being fed, and
☑ Up (conventional) milling: the workpiece is moving towards
the cutter, opposing the cutter direction of rotation.

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 Milling Cutters

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 16: (a) HSS milling cutter, (b)

and (c) Mechanically attached cutters

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 Shaping machine
Fig. 17 shows the general configuration of shaping machine. Its
major parts are:
 Ram: it holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through
reciprocation
 Bed: it holds and imparts feed motions to the job (blank)
 Housing with base: the basic structure and also
accommodate the drive mechanisms
 Power drive with speed and feed change mechanisms.

• Shaping machines are generally used for producing flat surfaces, grooving, splitting etc.
Because of poor productivity and process capability these machine tools are not widely
used now-a-days for production.
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… cont’d

Figure 17 - Components of a shaper machine

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 Planing machine

 The general configuration is schematically shown in

Figure18. This machine tool also does the same
operations like shaping machine but the major
differences are:
o In planing the job reciprocates for cutting motion
and the tool moves slowly for the feed motions
unlike in shaping machine.
o Planing machines are usually very large in size
and used for large jobs and heavy duty work.

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… cont’d

Figure 18 - Open side planer

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 Drilling machine
Fig. 19 shows general configuration of drilling machine, column
drill in particular. The salient parts are
o Column with base: it is the basic structure to hold the other
parts
o Drilling head: this box type structure accommodates the
power drive and the speed and feed gear boxes.
o Spindle: holds the drill and transmits rotation and axial
translation to the tool for providing cutting motion and feed
motion
o Drilling – both
machines the drillin. varying size and configuration such as
aretoavailable
pillar drill, column drill, radial drill, micro-drill etc. but in working principle
all are more or less the same.
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 Drilling machines are used:
• Mainly for drilling (originating or enlarging cylindrical holes)
• Occasionally for boring, counter boring, counter sinking etc.
• Also for cutting internal threads in parts like nuts using
suitable attachment.

Fig. 19 Schematic view of a drilling

machine

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… cont’d

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20: (a) Upright drill press, (b) Bench drill press and (c) Radial drill press

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 Drilling and reaming operations

Figure 21: Drilling and reaming operations.

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 Drills and reamers
• Drills are normally made of HSS but carbide-tipped drills, and
drills with mechanically attached carbide inserts are commonly
used in many operations, especially on CNC drilling machines:
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 22: (a) Coated HSS twist drills, (b) Carbide-tipped twist drills, and (c) Indexable
inserts twist drills
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 Specification of Machine Tools
Centre lathe
 Maximum diameter and length of the jobs that can be
accommodated
 Power of the main drive (motor)
 Range of spindle speeds
 Range of feeds
 Space occupied by the machine
Shaping machine
 Length, breadth and depth of the bed
 Maximum axial travel of the bed and vertical travel of the bed /
tool
 Maximum length of the stroke (of the ram / tool)
 Range of number of strokes per minute
 Range of table feed
 Power of the main drive
 Space occupied by the machine
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… cont’d

Drilling machine (column type)

 Maximum drill size (diameter) that can be used
 Size and taper of the hole in the spindle
 Range of spindle speeds
 Range of feeds
 Power of the main drive
 Range of the axial travel of the spindle / bed
 Floor space occupied by the machine
Milling machine (knee type and with arbour)
 Type; ordinary or swiveling bed type
 Size of the work table
 Range of travels of the table in X-Y-Z directions
 Arbour size (diameter)
 Power of the main drive
 Range of spindle speed
 Range of table feeds in X-Y-Z directions
 Floor space occupied.

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 Broad classification of Machine Tools
S.No. Methods of classification Classified into Examples
Horizontal Horizontal center lathe
1. Direction of major axis Vertical Vertical axis milling
Inclined Special machines
General purpose Center lathes, etc.
2. Purpose of use Single purpose Facing lathe, etc.
Special purpose For mass production
Non-automatic Center lathes, etc.
3. Degree of automation Semi-automatic Turret lathe, etc.
Automatic CNC machines
Heavy duty lathes (e.g. ≥ 55 kW)
Medium duty lathes – 3.7 ~ 11 kW
4. Size
Small duty table top lathes
Micro duty micro-drilling machine

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… cont’d

5. Precision Ordinary Automatic lathes

High precision Swiss type automatic lathes

Single spindle Center lathes

6.
Number of spindles Multi-spindle Multispindle (2 to 8) lathes

Bar type (lathes)

7. Blank type Chucking type (lathes)

Housing type

Fixed automation Single & Multispindle lathes

8.
Type of automation Flexible automation CNC milling machine

Stand alone type Conventional machine

9.
Configuration Machining system Machining center

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 Machining Responses
• Machining results can be assessed using different approaches. These
include by measuring the cutting force, cutting temperature, quality
of machined surface, and tool life.
1. Measuring of cutting force using dynamometer
The target physical variable (say force) is converted proportionally
Stage – 1 into another suitable variable (say voltage) called signal, by using
appropriate sensor or transducer.

The feeble and noisy signal is amplified, filtered, rectified (if

Stage – 2 necessary) and stabilized for convenience and accuracy of
measurement.

Where the conditioned signal (say voltage) is quantitatively

Stage – 3 determined and recorded by using some read out unit like
galvanometer, oscilloscope, recorder or computer.

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 Figure 23: General principle of measurement

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 2. Surface finish
• Surface finish measurement is the characterizing of a surface's
quality expectations through measurement of its variations in
local height over a given distance.
• Surface roughness measurement is a quantitative assessment of
very closely occurring surface irregularities, and is sometimes
used interchangeably with the term surface finish measurement

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 3. Failure of cutting tools and tool life
3.1 Failure of cutting tools
Cutting tools generally fail by :
• Mechanical breakage due to excessive forces and shocks.
• Quick dulling by plastic deformation due to intensive stresses and
temperature
• Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its flanks and rake surface

• It is understood or considered that the tool has failed or about to fail

by one or more of the following conditions :
i. In R&D laboratories
ii. In machining industries
3.2. Mechanisms and pattern (geometry) of cutting tool wear

The common mechanisms of cutting tool wear are :

1) Mechanical wear
• thermally insensitive type; like abrasion, chipping and
delamination
• thermally sensitive type; like adhesion, fracturing, flaking etc.
2) Thermochemical wear
• macro-diffusion by mass dissolution
• micro-diffusion by atomic migration
3) Chemical wear
4) Galvanic wear

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 3.2. Tool Life
Definition:
• The amount of satisfactory performance or service rendered by a
fresh tool or a cutting point till it is declared failed.
• Mostly tool life is decided by the machining time till flank wear, VB
reaches 0.3 mm or crater wear, KT reaches 0.15 mm.

Measurement of tool wear :

i. by loss of tool material in volume or weight
ii. by grooving and indentation method –
iii. using optical microscope fitted with micrometer – very
common and effective method
iv. using scanning electron microscope (SEM) – used generally,
for detailed study; both qualitative and quantitative
v. Talysurf, specially for shallow crater wear.
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 Taylor’s tool life equation

46 Fig. 25: Growth of flank wear and assessment of tool life 12-Feb-20
• If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc. are plotted against the corresponding
cutting velocities, V1, V2, V3, V4 etc. as shown in Fig. 26, a smooth curve like
a rectangular hyperbola is found to appear.
• When Taylor plotted the same figure taking both V and T in log-scale, a more
distinct linear relationship appeared as schematically shown in Fig. 27.
• With the slope, n and intercept, c, Taylor derived the simple equation as

• where, n is called, Taylor’s tool life exponent. The values of both ‘n’ and ‘c’
depend mainly upon the tool-work materials and the cutting environment
(cutting fluid application).

Fig. 26: Cutting velocity – tool life relationship Fig. 27: Cutting velocity vs tool life on a log-log scale
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 Exercise

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 Home work

o Compare the tool life of two catting tools (HSS and

carbide) at a speed of 30 m/min. The tool life is 130
min. The tool life equation for HSS tool is given by
VT1/7 = C1 and for carbide VT1/5 = C2 at a cutting speed
of 24 m/min

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