PARASITOLOGY Size varies (largest common intestinal
nematode- Ascaris lumbricoides)
METAZOA Body cavity is pseudocoel, lack circulatory
system
Digestive system is complete (one way)
Different nematodes have different mouth
Reproductive system is complete
Males are generally smaller than females
Males’ posterior end is curved ventrally
Males have copulatory spicules
Protozoa Male and female reproductive organs are
o Unicellular parasites complete
o Amoeba, flagellates, ciliates and sporozoa
Metazoa/Helminthes
o multicellular animal parasites
o Nemathelminthes
Nematodes- roundworms
o Platyhelminthes- flatworms
Trematodes- flukes
Cestodes- tapeworms Three basic morphologic forms of Nematodes:
o Eggs
Helminthes -eggs vary in size and shape
Large multicellular organisms that are -female sex cells fertilize
generally visible to the naked eye in their o Larvae/juvenile worms
adult stages -typically long and slender
Either free living or parasitic in nature -growing larva complete the maturation
In adult form, they cannot multiply in humans process
Two phyla: Platyhelminthes and o Adult worms
Nemathelminthes -larva result into emergence of adult worms
Female nematodes
Nematodes A. Vivaparous- gives birth to larva
Class under Nemathelminthes B. Oviparous- lay eggs
Two major categories: Intestinal and Tissue o Unsegmented eggs
Nematodes o Segmented eggs
o Embryonated eggs
C. Ovoviviparous- lay eggs and hatch
immediately
Egg (3 Layers)
Vitelline membrane
Chorionic (true shell) or chitinous layer
Albuminous layer
Larva
Rhabditoid
Filariform
Nematodes
The largest number of helminths parasitizing Adult
man Male
Unsegmented worms, elongate and Female
cylindrical , both ends are often pointed
Mode of Transmission Eggs
Ingestion Oval eggs, flattened on one side (D-shaped)
Skin penetration Consists of a developing larva surrounded by
Inhalation a conspicuous double-layered, thick-walled
Blood sucking insects/vectors colorless shell
Inside the egg is a tadpole-like embryo that
Portal of Exit becomes fully mature outside the host within
Feces 4-6 hours
Blood
Sputum Adults
Urine Adult female
Yellowish-white equipped with primitive
Clinical Symptoms organ systems, including a digestive tract,
Three possible factors may contribute to the ultimate intestinal tract, and reproductive structures
severity of a nematode infection: Possesses a clear, pointed tail that resembles
1. The number of worms present a pinhead
2. The length of time the infection persists
3. The overall health of the host
*Some infections with Nematodes have been known
to last up to 12 months or longer, others for 10-15
years or more.
Typical clinical manifestations: abdominal pain, Adult male
diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, fever, eosinophilia, skin Smaller than the adult female
irritation/formation of skin blisters, muscle
involvement Infective stage: embryonated eggs
Habitat: large intestine (cecum and appendix)
Parasitic infection-increase in eosinophils
Bacterial infection- infection in neutrophils
Viral infection- Increase in lymphocytes
Allergies- increase in either eosinophils/basophils
Enterobius vermicularis
Common names: pinworm (females),
seatworm (males)
Common associated disease and condition
names: Enterobiasis, pinworm infection,
oxyuriasis
Oviparous
Clinical Manifestation
Anal itch (pruritus ani)
Inflammation of the anal and/ or vaginal
areas
Laboratory Diagnosis
Graham’s scotch adhesive tape swab (perianal
cellulose tape swab)
o Gives the highest percentage of positive
results
o Low-cost diagnostic method
o Easy to perform
o Very sensitive and specific
Prevention and Control
1. Gravid female E. vermicularis would deposit
Practicing proper personal hygiene
eggs in perianal folds of an individual
Applying an ointment to an infected perianal
2. Infection would occur via self-inoculation
area to help prevent egg dispersal into the
(transfer of eggs to the mouth with the use of
environment
hands) or through exposure of eggs to
Avoid scratching the infected area (to avoid
environment
autoinfection)
3. Larvae would hatch in the small intestine
(cecum and appendix),
Ascaris lumbricoides
Time interval of the infected eggs being
ingested and the oviposition-1 month Common names: Large/giant intestinal
Adult life span- 2 months roundworm, roundworm of man
4. Gravid female would migrate nocturnally Common associated disease and condition
outside the anus and it’s the time it would lay names: Ascariasis, roundworm infection
eggs while crawling on the skin of perianal Oviparous
area
5. The larvae contained in the eggs would then Unfertilized eggs
develop in 4-6 hours under optimum o Typical oblong egg with a thin shell
conditions o Egg is usually corticated (has outer
mammilated, albuminous coating)
Modes of Transmission
Anus to mouth by finger contamination
Infected or contaminated fomites
Inhalation
Retroinfection
Autoreinfection
Infective stage: embryonated egg containing 3rd
Fertilized eggs stage rhabditoid larva
o More rounded than the unfertilized egg Habitat: small intestine
o Egg is usually decorticated (no
mammilations) Mode of infection: ingestion of infective eggs
Clinical Manifestations (Ascariasis)
Abdominal pain, vomiting, fever, distention
Mature worms may obstruct the intestine,
appendix, liver, or bile duct
Worms in the lungs may cause low-grade
fever, cough, eosinophilia, and/or pneumonia
Laboratory Diagnosis: stool exam
Prevention and Control
Avoidance of using human feces as fertilizer
Proper sanitation and personal hygiene
practices
Adults
Creamy white color with a tint of pink
Fine striations are visible on the cuticle
Largest known intestinal nematodes
Male- slender and possesses a prominent incurved
tail
1. Adult worms male and female live in the
Female- tail resembles a pencil lead in thickness
lumen of the small intestine
2. A female would produce approx. 200,000
eggs per day which are passed with the feces
3. Unfertilized eggs may be ingested but are not
infective while fertilized eggs develop into
infective stage. Larvae would developed to
infectivity within the fertile eggs after 18 days
to several weeks
4. After infective eggs are swallowed, the larva
would hatch
5. It then enters the circulation and migrate to
the lungs and mature further for 10-14 days
6. It would pass to the throat and go to the small
intestine and develop into adult worms.
Between 2-3 months, they would oviposit
Hookworms
Necator americanus
Common name: New World hookworm Adults
Grayish-white to pink in color with a thick
Ancylostoma duodenale cuticle
Common name: Old World hookworm Have hooks on their anterior end/mouth
Common associated disease and condition names: Males- equipped with a prominent, posterior,
Hookworm infection, ancylostomiasis, necatoriasis umbrella-like structure that aids in copulation,
known as a copulatory bursa
Eggs Buccal capsule
May be unsegmented or show a visible N. americanus- contains a pair of cutting
embryonic cleavage (two-, four-, or eight-cell plates
stage)
Thin, smooth, colorless shell provides
protection for the developing worm
Rhabditiform Larvae- actively feeding larva
o Presence of a long oral cavity known as a
buccal cavity or buccal capsule and a small
genital primordium A. duodenale- consists of actual teeth
Filariform Larvae- infective, nonfeeding larva
o Emerges after the rhabditiform larva
completes its second molt Infective stage: filariform larva
o Has a distinct pointed tail
Habitat: small intestine
Mode of infection: skin penetration of filariform
larva
Clinical Manifestation
Ground itch (allergic itching at the site of
hookworm penetration)
Larvae migration into the lungs: sore throat, Mature larva has digestive tract
bloody sputum, wheezing, headache, mild Not fully developed reproductive organ
pneumonia with cough
Early infection: abdominal pain or other
gastrointestinal symptoms during
Iron deficiency anemia
Laboratory diagnosis: stool exam Adult
Small worm with a slender anterior
Prevention and Control
Proper handling and disposal of fecal Infective stage: Encysted larvae
material
Adequate protection of the skin from Diagnostic stage: Encysted or non-encysted larvae
contaminated soil in biopsy or autopsy specimens
Prompt and thorough treatment of
infected persons is essential Habitat: small intestine
Mode of infection: eating raw or undercooked meat
of animals infected with the larvae
Clinical Manifestation
Primary symptoms: nausea, diarrhea,
vomiting, fatigue, fever, and abdominal pain
Secondary symptoms: headaches, fevers,
chills, cough, swelling, of the face and eyes,
aching joints and muscle pains, itchy skin,
diarrhea or constipation
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Eggs are passed in the stool under favorable Muscle biopsy
conditions (moisture, warmth and shade) Bachman’s test (intradermal skin test)
2. Larvae would hatch in 1-2 days
3. After it hatches, rhabditoid larva are released Prevention and Control
4. After 5-10 days usually after 2 molds, they Thorough cooking of meat
become the filariform larva Proper storage of meat (i.e., -15 C (59 F) for
5. Filariform larva then penetrate to the skin 20 days or -30 C (86 F) for 6 days)
6. This would survive 3-4 weeks in favorable Avoid feeding pork scraps to hogs
environmental conditions
7. They are carried to the blood, vessels, heart, Filariae
lungs and go to the small intestine Tissue Nematodes (live in tissue/lymphatic system)
Wuchereria bancrofti
Trichinella spiralis (Intestinal & Tissue Nematodes)
Common name: Trichina worm, threadworm Common name: Bancroft’s filaria
Common associated disease and condition Common associated disease and condition
names: Trichinosis, trichinellosis names: Bancroft’s filariasis or elephantiasis
Viviparous Definitive host: humans
Intermediate host: mosquitoes
Larva
As a burrowing tip (spear like) Microfilariae
Thin and delicate sheath surrounds the
organism
Numerous nuclei are contained in the body
Cephalic or anterior end is blunt and round
Posterior or tail end culminates in a point that
is free of nuclei
Adult
1. Mosquito takes a blood meal and the infected
White and assume a threadlike appearance
mosquito would introduce the 3rd stage
filarial larvae onto the skin of the human host
Infective stage to man: third-stage infective larvae
where they penetrate into the bite wound
2. They developed in adults that commonly
Infective stage to the mosquito: microfilariae
reside in the lymphatics
3. The microfilariae would migrate into the
Habitat: The adult parasites reside in the lymphatics
lymph and blood channels moving actively
of the human host
through lymph and blood
4. Mosquito takes a blood meal and it would
Mode of infection: bite of an infectious mosquito
then ingest the microfilariae
5. After ingestion, the microfilariae would lose
Clinical Manifestations
their sheaths and some of them work their
Fever, chills, and eosinophilia, formation of
way through the wall of mosquito’s midgut
granulomatous lesions, lymphangitis,
and the others would develop into 1st stage
lymphadenopathy, elephantiasis (swelling of
larva. They would migrate to the thoracic
the lower extremities, genitals, breast)
muscles and develop into 1st stage larva
6. It would then develop to 3rd stage infective
Laboratory Diagnosis: fresh Giemsa-stained blood
larvae
7. The infective larvae would migrate to the
Prevention and Control
mosquito’s proboscis
Personal protection when entering known
8. Eventually it could infect another human
endemic areas
when the mosquito takes a blood meal
Destroying breeding areas of the mosquitoes
Using insecticides when appropriate
Avoid mosquito infested areas
Mosquito netting and insect repellants
