Introduction

Chapter 1

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Health and Medicine
• Sanitation systems
• Surgery with anesthesia
• Vaccines and antibiotics
• Gene therapy

•Energy and the Environment

• Fossil fuels
• Solar energy
• Nuclear energy
2
 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Materials and Technology
• Polymers, ceramics, liquid crystals
• Room-temperature superconductors?
• Molecular computing?

• Food and Agriculture

• Genetically modified crops
• “Natural” pesticides
• Specialized fertilizers
3
 The Study of Chemistry
Macroscopic Microscopic

4
The scientific method is a systematic
approach to research.

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a

set of observations.

tested modified

5
A law is a concise statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same
under the same conditions.
Force = mass x acceleration

A theory is a unifying principle that explains

a body of facts and/or those laws that are
based on them.

Atomic Theory

6
Chemistry is the study of matter and the
changes it undergoes.

Matter is anything that occupies space and

has mass.
A substance is a form of matter that has a
definite composition and distinct properties.

liquid nitrogen gold ingots silicon crystals 7

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.

1. Homogenous mixture – composition of the

mixture is the same throughout

soft drink, milk, solder

2. Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not

uniform throughout

cement,
iron filings in sand
8
Physical means can be used to separate a mixture
into its pure components.

magnet

distillation

9
An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
•114 elements have been identified
• 82 elements occur naturally on Earth
gold, aluminum, lead, oxygen, carbon, sulfur

• 32 elements have been created by scientists

technetium, americium, seaborgium
10
Replace with Table 1.1 from 7e page 6

11
A compound is a substance composed of atoms
of two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions.

Compounds can only be separated into their

pure components (elements) by chemical
means.

lithium fluoride quartz dry ice – carbon dioxide

12
 Classification of Matter
Replace with Table 1.5 from 7e page 7

13
A Comparison: The Three States of Matter

14
The Three States of Matter: Effect of a Hot
Poker on a Block of Ice

15
 Types of Changes

A physical change does not alter the composition

or identity of a substance.
sugar dissolving
ice melting
in water
A chemical change alters the composition or
identity of the substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in
air to form water

16
 Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon
how much matter is being considered.
• mass
• length
• volume
An intensive property of a material does not
depend upon how much matter is being
considered.
• density
• temperature
• color 17
Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass

mass – measure of the quantity of matter

SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g

weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh

on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth
on moon, c ~ 0.1 0.1 kg on moon

18
International System of Units (SI)
Replace table with Table 1.2 on page 9

19
Replace table with Table 1.3 on page 10

20
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3

21
Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/m3
1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

mass
density = volume

m
d= V

22
23
Example 1.1

Gold is a precious metal that is chemically unreactive.

It is used mainly in jewelry, dentistry, and electronic devices.

A piece of gold ingot with a mass of 301 g has a volume of

15.6 cm3. Calculate the density of gold.

gold ingots
Example 1.1

Solution We are given the mass and volume and asked to

calculate the density. Therefore, from Equation (1.1), we write
A Comparison of Temperature Scales

K = 0C + 273.15
273.15 K = 0 0C
373.15 K = 100 0C

0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
32 0F = 0 0C
212 0F = 100 0C

26
Example 1.2

(a) Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in

electronic circuits. A certain solder has a melting point of
224°C. What is its melting point in degrees Fahrenheit?

(b) Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements at
2452°F. Convert this temperature to degrees Celsius.

(c) Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room

temperature, melts at 238.9°C. Convert its melting point to
kelvins.
Example 1.2
Solution These three parts require that we carry out
temperature conversions, so we need Equations (1.2), (1.3),
and (1.4). Keep in mind that the lowest temperature on the
Kelvin scale is zero (0 K); therefore, it can never be negative.

(a) This conversion is carried out by writing

(b) Here we have

2 1345.52 OC

(c) The melting point of mercury in kelvins is given by

2 512.05 K
 Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023
The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:
0.0000000000000000000000199
1.99 x 10-23
N x 10n
N is a number n is a positive or
between 1 and 10 negative integer
29
 Scientific Notation
568.762 0.00000772
move decimal left move decimal right
n>0 n<0
568.762 = 5.68762 x 102 0.00000772 = 7.72 x 10-6

Addition or Subtraction
1. Write each quantity with 4.31 x 104 + 3.9 x 103 =
the same exponent n
2. Combine N1 and N2 4.31 x 104 + 0.39 x 104 =
3. The exponent, n, remains 4.70 x 104
the same

30
 Scientific Notation

Multiplication
(4.0 x 10-5) x (7.0 x 103) =
1. Multiply N1 and N2
(4.0 x 7.0) x (10-5+3) =
2. Add exponents n1 and n2
28 x 10-2 =
2.8 x 10-1

Division 8.5 x 104 ÷ 5.0 x 109 =

1. Divide N1 and N2 (8.5 ÷ 5.0) x 104-9 =
2. Subtract exponents n1 and n2 1.7 x 10-5

31
 Significant Figures
• Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
• Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
• If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the
decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
• If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the
end and in the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures
32
Example 1.3
Determine the number of significant figures in the following
measurements:

(a) 394 cm

(b) 5.03 g

(c) 0.714 m

(d) 0.052 kg

(e) 2.720 × 1022 atoms

(f) 3000 mL
Example 1.3
Solution

(a) 394 cm -- Three, because each digit is a nonzero digit.

(b) 5.03 g -- Three, because zeros between nonzero digits are

significant.

(c) 0.714 m -- Three, because zeros to the left of the first

nonzero digit do not count as significant figures.

(d) 0.052 kg -- Two. Same reason as in (c).

(e) 2.720 × 1022 atoms -- Four, because the number is greater

than one so all the zeros written to the right of the decimal
point count as significant figures.
Example 1.3

(f) 3000 mL -- This is an ambiguous case. The number

of significant figures may be four (3.000 × 103), three
(3.00 × 103), two (3.0 × 103), or one (3 × 103).

This example illustrates why scientific notation must be

used to show the proper number of significant figures.
 Significant Figures
Addition or Subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than any of the original numbers.
89.332
+1.1 one significant figure after decimal point
90.432 round off to 90.4

3.70 two significant figures after decimal point

-2.9133
0.7867 round off to 0.79

36
 Significant Figures
Multiplication or Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original
number that has the smallest number of significant figures.
4.51 x 3.6666 = 16.536366 = 16.5

3 sig figs round to

3 sig figs

6.8 ÷ 112.04 = 0.0606926 = 0.061

2 sig figs round to

2 sig figs
37
 Significant Figures
Exact Numbers
Numbers from definitions or numbers of objects are considered
to have an infinite number of significant figures.

The average of three measured lengths: 6.64, 6.68 and 6.70?

6.64 + 6.68 + 6.70

= 6.67333 = 6.67 = 7
3

Because 3 is an exact number

38
Example 1.4
Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct
number of significant figures:

(a) 11,254.1 g + 0.1983 g

(b) 66.59 L − 3.113 L

(c) 8.16 m × 5.1355

(d) 0.0154 kg  88.3 mL

(e) 2.64 × 103 cm + 3.27 × 102 cm

Example 1.4
Solution In addition and subtraction, the number of decimal
places in the answer is determined by the number having the
lowest number of decimal places. In multiplication and division,
the significant number of the answer is determined by the
number having the smallest number of significant figures.

(a)

(b)
Example 1.4
(c)

(d)

(e) First we change 3.27 × 102 cm to 0.327 × 103 cm and then

carry out the addition (2.64 cm + 0.327 cm) × 103. Following
the procedure in (a), we find the answer is 2.97 × 103 cm.
Accuracy – how close a measurement is to the true value
Precision – how close a set of measurements are to each other

accurate precise not accurate

& but &
precise not accurate not precise
42
 Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems

1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed

2. Carry units through calculation
3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the
problem was solved correctly.

given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given unit

43
Example 1.5

A person’s average daily intake of glucose (a form of sugar) is

0.0833 pound (lb). What is this mass in milligrams (mg)?
(1 lb = 453.6 g.)
Example 1.5
Strategy The problem can be stated as

? mg = 0.0833 lb

The relationship between pounds and grams is given in the

problem. This relationship will enable conversion from pounds
to grams.

A metric conversion is then needed to convert grams to

milligrams (1 mg = 1 × 10−3 g).

Arrange the appropriate conversion factors so that pounds and

grams cancel and the unit milligrams is obtained in your
answer.
Example 1.5

Solution The sequence of conversions is

Using the following conversion factors

we obtain the answer in one step:

Example 1.5

Check As an estimate, we note that 1 lb is roughly 500 g and

that 1 g = 1000 mg. Therefore, 1 lb is roughly 5 × 105 mg.

Rounding off 0.0833 lb to 0.1 lb, we get 5 × 104 mg, which is

close to the preceding quantity.
Example 1.6

A liquid helium storage tank

has a volume of 275 L. What is
the volume in m3?

A cryogenic storage tank

for liquid helium.
Example 1.6

Strategy The problem can be stated as

? m3 = 275 L

How many conversion factors are needed for this problem?

Recall that 1 L = 1000 cm3 and 1 cm = 1 × 10−2 m.

Example 1.6
Solution We need two conversion factors here: one to convert
liters to cm3 and one to convert centimeters to meters:

1000 cm3 1 × 10-2 m

and
1L 1 cm
Because the second conversion deals with length (cm and m)
and we want volume here, it must therefore be cubed to give
3
1 × 10-2 m 1 × 10-2 m 1 × 10-2 m 1 × 10-2 m
× × =
1 cm 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

This means that 1 cm3 = 1 × 10-6 m3. Now we can write

3
1000 cm3 1× 10-2m
? m3 = 275 L × × = 0.275 m3
1L 1 cm
Example 1.6
Check From the preceding conversion factors you can show
that 1 L = 1 × 10-3 m3. Therefore, a 275-L storage tank would be
equal to 275 × 10-3 m3 or 0.275 m3, which is the answer.
Example 1.7
Liquid nitrogen is obtained
from liquefied air and is used
to prepare frozen goods and in
low-temperature research.

The density of the liquid at its

boiling point (−196°C or 77 K)
is 0.808 g/cm3. Convert the
density to units of kg/m3.

liquid nitrogen
Example 1.7

Strategy The problem can be stated as

? kg/m3 = 0.808 g/cm3

Two separate conversions are required for this problem:

Recall that 1 kg = 1000 g and 1 cm = 1 × 10−2 m.

Example
Solubility

• A process by which a solute dissolves in

a solvent (physical change and not a
chemical change).

54
Example
Example SOLUTION
Example HOME WORK

(2)
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Chapter 2

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction.
2
Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Law of Multiple Proportions

3
16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y

Law of Conservation of Mass

4
Cathode Ray Tube

J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e-

(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) 5
Cathode Ray Tube

6
 Millikan’s Experiment

Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g 7
Types of Radioactivity

(uranium compound)
8
Thomson’s Model

9
 Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g) 10
 Rutherford’s Model of
the Atom

atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m

nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

“If the atom is the Houston

Astrodome, then the nucleus is a
marble on the 50-yard line.” 11
 Chadwick’s Experiment (1932)
(1935 Noble Prize in Physics)

H atoms: 1 p; He atoms: 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

 + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g 12
 Components of the Atom

mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

13
 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U 14
The Isotopes of Hydrogen

15
Example 2.1

Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of

the following species:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) carbon-14
Example 2.1
Strategy Recall that the superscript denotes the mass number
(A) and the subscript denotes the atomic number (Z).

Mass number is always greater than atomic number. (The only

exception is H, where the mass number is equal to the atomic
number.)

In a case where no subscript is shown, as in parts (c) and (d),

the atomic number can be deduced from the element symbol or
name.

To determine the number of electrons, remember that because

atoms are electrically neutral, the number of electrons is equal
to the number of protons.
Example 2.1
Solution
(a) The atomic number is 11, so there are 11 protons.
The mass number is 20, so the number of neutrons is
20 − 11 = 9. The number of electrons is the same as the
number of protons; that is, 11.

(b) The atomic number is the same as that in (a), or 11.

The mass number is 22, so the number of neutrons is
22 − 11 = 11. The number of electrons is 11. Note that the
species in (a) and (b) are chemically similar isotopes of
sodium.
Example 2.1

(c) The atomic number of O (oxygen) is 8, so there are

8 protons. The mass number is 17, so there are 17 − 8 = 9
neutrons. There are 8 electrons.

(d) Carbon-14 can also be represented as 14C. The atomic

number of carbon is 6, so there are 14 − 6 = 8 neutrons.
The number of electrons is 6.
 20

Noble Gas
Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table

Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical forces.

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms:

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms:

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
21
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
22
A monatomic ion contains only one atom:
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom:

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

23
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

24
Formulas and Models

25
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance.

An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance.

molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O

O3 O
N2H4 NH2
26
Example 2.2

Write the molecular formula of methylamine, a colorless gas

used in the production of pharmaceuticals and pesticides, from
its ball-and-stick model, shown below.
Example 2.2

Solution
Refer to the labels (also see back end papers).

There are five H atoms, one C atom, and one N atom.

Therefore, the molecular formula is CH5N.

However, the standard way of writing the molecular formula for

methylamine is CH3NH2 because it shows how the atoms are
joined in the molecule.
Example 2.3

Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:

(a) biborane (B2H6), which is used in rocket propellants

(b) glucose (C6H12O6), a substance known as blood sugar

(c) nitrous oxide (N2O), a gas that is used as an anesthetic gas

(“laughing gas”) and as an aerosol propellant for whipped
creams.
Example 2.3

Strategy

Recall that to write the empirical formula, the subscripts in the

molecular formula must be converted to the smallest possible
whole numbers.
Example 2.3
Solution
(a) There are two boron atoms and six hydrogen atoms in
diborane. Dividing the subscripts by 2, we obtain the
empirical formula BH3.

(b) In glucose there are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms,

and 6 oxygen atoms. Dividing the subscripts by 6, we
obtain the empirical formula CH2O. Note that if we had
divided the subscripts by 3, we would have obtained the
formula C2H4O2. Although the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen atoms in C2H4O2 is the same as that in C6H12O6
(1:2:1), C2H4O2 is not the simplest formula because its
subscripts are not in the smallest whole-number ratio.
Example 2.3

(c) Because the subscripts in N2O are already the smallest

possible whole numbers, the empirical formula for nitrous
oxide is the same as its molecular formula.
Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and anions.
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula.
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in
each formula unit must equal zero.
The ionic compound NaCl

33
The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

34
Formulas of Ionic Compounds

2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
35
Example 2.4

Write the formula of

magnesium nitride, containing
the Mg2+ and N3− ions.

When magnesium burns in air,

it forms both magnesium oxide
and magnesium nitride.
Example 2.4
Strategy Our guide for writing formulas for ionic compounds is
electrical neutrality; that is, the total charge on the cation(s)
must be equal to the total charge on the anion(s).

Because the charges on the Mg2+ and N3− ions are not equal,
we know the formula cannot be MgN.

Instead, we write the formula as MgxNy, where x and y are

subscripts to be determined.
Example 2.4
Solution To satisfy electrical neutrality, the following
relationship must hold:
(+2)x + (−3)y = 0

Solving, we obtain x/y = 3/2. Setting x = 3 and y = 2, we write

Check The subscripts are reduced to the smallest whole-

number ratio of the atoms because the chemical formula of an
ionic compound is usually its empirical formula.
 Chemical Nomenclature
• Ionic Compounds
– Often a metal + nonmetal
– Anion (nonmetal), add “-ide” to element name

BaCl2 barium chloride

K2O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide

KNO3 potassium nitrate

39
 • Transition metal ionic compounds
– indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride

FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride

Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide

40
41
42
Example 2.5

Name the following compounds:

(a) Fe(NO3)2

(b) Na2HPO4

(c) (NH4)2SO3
Example 2.5
Strategy Our reference for the names of cations and anions is
Table 2.3.

Keep in mind that if a metal can form cations of different

charges (see Figure 2.10), need to use the Stock system.
Example 2.5
Solution
(a) The nitrate ion (NO3−) bears one negative charge, so the
iron ion must have two positive charges. Because iron
forms both Fe+ and Fe2+ ions, we need to use the Stock
system and call the compound iron(II) nitrate.

(b) The cation is Na+ and the anion is HPO42− (hydrogen

phosphate). Because sodium only forms one type of ion
(Na+), there is no need to use sodium(I) in the name. The
compound is sodium hydrogen phosphate.

(c) The cation is NH4+ (ammonium ion) and the anion is SO32−
(sulfite ion). The compound is ammonium sulfite.
Example 2.6

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:

(a) mercury(I) nitrite

(b) cesium sulfide

(c) calcium phosphate

Example 2.6

Strategy
We refer to Table 2.3 for the formulas of cations and anions.

Recall that the Roman numerals in the Stock system provide

useful information about the charges of the cation.
Example 2.6
Solution
(a) The Roman numeral shows that the mercury ion bears a +1
charge. According to Table 2.3, however, the mercury(I) ion
is diatomic (that is, ) and the nitrite ion is .
Therefore, the formula is Hg2(NO2)2.

(b) Each sulfide ion bears two negative charges, and each
cesium ion bears one positive charge (cesium is in Group
1A, as is sodium). Therefore, the formula is Cs2S.
Example 2.6

(c) Each calcium ion (Ca2+) bears two positive charges, and
each phosphate ion ( ) bears three negative charges.

To make the sum of the charges equal zero, we must adjust

the numbers of cations and anions:

3(+2) + 2(−3) = 0

Thus, the formula is Ca3(PO4)2.

• Molecular compounds
− Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
− Common names
− H2O, NH3, CH4
− Element furthest to the left in a period
and closest to the bottom of a group on
periodic table is placed first in formula
− If more than one compound can be
formed from the same elements, use
prefixes to indicate number of each kind
of atom
− Last element name ends in -ide

50
 Molecular Compounds

HI hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide

51
Example 2.7

Name the following molecular compounds:

(a) SiCl4

(b) P4O10
Example 2.7
Strategy
We refer to Table 2.4 for prefixes.

In (a) there is only one Si atom so we do not use the prefix

“mono.”

Solution
(a) Because there are four chlorine atoms present, the
compound is silicon tetrachloride.

(b) There are four phosphorus atoms and ten oxygen atoms
present, so the compound is tetraphosphorus decoxide.
Note that the “a” is omitted in “deca.”
Example 2.8

Write chemical formulas for the following molecular

compounds:

(a) carbon disulfide

(b) disilicon hexabromide

Example 2.8
Strategy
Here we need to convert prefixes to numbers of atoms (see
Table 2.4).

Because there is no prefix for carbon in (a), it means that there

is only one carbon atom present.

Solution
(a) Because there are two sulfur atoms and one carbon atom
present, the formula is CS2.

(b) There are two silicon atoms and six bromine atoms present,
so the formula is Si2Br6.
56
An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
For example: HCl gas and HCl in water

•Pure substance, hydrogen chloride

•Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−),

hydrochloric acid

57
58
An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.

HNO3 nitric acid

H2CO3 carbonic acid

H3PO4 phosphoric acid

59
Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions

60
The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of
oxoacids, are as follows:
1. When all the H ions are removed from the
“-ic” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ate.”
2. When all the H ions are removed from the
“-ous” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
3. The names of anions in which one or more
but not all the hydrogen ions have been
removed must indicate the number of H ions
present.
For example:
– H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
– HPO4 2- hydrogen phosphate
– PO43- phosphate 61
62
Example 2.9

Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion:

(a) H2SO3, a very unstable acid formed with SO2(g) reacts with
water

(b) H2AsO4−, once used to control ticks and lice on livestock

(c) SeO32−, used to manufacture colorless glass.

H3AsO4 is arsenic acid, and H2SeO4 is selenic acid.

Example 2.9
Strategy We refer to Figure 2.14 and Table 2.6 for the
conventions used in naming oxoacids and oxoanions.

Solution
(a) We start with our reference acid, sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Because H2SO3 has one fewer O atom, it is called sulfurous
acid.

(b) Because H3AsO4 is arsenic acid, the AsO43− is named

arsenate. The H2AsO4− anion is formed by adding two H+
ions to AsO43−, so H2AsO4− is called dihydrogen arsenate.

(c) The parent acid is H2SeO3. Because the acid has one fewer
O atom than selenic acid (H2SeO4), it is called selenous
acid. Therefore, the SeO32− anion derived from H2SeO3 is
called selenite.
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH sodium hydroxide

KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide

65
 Hydrates are compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules attached to them.
BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate

MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
66
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that
deals with carbon compounds.
Functional Groups:
H H H O

H C OH H C NH2 H C C OH

H H H

methanol methylamine acetic acid

67
68
 Stoichiometry
Chapter 3

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Micro World Macro World
atoms & molecules grams

Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in

atomic mass units (amu)

By definition:
1 atom 12C “weighs” 12 amu

On this scale
1H = 1.008 amu
16O = 16.00 amu 2
The average atomic mass is the weighted
average of all of the naturally occurring
isotopes of the element.

3
Example 3.1
Copper, a metal known since ancient times,
is used in electrical cables and pennies,
among other things.

The atomic masses of its two stable

isotopes, (69.09 percent) and
(30.91 percent), are 62.93 amu and 64.9278
amu, respectively.

Calculate the average atomic mass of

copper. The relative abundances are given
in parentheses.
Example 3.1

Strategy
Each isotope contributes to the average atomic mass based on
its relative abundance.

Multiplying the mass of an isotope by its fractional abundance

(not percent) will give the contribution to the average atomic
mass of that particular isotope.
Example 3.1
Solution
First the percents are converted to fractions:

69.09 percent to 69.09/100 or 0.6909

30.91 percent to 30.91/100 or 0.3091.

We find the contribution to the average atomic mass for each

isotope, then add the contributions together to obtain the
average atomic mass.

(0.6909) (62.93 amu) + (0.3091) (64.9278 amu) = 63.55 amu

Example 3.1

Check
The average atomic mass should be between the two
isotopic masses; therefore, the answer is reasonable.

Note that because there are more than isotopes,

the average atomic mass is closer to 62.93 amu than to
64.9278 amu.
Average atomic mass (63.55)

8
The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles

Dozen = 12

Pair = 2

The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that

contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C
1 mol = NA = 6.0221415 x 1023
Avogadro’s number (NA) 9
 eggs
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of shoes in grams
marbles
atoms
1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g
1 12C atom = 12.00 amu

1 mole 12C atoms = 12.00 g 12C

1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g of Li

For any element

atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
10
 One Mole of:

C S

Hg

Cu Fe
11
1 12C atom 12.00 g 1.66 x 10-24 g
x 23 12
=
12.00 amu 6.022 x 10 C atoms 1 amu

1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 g or 1 g = 6.022 x 1023 amu

M = molar mass in g/mol

NA = Avogadro’s number 12
Example 3.2

Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal

that is used in making brass
(with copper) and in plating
iron to prevent corrosion.

How many grams of Zn are

in 0.356 mole of Zn?

Zinc
Example 3.2

Strategy
We are trying to solve for grams of zinc.

What conversion factor do we need to convert between moles

and grams?

Arrange the appropriate conversion factor so that moles cancel

and the unit grams are obtained for your answer.
Example 3.2
Solution
The conversion factor needed to convert between moles and
grams is the molar mass. In the periodic table (see inside front
cover) we see the molar mass of Zn is 65.39 g. This can be
expressed as

1 mol Zn = 65.39 g Zn

From this equality, we can write two conversion factors

The conversion factor on the right is the correct one.

Example 3.2
Moles will cancel, leaving unit of grams for the answer. The
number of grams of Zn is

Thus, there are 23.3 g of Zn in 0.356 mole of Zn.

Check Does a mass of 23.3 g for 0.356 mole of Zn seem

reasonable? What is the mass of 1 mole of Zn?
Example 3.3
Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic
element that is present in coal.

When coal is burned, sulfur is

converted to sulfur dioxide and
eventually to sulfuric acid that
gives rise to the acid rain
phenomenon.

How many atoms are in 16.3 g

of S?

Elemental sulfur (S8)

consists of eight S
atoms joined in a ring.
Example 3.3
Strategy

The question asks for atoms of sulfur.

We cannot convert directly from grams to atoms of sulfur.

What unit do we need to convert grams of sulfur to in order

to convert to atoms?

What does Avogadro’s number represent?

Example 3.3
Solution
We need two conversions: first from grams to moles and then
from moles to number of particles (atoms). The first step is
similar to Example 3.2. Because

1 mol S = 32.07 g S

the conversion factor is

Avogadro’s number is the key to the second step. We have

1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 particles (atoms)

Example 3.3
and the conversion factors are

The conversion factor on the left is the one we need because it

has number of S atoms in the numerator.

We can solve the problem by first calculating the number of

moles contained in 16.3 g of S, and then calculating the number
of S atoms from the number of moles of S:
Example 3.3
We can combine these conversions in one step as follows:

Thus, there are 3.06 × 1023 atoms of S in 16.3 g of S.

Check
Should 16.3 g of S contain fewer than Avogadro’s number of
atoms?

What mass of S would contain Avogadro’s number of atoms?

Example 3.4
Silver (Ag) is a precious metal
used mainly in jewelry.

What is the mass (in grams) of

one Ag atom?

Silver rings and the

solid-state structure of
silver.
Example 3.4
Strategy

The question asks for the mass of one Ag atom.

How many Ag atoms are in 1 mole of Ag?

What is the molar mass of Ag?

Example 3.4
Solution
Because 1 mole of Ag atom contains 6.022 × 1023 Ag atoms
and has a mass of 107.9 g, we can calculate the mass of one
Ag atom as follows:

1 mol Ag 107.9 g -22 g

1 Ag atom × × = 1.792 × 10
6.022 × 1023 Ag atoms 1 mol Ag

Check
Because 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Ag have a mass of 107.9 g, one
atom of Ag should have a significantly smaller mass.
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.

1S 32.07 amu
2O + 2 x 16.00 amu
SO2 SO2 64.07 amu

For any molecule

molecular mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)

1 molecule SO2 = 64.07 amu

1 mole SO2 = 64.07 g SO2
25
Example 3.5
Calculate the molecular
masses (in amu) of the
following compounds:

(a) sulfur dioxide (SO2), a gas

that is responsible for acid
rain

(b) caffeine (C8H10N4O2), a

stimulant present in tea,
coffee, and cola beverages
Example 3.5
Strategy How do atomic masses of different elements combine
to give the molecular mass of a compound?

Solution To calculate molecular mass, we need to sum all the

atomic masses in the molecule. For each element, we multiply
the atomic mass of the element by the number of atoms of that
element in the molecule. We find atomic masses in the periodic
table (inside front cover).

(a) There are two O atoms and one S atom in SO2, so that

molecular mass of SO2 = 32.07 amu + 2(16.00 amu)

= 64.07 amu
Example 3.5
(b) There are eight C atoms, ten H atoms, four N atoms, and
two O atoms in caffeine, so the molecular mass of
C8H10N4O2 is given by

8(12.01 amu) + 10(1.008 amu) + 4(14.01 amu) + 2(16.00 amu)

= 194.20 amu
Example 3.6
Methane (CH4) is the
principal component of
natural gas.

How many moles of CH4

are present in 6.07 g of
CH4?
Example 3.6
Strategy
We are given grams of CH4 and asked to solve for moles of
CH4.

What conversion factor do we need to convert between grams

and moles?

Arrange the appropriate conversion factor so that grams cancel

and the unit moles are obtained for your answer.
Example 3.6
Solution
The conversion factor needed to convert between grams and
moles is the molar mass. First we need to calculate the molar
mass of CH4, following the procedure in Example 3.5:

molar mass of CH4 = 12.01 g + 4(1.008 g)

= 16.04 g
Because
1 mol CH4 = 16.04 g CH4

the conversion factor we need should have grams in the

denominator so that the unit g will cancel, leaving the unit mol
in the numerator:
Example 3.6
We now write

Thus, there is 0.378 mole of CH4 in 6.07 g of CH4.

Check
Should 6.07 g of CH4 equal less than 1 mole of CH4?

What is the mass of 1 mole of CH4?

Example 3.7
How many hydrogen atoms
are present in 25.6 g of
urea [(NH2)2CO], which is
used as a fertilizer, in
animal feed, and in the
manufacture of polymers?

The molar mass of urea is

60.06 g.

urea
Example 3.7
Strategy

We are asked to solve for atoms of hydrogen in 25.6 g of urea.

We cannot convert directly from grams of urea to atoms of
hydrogen.

How should molar mass and Avogadro’s number be used in this

calculation?

How many moles of H are in 1 mole of urea?

Example 3.7
Solution
To calculate the number of H atoms, we first must convert
grams of urea to moles of urea using the molar mass of urea.
This part is similar to Example 3.2.

The molecular formula of urea shows there are four moles of H

atoms in one mole of urea molecule, so the mole ratio is 4:1.

Finally, knowing the number of moles of H atoms, we can

calculate the number of H atoms using Avogadro’s number. We
need two conversion factors: molar mass and Avogadro’s
number.
Example 3.7
We can combine these conversions

into one step:

= 1.03 × 1024 H atoms

Check Does the answer look reasonable?

How many atoms of H would 60.06 g of urea contain?
Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses
(in amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.

1Na 22.99 amu

NaCl 1Cl + 35.45 amu
NaCl 58.44 amu

For any ionic compound

formula mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)

1 formula unit NaCl = 58.44 amu

1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl
37
Mass Spectrometer

Heavy
Light
Light

Heavy
Mass Spectrum of Ne

38
Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole
of the compound
2 x (12.01 g)
%C = x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
6 x (1.008 g)
%H = x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
1 x (16.00 g)
%O = x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g
C2H6O 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%
39
Example 3.8

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a

colorless, syrupy liquid used in
detergents, fertilizers,
toothpastes, and in carbonated
beverages for a “tangy” flavor.

Calculate the percent

composition by mass of H, P,
and O in this compound. H3PO4
Example 3.8
Strategy
Recall the procedure for calculating a percentage.

Assume that we have 1 mole of H3PO4.

The percent by mass of each element (H, P, and O) is given by

the combined molar mass of the atoms of the element in 1 mole
of H3PO4 divided by the molar mass of H3PO4, then multiplied
by 100 percent.
Example 3.8
Solution The molar mass of H3PO4 is 97.99 g. The percent by
mass of each of the elements in H3PO4 is calculated as follows:

Check Do the percentages add to 100 percent? The sum of

the percentages is (3.086% + 31.61% + 65.31%) = 100.01%.
The small discrepancy from 100 percent is due to the way we
rounded off.
Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas

43
Example 3.9
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
cures scurvy.

It is composed of 40.92
percent carbon (C), 4.58
percent hydrogen (H), and
54.50 percent oxygen (O)
by mass.

Determine its empirical

formula.
Example 3.9
Strategy
In a chemical formula, the subscripts represent the ratio of the
number of moles of each element that combine to form one
mole of the compound.

How can we convert from mass percent to moles?

If we assume an exactly 100-g sample of the compound, do we

know the mass of each element in the compound?

How do we then convert from grams to moles?

Example 3.9
Solution If we have 100 g of ascorbic acid, then each
percentage can be converted directly to grams. In this sample,
there will be 40.92 g of C, 4.58 g of H, and 54.50 g of O.
Because the subscripts in the formula represent a mole ratio,
we need to convert the grams of each element to moles. The
conversion factor needed is the molar mass of each element.
Let n represent the number of moles of each element so that
Example 3.9
Thus, we arrive at the formula C3.407H4.54O3.406, which gives the
identity and the mole ratios of atoms present. However,
chemical formulas are written with whole numbers. Try to
convert to whole numbers by dividing all the subscripts by the
smallest subscript (3.406):

where the sign means “approximately equal to.”

This gives CH1.33O as the formula for ascorbic acid. Next, we

need to convert 1.33, the subscript for H, into an integer.
Example 3.9
This can be done by a trial-and-error procedure:
1.33 × 1 = 1.33
1.33 × 2 = 2.66
1.33 × 3 = 3.99 < 4
Because 1.33 × 3 gives us an integer (4), we multiply all the
subscripts by 3 and obtain C3H4O3 as the empirical formula for
ascorbic acid.

Check
Are the subscripts in C3H4O3 reduced to the smallest whole
numbers?
Example 3.10
The demand for lithium has
increased in recent years due to its
use in lightweight rechargeable
batteries for electronic devices and
electric vehicles.

One source of lithium is the mineral

spodumene (LiAsSi2O6), which is
also a prized gemstone.

Calculate the kilograms of Li that

could be obtained from 2.73 × 104 kg
of spodumene.
Spodumene
Example 3.10
Strategy Spodumene is composed of Li, Al, Si, and O. The
mass due to Li is based on its percentage by mass in the
compound.

How do we calculate mass percent of an element?

Solution The molar masses of Li and LiAlSi2O6 are 6.941 g

and 186.1 g, respectively. The mass percent of Li is therefore

molar mass of Li
% Li = × 100%
molar mass of LiAlSi2O6

6.941 g
= × 100% = 3.730 %
186.1 g
Example 3.10
To calculate the mass of Li in a 2.73 × 104 kg sample of
LiAlSi2O6, we need to convert the percentage to a fraction (that
is, convert 3.730 percent to 3.730/100, or 0.03730) and write

mass of Li in LiAlSi2O6 = 0.03730 × (2.73 × 104 kg)

= 1.02 × 103 kg

Check
As a ballpark estimate, note that the mass percent of Li is
roughly 4 percent, so that one twenty-fifth of the mass should
1
be Li; that is, × 2.73 × 104 kg ≈ 1.09 × 103 kg.
25

This quantity is fairly close to the answer.

Combust 11.5 g ethanol
Collect 22.0 g CO2 and 13.5 g H2O

g CO2 mol CO2 mol C gC 6.0 g C = 0.5 mol C

g H2O mol H2O mol H gH 1.5 g H = 1.5 mol H

g of O = g of sample – (g of C + g of H) 4.0 g O = 0.25 mol O

Empirical formula C0.5H1.5O0.25

Divide by smallest subscript (0.25)
Empirical formula C2H6O 52
Example 3.11

A sample of a compound contains 30.46 percent nitrogen and

69.54 percent oxygen by mass, as determined by a mass
spectrometer.

In a separate experiment, the molar mass of the compound is

found to be between 90 g and 95 g.

Determine the molecular formula and the accurate molar mass

of the compound.
Example 3.11
Strategy
To determine the molecular formula, we first need to determine
the empirical formula. Comparing the empirical molar mass to
the experimentally determined molar mass will reveal the
relationship between the empirical formula and molecular
formula.

Solution
We start by assuming that there are 100 g of the compound.
Then each percentage can be converted directly to grams; that
is, 30.46 g of N and 69.54 g of O.
Example 3.11
Let n represent the number of moles of each element so that

Thus, we arrive at the formula N2.174O4.346, which gives the

identity and the ratios of atoms present. However, chemical
formulas are written with whole numbers.

Try to convert to whole numbers by dividing the subscripts by

the smaller subscript (2.174). After rounding off, we obtain NO2
as the empirical formula.
Example 3.11
The molecular formula might be the same as the empirical
formula or some integral multiple of it (for example, two, three,
four, or more times the empirical formula).

Comparing the ratio of the molar mass to the molar mass of the
empirical formula will show the integral relationship between the
empirical and molecular formulas.

The molar mass of the empirical formula NO2 is

empirical molar mass = 14.01 g + 2(16.00 g) = 46.01 g

Example 3.11
Next, we determine the ratio between the molar mass and the
empirical molar mass

The molar mass is twice the empirical molar mass. This means
that there are two NO2 units in each molecule of the compound,
and the molecular formula is (NO2)2 or N2O4. The actual molar
mass of the compound is two times the empirical molar mass,
that is, 2(46.01 g) or 92.02 g, which is between 90 g and 95 g.
Example 3.11
Check Note that in determining the molecular formula from the
empirical formula, we need only know the approximate molar
mass of the compound. The reason is that the true molar mass
is an integral multiple (1×, 2×, 3×, . . .) of the empirical molar
mass. Therefore, the ratio (molar mass/empirical molar mass)
will always be close to an integer.

N2O4
A process in which one or more substances is changed into one
or more new substances is a chemical reaction.
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what
happens during a chemical reaction:
reactants products
3 ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O

59
 How to “Read” Chemical Equations

2 Mg + O2 2 MgO

2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 makes 2 formula units MgO

2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 makes 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 makes 80.6 g MgO

NOT
2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2 g MgO

60
 Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on

the left side and the correct formula(s) for the
product(s) on the right side of the equation.
Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas

(coefficients) to make the number of atoms of
each element the same on both sides of the
equation. Do not change the subscripts.
2C2H6 NOT C4H12
61
 Balancing Chemical Equations

3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in

only one reactant and one product.
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O start with C or H but not O

2 carbon 1 carbon
multiply CO2 by 2
on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O

6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
multiply H2O by 3
on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O 62
 Balancing Chemical Equations

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or

more reactants or products.
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O multiply O2 by 7
2

2 oxygen 4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

on left (2x2) (3x1) on right

C2H6 + 7 O2 remove fraction

2CO2 + 3H2O
2 multiply both sides by 2
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

63
 Balancing Chemical Equations

5. Check to make sure that you have the same

number of each type of atom on both sides of the
equation.
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
4 C (2 x 2) 4C
12 H (2 x 6) 12 H (6 x 2)
14 O (7 x 2) 14 O (4 x 2 + 6)
Reactants Products
4C 4C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
64
Example 3.12
When aluminum metal is exposed
to air, a protective layer of
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) forms on its
surface. This layer prevents further
reaction between aluminum and
oxygen, and it is the reason that
aluminum beverage cans do not
corrode. [In the case of iron, the
rust, or iron(III) oxide, that forms is
too porous to protect the iron metal An atomic scale image
underneath, so rusting continues.] of aluminum oxide.

Write a balanced equation for the

formation of Al2O3.
Example 3.12
Strategy Remember that the formula of an element or
compound cannot be changed when balancing a chemical
equation. The equation is balanced by placing the appropriate
coefficients in front of the formulas. Follow the procedure
described on p. 92.

Solution The unbalanced equation is

In a balanced equation, the number and types of atoms on

each side of the equation must be the same. We see that there
is one Al atom on the reactants side and there are two Al atoms
on the product side.
Example 3.12
We can balance the Al atoms by placing a coefficient of 2 in
front of Al on the reactants side.

There are two O atoms on the reactants side, and three O

atoms on the product side of the equation. We can balance the
O atoms by placing a coefficient of in front of O2 on the
reactants side.

This is a balanced equation. However, equations are normally

balanced with the smallest set of whole-number coefficients.
Example 3.12
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 2 gives whole-number
coefficients.

or

Check For an equation to be balanced, the number and types

of atoms on each side of the equation must be the same. The
final tally is

The equation is balanced. Also, the coefficients are reduced to

the simplest set of whole numbers.
 Amounts of Reactants and Products

1. Write balanced chemical equation

2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the
number of moles of the sought quantity
69
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units
Example 3.13
The food we eat is degraded, or
broken down, in our bodies to
provide energy for growth and
function. A general overall equation
for this very complex process
represents the degradation of
glucose (C6H12O6) to carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O): C6H12O6

If 856 g of C6H12O6 is consumed by a

person over a certain period, what is
the mass of CO2 produced?
Example 3.13

Strategy
Looking at the balanced equation, how do we compare the
amounts of C6H12O6 and CO2?

We can compare them based on the mole ratio from the

balanced equation. Starting with grams of C6H12O6, how do we
convert to moles of C6H12O6?

Once moles of CO2 are determined using the mole ratio from
the balanced equation, how do we convert to grams of CO2?
Example 3.13
Solution We follow the preceding steps and Figure 3.8.

Step 1: The balanced equation is given in the problem.

Step 2: To convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles of C6H12O6, we
write

Step 3: From the mole ratio, we see that

1 mol C6H12O6 ≏ 6 mol CO2.

Therefore, the number of moles of CO2 formed is
Example 3.13
Step 4: Finally, the number of grams of CO2 formed is given by

After some practice, we can combine the conversion steps

into one equation:

Example 3.13
Check Does the answer seem reasonable?

Should the mass of CO2 produced be larger than the mass of

C6H12O6 reacted, even though the molar mass of CO2 is
considerably less than the molar mass of C6H12O6?

What is the mole ratio between CO2 and C6H12O6?

Example 3.14

All alkali metals react with water to

produce hydrogen gas and the
corresponding alkali metal hydroxide.

A typical reaction is that between

lithium and water:

How many grams of Li are needed to Lithium reacting with

produce 9.89 g of H2? water to produce
hydrogen gas.
Example 3.14
Strategy The question asks for number of grams of reactant
(Li) to form a specific amount of product (H2). Therefore, we
need to reverse the steps shown in Figure 3.8. From the
equation we see that 2 mol Li 1 mol H2.
Example 3.14
Solution The conversion steps are

Combining these steps into one equation, we write

Check There are roughly 5 moles of H2 in 9.89 g H2, so we

need 10 moles of Li. From the approximate molar mass of
Li (7 g), does the answer seem reasonable?
Limiting Reagent:
Reactant used up first in
the reaction.

2NO + O2 2NO2

NO is the limiting reagent

O2 is the excess reagent

78
Example 3.15

Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon

dioxide:

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO2.

(a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent?

(b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.

(c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the
reaction?
Example 3.15
(a) Strategy The reactant that produces fewer moles of product
is the limiting reagent because it limits the amount of
product that can be formed.

How do we convert from the amount of reactant to amount

of product?

Perform this calculation for each reactant, then compare the

moles of product, (NH2)2CO, formed by the given amounts
of NH3 and CO2 to determine which reactant is the limiting
reagent.
Example 3.15
Solution We carry out two separate calculations. First, starting
with 637.2 g of NH3, we calculate the number of moles of
(NH2)2CO that could be produced if all the NH3 reacted
according to the following conversions:

Combining these conversions in one step, we write

Example 3.15
Second, for 1142 g of CO2, the conversions are

The number of moles of (NH2)2CO that could be produced if all

the CO2 reacted is

It follows, therefore, that NH3 must be the limiting reagent

because it produces a smaller amount of (NH2)2CO.
Example 3.15
(b) Strategy We determined the moles of (NH2)2CO produced
in part (a), using NH3 as the limiting reagent. How do we
convert from moles to grams?

Solution The molar mass of (NH2)2CO is 60.06 g. We use this

as a conversion factor to convert from moles of (NH2)2CO to
grams of (NH2)2CO:

Check Does your answer seem reasonable? 18.71 moles of

product are formed. What is the mass of 1 mole of (NH2)2CO?
Example 3.15
(c) Strategy Working backward, we can determine the amount
of CO2 that reacted to produce 18.71 moles of (NH2)2CO. The
amount of CO2 left over is the difference between the initial
amount and the amount reacted.

Solution Starting with 18.71 moles of (NH2)2CO, we can

determine the mass of CO2 that reacted using the mole ratio
from the balanced equation and the molar mass of CO2. The
conversion steps are
Example 3.15
Combining these conversions in one step, we write

The amount of CO2 remaining (in excess) is the difference

between the initial amount (1142 g) and the amount reacted
(823.4 g):

mass of CO2 remaining = 1142 g − 823.4 g = 319 g

 Reaction Yield

Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would

result if all the limiting reagent reacted.

Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained

from a reaction.

Actual Yield
% Yield = x 100%
Theoretical Yield

86
Example 3.16
Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that
is used in rockets, aircraft, jet engines, and bicycle frames. It is
prepared by the reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with molten
magnesium between 950°C and 1150°C:

In a certain industrial operation 3.54 × 107 g of TiCl4 are reacted

with 1.13 × 107 g of Mg.

(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams.

(b) Calculate the percent yield if 7.91 × 106 g of Ti are actually
obtained.
Example 3.16
(a) Strategy

Because there are two reactants, this is likely to be a limiting

reagent problem. The reactant that produces fewer moles
of product is the limiting reagent.

How do we convert from amount of reactant to amount of

product?

Perform this calculation for each reactant, then compare the

moles of product, Ti, formed.
Example 3.16
Solution
Carry out two separate calculations to see which of the two
reactants is the limiting reagent. First, starting with 3.54 × 107
g of TiCl4, calculate the number of moles of Ti that could be
produced if all the TiCl4 reacted. The conversions are

so that
Example 3.16
Next, we calculate the number of moles of Ti formed from
1.13 × 107 g of Mg. The conversion steps are

And we write

Therefore, TiCl4 is the limiting reagent because it produces a

smaller amount of Ti.
Example 3.16

The mass of Ti formed is

(b) Strategy The mass of Ti determined in part (a) is the

theoretical yield. The amount given in part (b) is the actual yield
of the reaction.
Example 3.16

Solution The percent yield is given by

Check Should the percent yield be less than 100 percent?

Exercise Questions:
1- Identify the followings as homogeneous or heterogeneous
mixture:
a) Orange juice
b) Steel alloy
c) Salt dissolved in water
d) Salt and sugar mixture
e) Clouds
f) Vinegar

1
Ans: Homogeneous mixtures: b,c, f
 (Use dimensional analysis method)
2-The petroleum storage tank of a middle sized American car has 15 US
galloon capacity. Express 15 US galloon in liter. (1 US Gal = 3.79 L)
(Ans: 56.9 L)

3- In the past, mile was the official distance unit in Cyprus. Old people
say that the distance between Famagusta and Nicosia is 36 miles. What
is it in km?
(1 mi =5280 ft, 1 ft = 12 in, 1 in = 2.54 cm) (Ans: 57.9 km)

2
4- The area of Northern Cyprus is 1295 mi2. What is it in km2?
(1 mi =1.609 km) (Ans: 3,355 km2)

3
5- The density of air in a typical car tire is 0.220 lb/ft3. What is it in
kg/m3?
(1 lb = 453.6 g, 1 ft = 12 in, 1 in = 2.54 cm) (Ans: 3.52
kg/m3) (lb= mass unit used mainly in USA. Even though the abbreviation id lb, it is
written and pronounced as “pound”)

4
6- A sprinter runs the 100 yards ( 1 yard: 0.914 m) in 9.3 s. At this same
rate,
a) How long would it take the sprinter to run 100.0 m ?
b) What is the sprinter’s speed in meters per second?
7- A non- SI unit of mass used in pharmeceutical work is the grain (gr) (15 gr= 1.0
g). An aspirin tablet contains 5.0 gr of aspirin. A 155 lb( 1lb:453.6 g) arthritic
individual takes two aspirin tablets per day.
a) What is the quantity of aspirin in two tablets, expressed in milligrams?

a) What is the dosage rate of aspirin, expressed in milligrams of aspirin per

kilogram of body mass ?
• 8- A 15.2 L sample of chloroform at 20 °C has a mass of 22.54 kg.
What is the density of chloroform at 20 °C, in grams per milliliter?

• 9- To determine the density of acetone, a 55.0 gal drum is weighed

twice. The drum weighs 75.0 lb when empty and 437.5 lb when filled
with acetone. What is the density of acetone expressed in grams per
milliliter?
Homework

A graduated cylinder is filled to the 40 ml mark with a minearal oil. The masses of
the cylinder and before and after the addition of the mineral oil are 124.966 g and
159.446 g respectively. In a separate experiment, a metal ball bearing of mass
18.713 g is placed in the cylinder and the cylinder is again filled to the 40 ml mark
with the minearal oil. The combined mass of the ball bearing and mineral oil is
50.952 g. Calculate the density and radius of the ball bearing.

Vsphere = 4/3  r3
Chapter-3
Exercise questions
1- Neon has two major isotopes, Neon-20 and Neon-22. What is the
atomic mass of 22Ne isotope if the atomic mass and percent abundance
of 20Ne are 19.992 amu and 90%, respectively? Ans: 21.991 amu

2- The inert industrial gas Argon is produced from air (atmosphere). The
atmosphere has a total mass of about 5.15×1021 g and its 1.3% (by mass)
is argon. What is the number of moles of argon available in the Earth’s
atmospher .Ans: 1.68x10 mol
18
3- Yttrium (Y) is a transition metal which has several advanced
engineering applications. For example, high energy laser light produced
from yttrium-aluminum garnets (YAG) is used to cut metal parts in
industry. Calculate the total mass, in grams, of 2.53x1024 yttrium atoms.
Ans: 373.66 g

4- Diamond is pure carbon. Calculate the number of carbon atoms in

1.2 carat diamond. (1 carat = 0.200 g)Ans: 1.2x1022 C atoms
5- Methyl cyanoacrylate (C5H5NO) is used to manufacture super fast
glues. Calculate the percent composition by mass of C, H, N and O in
this compound.