Chmstry 123
Chmstry 123
Chapter 1
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Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
• Health and Medicine
• Sanitation systems
• Surgery with anesthesia
• Vaccines and antibiotics
• Gene therapy
4
The scientific method is a systematic
approach to research.
tested modified
5
A law is a concise statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same
under the same conditions.
Force = mass x acceleration
Atomic Theory
6
Chemistry is the study of matter and the
changes it undergoes.
cement,
iron filings in sand
8
Physical means can be used to separate a mixture
into its pure components.
magnet
distillation
9
An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
•114 elements have been identified
• 82 elements occur naturally on Earth
gold, aluminum, lead, oxygen, carbon, sulfur
11
A compound is a substance composed of atoms
of two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions.
12
Classification of Matter
Replace with Table 1.5 from 7e page 7
13
A Comparison: The Three States of Matter
14
The Three States of Matter: Effect of a Hot
Poker on a Block of Ice
15
Types of Changes
hydrogen burns in
air to form water
16
Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon
how much matter is being considered.
• mass
• length
• volume
An intensive property of a material does not
depend upon how much matter is being
considered.
• density
• temperature
• color 17
Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass
18
International System of Units (SI)
Replace table with Table 1.2 on page 9
19
Replace table with Table 1.3 on page 10
20
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3
21
Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/m3
1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3
mass
density = volume
m
d= V
22
23
Example 1.1
gold ingots
Example 1.1
K = 0C + 273.15
273.15 K = 0 0C
373.15 K = 100 0C
0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
32 0F = 0 0C
212 0F = 100 0C
26
Example 1.2
(b) Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements at
2452°F. Convert this temperature to degrees Celsius.
2 1345.52 OC
Addition or Subtraction
1. Write each quantity with 4.31 x 104 + 3.9 x 103 =
the same exponent n
2. Combine N1 and N2 4.31 x 104 + 0.39 x 104 =
3. The exponent, n, remains 4.70 x 104
the same
30
Scientific Notation
Multiplication
(4.0 x 10-5) x (7.0 x 103) =
1. Multiply N1 and N2
(4.0 x 7.0) x (10-5+3) =
2. Add exponents n1 and n2
28 x 10-2 =
2.8 x 10-1
31
Significant Figures
• Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
• Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
• If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the
decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
• If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the
end and in the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures
32
Example 1.3
Determine the number of significant figures in the following
measurements:
(a) 394 cm
(b) 5.03 g
(c) 0.714 m
(d) 0.052 kg
(f) 3000 mL
Example 1.3
Solution
36
Significant Figures
Multiplication or Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original
number that has the smallest number of significant figures.
4.51 x 3.6666 = 16.536366 = 16.5
38
Example 1.4
Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct
number of significant figures:
(a)
(b)
Example 1.4
(c)
(d)
desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given unit
43
Example 1.5
? mg = 0.0833 lb
? m3 = 275 L
liquid nitrogen
Example 1.7
54
Example
Example SOLUTION
Example HOME WORK
(2)
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Chapter 2
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction.
2
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
6
Millikan’s Experiment
Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)
(uranium compound)
8
Thomson’s Model
9
Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)
H atoms: 1 p; He atoms: 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4
13
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei
Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number
1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U 14
The Isotopes of Hydrogen
15
Example 2.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) carbon-14
Example 2.1
Strategy Recall that the superscript denotes the mass number
(A) and the subscript denotes the atomic number (Z).
Noble Gas
Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table
Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical forces.
diatomic elements
11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons
23
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table
24
Formulas and Models
25
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance.
molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O
O3 O
N2H4 NH2
26
Example 2.2
Solution
Refer to the labels (also see back end papers).
Strategy
33
The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.
34
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-
1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-
2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
35
Example 2.4
Because the charges on the Mg2+ and N3− ions are not equal,
we know the formula cannot be MgN.
39
• Transition metal ionic compounds
– indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals
(a) Fe(NO3)2
(b) Na2HPO4
(c) (NH4)2SO3
Example 2.5
Strategy Our reference for the names of cations and anions is
Table 2.3.
(c) The cation is NH4+ (ammonium ion) and the anion is SO32−
(sulfite ion). The compound is ammonium sulfite.
Example 2.6
Strategy
We refer to Table 2.3 for the formulas of cations and anions.
(b) Each sulfide ion bears two negative charges, and each
cesium ion bears one positive charge (cesium is in Group
1A, as is sodium). Therefore, the formula is Cs2S.
Example 2.6
(c) Each calcium ion (Ca2+) bears two positive charges, and
each phosphate ion ( ) bears three negative charges.
3(+2) + 2(−3) = 0
50
Molecular Compounds
HI hydrogen iodide
51
Example 2.7
(a) SiCl4
(b) P4O10
Example 2.7
Strategy
We refer to Table 2.4 for prefixes.
Solution
(a) Because there are four chlorine atoms present, the
compound is silicon tetrachloride.
(b) There are four phosphorus atoms and ten oxygen atoms
present, so the compound is tetraphosphorus decoxide.
Note that the “a” is omitted in “deca.”
Example 2.8
Solution
(a) Because there are two sulfur atoms and one carbon atom
present, the formula is CS2.
(b) There are two silicon atoms and six bromine atoms present,
so the formula is Si2Br6.
56
An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
For example: HCl gas and HCl in water
57
58
An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.
59
Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions
60
The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of
oxoacids, are as follows:
1. When all the H ions are removed from the
“-ic” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ate.”
2. When all the H ions are removed from the
“-ous” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
3. The names of anions in which one or more
but not all the hydrogen ions have been
removed must indicate the number of H ions
present.
For example:
– H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
– HPO4 2- hydrogen phosphate
– PO43- phosphate 61
62
Example 2.9
(a) H2SO3, a very unstable acid formed with SO2(g) reacts with
water
Solution
(a) We start with our reference acid, sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Because H2SO3 has one fewer O atom, it is called sulfurous
acid.
(c) The parent acid is H2SeO3. Because the acid has one fewer
O atom than selenic acid (H2SeO4), it is called selenous
acid. Therefore, the SeO32− anion derived from H2SeO3 is
called selenite.
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
65
Hydrates are compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules attached to them.
BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate
CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
66
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that
deals with carbon compounds.
Functional Groups:
H H H O
H C OH H C NH2 H C C OH
H H H
67
68
Stoichiometry
Chapter 3
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Micro World Macro World
atoms & molecules grams
By definition:
1 atom 12C “weighs” 12 amu
On this scale
1H = 1.008 amu
16O = 16.00 amu 2
The average atomic mass is the weighted
average of all of the naturally occurring
isotopes of the element.
3
Example 3.1
Copper, a metal known since ancient times,
is used in electrical cables and pennies,
among other things.
Strategy
Each isotope contributes to the average atomic mass based on
its relative abundance.
Check
The average atomic mass should be between the two
isotopic masses; therefore, the answer is reasonable.
8
The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles
Dozen = 12
Pair = 2
C S
Hg
Cu Fe
11
1 12C atom 12.00 g 1.66 x 10-24 g
x 23 12
=
12.00 amu 6.022 x 10 C atoms 1 amu
Zinc
Example 3.2
Strategy
We are trying to solve for grams of zinc.
1 mol Zn = 65.39 g Zn
1 mol S = 32.07 g S
Check
Should 16.3 g of S contain fewer than Avogadro’s number of
atoms?
Check
Because 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Ag have a mass of 107.9 g, one
atom of Ag should have a significantly smaller mass.
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.
1S 32.07 amu
2O + 2 x 16.00 amu
SO2 SO2 64.07 amu
(a) There are two O atoms and one S atom in SO2, so that
= 194.20 amu
Example 3.6
Methane (CH4) is the
principal component of
natural gas.
Check
Should 6.07 g of CH4 equal less than 1 mole of CH4?
urea
Example 3.7
Strategy
Heavy
Light
Light
Heavy
Mass Spectrum of Ne
38
Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole
of the compound
2 x (12.01 g)
%C = x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
6 x (1.008 g)
%H = x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
1 x (16.00 g)
%O = x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g
C2H6O 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%
39
Example 3.8
43
Example 3.9
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
cures scurvy.
It is composed of 40.92
percent carbon (C), 4.58
percent hydrogen (H), and
54.50 percent oxygen (O)
by mass.
Check
Are the subscripts in C3H4O3 reduced to the smallest whole
numbers?
Example 3.10
The demand for lithium has
increased in recent years due to its
use in lightweight rechargeable
batteries for electronic devices and
electric vehicles.
molar mass of Li
% Li = × 100%
molar mass of LiAlSi2O6
6.941 g
= × 100% = 3.730 %
186.1 g
Example 3.10
To calculate the mass of Li in a 2.73 × 104 kg sample of
LiAlSi2O6, we need to convert the percentage to a fraction (that
is, convert 3.730 percent to 3.730/100, or 0.03730) and write
Check
As a ballpark estimate, note that the mass percent of Li is
roughly 4 percent, so that one twenty-fifth of the mass should
1
be Li; that is, × 2.73 × 104 kg ≈ 1.09 × 103 kg.
25
Solution
We start by assuming that there are 100 g of the compound.
Then each percentage can be converted directly to grams; that
is, 30.46 g of N and 69.54 g of O.
Example 3.11
Let n represent the number of moles of each element so that
Comparing the ratio of the molar mass to the molar mass of the
empirical formula will show the integral relationship between the
empirical and molecular formulas.
The molar mass is twice the empirical molar mass. This means
that there are two NO2 units in each molecule of the compound,
and the molecular formula is (NO2)2 or N2O4. The actual molar
mass of the compound is two times the empirical molar mass,
that is, 2(46.01 g) or 92.02 g, which is between 90 g and 95 g.
Example 3.11
Check Note that in determining the molecular formula from the
empirical formula, we need only know the approximate molar
mass of the compound. The reason is that the true molar mass
is an integral multiple (1×, 2×, 3×, . . .) of the empirical molar
mass. Therefore, the ratio (molar mass/empirical molar mass)
will always be close to an integer.
N2O4
A process in which one or more substances is changed into one
or more new substances is a chemical reaction.
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what
happens during a chemical reaction:
reactants products
3 ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O
59
How to “Read” Chemical Equations
2 Mg + O2 2 MgO
NOT
2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2 g MgO
60
Balancing Chemical Equations
2 carbon 1 carbon
multiply CO2 by 2
on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O
6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
multiply H2O by 3
on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O 62
Balancing Chemical Equations
63
Balancing Chemical Equations
or
Strategy
Looking at the balanced equation, how do we compare the
amounts of C6H12O6 and CO2?
Once moles of CO2 are determined using the mole ratio from
the balanced equation, how do we convert to grams of CO2?
Example 3.13
Solution We follow the preceding steps and Figure 3.8.
2NO + O2 2NO2
78
Example 3.15
(c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the
reaction?
Example 3.15
(a) Strategy The reactant that produces fewer moles of product
is the limiting reagent because it limits the amount of
product that can be formed.
Actual Yield
% Yield = x 100%
Theoretical Yield
86
Example 3.16
Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that
is used in rockets, aircraft, jet engines, and bicycle frames. It is
prepared by the reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with molten
magnesium between 950°C and 1150°C:
so that
Example 3.16
Next, we calculate the number of moles of Ti formed from
1.13 × 107 g of Mg. The conversion steps are
And we write
1
Ans: Homogeneous mixtures: b,c, f
(Use dimensional analysis method)
2-The petroleum storage tank of a middle sized American car has 15 US
galloon capacity. Express 15 US galloon in liter. (1 US Gal = 3.79 L)
(Ans: 56.9 L)
3- In the past, mile was the official distance unit in Cyprus. Old people
say that the distance between Famagusta and Nicosia is 36 miles. What
is it in km?
(1 mi =5280 ft, 1 ft = 12 in, 1 in = 2.54 cm) (Ans: 57.9 km)
2
4- The area of Northern Cyprus is 1295 mi2. What is it in km2?
(1 mi =1.609 km) (Ans: 3,355 km2)
3
5- The density of air in a typical car tire is 0.220 lb/ft3. What is it in
kg/m3?
(1 lb = 453.6 g, 1 ft = 12 in, 1 in = 2.54 cm) (Ans: 3.52
kg/m3) (lb= mass unit used mainly in USA. Even though the abbreviation id lb, it is
written and pronounced as “pound”)
4
6- A sprinter runs the 100 yards ( 1 yard: 0.914 m) in 9.3 s. At this same
rate,
a) How long would it take the sprinter to run 100.0 m ?
b) What is the sprinter’s speed in meters per second?
7- A non- SI unit of mass used in pharmeceutical work is the grain (gr) (15 gr= 1.0
g). An aspirin tablet contains 5.0 gr of aspirin. A 155 lb( 1lb:453.6 g) arthritic
individual takes two aspirin tablets per day.
a) What is the quantity of aspirin in two tablets, expressed in milligrams?
A graduated cylinder is filled to the 40 ml mark with a minearal oil. The masses of
the cylinder and before and after the addition of the mineral oil are 124.966 g and
159.446 g respectively. In a separate experiment, a metal ball bearing of mass
18.713 g is placed in the cylinder and the cylinder is again filled to the 40 ml mark
with the minearal oil. The combined mass of the ball bearing and mineral oil is
50.952 g. Calculate the density and radius of the ball bearing.
Vsphere = 4/3 r3
Chapter-3
Exercise questions
1- Neon has two major isotopes, Neon-20 and Neon-22. What is the
atomic mass of 22Ne isotope if the atomic mass and percent abundance
of 20Ne are 19.992 amu and 90%, respectively? Ans: 21.991 amu
2- The inert industrial gas Argon is produced from air (atmosphere). The
atmosphere has a total mass of about 5.15×1021 g and its 1.3% (by mass)
is argon. What is the number of moles of argon available in the Earth’s
atmospher .Ans: 1.68x10 mol
18
3- Yttrium (Y) is a transition metal which has several advanced
engineering applications. For example, high energy laser light produced
from yttrium-aluminum garnets (YAG) is used to cut metal parts in
industry. Calculate the total mass, in grams, of 2.53x1024 yttrium atoms.
Ans: 373.66 g