NASA

Reference
Publication
1228

1990

Fastener Design Manual

Richard T. Barrett
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio

.NJ\SI\
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
Office of Management
Scientific and Technical
Information Division
Contents

Page
Summary 1
Introduction 1

General Design Information

Fastener Materials ............................................................................................... 1
Platings and Coatings ........................................................................................... 1
Thread Lubricants 4
Corrosion 5
Locking Methods 6
Washers 9
Inserts 10
Threads 12
Fatigue-Resistant Bolts 13
Fastener Torque 15
Design Criteria 17

Rivets and Lockbolts

Rivets............................. 26
Lockbolts .......................................................................................................... 30
General Guidelines for Selecting Rivets and Lockbolts .. ................................................ 34

References 35

Appendixes
A-Bolthead Marking and Design Data 36
B-Bolt Ultimate Shear and Tensile Strengths 90
C-Blind Rivet Requirements..... 94

iii
Summary corrosion. Aerospace alloy steel fasteners are usually cadmium
plated for corrosion protection.
This manual was written for design engineers to enable them Bolts of stainless steel (CRES) are available in a variety of
to choose appropriate fasteners for their designs. Subject matter alloys with ultimate strengths from 70 to 220 ksi. The major
includes fastener material selection, platings, lubricants, advantage of using CRES is that it normally requires no
corrosion, locking methods, washers, inserts, thread types and protective coating and has a wider service temperature range
classes, fatigue loading, and fastener torque. A section on than plain carbon or alloy steels.
design criteria covers the derivation of torque formulas, loads A partial listing of bolt materials is given in table I. The
on a fastener group, combining simultaneous shear and tension following precautions are to be noted:
loads, pullout load for tapped holes, grip length, head styles, (1) The bolt plating material is usually the limiting factor
and fastener strengths. The second half of this manual presents on maximum service temperature.
general guidelines and selection criteria for rivets and (2) Carbon steel and alloy steel are unsatisfactory (become
lockbolts. brittle) at temperatures below -65 OF.
(3) Hydrogen embrittlement is a problem with most
common methods of plating, unless special procedures are
Introduction used. (This subject is covered more fully in the corrosion
section.)
To the casual observer the selection of bolts, nuts, and rivets (4) Series 400 CRES contains only 12 percent chromium and
for a design should be a simple task. In reality it is a difficult thus will corrode in some environments.
task, requiring careful consideration of temperature, corrosion, (5) The contact of dissimilar materials can create galvanic
vibration, fatigue, initial preload, and many other factors. corrosion, which can become a major problem. (Galvanic
The intent of this manual is to present enough data on bolt corrosion is covered in a subsequent section of this manual.)
and rivet materials, finishes, torques, and thread lubricants
to enable a designer to make a sensible selection for a particular
design. Locknuts, washers, locking methods, inserts, rivets, Platings and Coatings
and tapped holes are also covered.
Most plating processes are electrolytic and generate hydro-
gen. Thus, most plating processes require baking after plating
at a temperature well below the decomposition temperature
General Design Information of the plating material to prevent hydrogen embrittlement.
However, heating the plating to its decomposition temperature
Fastener Materials can generate free hydrogen again. Thus, exceeding the safe
operating temperature of the plating can cause premature
Bolts can be made from many materials, but most bolts are
fastener failure due to hydrogen embrittlement as well as loss
made of carbon steel, alloy steel, or stainless steel. Stainless
of corrosion protection. (A summary of platings and coatings
steels include both iron- and nickel-based chromium alloys.
is given in table II.)
Titanium and aluminum bolts have limited usage, primarily
in the aerospace industry.
Cadmium Plating
Carbon steel is the cheapest and most common bolt material.
Most hardware stores sell carbon steel bolts, which are usually The most common aerospace fastener plating material is
zinc plated to resist corrosion. The typical ultimate strength cadmium. Plating is done by electrodeposition and is easy to
of this bolt material is 55 ksi. accomplish. However, cadmium-plated parts must be baked
An alloy steel is a high-strength carbon steel that can be heat at 375 OF for 23 hours, within 2 hours after plating, to prevent
treated up to 300 ksi. However, it is not corrosion resistant hydrogen embrittlement. Since cadmium melts at 600 OF, its
and must therefore have some type of coating to protect it from useful service temperature limit is 450 ° F .
 TABLE I.-SUMMARY OF FASTENER MATERIALS

Material Surface Useful design Ultimate tensile Comments

treatment temperature strength at room
limit, temperature,
of ksi

Carbon steel Zinc plate -65 to 250 55 and up ----------------

Alloy steels Cadmium plate, -65 to Up to 300 Some can be
nickel plate, limiting used at 900 F
0

zinc plate, or temperature

chromium plate of plating

A-286 stainless Passivated per -423 to 1200 Up to 220 ----------------

MIL-S-5002

17-4PH None -300 to 600 Up to 220 ----------------

stainless

17-7PH Passivated -200 to 600 Up to 220 ----------------

stainless

300 series Furnace oxidized -423 to 800 70 to 140 Oxidation reduces

stainless galling

410, 416, and Passivated -250 to 1200 Up to 180 47 ksi at 1200 of;
430 stainless will corrode
slightly

U-212 stainless Cleaned and 1200 185 140 ksi at 1200 of

passivated per
MIL-S-5002

Inconel718 Passivated per -423 to 900 Up to 220 ----------------

stainless QQ-P-35 or or cadmium
cadmium plated plate limit

Inconel X-750 None -320 to 1200 Up to 180 136 ksi at 1200 of

stainless

Waspalloy None -423 to 1600 150 ----------------

stainless

Titanium None -350 to 500 Up to 160 ----------------

Zinc Plating zinc, iron, and manganese. Phosphate-coated parts can be

readily painted, or they can be dipped in oil or wax to improve
Zinc is also a common type of plating. The hot-dip method
their corrosion resistance. Fasteners are usually phosphated
of zinc plating is known commercially as galvanizing. Zinc
with either zinc or manganese. Hydrogen embrittlement
can also be electrodeposited. Because zinc plating has a.dull
seldom is present in phosphated parts. Phosphate coatings start
finish, it is less pleasing in appearance than cadmium.
deteriorating at 225 OF (for heavy zinc) to 400 OF (for iron
However, zinc is a sacrificial material. It will migrate to
phosphate) .
uncoated areas that have had their plating scratched off, thus
continuing to provide corrosion resistance. Zinc may also be
applied cold as a zinc-rich paint. Zinc melts at 785 of but has Nickel Plating
a useful service temperature limit of 250 F. (Its corrosion-
0
Nickel plating, with or without a copper strike (thin plating),
inhibiting qualities degrade above 140 F.) 0
is one of the oldest methods of preventing corrosion and
improving the appearance of steel and brass. Nickel plating
Phosphate Coatings
will tarnish unless it is followed by chromium plating. Nickel
Steel or iron is phosphate coated by treating the material plating is a more expensive process than cadmium or zinc
surface with a diluted solution of phosphoric acid, usually by plating and also must be baked the same as cadmium after
submerging the part in a proprietary bath. The chemical plating to prevent hydrogen embrittlement. Nickel plating is
reaction forms a mildly protective layer of crystalline good to an operating temperature of 1100 F, but is still not
0

phosphate. The three principal types of phosphate coatings are frequently used for plating fasteners because of its cost.

2
 TABLE H.-SUMMARY OF PLATINGS AND COATINGS Chromium Plating

Type of coating Useful design Remarks Chromium plating is commonly used for automotive and
temperature limit, appliance decorative applications, but it is not common for
of fasteners. Chromium-plated fasteners cost approximately as
much as stainless steel fasteners. Good chromium plating
Cadmium 450 Most common for aerospace
fasteners
requires both copper and nickel plating prior to chromium
plating. Chromium plating also has hydrogen embrittlement
Zinc 140 to 250 Self-healing and cheaper
problems. However, it is acceptable for maximum operating
than cadmium
temperatures of 800 to 1200 of.
Phosphates:
Manganese 225 Mildly corrosion resistant
Zinc 225 to 375 but main use is for surface Sermatel Wand SermaGard
Iron 400 treatment prior to painting.
Another use is with oil or
Sermatel Wand SermaGard are proprietary coatings 1
wax for deterring corrosion. consisting of aluminum particles in an inorganic binder with
chromates added to inhibit corrosion. The coating material is
Chromium 800 to 1200 Too expensive for most
applications other than
covered by AMS3126A, and the procedure for applying it by
decorative AMS2506. The coating is sprayed or dipped on the part and
cured at 650 OF. (sps Technologies 2 has tested Sermatel W-
Silver 1600 Most expensive coating
coated fasteners at 900 OF without degradation.) This coating
Black oxide a300 Ineffective in corrosion process prevents both hydrogen embrittlement and stress
(and oil) prevention
corrosion, since the fastener is completely coated. Sermatel
Preoxidation 1200 Prevents freeze-up of CRES is about as effective as cadmium plating in resisting corrosion
(CRES) fasteners threads due to oxidation but costs about 15 percent more than cadmium. Fasteners are
only after installation
not presently available "off the shelf" with Sermatel W or
Nickel 1100 More expensive than cadmium SermaGard coating, but the company will do small orders for
or zinc fasteners or mechanical parts. These coatings will take up to
SermaGard and 450 to 1000 Dispersed aluminum particles 15 disassemblies in a threaded area without serious coating
Sermatel W with chromates in a water- degradation.
based ceramic base coat

Stalgard 475 Proprietary organic and/or Stalgard

organic-inorganic compound
used for corrosion resistance Stalgard is a proprietary coating 3 process consisting of
and lubrication (in some cases) organic coatings, inorganic-organic coatings, or both for
Diffused nickel- 900 Expensive and requires close corrosion resistance. According to Stalgard test data their
cadmium control to avoid hydrogen coatings are superior to either cadmium or zinc plating in salt-
damage spray and weathering tests. Stalgard coatings also provide
aOil boiling point. galvanic corrosion protection. However, the maximum
operating temperature of these organic coatings is 475 OF.

Ion-Vapor-Deposited Aluminum Plating Diffused Nickel-Cadmium Plating

lon-vapor-deposited aluminum plating was developed by This process was developed by the aerospace companies for
McDonnell-Douglas for coating aircraft parts. It has some a higher temperature cadmium coating. A 0.0004-in.-thick
advantages over cadmium plating: nickel coating is plated on the substrate, followed by a
(1) It creates no hydrogen embrittlement. 0.0002-in.-thick. cadmium plate (per AMS2416). The part is
(2) It insulates against galvanic corrosion of dissimilar then baked for 1 hour at 645 of. The resulting coating can
materials. withstand 1000 OF. However, the nickel plate must completely
(3) The coating is acceptable up to 925 of. cover the part at all times to avoid cadmium damage to the
(4) It can also be used for coating titanium and aluminums. part. This process is expensive and requires close control.
(5) No toxic byproducts are formed by the process.
It also has some disadvantages:
(1) Because the process must be done in a specially designed
vacuum chamber, it is quite expensive. ISermatech International, Inc., Limerick, Pennsylvania.
(2) Cadmium will outperform ion-vapor-deposited aluminum 2Jenkintown, Pennsylvania.
in a salt-spray test. 3Elco Industries, Rockford, Illinois.

3
Silver Plating TABLE IlL-SUMMARY OF THREAD LUBRICANTS

Silver plating is cost prohibitive for most fastener applica- Type of lubricant Useful design Remarks
tions. The big exception is in the aerospace industry, where temperature
silver-plated nuts are used on stainless steel bolts. The silver limit,
of
serves both as a corrosion deterrent and a dry lubricant. Silver
plating can be used to 1600 of, and thus it is a good high- Oil or grease 250 Most common; cannot be used in
temperature lubricant. Since silver tarnishes from normal vacuum
atmospheric exposure, the silver-plated nuts are commonly a212 to 250 Cannot be used in vacuum
Graphite
coated with clear wax to prevent tarnishing. Wax is a good
room-temperature lubricant. Therefore, the normal "dry Molybdenum 750 Can be used in vacuum
disulfide
torque" values of the torque tables should be reduced by
50 percent to allow for this lubricant. Synergistic 500 Can be used in vacuum
Coatings

Passivation and Preoxidation Neverseez 2200 Because oil boils off, must be
applied after each high-
Stainless steel fasteners will create galvanic corrosion or temperature application
oxidation in a joint unless they are passivated or preoxidized Silver Goop 1500 Do not use on aluminum or
prior to assembly (ref. 1). Passivation is the formation of a magnesium parts; extremely
protective oxide coating on the steel by treating it briefly with expensive
an acid. The oxide coating is almost inert. Preoxidization is Thread-locking 275 "Removable fastener" compounds
the formation of an oxide coating by exposing the fasteners compounds only
to approximately 1300 of temperature in an air furnace. The aCarrier boiloff temperature.
surface formed is inert enough to prevent galling due to
galvanic corrosion.
Graphite
"Dry" graphite is really not dry. It is fine carbon powder
Black Oxide Coating
that needs moisture (usually oil or water) to become a
Black oxide coating, combined with an oil film, does little lubricant. Therefore, its maximum operating temperature is
more than enhance the appearance of carbon steel fasteners. limited to the boiling point of the oil or water. It also cannot
The oil film is the only part of the coating that prevents be used in a vacuum environment without losing its moisture.
corrosion. Because dry graphite is an abrasive, its use is detrimental to
the bolted joint if the preceding limitations are exceeded.

Molybdenum Disulfide
Thread Lubricants
Molybdenum disulfide is one of the most popular dry
Although there are many thread lubricants from which to lubricants. It can be used in a vacuum environment but
choose, only a few common ones are covered here. The most turns to molybdenum trisulfide at approximately 750 OF.
common are oil, grease or wax, graphite, and molybdenum Molybdenum trisulfide is an abrasive rather than a lubricant.
disulfide. There are also several proprietary lubricants such
as Never-Seez and Synergistic Coatings. Some thread-locking Synergistic Coatings
compounds such as Loctite can also be used as lubricants for
These proprietary coatings 4 are a type of fluorocarbon
a bolted assembly, particularly the compounds that allow the
injected and baked into a porous metal-matrix coating to give
bolts to be removed. A summary of thread lubricants is given
both corrosion prevention and lubrication. However, the
in table III.
maximum operating temperature given in their sales literature
is 500 ° F. Synergistic Coatings will also operate in a vacuum
Oil and Grease environment.
Although oil and grease are the most common types of thread
Neverseez
lubricants, they are limited to an operating temperature not
much greater than 250 of. (Above this temperature the oil This proprietary compound 5 is a petroleum-base lubricant
or grease will melt or boil off.) In addition, oil cannot be used and anticorrodent that is satisfactory as a one-time lubricant
in a vacuum environment. However, oil and grease are good
for both lubrication and corrosion prevention as long as these 4General Magnaplate Corporation, Ventura, California.
precautions are observed. 5Bostic Emhart, Broadview, Illinois.

4
up to 2200 of, according to the manufacturer. The oil boils (20) Inconel (active)
off, but the compound leaves nongalling oxides of nickel, (21) Yellow brass
copper, and zinc between the threads. This allows the fastener (22) Admiralty brass
to be removed, but a new application is required each time (23) Aluminum brass
the fastener is installed. NASA Lewis personnel tested this (24) Red brass
compound and found it to be satisfactory. (25) Copper
(26) Silicon bronze
Silver Goop (27) 70-30 Copper-nickel
(28) Nickel (passive)
Silver Goop is a proprietary compound 6 containing 20 to (29) Inconel (passive)
30 percent silver. Silver Goop can be used to 1500 of, but (30) Titanium
it is not to be used on aluminum or magnesium. It is extremely (31) Monel
expensive because of its silver content. (32) Type 304 stainless (passive)
(33) Type 316 stainless (passive)
Thread-Locking Compounds (34) Silver
Some of the removable thread-locking compounds (such as (35) Graphite
Loctite) also serve as antigalling and lubricating substances. (36) Gold (least active)
However, they are epoxies, which have a maximum operating Note the difference between active and passive 304 and 316
temperature of approximately 275 of. stainless steels. The difference here is that passivation of
stainless steels is done either by oxidizing in an air furnace
or treating the surface with an acid to cause an oxide to form.
Corrosion This oxide surface is quite inert in both cases and deters
galvanic activity.
Galvanic Corrosion Because the anode is eroded in a galvanic cell, it should be
Galvanic corrosion is set up when two dissimilar metals are the larger mass in the cell. Therefore, it is poor design practice
in the presence of an electrolyte, such as moisture. A galvanic to use carbon steel fasteners in a stainless steel or copper
cell is created and the most active (anode) of the two materials assembly. Stainless steel fasteners can be used in carbon steel
is eroded and deposited on the least active (cathode). Note that assemblies, since the carbon steel mass is the anode.
the farther apart two materials are in the following list, the Magnesium is frequently used in lightweight designs because
greater the galvanic action between them. of its high strength to weight ratio. However, it must be totally
According to reference 2 the galvanic ranking of some insulated from fasteners by an inert coating such as zinc
common engineering materials is as follows: chromate primer to prevent extreme galvanic corrosion.
Cadmium- or zinc-plated fasteners are closest to magnesium
(1) Magnesium (most active) in the galvanic series and would be the most compatible if the
(2) Magnesium alloys insulation coating were damaged.
(3) Zinc
(4) Aluminum 5056
(5) Aluminum 5052 Stress Corrosion
(6) Aluminum 1100 Stress corrosion occurs when a tensile-stressed part is placed
(7) Cadmium in a corrosive environment. An otherwise ductile part will fail
(8) Aluminum 2024 at a stress much lower than its yield strength because of surface
(9) Aluminum 7075 imperfections (usually pits or cracks) created by the corrosive
(10) Mild steel environment. In general, the higher the heat-treating temper-
(11) Cast iron ature of the material (and the lower the ductility), the more
(12) Ni-Resist susceptible it is to stress corrosion cracking.
(13) Type 410 stainless (active) The fastener material manufacturers have been forced to
(14) Type 304 stainless (active) develop alloys that are less sensitive to stress corrosion. Of
(15) Type 316 stainless (active) the stainless steels, A286 is the best fastener material for
(16) Lead aerospace usage. It is not susceptible to stress corrosion but
(17) Tin usually is produced only up to 160-ksi strength (220-ksi A286
(18) Muntz Metal fasteners are available on special order). The higher strength
(19) Nickel (active) stainless steel fasteners (180 to 220 ksi) are usually made of
17-7PH or 17-4PH, which are stress corrosion susceptible.
Fasteners made of superalloys such as Inconel 718 or MP35N
6Swagelok Company, Solon, Ohio. are available if cost and schedule are not restricted.

5
 An alternative is to use a high-strength carbon steel (such Locking Methods
as H-ll tool steel with an ultimate tensile strength of 300 ksi)
and provide corrosion protection. However, it is preferable Tapped Holes
to use more fasteners of the ordinary variety and strength, if In a tapped hole the locking technique is normally on the
possible, than to use a few high-strength fasteners. High- fastener. One notable exception is the Spiralock 7 tap shown
strength fasteners (greater than 180 ksi) bring on problems in figure 1. The Spiralock thread form has a 30 ° wedge ramp
such as brittleness, critical flaws, forged heads, cold rolling at its root. Under clamp load the crests of the male threads
of threads, and the necessity for stringent quality control are wedged tightly against the ramp. This makes lateral
procedures. Quality control procedures such as x-ray, dye movement, which causes loosening under vibration, nearly
penetrant, magnetic particle, thread radius, and head radius impossible. Independent tests by some of the aerospace
inspections are commonly used for high-strength fasteners. companies have indicated that this type of thread is satisfactory
for moderate resistance to vibration. The bolt can have a
Hydrogen Embrittlement standard thread, since the tapped hole does all the locking.
Hydrogen embrittlement occurs whenever there is free
hydrogen in close association with the metal. Since most Locknuts
plating processes are the electrolytic bath type, free hydrogen There are various types of locking elements, with the
is present. There are three types of hydrogen-metal problems: common principle being to bind (or wedge) the nut thread to
(1) Hydrogen chemical reaction: Hydrogen reacts with the the bolt threads. Some of the more common locknuts are
carbon in steel to form methane gas, which can lead to crack covered here.
development and strength reduction. Hydrogen can also react Split beam.- The split-beam locknut (fig. 2) has slots in the
with alloying elements such as titanium, niobium, or tantalum top, and the thread diameter is undersized in the slotted
to form hydrides. Because the hydrides are not as strong as portion. The nut spins freely until the bolt threads get to the
the parent alloy, they reduce the overall strength of the part. slotted area. The split "beam" segments are deflected outward
(2) Internal hydrogen embrittlement: Hydrogen can remain by the bolt, and a friction load results from binding of the
in solution interstitially (between lattices in the grain structure) mating threads.
and can cause delayed failures after proof testing. There is
no external indication that the hydrogen is present. Wedge ramps resist
(3) Hydrogen environment embrittlement: This problem is transverse movement
only present in a high-pressure hydrogen environment such
as a hydrogen storage tank. Unless a fastener was under stress
inside such a pressure vessel, this condition would not be
present.
Most plating specifications now state that a plated carbon
steel fastener "shall be baked for not less than 23 hours at
375 ± 25 OF within 2 hours after plating to provide hydrogen
embrittlement relief" (per MIL-N-25027D). In the past the
plating specifications required baking at 375 ± 25 OF for only Figure 1.-Spiralock thread.
3 hours within 4 hours after plating. This treatment was found
to be inadequate, and most plating specifications were revised
in 1981-82 to reflect the longer baking time. Hydrogen
embrittlement problems also increase as the fastener strength
increases.
FilII-height,
heavy-duty hex
Cadmium Embrittlement
Although hydrogen embrittlement failure of materials is well
documented (ref. 3), the effects of cadmium embrittlement are
Figure 2.-Split-beam locknut.
not. In general, hydrogen embrittlement failure of cadmium-
plated parts can start as low as 325 OF, but cadmium
embrittlement can start around 400 of. Since both elements
are normally present in elevated-temperature failure of
cadmium-plated parts, the combined effect of the two can be
disastrous. However, the individual effect of each is 7Distributed by Detroit Tap & Tool Company, Detroit, Michigan, through
indeterminate. license from H.D. Holmes.

6
 r Nylok pellet

-0-- Out-of-round Barrel returns t~ (/. J

a
I / upper barrel... I elliptical shape, I

~ ...creates ~ I
~ self-locking --V I ;
LNut
Figure 4.-Nylok pellet locknut.
action~ I
on bolt
r Collar
/
d~~/

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Before assembly.

(b) Assembled.
(c) After withdrawal.
Figure 3.-Deformed-thread locknut.
Figure 5.-Locking collar.

Deformed thread.- The deformed-thread locknut (fig. 3)

is a common locknut, particularly in the aerospace industry.
Its advantages are as follows:
(1) The nut can be formed in one operation.
(2) The temperature range is limited only by the parent
metal, its plating, or both.
(3) The nut can be reused approximately 10 times before
it has to be discarded for loss of locking capability.
Nylok pellet. - The Nylok 8 pellet (of nylon) is usually
installed in the nut threads as shown in figure 4. A pellet or (a) (b)
patch projects from the threads. When mating threads engage, (a) Slots.
compression creates a counterforce that results in locking (b) Cotter pin locking.
contact. The main drawback of this pellet is that its maximum Figure 6.-Castellated nut.
operating temperature is approximately 250 of. The nylon
pellet will also be damaged quickly by reassembly.
Locking collar and seal.-A fiber or nylon washer is
mounted in the top of the nut as shown in figure 5. The collar preference) to the nearest slot that aligns with the drilled hole
has an interference fit such that it binds on the bolt threads. in the bolt. A cotter pin is then installed to lock the nut in
It also provides some sealing action from gas and moisture place as shown in figure 6(b). This nut works extremely well
leakage. Once again the limiting feature of this nut is the for low-torque applications such as holding a wheel bearing
approximate 250 of temperature limit of the locking collar. in place.
A cost-saving method sometimes used instead of a collar Jam nuts.- These nuts are normally "jammed" together
or nylon pellet is to bond a nylon patch on the threads of either as shown in figure 7, although the "experts" cannot agree
the nut or the bolt to get some locking action. This method on which nut should be on the bottom. However, this type
is also used on short thread lengths, where a drilled hole for of assembly is too unpredictable to be reliable. If the inner
a locking pellet could cause severe stress concentration. nut is torqued tighter than the outer nut, the inner nut will yield
Castellated nut.- The castellated nut normally has six slots before the outer nut can pick up its full load. On the other
as shown in figure 6(a). The bolt has a single hole through hand, if the outer nut is tightened more than the inner nut,
its threaded end. The nut is torqued to its desired torque value. the inner nut unloads. Then the outer nut will yield before the
It is then rotated forward or backward (depending on the user's inner nut can pick up its full load. It would be rare to get the
correct amount of torque on each nut. A locknut is· a much
more practical choice than a regular nut and a jam nut.
However, a jam nut can be used on a turnbuckle, where it
8Nylok Fastener Corporation, Rochester, Michig~n. does not carry any of the tension load.

7
 r-Jam
>-II!~-~~// nut

Figure 7.-Jam nut.

(a)

Figure 8.- Durlock nut.

Serrated-face nut (or holthead). -The serrated face of this (b)

nut (shown in fig. 8) digs into the bearing surface during final
(a) Multiple fastener application (double-twist method, single hole).
tightening. This means that it cannot be used with a washer
(b) Castellated nuts on undrilled studs (double-twist method).
or on surfaces where scratches or corrosion could be a
Figure 9.-Lockwiring.
problem.
According to SPS Technologies, their serrated-face bolts
(Durlock 180) require 110 percent of tightening torque to Direct interfering thread.-A direct interfering thread has
loosen them. Their tests on these bolts have shown them to an oversized root diameter that gives a slight interference fit
have excellent vibration resistance. between the mating threads. It is commonly used on threaded
Lockwiring.-Although lockwiring is a laborious method studs for semipermanent installations, rather than on bolts and
of preventing bolt or nut rotation, it is still used in critical nuts, since the interference fit does damage the threads.
applications, particularly in the aerospace field. The nuts Tapered thread. - The tapered thread is a variation of the
usually have drilled corners, and the bolts either have direct interfering thread, but the difference is that the minor
throughholes in the head or drilled corners to thread the diameter is tapered to interfere on the last three or four threads
lockwire through. A typical bolthead lockwiring assembly is of a nut or bolt as shown in figure 10.
shown in figure 9(a), and a typical nut lockwiring assembly Nutplates.-A nutplate (fig. 11) is normally used as a blind
is shown in figure 9(b). nut. They can be fixed or floating. In addition, they can have

H'tQ~==...... Easy ...,...~-.... Locking

, fli!==:iililiiiiiiili. start ~':lifiiiiiiiiiil"
action Total
-=::;;;;o.~--T"" starts
seal
and
locking
action

Figure 10.-Tapered thread.

8
 Fe
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Bolted flanges with external load.
(b) Free body with no external load.
(c) Free body with external load.
Figure 26.-Fatigue loading of bolts.

Ultimate bolt load line

Fu
"C
m
...
.2 Fy
"0
m I
F;
I
-Fe(d) -.....1
I
I
I
I
o c B o c B 0 c c
Elongation
I"/ / I
(a)
L Joint
(b) (c) (d)
separation
Figure 27.-Bolt external loading.

(stress) to be used on a stress-versus-Ioad-cycles diagram of Fastener Torque

the bolt material to predict the fatigue life of the bolts. Note
that an initial preload Fi near the bolt yields minimizes cyclic Determining the proper torque for a fastener is the biggest
loading. problem in fastener installation. Some of the many variables
causing problems are
(1) The coefficient of friction between mating threads
Thermal Cyclic Loading of Bolts
(2) The coefficient of friction between the bolthead (or nut)
If the bolt and joint are of different materials, an operating and its mating surface
temperature higher or lower than the installation temperature (3) The effect of bolt coatings and lubricants on the friction
can cause problems. Differential contraction can cause the joint coefficients
to unload (or separate); differential expansion can cause (4) The percentage of bolt tensile strength to be used for
overloading of the fasteners. In these cases it is common preload
practice to use conical washers (see washer section of this (5) Once agreement is reached on item 4, how to accurately
manual) to give additional adjustments in fastener and joint determine this value
loading. (6) Relative spring rates of the structure and the bolts

15
~ TABLE IY.-COEFFICIENTS OF STATIC AND SLIDING FRICTION
[From ref. 12.]

Static Sliding Static Sliding

Materials Materials
Dry Greasy Dry Greasy Dry Greasy Dry Greasy

Hard steel on hard steel .................... 0.78(1) O.II(I,a) 0.42(2) O.029(5,k) Tungsten carbide on tungsten carbide .... 0.2(22) 0.12(22,a) ........... ..............
........... 0.23(1,b) . .......... 0.081(5,e) Tungsten carbide on steel .................. 0.5(22) 0.08 (22,a) . .......... . .............
........... 0.15(1,c) . .......... 0.080(5,i) Tungsten carbide on copper ................ 0.35(23) . ................ ........... . .............
........... O.ll(l,d) . .......... 0.058(5,j) Tungsten carbide on iron ................... 0.8(23) . ................ ........... . .............
........... 0.0075( 18,p) . .......... 0.084(5,d) Bonded carbide on copper .................. 0.35(23) . ................ ........... . .............
........... 0.0052(18,h) . .......... 0.105(5,k) Bonded carbide on iron ..................... 0.8(23) . ................ ........... . .............
........... ................. ........... 0.096(5,1) Cadmium on mild steel ..................... . .......... ................. 0.46(3) . .............
........... ................. ........... 0.108(5,m) Copper on mild steel ........................ 0.53(8) . ................ 0.36(3) 0.18(17,a)
........... ................. ........... 0.12(5,a) Nickel on nickel .............................. 1.10(16) . ................ 0.53(3) 0.12(3,w)
Mild steel on mild steel .................... 0.74(19) ................. 0.57(3) 0.09(3,a) Brass on mild steel .......................... 0.51(8) . ................ 0.44(6) . .............
........... ................. ........... 0.19(3,u) Brass on cast iron ............................ . .......... ................. 0.30(6) . .............
Hard steel on graphite ...................... 0.21(1) 0.09(1,a) ........... . ............. Zinc on cast iron ............................. 0.85(16) . ................ 0.21(7) . .............
Hard steel on babbitt (ASTM No. 1) .... 0.70(11) 0.23(1,b) 0.33(6) 0.16(1,b) Magnesium on cast iron .................... ........... ................. 0.25(7) . .............
........... 0.15(1,c) ........... 0.06(I,c) Copper on cast iron ......................... 1.05(16) . ................ 0.29(7) . .............
........... 0.08(I,d) . .......... O.II(1,d) Tin on cast iron .............................. . .......... ................. 0.32(7) . .............
........... 0.085(1,e) . .......... . ............. Lead on cast iron ............................ . .......... ................. 0.43(7) . .............
Hard steel on babbitt (ASTM No.8) .... 0.42(11) 0.17(I,b) 0.35(11) 0.14(1,b) Aluminum on aluminum .................... 1.05(16) ................. 1.4(3) . .............
........... 0.11(1,c) . .......... 0.065(1,c) Glass on glass ................................ 0.94(8) 0.01(10,p) 0.40(3) 0.09(3,a)
........... 0.09(1,d) . .......... 0.07(1,d) . .......... 0.005(10,q) . .......... 0.116(3,v)
........... 0.08(1,e) . .......... 0.08(11,h) Carbon on glass .............................. ........... . ................ 0.18(3) . .............
Hard steel on babbitt (ASTM No. 10) ... ........... 0.25(1,b) . .......... 0.13(1,b) Garnet on mild steel ......................... . .......... ................. 0.39(3) . .............
........... 0.12(1,c) . .......... 0.06(I,c) Glass on nickel ............................... 0.78(8) ................. 0.56(3) . .............
........... 0.10(1,d) . .......... 0.055(I,d) Copper on glass .............................. 0.68(8) . ................ 0.53(3) . .............
........... O.ll(1,e) . .......... .............. Cast iron on cast iron ....................... 1.10(16) . ................ 0.15(9) 0.070(9,d)
Mild steel on cadmium silver .............. ........... ................. . .......... 0.097(2,f) . .......... ................. ........... 0.064(9,n)
Mild steel on phosphor bronze ............ ........... ................. 0.34(3) 0.173(2,f) Bronze on cast iron .......................... ........... ................. 0.22(9) 0.77(9,n)
Mild steel on copper lead .................. ........... ................. ........... 0.145(2,f) Oak on oak (parallel to grain) ............. 0.62(9) ................. 0.48(9) 0.164(9,r)
Mild steel on cast iron ...................... ........... 0.183(15,c) 0.23(6) 0.133(2,f) . .......... ................. . .......... 0.067(9,s)
Mild steel on lead ............................ 0.95(11) 0.5(1,f) 0.95(11) 0.3(11,f) Oak on oak (perpendicular) ................ 0.54(9) ................. 0.32(9) 0.072(9,s)
Nickel on mild steel ......................... ........... ................. 0.64(3) 0.178(3,x) Leather on oak (parallel) ................... 0.61(9) . ................ 0.52(9) . .............
Aluminum on mild steel .................... 0.61(8) ................. 0.47(3) .............. Cast iron on oak ............................. . .......... . ................ 0.49(9) 0.075(9,n)
Magnesium on olild steel ................... ........... ................. 0.42(3) . ............. Leather on cast iron ......................... . .......... ................. 0.56(9) 0.36(9,t)
Magnesium on magnesium ................. 0.6(22) 0.08(22,y) ........... .............. . .......... ................. ........... 0.13(9,n)
Teflon on Teflon ............................. 0.04(22) ................. ........... 0.04(22,1) Laminated plastic on steel .................. . .......... ................. 0.35(12) 0.05(12,f)
Teflon on steel ............................... 0.04(22) ................. ........... 0.04(22,1) Fluted rubber bearing on steel ............ ........... . ................ . .......... 0.05(13,t)

(1) Campbell, Trans. ASME, 1939; (2) Clarke, Lincoln, and Sterrett, Proc. API, 1935; (3) Beare Soc., 1925; (19) Hardy and Hardy, Phil. Mag., 1919; (20) Bowden and Young, Proc. Roy. Soc.,
and Bowden, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1985; (4) Dokos, Trans. ASME, 1946; (5) Boyd and Robertson, 1951; (21) Hardy and Doubleday, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1923; (22) Bowden and Tabor, "The Friction
Trans. ASME, 1945; (6) Sachs, zeit f. angew. Math. and Mech., 1924; (7) Honda and Yamada, and Lubrication of Solids." Oxford; (23) Shooter, Research, 4, 1951.
Jour. I of M, 1925; (8) Tomlinson, Phil. Mag., 1929; (9) Morin, Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1838; (a) Oleic acid; (b) Atlantic spindle oil (light mineral); (c) castor oil; (d) lard oil; (e) Atlantic spindle
(10) Claypoole, Trans. ASME, 1943; (11) Tabor, Jour. Applied Phys., 1945; (12) Eyssen, General oil plus 2 percent oleic acid; (f) medium mineral oil; (g) medium mineral oil plus 1/2 percent oleic
Discussion on Lubrication, ASME, 1937; (13) Brazier and Holland-Bowyer, General Discussion acid; (h) stearic acid; (i) grease (zinc oxide base); U) graphite; (k) turbine oil plus 1 percent graphite;
on Lubrication, ASME, 1937; (14) Burwell; Jour. SAE, 1942; (15) Stanton, "Friction", Longmans; (I) turbine oil plus 1 percent stearic acid; (m) turbine oil (medium mineral); (n) olive oil; (p) palmitic
(16) Ernst and Merchant, Conference on Friction and Surface Finish, M.LT., 1940; (17) Gongwer, acid; (q) ricinoleic acid; (r) dry soap; (s) lard; (t) water; (u) rape oil; (v) 3-in-l oil; (w) octyl alcohol;
Conference on Friction and Surface Finish, M.LT., 1940; (18) Hardy and Bircumshaw, Proc. Roy. (x) triolein; (y) 1 percent lauric acid in paraffin oil.

Reprinted from Baumeister, et al. "Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers," 8th ed., 1978, with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.
 (7) Interaction formulas to be used for combining simul- The commonly assumed value for K is 0.2, but this value
taneous shear and tension loads on a bolt (Should should not be used blindly. Table VI gives some calculated
friction loads due to bolt clamping action be included values of K for various friction coefficients. A more realistic
in the interaction calculations?) "typical" value for K would be 0.15 for steel on steel. Note
(8) Whether "running torque" for a locking device should that J.L and J.Lc are not necessarily equal, although equal values
be added to the normal torque were used for the calculated values in table VI.

Development of Torque Tables Torque-Measuring Methods

The coefficient of friction can vary from 0.04 to 1.10, A number of torque-measuring methods exist, starting with
depending on the materials and the lubricants being used the mechanic's "feel" and ending with installing strain gages
between mating materials. (Table IV from ref. 12 gives a on the bolt. The accuracy in determining the applied torque
variety of friction coefficients.) Since calculated torque values values is cost dependent. Tables VII and VIII are by two
are a function of the friction coefficients between mating different "experts," and their numbers vary. However, they
threads and between the bolthead or nut and its mating surface, both show the same trends of cost versus torque accuracy.
it is vitally important that the torque table values used are
adjusted to reflect any differences in friction coefficients
between those used to calculate the table and the user's values. Design Criteria
Running torque should be included in the values listed in the
tables because any torque puts shear load on the bolt. Finding Shear Loads on Fastener Group
The torque values in table V have been calculated as noted When the load on a fastener group is eccentric, the first task
in the footnotes, by using formulas from reference 13. (A is to find the centroid of the group. In many cases the pattern
similar table was published in Product Engineering by Arthur will be symmetrical, as shown in figure 28. The next step is
Korn around 1944.) to divide the load R by the number of fasteners n to get the
Higher torques (up to theoretical yield) are sometimes used direct shear load Pc (fig. 29(a)). Next, find Er~ for the group
for bolts that cannot be locked to resist vibration. The higher of fasteners, where rn is the radial distance of each fastener
load will increase the vibration resistance of the bolt, but the from the centroid of the group. Now calculate the moment
bolt will yield and unload if its yield point is inadvertently about the centroid (M = Re from fig. 28). The contributing
exceeded. Since the exact yield torque cannot be determined shear load for a particular fastener due to the moment can be
without extensive instrumentation, it is not advisable to torque found by the formula
close to the bolt yield point.
Fastener proof load is sometimes listed in the literature. This
value is usually 75 percent of theoretical yield, to prevent
inadvertent yielding of the fastener through torque
measurement inaccuracies.
where r is the distance (in inches) from the centroid to the
Alternative Torque Formula fastener in question (usually the outermost one). Note that this
A popular formula for quick bolt torque calculations is is analogous to the torsion formula, f = Tr/J, except that Pe
T = KFd, where T denotes torque, F denotes axial load, d is in pounds instead of stress. The two loads (Pc and Pe) can
denotes bolt diameter, and K(torque coefficient) is a calculated now be added vectorally as shown in figure 29(c) to get the
value from the formula: resultant shear load P (in pounds) on each fastener. Note that
the fastener areas are all the same here. If they are unequal,
the areas must be weighted for determining the centroid of
K- _(d- m) tan t/;+ J.L sec ex +.
0 625 J.Lc the pattern.
Further information on this subject may be found in
2d 1- J.L tan t/; sec ex
references 16 and 17.
as given in reference 14 (p. 378) where
Finding Tension Loads on Fastener Group
dm thread mean diameter
This procedure is similar to the shear load determination,
t/; thread helix angle
except that the centroid of the fastener group may not be the
J.L friction coefficient between threads geometric centroid. This method is illustrated by the bolted
ex thread angle bracket shown in figure 30.
J.Lc friction coefficient between bolthead (or nut) and The pattern of eight fasteners is symmetrical, so that the
clamping surface tension load per fastener from PI will be P I /8. The additional

17
 TABLE V.-BOLT TORQUE TABLE VII.-INDUSTRIAL FASTENERS
INSTITUTE'S TORQUE-MEASURING METHOD
[No lubrication on threads. Torque values are
based on friction coefficients of 0.12 between [From ref. 8.]
threads and 0.14 between nut and washer or
head and washer, as manufactured (no special Preload measuring method Accuracy, Relative cost
cleaning) .] percent

Size Root area, Torque range Feel (operator's judgment) ±35 1

in. 2 (class 8, 150 ksi, Torque wrench ±25 1.5
bolts a) Turn of the nut ± 15 3
Load-indicating washers ±10 7
10-24 0.0145 23 to 34 in.-Ib Fastener elongation ±3 to 5 15
10-32 .0175 29 to 43 in.-Ib Strain gages ±1 20
%-20 .0269 54 to 81 in.-Ib
%-4-28 .0326 68 to 102 in.-Ib
5/16-18 .0454 117 to 176 in.-Ib moment P 2h will also produce a tensile load on some
5/16-24 .0524 139 to 208 in.-Ib fasteners, but the problem is to determine the "neutral axis"
%-16 .0678 205 to 308 in.-Ib line where the bracket will go from tension to compression.
%-24 .0809 230 to 345 in. -lb If the plate is thick enough to take the entire moment P 2h in
7/16-14 .0903 28 to 42 ft-Ib
bending at the edge AB, that line could be used as the heeling
7/16-20 .1090 33 to 50 ft-Ib
Ih-13 .1257 42 to 64 ft-Ib point, or neutral axis. However, in this case, I have taken the
lh-20 .1486 52 to 77 ft-Ib conservative approach that the plate will not take the bending
9/16-12 .1620 61 to 91 ft-Ib and will heel at the line CD. Now the Er~ will only include
9/16-18 .1888 73 to 109 ft-Ib bolts 3 to 8, and the rn's (in inches) will be measured from
%-11 .2018 84 to 126 ft-Ib
line CD. Bolts 7 and 8 will have the highest tensile loads (in
%-18 .2400 104 to 156 ft-Ib
%-10 .3020 bl17 to 176 ft-Ib pounds), which will be P = P T + PM, where P T = P 1 /8 and
%-16 .3513 b139 to 208 ft-Ib
7"8-9 .4193 b184 to 276 ft-Ib
~-14 .4805 b213 to 320 ft-Ib P = Mr = P 2hr7
1-8 .5510 b276 to 414 ft-Ib m Er~ Er~
1-14 .6464 b323 to 485 ft-Ib
11/8-7 .6931 b390 to 585 ft-Ib
llh-12 .8118 b465 to 698 ft-Ib An alternative way of stating this relationship is that the bolt
1%-7 .8898 b559 to 838 ft-Ib load is proportional to its distance from the pivot axis and the
1%-12 1.0238 b655 to 982 ft-Ib moment reacted is proportional to the sum of the squares of
aThe values given are 50 and 75 percent of theoretical yield the respective fastener distances from the pivot axis.
strength of a bolt material with a yield of 120 ksi. Corre- At this point the applied total tensile load should be compared
sponding values for materials with different yield strengths
can be obtained by multiplying these table values by the ratio with the total tensile load due to fastener torque. The torque
of the respective material yield strengths. should be high enough to exceed the maximum applied tensile
bBolts of 0.75-in. diameter and larger have reduced allow-
abIes (75 percent of normal strength) owing to inability load in order to avoid joint loosening or leaking. If the bracket
to heat treat this large a cross section to an even hardness. geometry is such that its bending capability cannot be readily
determined, a finite element analysis of the bracket itself may
Reprinted from Machine Design, Nov. 19, 1987. Copyright, 1987 by Penton Publishing, Inc., be required.
Cleveland, OH.

Combining Shear and Tensile Fastener Loads

T!'BLE VI.-TORQUE COEFFICIENTS
When a fastener is subjected to both tensile and shear loading
Friction coefficient Torque simultaneously, the combined load must be compared with the
coefficient, total strength of the fastener. Load ratios and interaction curves
Between Between K are used to make this comparison. The load ratios are
threads, bolthead
J-t (or nut)
and clamping
surface,
Actual shear load
Rs(or R 1) = - - - - - - -
J-tc Allowable shear load
0.05 0.05 0.074
.10 .10 .133
.15 .15 .189 Actual tensile load
RT(or R 2 ) = - - - - - - -
.20 .20 .250 Allowable tensile load

18
 The interaction curves of figure 31 are a series of curves with
their corresponding empirical equations. The most
conservative is R 1 + R2 = 1 and the least conservative is
Rr Ri
+ = 1. This series of curves is from an old edition of
MIL-HDBK-5. It has been replaced by a single formula,
R~ + Rf = 1, in the latest edition (ref. 18). However, it is
better to use R T + Rs = 1 if the design can be conservative
with respect to weight and stress.
Note that the interaction curves do not take into consideration
R the friction loads from the clamped surfaces in arriving at bolt
shear loads. In some cases the friction load could reduce the
Figure 28.-Symmetricalload pattern. bolt shear load substantially.

_ Mr
Pe-
1.0
l;~
.9

+
.8

N .7
0:
~ .6
....
0: .5
(a) (b) C
0
'iii .4
c
CD
~
.3
p ....- - -....- ....
.2

.1

o .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
R Shear, R s (or R 1 )
(c)

Figure 29.-Combining of shear and moment loading. Figure 31.-Interaction curves.

D
B

0+ 0+ P1 0+ 0+
P2 ..: fQ

CD+ 0+ 0+ 0+
A

P2 ............--- .......----~I----------~

T h

Figure 30.-Bolted bracket.

20
 The margin of safety 12 for a fastener from figure 31 is where N is the number (4, 6, 8, 10, 12) of the fastener. For
example, the shank diameter of a no. 8 fastener is

1 Diameter = 0.060 + 0.013(8) = 0.164 in.

MS= -1
R~ + R~
Fastener Groups in Bearing (Shear Loading)
depending on which curve is used. However, note that Whenever possible, bolts in shear should have a higher shear
R~ + R~ < 1 is a requirement for a positive margin of safety . strength than the bearing yield strength of the materials they
This formula also illustrates why high torque should not be go through. Since the bolts have some clearance and position
applied to a bolt when the dominant load is shear. tolerances in their respective holes, the sheet material must
The margin of safety is calculated for both yield and ultimate yield in bearing to allow the bolt pattern to load all of the bolts
material allowables, with the most critical value controlling equally at a given location in the pattern. Note that the sloppier
the design. A material with a low yield will be critical for yield the hole locations, the more an individual bolt must carry
stress, and a material with a high yield will normally be critical before the load is distributed over the pattern.
for ultimate stress. Bolts and rivets should not be used together to carry a load,
since the rivets are usually installed with an interference fit.
Calculating Pullout Load for Threaded Hole Thus, the rivets will carry all of the load until the sheet or
In many cases a bolt of one material may be installed in a the rivets yield enough for the bolts to pick up some load. This
tapped hole in a different (and frequently lower strength) policy also applies to bolts and dowel pins (or roll pins) in
material. If the full strength of the bolt is required, the depth a pattern, since these pins also have interference fits.
of the tapped hole must be determined for the weaker material
by using the formula Fastener Edge Distance and Spacing
Common design practice is to use a nominal edge distance
of 2D from the fastener hole centerline, where D is the fastener
p = 7rdmFsL diameter. The minimum edge distance should not be less than
3
1.5D. The nominal distance between fasteners is 4D, but the
thickness of the materials being joined can be a significant
where factor. For thin materials, buckling between fasteners can be
P pullout load, lb a problem. A wider spacing can be used on thicker sheets,
dm mean diameter of threaded hole, in. (~ pitch diameter as long as sealing of surfaces between fasteners is not a
of threads) problem.
Fs material ultimate or yield shear stress
Approximate Bearing and Shear Allowables
L length of thread engagement, in.
In the absence of specific shear and bearing allowabies for
The lh factor is empirical. If the threads were perfectly
materials, the following approximations may be used:
mated, this factor would be lh, since the total cylindrical shell
area of the hole would be split equally between the bolt threads
and the tapped hole threads. The lh is used to allow for
Alloy and carbon steels: Fsu = 0.6 Ftu
mismatch between threads.
Stainless steels: F su = 0.55 Ftu
Further information on required tapped hole lengths is given
in reference 19.
where Fsu is ultimate shear stress and F tu is ultimate tensile
stress. Since bearing stress allowables are empirical to begin
Calculating Shank Diameter for "Number" Fastener
with, the bearing allowable for any given metallic alloy may
The shank diameter for a "number" fastener is calculated be approximated as follows:
from

Diameter = 0.060 + 0.013 N

Fby = 1.5 Fty

12Margin of safety is defined as

Allowable load (Stress) where Fbu is ultimate bearing stress, Fby is yield bearing
----------- - 1
Actual load (Stress) x Safety factor stress, and Fty is tensile yield stress.

21