ETHICS

Mayra Christina M. Ambrocio, DEM

Leonida C. Bueno, Ed.D
Emelyn U. Napiza
Arthur P. Limongco
Manuel L. Hidalgo
Arnold R. Alcaraz

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 LAGUNA UNIVERSITY

Vision

Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational institution of

choice providing holistically developed individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.

Mission

Laguna University is committed to produce academically prepared and

technically skilled individuals who are socially and morally upright.

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Course Code: GE8

Course Description: Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in

modern society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the
environment and other shared resources. (CMO 20 s 2013)
Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an individual
originally picks up from the community. The course discusses the context and
principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of individual, society.
and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. The course
also teaches students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral
frameworks and by applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to analyze and
solve mora dilemmas.
The course is organized according the three (3) main elements of the mora!
experience: (a)agent, including context- cultural, communal, and environmental;
(b) the act; and (c) reason or framework (for the act).

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Differentiate between moral and non-moral problems;

2. Describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels of
human existence;
3. Explain the influence of Filipino culture on the way students look at
moral experiences and solve moral dilemmas;
4. Describe the elements of moral development and moral experience;
5. Use ethical frameworks or principles to analyze moral experiences;
6. Make sound ethical judgments based on principles, facts. and the
stakeholders affected;
7. Develop sensitivity to the common good
8. Understand and internalize the principles of ethical behavior in modem
society at the level of the person. Society, and in interaction with the
environment and other shared resources

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Course Requirements:
▪ Assessment Tasks - 60%
▪ Examination - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Preliminary Grade = 60% (assessment 1-4) + 40 (Prelim Exam)

Midterm Grade = 30% (Prelim Grade) + 70 % [ 60% (assessment 5-8) + 40%
(Midterm Exam) ]
Semestral Grade = 30% (Midterm Grade) + 70% [ 60% (assessment 9-10) +
40% (Final Exam) ]
Final Grade = Total CS + Final Exam x 70% + 30% of the Midterm

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 Table of Contents

Module 1: Basic Concepts 1

Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1. What is Ethics? 2
Lesson 2. The Nature of Ethics 4
Lesson 3. Moral vs non-moral standards 8
Lesson 4. Moral Dilemma 12
Lesson 5. Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts 15

Module 2: Culture in Moral Behavior 28

Introduction 28
Learning Objectives 28
Lesson 1. Culture and its role in moral behavior 29
Lesson 2. Cultural relativism 31
Lesson 3. The Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior 33

Module 3: Developing Virtue as Habit 47

Introduction 47
Learning Objectives 47
Lesson 1. How is a moral character developed? 48
Lesson 2. The Stages of Moral Development 53

Module 4: Feelings and Moral Decision Making 68

Introduction 68
Learning Objectives 68
Lesson 1. Feelings as instinctive and trained response to moral dilemma 69
Lesson 2. Making the Right Decisions 75

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 List of Figures

Figure Description Page

1.1 Ethics Word Cloud 4

2.1 Checklist of Strength and Weaknesses 24
3.1 Psychological components of Moral Development 49
3.2 Moral Identity 51
3.3 Lawrence Kohlberg 53
3.4 Stages of Moral Development 55
4.1 Emotions 69
4.2 Emotional Impact on Judgment and Decision Making 75

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 List of Tables

Table Description Page

1.1 Ethics and Morality 7

1.2 Moral vs Non-Moral Standards 11

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 MODULE 1
BASIC CONCEPTS

Introduction

“What are the characteristics of a good person?”

“What does it mean to be a moral person?”

“What personality should I possess?”

“How should a good person deal in a given situation?”

These are some of the questions to consider as to how an individual should act. Ethics,
as one of the branches of the social science is the same as branches of a tree intertwined and
paralleled. With such a diverse concept, how do we begin to understand ethics? This module will
focus on the basic concepts of ethics its uses and how it is almost synonymous to morality. It will
also give emphasis on moral and non-moral standards and making moral decisions. The issue
on moral dilemma will also be highlighted in this module and the important role of freedom as the
foundation of moral acts.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Differentiate ethics and morality;

2. Identify and explain moral standards;
3. Define moral dilemma;
4. Identify various theories and principles of ethics;
5. Explain the importance and use of Ethics in their everyday living; and
6. Develop and practice their inner sense of right and wrong.

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Lesson 1. What is Ethics? (Agapay, 2008)

The word “ethics” is derived from the Greek word “ethos” which means “characteristic way
of acting”, “habit”, or “custom”. The Latin equivalent is mos, mores, from which come the word
moral and morality. Ethics studies the characteristics behavior of man as endowed with reason
and freewill. The study of Ethics started with the Greek philosophers, notably Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle. Socrates is regarded as the father of moral philosophy. However, it is Aristotle who has
greatly influenced ethical thinking with three important treatises – the Nicomachean Ethics, the
Eudemian Ethics, and the Magna Moralia (Great Ethics).

Human acts are actions done intentionally and freely, like walking, reading, working,
playing, shopping, joining a contest, or signing a contract. Human acts are differentiated from acts
of man which are instinctive, such as the physiological and psychological movements like
breathing, feeling happy, or falling in love. Ethics does not study the acts of man in themselves
but as factors affecting man’s judgement and violation.

Ethics is the study of man as moral being, one who is rationally able to distinguish between
right and wrong. It examines how man is accountable for his actions and its consequences. It
proposes how man ought to live his life-meaningfully. It is concerned with morality, the quality
which makes an act good or evil, correct or wrong. It also examines and explains the rational
basis why actions are moral or immoral. In other words, Ethics is concerned with the norms of
human behavior.

What is Ethics?
By: Jovito R. Salonga

Ethics is the discipline dealing with right and wrong. And when we ask what things are
right, without having to go back to the ancient philosophers and scholars, common sense tells us
the things that are right are the things that help people and society at large, such things as
honesty, fairness, decency and accountability. To be sure, ethics has a practical dimension. It is
based on what one might call reciprocity, something like the Golden Rule- “Do unto others what
you would like others to do unto you.” Or even its negative version- “Don’t do unto others what
you don’t like them to do unto you.” I don’t want to be lied to, hence I should not lie to others. I

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don’t want my possession to be stolen, therefore I should not steal other people’s possessions. If
I don’t want to be cheated by the other candidates for president, then I should not cheat them.

But beyond reciprocity, ethics has a spiritual a dimension: People have an inner sense of
right and wrong. That is why we feel guilt and shame. Wasn’t it Abraham Lincoln who said: “When
I do good, I feel good. When I do bad, I feel bad?” “Our best moments, as one ethicist points out
(Meyers 1989 p.18), are not when we made a lot of money, but when something we did meant a
lot good to others. In my own law practice before I got into the fascinating but turbulent world of
politics, I earned more than enough by serving as lawyer for a number of big corporations;
however, my happiest moment was not when I received a handsome attorney’s fee but when I
defended- gratis et amore- an old man, a friend of my late father, who, in my own opinion was
erroneously convicted by a biased judge. I appealed the judgement of conviction, prepared the
written brief at my expense and personally argued his case in the Court of Appeals, knowing he
could not pay me even if he wanted to. When the judgement of acquittal came, I thought I was
the happiest man in the world. What I am trying to say is that beyond honesty and fairness,
compassion and caring for people, especially those who are in need, are among life’s highest
ethical values (Excerpt from “Ethics in Politics” in The Intangibles That Make A Nation Great,
2003, p. 165-166).

General and Special Ethics

Ethics is divided into general and special ethics. The first part of this book is about General
Ethics and the second part about Special Ethics.

• General Ethics is about the principles of morality. It explains the norms with which the
moral significance of the human act is determined. Special Ethics is the application of the
principles of General ethics to the problems and issues confronting a person on account
of his circumstances in life, for instance, as a citizen, neighbor, worker, wife, husband, or
child.
• Special Ethics includes the sub-branches of professional ethics, such as medical ethics,
business ethics, legal ethics, biological and environmental ethics. This book is divided into
General and Special Ethics.

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Lesson 2. The Nature of Ethics

Ethics as defined by Minkes et al. (1999) is a philosophical term originating from Greek
word “ethos” meaning custom or character. It is concerned with describing and prescribing moral
requirements and behaviors, which suggests that there are acceptable and unacceptable ways
of behaving that serve as a function of philosophical principles This is the concept that ethics is
associated with an individual’s character, as to how he acts in a particularly convincing and
courageous way, as well as to establish personal integrity. Also, there is the distinction a person
could make, mainly between ethics and morals. This is important because when giving emphasis
to ethics, it is almost as synonymous to the concept of “morality”, which gives more confusion to
the idea.

Figure 1.1 Ethics Word Cloud (2020)

Source: https://www.needpix.com/photo/download/766372/business-idea-style-concept-goals-guidelines-
association-finance-attitude

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 Based on the given idea, we can give a clear definition that ethics is a science that guides
our judgment concerning the morality of human acts. Furthermore, to clearly give a broader idea
on the concept of ethics, Padilla (1999), points out that:

1. Ethics is a natural science . It employs the power of human reason, which is purely a natural
process. It is not based on the teaching of the Catholic Church or any system of belief, nor it is
based on the Bible. Being a branch of philosophy, it arrives at its conclusions using the human
reason, which is philosophy’s only tool.

2. Ethics is a practical science. It is not studied for the love of learning. All are bound in conscience
to apply its principles to their conduct.

3. Ethics is not a physical science. It does not deal with physical laws, such as “water seeks its
own level.” It is rather a moral science, dealing with the free acts of men.

4. Definition and purpose of ethics . Ethics is the study of the moral behavior or conduct of man
as viewed from ultimate principles insofar as these principles are known by human reason.
Briefly, Ethics is a philosophical science dealing with the morality of the human acts. Other
books dealing on this subject offer the following definitions:
a. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and wrong.
b. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct.
c. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality.
d. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions.

What use is Ethics?

BBC.com (2014) listed down in their website the different uses of ethics as follows:

1. Ethics can provide a moral map

Most moral issues get us pretty worked up - think of abortion and euthanasia for starters.
Because these are such emotional issues, we often let our hearts do the arguing while our brains
just go with the flow. But there's another way of tackling these issues, and that's where
philosophers can come in - they offer us ethical rules and principles that enable us to take a cooler

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view of moral problems. So, ethics provides us with a moral map, a framework that we can use
to find our way through difficult issues.

2. Ethics can pinpoint a disagreement

Using the framework of ethics, two people who are arguing a moral issue can often find
that what they disagree about is just one particular part of the issue, and that they broadly agree
on everything else. That can take a lot of heat out of the argument, and sometimes even hint at a
way for them to resolve their problem. But sometimes ethics doesn't provide people with the sort
of help that they really want.

3. Ethics doesn't give right answers

Ethics doesn't always show the right answer to moral problems. Indeed, more and more
people think that for many ethical issues there isn't a single right answer - just a set of principles
that can be applied to particular cases to give those involved some clear choices. Some
philosophers go further and say that all ethics can do is eliminate confusion and clarify the issues.
After that, it's up to each individual to come to their own conclusions.

4. Ethics can give several answers

Many people want there to be a single right answer to ethical questions. They find moral
ambiguity hard to live with because they genuinely want to do the 'right' thing, and even if they
can't work out what that right thing is, they like the idea that 'somewhere' there is one right answer.
But often there isn't one right answer - there may be several right answers, or just some least
worst answers - and the individual must choose between them.

Division of Ethics

According to Padilla (1999), Ethics has two major parts – General and Special Ethics.
General Ethics presents truth about human acts and from these truths deduce the general
principles of morality.
Special Ethics is applied ethics. It applies the principles of general ethics in different
departments of human activity, individual and social. It includes man’s relation within the family,
in the state and in the world. It is divided into the following:

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 •as regards to God
Individual
•as regards to self
Ethics
•as regards fellowmen

•in the family

Social
•in the state
Ethics
•in the world

Ethics and Morality

Perle (2004) differentiate the two terms where ethics comes from the Greek word ethos
which means character or a characteristic way of acting while morality on the other hand came
from the Latin word moralis which means customs or manners. However, there are some
difference between the idea of the researchers as to the difference between the two. Ethics
seems to point out to the individual character of a person while morality is connected to the
relationships and interaction among human beings. One school of thought states that morality is
integrally grounded on spiritual values – one’s accountability to a supernatural being. Ethics, in
contrast, relies on materialist and social consequences based on a given situation, in order to
weigh what is ethical or not.

Table 1.1 Ethics and Morality (Perle, 2004)

ETHICS MORALITY
Guiding principles of conduct of an individual Principles on which one’s judgments of rights
or group and wrong are based
Influenced by profession, field, organization, Influenced by society, culture and religion
etc
Related to professional works Not Related to Professional work

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Lesson 3. Moral vs Non-moral standards

In making moral decisions, what standards are we supposed to follow? Who made
these standards? Will following these standards make us all ethically moral?

What is Moral Standards?

Moral standards as defined by Articulo (2005) are bases for moral behavior and
bases for determining whether a certain act is moral or immoral and for someone to be
responsible or not. These are the guides of human behavior and decision making. These
standards are not only applied to individual persons but also to a group or corporation.
Something is unethical if it does not conform to a particular standard of morality. They may
not be written but observed and they are assumed norms of moral conduct. Moral
standards is associated with the guidelines people follow about the actions they have
confidence that are believe to be right and wrong. Also included are the values they gave
on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists
equate moral standards with moral values and moral principles.

Manebog (2013) on the other hand explains that non-moral standards is defined
as the rules that are distinct to moral or ethical thoughts. Either these standards are not
necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral
standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various house
rules.
Merriam Webster (n.d.) gave the meaning of mores as the fixed morally binding
customs of a particular group. The term "mores" refers to the norms set by society, largely
for behavior and appearance. Individuals who do not follow social mores are often
considered social deviants. It is the customs, values, and behaviors that are accepted by
a particular group, culture etc. Norms on the other hand is a principle of right action binding
upon the members of a group and serving to guide, control, or regulate proper and
acceptable behavior. merriam-webster.com

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 Mañebog (2013) further discussed the characteristics of moral standards further
differentiate them from non-moral standards:

a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or
benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance,
following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not
necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing.

b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral
standard state that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she is
supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with self-
interest. It may be prudent to lie to save one’s dignity, but it probably is morally wrong to
do so. When a law becomes seriously immoral, it may be people’s moral duty to exercise
civil disobedience (Mañebog, 2013).

c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or
persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be
considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards cannot
be changed nor nullified by the decisions of an authoritative body. One thing about these
standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or adequacy of the
reasons that are considered to support and justify them (Mañebog, 2013).

d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more
accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in the relevantly
similar situation.

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e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
Moral standard does not evaluate standards based on the interests of a certain
person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal standpoint in
which each person’s interests are impartially counted as equal. Impartiality is usually
depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in morality requires that we give
equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all concerned parties.

f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

It indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards. These moral
standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such as, ‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no
unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’). These principles are proposed for use, to
advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is used to evaluate behavior,
to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt. If a person
violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special purpose, it is not surprising
if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his behavior afterwards. On the contrary,
not much guilt is felt if one goes against the current fashion trend (e.g. refusing to wear
tattered jeans) (Mañebog, 2013).

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Table 1.2 Moral vs Non-Moral Standards (Mañebog, 2013)

Moral Standards Non-Moral Standards

• Different because they concern • Refer to rules that are unrelated to
behavior that is of serious moral or ethical considerations.
consequences to human welfare, that • Either these standards are not
can be profoundly injure or benefit necessarily linked to morality or by
peoples nature lack ethical sense
• Take priority over other standards, • Basic examples include rules of
including self interest etiquette, fashion standards, rules in
• Their soundness depends on the games, and various house rules
adequacy of the reasons that support • The standards by which we judge
them what is good or bad and right or
• The norms about the kinds of actions wrong in a non-moral way
believed to be morally right and
wrong, as well as, the values placed
on what we believe to morally good
and morally bad

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Lesson 4. Moral Dilemma
Consider this.

Should you always tell the truth if

.. A killer at the door is looking for your friend who is hiding in your house?

.. your best friend is cheating on her partner?

.. you’ve witnessed a crime involving your family member?

A dilemma is a condition where there is no clear “best choice” between two or more
alternatives. Dilemmas help us to focus our moral intuitions and test our moral theories. According
to Cambridge Dictionary (2020), dilemma is a situation in which a choice must be made between
possibilities that will all have results you do not want.

Basically, every dilemma contains an ethical dilemma i.e. whether the decision is
good/bad, fair/unfair, moral/immoral. Judgments are made from the point of view of those who
make the decision (agents), from the point of view of those who require decision (principals) and
from the point of view of the most people who do not participate in decision-making but are
affected by them (the common good or the general interest). There are different types of the
ethical dilemma of which the knowledge is necessary because different types of the ethical
dilemma require different strategies for their resolving. However, any attempt to find the solution
is a process, not a one-time act, indicating the complexity and the importance of the ethical
dilemma (Figar and Dordevic, 2016).

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Crain (1985) states that Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development uses
storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he presented
a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of
some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated. One of the best known of Kohlberg’s
stories of dilemma concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. Read and
analyze the narrative below:

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 Heinz Dilemma

Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her.
The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some,
but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much
more than the Heinz could afford.

Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to
the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest
of the money later.

The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money
from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the
chemist’s and stole the drug.

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?

3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?

4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

Mcleod (2013) stated that Kohlberg listed three different levels of moral reasoning: pre-
conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has two sub-stages and each new
stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage.

The level focuses primarily on moral values such as fairness, justice, equity, and human
dignity. It is also used in assessing development level. Heinz dilemma was given as a clear
example as to how a person’s moral reasoning changed as people grew older as it is the
reasoning of their responses, not the answer itself.

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Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Kvlanes (2019) explains that in a moral dilemma, it is impossible to live up to all of one’s
moral convictions and beliefs regarding how one should behave in that situation.

INDIVIDUAL

The dilemma here is when the employee’s ethical standards are in opposition to his or her
employer, which could lead to tensions in the workplace.

ORGANIZATIONAL

Ethical Standards are seen in company procedures. Still, there is a gap and tension
amongst those who operates the business whose ethical standard depart from that of the
organization. This causes ethical challenges and conflicts to those who are working in the
establishment.

SYSTEMIC

At systemic level, ethics is inclined by the bigger operating environment of the

establishment. Political pressures, economic situations, societal behaviors and other factors, can
affect the operating standards and guidelines of the organization where it might encounter moral
dilemmas outside of the organization but within the macro-society where it fit in.

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Lesson 5. Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts (Gammin, 2012)

Morality as Freedom

Freedom, as defined by Gammon (2012), is the power or right to act, speak, or think as
one wants without hindrance or restraint. Freedom, in Kant’s theory, is not concerned with our
capacity of a free choice; rather it is the property of the will. As Kant says, Will is a kind of causality
of living beings insofar as they are rational, and freedom would be that property of such causality
that it can be efficient independently of alien causes determining it, just as natural necessity is the
property of the causality of all non-rational beings to be determined to activity by the influence of
alien causes.

Will, for Kant, is not simply given by human beings’ biological structure. It is a kind of
causality that belongs to rational living beings. Freedom is the property of such special kind of
causality. The relation between will and freedom could be put in this way: will is a free will, and
freedom is the freedom of will, not of a choice. The reason that will is free lies in the fact that it is
about a special kind of causality. The specialty of this kind of causality is shown in the contrast
with natural causality (Liang, 2014).

Freedom enters Kant's ethical way of thinking as the answer for an issue. The downright
basic isn't scientific, and ignoring its cases is not conflicting. However it should give what we need
so as to show that profound quality is certainly not a " mere phantom of the mind", Kant tries to
give a conclusion of the ethical law: he should interface being normal to following up on the moral
law. The thought through which the profound quality are connected is the positive source of
opportunity. By appearing, first, that a free individual as such keeps the moral law, and, second,
that a sane individual has reason for viewing himself as free, Kant attempts to show that to the
extent that we are normal, we will comply with the ethical law.

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Different types of Freedom

• Freedom to be alive
• Freedom of association
• Freedom of belief
• Freedom of speech
• Freedom to express oneself
• Freedom to press
• Freedom to choose one’s state in life
• Freedom to talking each other
• Freedom of religion
• Freedom from bondage and slavery

What may be named the problem of morality concerns how opportunity confining
standards might be supported, given that we esteem our opportunity. Maybe an answer can be
found in opportunity itself. For if the most clear explanation behind dismissing moral requests is
that they attack one's individual flexibility, at that point the cost of opportunity from obtrusive
requests that others would somehow or another make may well require everybody tolerating
opportunity all in all as a worth that gives adequate motivation to holding fast to rules that serve
to expand, or possibly protect, opportunity when all is said and done. In any case, at that point it
is definitely such a worth which can be contended to ground a sufficient good framework.
Consequently, though the estimation of opportunity shows up from the start sight to present issues
for moral frameworks, it very well may be utilized to ground a specific assortment of them.

Talbert (2019) further states that freedom is not doing whatever you want but doing what
you ought to be right. Freedom of indifference is selecting between opposites, usually good and
evil. Freedom of excellence is the authority to act in the pursuit of human perfection and eternal
joy. Love and fear of consequences are correspondingly perfect and imperfect acceptable
motivations for following the moral law. Good moral activities make us freer; bad moral actions
make us a slave to our immorality.

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Reason and Impartiality

Impartiality according to Cottingham (1983), implies that we are making moral decisions
(e.g. about how to allocate goods and resources), we ought not to give any special weight to our
own desires and interests; instead of giving preferential treatment to ourselves, or to member of
our own particular social group, we should try to adopt neutral standpoint, detaching ourselves as
far as possible from our own special desire and involvement.

Jollimore (2017) explains that moral judgments must be supported by moral reasons.
Morality needs the impartial consideration of every individual’s benefits. One must not rely on his
own feelings, no matter how controlling and influential they might be. Feelings may be illogical
and may be nothing but products of different factors such as bias, self-centeredness, or the
environment itself. Decisions must be directed and guided as much as possible by reason. The
morally and equally right thing to do is always the thing best supported and reinforced by
arguments. Every individual’s interest are equally significant and important, and no one should
ever be treated special. If there is no good reason for treating people otherwise, then
discrimination follows most likely which makes the matter even worse.

Morality is, at the very least, the effort and challenge to direct one’s behavior by reason –
which is, to do what there are the reasons for doing based on giving impartial weight to the
benefits of each individuals affected by one’s choice.

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 Assessment Task 1-1

True or False

Instruction: Write true if the state is correct and false if it is in correct.

1. Ethics is one of the branches of social science.

2. Ethics means character.
3. Ethics is a Greek word means custom.
4. Ethics is a science that our judgment concerning the morality of
human acts.
5. General Special ethics are two major parts of ethics.
6. The term “more” refers to the norm set by society according to
Articulo.
7. Moral standards are invented, formed or generated by authoritative
bodies.
8. Moral standard evaluates standards based on the interest of a
certain person or group.
9. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and
vocabulary.
10. Non-normal standards refer, to rules that are unrelated to moral or
ethical conditions.
11. Dilemmas help us to focus our moral intuition and our moral
theories.
12. A dilemma is a condition where there is no clear best choice
between two or more alternatives.
13. Dilemma is a situation in which a choice must be made between
possibilities.
14. Every dilemma contains an ethical dilemma.
15. Kohiberg’s theory of moral development uses storytelling technique

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 Assessment Task 1-2

Matching Type. Instruction: Match the statements under letter A to letter B

A B

1. Direct one’s behavior by reason a. Impartiality

2. Implies making moral decisions b. ethics
3. Manning character c. Special ethics
4. Synonymous to the concept of morality d. Morality
5. Presents truth about human acts e. ethos
6. Applies the principles of general ethics f. General ethics
7. As regards to God g. morality
8. In the family h. mores
9. Means customs or relationships i. social deviants
10. Connected to the relationships
among human being j. norms
11. Bases for moral behavior k. social ethics
12. Rules that are distinct to moral l. dilemma
13. Norms set by society m. moralis
14. Do not follow social mores n. moral standards
15. Principle of right action o. theory of Moral Development
16. Condition where there is no clear best choice p. Individual ethics
17. Uses storytelling technique q. non-moral standards
18. Lived somewhere in Europe r. moral judgments
19. Power or right to act, speak or think s. Freedom
20. Supported by moral reasons t. Heiz

19
 Assessment Task 1-3

M Multiple Choice. Instruction: Select the correct answer under each statement.

1. Comes from the Greek word ethos

a. Ethics
b. Ethos
c. Moral
d. Morality
e. Non-moral

2. Associated with the guidelines of people to follow

a. Moral standard
b. Non-moral standards
c. Moral
d. Ethics
b. Morality

3. Condition where there is no clear best choice

a. Dilemma
b. Dalema
c. Decision
d. Moral
e. Morality

4. Uses storytelling technique

a. Theory of moral development
b. Theory of morality
c. Theory of ethics
d. Theory of dilemma
b. Theory of freedom

20
 5. The power of right to act, speak or think.
a. Freedom
b. Right
c. Manners
d. Character
e. Action

6. Making moral decisions by not giving any special weight to one’s own desires and interest
impartiality
a. Impartiality
b. Non-impartiality
c. Right
d. Freedom
e. Norms

7. Mother is one of the officials in the administration

a. Robert
b. Nico
c. Kyle
d. Robertson
e. Roderick

8. Almost as synonymous to the concept of morality.

a. Ethics
b. Ethos
c. Moralis
d. Morals
e. Actions

9. Science that guides our judgment concerning the morality of human acts.
a. Ethics
b. Ethos
c. Moralis

21
 d. Morals
e. Actions

10. Does not base on the teaching of the Catholic church or any system of
belief.
a. Ethics is a natural science
b. Ethics is a natural law
c. Ethics is a physical Science
d. Ethics is a science

22
 Assessment Task 1-4

I Instruction:

SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS. Analyze the story below and answer the questions that follows.

Robert is a student in a school where his mother is one of the officials in the
administration. Recently, three of his classmates posted a web site that openly attacks
some of the teachers and students, using explicit and offensive language. It even goes as
far as predicting which gay students will be the first to die of AIDS. Remarks about several
teachers are offensive and aggressive to the point that names were dropped and invading
their personal lives like family problems and love life. The site also includes disgusting
graphics.
Several weeks ago Robert learned the identities of the three students who created
the website when one of them accidentally said something to him in a conversation. The
other two quickly talked to Robert and pressured him not to reveal their names. He agreed,
not thinking much about it at the time. Robert used to be close to one of the three students,
but that friendship has faded.
Now, the school principal has obtained a software that allows him to identify each
person who has visited the website. He is asking students to come forward with the names
of the creators of the site, and if no one does, he is going to question each student who
visited the site. Robert is one of those who did visit the site. He realizes he may be the
only student who knows the names of the three kids who created the site. He can lie and
say he doesn’t know, or he can break his promise not to tell.

Robert has always thought of himself as an ethical person with a pretty clear
sense of right and wrong. Right now, however, he feels that either choice will end in
disaster. What should Robert do?

23
1. What do you consider to be Robert’s responsibility?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. A common definition used to describe an ethical choice is a “choice between two rights.”
How might you apply this to Robert’s situation?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What would you do if you were in Robert’s place? How would that choice affect the
others in this case?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Have you or someone you know ever been in a situation where you were expected to
turn someone in? Share what that was like.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Is there ever a point where the good of a community is more important to honor than
the good of an individual relationship? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
https://www.goodcharacter.com/the-daily-dilemma/

24
Summary

• Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos which means character or a characteristic
way of acting while morality on the other hand came from the Latin word moralis
which means customs or manners.
• Moral standards are associated with the guidelines people follow about the
actions they have confidence that are believed to be right and wrong. Non-moral
standards are defined as the rules that are distinct to moral or ethical thoughts.
• A dilemma is a condition where there is no clear “best choice” between two or more
alternatives. Dilemmas help us to focus our moral intuitions and test our moral
theories.
• Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development uses storytelling technique to
tell people stories involving moral dilemmas.
• Freedom, is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without
hindrance or restraint. Freedom, in Kant’s theory, is not concerned with our
capacity of a free choice; rather it is the property of the will.
• Impartiality is making moral decisions by not to giving any special weight to one’s
own desires and interests.

25
 References

Agapay, R. B. (2008). Ethics and the Filipino. National Bookstore, Quad Alpha Centrum, Pioneer
St. Mandaluyong City. Articulo, C. Archimedes. (2005). Moral Philosophy. Andson
Printing Corporation: Manila.

BBC - Ethics (2020) - Introduction to ethics: Ethics: a general introduction... Retrieved August 7,
2020, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction

Cambridge English Dictionary. (2020). Dilemma Retrieved 21 September 2020, from

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/dilemma

Clements, Bindi (n.d.). Ethics for environment and development. Centre for Development,
Environment and Policy, University of London, International Programmed.

Corpuz, R. M. (2007) Ethics: Standards of Human Conduct, Mind shaper Co. Inc.

Cottingham, John, (1983) Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the
Analytic Tradition Vol. 43, No. 1

Crain, W.C... (1985). Theories of Development. Kohlberg's Moral Stages. (2020). Retrieved 21
September 2020, from
https://www.cs.umb.edu/~hdeblois/285L/Kohlberg'sMoralStages.htm

Ethics and Standards Committee (2011). https://www.mm3admin.co.za/documents/ do

manager/55E836D5-3332-4452-BB059F12BE8DA9D8/00012416.

Figar, Nadica and Đorđević, (2016) Biljana Managing an Ethical Dilemma, Economic Themes,

Gammon, K. (2012). What Is Freedom? Retrieved 21 September 2020, from

https://www.livescience.com/21212-what-is-freedom.html

Gracyk, T. (2012). Four fundamental ethical principles. http://web.mnstate.edu /gracyk/index.htm

Jollimore, T. (2017) Impartiality (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). (2020). Retrieved 21

September 2020, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/impartiality/

26
Kvalnes, Ø. (2019). Moral Dilemmas. Moral Reasoning at Work, 11-19. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-
15191-1_2

Liang, Hao, (2014) "Freedom as Morality". Theses and Dissertations. Paper 411. Retrieved
August 7, 2020 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics-
1/chapter/what-is-ethics/

Maboloc, C. B., (2010) Ethics and Human Dignity, Rex Bookstore,

Mañebog, J. D.G. (2013) Moral Standards vs. Non-Moral Standards, Retrieved August 7, 2020
https://ourhappyschool.com/node/824

McLeod, S. A. (2013). Kohlberg. Retrieved August 7, 2020

www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Mores. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved September 21,

2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mores

Minkes, A. L., Small, M. W., & Chatterjee, S. R. (1999). Leadership and business ethics: Does it
matter? Implications for management. Journal of Business Ethics, 20(4), 327-335.

Moral Responsibility (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).

Padilla, R. A., (1999) Ethics: Principles and Analysis of Contemporary Moral Problems, Rex Book
Store,

Perle, S. M. (2004) Morality and Ethics: An Introduction. (2004). Retrieved 21 September 2020,
from https://www.dynamicchiropractic.com/mpacms/dc/

Singer, P. (2020). Bioethics. Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics, Princeton University

Wilbert, M. (2019).Moral Responsibility (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

27
 MODULE 2
Culture in Moral Behavior

Introduction

Today the study of culture reaches far beyond differences in outward appearances.
Outward appearance is only a small part of the diversity of human beings. When we study culture,
we come to realize that there is no “race card,” and that real identities are not built upon skin color,
eye color, hair texture, or stature. Identities are all about culture and culture patterns. (It’s All
about Culture, 2020)

Culture itself, is an individualistic, man-made idea of aggregate character that is available

for subjectivity. The reality such many 'societies' exist is proof of this because of the separation
of cultural standards.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain the role of culture in moral behavior;

2. Define cultural relativism and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses; and
3. Analyze the crucial qualities of a Filipino identity.

28
Lesson 1. Culture and its Role in Moral Behavior

Culture as defined by Merriam Webster (2020) is the customary beliefs, social forms, and
material traits of a racial, religious, or social group. It is also the characteristic features of everyday
existence such as diversions or a way of life shared by people in a place or time. Culture, as
explained by Taylor (2007), “is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs and behaviors.
This consists of language, ideas, customs, morals, laws, taboos, institutions, tools, techniques,
and works of art, rituals and other capacities and habits acquired by a person as a member of
society.

Schulman (2002) defines moral behavior as “acts intended to produce kind and/or fair
outcomes. It is distinct to action or actions that produce respectable results for the people as part
of a community. It can also be applied to the entire global humanity. We can say that it is the
actions that determine social reaction to the desires and benefits of others.

Moral development refers to the “process through which a human person gains his or her
beliefs, skills and dispositions that makes him or her morally mature person.” Yet this definition
does not tell on what those beliefs, skills and dispositions are. Nevertheless, it focuses on the
acquisition, understanding and most probably of changing the principles of morality of a person
from infancy to adulthood. This moral development is fundamentally rooted in the very experience
of a person, in his or her relationship with others in the community. (Academia.edu, 2020)

The Influence of Culture in Moral Development

Culture influences the person on what to do, how to act on situations or conditions and
what are the factors that are need to be considered as well as those things that should be evaded.
Culture marks the prevailing moral values into its members and forms the character of everyone
as well. Truly, this is a development from early stages to adulthood, as presented by American
psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg in his theory on the stages of moral development.

Baring (2018) explained the influences of culture the moral development of the people.

29
Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people towards one
another and their experience as a people are the culture’s meadow. It is in this relationship
and

communal experience that culture influences the moral development of its members. It is
important to note that morality as principle is promoted because primarily of the
relationship within the community. Laws and rules and standards of attitudes and behavior
are set and promulgated by the community to promote that relationship that binds them
together as a people.

The culture defines the normative principles and behavior of the society. It defines which principle
and behavior that should be kept that would serve the best interest of the community.
There would be a definition on what are the principles and behavioral of what should not
be promoted or rejected. This kind of influence of culture in moral development is best
seen in terms of relational level.

Culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops restrictions and sets
boundaries and limitations as they live and relate with one another. These restrictions and
boundaries serve as protection among themselves. These would create an atmosphere of
promoting the welfare of the community. Indeed, anyone who tries to step beyond these
is subject to punishment or consequences set by the community embedded in the culture.

Culture helps in generating the character and identity of its people, it also includes their moral
character. Culture conditions the mind – the way people think and the way they perceive
the world and their relationship with one another. Henceforth, a culture which characteristic
is aggressive tends to be aggressive in terms of its relationship with one another or with
other cultures.

The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups. They are the symbol
of guidance and control. In many cultures, men are always regarded as the leaders who
oversee the order of the community and give guidance, which is true in patriarchal
societies. Through their roles and responsibilities in the community within the given
culture, may it be patriarchy, matriarchy or whatever; people submit themselves to their
authorities.

30
Lesson 2. Cultural Relativism

The Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential defines cultural relativism as
the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that
person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another. Cultural relativism is
also considered as basis for moral judgments amid cultures. (Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020)

Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or
wrong, strange or normal. Instead, we should try to understand cultural practices of other groups
in its own cultural context. For example, instead of thinking, “Fried crickets are disgusting!” one
should instead ask, “Why do some cultures eat fried insects?”

Cultural relativism is connected in understanding a culture on its own identity and not to
make decisions using the morals of one’s own culture. The objective of this is encourage
consideration of cultural practices and beliefs that are distinct to one’s culture. The viewpoint of
cultural relativism directs to the standpoint that no one culture is greater than another culture when
being associated to systems of morality, law and standards. It is a notion that customs, traditions
and values originate their meaning in a detailed and precise social context. It is also grounded on
the knowledge that there is no complete standard of right or wrong, so every conclusion and
decision of what is good and bad is decided in each culture. The perception of cultural relativism
also means that any viewpoint on ethics depends in the perspective of each individual within their
specific culture. In an understanding of the idea of cultural relativism, it simply wants to encourage
the understanding of cultural beliefs and practices that are unfamiliar to others such as family way
of life, eating habits, feasts and festivals and a lot more.

There are two types of cultural relativism. Absolute cultural relativism is when everything
that happens within a culture must and should not be questioned by outsiders. An example of
absolute cultural relativism would be the Nazi party’s point of view justifying the Holocaust. Critical
cultural relativism raises questions about cultural practices in terms of who is accepting and
tolerating them and why. Critical cultural relativism also distinguishes power relationships. (Lumen
Learning, 2020)

31
 Examples of cultural relativism in some households is when females are confined to the
kitchen and are proud to play their roles in such a setting while in some homes, women are
engaged to management and involved in what is supposed to be the specialization or area of a
man of the house.

Cultural Relativism is also viewed in ways of life associated to religion. One example of
this is where a country with Islam as the major religion, a more full covering of the body is expected
than in other religion. While it might seem odd to eat fish soup or stewed vegetables for breakfast
in the United States., in other places, such as the Asian countries especially in the Philippines,
this is perfectly normal. Equally, our tendency toward cereals and milk or preference would seem
rather strange to other cultures (Khan Academy, 2020).

32
Lesson 3. The Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior

Filipino’s understanding of moral behavior and ethics is grounded on two notions in our
culture. According to Reyes (2015), the first one is loób, which can easily be misunderstood when
literally translated into English as ‘inside’ but which is better translated as ‘relational will’, and the
second is kapwa, which is literally translated as ‘other person’ but is better understood as ‘together
with the person’. These serve as pillars for a special collection of virtues ( kagandahang-loób,
utang-na-loób, pakikiramdam, hiya, lakas-ng-loób/bahala na) which are not individualistic virtues
in the same way as most of the cardinal virtues of the Western tradition (i.e. prudence, justice,
temperance and fortitude) but are all directed towards the preservation and strengthening of
human relationships. This introduction to a Filipino virtue ethics is articulated and organized
through a dialogue with Aristotelian-Thomistic virtue ethics.

Filipinos have been labeled as welcoming, friendly, outgoing, sensitive, easily insulted,
nosy, chatty, direct, hospitable, energetic, mocking, good natured, ingenious, witty, generous,
gracious, easy to befriend, casual, fun loving, and many other adjectives to describe a person. In
short, being a Filipinos is having a mixed character trait. Perhaps the reason for this is the many
struggles in history that we have experienced. Under the influence of different conquerors such
as the Spaniards, British, Americans and Japanese and with constant interaction and foreign
relations with the Asian countries and the Arab Nations, Filipinos are said to be cosmopolitan, a
mixed of every nation in the world, a blend of East and West.

Hays (2015 further explains that Eastern influence gave us the personal and family honor
that we valued, as well as dignity and pride. Western influence gave us a systematic education
and form of government. But aside from that, we highly value families and kinship and make great
sacrifices to educate our children. Family, as a foundation of all relationship gave us hiya (shame)
which is instilled in at an early age. To be shamed is the greatest form of disgrace. Filipino culture
developed over centuries and is still continuing to develop.

With regards to society, Filipinos have a durable sense of family and community. Filipinos
are very sociable and like to talk and hang out with family and friends. This is very evident in the

33
numerous feasts and festivals, different occasions, and moments to celebrate. Filipinos love to
fool around, make jokes and tease one another. Rumors spread quickly. Some say Filipinos are
happy-go-lucky people who are often pessimistic about today but always optimistic that tomorrow
will be better.

Strengths and Weaknesses of a Filipino

Bautista (2013) lists the strengths and weaknesses in his blog as follows:

Strengths Weaknesses

Pakikipagkapwa-tao Extreme personalism

Family orientation Extreme family centeredness

Joy and Humor Lack of discipline

Flexibility, adaptability and

Passivity and lack of initiative
creativity

Hardwork & Industry Colonial Mentality

Faith & Religiosity Kanya-kanya syndrome

Lack of self-analysis and self

Ability to survive
reflection

Figure 2.1 Checklist of Strength and Weaknesses (Santos, 2020)

34
 Santos (2020) further expounds these strengths and weaknesses as follows:

STRENGTHS

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao is opening yourself to others and feel one with others with dignity and
respect deal with them as fellow human beings. Part of this is the sense of fairness and
justice, concern for others, ability to empathize with others, helpfulness and generosity,
practice of hospitality, and sensitive to other feelings and trust. We have been known
around the world to be the most hospitable people and will do everything to please our
visitors. The lavish feast for the welcoming of visitors can be clearly seen during feast and
welcoming guest in every programs.

2. Family Orientation is a genuine and deep love for family. Commitment and responsibility, honor
and respect, generosity and sacrifice and sense of trust and security are the main focus of
this strength. This value is one of the constant in Eastern and Oriental countries.

3. Joy and Humor. Filipinos have a cheery and positive approach to life and its up and down,
pleasant nature, a sense of humor and tendency for cheerfulness that contribute not only
to the Filipino appeal but also to the Filipino Spirit. We make fun at those we love and hate.
We are incline to make joke about our good and even misfortune, to smile even in the most
trying of times. Filipinos are very resilient. We laugh amidst the face of every challenges
such as natural calamities. Social media is a reflection as to how Filipinos turn a negative
thought into a light entertaining one through memes and funny posts.

4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity. Filipinos are quick to adapt to changes. We have proven
to adjust at life as mirrored in history where we are under different oppressors.

5. Hard Work and Industry is also a positive trait of the Filipinos which shows the capacity for hard
work given to raise one's standard living of a decent life for one's family.

6. Faith and Religiosity is a foundation of the Filipino culture. Our Faith in God, is reflected in our
mantra “behalf Na” (si Bathala Na) is accepting reality to comprehend which gives us a
strong will or “Pampalakas-loob".

7. Ability to Survive. Filipinos will do anything to survive. As part of being resilient and creative,
Filipinos are quick to adapt to changes which is a big factor in surviving.

35
WEAKNESSES

1. Extreme Personalism is always trying to give personal interpretation to actions. Thank you with
"but" (compliment-criticism-compliment) is a common Filipino trait.

2. Extreme Family Centeredness is a strong family protection for either good or bad condition.
With the concept of blood is thicker than water, Filipinos will sacrifice himself for his love
one no matter what the situation is. The love of parents to children is very strong.

3. Lack of Discipline is the relaxed attitude but poor time management of the Filipinos. Being
impatient and unable to delay gratification or reward and the love to take short-cuts or
'palusot' system is rooted in our system. Carelessness is also very evident. The current
situation in the COVID-19 pandemic shows it all.

4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative is a strong reliance to others fate which is a Filipino trademark.
It's all because of the race (nationality/blood) not by persons attitude, hard-work, dream and
perseverance etc. Filipinos are very relax and has a low sense of urgency especially in
beating the deadline. Filipinos are too patient without any plan or action) " Bahala na
System" - No matter what, At least we tried.

5. Colonial Mentality the internalized attitude of ethnic or cultural inferiority felt by Filipinos as a
result of colonization, that is, them being colonized by another group. It corresponds with
the belief that the cultural values of the colonizer are inherently superior to one's own. Being
colonized by a lot of countries, Filipinos tend to assimilate the culture of the colonizers, thus,
forgetting their own identity.

6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome is a self-serving arrogance that generates feeling of jealousy, greed

and competitiveness towards others. Personal ambition matters a lot but insensitive to
common good. Also, the lack of appreciation resulting unhealthy competition is very evident.

7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection of the Filipinos tend to make them forget a misfortune very
fast and thus bound to commit them again. Being unprepared to disasters, voting a corrupt
politicians are a good example of this weakness.

36
 Assessment Task 2-1

Matching Type. Instruction: Match the statements under letter A to letter B

A B
1. Customary belief, social forms, religious and A. Critical cultural relativism

materials traits
2. Produced kind and/or fair outcomes B. Loob

3. Process through which a human person gain his C. Inside

beliefs, skills and dispositions

4. The idea that a person’s beliefs, values and practices D. Kapwa

should be understood

5. Cultures must and should not be questioned by E. Together with the person

outsiders
6. Raise questions about cultural practices F. Culture

7. Better translated as relational will G. Moral behavior

8. Loob literally translated into English H. Moral development

9. Literally translated as other person I. Cultural relativism

10. Kapwa is better understood in English J. Absolute cultural relativism

11. Labeled as welcoming, friendly, easily insulted and K. Filipino

many other adjective

12. Relaxed attitude but poor time management of the L. Lack of discipline

Filipino
13. Strong family protection for either good or bad M. Extreme family

condition
14. Always trying to give personal interpretation to N. Extreme personalism

actions
15. Filipino will do anything to survive O. Ability to survive

16. Foundation of the Filipino culture P. Flexibility

17. Internalized attitude of ethics or cultural inferiority Q. Passivity and lack of

initiative

37
 18. Serving-serving arrogance that generates feeling of R. Kanya-kanya syndrome

jealousy

19. Strong reliance to others fate which is a Filipino S. Colonial mentality

trademark
20. Filipinos re quick to adapt to changes T. Faith and religiosity

Assessment Task 2-2

Multiple Choice

Instruction: Select the correct answer under each statement.

1. Filipino have a cheery and positive approach to life and its up and down
a. Joy and humor
b. Love and care
c. Happiness and sadness
d. Friendly and lovely
e. Kind and honest

2. Genuine and deep love for family

a. Family orientation
b. School orientation
c. Church orientation
d. Society orientation
e. Friend orientation

3. Show the capacity for hard work given to raise one’s standard living of decent life for
one’s family
a. Hard work and industry
b. Hard work and timely
c. Initiative

38
 d. Patience
e. Industrious

4. Refers to the process through which a human gains his beliefs

a. Moral development
b. Moral dilemma
c. Morality
d. Moral and emotion
e. Moral and feelings

5. Filipinos are quick to adopt to changes

a. Ability to survive
b. Ability to speak
c. Ability to write
d. Ability to walk
e. Ability to travel

6. Our faith in God, is reflected in our mantra

a. Bahala na
b. Tama na
c. Ayoko na
d. Saka na
e. Suko na

7. Accepting reality to comprehend which gives us a strong will or pampalakas-loob

a. Bathala
b. Paraluman
c. Pangulo
d. Diwata
e. Hari

40
8. Most hospitable people and will do everything to please visitors
a. Filipinos
b. Japanese
c. Americans
d. Spaniards
e. Malaysians

9. Opening yourself to others and feel one with others with dignity and reflect deal with
them as fellow human beings
a. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
b. Pakikisangkot
c. Pakikibahagi
d. Pakikiramay
e. Pakikibaka

10. Have durable sense of family and community

a. Filipino society
b. American society
c. Indian society
d. Singaporean society
e. Indonesian society

11. Happy-go-lucky people who are often pessimistic about today but always optimistic that
tomorrow will be better
a. Filipinos
b. Japanese
c. Vietnamese
d. Indonesians e. Americans
12. Gave us the personal and family honor that we valued, as well as dignity and pride
a. Eastern influence
b. Western influence

41
 c. Southern influence
d. Northern influence
e. South-east influence

13. Having a mixed character and pride

a. Filipinos
b. Japanese
c. Vietnamese
d. Indonesians
e. Malaysians

14. Articulated and organized through a dialogue with Aristotelism-Thomistic virtue values
a. Filipinos Virtue Ethics
b. American Virtue Ethics
c. Eastern Virtue Ethics
d. Western Virtue Ethics
e. Spaniards Virtue Ethics

15. Refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or wrong, strange or
normal
a. Cultural relativism
b. Culture c. Feelings
d. Emotions e. Behaviors

42
 Assessment Task 2-3

True or False

Instruction: Write True if the statement is correct and write False if the statement is not correct.

1. Moral development is fundamentally rooted in the very experience of a person

in his relationship with others.
2. Culture is explained by Baring as the integrated pattern of human knowledge,
beliefs and behaviors.
3. Taylor define moral behavior as acts intended to produce kind and/or fain
outcomes.
4. Merriam Webster defined culture as the customary beliefs, social forms, and
materials traits of radical religious or social group.
5. Behavior is an individualistic, man-made idea of aggregate character that is
available for subjectivity.
6. Culture is an individualistic, man-made idea of aggregate character
7. The study of culture today reaches for beyond differences in outward
appearance.
8. Outward appearance is only a small part of the diversity of human beings.
9. Culture is also the characteristic features of everyday existence.
10. Moral behavior is the actions that determine social reactions to the desires and
benefits of others.
11. Culture marks the prevailing moral values into its members and forms the
character of everyone as well.
12. American psychologist Baring presented the theory on the stages of moral
development.
13. Theory on the stages of moral development was presented by Lawrence
Kohleerg an American psychologist.
14. Laws and rules and standards of attitude and behavior are set promulgated by
the community to promote that relationship that binds them together as a people.
15. Influence of culture in moral development is best seen in terms of relational.

43
 Summary

Culture is the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial,
religious, or social group. It is also the characteristic features of everyday existence shared
by people in a place or time.

Moral development refers to the “process through which a human person gains his
or her beliefs, skills and dispositions that makes him or her morally mature person.”

Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is
right or wrong, strange, or normal. Instead, we should try to understand cultural practices
of other groups in its own cultural context.

Filipino’s understanding of moral behavior and ethics is grounded on two notions

in our culture. The first one is loób, which is better translated as ‘relational will’, and the
second is kapwa, which is understood as ‘together with the person’.

Eastern influence gave us the personal and family honor that we valued, as well
as dignity and pride. Western influence gave us a systematic education and form of
government. But aside from that, we highly value families and kinship and make great
sacrifices to educate our children.

44
 References

Academia.edu. (2020) the Influence of Culture in Moral Development. Retrieved 25 October 2020,
from
https://www.academia.edu/11007189/The_Influence_of_Culture_in_Moral_Development

Baring, J. (2020). The Influence of Culture in Moral Development.

Bautista, G. (2013) Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character. Retrieved 25 October
2020, from http://evotistavenue.weebly.com/asean-youth-org/strengths-and-weaknesses-
of-the-filipino-character

Church, T. and. Katigbak, M.. (2002) Studying Personality Traits across Cultures: Philippine
Examples Washington State University, Washington State University,

Hays, J. (2015). Filipino Character And Personality: Hiya, Amor Propio, Emotions and the
Influences of Catholicism, Asia and Spain Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Philippines/sub5_6c/entry-3867.html

Introduction to Culture - Lecture - It's All About Culture. (2020). Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://itsallaboutculture.com/introduction-to-culture-lecture/

Khan Academy (2020) Cultural relativism: definition & examples Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and-culture/culture/a/cultural-
relativism-article

Lumen Learning (2020) Cultural Relativism. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology

Merriam-Webster (2020) Definition of CULTURE. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture

Moral Relativism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2020). Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://iep.utm.edu/moral-re/

45
Reyes, J. (2015). Loób and Kapwa: An Introduction to a Filipino Virtue Ethics. Retrieved from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09552367.2015.1043173

Santos, R. M. (2020) Man as a Productive Being. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from

https://www.academia.edu/11896771/Man_A

Schulman, M. (2002) How we become moral. In C. R. Snyder, & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of
Positive Psychology: 499-512. Oxford: University Press,

Taylor, E. (2007) Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology, (Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.,

46
 MODULE 3
Developing Virtue as Habit

Introduction

“How should I live my life?” “What is the good life?” “What are the appropriate family and
social values?”

These are the common questions concerning Virtue ethics. So, what really is virtue ethics?
Virtue ethics is a comprehensive concept for theories that highlight the vital role of character and
virtue in moral philosophy rather than performing one’s duty or accomplishing in order to
have better results. As a guide and advice from a virtue ethicist goes, “Act as a virtuous individual
would act in your situation you are in.” An idea echoing the Golden rule.
Almost all theories of virtue ethics take their idea from the Greek philosopher Aristotle
himself, who stated that a virtuous person is the one who has the ideal and model character
behaviors. These traits originate from natural tendencies, but must be nurtured; but, once
established, they will become constant. A virtuous person for instance, is someone who is caring
in many conditions over a period of his life because that is his character traits and not because
he wants to take full advantage or gain something or simply do his responsibility. Theories of
virtue ethics do not target mainly to recognize general principles that can be useful in any moral
condition or situation. (Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020)

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain how moral character is developed; and

2. Identify and analyze the different stages of moral development;

47
Lesson 1. How is a moral character developed?

The development of moral character has been the subject of philosophical and
psychological investigation since Aristotle theorized three levels of moral character development:
an ethics of fear, an ethics of shame, an ethics of wisdom (Kraut, 2001)

Damon (1988) recognized six patterns that social scientists have defined morality:

1) An evaluative orientation that distinguishes good and bad and prescribes good
2) A sense of obligation toward standards of a social collective;
3) A sense of responsibility for acting out of concern for others;
4) A concern for the rights of others;
5) A commitment to honesty in interpersonal relationships; and
6) A state of mind that causes negative emotional reactions to immoral acts.

This definite system may not adapt all useful meanings, especially the more fundamental
and significant ones suggested by academics and theologians, but they mirror the broad array of
definitions and the necessity for a specific operational definition that can guide research.

While most researchers backs up a many faceted view of moral character, especially the
advocacy of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components, several researchers support
additional components. They propose that the set of skills of moral and character development
should be studied in terms of four psychological components. They say that the concentration
should be on the internal practices and behavioral skills that are needed for moral behavior and
recommend that compassion, reasoning, and purpose occur from the interaction of both cognitive
and affective practices.

48
 Ethical
Sensitivity

Psychological
Ethical components Ethical
Motivation
Judgment of Moral
Development

Ethical
Action

Figure 3.1 Psychological components of Moral Development (2020)

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/theories-of-human-
development/

1. Ethical Sensitivity—the view of moral and social circumstances, as well as the capability to
consider probable actions and their effects in terms of all the people affected;

2. Ethical Judgment—with regards to probable option and the basis for decide on one or more as
the most viable judgment;

3. Ethical Motivation—the choice of moral values most appropriate in the condition and the
dedication to act on that choice;

4. Ethical Action—the ego strength combined with the psychological and social skills necessary
to carry out the selected alternative.

Berkowitz (2002) identified seven psychological components of the “moral anatomy,” and
urged scientists and educators to begin reconstructing the “complete moral person.”

49
 Moral behavior

•prosocial
•sharing
•donating to charity
•telling the truth

Moral values

•believe in moral goods

Moral emotion

• guilt
• empathy
• compassion

Moral reasoning

• about right and wrong

Moral identity

• morality as an aspect self-image

Moral personality

• enduring tendency to act with honesty

• altruism
• responsibility

“Metamoral”

• make morality possible even though they are not inherently moral

Vessel (2005), stated that one of the most recently developed viewpoints on moral
character development that can be placed in the interactional category is social cognition. This
method merges many of the statements of the blank slate, information processing, and affective
methodologies. The main difference is that it shifts its attention on concentrating thoughts and
values into action. It suggests a relationship of shared determinism among the environment,
apparent behavior, and personal factors such as reasoning skills or level of empathy. For

50
instance, not only do models, outcomes, and other environmental changes have an impact on
behavior, but behavior also has an impact on various characteristics of the environment.

Another emphasis of the social-cognitive view is human agency or volition. Whereas

Kohlberg (1984) focus on enhanced levels of moral reasoning, which directs on a more self-
regulation and self-efficacy. He suggests that moral development occurs gradually from dealings
with environment, involving the application of outcomes, the observation of models, and
acculturation by social agents. Most relevantly it is the person’s thinking on both external and
internal elements that offers the vital procedures related to moral development. As such, the social
cognition methodology is more concentrated on the processes of moral development than on
matter. Social-cognitive theorists normally focus on personal agency and the freedom to choose.
They recommend that with this freedom happens from a responsibility to make good judgments
and act morally.

Figure 3.2 Moral Identity (2020)

Source: https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcT3HXgYiFZFODYzw0UNUwWxRaqj8RKxyaIYTQ&usqp=CA
U

51
 Not all acts help to build moral character, but those acts which emanate from moral
characters certainly matter in moral development, hence, there appears the apparent circular
relationship between individual acts and moral character. Moral development should also be
appreciated in the idea of human flourishing. This flourishing is reached by the persistent practice
of moral and intellectual merits or virtues.

Virtuous characteristics must be balanced and lasting and are not mere result of stroke of
luck, but of learning, constant practice, and development. We have to consider that virtuous traits
are called excellences of an individual because they are the best exercise of reason. In this sense,
the Greek moralists suppose that virtuous acts achieve a perfect human life. (Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2019).

52
Lesson 2. The Stages of Moral Development

North American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg authored that the moral growth of an
individual has six stages, but sadly, only a minor proportion of individuals achieve the highest
stage. Using the idea of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, the first to make a methodical
research of cognitive development as a springboard and starting point, Kohlberg classified the
phases of ethics as part of the psychological development of children. As a matter of fact, the six
stages are valid for people of all ages, for the most diverse ethnicities, and the numerous
categories of social group in any country. (Lumen Learning, 2020)

Figure 3.3 Lawrence Kohlberg (2020)

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/212372938648412331/

The six stages co-operate among them. Every individual has a variety of levels of reasons
to act in appropriate ways and various interpretation of what is appropriate.

In every individual or group, some degrees of ethical consciousness are more valuable
than the others. The levels are exceeded when there are enough collected experience. Behaviors
that are still immature use to disregard the higher stages of ethics. The stage on which a person

53
positions himself depends on the quantity of understanding and level of goodness possessed by
him.

These are the stages of moral perception as devised by Kohlberg which was cited by Crain
(1985).

The two initial stages of morality are called “preconventional” because there is no code of
conduct in them. Actions are isolated events, and the wider context is hardly seen.

1) In the first stage – lowest and most basic – “right action is that action which is not punished”.
The priority is to avoid condemnation: for this reason obedience occurs. The wrong action is the
action that provokes punishment. In the absence of penalty, no wrongdoing is perceived or
acknowledged.

2) In the second stage, right action is seen as that “which serves the interests of each
one”. The goal is obtaining a reward. Now the exchange and the deal between individuals occur
on the basis of immediate interests. Case-by-case decisions are dominant. Mutual help takes
place with a short-term view of things.

54
 Figure 3.4 Stages of Moral Development (2020)
Source: https://philonotes.com/index.php/2020/12/24/kohlbergs-six-stages-of-moral-development/

Stages three and four are called “conventional”, because in them the individual is sincerely
loyal to the collective rules and norms.

3) In the third stage, the child (or the adult) demonstrates he has a good character. It is the stage
of the “good-boy attitude”. The goal is obtaining social approval or the sincere support of the
elders and the more powerful persons. Now the axiom “do unto others as you would have them
do unto you” is both understood and followed, even if imperfectly. The person has a sincere sense
of justice and reciprocity. The feeling of compassion is understood and – up to a certain point –
experienced. A conformist attitude may also occur; yet there is a true sense of ethical
commitment.

4) The fourth stage is dominated by the idea of Law and Order. At this point, the practice of respect
for and obedience to the leader, the boss, the teacher, as well as due regulations, plays a key

55
role. Discharging one’s duty is the priority. One must follow the rules and obey authorities without
cavil or delay.

We then have the two final stages. Now the children and adults respect law and the codes
of conduct. Yet at the same time they see beyond them and aim at improving them.

5) In the fifth stage of ethical development, therefore, the individual realizes that the laws and
customs are sometimes unfair. If necessary, he tries to improve them. He does that through
legitimate means, in democratic, morally acceptable, ethically responsible ways.

The higher levels of moral development result from a thorough understanding of the law of nature.
The Natural Law theory, as Kohlberg wrote, “holds that there are universal or natural principles of
justice that should guide all societies and that are known to us by reason independent of specific
religious revelation or faith”. Stages five and six are called postconventional because they go
beyond appearances. They question institutionalized injustice and aim at the inner improvement
of both individual and society.

6) In the sixth stage of moral development, the individual – or the community – tries to live
according to the principles of universal ethics.

Today the human beings who live in this stage are not numerous. They are forerunners
and prepare the future. They pave the way for a lasting improvement in human evolution.

Barger (2000) summarizes the impact of the idea of Lawrence Kohlberg as very essential
in the study of ethics and moral development. The philosophical importance of his books might
be important in the 21st century because they help us explain the mystery of how to achieve the
highest level conscience-based moral decisions. Kohlberg encourages us to establish the
foundations of human contentment into motion and that depends on us.

56
 Assessment Task 3-1

True or False

Instruction: Write true if the statement is correct and write false if not.

1. Virtuous person has the ideal and model character behaviors.

2. Virtue ethics highlight the vital role of character and virtue in moral philosophy
rather than performing one’s duty.
3. Aristotle is a Greek philosopher.
4. Aristotle theorized three levels of moral character development.
5. Damon recognized six patterns that social scientist have defined morality.
6. Emotions are evaluative orientations that distinguishes good and bad and
prescribes good.
7. Anxiety is a state of mind that causes negative emotional reactions to immoral
acts.
8. Honesty is the state of concern for the rights of others.
9. Feelings are sense of responsibility for acting out of concern for others.
10. Excitement is a sense of obligation toward standards of a social collective.
11. Berkowitz urged scientists and educators to begin reconstructing the compute
moral person.
12. Ethical motivation is the choice of moral values most appropriate in the condition
and the dedication to act on that choice.
13. Ethical action is the ego strength combined with the psychological and social
skills necessary to carry out the selected alternative.
14. Moral values believe in moral goods.
15. Moral reasoning is about right or wrong.
16. Vessel stated that social cognition is one of the most recently developed
viewpoints on moral character development.
17. Another emphasis of the social-cognitive view is human agency or volition.
18. Kohlberg focus on enhanced levels of moral reasoning.
19. Social cognition methodology is more concentrated on the processes of moral
development than on matter.

57
20. Moral development can be reached by persistent practice of moral and
intellectual merits or virtues.
21. Virtuous characteristics must be balanced and lusting and are not mere result
of stroke of luck.
22. Virtuous characteristics can be achieved by learning, constant practices and
development.
23. Virtuous traits should be considered as excellences of an individual because
they are the best exercise of reason.
24. Kohlberg was a North American psychologist.
25. Lawrence Kohlberg authored that the moral growth of an individual has six
stages.
26. Feelings are variety of levels of reason to act in appropriate ways and various
interpretations of what is appropriate.
27. Emotions are degrees of ethical consciousness are more valuable than the
others.
28. The two initial stages of morality are called conventional because there is no
code of conduct in them.
29. Stages three and four stage of morality are called preconventional.
30. The two, three, four and six stages of morality are called preconventional.

58
 Assessment Task 3-2

Matching Type. Instruction: Match the statement under letter A to letter B

A
B
1. Summarized the idea of Kohlberg
2. Psychologist from North America a. Damon
3. Achieve a perfect human life b. Virtuous person
4. Occurs gradually from dealings with c. Researchers
environment d. Barger
5. Social cognition e. Lawrence Kohlberg
6. Identified seven psychological f. Virtuous Acts
components of the moral anatomy g. Moral development
7. Theorized three levels of moral h. Aristotle
character development i. Berkowitz
8. Recognized six patterns that social j. Vessel
scientists have defined morality
9. Has the ideal and model character
behaviors

10. Back up many faceted view of

moral character

59
 Assessment Task 3-3

Multiple Choice. Instruction: Select the correct answer on each statement below.

1. Encourage to establish the foundation of human contented

A. Kohlberg
B. Barger
C. Crain
D. Aristotle
E. Solomon

2. Summarizes the impact of the idea of Lawrence

A. Barger
B. Kohlberg
C. Solomon
D. Aristotle
E. Crain

3. One must follow the rules and obey authorities without delay
A. Law and order
B. Natural law
C. Specific law
D. Law
E. Order

4. Holds that there are universal principles of justice that should guide all societies and that
are known to us by reason of specific religious revelation or faith
A. Natural law
B. Specific law
C. General law

63
 D. Law and Order
E. Order

5. Stages that go beyond appearances

A. Post conventional
B. Conventional
C. Middle conventional
D. Preconventional
E. Conventionally

6. The individual is sincerely loyal to the collective rules and norms

A. Conventional
B. Post conventional
C. Preconventional
D. Conventionally
E. Middle conventional

7. Action are isolated events and the wider context is hardly seen
A. Preconventional
B. Post conventional
C. Middle conventional
D. Conventionally
E. Conventional

8. Listed the staged of moral perception as devised by Kohlberg

A. Crain
B. Kohlberg
C. Barger
D. Solomon
E. Damon

64
9. Authored that the moral growth by on individual has six stages
A. Kohlberg
B. Aristotle
C. Crain
D. Solomon
E. Damon

10. Stated that virtuous person has the ideal and model character of behaviors
A. Aristotle
B. Damon
C. Crain
D. Kohlberg
E. Barger

Summary

There are six patterns that social scientists have defined morality: (1) an
evaluative orientation that distinguishes good and bad and prescribes good; (2) a sense
of obligation toward standards of a social collective; (3) a sense of responsibility for acting
out of concern for others; (4) a concern for the rights of others; (5) a commitment to
honesty in interpersonal relationships; and (6) a state of mind that causes negative
emotional reactions to immoral acts.
Berkowitz (2002) identified seven psychological components of the “moral
anatomy,” and urged scientists and educators to begin reconstructing the “complete moral
person.”
Lawrence Kohlberg authored that the moral growth of an individual has six stages.
In every individual or group, some degrees of ethical consciousness are more valuable

65
 than the others. The levels are exceeded when there are enough collected experience.
Behaviors that are still immature use to disregard the higher stages of ethics. The stage
on which a person positions himself depends on the quantity of understanding and level
of goodness possessed by him.

References

Barger, R. (2000). A Summary of Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development. (2020).

Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/medical_ethics_text/Chapter_2_Et
hical_Traditions/Reading-Barger-on-Kohlberg.htm
Berkowitz, M. (2002). The science of character education. In W. Damon (Ed.), Bringing in a new
era in character education (43-63). Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute Press.
Crain. W.C. (1985). Theories of Development. Prentice-Hall.
Damon, W. (Ed.). (2002). Bringing in a new era in character education. Stanford, CA: Hoover
Institute Press.
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2019). Aristotle. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://iep.utm.edu/2019/
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2020). Virtue Ethics Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://iep.utm.edu/virtue/
Kohlberg, L. (1981) Essays on Moral Development”, “The Philosophy of Moral Development”,
Harper & Row, Publishers, San Francisco
Kraut, R. (2001). Aristotle’s ethics. In E. Zalta (Ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved August
15, 2020 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/
Lumen Learning (2020) Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development | Education, Society, & the K-
12 Learner. Retrieved 25 October 2020, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-
of-moral-development/

66
Vessels, G., & Huitt, W. (2005). Moral and character development. Paper presented at the
National Youth at Risk Conference, Savannah, GA, March 8-10. Retrieved August 15,
2020 http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/chardev.pdf

67
 MODULE 4
Feelings and Moral Decision Making

Introduction

“The happy life for a man is a life of the conscious following of a rule.”

- Aristotle

In a classical moral dilemma, with D’Olimpio (2016) giving an example as you see a
runaway train with five frightened people in it headed towards a cliff. They can be saved if you hit
a switch and send the train onto another track where, unfortunately, another individual is standing
who would be killed by the train’s impact. What to do then? Most will say that it's worth sacrificing
one life to save the other five. But suppose the death train can only be saved if you push a large
person onto the tracks, where his body would stop the train but, he would be crushed to death.
Although faced with the same result of five lives for one, a lot will say it would be wrong to stop
the train this way.

This module will tackle the feelings and emotions as instinctive and trained response to
moral dilemma and how it affects out decision makings. As the module progress, the it will guide
us in making the right decisions.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

3. Explain the role of feelings in morality; and

4. Identify the factors to consider in making the right decisions;

68
Lesson 1. Feelings as instinctive and trained response to moral
dilemma
Solomon (2019) defines “Emotions,” as written by Aristotle, “are all those feelings that so
change men as to affect their judgements, and that are also attended by pain or pleasure. Such
are anger, pity, fear and the like, with their opposites.” Emotion is indeed a heterogeneous
category that encompasses a wide variety of important psychological phenomena. Some
emotions are very specific, insofar as they concern a particular person, object, or situation.
Others, such as distress, joy, or depression, are very general. Some emotions are very brief and
barely conscious, such as a sudden flush of embarrassment or a burst of anger.

Figure 4.1 Emotions (2020)

Source: https://www.freepik.com/free-vector/illustration-young-people-with-different-
emotions_5095713.htm#page=1&query=feelings&position=7

69
 Emotions are an observable mental state. According to philosophers and psychologists,
they are characterized by:

• A distinctive phenomenology
• A reaction of the nervous system
• A particular motor response
• An action tendencies or motivations
• A cognitive evaluation of what is calculated is the intended target, and the value assigned
to it

Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas

Pillemer (2011) explains that Ethics is subjected to one’s feelings. It seen as necessary in
ethical judgments as it is natural and a trained reaction to moral dilemmas. In a sense, reasons
and emotions are not really one side of the coin. Both are instincts that are seen as having
comparative roles in ethical thinking and decision making. Feelings or emotions are said to be
opinions about the accomplishment of individual’s purpose.

There are ethicists who consider that ethics is also an issue of emotion. They state that
moral judgments must also be emotional. Feelings are viewed also as essential in ethical
judgment as they are even considered as an instinctive and educated response to moral
dilemmas. Emotions, it is thus assumed to be rational based on good judgments about how well
a situation accomplishes appropriate objectives. Feelings are also instinctive by giving reasons
to act morally. At most, ethical judgments are very much emotional as people express emotionally
their strong satisfaction or dissatisfaction of various acts. Moral views emphasize the necessity
for morality to be based also on compassion for other individual. Many ethicists conclude that to
be moral involves both thinking and feeling.

Feelings as Obstacles to Making the Right Decisions

There are two theories that give focus on the role of feelings in morality: Ethical
Subjectivism and Emotivism.

70
 Ethical Subjectivism runs opposite to the principle that morality is objective or unbiased.
The theory which is not about what is right and what is wrong. It also does not say how everyone
should live or what moral norms everyone must practice. It is a theory regarding the nature of
moral judgments. Although it acknowledges that moral judgments are general truth, Ethical
Subjectivism affirms that the truth or falseness relies on the feelings, manners, or values of an
individual or a group. Opposite to the idea that morality is about objective realities, this theory
says that moral judgments define our personal emotions and beliefs. For debated ethical topic
like euthanasia, human genetics, homosexuality or abortion, we usually hear at least two differing
opinions concerning the issue. One side could asserts that the action as immoral may voice out
its stand by saying that God does not like it, or that it is immoral, or that the action must be
punished by the law. The other camp may argue that the action is completely natural and the
doers must be tolerated. But there is a third opinion that might say that the persons in the first two
sides are just voicing out their respective view point on the issue, but where morality is involved,
there are no objective facts and no position is objectively right. This is what Ethical Subjectivism
is. It proposes that the moral judgments are based on the feelings and emotions. (BBC.com, n.d.)

Emotivism expresses that moral statements are pointless. It is no longer a view of ethics
that has many followers and advocates. Like subjectivism it teaches that there are no objective
moral facts, and that therefore killing is wrong can't be objectively true. Moral statements only
voice the person’s feelings about the matter. By expressing the individual’s feelings about a moral
issue, the statements may impact another person's opinions and behavior. Emotions create
strong and obvious drivers of decision making. Throughout several kinds of decisions, essential
regularities appear in the fundamental processes through which emotions impact decision and
choice.

Franco and Sanches (2016) explains that emotions are created when the brain interprets
what’s going on around us through our memories, thoughts, and beliefs. This triggers how we feel
and behave. All our decisions are influenced by this process in some way. For example, if you’re
feeling happy, you might decide to walk home via a sunny park. But if you’d been chased by a
dog as a child, that same sunny park might trigger feelings of fear, and you’d take the bus instead.
There may be logical arguments to be made either way, but in the moment, the decision is driven
by your emotional state.

71
 Different emotions effect decisions in different ways. If you’re feeling sad, you might be
more willing to settle for things that aren’t in your favor, such as not putting yourself forward for
promotion, or remaining in an unhealthy relationship. But sadness can also make you more
generous — research shows that unhappy people are more likely to be in favor of increasing
benefits to welfare recipients than angry people, who are lacking in empathy.

The effects of feelings are related to how people deal with them during decisions (Larsen,
2000). Emotions are important elements in decision-making. They also allow individuals to choose
one alternative or another and help them recognize traps in this process. Emotions should be
included in formal decision models, as diverse studies have pointed out that emotions affect
decision-making. Therefore, it is a consensus among researchers that emotions and feelings have
a strong influence on decision-making (Damasio, 1994).

According to Schwartz (1992), values are criteria or goals that transcend specific
situations. They are placed in order of importance, serving as principles that guide an individual’s
life and defining the concept of values as guides for selecting and evaluating actions, situations
and people:

1. The emotional system is the primary motivational system for goal-directed behavior

2. Each specific emotion serves distinct motivational functions in goal striving

3. These motivational functions cannot be reduced to the overall valence of the specific emotions

4. The distinct motivational functions are rooted in the experiential qualities of the specific
emotions

5. Emotions can be either endogenous (an integral part) or exogenous (environmentally invoked)
to the goal striving process, their effect on behavior being contingent on their perceived relevance
to the current goal.

Morin (2015) states that the best decisions are made when there's a careful balance

between emotions and logic. When your emotions are running high, your logic will be low, which

can lead to irrational decisions.

72
Here are four ways your emotions can cloud your judgment:

1. Excitement can cause you to overestimate your chances of success.

When you feel thrilled and excited about something, you are more likely to underestimate

a risk.

2. Anxiety in one area of your life spills over into other areas.

If you're worried about something going on in your personal life, it can cause you to feel

nervous. Anxiety over one specific problem can stay. When you're suffering nervousness, you

may reject to make change or you may try hard to make choices. As an end result, your thinking
is most likely to be cloudy.

3. Feelings of sadness can cause you to settle.

Research proves you're likely to set your targets really low when you're feeling depressed.

Researchers believe that sadness, sorrow and grief might led them to set the standards lower, in

hopes that reaching their objective would enhance their feeling. Producing small expectations for

yourself can avoid you from achieving your highest potential.

4. Anger and embarrassment can lead to taking a long shot.

Strong emotions can lead to careless judgments, if you're not cautious. Irritation and
humiliation may make you very exposed to high-risk, low pay-off
alternatives. Researchers believe deep unpleasant feelings weaken judgment skills. When you're

feeling really sensitive, the consequences can become dangerous.

73
Balance Emotion and Logic

Emotions certainly play an important role in the decision making process. Anxiety can keep you

from making a poor choice and boredom can ignite a spark that leads you to follow your

passion. To make balanced choices, acknowledge your emotions. Pay attention to the way your

feelings and recognize how those emotions may distort your thinking and influence your

behavior.

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Lesson 2. Decision Making (Making the right decision)

Emotional Impact on Judgment and Decision Making: Eight Major Themes

Lerner et al. (2014) in their paper Emotion and Decision Making, in surveying research on

emotion and decision making, eight major themes of scientific inquiry emerged. The themes

reveal rapid progress in mapping the psychology of emotion and decision making. Collectively,

they elucidate one overarching conclusion: emotions powerfully, predictably, and pervasively

influence decision making.

Emotions Shape Emotions Shape

Decisions via the Decisions via the
Content of Thought Depth of Thought
Emotional Valence Is
Only One of Several
Emotions Shape
Dimensions That
Decisions via Goal
Shape Emotions’
Activation
Influence on Decision
Making

Incidental Emotions Emotions Influence

Influence Decision Interpersonal Decision
Making Making

EMOTIONAL
Unwanted Effects of
Integral Emotions IMPACT ON Emotion on Decision
Influence Decision JUDGMENT Making Can Be
Making Reduced Under
AND DECISION Certain Circumstances
MAKING

Figure 4.2 Emotional Impact on Judgment and Decision Making (2020)

Source: https://academic-accelerator.com/Impact-Factor-IF/Judgment-and-Decision-Making

75
Theme 1. Integral Emotions Influence Decision Making

It is useful to categorize different kinds of emotion. We could begin with emotions resulting

from the decision or choice that firmly shapes decision making. For example, an individual who

feels concerned about the possible result of a risky selection may prefer a secured choice rather

than a possibly more productive option. An individual who feels appreciative to a university he

graduated may make a decision to contribute and donate a hefty amount of money to that school.

Theme 2. Incidental Emotions Influence Decision Making

Scholars have discovered that minor emotions generally carry over from one event to the

next, affecting decisions that should, from a normative perspective, be unrelated to that emotion,

a process known as the carryover of incidental emotion. For example, a rage sparked in one
occurrence will certainly provokes a motive to blame others in other situations even if the targets

of the rage have nothing to do with the source of that anger that was triggered. Furthermore,

carryover of these kinds of incidental emotions normally occurs without awareness, especially of

that person who had nothing to do with the first occurrence.

Theme 3. Emotional Valence Is Only One of Several Dimensions That Shape Emotions’ Influence

on Decision Making

Most works and readings on emotion has indirectly or clearly taken a valence-based

approach revealing powerful and provocative effects for that dimension of emotion. Valence is

the affective quality referring to the intrinsic attractiveness or goodness (positive valence) or
averseness badness (negative valence) of an event, object or situation. But valence cannot give

explanation for all effects on decision making. Although sensible, theories relying only on the

valence justify less variation across results than would be perfect because they do not consider

evidence that emotions of the same valence differ in vital ways. For example, emotions of the

same valence, such as anger and sadness, are associated with facial expressions, and central

nervous system response.

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Theme 4. Emotions Shape Decisions via the Content of Thought

Founded on evidence that distinct feelings are linked with various forms of cognitive

evaluation which are involve to a natural opportunity for linking discrete emotions where outcomes

arise.

Theme 5. Emotions Shape Decisions via the Depth of Thought

Added to affecting the matter of thought, emotions also impact the depth of information

processing connected to decision making. It proposes that, if emotions provide when a situation

demands attention, then bad attitude should signal threat and therefore increase cautious,

systematic processing. Also, positive mood should signal a secured and protected atmosphere
and lead to more practical processing.

Theme 6. Emotions Shape Decisions via Goal Activation

Numerous academics have recommended that emotions serve an adaptive function,

triggering a set of responses such as physiological, behavioral, experiential, and communication

that empower a person to focus on challenges quickly. For instance, anger was related with the

desire to alter the condition and move against another individual by attacking, harming, or being

dominant on it.

Theme 7. Emotions Influence Interpersonal Decision Making

Emotions are integrally societal, and their adaptive function needs an awareness of their
effect on interaction with partners. As a case of how complicated such impacts can be, individuals

gain contentment from chances in assistance to others with no expectation in return.

Theme 8. Unwanted Effects of Emotion on Decision Making Can Be Reduced Under Certain

Circumstances

Various approaches have been analyzed for lessening the impacts of emotions on

decision making in circumstances where effects are seen as harmful. These strategies mostly

77
take one of two forms: reducing the amount of the emotional reaction or protecting the decision

process from the emotion.

Emotions and Decision-making

Fredrickson (2001) explained that there are numerous emotions, but we can generally

divide them into two: the positive ones and the and negatives. Positive emotions are affection,

care, sympathy, friendship, pleasure, love, contentment, satisfaction, and many others. Negative

emotions are the opposites such as annoyance, hate, envy, greed, disappointment, resentment,

jealousy and others. As the saying goes, we think with our brain, but we listen to our heart. Some

persons are more sensitive than others and therefore, their choices and decisions are subjective.

Feelings influence our reactions and decisions. These emotions are held responsible and
accountable for our significant decisions for which in return, we may be sorry or triumphant based

on the result. The reality is, emotions do affect our decision. As emotions are an attached

component of human nature, we cannot ignore them. As Dale Carnegie, American writer and

lecturer, said “When dealing with people, remember you are not dealing with creatures of logic,

but with the creatures of emotion.” Therefore, considering all the attributes of the dilemma, try to

hold the emotions out of the decisions.

Furthermore, Khazan (2016) states that researchers have pinpointed numerous ways

though which feelings and emotions can affect decision making. The significance of emotion for
decision making is also evident in the reality that decision making is habitually an emotional

means. Participating in thorough assessing of act regularly seems to be a cause of negative

emotion. We have a tendency to assume complicated judgment only for crucial decisions.

Emotions are also an end result after we have chosen how we acted on a given situation. After

selecting and before the results are known we are in state stuck between optimism and anxiety.

When the results happen, they may once again be a cause for emotion, either pleasure,

amazement, disappointment and surprised.

78
 These emotions affect how we assess our decision results, and therefore our welfare.

When we have other people involved in our decisions, emotions such as compassion, affection,

rage, embarrassment and conscience may be felt and play a vital role. All things considered, there

is a numerous emotion that are linked to various phases of the decision-making process. We then

suppose that there is a cause for feelings to be so widespread in all stages of decision making

and they help us in making the right decision.

Damasio (1994) believed that there are numerous ways though which feelings and

emotions can affect decision making First, scholars from several disciplines have suggested that

affective reaction is a core driver of conscious attention and allocation of working memory, both

of which are necessary for the extensive cognitive processes involved in decision making.

Second, feelings can facilitate the decision-making processes involved in selecting and prioritizing
choices relevant to situational requirements. One of the common dilemmas a decision maker

faces is that potentially infinite factors and options surround every decision, each with conflicting

advantages and disadvantages, making it extremely difficult or even impossible to make an

optimal decision within a given time frame. Finally, considerable evidence exists that momentary

feelings influence how people process information during decision making, which in turn promotes

decision-making effectiveness in particular contexts. For example, people in pleasant affective

states tend to categorize stimuli in a broader, more inclusive, and more flexible fashion. In
contrast, people in unpleasant affective states tend to engage in more effortful, systematic,

piecemeal information processing which leads to effective decision making when decisions
require accurate, unbiased, and realistic judgments or systematic execution of a structured

decision protocol.

79
 Assessment Task 4-1

Multiple Choice

Instruction:
Select the correct answer under each statement.

1. He said,”The happy life for a man is a life of the conscious following of a rule.”
A. Aristotle
B. Fredrickson
C. Franco
D. Sanches
E. Pillemer

2. Defines emotions are those feelings that so change men as to affect their judgments and
that are also attended by pain or pleasure.
A. Solomon
B. Aristotle
C. Pillemer
D. Lerner
E. Franco

3. Heterogeneous category that encompasses a wide variety of important psychological

phenomena.
A. Emotions
B. Feelings
C. Ethics
D. Values
E. Dilemma

80
4. They are observable mental state.
A. Emotions
B. Feelings
C. Ethics
D. Values
E. Dilemma

5. According to philosophers and psychologists they are characterized by a distinctive

phenomenology reaction of the nervous system etc.
A. Emotions
B. Feelings
C. Ethics
D. Values
E. Dilemma

6. Explained that ethics is subjected to one’s feelings.

A. Pillemer
B. Solomon
C. Aristotle
D. Merrican
E. Webster

7. Considered that ethics is also are issues of emotion.

A. Ethicist
B. Ethics
C. Ethical
D. Emotions
E. Emotional

81
8. Viewed also as essential in ethical judgment.
A. Feelings
B. Sadness
C. Anxiety
D. Excitement
E. Happiness

9. Assumed to be rational based on good judgments about how well a situation accomplishes
appropriate objective.
A. Emotions
B. Feelings
C. Emotional
D. Love
E. Hope

10. Instructive also by giving reasons to act morally.

A. Feelings
B. Emotional
C. Excitement
D. Anxiety
E. Values

11. Emphasized the necessity for morality to be based also on compassion for other
individual.
A. Moral virtues
B. Morally
C. Emotions
D. Feelings
E. Emotional

82
12. Runs opposite to the principle that morality to objective or unbiased.
A. Ethical subjectivism
B. Ethical emotivism
C. Ethical
D. Ethics
E. Emotional

13. Expressed that moral statements are pointless.

A. Ethical emotivism
B. Ethical subjectivism
C. Emotional
D. Emotions
E. Emotionally

14. There are no objective moral facts and that therefore killing is wrong can’t be objectively
true.
A. Ethical emotivism
B. Ethical subjectivism
C. Emotional
D. Emotions
E. Emotionally

15. Explained that emotions are created when the brain interprets what’s going on around us
through our memories, thoughts and beliefs.
A. Franco and Sanches
B. Franco
C. Schwartz
D. Aristotle
E. Solomon

83
16. Values are criteria or goals that transcend specific situation.
A. Schwartz
B. Franco
C. Aristotle
D. Solomon
E. Sanches

17. The primary motivational system for goal-directed behavior.

A. Emotional system
B. Emotions
C. System
D. Feelings
E. Values

18. It can be either endogenous or exogenous to the goal striving process.

A. Emotions
B. Emotionally
C. Emotional
D. Feelings
E. Cheerful

19. It can cause you to overestimate you chances of success.

A. Excitement
B. Anxiety
C. Sadness
D. Emotions
E. Careless

84
20. It can spill life over into other areas.
A. Anxiety
B. Anger
C. Love
D. Care
E. Excited

85
 Assessment Task 4-2

True or False. Instruction: Write True if the statement is correct and False is the statement is

not correct.

1. Emotions are an observable mental state.

2. According to Pillemer Ethics is subjected to one’s feelings.

3. Reasons and emotions are really one side of the coin.

4. Moral subjectivism runs opposite to the principle that morality is objective or

unbiased.

5. Ethical subjective runs opposite to the principle that morality is objective or unbiased.

6. Emotivism expresses that moral statements are pointless.

7. Franco and Sanches explains that emotions are created where the brain interprets

what’s going on around us through our memories, thoughts and beliefs.

8. Different beliefs effect decisions in different ways.

9. The distinct motivational functions are rooted in the experiential qualities of the
specific emotions.

10. Emotions are important elements in decision-making.

11. Morin stated that the best decisions are made when there’s a careful balance

between and logic.

12. Excitement over one specific problem can stay.

13. Strong emotions can lead to careless judgments.

14. Lerner et al that there are eight major themes of scientific inquiry emerged.

15. Valence is the affective quality referring to the intrinsic attractiveness goodness or

averseness badness of an event, object or situation.

86
Assessment Task 4-3
Matching Type. Instruction: Match statements under letter A to letter B.

1. Ethics is subjected to one’s feelings A. Feelings of sadness

2. Observable mental state B. Pillemer

3. Moral statements are pointless C. Strong emotions

4. Morality is objective or unbiased D. Emotions

5. Emotions are created when the brain E. Anger and

interpret embarrassment

6. Values are criteria or goals that transcend F. Ethical and

specific situations embarrassment

7. Primary motivational system for goal G. Ethical emotivism

directed behavior

8. Endogenous or exogenous to the goal H. Lerner et al

striving process

9. Causes to overestimate your chances of I. Ethical subjectivism

success

10. Spills one area over into other area J. Franco Sanches

11. Cause you to settle K. Emotional system

12. Can lead to careless judgments L. Emotions

13. Can lead to taking a long shot M. Excitement

14. Eight major themes of scientific inquiry N. Anxiety

emerged

15. There are positive and negative emotions

87
 Summary

Emotions are an observable mental state. According to philosophers and

psychologists, they are characterized by: A distinctive phenomenology, a reaction of the
nervous system, a particular motor response an action tendencies or motivations, a
cognitive evaluation of what is calculated is the intended target, and the value assigned to
it, There are two theories that give focus on the role of feelings in morality: Ethical
Subjectivism and Emotivism. There are numerous emotions but we can generally divide
them into two: the positive ones and the and negatives.

Research on emotion and decision making, eight major themes of scientific inquiry

emerged. The themes reveal rapid progress in mapping the psychology of emotion and

decision making. Collectively, they elucidate one overarching conclusion: emotions

powerfully, predictably, and pervasively influence decision making.

92
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