Module (2) Positive Displacement Compressor

Module
03
Positive Displacement
Compressors

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 Module (2) Positive Displacement Compressor

2.1 TYPES OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS

a)Reciprocating Compressors

The reciprocating compressor is probably the best known and the most widely
used of all compressors. It consists of a mechanical arrangement where reciprocating
motion is transmitted to a piston which is free to move in a cylinder. The displacing
action of the piston together with the inlet valve or valves causes a quantity of gas to
enter the cylinder where it is in turn compressed and discharged. Action of the
discharge valve or valves prevents the backflow of gas into the compressor from the
discharge line during the next intake cycle. When the compression takes place on one
side of the piston only, the compressor is said to be single-acting. The compressor is
double-acting when compression takes place on each side of the piston.
Configurations consist of a single cylinder or multiple cylinders on a frame. When a
single cylinder is used or when multiple cylinders on a common frame are connected
in parallel, the arrangement is referred to as a single-stage compressor. When
multiple cylinders on a common frame are connected in series, usually through a
cooler, the arrangement is referred to as a multistage compressor. The reciprocating
compressor is generally in the lower flow end of the compressor spectrum. Inlet
flows range from less than 100 to approximately 10.000 cfm per cylinder. It is
particularly well suited for high-pressure service! One of the highest pressure
applications is at a discharge pressure of 40,000 psi. Above approximately a 1.5-to-l
pressure ratio, the reciprocating compressor is one of the most efficient of all the
compressors.

b)RotaryCompressors
The rotary compressor portion of the positive displacement family is made up
of several compressor configurations. The features these compressors have in
common are:
1. They impart energy to the gas being compressed by way of an input shaft
moving a single or multiple rotating elements.
2. They perform the compression in an intermittent mode.
3. They do not use inlet and discharge valves.
The helical and spiral-lobe compressors are generally similar and use two
intermeshing helical or spiral lobes to compress gas between the lobes and the rotor
chamber of the casing. The compression cycle begins as the open part of the spiral
form of the rotors passes over the inlet port and traps a quantity of gas. The gas is
moved axially along the rotor to the discharge port where the gas is discharged into
the discharge nozzle of the casing. The volume of the trapped gas is decreased as it
moves toward the outlet, with the relative port location controlling the pressure ratio.
The spiral-lobe version is the more limited of the two and is used only in the lower
pressure applications.
The helical-lobe compressor is further divided into a dry and a flooded form.
The dry form uses timing gears to hold a prescribed timing to the relative motion of
the rotors; the flooded form uses a liquid media to keep the rotors from touching. The

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helical-lobe compressor is the most sophisticated and versatile of the rotary

compressor group and operates at the highest rotor tip Mach number of any of the
compressors in the rotary family. This compressor is usually referred to as the "screw
compressor" or the "SRM compressor."
The application range of the helical-lobe compressor is unique in that it
bridges the application gap between the centrifugal compressor and the reciprocating
compressor. The capacity range for the dry configuration is approximately 500 to
35,000 dm. Discharge pressure is limited to 45 psi in single-stage configuration with
atmospheric suction pressure. On supercharged or multistage applications pressures
of 250 psi are attainable. The spiral-lobe version is limited to 10,000 cfm flow and
about 15 psi discharge pressure.
The straight-lobe compressor is similar to the helical-lobe machine, but is
much less sophisticated As the name implies, it has two untwisted or straight lobe
rotors which intermesh as they rotate. Normally each rotor pair has a two-lobe rotor
configuration, although a three-lobe version is available. All versions of the straight-
lobe compressor use timing gears to phase the rotors. Gas is trapped in the open area
of the lobes as the lobe pair crosses the inlet port. There is no compression as gas is
moved to the discharge port; rather, it is compressed by the backflow from the
discharge port. Four cycles of compression take place in the period of one shaft
rotation on the two-lobe version. Volume range of the straight-lobe compressor is 5 to
30,000 cfm. Pressure ranges are very limited with the maximum single-stage rating at
15 psi. The compressors are in a few applications used in two-stage form where the
discharge pressure is extended to 20 psi.
The sliding-vane compressor uses a single rotating element see the following
figure. The rotor is mounted eccentric to the center of the cylinder portion of the
casing and is slotted and fitted with vanes. The vanes are free to move in and out
within the slots as the rotor revolves. Gas is trapped between a pair of vanes as the
vanes cross the inlet port. Gas is moved and compressed circumferentially as the vane
pair moves toward the discharge port. The port locations control the pressure ratio.
(This compressor must have an external source of lubrication for the vanes.)
The sliding-vane compressor is widely used as a vacuum pump as well as a
compressor, with the largest volume approximately 6000 cfm. The lower end of the
volume range is 50 cfm. A single-stage compressor with atmospheric inlet pressure is
limited to a 50 psi discharge pressure. In booster service, the smaller units can be used
to approximately 400 psi.
The liquid piston compressor or liquid ring pump as it is more commonly
called uses a single rotor and can be seen in Figure 10. The rotor consists of a set of
forward-curved vanes. The inner area of the rotor contains sealed openings which in
turn rotate about a stationary hollow inner core. The inner core contains the inlet and
discharge ports. The rotor turns in an eccentric cylinder of either a single- or double-
lobe design. Liquid is carried at the tips of the vanes and moves in and out as the rotor
turns, forming a liquid piston. The port openings are so located as to allow gas to
enter when the liquid piston is moving away from center. The port is then closed as

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rotation progresses and compression takes place, with the discharge port coming open
as the liquid piston approaches the innermost part of the travel.
The capacity range is relatively large, ranging from 2 to 16,000 cfm. Like the
sliding-vane compressors, the liquid piston compressor is widely used in vacuum
service. The compressor is also used in pressure service with a normal range of 5 to
80 psi with an occasional application up to 100 psi. Because of the liquid piston, the
compressor can ingest liquid in the suction gas without damage. This feature helps
offset a somewhat poor efficiency. The compressor is used in multiple units to form a
multistage arrangement.

Rotary Slide Vane Compressor

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2.2 PARTS OF COMPRESSOR AND FUNCTION

The basic components of a reciprocating compressor are the piston, cylinder, and
valves. Figures 9 and 10 illustrate the components of typical double acting compressors.

1. Cylinders
Cylinders for compressors used in the process industries are separable from
the frame. They are attached to the frame by way of an intermediate part known as the
distance piece and can be seen in Figure 10. Piloting is provided to maintain
alignment of all moving elements. A requirement of API 618 is for the cylinders to be
equipped with replaceable liners. The purpose of the liner is to provide a renewable
surface for the wearing portion of the cylinder. This saves the cost of replacing a
complete cylinder once the bore has been worn or scored. In the larger, more complex
compressors, this feature is standard or readily available as an option. On the smaller
frames, particularly the single-stage models, the smaller cylinder size is such that the
replaceable liner is not economical and may not be available.

All cylinders are equipped for cooling, usually by means of a water jacket.
Those not having a water jacket are finned to provide air cooling. The latter method is
limited to either small or special purpose machines. The most common material used
in cylinder construction is cast iron for the larger, low pressure cylinders and steel for
the smaller, high pressure cylinders. In some cases nodular or ductile iron can be used in
lieu of cast iron. For hydrocarbon service, steel is most desirable, though not
universally available. On larger cylinders there is normally enough space for clearance
pockets. An additional location is the head casting on the outboard end of the cylinder. The
following figure is an illustration of a cylinder with an unloading pocket in the head.
On smaller cylinders this feature must be provided external to the cylinder.

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 Module (2) Positive Displacement Compressor

2. Liners
A cylinder liner is used where changing the diameter of the cylinder is
anticipated at some time in the future. The bore diameter may be changed either to
meet new capacity requirements or to produce a new refinished cylinder surface after
the original surface has been damaged by wear.
Liners may also be required when the material used for the bulk of the
cylinder will not provide proper wearing properties at the friction-interface. This
is the case in most steel cylinders. ;.
Cylinder liners are commonly made of cast iron, although special wear
resistant or chemically resistant materials may be ordered.
There are two types of liners in general use. The most common is the dry type,
which is essentially a shrunk-fit or pressed sleeve within the original bore. These have
the disadvantage of reducing the rate of heat rejection to the jacket water. The
alternative wet type liners are designed for jacket water circulation immediately
behind the liner. These have a sealed seam between the compression chamber and the
jacket which may leak under some extreme circumstances.

3. Pistons and Rods

The lowly piston, one of the more simple items, has one of the most important
functions of the entire compressor. The piston must translate the energy from the
crank shaft to the gas in the cylinder. The piston is equipped with a set of sliding seals
referred to as piston rings. Rings are made of a material which must be reasonably

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compliant for sealing, yet slide along the cylinder wall with minimum wear. Different
rings are used for lubricated or non-lubricated service, with the rings in the non-lubed
cylinders needing good dry lubricating qualities, For lubricated service, metallic rings
such as; cast iron or bronze as well as nonmetallic materials such as filled nylon are
used. The nonmetallic materials are becoming more common. For non-lubricated
service, the ring material is nonmetallic, ranging from carbon to an assortment of
fluorocarbon compounds. Horizontal cylinder pistons feature the addition of a wear
band, sometimes referred to as a rider ring as shown in the following figure.
Pistons may be of segmented construction to permit the use of one piece wear
bands. One piece wear bands are a requirement in API 618. Pistons have a problem in
common with humans-a weight problem. Weight in a piston contributes directly to the
compressor shaking forces and must be controlled. For this reason aluminum pistons
are often found in larger low pressure cylinders. Hollow pistons are used but can pose
a hazard to maintenance personnel if not properly vented. If trapped, the gas will be
released in an unpredictable and dangerous manner when the compressor is
dismantled.
The piston rod is threaded to the piston and transmits the reciprocating motion
from the crosshead to the piston. The piston rod is normally constructed of alloy steel
and must have a hardened and polished surface particularly where it passes through
the cylinder packing (double-acting cylinders). Piston rods are subject to repealed
compression-tension cycle loading. The surface finish of these rods should be as
smooth as possible to avoid fatigue cracking. Heat treating, nitrating, or carbonizing is
sometimes used to harden the, surface of this component. Rod loading must be kept
within the limits set by the compressor vendor because overloading can cause excess
run out of the rod resulting in premature packing wear. This in turn leads to leakage,
reduced efficiency and increased maintenance expense.
In unloaded or part load operation, rod reversals must be of sufficient
magnitude to provide lubrication to the crosshead bearings. The bearings are
lubricated by the pumping action of the opening and closing of the bearing clearance
area.
4. Valves
The compressor cylinder valves are of the spring loaded, gas actuated type in
all but a limited number of portable compressors. This kind of valve is used in
contrast to the cam actuated poppet type normally found in piston engines,
Reciprocating compressors generally use one of three basic valve configurations: the
plate, channel, or feather type. The plate valve is shown in the following figures, The
feather valve is most common on the higher speed compressors because of its light
weight. Valve materials must be selected for durable, long-term operation and must
also be compatible with the gas being handled, The valves are symmetrically placed
around the outer circumference of the cylinder and can normally be removed and
serviced from outside the cylinder without dismantling any other portion. A good
design will have the valve and associated parts so arranged that an assembly cannot
be installed backwards, The inlet and discharge valves should not be physically
interchangeable and should be so constructed as to keep the valve assembly or its
parts from entering the cylinder should they become unbolted or break.

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Module (2) Positive Displacement Compressor

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Valve designs must strike a compromise between maximizing operating

cycles and minimizing valve losses. Maximum operating cycles are attained by
valves with minimum lift, and few moving parts. Minimum valve losses (i,e.
minimum pressure losses) are attained by valves with high lifts and/or several
seating components.
An evaluation of compressor offerings should include a comparison of valve
velocities. This parameter is found by dividing the total piston displacement of a
cylinder by the total life area of all suction valves. In general, this figure should not
exceed 7,500 ft/mm. However, very low molecular weight gasses, hydrogen in
particular, may not induce an adequate valve lift unless velocities are relatively high.
Suction and discharge valves are not interchangeable in function although they
may sometimes be interchangeable in port seating dimensions. This is a particular
hazard in order units. Care must be exercised by servicemen when replacing inlet and
outlet valves, to avoid interchanging the two. These valves may be polarized if
desired, by machining or inserting pins to prevent interchanges.

5- Distance Piece
The distance piece is a separable housing which connects the cylinder to the
frame. The distance piece may be open or closed and may have multiple
compartments. It may be furnished as single, double, or extra long. The purpose of a
longer distance piece is to isolate that part of the rod entering the crankcase and
receiving lubrication from the part entering the cylinder and contacting the gas. This
prevents lubricant from entering the cylinder and contaminating the gas, particularly
necessary in non-lubricated cylinders. It can also keep a synthetic lubricant in a
cylinder from being corrupted by the crankcase lubricant.
Compartments in the distance piece collect and control packing leakage when
the gas is toxic or flammable. Today, the toxic category covers many of the gases
allowed to freely escape into the atmosphere not many years ago. With the pollution
laws becoming more stringent, leakage control takes on a much greater significance.
The leakage can be directed to a flare or other disposal point and, as with multiple
compartments, a buffer of inert gas can be used together with the collection
compartment to further prevent gas leakage.
Generally, a distance piece may be installed between the cylinder and frame
for one of three reasons.
1. When it is necessary to prevent carry over of frame lubricants into the
cylinder, the distance piece assures that no portion of the rod can travel the distance
from the frame oil wiper rings to the cylinder packing.
2. In other cases, the distance piece serves as a means of venting the process
gas that leaks past the rod packing. Gashes may be simply vented to the atmosphere
through large ports, or they may be purged from an enclosed distance piece with a
stream of inert gas. The latter method is used when hazardous gasses are being
processed.

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3. The distance piece also serves as a service access to the piston rod packing
and oil wiper rings.

6. Rod Packing
On double-acting cylinders, a packing is required to provide a barrier to
leakage past the rod where it passes through the crank end cylinder closure. The same
arrangement is needed at the head end if a tail rod or tandem cylinder is used. The
packing may consist of a number of rings of packing material and may include a
lantern ring as shown in the following figure. The lantern ring provides a space into
which a gas or liquid may be injected to aid in the sealing process. If cooling of the
packing is required, the packing box may be jacketed for liquid coolant.
Piston rod packing in heavy duty compressors is almost invariably the full
floating mechanical type. The most frequently used ring material is bronze, although
micarta, phenolic resins, PTFE, and other materials or combinations or materials may
be used for corrosion resistance (See Figure 19).
Rod packing will wear out after long running periods even in the cleanest of
services. Dirty, wet, or high-pressure services will require packing ring replacement
much more often.

High pressure cylinder with jacketed rod packing box. Lantern rings
in packing provide space into which a fluid is injected to aid in
sealing.

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Single pair of full floating mechanical packing rings

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 Module (2) Positive Displacement Compressor

7. Bearings
Larger compressors, normally above 1 50 to 200 horsepower, have forged
steel crankshafts. Cast crankshafts are used in medium size machines. Crankshafts
should have removable balance weights to compensate for rotary unbalance as well as
reciprocating unbalance. The crankshaft should be dynamically balanced when above
800 rpm.
When pressure lubrication is used the crankshaft oil passages should be
drilled, rather than cored in the cast construction.. On machines above 150
horsepower, the main and connecting rod bearings should be split sleeve On the
smaller compressors, the main bearings are antifriction type. Crosshead pins should
have replaceable bushings if available. Replaceable bushings are standard on larger,
multistage compressors and optional as the size decreases. On the smaller,
standardized single-stage machines they are not available at all. On large multi-stage
compressors, flywheels are sometimes used to dampen torque pulsations, minimize
transient torque absorbed by the driver, and to tune torsion natural frequencies. In
most applications however, flywheel are not used and the driver inertia must absorb
torque pulses.

2.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The basic cycle of a reciprocating compressor is illustrated by the following
figure, where an ideal indicator diagram is shown followed by a series of cylinder
illustrations depicting piston movement and valve position? The figure shows in
diagram form one complete crankshaft revolution and encompasses a complete
compression cycle.
To begin the cycle refer to the figure at (a) where the piston is at the lower end
of the stroke (bottom dead center) and is at path point 1 on the indicator diagram. At
this point the cylinder has filled with gas at intake pressure Pi. Note that the valves
are both closed.
At (b) the piston has started to move to the left. This is the compression
portion of the cycle and is illustrated by Path 1-2. When the piston reaches point 2 on
the indicator diagram, the exhaust valve starts to open.
The discharge portion of the cycle is shown at (c). This is shown on the
indicator diagram Path 2-3. Note that the discharge valve is open during this period
while the intake valve is closed. The gas is discharged at the discharge line pressure ?
2. When the piston reaches point 3 it has traveled to the upper end of its stroke (top
dead center). Physically, at this point in the stroke, there is a space between the piston
face and the head. This space results in a trapped volume and is called the clearance
volume.
Next in the cycle, the piston reverses direction and starts the expansion portion
of the cycle, as illustrated at (d) in the figure. Path 3-4 shows this portion of the cycle.
Here the gas trapped in the clearance volume is re-expanded to the intake pressure.
Note that the discharge valve has closed and the intake valve is still closed.

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At point 4 the expansion is complete and the intake valve opens. The intake
portion of the cycle is shown at (e). This is indicated by Path 4-1 on the indicator
diagram. The cylinder fills with gas at intake line pressure pi. When the piston
reaches point 1 the cycle is complete and starts to repeat.

Steps in the cycle of a reciprocating compressor

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2.5 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS:

Reciprocating compressor components

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 Module (2) Positive Displacement Compressor

The reciprocating compressor consists of a mechanical arrangement where

reciprocating motion is transmitted to a piston, which is free to move in a cylinder,
the displacing action of the piston together with the inlet valve or valves causes a
quantity of gas to enter the cylinder. Actions of the discharge valves prevent the back
flow of gas into the compressor from the discharge line during the next intake cycle.
When the compression takes place on one side of the piston the compressor is said to
be single acting, the compressor is double acting when compression take place on
both sides of the piston.

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 Module (2) Positive Displacement Compressor

2.6 ROTARY COMPRESSORS

Common Features
Rotary compressors as a group make up the balance of the positive
displacement machines. This group of compressors has several features in common
despite differences in construction. Probably the most important feature is the lack of
valves as used on the reciprocating compressor. The rotary is lighter in weigh) than
the reciprocator and does not exhibit the shaking forces of the reciprocating
compressor making the foundation requirements less rigorous, even though rotary
compressors are relatively simple in construction ,!the physical design can vary
widely. Both multiple and single rotor construction is found. Rotor design is one of
the main items that distinguish the different types. Size and operating range is another
area unique to each type of rotary. In the following sections some of the more
common rotary compressors are covered in detail.

Arrangements and Drivers

Rotary compressors are frequently arranged as single units with a driver.
Occasionally the compressors are also used in series arrangements, with or without an
intercooler. The series configurations may use a form of tandem drive or multiple
pinion gears to permit the use of a common driver.
For most of the rotary compressors in process service, the driver is an electric
motor. Compressors in portable service, however, particularly the helical lobe
compressor, use internal combustion engines. Many of the rotary compressors require
the high speed that can be obtained from a direct-connected motor. The dry type
helical lobe compressor is probably the main exception as the smaller units operate
above motor speed and require a speed increasing gear which may be either internal
or external.
Compression is achieved by the intermeshing of the male and female rotor.
Power is applied to the male rotor and as a lobe of the male rotor starts to move out of
mesh with the female rotor a void is created and gas is taken in at the inlet port as
shown in the following figure. As the rotor continues to turn the intermesh space is
increased, and gas continues to flow into the compressor until the entire interlope
space is filled. Continued rotation brings a male lobe into the inter-lobe space
compressing and moving the gas in the direction of the discharge port. The volume of
the gas is progressively reduced, increasing the pressure. Further rotation uncovers
the discharge port and the compressed gas starts to flow out of the compressor.
Rotation then moves the balance of the trapped gas out while a new charge is drawn
into the suction of the un-meshing of a new pair of lobes as the compression cycle
begins.
The compressor porting is physically arranged to match the application
pressure ratio. To maintain the best efficiency it is important that the matching be as
close as possible. In Figure 2 four diagrams are included to show two cases, (A) a low
ratio compressor and (B) a high ratio compressor. The lower diagram (C)
demonstrates a low volume ratio compressor in a higher-than-design application.
Because the gas arriving at the discharge port has not been sufficiently compressed,
the resulting negative ratio across the discharge port causes a backflow and resulting
loss. Diagram (D) shows a compressor with too high a volume ratio for the process.
Here the gas is compressed higher than needed to match the pressure of the gas on the
outlet side of the discharge port, resulting in energy waste.

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Effects of low and high volume rations on the cycle of a screw

compressor

Dry Compressors
The non-flooded compressor rotor leakage can be related to the rotor tip Mach
number. The rotor tip velocity can be calculated by
u=nxdxN
The optimum tip speed is 0.25 Mach at a pressure ratio of 3.0. The value shifts
slightly for other built-in pressure ratios, as shown in the following figure. Besides

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affecting the volumetric efficiency, the leakage also has an effect on the adiabatic
efficiency. Also, the after figure is a plot of the tip speed ratio, u/u0, (operating to
optimum) against the efficiency ratio, off-peak to peal efficiency. Then there are two
figures shows a set of typical volumetric and adiabatic efficiency curves for three
built-in pressure ratios.
The adiabatic efficiency should be corrected for molecular weight. Generally
the efficiency decreases with lower molecular weight and in creases with increased
molecular weight. As an arbitrary rule of thumb a straight line relationship can be
assumed. The correction is a -3 percentage points at a molecular weight of 2, 0 at 29
and +3 at the molecular weight of 56. For example, a compressor with an air
efficiency of 78% would have an adiabatic optimum tip speed efficiency of 75%
when operating on hydrogen.
The screw compressor can be evaluated using the adiabatic work equation.
Discharge temperature can be calculated by taking the adiabatic temperature rise and
dividing by the adiabatic efficiency then multiplying by the temperature rise
efficiency to account for cooling. To obtain the discharge temperature, add the inlet
temperature to the temperature rise.

Flooded Compressors
The oil flooded version is an increasingly popular variation of the screw
compressor and is seeing a variety of applications. This type of the compressor is less
complex than the dry version because of the elimination of the timing gears. It also
has the advantage of the oil acting as seal to the internal clearances, which means a
higher volumetric and overall efficiency. The sealing improvement also results in
higher efficiency at lower speeds. This means quiet operation and the possibility
direct connection to rotor drivers, eliminating the need for speed increasing gears.
(When gears are needed they are available as internal some models). Higher pressure
ratios can also be realized because of the direct cooling from the injected oil. Pressure
ratios is high and reaches to a more than 21 in one casing are possible. Besides, the
inherently quiet operation from lower speed, the oil dampens some of the internal
pulses aiding the suppression of noise. The timing gears can be eliminated because
the female rotor is driven by the male through the oil film. To take advantage of the 3
to 2 speed increase, development work is in progress to drive the female rotor.
Alterations to the 90 to 10 power division for male and female rotor must be made to
shift more of the power to the female rotor. The contact surfaces should also be
improved for better matching and lower friction losses.
The points of injection are quite important for efficient operation. The oil is
injected in the casing wall at or near the intersection of the rotor bores on the
discharge side of the machine. The orifices are lined up axially in the region where
compression is taking place. Also, oil enters from each bearing. Good drainage
control will keep oil from recycling back to contact the inlet charge and transferring
unwanted heat to the uncompressed gas. The inlet port, as well, must be designed to
prevent slip oil (oil traveling in the rotor clearance area), from heating the inlet gas.

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The injected-oil is sheared and pumped in the course of moving through the
compressor. These losses can be minimized by taking advantage of the slower speed
performance. There is an optimum operating speed where the improvement in
operation from the oil offsets the potential losses.
Test data indicates that for the pumpless oil system compressor, the discharge
temperature remains constant over a wide range of operation, at varying pressure ratios,
staying close to 176°F (80°C). In contrast, on a pumped system, the outlet temperature
can be maintained at a desired level. The amount of oil injected must be carefully
controlled, admitting enough for operation and not too much to cause high pumping
losses. For an application of 100 psig air compression, rates of 6 to 7 gpm are used per
100 cfm. This results in about 450 BTU/min heat rejection per 10 hp of input energy.
Because heat is rejected to the oil and the oil is re-circulated in the flooded compressor a
larger lubrication system is required, along with more cooling water than would be needed
for a dry compressor. There may be a potential trade-off in some applications such as
refrigeration or air compression where dry compressors use inter and after coolers. In the
case of refrigeration, the heat load is reduced to the refrigerant condenser and in the air
compression the load is less for an after-cooler.
For areas where cooling water is either scarce or not available, direct liquid
injection may be a possibility. The liquid coolant should be injected near the
discharge end of the compressor to minimize lubricant dilution. Alternatively the
liquid can be flashed in a separate exchanger and used to cool the lubricant. While the
cooling may appear to decrease the power to the compressor, the net effect is an
increase in the power due to the additional weight flow of the extra refrigerant needed
to perform the cooling.
The following equation provides a way of estimating the discharge
temperature if the shaft power's known or it can be used to estimate the shaft power if
the temperature rises and quantity of lubricant is known. The equation assumes 85%
of the heat of the compressor is absorbed by the lubricant.
q L x p L * cpL xΔt = ;0.850
Where:
Ws = work input to the shaft
qL= volume of lubricant
PL= specific weight of the lubricant
CPL = specific heat of the lubricant
Δt = lubricant temperature rise
Flooded compressors use the asymmetric profile rotor extensively because the
rotor's efficiency is most apparent in this size range. Flooded compressor size has, over die
more recent" times, been increased. The upper range is in the 7000 cfm range. While most
applications are in air and refrigeration certain modifications can make it applicable for
process gas service. One of the considerations is the liquid used for the flooding.

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Optimum tip speed vs. Pressure ratio

Tip speed ratio vs. efficiency ratio

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2.7 SLIDING VANE COMPRESSOR

The tow basic types of vane compressors are the roller or single vane type and
the multiple vane type. Vane compressors are used mostly in domestic refrigerators,
freezers, and air conditioners, although they can also be used as booster compressors
in the low-pressure portion of large multistage compression systems. In the roller type
the centerline of the shaft is the same as the centerline of the cylinder. The centerline
of the shaft, however, is located eccentrically on the rotor, so that as the rotor
revolves it makes contact with the cylinder. The roller-type compressor has a spring-
loaded divider which separates the suction and discharge chambers.

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2.8 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR THERMO-DYNAMICAL

ANALYSIS
Work done on the air per unit time is equal to the work done per cycle times
the number of cycles per unit time. The rate of mass flow is more often used than the
mass per cycle; if the rate of mass flow is given the symbol m, and replaces m in
equation, then the equation gives the rate at which work is done on the air, or the
indicated power.
The working fluid changes state between a and b in the figure, from P1 and T1
to P2 and T2. The delivery temperature, T2, is given by ;

 n 1 
 
 P  n 
T2  T1  2 
 P1 

The condition of minimum work

The work done on the gas is given by the area of the indicator diagram, and
the work done will be a minimum when the area of the diagram is a minimum. The
height of the diagram is fixed by the required pressure ratio (when pi is fixed), and the
length of the line da is fixed by the cylinder volume, which is itself fixed by the
required induction of gas. The only process which can influence the area of the
diagram is the line ab. The position taken by this line is decided by the value of the
index n, the following figure shows the limits of the possible processes.
Line ab1 is according to the law pV = constant (i.e. isothermal).
Line ab2 is according to the law pVγ = constant (i.e. isentropic)
Both processes are reversible. Isothermal compression is the most desirable
process between a and b, giving the minimum work to be done on the gas. This means
that in an actual compressor the gas temperature must be kept as close as possible to
its initial value, and a means of cooling the gas is always provided, either by air or by
water. The indicated work done when the gas is compressed isothermally is given by
the area ab1cd.
Isothermal efficiency
By definition, based on the indicator diagram
Isothermal efficiency= Isothermal work/indicated work

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Possible compression processes on a p-v diagram

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2.9 COMPRESSOR CONTROLS

Capacity Control
The reciprocating compressor is a fixed displacement compressor in its basic
configuration but several methods are used to overcome this limitation to permit running at
multiple operating points. Reducing the volumetric capacity of a reciprocating
compressor can be accomplished by one of the following methods:

Start and Stop Control

This method may be used when the pressurized gas is being delivered to a
storage receiver. Caution must be exercised when sizing a compressor for this type of
service to assure that the compressor motor is not subjected to too many starts within a
limited time period. Starting is most commonly done while the compressor is unloaded in
order to limit the starting torque.

Constant Speed Control

These methods include cylinder inlet valve unloading mechanisms, special
clearance pockets, and external bypassing:

Valve un-loaders
This method is the most commonly used capacity control method. It is
normally used to totally unload the cylinders for electric motor startup. The valve un-
loaders hold the inlet valves open during the compression stroke of the cylinder,
thereby preventing compression from occurring.

Cylinder with valve un-loader

On double-acting cylinders, unloaders allow capacity reduction steps of 50%
and 0% of full ACFM. Also, unloading the individual sides one at a time will provide
a two step unloading of the cylinder. On multi-cylinder arrangements, the cylinders
can be unloaded one at a time providing as many steps as cylinders operating in
parallel. As shown in the following figure.

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Capacity control when we use valve un-loaders. The cylinder in the

first figure is loaded on both the head and crank ends (as shown on
the indicator cards). In the second figure the head end is unloaded
for 50% capacity. In the third figure both ends are unloaded for 0%
capacity

Most of the valve unloaders use an auxiliary mechanism to lift and hold the
intake valve off of its seat. This method can also be used in conjunction with
clearance pockets to extend the range of control to zero capacity. Cylinder unloaders
may have electrical, pneumatic, or manual operators. A few words of caution when
using the valve unloading method: First, multi cylinder horizontal opposed units
should be unloaded symmetrically to avoid producing excessive unbalanced forces on
the crankshaft and frame. Secondly, a problem arises with the possible loss of rod
load reversals (compression followed by tension loading). The rod load reversals
should occur when a cylinder is partially unloaded since they provide lubrication to
some of the bearings, as discussed earlier in this chapter. While the reversal problem
is generally associated with unloading a double-acting cylinder from one side, it
should be checked for all unloaded cases, including pocket unloading. If operation
without rod reversals is absolutely mandatory, auxiliary lubrication must be brought
to the bearings affected. The third caution is the anticipated duration of a totally
unloaded condition. While the capacity has been reduced to zero, the gas in the outer
end of the cylinder is being moved about in a reciprocating manner following piston
movement. The movement of uncompressed gas will generate heat and prolonged
unloaded operation without proper cooling will cause severe overheating. In any case,
investigation of potential problems should be undertaken with the equipment
manufacturer.

The power saving of this method of capacity control is not total since some
work must be done to move the gas in and out through the valve ports.
Generally, this work will be about 5% of the full load for the cylinder. The
mechanical friction losses of the compressor also make a contribution to the
power consumption. These factors result in a no-load horsepower demand of
roughly 25% of full load

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Clearance Pockets
In the discussion on cylinders, mention was made of clearance pockets. By use of
the clearance pockets, the cylinder capacity can be lowered (see Equation 6). If the pocket is
connected directly to the clearance area, the clearance term c can be increased. Increasing the
clearance reduces the capacity by lowering the volumetric efficiency. Hence, clearance
pockets reduce the volumetric efficiency of a cylinder by effectively increasing the
cylinder clearance by a fixed percentage, or by an incremental amount.
Although clearance pockets may be used at the crank end and/or the head end of a
cylinder, they are more commonly located at the head end. If multiple pockets are used,
a step unloading system can be designed , as shown in the following figure.

A 5 step clearance pocket unloading scheme

On cylinders lacking the physical space for pockets, the same effect can be
achieved by using external bottles and some piping. Care must be taken to keep the
piping closely coupled and physically strong to prevent accidental breakage. Remote
operated valves permit the capacity reduction to be integrated into an automatic control
system.

Clearance pockets, and fixed volume clearance bottles have an advantage over
inlet valve unloaders in that they do not limit control to large increments of capacity
reduction. They may be machined in order for small increments such as 10% reduction.
More than one pocket may be used on a cylinder for several steps of reduction.
Variable volume pockets are available for finer control increments. This device is
normally attached to the outboard head. It consists of a piston-cylinder arrangement where
the piston rod is threaded and attached to a handwheel. Turning the handwheel changes
the clearance volume in an infinite number of steps up to the total pocket volume.
The power reduction effected by clearance pockets is approximately 85 % of the
capacity reduction. Clearance pockets may have electrical, pneumatic, or manual
operators. Manual are the most common.

External bypassing

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External bypassing as a means of capacity control allows the use of

conventional gas flow regulating valves. Sometimes, a bypass port around the valve
element is used. This method is not often used with reciprocating compressors because
of the lack of any saving in power, and because of the tendency to build up heat in the
recycle loop which requires the use of a bypass-gas cooler. External bypassing of
essentially all of a compressor's output is sometimes used as a means of unloading a
compressor during startup. However, suction valve unloaders, when available, are the
preferred means of unloading for startup.

2.10 POWER CONSUMPTION/VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

CALCULATIONS
Clearance is necessary in a compressor to give mechanical freedom to the
working parts and allow the necessary space for valve operations.
The figure below shows the ideal indicator diagram with the clearance
volume included. For good-quality machines the clearance volume is about 6% of
the swept volume, and with a sleeve-valve machine it can be as low as 2%.

When the delivery stroke be is completed the clearance volume Vc is full

of gas at pressure p2 and temperature T2 As the piston proceeds on the next
induction stroke the air expands behind it until the pressure pi is reached. Ideally as
soon as the pressure reaches P1 the induction of fresh gas will begin and continue to
the end of this stroke at a. The gas is then compressed according to the law PV n=
C, and delivery begins at b as controlled by the valves. The effect of clearance is to
reduce the induced volume at pi and Ti from Vs to (Va -Vd).

VOLUMETRIC EFFICINCY ηvol

It has been shown that one of the effects of clearance is to reduce the induce
volume to a value less than that of the swept volume. This means that for required
induction the cylinder size must be increased over that calculated on the assumption
of zero clearance. The volumetric efficiency is defined as follows:
ηvol = the mass of gas delivered, divided by the mass of gas which would fill
the swept volume at the free air conditions of pressure and temperature .

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Ideal indicator diagram for a reciprocating compressor with

clearance
ηvol = the volume of gas delivered measured at the free air pressure and
temperature, divided by the swept volume of the cylinder.
The volume of air dealt with per unit time by an air compressor is quoted as
the free air delivery (FAD), and is the rate of volume flow delivered, measured at the
pressure and temperature of the atmosphere in which the machine is situated.
The volumetric efficiency for reciprocating compressor is given by
ηvol =Actual volume of drawn air per cycle/stroke volume.
 1

P n 
 vol  1  C 1   d 
 
 Ps  
 

where;
C is the clearance ratio Vc/Vs
Pd is the delivery pressure
Ps is the suction pressure
n is the exponent of expansion
Vc is the clearance volume and
Vs is the stroke volume.
The main parameters affecting on the compressor volumetric efficiency are;

The clearance ratio

The clearance ratio is very important parameter affects on the compressor
volumetric efficiency. As the clearance ratio is increased the compressor
volumetric efficiency rapidly decreases. To show this fact, we will take a small
numerical example.

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Some numerical examples are given in module 4 part three

the compressor performance calculations.

2. 11 MAINTENANCE & TROUBLESHOOTING

Maintenance Approaches
Typical maintenance approaches include reactive, preventive and predictive
maintenance. Reactive maintenance is generally considered the least efficient method
because, as the name implies, plant personnel take corrective action only after some
type of breakdown has already occurred. In the process industry, allowing failures to
happen usually means that the consequences and costs of the failure will be greatly
magnified due to lost production associated with having equipment out of service.
Since the failures tend to come with no warning, labor costs are also usually higher
due to callbacks on second shift and the like.
While reactive maintenance does not seem to be very cost efficient, there is
still a relatively large percentage of plants that utilize it when addressing control
valves. This may be because there are large numbers of valves in use and no one
valve has the impact on operations that some of the other, larger pieces of equipment
in a plant do. What we must not lose sight of is that, because of the large number of
valves in use, the cumulative effect of multiple failures can be significant and justifies
the consideration of more sophisticated approaches.
The next step up in addressing maintenance concerns is preventive
maintenance. With this approach, the end user tries to prevent failures by scheduling
regular interventions on equipment to repair, replace, or rebuild equipment or
components. The timing for these interventions might be based oil vendor
recommendations or past history. This is better than a reactive approach because it
cuts down on the on-line failures, but it does involve a higher level of maintenance
activity, and some work may be done unnecessarily on equipment that was still in
good condition. This is the most common approach used on control valves in the
chemical process industry.
The third approach is called predictive maintenance and involves the attempt
to predict failure and schedule corrective action before it can occur This is a little like
"just-in-time maintenance" in that, at least in theory, there is no wasted effort since
the interventions are based on impending failure. The predictions are the difficult part
of this approach and are usually based upon the combination of some type of
nondestructive examination and past history In general, this is considered to be the
most cost efficient means of addressing maintenance concerns, and its application is
the goal of most forward-looking maintenance personnel.
To these three traditional maintenance techniques, a new technique called
preemptive maintenance can be added. One of the messages conveyed in this course
is that it is very important to get the equipment set up correctly. Experience has
shown that many problems that eventually require an intervention by the maintenance

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group can be traced to the fact that the equipment wasn't set up properly to begin with
Preemptive maintenance is based upon the total quality concept that if one takes the
time to do a job right the first time, many problems can be corrected before they
occur.

Maintenance of Mechanical Systems

Most companies spend a great deal of money training their maintenance
personnel so that they can troubleshoot and correct failures of a hydraulic system. If
the focus was shifted to the prevention of system or component failures, less time and
money could be spent on troubleshooting. Lack of maintenance of hydraulic systems
is the leading cause of component and system failure.
People say that knowledge is power. Well, this is certainly true in hydraulic
maintenance. Many maintenance organizations do not know what their maintenance
personnel should know. In an industrial maintenance organization, we should divide
the hydraulic skill necessary into two groups. In one group are the hydraulic
troubleshooters. They must be your experts in maintenance, and as a rule of thumb
they should make up 10 percent or less of your maintenance workforce. The other
90+ percent would be your general hydraulic maintenance personnel. They provide
the preventive maintenance expertise.

Troubleshooter: Knowledge
 Mechanical principles: force, work, rate, simple machines
 Math: basic math, complex math equations
 Hydraulic components: application and function of all hydraulic system
 Hydraulic schematic symbols: meaning of all symbols and their relationship
 Calculate flow, pressure, and speed.
 Calculate the system filtration necessary to achieve the system's proper ISO
 Components to a hydraulic system particulate code.
 Filters: function, application, installation techniques
 Reservoirs: function, application
 Basic hydraulic system operation
 Cleaning of hydraulic systems
 Hydraulic lubrication principles
 Proper PM techniques for hydraulics

Troubleshooter Skill
 Trace a hydraulic circuit to 100 percent proficiency
 Set the pressure on a pressure-compensated pump
 Tune the voltage on an amplifier card
 Null a servo valve
 Troubleshoot a hydraulic system and utilize root cause failure analysis
 Replace any system component to manufacturer's specification
 Develop a PM Program for a hydraulic system

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 Hush a hydraulic system after a major component failure

 Change a hydraulic filter and other system components
 Clean a hydraulic reservoir
 Perform PM on a hydraulic system
 Change a strainer on a hydraulic pump
 Add filtered fluid to a hydraulic system
 Identify potential problems on a hydraulic system
 Change a hydraulic hose, fitting, or tubing

Measuring Success
Program we must track success in order to have support from management
and maintenance personnel. We must also understand that any action will have a
reaction, which will possibly be negative we know that successful maintenance
programs will provide success but we must have a system of checks and balances to
ensure that we're on track
In order to measure success of a hydraulic maintenance program, we must
have some way of tracking success.
First, we need to establish a benchmark.
A benchmark is a method by which we will establish certain key
measurement tools that will tell you the current status of your hydraulic system, and
then tell you if you're succeeding in your maintenance program.
Before you begin the implementation of your new hydraulic maintenance
program, it would be helpful to identify and track the following information:

Track All Downtime

As in any other type of critical plant system, all delays that affect a hydraulic
system's performance should be accurately tracked. The data compiled can then be
used to identify inherent design, installation, operation, or maintenance problems that
may contribute to its poor reliability.
The tracking program should include the following data: What component
failed? Cause of failure? Was the problem resolved? Could this failure have been
prevented?
In addition to tracking the failure mode of hydraulic systems or their
components, the program should include an accurate compilation of costs that are
incurred as a result of reduced reliability, failures, or poor performance. These costs
should include parts and material; labor cost required to repair; lost production; and
any other incremental costs that were directly or indirectly caused by the hydraulic
system.

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