CE - 303

HYDRAULICS

Hydraulic Similitude and Model Studies

Hydraulic Modeling,
Non-dimensional Numbers,
Pi Theorem and its application

Prof. Dr. Taj Ali Khan 1

 Hydraulic Similitude and Model Studies
• Fluid mechanics problems can be dealt with by using
Analytical, Computational and Experimental approaches to
understand the distribution of fluid and flow properties and the
interaction of the fluid with its surroundings.

• Engineers use some of the experimental tools to solve fluid

mechanics problems. These tools, known as Dimensional
Analysis, Similitude, and Modeling, are very powerful but
surprisingly easy to apply.

• Because so few real flows can be solved exactly by analytical

methods alone, the development of fluid mechanics has
depended heavily on experimental results.

• Experimental work in the laboratory is both time-consuming

and expensive. One obvious goal is to obtain the most2
information from the fewest experiments.
• Dimensional Analysis is an important tool that often helps us to
achieve this goal.

• The dimensionless parameters that we obtain also can be used to

correlate data for presentation using the minimum possible
number of plots (graphs).

• When experimental testing of a full-size prototype is either

impossible or prohibitively expensive, the only feasible way of
attacking the problem is through Model Testing in the laboratory.

• If we are to predict the prototype behavior from measurements on

the model, it is obvious that we cannot run just any test on any
model. The model flow and the prototype flow must be related by
known Scaling Laws.

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 Model and Prototype
• In the engineering point of view model can be defined as the
representation of physical system that may be used to predict the
behavior of the system in the desired aspect.

• The system whose behavior is to be predicted by the model is

called the prototype. These may also operate with different fluids,
at different pressures, velocities etc.

• As models are generally smaller than the prototype, so these are

cheaper to build and test.

• Model testing is also used for evaluating proposed modifications

to existing systems.

• Models should be carefully designed for reliable prediction of

the prototype performance. 4
 Dimensional Analysis

• The dimensional analysis is a mathematical

technique, which deals with the dimensions of the
physical quantities involved in the phenomenon.
• It is based on the assumption that the phenomenon
can be expressed by a dimensionally homogenous
equation, with certain variables.
• These days dimensional analysis is widely used in
research work for developing design criteria and also
for conducting model tests.

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• Primary purposes of dimensional analysis

– To generate non-dimensional parameters that help

in the design of experiments (physical and/or
numerical) and in reporting of results.

– To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance

can be predicted from model performance.

– To predict trends in the relationship between

parameters.

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 Fundamental Dimensions

• All physical quantities are measured by comparison.

This comparison is always made with respect to some
arbitrarily fixed value for each independent quantity,
called dimension (e.g. length, mass, time,
temperature).
• Since there is no direct relationship between these
dimensions, they are called fundamental dimensions
or quantities.
• Some other quantities such as area, volume, velocity,
force etc. can not be expressed in terms of
fundamental dimensions and thus may be called
derived or secondary dimensions.

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 Fundamental Dimensions

• There are two systems for fundamental dimensions

namely FLT (force length time) and MLT (mass length
time).
• The dimensional form of any quantity is independent
of the system of units (i.e. metric or English).
• The two systems are interrelated through Newton’s
law, F = ma or F = M L /T2.
• In any equation representing a real physical event every
term must contain the same powers of the primary
quantities (L, M and T).
• In other words, like must be compared with like or else
the equation is meaningless, although it may be
balance numerically. 8
 Principal of Dimensional Homogeneity
• This principle is known as the Principal of Dimensional
Homogeneity (PDH), which was first formalized in 1822
by Baron Joseph Fourier (1768 – 1830), a French
mathematician and physicist now best known for his
Fourier Series.
• An equation is dimensionally homogenous, if the
fundamental dimensions have identical powers of LMT
(length, mass and time) on both sides. Such an equation
would essentially be independent of the system of
measurement.
• Two dimensionally homogenous equations can be
multiplied or divided without effecting the homogeneity.
• But the two dimensionally homogeneous equations
cannot be added or subtracted, as the resulting
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equation may not be dimensionally homogeneous.
Dimensionally Homogenous Equation
An equation is called dimensionally homogenous, if the
fundamental dimensions have identical powers of LMT
(length, mass and time) on both sides.

Such an equation would essentially be independent of

the system of measurement (Metric or English)

For Example
Q=AV
L3T-1 = L2 L T-1 = L3 T-1

Therefore Equation is dimensionally homogenous.

Manning's Equation is non-homogeneous

1 2 / 3 1/ 2 1.49 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R S MKS V R S FPS 10
n n
 Uses of PDH

Though the PDH has a number of uses, yet the

following are important from the subject point of view:

• To determine the dimension of a physical quantity.

Energy = Work = Force x distance = F x L = [MLT-2]L = ML2T-2

• To check the dimensional homogeneity of an equation.

• To change the coefficient of an equation while using in
the other system of units.
• To establish the form of an equation relating a number
of variables (Dimensional Analysis).
• To assist in the analysis of experimental results.

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 Principle of Similarity
• Three necessary conditions for complete
similarity between a model and a prototype are:

– Geometric Similarity – the model must be the same

shape as the prototype. Each dimension must be
scaled by the same factor.

– Kinematic Similarity – velocity as any point in the

model must be proportional by a constant scale factor.

– Dynamic Similarity – all forces in the model flow

scale by a constant factor to corresponding forces in
the prototype flow.

– Complete Similarity is achieved only if all 3 conditions

are met. This is not always possible, e.g., ship models.
Non-dimensional Numbers

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 Buckingam’s π Theorem
If there are n variables (Independent and Dependent) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions,
then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms which
are called π-terms.”
Let X1, X2, X3,…,X4, Xn are the variables involved in a physical problem.
Let X1 be the dependent variable and X2, X3, X4,…,Xn are the independent
variables on which X1 depends. Mathematically it can be written as
X1=f(X2, X3, X4, Xn)
which can be rewritten as f(X1, X2, X3, X4, Xn) = 0
Above equation is dimensionally homogenous.
It contain n variables and if there are m fundamental dimensions then it can be
written in terms of dimensions groups called π-terms which are equal to (n-m)
Hence; f(π1, π2, π3,… πn-m)=0

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Properties of π-terms:
• Eachπ-term is dimensionless and is independent of system
of units.

• Division or multiplication by a constantdoes not change

the character of the π-terms.

• Each π-term contains m+1 variables, where m is the number of

fundamental dimensions and also called repeating variable.

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 Methods of Selecting Repeating Variables
The number of repeating variables are equal to number of
fundamental dimensions of the problem. The choice of repeating
variables is governed by following considerations;
• As far as possible, dependent variable should not be selected as
repeating variable
• The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one
variable contains geometric property, other contains flow
property and third contains fluid property
• The repeating variables selected should form a dimensionless
group
• The repeating variables together must contain all three
fundamental dimension i.e., MLT
• No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.

Note: In most of fluid mechanics problems, the choice of

repeating variables may be (i) d, v, ρ, (ii) l, v, ρ or (iii) d, v, µ.
Example #1
The drag force F acting on a spherical particle of diameter
falling slowly through a viscous fluid is found to be
influenced by the particle diameter d, velocity of particle
fall V and the fluid viscosity µ. Using Pi-Theorem obtain a
relationship between the variables.
F  f (d ,V ,  )
Using the Pi-Buckingham Theorem of Dimensional Analysis
to determine the form of the relationship.
Total number of variables = 4
Total dimensions [MLT] = 3
Hence (4-3) = 1 Pi-term can be obtained

1  F d a V b  c

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 S# Parameter Symbol Unit Dimension

1 Drag Force F N or kg m/s2 ML/T2

2 Diameter d m L

3 Velocity V m/s L/T

4 Viscosity µ Kg/ms M/LT

1  F d a V b  c 1
M 0 L0 T 0  ( M 1 L1T 2 ) ( L1 ) a ( L1 T 1 ) b ( M 1 L1T 1 ) c
Equating indices for M, L and T
F F
For M: 0 = 1 + c 1  C
For L: 0 = 1 +a + b -c dV  dV 
For T: 0 = -2 – b - c
The solution of theses three C was found by experiment C = 3π
simultaneous Equations is
a = b = c = -1 F  3  d V  Stokes Law
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Substituting the values in Equation #1
Example #2
For a smooth-walled conduit, neglecting wall roughness,
we might assume that the average fluid shear stress
(dependent variable) at the wall is some function of ρ, μ
,V and Rh (Independent variables)

 o  f (  ,  ,V , Rh )

Using the Pi-Buckingham Theorem of Dimensional Analysis

to determine the form of the relationship.
Total number of variables = 5
Total dimensions [MLT] = 3
Hence (5-3) = 2 Pi-terms can be obtained
We choose ρ, V, and Rh as primary or repeating variables

1    a Rhb V c  2   o  a Rhb V c
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 1    a Rhb V c

M 0 L0 T 0  ( M 1L1T 1 ) ( M 1L3 ) a ( L1 )b ( L1 T 1 ) c

Using Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity (PDH)

For M: 0 = 1 + a
For L: 0 = - 1 – 3a + b + c
For T: 0 = -1 - c

The solution of theses three simultaneous Equations is

a = b = c = -1
Substituting the values


1  1  R 1
 Rh V
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  2   o  a Rhb V c

M 0 L0 T 0  ( M 1 L1T 2 ) ( M 1 L3 ) a ( L1 )b ( L1 T 1 ) c

Using Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity (PDH)

For M: 0 = 1 + a
For L: 0 = - 1 – 3a + b + c
For T: 0 = - 2 - c
The solution of theses three simultaneous Equations is
a = -1, b = 0, c = -2
Substituting these values, we can get

o
2 
 V2
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 o
1  R 1 2 
 V2

f (1 ,  2 )  0 f ( 2 , 1 )  0
o
  ( R)
This indicates that Π2 = φ(Π1 -1)  V 2

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Example #3
Prove that the discharge over a spillway is given by the relation
V = Velocity of flow
 g D H  D = Depth at the throat
Q V D f 
2
, 
 V D  H = Head of water
g = acceleration due to gravity
Solution
Let the functional form is Q  f (V , D, H , g )
The above equation in general form is f (Q, V , D, H , g )  0
Total number of variables = 5
Total dimensions [L and T] = 2
Hence (5 - 2) = 3 Pi-terms can be obtained
We choose V and D as primary or repeating variables

1  Q V a Db 2  H V Da b 3  g V a Db 25
 1  Q V a Db

M 0 L0 T 0  ( L3T 1 ) ( L T 1 ) a ( L )b

Using Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity (PDH)

For L: 0 = 3 + a + b
For T: 0 = -1 - a
The solution of theses three simultaneous Equations is
a = -1, b = -2
Substituting the values

1  Q V 1 D 2
Q
1 
V D2
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  2  H V a Db

M 0 L0 T 0  ( L) ( L T 1 ) a ( L )b

Using Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity (PDH)

For L: 0 = 1 + a + b
For T: 0 = - a
The solution of theses three simultaneous Equations is
a = 0, b = -1
Substituting the values

 2  H V 0 D 1

H
2 
D
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 3  g V a Db

M 0 L0 T 0  ( LT 2 ) ( LT 1 ) a ( L)b

Using Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity (PDH)

For L: 0 = 1 + a + b
For T: 0 = -2 - a
The solution of theses three simultaneous Equations is
a = -2, b = 1
Substituting the values
gD gD
3  g V 2 1
D 3  3 
V2 V
Any Pi-term may be replaced by any power of it, because the power of
a non-dimensional term is also non-dimensional.
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Now the functional Relationship may be written as

f ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 )  0

 Q H gD
f  , , 0
V D D V 
2
 

Q H gD
 f  , 
VD 2 D V 
 

H gD
Q V D f  ,
2 
D V 

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Example #4
The pressure drop ΔP in flow through pipes per unit length is found
to depend on the average velocity u, diameter D, density of the fluid
ρ, and viscosity μ. Using FLT set of dimensions, evaluate the
dimensionless parameters correlating this phenomenon.
Solution
The dimensions of the influencing parameters are tabulated below
choosing FLT set.

As there are Five Variables and three dimensions (F,L,T), so (5-3 = 2)

two π terms can be obtained.

Using D, u and ρ as repeating parameters,

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