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Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

Computer Graphics
Unit 1

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1. Introduction to Computer Graphics

• Computer Graphics is a field related to the generation of
graphics using computers.
• Computer graphics are graphics created using computers and
the representation of image data by a computer specifically
with help from specialized graphic hardware and software.

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• It includes the creation, storage, and manipulation of images
of objects .
• These objects come from diverse fields such as physical,
mathematical, engineering, architectural, abstract structures
and natural phenomenon. obviously know it is open it out is
the nearest and we're doing well
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2. Application Of Computer Graphics

• Computer Aided Design (CAD)
• Presentation Graphics
• Computer Art
• Entertainment

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• Education and Training
• Visualization
• Image Processing
• Graphical User Interfaces (GUI‟s)
• Simulation
• Cartography
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2.1. Computer Aided Design (CAD)

• In CAD, graphics is used to design components and systems of
mechanical, electrical, electro-mechanical and electronic
devices including structures such as buildings, automobile
bodies, airplane, VLSI chips, optical systems and telephone
and computer networks.

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2.1. Computer Aided Design (CAD)…..

• Objects are displayed in wireframe outline that shows the
overall shape and internal features of objects.

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2.1. Computer Aided Design (CAD)…..

• Architects use computer graphics to layout floor plans that
shows positioning of rooms, doors, windows, stairs, shelves
and other building features. Electrical designers then try out
arrangements for wiring, electrical outlets and other system to
determine space utilization on a building.

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2.1. Computer Aided Design (CAD)…..

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2.1. Computer Aided Design (CAD)…..

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2.1. Computer Aided Design (CAD)…..

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2.1. Computer Aided Design (CAD)…..

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2.2. Presentation Graphics

• Presentation Graphics is commonly used to summarize
financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific and economic
data for research reports, managerial reports and other types
of reports.

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2.2. Presentation Graphics…..

• Typical examples are bar charts, line graphs, surface graphs,
pie charts and other displays showing relationship between
multiple variables.

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2.2. Presentation Graphics…..

• The 3D graphics are usually used simply for effects; they can
provide a more diagrammatic or more attractive presentation
of data relationship.

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2.2. Presentation Graphics…..

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2.2. Presentation Graphics…..

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2.3. Computer Art

• Computer graphics is used to generate arts.

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2.3. Computer Art

• They are widely used in both fine art and commercial art
applications. Fine art is drawn by artist hand and this kind of
art is perfect to the artist skill. Artist use a variety of computer
methods including special purpose hardware, artist's paints
brush program, other paint packages, specially developed

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software.

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2.3. Computer Art

• Mathematics packages, CAD packages, desktop publishing
software and animation packages providing facilities.

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2.4. Entertainment and Gaming

• Computer graphics methods are new commonly used in
making motion pictures, music videos and TV shows.

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2.4. Entertainment and Gaming

• Images are drawn in wire-frame form and will be shaded with
rendering methods to produce solid surfaces. Music videos
use graphics in several ways.

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2.4. Entertainment and Gaming

• Computer graphics are also used to introduce virtual
characters to movies like character in “Lord of the Rings”.

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2.5. Education and Training….

• Computer graphics is used in education and training for
making it more effective and more illustrative.

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2.5. Education and Training…..

• Computer generated models of physical, financial, and
economic systems are often used as educational aids. A
student can learn surgery using data gloves and realistic
computer graphics.

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2.5. Education and Training…..

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2.6. Visualization
• Visualization is the process of visually representing the data.
To visualize large amount of information graphical computer
systems are used.
• Some methods generate very large amount of
data/information, analysis the property of the whole amount

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of data is very difficult. Visualization simplifies the analysis of
data by using graphical representation.

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2.6. Visualization…..

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2.6. Visualization…..

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2.7. Image Processing

• Image can be created using simple point program or can be
fed into computer by scanning the image. These picture/
images need to be changed to improve the quality.
• Form image/pattern recognition systems, images need to be
changed in specified format so that the system can recognize

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the meaning of the picture.
• Currently computer graphics is widely used for image
processing.

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2.7. Image Processing….

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2.7. Image Processing….

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2.7. Image Processing….

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2.7. Image Processing….

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2.8. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI‟s)

• GUIs have become key factors for the success of the software
or operating system.
• GUI provides point-and-click facilities to allow users to select
menu items, icons, and objects on the screen.
• Word processing, spreadsheet, and desktop-publishing

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programs are typical applications that take advantage of user-
interface technique.

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2.8. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI‟s)…..

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2.8. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI‟s)…..

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2.9. Simulation
• A representation of a problem, situation, etc. in mathematical
terms, using a computer is called simulation.
• Computer Simulation is the process of mapping the real-world
scenarios into mathematical model using computer graphics.
• Recently computer graphics is widely used to create simulated

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environment.
• E.g.; Robot Operation Simulation, Pilot Training, Military
Training etc.

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2.9. Simulation…..

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2.9. Simulation…..

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2.9. Simulation…..

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2.9. Simulation…..

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2.9. Simulation…..

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2.9. Simulation…..

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2.10. Cartography
• Cartography is the study and practice of designing maps using
computer graphics.
• Computer graphics is used to produce both accurate and
schematic representations of geographical and other natural
phenomena from measurement data.

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• Examples include geographic maps, exploration maps, for
drilling and mining, oceanographic charts, weather maps etc.

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2.10. Cartography…..

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3. Advantage of Computer Graphics

1. A high quality graphics displays of personal computer provide one
of the most natural means of communicating with a computer.
2. It has an ability to show moving pictures, and thus it is possible to
produce animations with computer graphics.
3. With computer graphics use can also control the animation by

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adjusting the speed, the portion of the total scene in view, the
geometric relationship of the objects in the scene to one another,
the amount of detail shown and so on.
4. The computer graphics also provides facility called update
dynamics. With update dynamics it is possible to change the
shape, color or other properties of the objects being viewed.
5. With the recent development of digital signal processing (DSP)
and audio synthesis chip the interactive graphics can now provide
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4.Basic Concept
• RASTER : A rectangular array of points or dots.
• PIXEL (picture element) :One dot or picture element of the
raster
• SCAN LINE : A row of pixels

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• BITMAP :ones and zeros representation of the rectangular
array points on screen
• Black and white :- bitmap
• Pixmap :- color (colored raster image)

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4.1 Raster
• A rectangular array of points or dots.

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4.2 Pixel
• One dot or picture element of the raster
• The pixel (a word invented from "picture element") is the
basic unit of programmable color on a computer display or in
a computer image

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4.2 Pixel

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4.2 Pixel

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4.2 Pixel

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4.3 Bitmap
• ones and zeros representation of the rectangular array points
on screen
• Black and white :- bitmap
• Pixmap :- color (colored raster image)

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4.4 Vector
• Vector graphics is the creation of digital images through a
sequence of commands or mathematical statements that
place lines and shapes in a given two-dimensional or three-
dimensional space. In physics, a vector is a representation of
both a quantity and a direction at the same time.

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4.4 Vector
• Vector graphics are based on vectors, which lead through
locations called control points or nodes. Each of these points
has a definite position on the x- and y-axes of the work plane
and determines the direction of the path; further, each path
may be assigned various attributes, including such values as

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stroke color, shape, curve, thickness, and fill

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4.4 Vector

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4.5. Resolution
• The maximum number of points (pixel) that can be displayed
without overlap on a CRT is referred to as the resolution.
• It is also defined as the number of points per unit of measure
(per centimeter or per inch) that can be plotted horizontally
and vertically.

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• Resolution is defined as the maximum member of points that can be
displayed horizontally and vertically without overlap on a display
device.

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4.5 Resolution

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4.5 Resolution

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4.5 Resolution

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4.5 Resolution
Here’s a quick overview of the most common resolutions:
• SD: 480p / 576p
• HD: 720p / 1080p
• 4K: 2160p
• 8K: 4320p

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In short, p stands for pixels.
In combination with the number, this designation gives
you an idea of how many rows of pixels – from top to bottom –
are contained in a video, TV set or screen. In case of High
Definition (HD) for example, it means that videos or TV sets in
HD typically have 720 rows of pixels, since it is referred to as
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4.5 Resolution
What is 4K Video Resolution
4K format was named because it has 4000 pixels horizontal
resolution approximately.
This format can't have the change in horizontal resolution, so
changes in aspect are made through the vertical resolution. For

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example 4096×2304 is a frame size with aspect 16:9 and 4096×3072 —
4:3. The digital video resolutions examples:

Full Aperture 4k 4096 x 3112 12,746,752 pixels

Academy 4k 3656 x 2664 9,739,584 pixels
Digital Cinema 4k 4096 x 1714 7,020,544 pixels
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Digital Cinema
3996 x 2160 8,631,360 pixels
Aperture 4k
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4.5 Resolution

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4.5 Resolution

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4.5 Resolution

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4.6 Aspect Ratio

• The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship
between its width and its height.
• It is commonly expressed as two numbers separated by a colon, as
in 16:9. For an x:y aspect ratio, no matter how big or small the image
is, if the width is divided into x units of equal length and the height is

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measured using this same length unit, the height will be measured
to be y units.
• In, for example, a group of images that all have an aspect ratio of
16:9, one image might be 16 inches wide and 9 inches high, another
16 centimeters wide and 9 centimeters high, and a third might be 8
yards wide and 4.5 yards high.

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4.6 Aspect Ratio

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4.6 Aspect Ratio

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4.6 Aspect Ratio

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4.7 Persistence
• It means how long they continue to emit light after the
electron beam is removed.
• Persistence is defined as the time it takes the emitted light
from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its original intensity.
• Lower persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to

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maintain a picture on the screen.
• A phosphor with lower persistence is useful for animation and
a higher–persistence phosphor is useful for displaying highly
complex static picture.
• Graphics monitor are usually constructed with the persistence
10 to 60 microseconds.
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4.8 Refresh Rate

• The number of times the screen is redrawn each second.
• Higher refresh rates mean less flicker on the screen, which
translates into less eyestrain.

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4.8 Refresh Rate

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4.8 Refresh Rate

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4.8 Refresh Rate

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4.8 Refresh Rate

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5. Input Devices
• Mouse, Touch Screen, Light Pen, Data Glove, Tablet (Digitizer),
Bar Code Reader

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5.1. Mouse
• A mouse is a small hand-held device used to position the
cursor on the screen.
• Mouse are relative devices, that is, they can be picked up,
moved in space, and then put down gain without any change
in the reported position.

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• Types
• Mechanical mouse
• Optical mouse

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5.2. Touch Screen

• Touch panels are a sensitive surface that is used to point
directly. The panel can be touched by finger or any other
object like stylus. Transparent touch panels are integrated with
computer monitor for the manipulation of information display.
A basic touch panel senses voltage drop when a user touches

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the panel. It knows where the voltage has dropped and
accordingly calculates the touch position.

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5.3. Light Pen

• a computer input device in the form of a light sensitive wand
used in conjunction with a computer's CRT TV set or monitor
• works by sensing the sudden small change in brightness of a
point on the screen when the electron gun refreshes that spot
• Light pens have the advantage of 'drawing' directly onto the

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screen, but this can become uncomfortable, and they are not
as accurate as digitizing tablets

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5.3. Light Pen

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5.3. Light Pen

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5.4. Data Glove

• Constructed with a series of sensors that can detect hand and
finger motions. The transmitting and receiving antennas can
be structured as a set of three mutually perpendicular cols,
forming a three dimensional Cartesian coordinates system.
Electromagnetic coupling between the three pairs of coil is

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used to provide information about the position and
orientation of hand.

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5.4. Data Glove

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5.4. Data Glove

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5.4. Data Glove

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5.5. Tablet (Digitizer)

• A tablet is digitizer. In general a digitizer is a device which is
used to scan over an object, and to input a set of discrete
coordinate positions.
• No keyboard, no mouse. Instead, you have an LCD screen and
a stylus

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• You don't need to convert handwriting to text
• Tablets are gaining popularity as a replacement for the
computer mouse as a pointing device

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5.5. Tablet (Digitizer)

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5.5. Tablet (Digitizer)

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5.5. Tablet (Digitizer)

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5.6. Bar Code Reader

• A bar code is a machine-readable code in the form of a
pattern of parallel vertical lines. They are commonly used for
labeling goods that are available in supermarkets, numbering
books in libraries etc. These codes are sensed and read by a
photoelectric device called bar code reader that reads the

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code by means of reflected light. The information recorded in
a bar code reader is fed into the computer, which recognizes
the information from the thickness and spacing of bars.

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6.Output Devices
• The most common graphics output device is the video
monitor which is based on the standard cathode ray tube
(CRT) design, but several other technologies exist such as
LCDs, LEDs, the direct view storage tube(DVST) etc.

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6.1. CRT
• CRT are the most common display devices on computer today.
A CRT is an evacuated glass tube, with a heating element on
one end and a phosphor-coated screen on the other end.
• When a current flows through this heating element (filament)
the conductivity of metal is reduced due to high temperature.

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These cause electrons to pile up on the filament.
• These electrons are attracted to a strong positive charge from
the outer surface of the focusing anode cylinder.
• The forwarding fast electron beam is called Cathode Ray. A
cathode ray tube is shown in figure below.

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6.1. CRT

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6.1. CRT
• The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a tube containing one or more
electron guns (a source of electron) and a fluorescent screen
used to view images. A beam of electrons (cathode rays)
emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and
deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified

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positions on the phosphor-coated screen. When the electrons
hit the screen, the phosphor emits visible light.
• Because the light emitted by the phosphor decays very rapidly
with time, so the entire picture must be refreshed (redrawn)
many times per second by quickly directing the electron beam
back over the same points. Therefore, also called a refresh
CRT.
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6.1. CRT

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6.1 CRT

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6.1.CRT
• There are two sets of weakly charged deflection plates with
oppositely charged, one positive and another negative. The first
set displaces the beam up and down and the second displaces
the beam left and right.
• The electrons are sent flying out of the neck of bottle (tube) until

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the smash into the phosphor coating on the other end.
• When electrons strike on phosphor coating, the phosphor then
emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by electron
beam. The glowing positions are used to represent the picture in
the screen.
• The amount of light emitted by the phosphor coating depends on
the no of electrons striking the screen. The brightness of the
display is controlled by varying the voltage on the control grid.
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6.1.1Main Components of CRT

• An electron gun
• The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal
cathode and a control grid.
• Heated metal cathode: Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing the beam through a
coil of wire called the filament inside the cylindrical cathode structure.
• Control grid: Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by setting the voltage levels on

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the control grid, which is a metal cylinder that fits to the cathode.

• Focusing System & Accelerating Anode

• The focusing system in a CRT is needed to force the electron beam to converge
into a small spot as it strikes the phosphor.
• And the accelerating anode is used to accelerate electron beam towards the
phosphor coated screen. Otherwise, the electron beam would not reach to the
screen.
• Deflection System
• It is used to control the vertical and horizontal scanning of the electron beam. 98
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6.1.1 Properties of CRT

• Persistence
• Resolution
• Aspect Ratio

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6.1.1. Types of Refresh CRT’s

1. Raster-Scan Displays
2. Random-Scan Displays

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6.1.1.1. Raster-Scan Displays

• The most common type of graphics monitor employing a CRT
is the raster-scan display. In raster scan approach, the viewing
screen is divided into a large number of discrete phosphor
picture elements, called pixels. Row of pixels is called the scan
line. The matrix of pixels or collection of scan lines constitutes

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the raster (shown in figure below).

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6.1.1.1. Raster-Scan Displays

• Two types of Raster-scan systems:
i. Non-interlaced Raster-Scan System
ii. Interlaced Raster-Scan System

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i. Non-Interlaced Raster-Scan Displays

• In a non-interlaced raster-scan system, the electron beam is

swaps across the screen, one row at a time from top to
bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the
beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of
illuminated spots.

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i. Non-Interlaced Raster-Scan Displays

• Picture definition is stored in a memory area, called the

refresh buffer or frame buffer. This memory area holds the set
of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity
values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and
"painted" on the screen one row (scan line) at a time

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• In monochromatic CRT‟s (i.e., black-and-white system) with
one bit per pixel, the frame buffer is commonly called a
bitmap. For systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame
buffer is often referred to as a pixmap

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ii. Interlaced Raster-Scan Displays

• On some raster-scan systems (and in TV sets), each frame is

displayed in two passes using an interlaced refresh procedure.
In the first pass, the beam sweeps across every other scan line
from top to bottom.
• Then after the vertical re-trace, the beam sweeps out the

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remaining scan lines
• Interlacing is primarily used with slower refreshing rates. This
is an effective technique for avoiding screen flickering.

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ii. Interlaced Raster-Scan Displays

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Interlaced Raster-Scan System
VS
Non-interlaced Raster-Scan System

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Interlaced Raster-Scan System
VS
Non-interlaced Raster-Scan System

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Architecture of Raster Scan System

• The raster graphics systems typically consists of several processing

units. CPU is the main processing unit of computer systems. Besides
CPU, graphics system consists of a special purpose processor called
video controller or display processor. The display processor controls
the operation of the display device.

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• A fixed area of system memory is reserved for the frame buffer. The
video controller has the direct access to the frame buffer for
refreshing the screen.

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Architecture of Raster-Scan Display Processor

• The display processor has its own separate memory called display
processor memory.
• System memory holds data and those programs that execute on
the CPU, and the application program, graphics packages and
OS.
• The display processor memory holds data plus the program that

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perform scan conversion and raster operations.
• The frame buffer stores displayable image created by scan
conversion and raster operations.

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6.1.1.1. Random-Scan Displays

• In a random scan display unit, electron beam directed towards
only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn.
• Random-scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and
for this reason are also referred to as vector displays (or
stroke-writing or calligraphic displays). Random scan system

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a
line image on the CRT. The component line can be drawn or
refreshed by a random scan display system in any specified
order

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6.1.1.1. Random-Scan Displays

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Example: A pen plotter operates in a similar way and is an example of a random-scan,
hard-copy device
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Architecture of Random Scan Display

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Architecture of Random Scan Display…..

• Vector display system consists of several units along with

peripheral devices. The display processor is also called as
graphics controller.
• Graphics package creates a display list and stores in systems
memory (consists of points and line drawing commands)

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

called display list or display file.
• Refresh time around so cycle per second.
• Vector display technology is used in monochromatic or beam
penetration color CRT.
• Graphics are drawn on a vector display system by directing the
electron beam along component line.
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Raster VS Random
Raster Random
1.Refresh Rates : 1.Refresh Rates :

Refreshing on raster scan display is Generally, refreshing on random-scan

carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 display is carried out at the rate of 60
frames per second. Sometimes, refresh frames per second. Refresh rate on a
rates are described in units of cycles per random-scan system depends on the

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

second, or Hertz (Hz), where a cycle number of lines to be displayed.
corresponds to one frame. Picture definition is now stored as a set
of line-drawing commands in an area of
memory, referred to as the refresh
display file.
2.Applications: 2.Applications:
i. For the realistic display of scenes i. Random-scan systems are used in
containing subtle shading and color line-drawing applications.
patterns. ii. Vector displays generally used to
ii. Home television sets and printers produce graphics with higher 115
are examples of raster-scan resolution.
systems.
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Raster VS Random

Raster Random

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Raster VS Random

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6.2. Color CRT

• A color CRT monitor displays color pictures by using a
combination of phosphors that emit different-colored light. By
combining the emitted light from the different phosphors, a
range of colors can be generated. The two basic techniques for
producing color displays with a CRT are;

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1. Beam Penetration Method
2. Shadow Mask Method

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6.2.1. Beam Penetration Method

• It is a cheaper method and is used in Vector scan displays. In
this method the inside section of CRT is coated with red
(outer layer) and green (inner layer) phosphors. If the
electrons are slow they penetrate only the outer layer thus

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emitting red light, and if the electrons are moving fast they
penetrate the outer layer and the inner layer. The electrons
speed is also adjusted in such a way that by combination of
red and green, orange and yellow color are also produced.
The limitation of this method is that only four colors can be
displayed in the screen. Since we have only four colors the
quality of image is diminished.
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6.2.1. Beam Penetration Method……..

• Used with random-scan monitors
• Two layers of phosphor: red and green
• The displayed color depends on how far the electron beam
penetrates into the phosphor layers.

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

• Only four colors are possible: red, green, orange, and yellow.

ADVANTAGE:
• Economical way to produce colors

LIMITATIONS:
• Generation of only four colors is possible
• Poor picture quality 121
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6.2.2. Shadow Mask Method

• Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan systems
(including color TV) because they produce a much wider range of colors
than the beam-penetration method. This technique is used in raster
scan display devices.
• It gives much wider range of colors than a beam penetration method.
• A shadow Mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

location. One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits green light
and the last one emits a blue light.
• This type of CRT also has three electron guns one for each color dot. A
shadow mask grid is installed just behind the phosphor coated screen.
• The three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto
the shadow mask, which contains a series of very fine holes aligned
with the phosphor dot patterns.
• When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they
activate a dot triangle, which appears as a small color spot on the
screen. The color of pixel is controlled by light of intensity. Different
colors can be obtained by varying the intensity levels. 122
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6.2.2. Shadow Mask Method …..

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6.2.2. Shadow Mask Method …..

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6.2.2. Shadow Mask Method …..

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6.2.2. Shadow Mask Method …..

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6.2.2. Shadow Mask Method …..

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7. Frame Buffer
• The information in the buffer typically consists of color values
for every pixel .
• A frame buffer may be thought of as computer memory
organized as a two dimensional array . with each (x , y)
addressable location corresponding to one pixel.

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• Bit planes or bit depth is the number of bit corresponding to
each pixel.

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7. Frame Buffer…..

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8. Flat Panel Display(FPD)

• They are far lighter and thinner than traditional cathode ray
tube (CRT) television sets and video displays and are usually
less than 10 centimeters (3.9 in) thick.
• Sometimes abbreviated as FPD, a flat-panel display is a thin
screen display found on all portable computers and is the new

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

standard for desktop computers. Unlike (CRT) monitors, flat-
panel displays use liquid-crystal display (LCD) or light-emitting
diode (LED) technology to make them much lighter and
thinner compared to a traditional monitor.
• Types
1. LED (light-emitting diode)
2. LCD (liquid-crystal display)
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8.1. LCD(Liquid-crystal display)

• A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or
other electronic visual display that uses the light-modulating
properties of liquid crystals . Liquid crystals do not emit light directly.
• LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer
monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays,

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and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in
portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches ,
calculators ,and mobile telephones , including smartphones.

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How LCD work

• The pixels are controlled in completely different ways in

plasma and LCD screens. In a plasma screen, each pixel is a
tiny fluorescent lamp switched on or off electronically. In
an LCD television, the pixels are switched on or off
electronically using liquid crystals to rotate polarized light

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How pixels are switched off

1. Light travels from the back of the TV toward the front from a large
bright light.
2. A horizontal polarizing filter in front of the light blocks out all light
waves except those vibrating horizontally.
3. Only light waves vibrating horizontally can get through.
4. A transistor switches off this pixel by switching on the electricity

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

flowing through its liquid crystal. That makes the crystal straighten
out (so it's completely untwisted), and the light travels straight
through it unchanged.
5. Light waves emerge from the liquid crystal still vibrating
horizontally.
6. A vertical polarizing filter in front of the liquid crystal blocks out all
light waves except those vibrating vertically. The horizontally
vibrating light that travelled through the liquid crystal cannot get
through the vertical filter.
7. No light reaches the screen at this point. In other words, this pixel 133
is dark.
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How pixels are switched off

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How pixels are switched on

1. The bright light at the back of the screen shines as before.

2. The horizontal polarizing filter in front of the light blocks out all
light waves except those vibrating horizontally.
3. Only light waves vibrating horizontally can get through.
4. A transistor switches on this pixel by switching off the electricity

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

flowing through its liquid crystal. That makes the crystal twist. The
twisted crystal rotates light waves by 90° as they travel through it.
5. Light waves that entered the liquid crystal vibrating horizontally
emerge from it vibrating vertically.
6. The vertical polarizing filter in front of the liquid crystal blocks out
all light waves except those vibrating vertically. The vertically
vibrating light that emerged from the liquid crystal can now get
through the vertical filter.
7. The pixel is lit up. A red, blue, or green filter gives the pixel its
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How pixels are switched on

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8.1. LED(Light Emitting Diode)

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8.1.1. LED(Light Emitting Diode)

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Difference between LCD & LED

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Numerical
Q.N.1.: If the pixel values are accessed from the frame buffer
with an average access time (for one single pixel) of 20 ns and
the total resolution of the screen is 1024 X 800 , will there be a
flickering effect seen on the screen ?
 To glow one single pixel takes = 20 ns
To glow all pixel on screen it takes = 1024 X 800 X 20ns
= 16,384,000ns

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= 0.01638 second
Now

frequency(F) = 1/T
= 1/0.01638
= 61.05 HZ

since it is above 50times/sec there will be no flickering effect seen on

screen
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Numerical
Q.N.2:. In case of raster system with resolution 1024 X 1280,
how many pixel could be accessed per second in the system by a
display controller at a rate of 60 frames per second?
what is accessed time per pixel in this system ?
Ans :
1. Pixel accessed :

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= 1024 X 1280 X 60 pixel can be
accessed in this system

2. Access time per pixel:

60 times
= 1/(1024 X 1280 X 60 )
= 12.71ns

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Numerical
Q.N.3.: How long would it takes to load a 640 X 480 frame buffer
with 12 bit per pixels if 105 bits can be transferred per second.

Ans :
total size of frame buffer :
= 640 X 480 X 12

it takes = (640 X 480 X 12)/105

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

*Formula:
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Required size of frame= Resolution or total no. of pixel X no. of bit per pixel on screen
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Numerical
Q.N.4.: if the total number of intensities achievable out of a
single pixel on the screen is 1024 and the total resolution of the
screen is 1024 X 800 , what will be the required size of frame
buffer in this case for the display purpose ?
Ans :
(Note : 2n = pixel on the screen ) where n= no. of bit on screen

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

So, 2n = 1024
n = 10 bit

Required size of frame buffer = 10 X 1024 X 800

= 8,192,000 bit

*Formula:
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Required size of frame= Resolution or total no. of pixel X no. of bit per pixel on screen
where , single pixel on screen = 2n and n= no. of bit per pixel on screen
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Numerical
Q.N.5.: Consider three different raster system with resolution
640 by 400, 1280 by 1024 and 2560 by 2048. what size frame
buffer (in byte) is needed for each of the system to store 12 bits
per pixel ? How much storage is required for each system if 24
bit per pixel are to be stored.
Ans :
1) for 12 bit per pixel system
the frame buffer(in byte) size needed

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

a. for 640 by 400 resolution = (640 X 400 X 12)
8
=384000 byte
b. for 1280 by 1024 resolution = (1280 X 1024 X 12)
8
=1966080 byte
c. for 2560 by 2048 resolution = (2560 X 2048 X 12)
8
=7864320 byte
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2) for 24 bit per pixel system

the frame buffer(in byte) size needed
a. for 640 by 400 resolution = (640 X 400 X 24)
8
=768000 byte
b. for 1280 by 1024 resolution = (1280 X 1024 X 24)
8
=3932160 byte
c. for 2560 by 2048 resolution = (2560 X 2048 X 24)

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8
=15728600byte

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Numerical
Q.N.6.: Suppose an RGB raster system is to be designed using 8-
inch by 10-inch screen with a resolution of 100 pixels per inch in
each direction . If we wont to store 9 bit per pixel in the frame
buffer . How much storage (in byte) do we need for the frame
buffer ?
Ans :
Size of screen = 8 inch × 10 inch.
Pixel per inch(Resolution) = 100.

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

Then, Total no of pixels = 8 x100 by 10x100 pixels
= (8*100 X 10*100) pixels
= 8,00,000

Bit per pixel storage = 9

Therefor , total storage required in frame buffer = 8,00,000 X 9

8
= 9,00,000 bytes 147
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Numerical
Q.N.7.: How long would it take to load a 640 by 480 frame
buffer with 12 bits per pixel , if 105 bit can be transferred per
second? How long would it take to lead a 24-bit per pixel frame
buffer with a resolution of 1280 by 1024 using this same transfer
rate?
Ans :
 for 640 X 480 frame buffer with 12 bits for pixels
total pixel = 640 X 480 X12

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

time required = (640 X 480 X12)
105
= 36.864 second
 for 1280 X 1024 frame buffer with 24 bits for pixels
total pixel = 1280 X 1024 X 24
time required = (1280 X 1024 X 24)
105
= 314.57 second

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Numerical
Q.N.8.: Consider two raster system with resolution of 640 by
480 and 1280 by 1024. how many pixel could be accessed per
second in each of these system by a display controller that
refreshes the screen at the rate of 60 frames per second ? What
is the access time per pixel in each system ?
Ans :
for a raster system with resolution of 640 by 480,
i) No.of pixel accessed per second = 640 X 480 X 60

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

ii) Total access time = 1/60 = 0.0167
access time per pixel = (0.0167)/(640 X 480 )
= 54.36 ns

for a raster system with resolution of 1280 by 1024,

i) No.of pixel accessed per second = 1280 X 1024 X 60
ii) Total access time = 1/60 = 0.0167
access time per pixel = (0.0167)/(1280 X 1024 )
= 12.7 ns 149
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Numerical
Q.N.9.: A raster system can produce a total number of 1024
different level of intensities from a single pixel composed of red,
green and blue phosphor dots. If the resolution of the screen is
1280 X 1024, what will be the required size of frame buffer for
the display purpose?
Ans :
(Note : 2n = pixel on the screen ) where n= no. of pixel

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

So, 2n = 1024
n = 10 bit

Required size of frame buffer = 10 X 1280 X 1024

= 13107200 bit
= 1638400 byte

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Numerical
Q.N.10. : A system with 24 bits per pixel and resolution of 1024
by 1024. Calculate the size of frame buffer (in Megabytes).

Ans :

Frame size in bits= 24*1024*1024 bits

Frame size in bytes= 24*1024*1024 / 8 bytes

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

(since, 8 Bits = 1 Byte)
Frame size in kilobytes= 24*1024*1024 / 8 * 1024 kb
(since, 1024 Bytes = 1 KB)
So, Frame size in megabytes= 24*1024*1024 / 8*1024*1024 MB
(since, 1024 KB = 1 MB)
= 3 MB.

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Numerical
Q.N.11. : How Many k bytes does a frame buffer needs in a 600
x 400 pixel ?

Ans :

Resolution is 600 x 400.

Suppose 1 pixel can store n bits
Then, the size of frame buffer = Resolution * bits per pixel

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= (600 * 400) * n bits
= 240000 n bits
= 240000 n kb (as 1kb = 1024 bites)
1024 * 8

= 29.30 n k bytes.

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Numerical
Q.N.12. : Find out the aspect ratio of the raster system using 8 x
10 inches screen and 100 pixel/inch.

Ans :
We know that, Aspect ratio = Width / Height
= 8 x 100 = 4 / 5
10 x 100

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

So, aspect ratio = 4 : 5.

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9. Graphics Software
• In computer graphics, graphics software refers to a program or
collection of programs that enable a person to manipulate images or
models visually on a computer. Computer graphics can be classified
into distinct categories: raster graphics and vector graphics, with
further 2D and 3d variants.

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

• Many graphics programs focus exclusively on either vector or raster
graphics, but there are a few that combine them in interesting ways.
It is simple to convert from vector graphics to raster graphics, but
going the other way is harder. Some software attempts to do this.

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9. Graphics Software
• In addition to static graphics, there are animation and video
editing software. Different types of software are often designed to
edit different types of graphics such as video, photos, and drawings.
The exact sources of graphics may vary for different tasks, but most
can read and write files.

Nipun Thapa (Computer Graphics)

• Most graphics programs have the ability to import and export one or
more graphics file formats, including those formats written for a
particular computer graphics program. Examples of such programs
include Vectr, GIMP, Adobe Photoshop, Pizap, Microsoft
Publisher, Picasa, etc.

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9. Graphics Software

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9. Graphics Software

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9. Graphics Software

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9. Graphics Software

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9. Graphics Software
• Interactive graphics allow users to make change over the
displayed objects. Several graphics software packages are now
available. There are two general classifications for graphics
software:
I. General programming packages

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II. Special-purpose application packages

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9.1. General programming packages

• contain graphics functions that can be used with high level

programming languages such as C, FORTRAN, Java etc.
Example, Open GL (Graphics library). A general-purpose
graphics package provides users with a variety of functions for
creating and manipulating pictures. These graphic functions

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include tools for generating picture components, setting color,
selecting views, and applying transformations.

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9.2. Special-purpose application packages

• Specifically designed for particular applications. Maya,

CINEMA 4D are particularly used for animations, different
types of CAD applications are designed for medical and
business purposes. These are primarily oriented to non-
programmers.

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10. Software standards

• Many problems have been encountered due to the plate-form dependency
of the graphic software's. So primary goal of standardized graphics software
is portability. When graphics packages are designed with standard graphics
functions (set of specifications that is independent of any programming
languages), software can be easily moved from one H/W system to another.
And it can be used in different implementations and applications.
• I. Graphical Kernel System (GKS): GKS was the first graphics software

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standard adopted by the international standards organization (ISO). It was
originally designed as a 2-dimensional graphics package. GKS supports the
grouping of logically related primitives such as; lines, polygons, character
strings.
• II. Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System (PHIGS): It is an
extension of GKS. Increased capabilities in object modeling, color
specifications, surface rendering, and picture manipulations are provided in
PHIGS. PHIGS include all primitives supported by GKS, in addition it also
includes geometric transformations (Scaling, Translation, and Rotation). 163
• III. PHIGS+: Extension of earlier PHIGS. 3-d surface shading capabilities are
added to the PHIGS.
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Color Models
• A color model is an abstract mathematical model describing
the way colors can be represented as tuples of numbers,
typically as three or four values or color components.
• •RGB
• •HSV

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RGB
• The RGB color model is an additive color model in which red,
green and blue light are added together in various ways to
reproduce a broad array of colors.
• The name of the model comes from the initials of the three
additive primary colors, red, green and blue.

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RGB
• Main diagonal => gray levels
• black is (0, 0, 0)
• white is (1, 1, 1)
• Hue is defined by the one or two largest parameters

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• Saturation can be controlled by varying the collective
minimum value of R, G and B
• Luminance can be controlled by varying magnitudes while
keeping ratios constant

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CMYK

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CMYK Chart

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CMYK

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CMYK Print

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HSV
• This color model is based on polar coordinates, not Cartesian
coordinates.
• Hue, saturation, value (brightness)

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HSV
HSV is a non-linearly transformed (skewed) version of RGB cube
• •ue: quantity that distinguishes color family, say red from
yellow, green from blue (what color?)
• Saturation (Chroma): color intensity (strong to weak).
Intensity of distinctive hue, or degree of color sensation from

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that of white or grey (what purity?)
• Value (luminance): light color or dark color (what strength?)

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Converting from RGB to HSV

• HSV color space describes colors in terms of the Hue,
Saturation, and Value
• The HSV model describes colors similarly to how the human
eye tends to perceive color
• RGB defines color in terms of a combination of primary colors,

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where as, HSV describes color using more familiar
comparisons such as color, vibrancy and brightness.

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Converting from RGB to HSV

• Hue represents the color type. It can be described in terms of an
angle on the above circle. Although a circle contains 360 degrees of
rotation, the hue value is normalized to a range from 0 to 255, with
0 being red.
• •Saturation represents the vibrancy of the color. Its value ranges

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from 0 to 255. The lower the saturation value, the more gray is
present in the color, causing it to appear faded.
• •Value represents the brightness of the color. It ranges from 0 to
255, with 0 being completely dark and 255 being fully bright.
• •White has an HSV value of 0-255, 0-255, 255. Black has an HSV
value of 0-255, 0-255, 0. The dominant description for black and
white is the term, value. The hue and saturation level do not make a
difference when value is at max or min intensity level.
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RGB to HSV

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Chapter 1

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Finished
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