Module 1

Mathematics

EASA Part-66

BT-A1-0100-LN
BT-B1.1-0100-LN
BT-B2-0100-LN Rev:01– 31.03.2016
 Revision and Amendment Status
These course notes have been produced in accordance with AMC 147.A.120, Part 66 and
AMC/GM Rev May 2012.

Amendment Service is not provided.

REVISION REVISION REVISION NOTE REVISED BY

NO DATE

00 01.10.2014 This document is produced from AeroBildung M1 and reviewed on 10 S.Sönmezışıklar

September 2015 according to Part 66 Appendix I.

01 31.03.2016 This document is revised for Category A, B1 and B2 as supplementary to S.Sönmezışıklar

Module book for A from which was provided by Aerobildung and
additionally covers Number Systems, Logarithms subjects for Sub-
Module 1.2 Algebra and Sub-Module1.3 Geometry completely.

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 MODULE CONTENT AND APPLICABILITY

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1.1 Arithmetic 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 7

1.2 Algebra 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 47
1.3 Geometry 00 31.03.2016 2 2 2 82

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 Cat. A, B1 and B2 - Module 1

Training Manual
PART 66 – Basic Training
Cat. A, B1 and B2 - Module 1

Mathematics
 Cat. A, B1 and B2 - Module 1

Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Arithmetic

Table of Contents
1 Mathematics ..................................................................... 3
1.1 Arithmetic ......................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations .................................................. 3
1.1.1.1 Basic Terms of Arithmetic and Algebra ....................................... 3
1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Integers .................................... 5
1.1.1.3 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Fractions ................................ 10
1.1.2 Mathematical Operations with Powers ................................. 15
1.1.2.1 The Term ’Power’ ....................................................................... 15
1.1.2.2 Basic Operations with Powers .................................................... 17
1.1.2.3 Polynomials and Factoring ......................................................... 20
1.1.2.4 Scientific Notation....................................................................... 22
1.1.2.5 Powers with Fractional Number Exponents (Roots) ................... 22
1.1.3 Roots and Radicals ............................................................... 23
1.1.3.1 Definition of the Terms ’Root’ and ’Radical’ ................................ 23
1.1.3.2 Finding the Root ......................................................................... 25
1.1.3.3 Mathematical Operations with Roots .......................................... 25
1.1.3.4 Simplification of Roots ................................................................ 26
1.1.3.5 Simplifying Radical Expressions................................................. 27
1.1.4 Calculation of Percentage..................................................... 28
1.1.4.1 Percentage ................................................................................. 28
1.1.4.2 Average Value ............................................................................ 29
1.1.5 Physical Quantities, Standards and Units ........................... 30
1.1.5.1 The Role of Quantities and Standards ...................................... 30
1.1.5.2 Basic Units of the SI System ...................................................... 32
1.1.5.3 Unit Conversions ........................................................................ 40
1.2 Algebra ........................................................................... 43
1.2.1 Algebraic Operations ........................................................... 43
1.2.1.1 Arithmetic Operations with Literal Numbers .............................. 43
1.2.1.2 Algebraic Equations ................................................................... 46
1.2.1.3 Linear Equations with one Variable ............................................ 46
1.2.1.4 Linear Systems of Equations with Two Variables ...................... 48
1.2.1.5 Formulas ................................................................................... 49
1.2.1.6 Functions and Graphs ............................................................... 50
1.3 Geometry .......................................................................... 53
1.3.1 Simple Geometry .................................................................. 53
1.3.1.1 Coordinate Systems ................................................................... 53
1.3.1.2 Definitions, Terms and Basic Constructions ............................... 54

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Arithmetic

1 Mathematics
1.1 Arithmetic
1.1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations

1.1.1.1 Basic Terms of Arithmetic and Algebra

The study of arithmetic and algebra is the study of the general

properties of numbers, mainly the real numbers.

Numbers and Digits

Numbers are represented by words or signs, numerals and digits. The

standard number system used for computations is the decimal
system. All numbers can be written by means of the 10 digits (0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). The digit place within a numeral determines its
value. Each digit position represents a decimal step, since 10 units of
a step form the next higher step. For instance, in the number 427 the
4 stands for 4 hundreds, the 2 for 2 tens, and the 7 for 7 units.

Three decimal steps form a group. For better readability groups of

numerals may be separated by a space, or by a comma in English
speaking countries, or by a point in other countries.

Real Numbers

Numbers are called ’natural numbers’ or ’counting numbers’, if there

is no particular sign in front or within the numeral. Using these
numbers, objects can be counted, measured, sorted, grouped or
divided.

Refer to Figure 1. Figure 1: Types of Real Numbers

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Arithmetic

A good way to get an idea of real and natural numbers is to refer to a The Absolute Value
number line. Any point on the number line is chosen and called 0. The
distance 01 determines a unit. Multiples of 01 determine points The absolute value of a number a, written ⎢a⎜, is the distance on the
representing other numbers, e.g. 2, 3, 4 etc., positive numbers to the number line from 0 to a. Thus the absolute value of 5 is the same as
right of 0 and negative numbers to the left. the absolute value of –5, since each lies five units apart from 0.

Positive and negative whole numbers including the number 0 (zero) Mathematical Operations
are referred to as ’integers’. When adding, subtracting or multiplying
integers, the result is always an integer. Mathematical calculations are frequently required in daily life. They
The result of dividing integers is a fraction or ratio. On the number are performed with the aid of laws and standard operations of
line, all points between two integers are fractions. Each fraction arithmetic. The four basic arithmetic operations are
consists of a nominator and a denominator. It can be positive,
negative or zero.  Addition
 subtraction
A special form of fractions is the decimal fraction, whose denominator  multiplication
is some power of 10, usually indicated by a dot (decimal point) written
 division.
before the nominator.

Integers and fractions are rational numbers. Every number that can The basic arithmetic operations are used in equations that consist of
be represented by a finite sequence of digits is rational. Numbers, elements like algebraic expressions, numerals and operation
which do not correspond to that rule are irrational. symbols.

Rational and irrational numbers form the group of real numbers. They The equality symbol ’=’ separates the equation into two parts. It must
are called relative numbers, if they have a positive (+) or negative (–) only be set between two really equal values. If the values are
sign, which refers to its position to zero. different, the solution of the task is wrong.

In mathematics, it is sometimes helpful to use letters (Latin or Greek The operation symbols of the four basic arithmetic operations are as
alphabet) to represent numbers. The Greek letter Pi (π) is one of follows:
them. These numbers are referred to as literal numbers.
They make it possible to write mathematical laws and rules in short– Operation Symbol Meaning
hand. A literal number can be replaced by any real number, but its Addition + plus
meaning must not be changed during mathematical operations.
Subtraction – minus

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Arithmetic

Multiplication ∙ times, multiplied by, 1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Integers
Division : divided by Addition and Subtraction

Note: These operation symbols have to be used according to Addition of Natural Numbers
International Standards (SI ).
Addition is regarded as the first elementary mathematical operation. It
In many publications and books other operation symbols will be used involves summing up two or more numbers or quantities.
e.g. for multiplication and division operations: Adding can be described as the shortened process of forward–
counting, e.g. 3 + 2 as 3 + 1 → 4 + 1 → 5.
Operation Symbol Meaning
’Summands’ or ’addends’ are names for elements (numbers) which
Multiplication ×,∗ times, multiplied by are added. The result is called ’sum’.
Division / , −, ÷ divided by
Summand Plus Summand Equals Sum
Addition
2 + 2 = 4
Note: These operation symbols will not be used in the calculation
examples and worksheets of the following lessons. The term sum is used for both, the result and the expression (3 + 2).
The addition of natural numbers is always practicable. The result is a
When calculating with numbers, concrete and indefinite numbers natural number.
must be discriminated. Concrete numbers relate to sets of objects.
Rules of Addition
Example: 5 apples + 4 apples = 9 apples (concrete)
5 +4 =9 (indefinite)  Only sets of the same kind can be added. 5 US$ and 7 kg
cannot be added, since they refer to different units.
Addition and subtraction can only be performed with concrete  The addition of numbers with more than one digit is generally
numbers, that refer to the same set, and this includes the set of done in writing. First the units are added, then the tens,
indefinite numbers. hundreds, thousands etc. To this end, the summands are
written unit under unit, tens under tens, etc. A line under the
summands takes the place of the equality sign in sum
columns. The result is underlined by a double line.

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Arithmetic

Example: Problem: Solution: Negative Numbers

4,273 + 597 + 3,759 4,273 (summand) The result of subtraction of two natural numbers may be a negative
+ 597 (summand) number; e.g. the result of the operation 2 – 9 is not a natural number
+ 3,759 (summand (positive integer), but the negative number –7.
8,629 (sum)
Negative numbers have been introduced by the demand, that the
Note: The summands can be interchanged. subtraction should be performed with no limitations. In the range of
positive results, the minuend is larger than the subtrahend. This can
Example: 3+2=2+3 be expressed in the literal number formulae:

Subtraction of Natural Numbers c=a–b if a > b.

The opposite operation of summing is taking or deducting numbers or If the minuend ’a’ is smaller than the subtrahend ’b’, the result of the
quantities from another number or quantity. This operation is called operation is negative, and the following formulae hold true:
’subtraction’. For the subtraction the operation symbol ’ – ’ is used.
Subtracting may be described as shortened process of backward– c = – (b – a) if a < b.
counting, e.g. 7 – 3 as 7 – 1  6 – 1  5 – 1  4. The subtraction is
therefore the inversion of the addition. The equation shows the procedure of subtracting a larger number,
e.g. 9, from a smaller number, e.g. 2, (2 – 9):
The number or element, from which the other element or number is
taken, is called the ’minuend’. The number or element used for  minuend and subtrahend are exchanged
deduction is called the ’subtrahend’. The result is referred to as  subtraction is performed
’difference’.  the result is marked with a negative sign.

Minuend Minus Subtrahend equals Difference Example: 2 – 9 = – (9 – 2) = – 7

Subtraction
7 – 3 = 4 The minus sign in the left expression is an operation symbol, whereas
the minus symbols in front of the bracket and in front of the result are
signs which declare the number and expression negative. Positive
Similar to the term ’sum’, the term ’difference’ is used for both, the demonstrative signs are omitted, but negative numbers and
result (4) and the expression consisting of minuend and subtrahend expressions must always be marked by a respective sign.
(7 – 3).

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Arithmetic

Rules of Subtraction  Adding a negative integer to a positive integer means,

subtracting a debt from the account, which has a credit. The
 Only quantities of the same kind can be subtracted from each credit of the account is decreasing.
other: 7 𝑈𝑆$ – 4 𝑈𝑆$ = 3 𝑈𝑆$ +5 + – 3 = 5 – 3 = 2
So 5 US$ cannot be subtracted from 7 kg, since they are  Adding a positive integer to a negative integer means, adding
quantities of different units. a credit to the account, which has a debt, or subtracting from
 The elements of an equation of subtraction must not be the credit the debt of the account. The debt of the account is
interchanged, without respective changes of demonstrative decreasing.
and operative signs: 7 – 2 = – (2 – 7) ≠ 2 – 7 – 5 + +3 = – 5 + 3 = 3 – 5 = – 2
 For written solutions, using columns of numerals, the same  Adding a negative integer to a negative integer means, adding
rules to positioning of digit places and to the use of the single a debt to the debt of the account. The debt of the account is
and double line are applicable. increasing.
– 5 + – 3 = – 5 – 3 = – (5 + 3) = – 8
Example: Problem: Solution:  Subtracting a positive integer from a positive integer means,
5,352 – 137 – 2,241 5,352 (minuend) subtracting a credit from the credit of the account. The credit
– 137 (subtrahend) of the account is decreasing.
5,215 (difference) +5 − +3 = 5 − 3 = 2
 Subtracting a negative integer from a positive integer means,
– 2,241 (subtrahend)
converting a debt to a credit and adding this converted credit
2,974 (difference) to the credit of the account. The credit of the account is
increasing.
Adding and Subtracting of Integers +5 − −3 = 5 + 3 = 8
 Subtracting a positive integer from a negative integer means,
As stated before, all positive and negative whole numbers and the converting a credit to a debt and adding this debt to the debt
number 0 are designated ’integers’. In order to understand the rules of the account. The debt of the account is increasing.
of adding and subtracting integers positive integers are regarded as -5 − +3 = −5 − 3 = − (3 + 5) = −8
credits and negative integers as debts.  Subtracting a negative integer from a negative integer means,
converting a debt to a credit and adding this credit to the debt
 Adding a positive integer to a positive integer means, adding a of the account, or subtracting from the converted credit the
credit to the account, which has a credit. As a result, the credit debt of the account. The debt of the account is decreasing.
of the account is increasing. −5 − −3 = −5 + 3 = 3 – 5 = −2
+5 + +3 = 5 + 3 = 8

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Arithmetic

Mathematical rules to the previous examples: Rules of Multiplication

 If the operation symbol before an integer and the sign of the
integer are identical the integer is added.  Precondition for successfully performing multiplications of
+ (+5) = +5 natural numbers is the knowledge of the multiplication tables
− (−5) = +5 up to ten.
 If the operation symbol before an integer and the sign of the  A concrete number can be multiplied by an indefinite number.
integer are different the integer is subtracted. 3 ∙ 4 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 12 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠
− (+5) = −5  Factors can be interchanged.
+ (−5) = −5 5 ∙ 3 = 3 ∙ 5 = 15
 The result of all multiplications with the number 0 is 0.
Multiplication 𝑎 ∙ 0 = 0; 5 ∙ 0 = 0
 The multiplication of several numbers is carried out by
Multiplication of Natural Numbers successively calculating products of factor pairs. The
sequence of the combination of pairs does not have any
Multiplication is the third of the basic arithmetic operations. It is influence on the result:
derived from the addition and is developed from the shortened writing 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 7 = (3 ∙ 4) ∙ 7 = 12 ∙ 7 = 84
of the addition of identical summands. The operation symbol for the 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 7 = 3 ∙ (4 ∙ 7) = 3 ∙ 28 = 84
multiplication is the multiplication symbol ’¡’ (read: times or multiplied
by). Sometimes the symbol ’X’ is used. Multiplication of Integers

Example: 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 4 ∙ 3 Integers are multiplied by observing the following rules considering

the signs of the numbers:
The numbers, that are multiplied, are referred to as ’factors’, the result
of the multiplication is the ’product.’ The first factor is called  The product of 2 numbers with identical signs is always
’multiplicand’ and the second one ’multiplier’. The expression formed positive
by the factors and the result are referred to as ’product’. +5 ∙ +6 = +30; −5 ∙ −6 = +30
 The product of 2 numbers with different signs is always
Multiplicand times Multiplier equals Product negative
+5 ∙ −6 = −30; −5 ∙ +6 = −30
Multiplication 3 ∙ 12 = 36
Example: +5 ∙ −6 ∙ +7 = (+5 − 6) ∙ +7 = −30 ∙ +7 = −210
Factor times Factor equals Product

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Arithmetic

Division  The division of natural numbers does not always give a result
with a natural number. There can be a remainder. But in the
Division of Natural Numbers domain of rational numbers (fractions) division can be
performed with no limits.
Division is the fourth of the basic arithmetic operations. It is the
inversion of the multiplication. That means, if the result (product) of a Example: Problem: Solution:
multiplication is known and one factor is missing, the division is that 858 858 ∶ 7 = 122, remainder 4
858 ∶ 7 (𝑜𝑟 )
7
arithmetic operation used to determine the unknown factor. The 7
operation symbol for the division is the division symbol ’:’ (read: 15
divided by). 14
18 4
Example: 3 ∙ 4 = 12 12 ∶ 4 = 3 (or 122 )
7
12 ∶ 3 = 4 14
4
Similar to the other 3 basic arithmetic operations the problem which  Division by the number 0 is indefinite.
shall be solved by a division is written as an equation. The element of
the equation which shall be divided is referred to as ’dividend’. The Fractions
element by which the dividend is divided is the ’divisor’ and the result
is called the ’quotient’ or better the ’value of the quotient’, since the A quotient can also be written as a fraction.
left side of the equation, the expression ’dividend divided by divisor’,
is also referred to as ’quotient’. 12
12: 4 =
4
Dividend divided Divisor equals Quotient
by In this example the operation symbol, the line, is set between
Division dividend (12) and divisor (4) and the equation symbol is arranged at
12 : 3 = 4 the level of the operation symbol. This presentation is called a
’fraction’ and the operation sign is referred to as line (of fraction).

Rules of Division of Natural Numbers Fractions belong to the class of rational numbers. The term ’fraction’
implies a value between two integers.
 The division is the inversion of the multiplication.
 Division means splitting up, sharing out or measuring. In a fraction the dividend is called the ’numerator’ and the divisor is
 Concrete and indefinite numbers can be divided. referred to as ’denominator’. Numerator and denominator, beside the
 Dividend and divisor must not be interchanged. line of fraction, may be separated by a slash or a colon:
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Arithmetic

1.1.1.3 Basic Arithmetic Operations with Fractions

1
5
= 1/5 = 1 ∶ 5
Fractions may be subject to all the basic arithmetic operations and
Depending on whether the denominator is smaller or larger than the various conversions. As a special type of numbers, the working with
divisor, the fraction is called ’proper’ or ’improper’. fractions requires special rules, however.

3 Conversion of Fractions
5
(proper fraction)
6 1
=1 (improper fraction) Conversion of Improper Fractions
5 5

The improper fraction may be written as mixed number, which Improper fractions can be converted into a mixed number by
consists of an integer and a proper fraction. determining the quotient that consists of an integer plus a remainder
where the latter over the denominator provides the proper fraction
summand to the mixed number.
7 7 3
Example: 4
= 7 ∶ 4 = 1, remainder  4 = 1 4
Division of Integers
When converting improper fractions into mixed numbers the value of
Integer numbers are divided with regard to the following rules of sign the numbers is not changed.
operation:
Expansion of Fractions
 If the signs of dividend and divisor are identical the quotient is
always positive: When calculating with fractions and mixed numbers, it is sometimes
necessary to convert the numerator or the denominator of the
−6 fraction. This can only be done by multiplying the numerator and the
= 3
−2 denominator by an identical number.

 If the signs of dividend and divisor are not identical the Example:
7
Numerator and denominator of the fraction 8 have to
quotient is always negative:
be multiplied by 4. This leads to the following expression:
−6
= −3 7 7 ∙4 28
+2 = =
8 8 ∙4 32

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Arithmetic

This procedure does not affect the value of the quotient. Example: 416 + 356 + 716 = 1476 = 1516

Reduction of Fractions This procedure does not affect the value of the quotient either.

If numerator and denominator of proper fractions have a common Addition of Fractions with Different Denominators
divisor they can be converted by dividing the numerator and the
denominator by this common divisor. This procedure is called In adding fractions with different denominators, first the denominators
’reduction’. must be converted into a common denominator. This is performed by
finding the least common denominator of all fractions to be added.
2
Example: The fraction 4 contains the common divisor 2 for the Then the numerator and the denominator of each fraction have to be
numerator and the denominator. Thus, 2 : 2 = 1 and 4 : 2 = 2 provide multiplied by the factor that converts the denominator into the least
1 common denominator.
the quotient :
2
2 The least common denominator is the denominator which provides an
2 1
= 2= integer result when used as dividend for all denominators of the
4 4 2 fractions to be added.
2
3 5 7
Addition of Fractions Example: + +
6 8 12

24 24 24
In order to add fractions they must have a common denominator. In Least common denominator = 24, 6
= 4, 8
= 3, 12
=2
case the denominators are different, they must be made common.
3∙4 5∙3 7∙2 12 15 14 17
Addition of Fractions with Common Denominators + + = + + =1
6∙4 8 ∙ 3 12 ∙ 2 24 24 24 24
Fractions with common denominators are added by retaining the
denominator and adding the numerators. If the resulting fraction is an In the previous example, the least common denominator is 24, since
improper fraction, it is usually converted into a mixed number. 6 is 4 times, 8 is 3 times and 12 is twice contained in 24. Thus, the
4
first fraction has to be multiplied with 4 over 4 (4), the second one
3 5 7 3+5+7 15
Example: + + = = 178 3 2
with 3 over 3 (3), and the third one with 2 over 2 (2) to get 24 as
8 8 8 8 8
common denominator. The procedure for adding mixed numbers is
When adding mixed numbers with common denominators, first the similar.
integers are added and then the numerators.

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Arithmetic

1 3 Subtractions of Fractions with Different Denominators

Example: 23 + 64

1 ∙4 3∙3 4 9 13 1 As for the addition, when subtracting fractions with different

2 + 6 =2 +6 =8 = 9 denominators, first the denominators must be converted into a
3 ∙4 4 ∙3 12 12 12 12
common denominator.
Subtraction of Fractions
5 3
Example: − least common denominator = 24.
As for the addition, when subtracting fractions they must have a 6 8

common denominator. Different denominators must be made 5 ∙4 3 ∙3 20 9 11

common. 6 ∙4
− 8 ∙3 = 24
− 24
= 24

Subtractions of Fractions with Common Denominators The procedure for subtracting mixed numbers is similar.

Fractions with common denominators are subtracted by retaining the 2 3

Example: 6 − 2 , least common denominator = 3 ∙ 4 = 12.
denominator and subtracting the numerators. If the resulting fraction 3 4

is an improper fraction, it is usually converted to a mixed number. 2∙4 3 ∙3 8 9 20 9 11

63 ∙ 4 − 2 4 ∙ 3 = 6 12 − 2 12 = 5 12 − 2 12 = 3 12
7 5 1 7−5−1 1
Example: 8
−8−8 8
= 8 Multiplication of Fractions
When subtracting mixed numbers with common denominators, first
Fundamentals of Multiplying Fractions
the integers are subtracted and then the numerators.

5 1 5−1 4 2 When multiplying fractions the following rules have to be observed:

Example: 46 − 36 (4 − 3) + ( ) = 16 = 13
6
 Each problem of division can be written as a fraction.
When subtracting mixed numbers, the minuend fraction may be
smaller than the subtrahend fraction. In that case, an integer unit of 300 5 15 3
the minuend is converted into an improper fraction. 300 ∶ 60 = = = 5; 15 ∶ 25 = =
60 1 25 5
1 5 7 5 2 1
Example: 46 − 26 = 36 − 26 = 16 = 13  Fractions are multiplied by multiplying the numerators of the
fractions and the denominators separately.

numinator ∙ numerator 2 5 2∙5 10 5

∙ = = =
denominator ∙ denomerator 3 8 3∙8 24 12

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Arithmetic

Multiplication of Different Types of Numbers Division of Fractions

Five different cases of problems can occur: Fundamentals of Dividing Fractions

 multiplying an integer by a fraction As stated before, a division can be written as a fraction. If the
dividend and the divisor of the quotient are interchanged the result is
4 7 4 7 ∙4 28 3 referred to as the reciprocal value of the quotient.
7 ⋅ = ⋅ = = = 5
5 1 5 1 ∙5 5 5
4 12
4 ∶ 12 = 12
, which is the reciprocal value of 4
.
 multiplying an integer by a mixed number

4 7 14 7 ∙ 14 98 3 Rule of Dividing Fractions

7 ⋅ 2 = ⋅ = = = 19
5 1 5 1 ∙5 5 5 Fractions are divided by forming the reciprocal value of the divisor
(2nd fraction) and multiplying this reciprocal value with the dividend.
 multiplying a fraction by a fraction
2
2 4 2 ∙4 8 2 3 2 4 2 ∙4 8
⋅ =
3 5 3 ∙5
=
15 ∶ = 3= ∙ = =
3 4 3 3 3 3 ∙3 9
4
 multiplying a mixed number by a fraction
Division of Different Types of Numbers
2 4 14 4 14 ∙ 4 56 11
4 ⋅ = ⋅ = = = 3
3 5 3 5 3 ∙5 15 15 Eight different cases of problems may occur:

 multiplying a mixed number by a mixed number  dividing a fraction by an integer

2 4 14 19 14 ∙ 19 266 11 4 4 2 4 1 4 2
4 ⋅ 3 = ⋅ = = = 17 ∶2= ∶ = ∙ = =
3 5 3 5 3 ∙5 15 15 5 5 1 5 2 10 5

 dividing a fraction by a mixed number

2 2 2 8 2 3 6 1
∶2 = ∶ = ∙ = =
3 3 3 3 3 8 24 4

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Arithmetic

 dividing a fraction by a fraction vulgar fractions. But an improper fraction can also be represented as
a decimal numeral where the integer is separated from the proper
6 1 6 2 12 5 fraction by a decimal point in English speaking countries or by a
∶ = ∙ = =1
7 2 7 1 7 7 comma in other countries. In this case the digits representing the
integers are on the left side of the decimal point. On the right side of
 dividing an integer by a fraction the point the tenths, hundredths, thousandths etc. are placed.

3 4 3 4 7 28 1 Examples:
4∶ = ∶ = ⋅ = =9 1
7 1 7 1 3 3 3 1. = 0.1
10
251
 dividing an integer by a mixed number 2. 342 1,000 = 342.251
2 9 17 9 3 27 10
9∶ 5 = ∶ = ⋅ = = 1 In order to convert a proper fraction into a decimal fraction, the fact is
3 1 3 1 17 17 17 used that the proper fraction is the ratio of two integers.
 dividing a mixed number by a fraction
Examples:
4 6 76 6 76 7 38 ∙ 7 266 23 1 1 5
8 ∶ = ∶ = ⋅ = = = 9 1. = 1 ∶ 10 2. =1∶4 3. =5∶6
9 7 9 7 9 6 9 ∙3 27 27 10 4 6

 dividing a mixed number by an integer 1 ∶ 10 = 0.1 1 ∶ 4 = 0.25 5 ∶ 6 = 0.83 …

0 0 0
5 45 5 45 1 9 ∙1 9 1 ̅̅̅̅
10 ̅̅̅̅
10 ̅̅̅̅
50
5 ∶ 5 = ∶ = ⋅ = = = 1
8 8 1 8 5 8 ∙1 8 8 10 8 48
̅̅̅̅
0 ̅̅̅̅
20 ̅̅̅̅
20
 dividing a mixed number by a mixed number. 20 18
̅̅̅̅
0 ̅̅̅
2
3 1 27 13 27 6 27 ∙ 3 81 3
6 ∶ 2 = ∶ = ⋅ = = = 3
4 6 4 6 4 13 2 ∙ 13 26 26 When continuing the division of dividends which can no longer be
Decimal Fractions divided without having a remainder, often the same number or a
sequence of numbers are repeated periodically in the quotient (third
Fractions represented by a numerator above and a denominator case of the example before). These fractions are called ’infinite
below a horizontal or diagonal line are referred to as common or

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periodic decimal fractions’ or ’periods’. They are marked by 3 points, (−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) ∙ (−2) = (−2)5 = −32 The exponent is 5
e.g. 0.33. . ., or by overscoring the last sequential digit, e.g. 0.3. and the base
is –2
Sometimes a division can infinitely be continued not resulting in a 1 1 1 1 3 1
(4) (4) (4) = (4) = The exponent is 3
period. These fractions are called ’infinite decimal fractions’. 64
If the division is finished at one position right of the decimal point with and the base is ¼
no remainder, then the fraction is referred to as ’finite decimal
fraction’. (2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) ∙ (2 + 1) = (2 + 1)4 The exponent is 4
and the base 2+1,
Considering the infinite periodic decimal fractions it is found that the or 3
figure is not exact. The value is only approximated. In such cases it is
recommended to use common fractions for further calculations. Refer to Figure 1.

Problems that are solved with an approximate result must not be

described by an equality symbol. The symbol ’≈’ (read: equals
approximately) is used instead.

1.1.2 Mathematical Operations with Powers

1.1.2.1 The Term ’Power’

It is convenient to have a shorthand for writing repeated products. For Figure 1: Basic Form of a Power Equation
example, the product x ¡ x ¡ x ¡ x can be written as x4 . The number 4
shows that x is used as factor 4 times in the product. Here, 4 is called Using literal numbers, a power equation looks like
the ’exponent’ or ’power’ and x is called the ’base’. The quantity x4 is
called a power. x4 is read as ’x to the fourth’ or ’x to the power of 4’. 𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ . . .∙ 𝑏
x2 is read as ’ x to the second’, or more commonly ’ x squared’, just 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑐
as x3 is commonly read ’x cubed’. Since x = x1, the exponent of x is
1, but normally it is only spoken of x. where:

𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 = 𝑎6 The exponent is 6 𝑏𝑛 = power term

and the base is a c = value or result
b = base
n = exponent or power index.
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With respect to the result ’c’, it is spoken of ’c’ being the nth power of 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑐
the base b.
Example 1: Base b=3
To obtain a numeral result from this equation, the literal numbers ’b’ Exponent n=5
and ’n’ would be replaced by real numbers. Especially the number
types 35 = 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 = 243

 natural number 3
Example 2: Base b=4
 zero
Exponent: n=4
 negative integer and
 fraction
3 4 3 3 3
= (4) ∙ (4) ∙ (4) ∙ (4)
3
( )
assigned to the exponent ’n’, require specific mathematical operations 4
or provide specific results. 3∙3∙3∙3
=
4∙4∙4∙4
Powers with Integer Exponents
34 81
= 4
=
Refer to Figure 2. 4 256

The set of natural numbers are identical with the positive integers or Figure 2: Use of bn = c with Natural Number Exponents
whole positive numbers [1, 2, 3, 4 ...].
3
Example: Base b=
4
Example: Base b=3 Exponent n=4
Exponent n=5
Three special cases do exist concerning writing and articulating a
Example 1 in Figure 2 shows that the base 3 has been raised to the power with natural number exponent:
fifth power by multiplying it five times or the result of 243 is the fifth
power of 3.  If n = 1, then c = b1 = b. In writing and expressing, the first
power is omitted and the result is the base itself.
To raise a fraction to a power, as shown in Example 2, both, the
numerator and the denominator, are raised to the given power.  If n = 2, then c = b2. One usually speaks of squaring the
number ’b’, and ’c’ being the square number of ’b’.

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 If n = 3, Then c = b3. One usually speaks of cubing the The binomial formulae
number ’b’, and ’c’ being the cube number of ’b’.
(𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
General Rules
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
Considering the various values for the base, general rules of powers (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
with natural number exponents can be derived:

1. If the base of a power is +1, its result is +1; i.e. 1n = 1 are the most often used ones and should be remembered as they
often permit quick mental squaring or multiplication of large number
2. If the base of a power is zero, its result is zero, i.e. 0n = 0 (for sets by multiplying, respectively squaring their sum and/or difference
n ≠ 0) to the next convenient number.

3. The absolute values of powers with the same exponent are 1.1.2.2 Basic Operations with Powers
mirror inverted to the point 0 on the number line,
e.g. ⎥(–3)3 ⎥ = ⎥33⎥ = ⎥±27⎥ = 27; i.e. ⎥(± b)n⎥ = ⎥±c⎥ = c Addition and Subtraction of Powers

4. If the base is a negative number and the exponent an even Only powers having the same base and the same exponent may be
number, the result of the power is a number with positive sign added or subtracted.

5. If the base is a negative number and the exponent an odd 𝑘𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑚𝑎𝑛 = (𝑘 ± 𝑚)𝑎𝑛
number, then the result of the power is a number with negative
sign. Example: 15 ∙ 63 − 12 ∙ 63 = (15 − 12) ∙ 63
= 3 ∙ 63
Powers of Sums and Differences = 648
Multiplication of Powers
Powers of sums and differences have the general form
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + . . . )n. An expression, such as a5 ⋅ a3, can be simplified by using the
definition of an exponent to write out the repeated factors:
This means raising the power algebraically requires multiplying the
expression in the bracket ’n’ times by progressively multiplying all 𝑎5 ⋅ 𝑎3 = (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎) ⋅ (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎)
summands with each other, in the same manner as it would be done
in case of multiplying ordinary algebraic summands. = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎

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𝑎5 ⋅ 𝑎3 = 𝑎8 𝑎8
= 𝑎5
𝑎3
When multiplying powers with the same base the exponents are
added (if the exponents are not zero). This is called the ’product Note: 8 − 3 = 5.
theorem’ of exponents.
In the same way:
𝑚 𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 =𝑎 Product Theorem
𝑎3 𝑎∙ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎
=
Example: The product of 5𝑦 2 and −3𝑦 4 has to be found. 𝑎 8 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ∙𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎

Using the commutative and associative properties and the product 𝑎3 1

theorem of exponents the solution is as follows: 8
= 5
𝑎 𝑎
(5𝑦 2 ) ∙ (−3𝑦 4 ) = 5 ∙ (−3) ∙ 𝑦 2 ∙ 𝑦 4
= −15𝑦 2+4 And finally:

(5𝑦 2 ) ∙ (−3𝑦 4 ) = 15𝑦 6 𝑎3 𝑎∙ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎

=
𝑎3 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎
Division of Powers
𝑎3
𝑎8 = 1
A quotient, such as 3 , can be simplified in almost the same way as a
𝑎
𝑎3
product. The denominators of all quotients of this type are assumed
It can be seen from the examples that when powers with the same
not to be zero.
base are divided, the exponents are subtracted (if the exponents are
whole numbers and not zero). This is called the ’quotient theorem’ of
Using the definition of an exponent, it follows:
exponents.
𝑎8 𝑎∙ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎
=
𝑎3 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎

= 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎

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If m and n are any whole numbers (𝑚, 𝑛 ≠ 0), and if 𝑎 ≠ 0 then 𝑎𝑚

= 𝑎𝑚−𝑚 = 𝑎0
𝑎𝑚
𝑎𝑚−𝑛 if 𝑚>𝑛
From these two equations it is derived that
𝑎𝑚
= 1 if 𝑚=𝑛 Quotient Theorem
𝑎𝑛 𝑎0 = 1
1
if 𝑚<𝑛 By comparing the powers and results of the completed worksheet,
𝑎𝑛−𝑚
there are conclusions, which confirm the statements made before:
 A number raised to a negative power is identical with the
1
Powers with Negative Integer reciprocal of the corresponding positive power, i.e. 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
for (−𝑛) < 0
From the third result of the quotient theorem (m < n) it can be derived:  A number raised to the power of zero is ’1’, i.e. 𝑎0 = 1 for 𝑎 ≠
0.
1
𝑎−𝑚 =
𝑎𝑚 Raising the Power of a Power
Using this definition of negative exponents, it can be shown that all The expression (𝑎4 )2 can be simplified by writing
the theorems of exponents given above are also valid for any integer
exponent, positive, zero, or negative. (𝑎4 )2 = 𝑎4 ∙ 𝑎4 = 𝑎4+4 = 𝑎8
Examples: Note: 4 ⋅ 2 = 8.
1 1
 3−2 = =
32 9
1 1 From this example the power theorem of exponents can be
 5−3 = 53
= 125 generalized:
Powers with Exponent Zero
(𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚∙𝑛 Power Theorem
It is known that if 𝑎 ≠ 0
(−6𝑥 2 )3 ∙(−2𝑥)2
Example: The expression has to be simplified.
𝑎𝑚 (2𝑥 3 )3 ∙ (−𝑥 2 )3
=1
𝑎𝑚
Using the theorems of exponents the solution is as follows:
Using the quotient theorem of exponents it follows
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(−6𝑥 2 )3 ∙ (−2𝑥)2 (−6)3 ∙ (𝑥 2 )3 ∙ (−2)2 ∙ 𝑥 2 The expression 3𝑥𝑦 − 5 is called a ’sum of terms’ or ’algebraic sum’
= even though it involves subtraction, but it can also be written 3𝑥𝑦 +
(2𝑥 3 )3 ∙ (−𝑥 2 )3 23 ∙ (𝑥 3 )3 ∙ (−𝑥 2 )3
(−5).
−216 ∙ 𝑥 6 ∙ 4 ∙ 𝑥 2
=
8 ∙ 𝑥 9 ∙ (−𝑥 6 ) Simplification of Polynomials

−108 ∙ 𝑥 8 When solving or rearranging equations simplifying polynomials is

=
𝑥 15 often necessary to make computation more convenient. In order to
−108 perform simplification of polynomials the following axioms are applied:
=
𝑥7 Distributive axiom: 𝑎 ( 𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
1.1.2.3 Polynomials and Factoring Associative axiom:  (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
 (𝑎𝑏) 𝑐 = 𝑎 (𝑏𝑐)
An ’algebraic expression’ is any mathematical expression involving
variables, numbers, and a finite number of operations, such as Commutative axiom:  𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, or finding roots.  𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
Polynomials are the simplest kind of algebraic expressions.
Example: Simplify the polynomial 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 :
A ’term’ is an expression consisting of the product of a number and
one or more variables raised to powers. The number in the product 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 = (4 + 5)𝑥 2 = 9𝑥 2 Distributive Axiom
(which may be 1) is called the coefficient.
Example: Simplify the polynomial −5𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 :
1
Example: 4𝑥, − 2 𝑚2 𝑛, 5.
−5𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = (−5 + 8 − 6)𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = −3𝑥 2 𝑦 2
A ’polynomial’ is any finite sum of terms, such as
The examples show that only terms containing exactly the same
 3𝑥𝑦 − 5 variables to the same powers can be combined. Such terms are
called ’like terms’. It is not possible to further combine the terms in the
 4𝑥 3 𝑚5 − 5𝑥 2 𝑚 + 6 polynomial 4x + 5x2, since this polynomial consists of unlike terms.
 3𝑥 2 𝑡 6 𝑚5

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Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials 5𝑥 2 ∙ (2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2) = 5𝑥 2 ∙ 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 ∙ 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 ∙ 3𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 ∙ 2

= 10𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 4 + 15𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2
Addition and subtraction (inverse addition) of polynomials is
performed by using associative, commutative and distributive axioms.
Example: Multiply (3𝑥 − 4) and (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥):
Example: Add the polynomials 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 and−6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4:
(3𝑥 − 4) ∙ (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥) = 3𝑥(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥) − 4(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥)
= 3𝑥 ∙ 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 − 4 ∙ 2𝑥 2 − 4 ∙ 𝑥
(4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2) + (6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4) = 4𝑥 2 + (−6𝑥 2 ) + (−5𝑥) + 3𝑥 + 2
= 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
= 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2 = −2(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) = 6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥

Example: Subtract −𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3 from 4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 8. Factoring of Polynomials

Using the fact that −(𝑎 + 𝑏) = −𝑎 + (−𝑏), the signs of the terms of Factoring is the reverse process of finding the product of any two
the second polynomial are changed and add: polynomials. A polynomial is given and now it is looked for if this
polynomial can be expressed as the product of two or more simpler
(4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 8) − (−𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3) = 4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 8 + 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 3 polynomials. The result of the last example has been
= 5𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 − 11 6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥, which is the product of the two polynomials (3𝑥 − 4)
and (2𝑥2 + 𝑥).
Multiplication of Polynomials
The distributive property is used to find the greatest common factor of
In order to find the product of two polynomials the theorem of a polynomial. In the polynomial 12𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 each coefficient can
exponents is used in addition to the distributive, commutative, and be divided by a factor of 3. Also, x is the largest factor of 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 and 𝑥.
associative axioms. Thus 3𝑥 is the greatest common factor of the complete polynomial.

Example: Multiply 2𝑚2 𝑧 4 and 8𝑚3 𝑧 2 𝑏: Example:

12𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 = 3𝑥 ∙ 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 ∙ 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 ∙ 3
(2𝑚2 𝑧 4 ) ∙ (8𝑚3 𝑧 2 𝑏) = 2 ∙ 8 ∙ 𝑚2 ∙ 𝑚3 ∙ 𝑧 4 ∙ 𝑧 2 ∙ 𝑏 = 3𝑥(4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3)
= 16𝑚5 𝑧 6 𝑏
By determining the greatest common factor the polynomial can be
simplified.
Example: Find the product of 5𝑥 2 and the polynomial
2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2

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1.1.2.4 Scientific Notation = 2,00

An important application of integer exponents is their use in Example: Use scientific notation to estimate the value of
simplifying work with extremely large or small numbers. In scientific 379,500 ∙0.001,2
notations a number is written as a number between 1 and 10 (or −1 4,980
and −10) and some power of 10.
Since only an estimation is wanted, the numbers can be rounded as
Example: 0.000,002,5 is written in scientific notation as 2.5 ∙ 10−6 follows:
1,360,000,000 as 1.36 ∙ 109 and
147,000 as 1.47 ∙ 105 379,500 ∙ 0.001,2 400,000 ∙ 0.001
≈
4,980 5,000
Scientific notations frequently make it possible to utilize the theorems
of exponents to estimate answers or to simplify lengthy calculations The symbol ’≈’ means ’is approximately equal to’. If each number is
as shown in the following examples. now written in scientific notation the answer can be estimated:
1,920,000 ∙ 0.001,5 400,000 ∙ 0.001 4 ∙ 105 ∙ 1 ∙ 10−3
Example: Calculate = =
0.000,003 ∙ 45,000 5,000 5 ∙ 103
4
First express all numbers in scientific notation: = ∙ 10−1
5
1,920,000 ∙ 0.001,5 1.92 ∙ 106 ∙ 1.5 ∙ 10−3 = 0.8 ∙ 10−1
=
0.000,003 ∙ 45,000 3.2 ∙ 10−6 ∙ 4.5 ∙ 104 = 0.08
Next, use the commutative and associative axioms and the theorems
of power to simplify the expressions: 1.1.2.5 Powers with Fractional Number Exponents (Roots)

1.92 ∙ 1,5 106 ∙ 10−3 So far it is known how to solve the power equation b = an. This is
= ∙
3.2 ∙ 4.5 10−6 ∙ 104 done by raising a to the power of n.

1.92 ∙ 1.5 Example: b = 22 = 2 ⋅ 2 = 4

= ∙ 105
3.2 ∙ 4.5
But in the equation above it can be asked for the value of a if the
Finally calculate the numerical factor: numbers b and n are known. This leads to the first inversion of raising
to the power. This mathematical operation is referred to as ’finding the
root’ (the second inversion is referred to as ’finding the logarithm’).
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For explaining finding–the–root operations, fractional number 1.1.3 Roots and Radicals
exponents are introduced.
1.1.3.1 Definition of the Terms ’Root’ and ’Radical’
In order to find the value of a, the equation above is presented in the
1
form 𝑎𝑛 = b. Each side of the equation is raised by the power of , In general, powers with fractions in the exponent are referred to as
𝑛
and the power theorem is used. ’roots’, ’radicals’ or ’radices’. In the following the term ’root’ stands for
all these expressions.
𝑎𝑛 =𝑏
1 1 Roots are introduced when a solution for the following equation has to
(𝑎𝑛 )𝑛 = (𝑏1 )𝑛 be found:
1 1
𝑎𝑛 ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑏1 ∙ 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 2
𝑎1 1
= 𝑏𝑛
1
Using the power theorem of exponents it can be proved whether a =
𝑎
= 𝑏𝑛 21n is a solution of that equation:
1 1
Example: (2𝑛 )𝑛 = 2(𝑛)∙(𝑛)
𝑎2 =4
= 21
𝑎 1 =2
= 42
1
𝑎 =2 The number 2𝑛 is called an nth root of 2.

As demonstrated in the examples, ‘raising to the power’ means 1 1

In general, 𝑎𝑛 is the nth root of a, where 𝑎𝑛 is that number with the
multiplying a number n times by itself. ‘Finding the root’ means 1 1
knowing the result of the multiplication by itself and to convert this property that (𝑎𝑛 )𝑛 = 𝑎. For example, 𝑎2 represents a second (or
1 1
number into n factors of the same value. square) root of a, 𝑎3 represents a third (or cube) root of a, and 𝑎4
represents a fourth root of a.
1
The nth root of a, or 𝑎𝑛 , is commonly written with a radical √𝑎. Using
this symbol a root can be written as
1
𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎

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Note: Read: ’a’ to the power of one over ’n’ equals ’nth’ root of a. The result of roots with an even index number ’n’ and positive
radicand ’a’ may have a positive or negative sign, e.g.
Here, ’a’ is called the ’radicand’, ’n’ is called the ’index’ of a root or
𝑛
’radical index’, and the expression √𝑎 is called a ’radical’ or a ’root’. √64 = √(−82 ) and
√64 = √(+82 ) therefore
Finding the root of ’a’ is an inverse mathematical operation for raising
a natural number to a power. √64 = ±8

Example: If 𝑛 = 1, 𝑚 = 4, 𝑏 = 16: Normally the positive result is picked up as the correct root value and
is referred to as the prime result.
1 4 4
164 = √16 = √2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 = 2
In contrast to the ambiguous root result in the case of an even
number index and positive radicand, any other combination of root
At times the root result is not a perfect whole number factor, but an
index and radicand provides a single result:
irrational number which will be displayed by a pocket calculator as a
non–recurring decimal number,
a) If the radicand ’b’ is positive–signed and the index ’m’ an
odd number, then the root result ’c’ is positive–signed, e.g.
e.g. √3 = 1.7320508. 3 3
√27 = √3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 = 3
When this is done, results from the pocket calculator are rounded up
b) If the radicand ’a’ is negative–signed and the index ’n’ an
to a sensible level of accuracy, e.g.
odd number, then the root result ’b’ is negative–signed;
e.g.
 rounded to three decimal places (DP) 1.732 3 3
 rounded to two significant figures (SF) 1.7. √−27 = √(−3) ∙ (−3) ∙ (−3) = 3

When a fractional exponent has a numerator m > 1, then the c) If the radicand ’a’ is negative–signed and the index ’n’ an
numerator indicates the power to which the number ’a’ is to be raised, even number, then the root result is a number of the form
while the denominator ’n’ indicates the root to be taken. 𝑐√−1; e.g. √−16 = √42 ∙ (−1) = 4√−1
Thus, the equation is as follows:
𝑚
Thus, values with √−1 as a final result are not often used but they
𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎𝑚 =𝑏 sometimes occur as intermediate results of algebraic operations.
Example: If 𝑚 = 3, 𝑛 = 2, 𝑎 = 4
3
𝑏 = 42 = √43 = √64 = √82 = 8
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1.1.3.2 Finding the Root Note: Only roots with the same radicand and radical index can be
4
added or subtracted. Sums or differences, such as √3 + √6 or 4 ∙
Nowadays evaluating the value of a radical with a real number √3 − 2 ∙ √2, cannot be added or subtracted.
radicand is done by using a scientific pocket calculator. Therefore it is
not necessary to learn how to find the root by intention and in written Multiplication of Roots
form. There are procedures to do this not using a calculator but using
other aids instead, such as tables (especially for finding square and Rule 1
cube roots).
Roots having the same radicand are multiplied by converting the
1.1.3.3 Mathematical Operations with Roots radical expression into a power expression with fractional exponents
and raising the common radicand to the sum of the exponents:
Since roots can be described as powers with fractional number
exponents the rules for mathematical operations are the same as 𝑛 𝑚
1 1 1
+
1
those for operating with powers. √𝑎 ∙ √𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑛 ∙ 𝑎 𝑚 = 𝑎 𝑛 𝑚

Addition and Subtraction of Roots Example:

1 1
3√3 ∙ 6√3 = 33 ∙ 36
Rule 1 1
= 33 + 6
Only roots having the same radicand and the same radical index may 2 1
be added or subtracted: = 36 + 6
3
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 = 36
𝑎 ∙ √𝑐 ± 𝑏 ∙ √𝑐 = (𝑎 ± 𝑏) √𝑐
1
=3
2
Example:
4√3 + 6√3 − 3√3 = (4 + 6 − 3)√3 = √3

= 7√3 = 1.732

= 12.12

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Rule 2 Rule 2

Roots having different radicands but the same radical index are Roots having different radicands but the same radical index are
multiplied by converting the radical expression into a power divided by finding the root out of the quotient of the radicands:
expression with fractional exponents and raising their base product to
𝑛
the common exponent: √𝑎 𝑛 𝑎
= √
1 1 1
𝑛
√𝑏 𝑏
𝑛 𝑛 ∙ ) 𝑛
√𝑎 ∙ √𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑛 = √𝑎 ∙ 𝑏
In order to prove this theorem, verify that
Example: √4 ∙ 6 = √24 1
𝑛 1
√𝑎 𝑎𝑛 𝑎 𝑛 𝑛 𝑎
Division of Roots = 1 = ( ) = √
𝑛
√𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑏𝑛
Rule 1
Examples:
Roots having the same radicand are divided by converting the radical
expressions into power expressions with fractional exponents and √6 6 3
raising the common radicand to the difference of the numerator  = √ =√
√4 4 2
exponent (top term) minus denominator exponent (bottom term):
√300 300
1
 = √ = √100 = 10
𝑛 √3 3
√𝑎 𝑎𝑛
1 1
( ∙ )
𝑚 = 1 =𝑎 𝑛 𝑚
√𝑎 𝑎𝑚
1.1.3.4 Simplification of Roots
Example:
1
√125 1252 1 1
Simplifying Expressions including Multiplication and Division
4√125 = 1 = 1252−4
1254 The rules of multiplication and division of roots can be used to simplify
roots. A root is said to be in simplified form if the following three
2 1 1
= 1254−4 = 1254 conditions hold:

= 4 √125 = 3.344  When factored to prime factors, the radicand contains no

factor to a power greater than or equal to the radical index

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 The radicand has no fractions 3 ∙ √2 3 ∙ √2 ∙ √5

 No denominator contains a root. =
5 ∙ √5 5 ∙ √5 ∙ √5
Example: Simplify the root √24. 3 ∙ √10
=
5 ∙5
First the largest perfect square (square of an integer) that divides
evenly into 24 has to be found. In this example, the largest number is 3 ∙ √10
=
4. Thus: 25
√24 = √4 ∙ 2
1.1.3.5 Simplifying Radical Expressions
= √4 ∙ √6
= 2 ∙ √6 Simplifying Expressions including Addition and Subtraction

A radical expression is an algebraic expression which contains roots.

18
Example: Simplify the root √ For example:
125
. Examples:
Begin as follows:
4
 √3 + √6
18 √18 √2−1
√ = 
125 √125 √5
3
√9 ∙ √2 
= √8− √2
√25 ∙ √5
In the previous chapter simplification of radical expressions including
3 ∙ √2 multiplication and division had been discussed. Now it is considered,
= how to simplify radical expressions which include addition and
5 ∙ √5
subtraction.
The denominator contains a root, which must be eliminated by the
last condition in the definition of simplified form given above. The term Numbers such as √3, √19, and −√2 are real numbers. Therefore, the
√5 can be eliminated in the denominator by multiplying both the distributive property applies to these numbers. Using this property an
numerator and the denominator by √5. expression such as 4 ∙ √2 + 3 ∙ √2 can be simplified as follows:

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A radical expression which includes subtraction, such as 2 ∙ √3 − 5 ∙ For calculations the following formula will be used:
√3 can often be simplified in the same way:
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑝 𝑏 𝑏
= ∙ = or 𝑝 = 100
2 ∙ √3 − 5 ∙ √3 = (2 − 5) ∙ √3 100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 100 𝑎 𝑎

whereas p = percentage, b = percentage value, a = principal.

= −3 ∙ √3
Example: Last year a company produced 3000 computers. This
year the company produced 3600 computers. How much is the
1.1.4 Calculation of Percentage percentage increase of production?
1.1.4.1 Percentage 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 3600
= =
There are various applications in using the term percentage starting 100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 3000
from publications (news, magazines, statistics etc.) up to technical 3600
matters (efficiency, antenna gain, compression ratio etc.). 𝑝 = 100 ⋅ = 120 %. The percentage increase is 20 %.
3000

It will be stated for instance how much the percentage of the Example: The staff of a company comprises 1500 employees.
production has increased over a specific time period or what 1200 of them are male. How much is the percentage of the female
percentage of the population is male or female or how much is the employees?
percentage of efficiency of a motor.

All this information is based on a ratio. The related numbers are 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 300
= =
called principals e.g. the production at a specific time or the 100 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 1500
population or the power output of a motor. These numbers will be set
equal to 100 and compared with the percentage values 300
e.g. the production at a different time or the male population or the 𝑝 = 100 ∙ = 20%
1500
power input of a motor related to 100.
Example: The power output of a motor is 20 kW and the power
These fractions with the denominator 100 are called percentage input of the motor is 50 kW. How much is the percentage efficiency of
indicated with the symbol %. The symbol is an abbreviation for the motor?
divided by 100.

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1.1.4.2 Average Value Example: For the a.m. five voltages calculate the variance.

Sometimes it is necessary to calculate the average of numbers, 𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑥) = 1

((1.12 − 1.21)2 + (1.24 − 1.21)2 + (1.31 − 1.21)2
points (e.g. for statistics) or measurement values (e.g. for calibration 4
of measurement devices). +(1.15 − 1.21)2 + (1.25 − 1.21)2 )𝑉 2

For calculations the following formula will be used: 1

= ((−0.09)2 + (0.03)2 + (0.10)2 + (−0.06)2 + (0.04)2 )𝑉2
4
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) = , 𝑥𝑎 = 1
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑛 = (0.0242)𝑉2 = 0.00605 𝑉2
4
Whereas:
𝑥𝑎 = average, ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 = totalization value, 𝑛 = number of values. Standard Deviation

Example: The following measurement values (voltages) are given. The standard deviation s is defined as the square root of the variance
𝑈1 = 1.12 𝑉, 𝑈2 = 1.24 𝑉, 𝑈3 = 1.31 𝑉, 𝑈4 = 1.15 𝑉, 𝑈5 = 1.25 𝑉. and will also be classified as the mean square error of the
How much is the average? measurement values. For calculation the following formula will be
used:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) = , 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑠 (𝑥) = √𝑣𝑎𝑟 (𝑥)
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑛

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 (1.12 + 1.24 + 1.31 + 1.15 + 1.25)𝑉 Instead of the variance the standard deviation will be used in practice
𝑥𝑎 = = = 1.21 𝑉 more often because the dimension of s is the same as the
𝑛 5
measurement values.
Variance
𝑠 (𝑥) = √0.00605 𝑉 = 0.00778 𝑉
Another definition which will be used in connection with average is the
variance which is a criterion indicating how the measurement values Relative Standard Deviation
are distributed or spread around the average. For calculation the
following formula will be used: The relative standard deviation is defined as the percentage of the
standard deviation related to the average. For calculation the
𝑛
1 following formula will be used:
𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑥) = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑎 )2
𝑛−1
𝑖=1
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standard deviation For instance, a simple formula for a length quantity specification
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∙ 100%
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 would be explained to a schoolboy or an engineering apprentice by
the following legend:
𝑠
𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 = ∙ 100%
𝑥𝑎
Example: Calculate the relative standard deviation of the a.m.
standard deviation

𝑠 0.00778 𝑉
𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑙 = = 100% = ∙ 100% = 0.643 %
𝑥𝑎 1.21 𝑉

This example makes evident that a precisely defined quantity requires

1.1.5 Physical Quantities, Standards and Units
the specification of a unit and its numerical factor. Thus, the unit is
one of the basic building blocks to express the laws, rules and
1.1.5.1 The Role of Quantities and Standards regulations of engineering and science.
There are a number of physical quantities whose existence is
Note: Never apply engineering formulae without writing the unit
apparent by experience. Examples are length, volume, weight, time,
symbols. Without units, physical quantities have no significance.
speed, etc. In communication, the respective quantities are defined as
long, large, heavy, short or slow, respectively. However, qualifications
Depending on the side conditions, a quantity specification may
by adjectives are inexact, depend on individual experience, and often
require completion by an accuracy allowance specification for
they are exaggerated for obvious reasons.
measurement or manufacturing purposes. However, these rules are
taught under different subjects of engineering science (e.g.
It would be impossible to describe the laws of nature exactly on the
mathematics, engineering drawing, etc.).
basis of adjectival specifications. Exactness in describing natural
events requires exact determination of physical quantities and their
Many of the standard units currently in use had their origin in
exact measurement.
prehistoric times. For example, the English sea mile is exactly the
same as the Sumerian geographical mile (3300 to 1800 BC), circle
All measurements consist in determining how many times an
division into 360° they were acquainted with by the Mesopotamians
unknown quantity contains some known quantity of the same kind.
(2100 to 538 BC), the 24–hour day by the ancient Egyptians, and the
Any measurement, therefore, is essentially a comparison between the
use of sundials can be traced back to before 35 centuries.
unknown magnitude and an accepted standard, and the accepted
standard is the unit.

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The metric system was first adopted by France by laws and decrees, A unit prototype is the tangible representation of a unit standard. It
between 1795 and 1806. The basic units of the metric system are the should be borne in mind that a unit standard includes the prototype
unit of length, the meter and the unit of mass, the kilogram. and respective papers describing all details of the prototype history
and of the prototype use.
Refer to Figure 1.
Only the descriptive details of a standard enable the proper use of the
prototype. The case history is required to understand the intentions of
the inventors, should it be necessary, for the provision of prototype
reproductions.

Prototypes of the original French metric standards are preserved in

the Bureau des Archives in Paris and the international standards at
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The latter is an
institution founded in Paris by an international standardization
committee, mainly by representatives of nations of Central Europe.
The international committee adopted the metric system in 1875. At
the turn to the 19th century more than 30 nations had adopted the
metric system.

All modern nations with considerable trade and scientific institutions

have administered bureaucratic organisations that maintain national
standards and control their use. Some of the national standard
organisations keep certified co–productions of the unit standards in
Paris. Thus, the United States of America have administered the
National Bureau of Standards in Washington, DC, for instance, where
the certified copies no. 20 of the meter and the kilogram are
preserved.

The legislative power of a state decides on which unit standards shall

be obligatory, permissive or forbidden. Accordingly tight the matter
will be handled by the state’s judicial and executive powers. One of
the major tasks of national standard organisations is to develop rules,
standards and standard instruments for calibration and re–calibration
Figure 1: Prototypes of the Metric System’s Basic Units of measuring instruments used in science, industry and commerce.

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Additionally, there exists an International Organization for respect to the originally intended value, the originally defined
Standardization (ISO) in Geneva, Switzerland. liter turned out to be 1.000,028 dm3

In the following, some details of the history of a few metric standards 1.1.5.2 Basic Units of the SI System
are given, which show the intentions of the inventors, but also show
how standards might be subject to changes, depending on the state Predecessors of the SI system and successors of the metric system
of art, particularly on the arts that result in measuring accuracy. are

In contrast to the current definitions, the historical definitions are  the MKS system (meter, kilogram, second system) and
comprehensible to the majority of the people and, partly, the  the MKSA system (meter, kilogram, second, ampere system)
measures can be reproduced with simple means and satisfactory which in technical literature may be found under the name
accuracy for the majority of engineering purposes: ’Giorgi system’.

 The meter was intended to be one ten–millionth of the The use of the MKS system permits solving all problems requiring
distance from the north pole to the equator along the meridian units pertaining to mechanics, while the same system, expanded by
line through Paris. the ampere unit standard, permits solving electro–technical problems.
The meter prototype was prepared by engraving two fine lines This shows the gradual expansion of the original metric system to
in a bar of 90/10 platinum–iridium alloy at a distance working tools of science and of different engineering faculties.
calculated on the basis of the originally intended value.
Accurate measurements showed that the prototype differs The International System of Units, or SI system (Système
slightly (about 0.023%) from the originally intended value. International d’Unités), for short, is the latest version of the original
 The kilogram was intended to be the mass of the amount of metric system. The SI system has been accepted in 1960. Nearly half
water at its maximum density (3.98 °C) that is contained in a of the nations have adopted the SI system as obligatory. The rest of
cube that measures one–tenth of a meter on each edge. the nations have adopted it as permissive.
 The kilogram prototype is, also, made of platinum–iridium
alloy. It is a cylinder of 39 mm diameter and 39 mm height. The widespread use of the SI system throughout the world has made
Accurate measurements showed that the prototype, also, it the only internationally accepted system of measurements.
differs slightly from the originally intended value, mainly Acceptance will increase, as, nowadays, computers and telephone
because the density of the water had not been exactly have boosted communication enormously. Computerized data of
 The capacity unit, liter, was defined as the volume occupied universities are available all over the world and almost at the instant
by one kilogram of water under standard conditions. they are put into data banks.
Because the kilogram definition was changed to the mass of
the prototype, and the latter turned out to be inaccurate with Figure 2 shows a table of the basic units of the SI system (detail a)),
giving the quantities, the respective unit names and unit symbols. In

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contrast to the MKSA system, the SI system has been expanded by In the following, the basic units required for mechanics, or the MKS
units required in thermodynamics, chemistry and optics. Each of the system units will be discussed, just to show how definitions have
named science branches needs only one additional unit. Together changed from the time of metric system invention and how complex
with the supplementary units used in mathematics (detail b)), these the specifications of basic units are in their consequences.
are sufficient to describe all fields of science currently known.
Definition of the Meter
a) Table of SI units
One meter is the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum
Quantity Unit Symbol during a time interval of 1/299,792,458th of a second.
Length meter m
This definition is a prime example of how the definitions of units have
Mass kilogramm kg changed and can only be understood by professionals.
Time second s
Re–definition of the meter does not mean that the meter prototypes
Electric current ampere A are obsolete. The metric system definition of the meter being the
Thermodynamic temperature* kelvin K distance between the engravings on the prototype still holds true. In
Amount of substance mole mol fact, the new definition has been found by carefully measuring the
prototype and by expressing the distance found in wavelengths.
Luminous intensity candela cd
Definition of the Kilogram
*Celsius temperature is expressed in degrees Celsius (symbol =°C).
Reproduced from ANSI/IEEE Standard 268 –1992 The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram.
b) Table of SI supplementary units
The above definition shows that the definition of the kilogram has not
Quantity Unit Symbol changed since the time of metric system invention. In everyday
language the word ’weight’ is often used when strictly ’mass’ should
Plane angle radian rad
be used and ’weighing’ an object is used when its mass is
Solid angle steradian sr determined.

Reproduced from ANSI/IEEE Standard 268 –1992 The mass is a physical unit, as defined above. It is independent of the
place where the mass of 1 kg is measured; it is always 1 kg. For
Figure 2: SI Units and SI Supplementary Units instance, an object with a mass of 1 kg on the moon has also a mass
of 1 kg on the earth or anywhere in the space.

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The weight of an object is produced by the pull of the earth, called

’gravity’. This pull varies from place to place. For instance, the pull of
a certain mass on the moon is only 1/6th of the pull on the earth. On
the surface of the earth the pull of an object varies a little from place
to place. This is mainly caused by the elliptical form of the earth.

The weight is only equal to the mass, when the mass unit kg is
cautiously assigned to it. On earth, the variation in gravity and the
type of scales used have to be considered. For example, normally,
calculations are made with gravity acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 to
determine the pull produced by a mass.

Figure 3 shows that this value pertains to the geographical latitude of

45°. For example, the centre of Botswana is located at a geographical
latitude of 22° (south), approximately, to which a gravitational
acceleration of 9.79 m/s2 would be applicable. Thus, the following
measuring conditions might be applicable:

 If a beam balance and properly calibrated weights would be

used at both locations, there would be no difference
measured, due to the fact that measured mass and standard Figure 3: Change of Gravity Due to Position on the Globe
weights exert the same pull on the arms of the beam balance.
 If the same spring balance would be used at both locations, A mass exerts pull or force which can be measured by spring
the apparent weights would differ by 0.3 %, approximately, in balances irrespective of being calibrated in kilograms. Therefore, a
accordance with the difference in gravitation at the different spring balance shifted to a different latitude must be re–calibrated,
latitudes. and for re–calibration, standard weights calibrated in kilograms might
be used.
Mass is a mysterious property which affects the behaviour of an
object in two ways, which will be dealt with in more detail later on. But
there are two things which should be remembered:

 All objects resist attempts to make them go faster, slower, or

in a different direction. The greater the mass of an object, the
greater is its resistance to any change in motion.
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 All objects are attracted to the earth. The greater the mass of An atomic clock running under the conditions specified in the SI
an object, the stronger is the earth’s gravitational pull upon it. standard for the second is supposed to have measurement accuracy
of one part in ten to the power of twelve. Predecessors of the atomic
Definition of the Second clock, with lower accuracy, had been quartz-controlled clocks and
clocks controlled by a pendulum in vacuum.
The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of The second was previously defined as a fraction of
the ground state of the Cs133 (caesium–133 isotope) atom. 1/31,556,925.974,74, related to the solar year 1900. According to the
given number of seconds in the year, the SI standard atomic clock
Figure 4 shows part of an atomic clock based on a characteristic should be accurate to an allowance of one second within
frequency associated with the Cs133 isotope. The assembly is similar 1012/31,556,925.974,74 = 316,455 years.
to the type run by the US National Bureau of Standards.
The concept of time can be associated with many aspects. Presence,
past and future are concepts related to the instantaneous awareness
of individuals. However to describe events in the past, in the future or
the duration of events, time intervals are needed, and the second is
the internationally accepted time interval unit.

The solar system gives natural intervals, which count in years, as the
earth travels in orbit round the sun, and in days, as the earth rotates
on its own axis. Smaller intervals are the hour, the minute and the
second, and these are man–made intervals, which have been
invented a long time ago, in accordance with the progress in time
measurement precision.

The second is the smallest one of the conventional time interval units.
Irrespective of that, it is based on observance of the solar system, as
described above. Years and days have different lengths. Because of
this fact, leap years had to be invented. For the same reason, the
second is based on a man–made concept, the mean solar year.

The length of the years and days vary for several reasons. The major
reasons lie in the facts that the earth’s orbit about the sun is elliptical.
Figure 4: Part of an Atomic Clock
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The earth’s own rotary axis tumbles periodically during a year (known The mean solar time provided the basis of the second for the former
as precession) and the tumble centre axis, additionally, is inclined definition dated to 1900. The fixing of the second, and the
toward the rotary plane about the sun by a constant degree. construction of the fictitious solar system required long time
observations of the real solar system, as well as determination of the
Smaller time variations are due to erosion of mountains, the s apparent solar time over a long period and careful evaluation of the
hifting of continents, the tidal friction, interstellar position changes, obtained data. Hence, the mean solar time had been developed from
seasonal and long–term weather changes, including melting ice caps, apparent solar time.
wind speed and wind friction. In fact, experiments involving atomic
clocks have revealed that the speed of the earth’s rotation, slowly, but Since abundant mean solar and sidereal time data are available, the
continually decreases. Eventually, a re–definition of the time unit mean solar time is determined on the basis of the sidereal time.
might be required, if the basic adherence to the cyclic, natural events Sidereal time is easier and more precisely determined by
is maintained. observatories, it can be converted to mean solar time by using a
Horologists are the scientists of time measurement, or the designers respective formula, and master clocks can be reset accordingly.
of respective measuring devices. These people know several kinds of Through radio transmission, the time of the master clocks are made
time: available at remote locations.

 Apparent solar time Conventional navigation is still made by observing the position of the
sun. In such cases, and in order to determine own ship’s positions
This is the non–uniform time experienced by our personal exactly, the difference between apparent solar time and mean solar
senses and by our solar system. It is the time measured with a time must be considered.
sundial.
This is done by working with almanacs, like the British Nautical
 Sidereal time Almanac or the American Ephimeris and Nautical Almanac, for
instance.
This is a uniform time determined by the observation of fixed
stars. In the SI system, two supplementary base units are defined, the
radian and the steradian. These units are not very popular and are
 Mean solar time rarely found in technical literature. The radian is frequently used for
weapon specifications and, therefore, it shall be discussed here.
This is a uniform time determined by evaluating a fictitious
solar system, which has the ’mean sun’ in the centre, where
the earth rotates about the sun at a mean radius, etc. In short,
this solar system is a mathematically perfect system.

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Definition of the Radian Figure 5 shows a table of the internationally agreed prefixes for the
specification of multiples and sub–multiples of standard units. The
The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius 1 unit prefixes represented by the decimal powers between 1012 and
m by an arc length 1 m along the circumference. The symbol of the 10–12 are quite often used in engineering, whereas the prefixes
radian is ’rad’. exceeding the named range are normally used in special sciences
only.
This exact but little confusing definition is based on simple grounds Decimal Factor Prefix
and can be given by the following equation 2π rad = 360°. By re–
Name Power Nam Symbol
arranging the equivalent of the radian is expressed in the
e
conventional degree unit, 1 rad = 360°/2π = 57.3°, and the equivalent
to the right angle, 90° = π/2 rad. Thus, the radian is invented to One million million (billion) 1012 tera T
measure plane angels. Likewise, the steradian is provided to measure Mega 109 giga G
solid angles.
One million 106 mega M
The range of lengths that scientists need to measure is enormous. One thousand 103 kilo k
The diameter of the sun is more than one hundred million meters 2
large, yet the diameter of the atoms of which all materials are made One hundred 10 hecto h
are less than one–thousand–millionth of a meter. Ten 101 deca da

Writing respective quantities in full length requires many zeros and Unity 100
this may be the reason of errors. Apart from that the measuring One tenth 10−1 deci d
exactitude is insinuated by writing full length magnitudes but it does
One hundredth 10−2 centi c
not really exist for the adopted measuring methods.
One thousandth 10−3 milli m
In mathematics large and small numbers are written as decimal
One millionth 10−6 micro 𝜇
powers, and numbers are reduced to the reasonable size of
exactness determined by the applied calculation method. One thousand millionth 10−9 nano n
One million millionth (billionth) 10−12 pico p
Similar rules can be applied to the specification of numbers required
as multiplicands of units in specifying quantities in accordance with One thousand million millionth 10−15 femto f
the SI system and with chosen measuring methods. However, the SI
One million million millionth 10−18 atto a
system, additionally, offers the option of specifying units as multiples
and sub–multiples of units, in the form of decimal prefixes.
Figure 5: SI Unit Prefixes

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The use of prefixes representing 10 raised to power intervals of 3 are a) Multiples and sub – multiples of the ’meter’
especially recommended. Therefore, the use of units with hecto–,
deca–, deci– and centi–prefix are non–preferred units. In applying Unit (short) Equivalent in (standard form)
prefixes, it should be remembered that compound prefixes like milli– meters
tera are not used, as they are confusing and require re–thinking by a 1 kilometer (km) 1,000 m (103 m)
reader or by an audience. 1 centimeter (cm) 0.01 m (10-2 m)
1 millimeter (mm) 0.001 m (10-3 m)
Figure 6 shows a table of multiples and sub–multiples of the
previously discussed basic units. The tables include conventional 1 micrometer (μm) 0.000,001 m (10-6 m)
units as a compromise for generally accepted units, like the
centimeter, the ton and the hour. In fact, the name of the basic unit b) Multiples and sub – multiples of the ’kilogram’
kilogram includes the agreed prefix ’kilo’. Therefore, the gram is used
in conjunction with specifications requiring units smaller than the Unit (short) Equivalent in (standard form)
kilogram, in order to prevent compound prefixes kilograms
1 ton (t) = 1,000 kg (103 kg)
Note: Decimal prefix symbols and unit symbols are written in one
1 gram (g) = 0.001 kg (10-3 kg)
word, i.e. without a space between them.
Derived units are variations, or combinations of basic units. They 1 milligram (mg) = 0.000,001 kg (10-6 kg)
occur when basic units are used in mathematical operations, as 1 microgram (μg) = 0.000,000,001 kg (10-9 kg)
required by applying the laws of engineering and science.
c) Multiples and sub--multiples of the ’second’
Figure 7, details a) and b), show derivnation of the square meter and
of the cubic meter by the examples of application of simple formulae.
Unit (short) Equivalent in (standard form)
Detail c) shows a measuring cylinder calibrated in milliliters and gives
kilograms
the respective instruction for reading the standard. The liter is still an
accepted unit, its equivalent is 1 dm3.
1 hour (h) = 3.600 s (3,6 ∙ 103 s)
1 millisecond (ms) = 0.001 s (10-3 s)
. 1 microsecond (μs) = 0.000,001 s (10-6 s)
1 nanosecond (ns) = 0.000,000,001 s (10-9 s)

Figure 6: Multiples and Sub – Multiples of Basic Units

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Figure 8 shows a table of frequently used derived units. It is

worthwhile noting that quite a lot of units are named after famous
scientists, for example, the newton, the pascal and the joule. In such
cases, capital letters are used for the respective symbols, or the
respective symbol consists of several letters, but starts with a capital
letter.

Quantity Unit symbol Equivalent, remark

(name)
Density kg/m3

Force N (newton) 1 N = 1 kg m/s2

Torque Nm

Pressure Pa (pascal) 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

bar 1 bar = 105 N/m2
Dynamic viscosity Pas 1 Pas = 1 kg/(m s)

Kinematic viscosity m2/s 1m2/s = 104 St

(stokes)
Work J (joule) 1J=1Nm=1Ws

Power W (watt) 1 W = 1 J/s = N m/s

Velocity m/s

Frequency, number Hz (hertz) 1 Hz = 1 s-1 = cycle

of rotations per second
Voltage V (volt) 1 V = 1 J/(A s)

Figure 7: Table of Derived Units, Examples

Figure 6: Units of Area and Volume
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By reference to the column ’Equivalent, remark’ the table makes system sanctioned. These units are subdivided in accordance
evident that the derived units consist of basic units. The unit names with the sexagesimal notation, an accepted relic from the past.
after the scientists have been chosen to save the time required for
specifying all basic unit details. This fact leads directly to the There have been several attempts to change the civil time and the
necessity of unit conversions. plane angle intervals compatible to the decimal system. The plane
angle units have been finally changed to the radian. However, all
1.1.5.3 Unit Conversions attempts to change civil time have been rejected and, therefore, it is
frequently necessary to convert SI units to make them
A unit conversion, generally, is made to transform a given unit into a comprehensible in accordance with personal experience.
more convenient unit, or into a legal unit. Unit conversions require the
availability of equivalent values, like 1 N = 1 kg m/s2, as given in Figure 9 shows the most important equivalents between Imperial and
Figure 8, or 1 g = 10-3 kg, as given in Figure 6. These SI systems. The Imperial (or: fps (foot, pound, second)) system has
examples show that unit conversions are required, also, in case only been specially developed for mechanics and, therefore, it can be
SI system units are used. In fact, the latter example shows that regarded as the English version of the MKS system. Among the
assigning decimal prefixes is an act of unit conversion. pressure equivalents the unit lb/in2 (pounds per square inch) has
been used, instead of the more popular unit symbol ’psi’.
There are a number of specific occasions requiring unit conversions:
Note: In writing numerical quantities of derived units, the individual
 Derived units require conversion to basic units to understand numbers, decimal powers, basic unit symbols, and basic units with
them, or to make them fit in a given formula. decimal prefix, respectively, must be separated by mathematical
 Frequently, the results of calculations have to be converted to symbols, in order to prevent confusion. In case of products, an empty
adapt them to available measuring devices, or, vice versa, space may be used, instead of the individual multiplication signs.
measured data have to be adapted to formulas.
 In the past, a lot of different unit systems have been used, like Unit conversions should be made in a mathematically correct
the Gaussian system and the English or Imperial System of procedure, in order to prevent mistakes. The rules are quite simple. In
Weights and Measures, for instance. Although Great Britain the initial step, equivalents are converted to conversion factors of the
has adopted the SI system as obligatory, the English System value ’1’. For example, applied to the equivalents given for area, the
is still legal in quite a number of states and organizations, for formulas are:
instance, in the United States of America and in the whole
field of aviation. 1 𝑓𝑡 2 144 𝑖𝑛2
 Unit relation equivalents, like the hours in the day, the minute =1  =1
144 𝑖𝑛2 1 𝑓𝑡 2
in the hour and in the plane angle degree, as well as the
second in the hour and in the plane angle minute, are not SI

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1 𝑓𝑡 2 0.092,903 𝑚2 directly taken from the available equivalent table and inserted into the
=1  =1 formula requiring unit conversion, applying the dividend and divisor
0.092,903 𝑚3 1 𝑓𝑡 2
assignation rule.
144 𝑖𝑛2 0.092,903 𝑚2
=1  =1
0.092,903 𝑚2 144 𝑖𝑛2 Note: Never apply engineering formulas without applying the
mathematically correct unit conversion rules. Correct conversion of
Generally, from a given number ’n’ of expressions in a set of units saves a lot of confusion, especially when complex formulas are
equivalents, the number z0 = n(n–1) of conversion factors can be applied. In fact, using units properly in applying formulas is a method
obtained, each consisting of a fraction of the value ’1’. to control the correct procedure and the result in the progress of
From mathematics it is known that any number in a formula can be problem solving.
multiplied by the factor ’1’ without changing the value of the product or
the final result of the formula. Principally the same is done when unit
conversions are applied. The unit to be converted is multiplied by the
conversion factor of value ’1’, choosing the conversion factor that
permits to cancel the units to be eliminated from the formula. Similar
to mathematics, this does not change the value of a physical quantity,
although, normally, the numerical factor and, principally, the name of
the unit are changed.

For instance, to convert 15 ft2 to the respective quantity in SI units,

the conversion factor that contains ft2 as divisor and m2 as dividend
is chosen, which is the second conversion factor of the middle set
given above.

The subsequent procedure is as simple as shown in the following:

15 𝑓𝑡 2 0.092, 903 𝑚2
= 15 𝑓𝑡 2 ∙
1 𝑓𝑡 2

= 15 ∙ 0.092, 903 𝑚2 = 1.393, 545 𝑚2

Under normal application conditions, not the complete set of

conversion factors is written down. Instead, the adequate equation is

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Quantity Equivalents 1 °C = 1.8 °F = 1 K

Temperature,
1 foot = 1/3 yard = 12 inch = 0.304,8 m unit interval, 0 °C = 32 °F = 273.15 K
Length
1 ft lb/s = 1.814,8 ⋅ 10-3 hp = 1.281,82 ⋅10-3 Btu/s
Power water
Area 1 ft2 = 144 in2 = 0.092,903 m2
freezing point = 1.35334 W
1 ft3 = 1,728 in3 = 6.228,2 galUK = 0.028,316,9 Specific heat 1 BtuISO/(lb °F) = 4.186,8 kJ/(kg K)
Volume capacity
m 3

Thermal 1 BtuISO/(ft h °F) = 1.730,6 W/(m K)

1 galUS = 0.832,68 galUK conductivity
Velocity 1 ft/s = 0.304,8 m/s Heat transfer 1 BtuISO/(ft2 h °F) = 5.677,8 W/(m2 K)
coefficient
1 knot = 1.687,7 ft/s = 1.852 km/h
Viscosity, 1 ft2/s = 0.092,903 m2/s
Acceleration 1 ft/s2 = 0.304,8 m/s2 kinematic 1lb/(ft s) = 1.488,16 kg/(m s)
dynamic
1 lb =1/112 cwt = 0.453,592 kg
Mass Figure 9: Important Equivalents Between Imperial and SI
1 slug = 32.174 lb = 14.593,9 kg
Systems
1 lbf = 4.448,22 N
Force
1 pdl = 0.031,081 lbf = 0.138,255 N
1 ft lb = 0.323,832 calISO = 1.355,82 J
Work, energy 1 BtuISO = 252 calISO = 778.21 ft lb = 1.055,06 kJ
1 lb/ft2 = 6.944,4 ⋅ 10--3 lb/in2 = 47.88 N/m2

Pressure 1 lb/in2 = 0.068,046 atm = 6,894.76 N/m2

1 atm = 29.92 in Hg = 33.90 ftwater = 1.013,2 bar
1 lb/ft3 = 5.787,04 ⋅ 10 –4 lb/in3 = 16.018,5 kg/m3
Density
1 lb/gal = 6.228,2 lb/ft3 = 99.763,3 kg/m3

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1.2 Algebra Example: 𝑎 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑

If there is a sum of equal summands, it can be expressed as a

1.2.1 Algebraic Operations ’product’. This product is a concrete number consisting of a real
number factor or coefficient, and of a literal number factor.
1.2.1.1 Arithmetic Operations with Literal Numbers
Example: 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 5 ⋅ 𝑎 = 5𝑎
Literal Numbers
Concrete numbers of the same letter family are added by summing
In a study of numbers and of properties of numbers, it is helpful to use
their coefficients to one factor, while the letter is retained and used as
letters
the second factor.
(Latin or Greek alphabet) to represent numbers. These numbers are
referred to as ’literal numbers’. They make it possible to write
Example: 3𝑎 + 5𝑐 + 7𝑏 + 8𝑐 + 4𝑏 + 15 = 3𝑎 + 11𝑏 +
formulae, mathematical laws and rules in short–hand. Through the
13𝑐 + 15
use of formulae in physics and related fields it is known that a literal
number can be replaced by any real number.
Subtraction
A letter like π that represents a certain fixed number is called a
The algebraic principle for a difference may look like this:
constant. In contrast to that, the letter ’r’ is a variable, if it is chosen to
represent the radius in circle and sphere formulae.
𝑎– 𝑏 = 𝑐
In general, a not exactly defined range of first alphabetic low case
Only concrete numbers with the same letter can be subtracted as in
letters (a, b, c, . . . ; α, β, γ, . . . .) are used in algebra and geometry
the case of addition.
for known quantities. A range of last alphabetic letters is generally
used for unknown quantities (. . . , x, y, z).
Example:
Addition 10𝑎 – 3𝑎 = 7𝑎

5𝑎 – 2𝑏 – 3𝑎 = 2𝑎 – 2𝑏
The algebraic principle for a sum with two summands may read like
this: 9𝑎 + 9𝑏 – 7𝑎 + 3𝑐 – 6𝑏 – 𝑐 = 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐
In algebra, the previously used expressions to the left and right of the
The arrangement of the summands is free (associative law), but for a equality sign may be referred to as ’sum’, irrespective of the fact, that
better overview the summands are sorted alphabetically. they contain subtrahends. Subtrahends may be referred to as
’negative summands’.
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Negative Numbers  The insertion or the removal of bracket enclosure with minus
sign changes the signs of all enclosed summands.
A literal number might be negative or positive. This raises the 𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 𝑐 – 𝑑 + 3𝑒 = (𝑎 + 2𝑏) – (𝑐 + 𝑑 – 3𝑒)
question of how to treat them in the case of positive or negative
operators.  Combining the elements of a polynomial (algebraic sum) in
single groups by means of brackets does not change the
Rules of Subtraction with Negative Numbers value of the polynomial (associative law).
𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 Associative law
(+𝑎) – (– 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 𝑏
(– 𝑎) – (– 𝑏) = (– 𝑎) + 𝑏 = 𝑏 – 𝑎 Several Brackets

Brackets In a polynomial there can be a few pairs of brackets, inner and outer
ones. Such problems are solved in an inside–out procedure, starting
Brackets are mathematical symbols that express the demand that the with solving the innermost enclosure, and finishing with the outmost
mathematical operation indicated outside must be applied to the total enclosure. For a better discrimination of sets, different types of
bracketed contents. This means that the operations within brackets brackets are used, such as ’{...}’, ’[...]’ and ’(...)’, given in the order of
are performed before the outer ones in order to reduce the effort to a standard inside–out use.
solution.
Example:
The expression 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑐) means: first add b and c, and then
multiply the sum by a. But the problem 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑐 means: a has to be 𝑎 – {𝑏 + [2𝑐 – (𝑑 + 4𝑒)]} = 𝑎 – {𝑏 + [2𝑐 – 𝑑 – 4𝑒]}
multiplied by b first and then c is added to the product. 𝑎 – {𝑏 + 2𝑐 – 𝑑– 4𝑒} = 𝑎 – 𝑏 – 2𝑐 + 𝑑 + 4𝑒
Examples Multiplication
 3 ⋅ (5 + 2) = 3 ⋅ 7 = 21
 3 ⋅ 5 + 2 = 15 + 2 = 17 The product of the two numbers a and b can be regarded as the sum
of b summands, which all equal a.
When performing mathematical operations with brackets, the
following rules have to be observed: Example: 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 +. . .. (b times)

 The insertion or the removal of a bracket enclosure with plus If b is the real number ’5’, then the expression is as follows:
sign has no effect on the signs of its enclosed summands.
(𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 3𝑐) = 𝑎 + (2𝑏 – 3𝑐) = 𝑎 + 2𝑏 – 3𝑐 𝑎 ∙ 5 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎

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The multiplication symbol between the coefficient and the literal Example: (𝑎 + 3) ¡ (2𝑏 – 𝑐) = 2𝑎𝑏 + 6𝑏 – 𝑎𝑐 – 3𝑐
number is generally omitted. The coefficient is written before the
literal number. Literal numbers are sorted alphabetically. Multiplication of algebraic sums can be described as the expansion of
bracket expressions.
Literal number factors are multiplied by multiplying first the
coefficients and then the letters. Division

Example: (3 ∙ 𝑎) ∙ (6 ∙ 𝑏) = 18𝑎𝑏 A quotient can be written as a fraction in several forms:

Multiplication of Positive and Negative Numbers 𝑎

𝑎∶ 𝑏 = = 𝑎/𝑏
𝑏
The product of two factors with the same sign is positive.
 (+𝑎) ∙ (+𝑏) = +𝑎𝑏 Rules of Mathematical Operations with Fractions
 (–a) ∙ (–b) = +ab
The rules of operations with fractions are similar to those with real
Factors with different signs result in a product with negative sign. numbers:
 (–a) ∙ (+b) = –ab
 (+a) ∙ (–b) = –ab  Fractions can be reduced.
3𝑎𝑏𝑐
Multiplications with Algebraic Sums 3𝑏
= 𝑎𝑐 (reduced by 3 b)

A number is multiplied by an algebraic sum by multiplying each of the  The numerator and the denominator of a fraction can be
elements of the sum by the number: multiplied by the same factor, not changing its value.

𝑥 (𝑎 + 𝑏 – 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 – 𝑐𝑥 Distributive law 𝑎 𝑎𝑑
𝑏
= 𝑏𝑑 (numerator and denominator multiplied by d)
Example: 3 𝑎 (4𝑏 + 𝑐 – 6𝑑) = 12𝑎𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑐 – 18𝑎𝑑
 Fractions can only be added, if they have got a common
Algebraic sums or polynomials are multiplied by each other by denominator.
multiplying each element of one sum by each element of the other 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 𝑏
one:
 Fractions with no common denominator have to be converted
(𝑎 + 𝑏) ¡ (𝑐 + 𝑑) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑑 into fractions with a common denominator before adding.

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𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑏 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑐𝑏  𝑥 = 5𝑦
+ = + =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
An algebraic equation contains one or more elements which are not
 Fractions are multiplied by multiplying the numerators and the known. The characteristic of such an equation is that the known and
denominators separately. unknown elements of the equation are combined by algebraic
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐 operations (addition, multiplication, etc.). An algebraic equation
∙ =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 represents a problem that is solved by determining the unknown
magnitude.
 Two fractions are divided by multiplying the first fraction with
the reciprocal value of the second fraction. Example: 𝑥– 5 = 4
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
∙ = ∙ =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐 x has to be determined in such a way, that 4 equals the difference of
x – 5. If the number 9 is set for x the equation is true. The result is x =
Division of an Algebraic Sum by a Number 9.
An algebraic sum is divided by a number by dividing each element of 1.2.1.3 Linear Equations with one Variable
the sum by that number.
When dealing with equations, instead of the term ’unknown
54𝑧𝑥 72𝑦𝑧 25
Example: (54𝑥𝑧 – 72𝑦𝑧 – 25): 9𝑧 = − = 6𝑥 – 8𝑦 – magnitude’ the term ’variable’ can be used.
9𝑧 9𝑧 9𝑧

1.2.1.2 Algebraic Equations A linear equation with one variable involves real numbers, the equality
symbol and one variable.
Generally, an equation is a statement of two expressions combined
by an equality sign ’=’, stating that their values are equal. In the fields Examples
of engineering and science, equations are used for the description
and computation of technical processes and physical quantities.  𝑥 = –2
 𝑦– 3 = 5
Examples of simple equations are:  2𝑘 + 5 = 10

 3 = 3 The terms ’x’, ’y – 3’, and ’2 k + 5’ are called ’linear expressions’.

 3 = 2 + 1 Linear equations can be written in the general form
 5 = 3 + 2
 6 = (1 + 1) (2 + 1) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑐
 𝑥 = 7
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Geometry

where a, b, and c are real numbers and a is not zero (a ≠ 0).  Use the addition rule of equations to simplify the equation to
the form ax = b,where a and b are real numbers. The addition
If the variable is replaced by a real number and the equation is true, rule of equations means: The same expression can be added
then the number is a solution of the equation. For example, 8 is a to both sides of an equation.
solution of 𝑦 – 3 = 5.
Example: The equation (2) is simplified by adding +10 to both
Solving Linear Equations with one Variable sides of the equation in a first step, and by subtracting x in a second
step:
In order to find solutions for linear equations with one variable,
different steps are required, such as: 5𝑥 – 10 = 𝑥 + 6
5𝑥 – 10 + 10 = 𝑥 + 6 + 10
 Simplify each side of the equation as much as possible by 5𝑥 = 𝑥 + 16
combining terms using the distributive, the associative, and 5𝑥 – 𝑥 = 𝑥 – 𝑥 + 16
the commutative laws to simplify expressions. 4𝑥 = 16 (3)

Distributive law: 𝑎 (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐  Use the multiplication rule of equations to rewrite the equation
Associative law:  (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐 to obtain the form x = c, where c is a real number. The
 (𝑎𝑏) 𝑐 = 𝑎 (𝑏𝑐) multiplication rule of equations means: Both sides of an
equation can be multiplied by the same non–zero expression.
Commutative law:  𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 Example: The equation (3) is rewritten to get the form 𝑥 = 𝑐 by
1
multiplying both sides of the equation by .
Example: The equation 2 (𝑥 – 5) + 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6 is to be 4
solved.
1
2 (𝑥 – 5) + 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6 (1) 4𝑥 = 16 ⃒ ∙ ( )
4
1 1
Therefore the left side of the equation is simplified 4𝑥 ∙ ( ) = 16 ∙ ( )
. 4 4
4 16
Using the distributive law [expanding the bracket expression (x – 5)], 𝑥=
equation (1) is simplified and rewritten: 4 4
𝑥=4
2𝑥 – 10 + 3𝑥 = 𝑥 + 6
 The solution to the equation must be verified by inserting the
5𝑥 – 10 = 𝑥 + 6 (2)
calculated value of the unknown into the original equation.

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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

Example: Equation (4) provides the solution x = 4 to the original the result inserted in one of the equations to determine the second
equation (1). unknown.

2 ⋅ (4 – 5) + 3 ⋅ 4 = 4 + 6 Example: Solve the equations obtained by the statements

2 ⋅ (– 1) + 12 = 10 transformed before:
10 = 10 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 62 (1)
𝑥 – 𝑦 = 16 (2)
1.2.1.4 Linear Systems of Equations with Two
Variables Solution:

In many practical situations there are problems which involve more On both sides of equation (1) the number (–x) is added:
than one unknown quantity. In order to solve a problem with two
unknowns, it is necessary to write two equations which relate to the 𝑥 + 𝑦 + (– 𝑥) = 62 + (– 𝑥)
unknown quantity. There are different methods to solve such 𝑦 = 62 – 𝑥 (3)
equations.
Then y in equation (2) is substituted by the right side of equation (3):
Example: The sum of two numbers is 62. Their difference is 16.
Find the numbers. In the first step the statements must be 𝑥 – (62 – 𝑥) = 16 (4)
transformed into two mathematical equations. The two unknown
numbers are called x and y. Then the first equation is To both sides of equation (4) the number +62 is added:

𝑥 + 𝑦 = 62, as the sum of the two numbers is 62. 2𝑥 – 62 + 62 = 16 + 62

2𝑥 = 78 (5)
The second equation is
Dividing both sides of equation (5) by 2 gives the value of the first
𝑥 – 𝑦 = 16, as their difference is 16. unknown:

These two equations form a system of equations with two variables. 𝑥 = 39 (6)

Solving Systems of Equations by the Substitution Method To determine the value of the second unknown y, the value of the first
unknown x is inserted in equation (2):
Using the substitution method, one of the unknowns is isolated from
one equation. The result is inserted in the other equation, which then 39 – 𝑦 = 16 (7)
provides an equation with one unknown. This equation is solved, and
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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

Then the numbers (–16) and (+y) are added to both sides of equation The resulting equations (3) and (4) are added by adding the left sides
(7): and the right sides of the equations each.

39 – 16 = 𝑦 (8) (– 2𝑥 + 2𝑦) + (2𝑥 + 2𝑦) = (– 6) + 14

𝑦 = 23 (9) 4𝑦 = 8 (5)

The two numbers asked for are 39 and 23. The equation (5) is divided by 4, in order to get the value of the
unknown y:
Solving Systems of Equations by the Elimination Method
4𝑦 = 8 |:4
Using the elimination method, the equations are transformed to hold 𝑦 = 2 (6)
equal elements of unknowns which can be eliminated by addition,
providing a single equation which only contains one unknown. This The variable y in equation (1) is replaced by its value in (6) to
remaining unknown is determined and then inserted in the first or determine the second unknown x:
second equation in order to get the second unknown, as
demonstrated before. 𝑥– 2 = 3
𝑥 = 5 (7)
Example: Solve the following system of equations:
Finally, the proof with equations (1) and (2) using x = 5 and y = 2:
𝑥– 𝑦 = 3 (1)
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 (2) 5– 2 = 3 (8)
2 ⋅ 5 + 2 ⋅ 2 = 14 (9).
Solution:
1.2.1.5 Formulas
In the first step each side of equation (1) is multiplied by the factor –2,
and each side of equation (2) by the factor +1, in order to make the The solution of many problems depends on the use of a mathematical
coefficient of x equal: principle or formula in which more than one letter is used to express a
relationship.
𝑥– 𝑦 = 3 | ⋅ (– 2)
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 | ⋅ (+1) In order to find out the relationship of one variable to the other
– 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = – 6 (3) describing a particular process, the variable wanted must be isolated.
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 (4) The conversion of equations (simplifying and rewriting) enables to
isolate any variable.

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Geometry

Example: A motorist found that on the average it took him 3/4 𝑣 = 20 𝑚𝑝ℎ
hours each day to drive a distance of 15 miles to his job. What was
His average speed was 20 miles per hour.
his average speed?

The formula needed for solving the problem is the distance formula
1.2.1.6 Functions and Graphs

Mathematics is widely applied to a diverse number of fields, because

𝑑 = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑡
mathematical expressions clarify problems and suggest methods of
solution. There are many types of mathematical expressions, called
where d = the distance travelled
’functions’, which are particularly useful in many applications.
v = the rate of speed
t = the time elapsed.
A function, also called ’correspondence’, ’map’, ’mapping’, or
’transformation’, is a relation between two sets of numbers in which
This formula or mathematical sentence means that the driven
one element of the second set is assigned to each element of the first
distance depends on the time elapsed and the average speed of the
set. A function is given, if for each value of the element of the second
motorist. Since the rate of speed is wanted, the formula is solved for
set a related value of the element of the first set can be calculated or
v, which is the unknown or variable in the problem.
observed.
In order to isolate the average speed v, both sides of the equation
1 Considering the movement of a car going from location A to location
have to be multiplied by 𝑡 . . B, the travelled distance d depends on the speed v of the car and the
time t elapsed. This is expressed by the formula
1 1
𝑑 ⋅( ) = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑡 ⋅ ( )
𝑡 𝑡 𝑑 = 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑡.
𝑑
= 𝑣
𝑡 Assuming that the speed v is a constant factor, there is one related
value of distance d (element of the first set) assigned to each point of
3
Substituting the values for d = 15 miles (m) and t = hour (h) now the time t (element of the second set). Thus, the distance d is a function
4
value of v can be found. of time t.

𝑑 Note: The distance d can also be a function of speed v, if the time t

𝑣 = remains constant.
𝑡
15𝑚 15 ∙ 4 ∙ 𝑚 60𝑚 𝑚
𝑣= = = = 20
3 3 ∙ℎ 3ℎ ℎ
4ℎ
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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

In mathematics, functions are generally described by the literal It is often helpful to draw graphs of functions. Since two variables are
numbers x and y . Using these numbers, y is said to be a function of x involved in functions, a graph of a function will require two numbered
or, in short, axes. Standard planar graphs use two numbered axes which intersect
at right angles at the zero points. The horizontal axis represents the
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). independent variable (usually x, or, in the example, t), while the
vertical axis represents the dependent variable (usually y, or, in the
Letter x is the independent variable and y the dependent variable. example, d).

As can be seen in the example with the moving car, the distance d This background for graphs is referred to as Cartesian Coordinate
depends on the speed v and the time t . Thus, v and t are the System. The horizontal coordinate line, or x–axis, is the abscissa and
independent variables whereas d is the dependent variable in this the vertical coordinate line, or y–axis, is the ordinate.
function.
The four regions of the graph are called quadrants I, II, III, and IV,
Refer to Figure 1. reading counter-clockwise from the upper right quadrant.

Refer to Figure 2.

Figure 1: Cartesian Coordinate System Figure 2: Graph of Function y = 1/3 ∙ x

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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

The point P1, whose coordinate pair of values is 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 1, is

located three units from the zero point to the right on the horizontal
number line and one unit vertically upward. This point is labelled P1
(3,1). Likewise, coordinate pair (𝑥 = 6; 𝑦 = 2) is labelled P2 (6,2),
(𝑥 = – 3; 𝑦 = – 1) is labelled P3 (– 3, – 1) and (𝑥 = – 6, 𝑦 = – 2) is
labelled P4 (– 6, – 2). All these pairs of values correspond to the
1
function 𝑦 = ⋅ 𝑥. When the points of the graph are linked by lines,
3
1
the graph is a representation of the function 𝑦 = ⋅ 𝑥 in the range of
3
x from – 6 to +6.

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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

Graphs are pictorial representations. They require coordinate

systems. The most commonly used coordinate system has axes
1.3 Geometry intersecting at right angles.
The horizontal axis is referred to as the x–axis or base line. The y–
1.3.1 Simple Geometry axis or vertical axis is perpendicular to the x–axis. Any
point in the four quadrants is unambiguously defined by an x–value
Originally, geometry meant ’earth measure’; now it means coming to and an y–value
conclusions about the measurements and properties of the simplest
and most universally known figures as triangles, rectangles, circles, Polar Coordinate Systems
etc., and the relationships of their parts.

1.3.1.1 Coordinate Systems

Rectangular Coordinate Systems

Certain technical properties of components are represented on a

polar coordinate system. In this instance, the dependent variable is
plotted as the radius r from the center. in most cases, the
independent variable is represented by the angle α . Polar
coordinates are used, e.g., for light–distribution curves of
incandescent lamps and light–emitting diodes.
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Geometry

1.3.1.2 Definitions, Terms and Basic Constructions The point is considered to have no length, breadth or thickness, and
is therefore often depicted by two thin crossing lines (symbol ’+’) or as
Points a small circle (symbol ’o’).

A point is used to identify and locate a particular position. To enable the identification of a particular point from a set of points,
points are marked by different capital letters.

Locating a point B in space, Lines

requires a three–dimensional
coordinate system and the
statement of a coordinate Generally, a line is described,
triple, e.g. xA and yA. when a point leaves a trace and
moves without ending in the space.

Locating a point B in space, To locate a line in its full extent, requires a mathematical formula (like
requires a three--dimensional y = f(x)) or some other sort of agreement or reference. Thus, a line is
coordinate system and sometimes considered an intersection of a surface, e.g. the waterline
the statement of a coordinate of a ship. In this case, the line is determined and limited by the
triple, e.g. xB, yB and zB.. intersection of the ship’s outer surface with the sea surface.

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Geometry

y A straight line is the trace of a point

constantly moving in the same
direction.

x
A horizontal line is a straight line that is level with the horizon (eyes of
The direction may be given by the order of drawing a line through the the observer).
points A and B.
A vertical line is a straight line that is perpendicular to the horizon
If a line is mentioned, it is normally associated with a straight line. (eyes of the observer).

A line segment or intercept AB is limited by two points. The length of An oblique or inclined line is neither horizontal nor vertical.
a straight line segment is the shortest possible distance between two
points. Two lines are perpendicular, when the angles at which they intersect
are all equal. The lines are at right angles. The symbol of
Lines run parallel when they are perpendicularity is ’⊥’.
continually equidistant. The
symbol of parallelism are two The following construction procedure permits to bisect a straight line
equidistant vertical lines ’⏐⏐’. segment AB in halves and construct a perpendicular through the
bisecting point:
 Draw arcs around A and
B with a radius
exceeding half the
distance AB

 Draw CD, the

Lines are often classified with reference to the horizon or according to perpendicular median; E
the perception by the observer: locates the bisection of
AB.

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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

The following construction procedure permits to find the perpendicular Angles

through a given point A on a straight line:
The following construction procedure permits to bisect a given angle
 Draw arcs around A to α:
locate the equidistant
points B and C on the  Draw arcs around the
line vertex V which cut the
angle sides in A and B
 With a radius exceeding
half of BC, draw arcs  Draw arcs around A
around B and C which and B which cut in C
cut in D.
 The line VC is the
 Draw perpendicular AD. bisector and common
side for the adjacent
half angles of α.
The following construction procedure permits to find the perpendicular
from a point A outside a line:
A ray is a straight, directed
 Draw arcs around A to line with a point of origin. The
locate the points B and C lines of two differently
on the given line directed rays form the sides
of an angle, i.e. an angle is
 Draw arcs around B and the difference between two
C which cut in D directions. Their common
origin is the vertex V.
 Drop a perpendicular
onto the line from A
through D
The symbol of an angle is ’ ’. To enable the identification of a
particular angle from a set of angles, angles are marked by small
Greek letters, e.g. α (Alpha), β (Beta), γ (Gamma), δ (Delta), etc.

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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

A perigon or round angle is

described by turning a ray Obtuse angle for 180°> α
around its origin until it assumes >90°
the original direction. The
Aperigon is subdivided in 360
degrees (360°), each degree in
60 minutes (60’) and each
minute in 60 seconds (60”).

Further classification of angles is made regarding particular fractions

and ranges of the perigon:
Right angle for α= 90°
Reflex angle for 360°> α >180°
Right angles are marked by
a small square–shaped
symbol in the vertex.

Straight angle for α = 180° Acute angle for 90° > α < 0°

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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

When two differently directed rays cut parallel lines, all intercept ratios  Draw a differently directed
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
of the parallel lines (𝐴𝑛 𝐵𝑛) are proportional to their respective ratios line a through A
̅̅̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅̅̅
of the ray intercepts from the vertex (𝐴𝑛𝑉 𝐵𝑛𝑉; intercept theorem
of Thales).  Progressively draw n arcs
with the same radius on
line a, starting with the arc
1st Theorem of Rays around A and using the
same radius
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐴1 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐵1 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐴1 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐵1
= 𝑜𝑟 =  Draw a line through AnB
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐴2 𝑉𝐵2 ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐵1 𝐵2
(A3B)
2nd Theorem of Rays
 Progressively, draw lines
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ̅̅̅̅̅ through An-1 (A2) to A1,
1 𝐵1 𝑉𝐴1
= parallel to AnB (A3B); the
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴1 𝐵2 𝑉𝐴2 ̅̅̅̅̅
intersecting points on AB
are the dividers.

Under the given conditions, the inscribed figures are triangles with the The following construction procedure permits to divide a straight line
vertices B2A2V and B1A1V, which are alike in all respects, except for segment AB in a certain ratio n and m; e.g. 2 : 3.
their size and, therefore, they are similar. Opposite to this, two areas
are said to be congruent if they are exactly alike, i.e. except similarity,  Draw differently directed,
they must have the ’same’ size area. parallel lines a and b through
the terminal points A and B
The following construction procedure permits to divide a straight line
segment AB into a given number ’n’ of equal parts (and is a practical  Progressively, draw n arcs
application of the intercept theorem): through one parallel line and
m arcs through the other,
using the same radius

 The line through Am and Bn

cuts AB in the dividing
point.

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Mathematics PART 66 – Basic Training

Geometry

A perimeter is described, when Volume

a trace leaves a point A on a
plane and returns to its original A volume (formula symbol
place, without further touching ’V’) is covered, and a new
or crossing its own trace. The dimension added, if a plane
perimeter inscribes an area A1 (A) moves sideways to its
(formula symbol A) which, in reference plane (x;y).
mathematics, is to be Volumes occupy three--
considered a plane surface dimensional spaces and
and requires a square measure requirea cube measure for
for determining its magnitude. the determination
of their magnitude.

Several other manipulations would also cover or inscribe a volume,

Area e.g. rotation of a curve around an outside axis or projections of an
outside point onto the perimeter of an area.
An area, also, is covered or inscribed by
Rules for determining and constructing the surface and occupied
 the tracing and shifting (projection) of a line segment (A2) space of volumes and solid bodies are the subject of stereometry or
 the rotation of a line segment around a point (A3) ’solid geometry’.
 the connection of the limiting points of two line segments (A4).

Rules for determining and constructing areas and geometric figures

are the subject of ’plane geometry’.

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 1
Licence Category A, B1 and B2

1. Mathematics

1.2 Algebra (Supplement)

 Intentionally Blank

Module 1.2 Algebra

2.2
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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever:
i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Turkish Aviation Academy.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category
B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

Module 1.2 Algebra 2.3

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 Intentionally Blank

Module 1.2 Algebra

2.4
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 Module 1.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the
associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Part 66 Licence Category

Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Arithmetic 1.2
Evaluating simple algebraic expressions, addition, 1 2 2 2
subtraction, multiplication and division, use of
brackets, simple algebraic fractions;

Linear equations and their solutions; Indices and - 1 1 1

powers, negative and fractional indices; Binary and
other applicable numbering systems; Simultaneous
equations and second degree equations with one
unknown; Logarithms.

Module 1.2 Algebra 2.5

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 Intentionally Blank

Module 1.2 Algebra

2.6
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 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Mechanization and automation are increasingly used in production processes. Some typical
applications are

 monitoring the position of a machine tool or a missile by digital means (locating function)
 packaging a certain number of items in a box (locating and counting function).

In many laboratory instruments such as

 frequency counters
 timers
 digital voltmeters

the basic function of counting is carried out.

Electronics, particularly with the advent of transistors and integrated circuits, has
revolutionized the techniques in all branches.

However, electronics in computer systems are only capable of distinguishing between

 current on and
 current off.

On the other hand, counters must be able to count up to several millions. In order to solve
such tasks, different number systems instead of the decimal system have been
introduced in digital and computer techniques

Decimal System

Since the dawn of civilization man has found it necessary to count, i.e. to have a method of
representing quantities or measures of manipulating them to perform functions of

 addition
 subtraction
 multiplication
 division.

Not unreasonably, it was found out that fingers provided an excellent physical aid for registering
any counting exercise to be done in somebody”s head. From this the decimal system was
developed

The decimal system may be expressed fully in mathematical terms by considering the number
239, for example. This is the conventional shorthand way of expressing a decimal number. The
longhand way of writing the same number is;

2 • 100 + 3 • 10 + 9 • 1 or
2 • 102 + 3 • 101 + 9 • 10°

The 10 is known as the base of the system and the indices indicate the power to which the base is

Module 1.2 Algebra 2.7

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 raised. The base and the particular index to which it is raised are called the “weight”: that is, the
least significant weight is 10° which is 1, the next is 101 and so on. The numbers by which each
weight is multiplied are called “digits”. In practice, only the digits of the system are written, the
weights being implied.

Therefore the number 239 has the following meaning:

2 3 9

9 • 100 =9•1 = 9

3 • 101 = 3 • 10 = 30

2 • 102 = 2 • 100 = 200

239

Or expressed otherwise:

239 = 2 • 102 + 3 • 101 + 9 • 10° = 23910

239 = 2 • 100 + 3 • 10 + 9 • 1 = 23910

The result is always 239 to the base of 10.

The number to the base of 10 consists of maximal 10 different figures: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

7, 8, 9.

Other Number Systems

It is obvious that there are other number systems with different bases. Some examples
are:
3 • 82 + 4 • 81 + 7 • 8° = 3478 347 to the base of 8
3 2 1
2 • 6 + 5 • 6 + 0 • 6 + 4 • 6° = 25046 2504 to the base of 5
1 • 23 + 0 • 22 + 1 • 21 + 0 • 2° = 10102 1010 to the base of 2

Number systems comprise only the amount of figures which are equal to the base:

 base 2: figures 0, 1
 base 6: figures 0,1,2,3,4, 5
 base 8 figures 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
 base 16: figures 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.

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 The Binary Number System

As mentioned before, a computer system can only distinguish between

 current on and
 current off.

the same as high (H) and low (L) or “1” and “0”. Therefore number systems e base of 2
are ideal for use in computer systems.

It is obvious from the example that the digits of the system using a base of 2 are either “1”
or “0”, and this is true for any number expressed to the base of 2.

20 = 1 28 = 256
21 = 2 29 = 512
22 = 4 210 = 1024
23 = 8 211 = 2048
24 = 16 212 = 4096
25 = 32 213 = 8192
26 = 64 214 = 16384
27 = 128 215 = 32768

Figure -1 Numbers to the base of 2

Figure shows numbers expressed to the base of 2 together with their decimal equivalent
numbers.

Numbers expressed to the base of 2 are useful for electronic counting systems because
electronic circuits which can be set to one of two states are made very simple, whereas
circuits with more than two states, although possible, are much more complex and less
reliable.

The counting system using a base of two is called the “binary system” and each “1” or “0”
is called a “bit”, which stands for binary digit. The number of bits in the binary form of the
decimal number 239 is eight and the highest decimal number which can be obtained with
eight bits is 255.
The binary code discussed so far is not the only code which is expressed in two-state bits.
All counting codes with two-state bits, however, fall into one of two classes, weighted and
unweighted. A weighted code is one in which a “1” bit is allotted different values
depending on its position in the number.

Example:

The code shown in Figure 2 is weighted; a “1” in the 2° position of the column weight has
the value 1, a “1” in the 21 position has the value 2, a “1” in the 22 position has the value 4
and so on. The order of bits in unweighted codes changes in such a way as to make this
sort of weighting meaningless.

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 A system in which binary-type elements are connected together to count to the base of 10
is called a “Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) system”. BCD is of major importance since it
provides the link between the counting system used by the machine and that used by
man.

Decimal Hexadecimal Weights

23 22 21 20
or or or or
8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
2 2 0 0 1 0
3 3 0 0 1 1
4 4 0 1 0 0
5 5 0 1 0 1
6 6 0 1 1 0
7 7 0 1 1 1
8 8 1 0 0 0
9 9 1 0 0 1
10 A 1 0 1 0
11 B 1 0 1 1
12 C 1 1 0 0
13 D 1 1 0 1
14 E 1 1 1 0
15 F 1 1 1 1

Figure 2 Table of the BCD Conversion System

The table shown in Figure 2 gives an overview of the different number systems. This is a
weighted code.

Examples:

The binary number 1011 has a decimal value of

1 • 23 + 0 • 22 + 1 • 21 + 1 • 20 = 11

The binary number 0111 has a decimal value of

0 • 23 + 1 • 22 + 1 • 21 + 1 • 20 = 7

The Octal Number System

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 With three bits of a binary number a maximum of 8 decimal values can be represented. A
number system to the base of 8 is designated an “octal system”. The octal system uses 8
numbers or figures, which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

The octal number 3174 has the following meaning:

23578 =2 • 83+ 3 • 82 + 5 • 81 + 7 • 8°

Each digit of the octal number can be represented by 3 bits of a binary number.

Example:
2 3 5 7 (octal)
010 011 101 101 (binary)

The Hexadecimal Number System

With four bits of a binary number a maximum of 16 decimal values can be represented. A
number system to the base of 16 is called a “hexadecimal system”.

As mentioned before, a hexadecimal system has 16 different numbers or figures. There

are only 10 numbers in the normal decimal system and therefore it has been agreed that
the letters A to F are used in hexadecimal systems.

In computer technique it is common that a single character contains 8 bits which are
called one “word”. To represent one character, e.g. “Z”, 8 lines within a computer are
necessary to transmit this character, from the keyboard to the monitor for instance.

During transmission of the character the current at the 8 lines is on or off, e.g.:

line 1 - no current =0
line 2 - current =1
line 3 - no current =0
line 4 - current =1
line 5 - current =1
line 6 - no current =0
line 7 - current =1
line 8 - no current =0

This bit combination represents the letter “Z”. In order to simplify this combination it is
divided into two 4-bit groups: 0101 and 1010. The hexadecimal number for 0101 is “5”
and for 1010 is “A”, so the combination 0101 1010 can simply be expressed as 5A (H),
whereby the letter H is the abbreviation of hexadecimal.

This method is an easy way to minimize a row of binary digits (bits) to a short row of
hexadecimal numbers, eg.:

Decimal; 100,000
Binary: 0001 1000 0110 1010 0000
Hexadecimal; 1 8 6 A 0

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 Mathematical Conversion of Number Systems

This chapter deals with the conversion of numbers from one type of number system into
another.

Conversion of Decimal Numbers into Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers

Refer to Figure 2 again.

The task is to convert the decimal number 45410 into a binary number. For this purpose
the decimal number is divided by the base 2 as often as the solution is 0. The solution of
each division is an integer with a remainder in the range of 0 to 1.

The remainder of the first division is the lowest digit, called “least significant bit (LSB)”, of
the solution of the conversion while the remainder of the last division is the highest digit,
called “most significant bit (MSB)”;

454 : 2 = 227 remainder 0 (LSB)

227 : 2 = 113 remainder 1
113 : 2 = 56 remainder 1
56 : 2 = 28 remainder 0
28 : 2 = 14 remainder 0
14 ;2= 7 remainder 0
7 :2= 3 remainder 1
3 :2= 1 remainder 1
1 :2= 0 remainder 1 (MSB).
The solution is (1 1100 0110)2.

In the same way a decimal number can be converted into a hexadecimal number. For this
purpose the decimal number is divided by the base 16 as often as the solution is 0. The
solution of each division is an integer with a remainder in the range of 0 to 15. The
remainder is a decimal number and must be converted into a hexadecimal expression as
shown in Figure 2.

The remainder of the first division is the LSB of the solution of the conversion while the
remainder of the last division is the MSB:

454 : 16 = 28 remainder 6 (LSB)

28 : 16 = 1 remainder 12
1 : 16 = 0 remainder 1 (MSB)

The decimal remainder 12 equals the hexadecimal number C as shown in Figure 2,

therefore the solution is 1C616

Conversion of Hexadecimal Numbers into Binary Numbers and Vice Versa

Refer To Figure 2 again.

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 The task is to convert the hexadecimal number 3F416 into a binary number. The
conversion is made digit by digit.

As shown in Figure 2 the hexadecimal number

7 equals 0111
E equals 1110 and
5 equals 0101.

The complete binary conversion therefore is:

0111 1110 01012 or

111 1110 01012

The task is to convert the binary number 0010 1011 11 002 into a hexadecimal number.
Because a hexadecimal digit can include 4 binary digits the binary number is divided into
blocks of 4 digits and converted block by block.

As shown in Figure 2 the binary digits

1000 equals 816

1111 equals F16
1010 equals A16

The solution therefore is 8FA16.

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 LOGARITHMS

Logarithms are a mathematical concept that was developed to simplify multiplication and division of
large numbers. Logarithms enable multiplication and division to be performed using addition and
subtraction. The use of logarithms is no longer so widespread as the electronic calculator has
become so readily available.

Logarithm as Inversion of Powers

A power is written as:

b =c

where:

b = base
n = exponent
c =value of power.

Remembering that when, for example, 25 is written as 52, 5 is known as the base and 2 as the
power, then the logarithm of 25 can be expressed as 2, to the base 5.

The general definition is, that if y = ax then x = loga y

So logarithms can be calculated for any base a, but generally only logarithms to the base of 10 or e
(2.71) are used, and are commonly available in tabular form. However, logarithms are more easily
obtained from the calculator.

If “n” and “c” are known, but “b” is unknown, the solution is a radical:

√c = b

where:

b = value of the root

n = radicand
c = index.

If “b” and “c” are known, but “n” is unknown, the solution is defined to be a logarithmic
expression:

logbc = n

where:

b = base
n = antilogarithm
c = value of the logarithm.

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 The definition of logarithms implies another important relation between powers and
logarithms:

logb bn = n

This means, if someone wants to evaluate the logarithm of a power, and the bases of
both power and logarithm are the same, the exponent of the power is taken as the
logarithm.

Examples:

log2 32 = log2 25 = 5
log5 125 = log5 53 = 3
log10 100000 = log10 105 = 5

Common Logarithms

As the number 10 is the base of the commonly used decimal system of numbers,
logarithms to the base 10 are calied “common logarithms” and are written as:
Igx = log10x

Calculations with Logarithms

The main purpose of logarithms is to make a lot of calculations easier. They are also used
in scientific formula.

There exists a similarity between the rules of calculations with powers and those of
calculations with logarithms.

Rule of Multiplication

Any number “a” and “b” may be written as a power of 10, using logarithms as their
exponents. Therefore it may be written:

a • b = 10n • 10m

Using the rule of powers with the same base, the exponents are added as follows:

a • b =10n+m

Taking the logarithm on both sides of the equation provides:

Ig (a • b) = Ig (10n+m)

As the number 10 is the base of the common logarithm, the result of the right-hand
expression is identical with the exponents inside the brackets, hence:

Ig (a • b) = n + m

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 The literal numbers “n” and ”m” originate from a = 10n and b = 10m. Therefore, it can
substituted as follows

Ig (a • b) = lg a + lg b

Rule of Division

Similar to multiplication it can be stated: 10n

= = 10n-m lg ( ) = lg 10n-m = n-m lg ( ) = lg a – lg b

Rule of Raising the Power

In this case a = 10n is chosen:

am = (I0n)m = 10n m

lg am = lg (10n m) = n.m

Only “n” originates from the number “a”, therefore resubstitution provides the following:

Ig (am) = m • Ig a

The number “m” may be any number used for powers:

 a unit fraction, as in the case of roots

 a mixed fraction, as in the case of combined powers and roots
 a negative specimen of the former, as in the case of reciprocal powers.

The following summary gives all basic mathematical operations performed with the aids of
logarithms:

Ig (a • b) = Ig a + Ig b

lg ( ) = lg a – lg b

Ig (am) = m • Ig a

lg n√a =
lg a

lg ( ) = - Ig a

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 Natural Logarithms

The common logarithm is only one special case of calculation, it is the logarithm to the
base 10. Another specific logarithm takes the Naperian base “e = 2,7182818”. It is called
the “natural logarithm” and is written as follows:

In x = loge x

Just like the e-function, the natural logarithm has a lot of applications in many branches of
science.

The rules of common logarithms are also true for natural logarithms. In fact they are true
for logarithms of any base.

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 1.3 GEOMETRY

1.3.1 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

If two straight lines are drawn, we can see that they

make an "angle".

But how are 'angles' expressed or measured. Consider a single line, and rotate it
through a complete revolution.

Then the angle that this line has turned through is

360º.
1
A degree is 360 of a revolution.

Note that half a revolution is therefore 180º and a right angle (¼ of a revolution) is
90º.

Note that 1 degree can be sub-divided into 60 minutes and 1 minute can be sub-
divided into 60 seconds (very small).
A few definitions are included here:
An Acute angle - less than 90º
An Obtuse angle - between 90º and 180º
A Reflex angle - greater than 180º
Complementary angles - their sum is 90º
Supplementary angles - their sum is 180º

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 1.3.1.1 ANGLES ASSOCIATED WITH PARALLEL LINES

Now consider 2 parallel lines, cut by a transversal.

A = C, B = D (they are opposite and equal), similarly L = P, and M = Q.

Also A = L, D = Q, etc. etc. (they are corresponding angles)

D = M, C = L (they are alternate angles)

D + L = 180 (= C + M) (these are interior angles,

and are supplementary)

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 1.3.2 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS

There are many different shapes associated with geometry. The more common
ones are described in the following text.

1.3.2.1 TRIANGLE

A triangle obviously has 3 sides and 3

(internal) angles. The sides are often
represented by the 3 (small) letters a, b and
c; the angles by the (large) letters A, B and
C.
The 3 angles add up to 180º.

The construction of a dotted line parallel to AB and an extension of BC proves

this.

The area of a triangle = ½ base x vertical height

Triangle Types

There are many different types of triangle. The main types and features are
summarised as follows:
Acute-angled triangle has all of it’s angles less than 90º.
Obtuce-angled triangle has one angle greater than 90º.
Scalene triangle has three sides of different lengths.
Right-angled triangle has one of it’s angles equal to 90º. The longest side is
opposite the 90º angle (right-angle) and is called the hypotenuse.
Isosceles triangle has two sides and two angles equal. The equal angles lie
opposite to the equal sides.
Equilateral triangle has all it’s sides and angles equal.

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 1.3.2.2 SIMILAR & CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

You may study two triangular shapes and estimate whether they are the same or
not. We need to be more precise.
If they have the same shape, we are really saying that their angles are the same,
they are then described as similar triangles. Similar triangles do not have to be
the same size. One triangle may have sides twice or ten times as large as
another triangle and still be classified as similar.

If they are exactly the same shape and size, their sides are the same length,
then they are described as Congruent triangles.

It is sometimes necessary to determine whether triangles are Congruent. A

simple criteria exists to assist us. Two triangles are congruent if:
Their corresponding sides are of equal length. (side, side, side)
They have two angles and the common side equal. (angle, side, angle)
They have two sides and the included angle is equal. (side, angle, side)
The hypotenuse and one side of a right-angled triangle are equal to the
hypotenuse and the corresponding side of another right-angled triangle.

1.3.2.3 POLYGON

A polygon is a geometric closed figure bounded by straight lines. The term poly
means multi. A triangle has the least number of sides. Other multi-sided figures
have names indicating the number of sides. Hence:
Pentagon – 5 sided, Hexagon – 6 sided, Octagon – 8 sided

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 1.3.2.4 QUADRILATERALS

A quadrilateral is any four-sided shape. There are various types, some are
common and you are probably familiar with their names. Some are not so
common.
Since a quadrilateral has four sides, it can be divided into two triangles. The sum
of it’s angles must therefore be 360º.

1.3.2.5 PARALLELOGRAM

A parallelogram has both pairs of opposite sides parallel. The following

properties apply to parallelograms:
Each pair of opposite sides is equal in length.
Each pair of opposite angles are equal
The diagonals bisect each other
The diagonals bisect the parallelogram and form two congruent triangles

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 1.3.2.6 RECTANGLE

A rectangle is a parallelogram with it’s angle equal to 90º. It has the same
properties as a parallelogram with the addition that the diagonals are equal in
length.

1.3.2.7 RHOMBUS

A rhombus is a parallelogram with all of it’s sides equal in length. It also has all of
the properties of a parallelogram and the following additional properties:
The diagonals bisect at right angles

1.3.2.8 SQUARE

A square is a rectangle with all the sides equal in length. It has all the properties
of a parallelogram, rectangle and rhombus.

1.3.2.9 TRAPEZIUM

A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of sides parallel.

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 1.3.2.10 CIRCLES

Circles are not just particular mathematical shapes but

are involved in our everyday life, for example,
wheels are circles, gears are basically circular and
shafts revolve in a circular fashion. Hence, we
must be aware of some important definitions
and properties.
If the line OP is fixed at O and rotated around O,
the point P traces a path which is circular - it forms
a circle.

The length OP is the Radius of the circle. Note that OP = OA = OB and that
the length of the line AB is clearly equal to twice the radius. AB = 2OP. AB is
the Diameter of the circle (D = 2R).

We already know that if OP is rotated through 1 complete revolution, it will have

rotated through 360 degrees, but what is the distance travelled by P in tracing this
circular path? Put another way, how far will a wheel whose radius is R, roll along
a surface, during one revolution?
The distance, known as the Circumference is obviously dependent on the length
of the length of the diameter, but can be calculated precisely from the equation
C = πD (= 2πR). The value π is actually the ratio between the circumference of
a circle and it’s diameter.
π (Greek letter, pronounced "pi") can be approximated to 3.142. It will certainly
22
be found on a scientific calculator, but the fraction 7 is a very good
approximation.

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 The line AP drawn so that it touches the circle at point P is known as the Tangent
to the circle. It should be noted that AP is always at right-angles to the radius
OP.

Example: A wheel, diameter 715 mm, makes 30 revolutions. How far does it
move from its start point?
The distance moved in 1 rev. = the length of the circumference.
∴ distance in 1 rev. = π x diameter
= (π) (715) mm
∴ distance in 30 revs. = (30) (π) (715)
= 67410 mm
= 67.4 metres

Radian Measure

We already know that an angle of 360º represents 1 complete revolution. But

there is another important unit of angular measurement, known as the Radian.

Consider a circle of radius R and consider an arc AB, where length is also equal
to R. The angle at the centre of the circle, AOB is then equal to I Radian.

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 It can be deduced that I revolution is equivalent to 2π Radians,
i.e. I rev = 6.2832 rads.
Therefore 360º = 2π rads, and we can derive conversion factors, as that;
π
1º = 180 radians, or

180º
= 1 radian (approx. 57.3º)
π
One final and useful point concerning radian measure.

If an arc of a circle, radius r, subtends an angle, equal to θ Radians, the length of

the arc is r.θ.
Note also that if a point P is moving with speed N, then the rotational speed ω is
N
equal to r (N = r.ω).

ω is expressed in Radians per second.

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 1.3.3 AREA AND VOLUME

1.3.3.1 AREA

We are already familiar with the concept of length, e.g. the distance between 2
points, we express length in some chosen unit, e.g. in meters. If we want to fit a
picture-rail along a wall, all we need to known is the length of the wall, so that we
can order sufficient rail. But if we wish to fit a carpet to the room floor, the length
of the room is insufficient. Obviously we also need to know the width. This two-
dimensional concept of size is termed Area.

Rectangular Area

Consider a room 4m by 3m as shown above. Clearly it can be divided up into 12

equal squares, each measuring 1m by 1m. Each square has an area of 1 square
meter. Hence, the total area is 12 square meters (usually written as 12m2 for
convenience). So, to calculate the area of a rectangle, multiply length of one side
by the length of the other side.
4m x 3m = 12m2 (Don't forget the m2).

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 Area of Triangles

This concept can be extended to include non-rectangular shapes.

Consider the triangles ABC and ADC which together form a rectangle ABCD.

Inspection reveals the 2 triangles are congruent. Hence their areas are equal
1
and the area of ABC = 2 area of ABCD.

If we consider this diagram, the area of the triangle can be seen to equal
1
2 x base x perpendicular height.
This is true for any triangle, but remember its the perpendicular height. Note
again that base (in meters) x height (in meters) gives m2.
A theorem exists stating that triangles with the same base and drawn between
the same parallels will have the same area.

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 Area of Circular Shapes

The area of a circle is given by the formula:

A = πr2 (where r = radius) or

2
 d πd2 d
A = π  = (if the diameter is given r = 2 )
 2 4

Remember that any area is so many square units. So the area of a circle must
include a 'squared' term;
Example: What is the area of a semi-circle where the diameter is 30cm?
2
 30 
Area of circle = π 
 2 
2
 1  30 
semi − circle =   (π)  
 2  2 

 1
  (π)(15 )
2
= = 353.43 cm 2
 2

Area of Other Shapes

The table below indicates the areas of many common shapes.

SHAPE AREA
Circle πd2
πr 2 or
4
Triangle ½ base x height
Rectangle Base x height
Square Side2
Parallelogram Base x vertical height
Trapezium ½(sum of length of parallel sides) x vertical height

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 Calculation of Areas of Shapes

Sometimes an area calculation must be made where the object or shape is not
one of the common shapes listed. Sometimes it is made up from a combination
of shapes.
Example: An office 8.5m by 6.3m is to be fitted with a carpet, so as to leave a
surround 600mm wide around the carpet. What is the area of the
surround?
With a problem like this, it is often helpful to sketch a diagram.

The area of the surround = office area - carpet area.

= (8.5 x 6.3) - (8.5 - 2 x 0.6) (6.3 - 2 x 0.6)
= 53.55 - (7.3) (5.1)
= 53.55 - 37.23 = 16.32m2
Note that 600mm had to be converted to 0.6m. Don't forget to include units in the
answer e.g. m2.
We may need to find the area of an object that is a combination of shapes:

In this case the shape comprises a rectangle and a semi-circle.

The rectangle has dimensions 150mm x 100mm
The semi-circle has a diameter of 100mm

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 Total area is the sum of the two individual areas.

Area = (100 x 150) + πr 2 = 15000 + π × 2500 = 15000 + 7854 = 22854mm 2

1.3.3.2 VOLUMES

Solids are objects that have three dimensions: length, width and height. Having
the ability to calculate volume enables you to determine the capacity of a fuel
tank or reservoir, calculate the capacity of a cargo area or work out the volume of
a cylinder. Volumes are calculated in cubic units such as cubic centimetres,
cubic metres, cubic inches etc. However, volumes are easily converted to other
terms, such as litres. For example, a cubic metre contains 1000 litres of liquid.
Instead of squares, we now consider cubes. This is a 3-dimensional concept and
the typical units of volume are cubic metres (m3).
If we have a box, length 4m, width 3m and height 2m, we see that the total
volume = 24 cubic metres (24m3).

Each layer contains

4 x 3 = 12 cubes.
There are 2 layers.
Hence the volume is
12 x 2 = 24m3.

Basically, therefore, when calculating volume, it is necessary to look for three

dimensions, at 90º to each other, and then multiply them together. For a box -
type shape, multiplying length x width x height = volume.
For irregular or particular shapes, different techniques or approximations can be
used, or sometimes a specific formula may exist.
For example:
Volume of cylinder = πR2h (R = radius, L = height)
1 2
Volume of cone = 3 πR h
4 3
Volume of sphere = 3 πR

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 Note that all these formulae contain 3 dimensions so that when multiplied, a
volume will result.
e.g. R2h = R x R x h or R3 = R x R x R
If you have not got 3 dimensions, you have not got a volume!
Example: What is the cubic capacity of a 2 cylinder engine, with a bore of 77mm
and a stroke of 89mm?

bore = diameter = 77mm

stroke = height = 89mm

Volume of cylinder = area of circle x height.

2
 77 
∴ Volume of 1 cylinder = π  x (89 )
 2 

Volume of 1 cylinder = 414440 mm3

Volume of 2 cylinders = 828880 mm3

Note that in this example, the dimensions have been given in mm. The volume
would normally be given in cm3.

Note, to convert mm3 to cm3, divide by (10)3.

∴ 828880 mm3 becomes 828.88 cm3.

When calculating areas or volumes, remember the basic formulas, but be ready
to spot when an area or solid body is a combination of basic shapes that can be
added or subtracted.

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 1.3.4 GRAPHS
Graphs are a pictorial method of displaying numerical data that enables you to
quickly visualise certain relationships, complete complex calculations and predict
trends. The data can be presented in many different ways as shown below, and
most data can be presented in any format. However, care should be taken when
selecting a format to use, some formats are better suited to particular types of
data or data sets. For example, if have a whole amount divided into known
proportions, then this is better presented as a pie chart; if we have a list of scores
in a test, then a bar graph is better. If we are plotting temperature with respect to
time then a continuous line graph is better,

1.3.4.1 CONSTRUCTION

In order to construct graphs effectively, some simple rules should be followed.

First of all, present the data in a clear, tabular form. The data will data will
generally comprise 2 variables, one that is being varied, the independent
variable, and the one that changes as a result of the variation, the dependent
variable (its value depends on the value of the other).

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 For example, an experiment was conducted, where a volume of gas was heated.
As the temperature of the gas increased, it was noted that the gas expanded: its
volume increased. The first quantity, the temperature, is the independent
variable and the second quantity, the volume, is the dependent variable.
The next stage is to plan the use of the graph-paper so as to present the graph in
the clearest manner possible.
The graph constructed by plotting a series of points, each one representing a
particular value of the independent and corresponding dependent variable. So
the graph must be drawn so that each value appears (or fits) on the paper.
Before “plotting” the points, the two axes must be drawn, and the scales chosen.
The horizontal (x-axis) will represent the independent variable and the vertical (y-
axis) the dependent variable. The scales cross at the origin O.

There is no merit in drawing small graphs. Choose scales so that completed

graph fits the sheet of graph paper.
Look at the largest right-hand, and the smallest left-hand values that will be
plotted along the x-axis. Subtract the LH value from the RH value to give a range
of values (= some number of units). Study the graph paper to find how many
large squares there are from left to right.
Now divide the value found by the subtraction, by the number of large squares.
This should give an idea of a suitable scale. That is, so many units should be
represented by 1 large square along the x-axis. The most useful scales are 1, 2,
5, 10, 20, 50 units etc. etc to 1 large square.

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 The same procedure is used for the y-axis. Subtract the smallest (lower) value
from the largest (upper value) to give the range, divide by the number of large
squares between top and bottom of the paper.
Having done this, draw the 2 axes, and mark off the units, using your chosen
scales.

The graph paper has now been prepared for the object of the exercise, i.e. to
transfer the data from the table to the graph.
The transfer is very simple, take one value of the independent variable and draws
a (faint) line to coincide with its value along the x-axis so as to intersect with a
similar line drawn from the y-axis for its corresponding dependent value.

The intersection represents one plotted point of the graph.

The procedure is repeated for each pair of values in turn. When all the points
have been plotted, a continuous line is drawn through the points.

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 The way in which the line is drawn depends on the nature of the data. It is
probably true to say that most mathematical or scientific data change gradually or
progressively - they may form a definite relationship. In this case, do not join
the points with a series of straight lines.

But try to draw a continuous smooth line.

This probably means that the line only goes through some (not all) of the points -
don’t worry; experimental or plotting errors can occur. There should be roughly
the same number of points on both sides of the smooth curve. Sometimes, it is
fairly obvious that a straight line is the (most) reasonable ‘fit’ to the point, and this
is often the case for simple scientific experiments.

1.3.4.2 GRAPHS AND MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

This course is designed for engineers, not mathematicians and so maths is

viewed as a servant, not a master.
Later, it will be seen that one physical quantity will vary as another quantity
varies, with the two linked by some mathematical law or equation. An example is
that the drag force (D) varies according to the square of the airspeed (V).
Expressed as a formula D = k V2
This relationship can be plotted in graphical form, and it is reasonable to presume
that it would be of the same form as the maths relationship of y = x2 where y is
considered as a function of x y = f(x)
There are many mathematical functions, examples might be:
y = mx, y = x2, y = x3, y = sin x
y = ex, y = cos x etc. etc.
This topic looks at the shape and characteristics of these functions when
expressed graphically, so that a simple link can be made with physical
phenomena, which demonstrates similar characteristics.

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 When a mathematical function is plotted, certain shapes evolve characteristic of
that function. If, following an experiment during which data is gathered, that data
creates similar shapes, then a presumption linking formula and experiment may
made.

1.3.4.3 FUNCTION AND SHAPE

The variable y is often described as a function of x. Here several different

functions are considered graphically.

Function y = mx where m is some constant coefficient.

y = mx gives a straight line, passing through the origin O.
m is the slope of the graph (and = tan O) the greater the value of m, the steeper
the slope. Obviously for a straight line, the slope is constant for a constant value
of m.
If m is -ve, the line slopes as shown. (if m = O, the ‘line’ Y = O coincides with the
x-axis).
Function y = mx + c

This is a variation of y = mx.

C is a constant, and is clearly the value of y when x = O. (y = m.O + c = C). This
value of C measured along the y axis is known as the intercept.

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 Function y = kx2 where k is some constant.

This gives a curve, known as a parabola. As k increases the value of kx2 also
increases. Note that the slope is no longer constant. This is a function which is
commonly found in physical situations.

Function y = kx3 etc.

This is the characteristic shape. Note that the graph has Turning points, where
the slope changes from +ve to –ve and vice versa.
Functions within this family are less likely to be encountered during this course.

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 Function y = sin x and y = cos x.

Both of these functions are repetitive but the word used to describe such
behaviour is periodic (in this case, the period is 360º or 2π radians).

π 
Note that the cosine graph ‘leads’ the sine graph by 90º 2 radians when such
 
behaviour occurs, it is often referred to a ‘phase difference’.
These graphs are often found, particularly in electrical work.
Function y = ex, y = e-x, y = 1 – e-x
y = ex is known as the Exponential function. It is also often found in Engineering
applications. Some variations on the basic function are also shown.

Reference has already been made to the slope of a graph. Straight lines have a
constant slope. Curves have variable slopes, and often include turning points
(often termed maxima and minima). Mathematicians determine slopes by using a
branch of mathematics called ‘calculus’ – a later topic. Engineers are often
interested in slope, because depending on the variables, the slope itself
represents a physical quantity – more about this in the Physics module.

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 The area under a graph is also often useful and may represents a physical
quantity.

The area can be calculated by:

Considering simple shapes and approximating
Counting squares.
Using calculus

1.3.4.4 NOMOGRAPHS

The need to show how two or more variables affect a value is common in the
maintenance of aircraft. Nomographs are a special type of graph that enable
you to solve complex problems involving more than one variable.
Most nomographs contain a great deal of information and require the use of
scales on three sides of the chart, as well as diagonal lines.
In fact, some charts contain so much information, that it can be very important for
you to carefully read the instructions before using the chart and to show care
when reading information from the chart itself.
Illustrated is a fairly typical graph of three variables, distance, speed and time. If
any two of the three variables is known, the approximate value of the third can be
quickly determined. In this example, the dotted line indicates a known speed and
time. The resulting distance travelled can be extracted from the graph at the point
where these two dashed lines meet.

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 Whilst this nomograph is much too small for accurate computation, it can be seen
that when travelling at around 250 knots for three and a half hours, you would
travel a little less than 1000 nautical miles.

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 1.3.5 TRIGONOMETRY
Basic trigonometry involves expressing the angles of a right-angled triangle in
relation to lengths of the sides of the triangle.

The ratio of the opposite side length to the hypotenuse length in the diagram is
termed the "sine" of the angle φ.
Opposite o
Sinφ = =
Hypotenuse h

Adjacent a
Cosφ = =
Hypotenuse h

Opposite o
Tanφ = =
Adjacent a

These ratio’s must be remembered!

(Some students find the mnemonic "Sohcahtoa" to be helpful in this respect).
These ratios are used very extensively in Maths and Science and very many
modifications to the basic ratio have been evolved.
How can these ratios be used in practice?

Consider a triangle with side lengths 3, 4, 5 OR 6,8,10 as shown.

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 3
From our definition of sine, 5 = 0.6 = sine φ
4
5 = 0.8 = cosine φ

Now while it is obvious that φ is proportional to the side lengths, what is its
actual value in degrees?
e.g. if 0.6 is input into a calculator and the sin -1 button is operated, the screen
display will be 36.86989765º.
The actual calculation of sine, cosine and tangent is beyond the scope of this
course, but the values of each ratio and the corresponding angle have been
compiled in tabular form, but can be found using a scientific calculator.
3
if 0·8 is input and the cos -1 button operated, or if 4 = 0·75, and the
tan -1 button operated the same 36·86989765 will be displayed.

Conversely, if 36·86989765 is input, and the sin button is operated, 0·6 will be
displayed

1.3.5.1 TRIGONOMETRICAL CALCULATIONS & FORMULA

Earlier we considered the basic trigonometry functions. They can now be applied
to practical situations.

Example A church spine is known to be 60 metres high. When the top is viewed
through a theodolite, the angle between the line-of-sight and the
horizontal is 15º. How far is the theodolite from the base of the
spine?
The distance D is the unknown quantity. Angle 15º and side (height) 60m are
known.

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 Therefore, an equation can be formed,

60  O  60
=   = tan 15 ° Transposing D =
D A Tan 15°

Using the calculator, 60 ÷ tan 15 = 223.9 metres.

This illustrates the basic principle when solving trigonometry problems. Sketch a
diagram if necessary, identify the known and unknown values, and then express
them in terms of the sides of the triangle and the corresponding angle.
The basic trigonometry ratios were explained with reference to a right-angled
triangle. But their use can be extended for use with any triangle.
Example

ABC is any triangle. Suppose a line AD is drawn so that angle BDA = angle
CDA = 90º. AD is now the height of the triangle.

1
The area of the triangle = 2 a x A x D c

AD  opposite 
but b = sin C hypoteneuse
 

therefore AD = bsinC d

Substituting d in c

The area of the triangle = ½ a.bsinC

Using a similar method it can be shown that the area of the triangle is also;

½ b.csinA = ½ a.c.sinB

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 Using these last two equations we can derive the sine formula.

½ .b.c.sinA = ½.a.c.sinB

b.c.sinA = a.c.sinB

b.sinA = a.sinB (dividing through by c)

b a
∴ sinB = sinA

Another useful formula is the Cosine formula. Again it applies to any triangle
ABC and has three forms.
b2 + c 2 - a2
Cos A =
2 bc

a2 + c 2 - b2
Cos B =
2 ac

a2 + b2 - c 2
Cos C =
2 ab

(These formula can easily be proved by drawing AD perpendicular to BC, and

using Pythagoras).

1.3.5.2 CONSTRUCTION OF TRIGONOMETRICAL CURVES

If radius OP is rotated anticlockwise, the angle θ (POA) increases and the value
of sine θ also increases (because AP increases in relation to OP).

AP
If the radius OP has a length of 1 unit, sine θ = 1 = AP (the length AP).

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 If a graph of sine θ (length AP) is plotted against angle θ, the typical curve results.

Note the repetition every revolution (360º) and that the values of sine θ range
between +1 and -1.

The graph for cosine θ is similar but displaced by 90º.

 sin θ 
The graph for tangent θ is deduced from the other two curves. tan θ = 
 cos θ

At 90º and 270º, the value of tan θ becomes infinity.

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 1.3.5.3 VALUES IN 4 QUADRANTS

Inspection of the sine and cosine curves show that the values change from +ve to
-ve to +ve etc., as angle θ increases. It is important to have an idea how these
changes are linked to the approximate value of θ.
This diagram shows how the values of sine, cosine and tangent take +ve or -ve
values, depending the value of θ, within one of the four quadrants.

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 1.3.6 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Geometry has previously considered certain well-known regular shapes, e.g.
circles, rectangles and triangles, and studied their properties. These studies
have considered the shape in isolation, i.e. without reference to any particular
datum.
Co-ordinate geometry extends these studies by introducing datums, and then
expressing the position of the significant features of shapes with reference to their
datum. The datums we chose are usually the x, y, z axes we use in graphs.

Example. Suppose we had a right-angled triangle, sides and lengths 3, 4 and 5

units.
We know that the angles are approximately 37º, 53º and 90º.
We might chose to place the triangle in our x, y plane, where point A is 2 units
along the x axis, and 1 unit along the y axis. The co-ordinates of point A then
become (2.1).
As long as AC is drawn parallel to the x-axis, point C becomes (6.1) and point B
becomes (6.4). If we introduce point D as the mid-point along AB, it is clear that
the co-ordinates of D are (4, 2.5). If we were to fix point A, but rotate the triangle,
the co-ordinates of B and C would change, even through the length of the side
remains unchanged.

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 Assuming AC is drawn parallel to the x-axis, point C becomes (6.1) and point B
becomes (6.4). If we introduce point D as the mid-point along AB, it is clear that
the co-ordinates of D are (4, 2.5). If we were to fix point A but rotate the triangle,
the co-ordinates of B and C would change, even though the length of the sides
remained unchanged.
Point C moves from (6.1) to become (5.46, 3) and point B moves from (6.4) to
become (3.96, 5.56).
Note – the student will not be required to calculate the change in co-ordinates but
to appreciate how a change of position is accompanied by a change in co-
ordinates, even though the basic shape is unchanged.
In this example, the point A, B and C have co-ordinates which are positive integer
values, but they could have been given symbols, such as (xa, ya) (xb, yb) and
(xc, yc).
In further Maths studies, this would be more usual.

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 1.3.6.1 POLAR / RECTANGULAR CO-ORDINATES

In the previous chapter, the concept expressing geometrical shapes by using

(x, y) co-ordinates was considered.

Because their position is established with reference to the two axes x and y,
where the intersection of the two reference values completes a rectangle, such
co-ordinate are known as Rectangular Co-ordinates (they are sometimes known
as Cartesian co-ordinates).
Another co-ordinate system exists, which uses a different system of datum's.

In this system, the datum's are the origin, point O and the x axis, and the position
A, which was expressed as (2, 1) using (x y) co-ordinate will now be expressed in
terms of the distance from O (the 'r' co-ordinate) and the angular displacement of
the line OA with reference to the x axis (the co-ordinate). This method of
expressing position(s) in terms of r and φ is known as the Polar co-ordinate
system. (r, theta)

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 Although the student will not be required to perform extensive calculations using
either system in this module. A basic appreciation is necessary, which should
include the ability to relate one system to the other.

For example:
To convert Rectangular to Polar,

r2 = x2 + y2 r = (x 2
+ y2 )
tan φ = y φ = tan -1  y 
x  x

To convert Polar to Rectangular,

X = r cos φ
Y = r sin φ
Most scientific calculators have function keys to perform these calculations:
Look for the R → P and P → R functions

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