NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: MGS 403

COURSE TITLE: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

MGS 403: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Module I

UNIT 1 Definition, Philosophy and Nature of Community Development

UNIT 2 Community Development as an instrument of rural development

UNIT 3 Rural Leadership and Community Development

UNIT 4 Growth models and rural Development

Module II

UNIT 5 Principles and Philosophies of development

UNIT 6 The Concept of Rural development

UNIT 7 Integrated Rural development

UNIT 8 Social Infrastructures and rural development

UNIT 9 Social change in Rural development

Module III

UNIT 10 Rural Education and development

UNIT 11 Rural Community and its youth developments

UNIT 12 Attitudes of local government staff towards rural development

UNIT 13 Social negligence in rural development

UNIT 14 Health and rural development

UNIT 15 The theory and practice of community development

UNIT 16 Problems of development at the community level

UNIT ONE:

DEFINITION, PHILOSOPHY AND NATURE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Definition and Concept Clarification on Community Development
3.2 The Historical Development of Community Development
3.3 Approached to Community Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

This unit introduces the topic of community development. It is intended primarily for students
who have an interest in the topic, the main aim of this unit is to acquaint learners with the basic
concepts of community development.

In order to understand community development (CD) it should be stated that it means different
things to different people. It is founded on voluntary and healthy interdependence, mutual
benefit and shows responsibility. In recent years, CD tends to have involved local people
seeking and taking advantage of opportunities identifying and using their assets or working
together to solve problems.

Community development has its root in several academic disciplines including Sociology,
Economics, Psychology and even Architecture. The interdisciplinary approach of CD offers
several advantages, such as providing a holistic view of CD. CD is a structured intervention that
gives communities greater … over the conditions that affect their lives. Though this may not
solve all the problems faced by a local community, but it does build up confidence to tackle such
problems as effectively as any local action can. CD looks at the level of local groups and
organizations rather than with individuals or families. The range of local groups and
organizations representing communities at local level constitute the community sector.

Furthermore, CD is a skilled process and part of its approach is the belief that communities
cannot be helped unless they themselves agree to this process. CD has to look both ways not
only how the community is working at the grassroots, but also at how responsive key institutions
are to the needs of local communities.

3.2 Historical Development of Community Development

Community Development has been sometimes explicit and sometimes implicit goal of the
community people, among to achieve thorough the collective effort a better life, and has
occurred through history.

In the 19th century, the work of the early socialist thinkers Robert Owen (1771 – 1851), sought to
create a more perfect community. At the new Larmark and other communities. In the United
States groups of people came together to create utopian or intertwine utopian communities with
mixed success.

In the United States, in the 1960’s, the term community development began to complement and
generally replaced the idea of urban renewal which totally focused on physical development
projects at the expense of working class communities such as the Ford Foundation and the
government officials such as Senator Robert F. Kennedy took an interest in local non-profit
organization that attempted to apply business and management skills to the social mission of
applying low-income residents and their neighbors’. Eventually, such groups became known as
community development corporation or CDC’s.

Community planning techniques drawing on the history of utopian movements became important
in the 1920’s and 1030’s in East Africa, where CD proposals were seen as a way of helping local
people improve their own lives with indirect assistance from the colonial authorities.
Community development became a part of the Ujamaa village established in Tanzania by Julius
Nyerere, where it had some success in assisting with the delivery of Education Services
throughout rural areas, but has elsewhere met with mixed success. In the 1970’s and 1980’s CD
became a part of “integrated rural development”, a strategy promoted by the United Nations
Agencies and the World Bank.

3.3 Approaches to Community Development

There are six approached to Community Development

- Bottom-up Approach – Under this approach, low-income communities whether in urban

or rural areas needs certain basic facilities that are difficult or impossible to acquire,
either due to poverty or other constraints. Welfare –oriented governments have,
therefore, attempted to provide these basic facilities, but with great success. Recently,
new approaches have been adopted to improve the situation by encouraging people to
become involved in community – level decision making with respect to their needs and to
implement the construction of acceptable facilities. The communities would then
shoulder a greater responsibility leading to development with a higher degree of
responsibility. The suggested strategy for the increased emphasis on the bottom-up
community development has three components:

o Increasing knowledge about interaction between formal and informal institutions

at the local level.

o Upgrading community based components in existing and planned bank projects.

 o Proposals for stand-alone community development projects, including social
funds.

The term “bottom-up” implies decision making that comes from community members
without official status or positions. When the decision making process is seen to be more
democratic, starting from the common people and working its way up to centralized
agencies and officials, it is deemed to be bottom-up.
It is usually contracted with “top donor”. The effect of low income communities is
supposed to be an increase in “bottom-up” decision making processes.

- Community development Critical Approach – CD has always had a radiance agenda (Led
with, 2005). The practice is inspired by a vision of social and environmental justice. It is
fundamentally committed to bring about social change which contributes to the end.
Critical approaches to community development locate grassroots practice interim that
drawing vision of a just and sustainable future. The well-defined ideological base that
connects with our vision provides us with a framework through which to eradicate every
stage of CD process. This is an ideology of equality informed by such values as mutual
respect, reciprocity, dignity, mutuality trust and cooperation. This offers a system of
checks and balances to examine the validity of practice.

- Community Driven Development Approach (CDD) – This is an approach that gives

control of development decisions and resources to community groups. Poor communities
receive funds, decide on their use, plan and execute the chosen local projects, and
monitor the provision of services that result; it improves not just incomes but also the
peoples empowerment, the lack of which is a form of poverty as well.
Through its support for CDD, the International Development Association (IDA), the
World Bank funds for the world poorest countries, has been harnessing the energy and
capacity of communities for poverty reduction since the start of the decade, IDA lending
for CDD has annually over 50 operations for an average total of USS1.3 billion per year.
Through its support to CDD programmes, IDA finances services such as water supply
and sanitation, housing and schools that are tailored to community needs and likely to be
maintained and sustainable. By emphasizing transparency and accountability in local
decision-making, IDA’s CDD initiatives have contribution to more empowered citizenry,
more responsive government particularly at the local government level, improved
delivery of public goods, and services, and more sustainable community assts. In post-
conflict countries, in particular, the approval has helped deepen peace-keeping by
fostering attitudes of trust and tolerance in the process of rebuilding communities.
CDD is increasingly seen as a nexus between bottom-up and top bottom approaches to
improve government and service provision.
IDA naturally adopted the CDD approach as a mechanism for improved service delivery
in key public sectors. But building on the principle of participatory governance and
country-based aid that are hallmarks of its support, IDA has used CDD also to foster
social accountability that supports decentralization of services. Recently, CDD has
become an IDA priority for empowering poor communities and building greater
accountability.
 CDD was also a reaction to the failures of earlier approaches to targeted poverty
reduction; such as integrated development programmes for a geographical area, and
lending to agricultural credit institutions. Such failure was also widespread outside the
World Bank and encouraged a genuine more towards greater decentralization – a more
away from reliance on central government as the main service provider and participation.
World Bank 2009.
CDD programmes fit well with the agenda of improving governance since, if well-
designed and well-implemented, they strengthen transparency and accountability.

- Places-based Approach – There is a growing body of literature that suggests places are
social constructs and that individuals help to give meaning to particular constructs and
that individuals help to give meaning to particular loci
Here place cannot be defined solely through geography or territory because place is also
derivable through social processes. Place is something that can be nurtured and reshaped
through individual or collective effort. A placed based approach aims to help, address
and cooperate the activities of different state holders related to initiatives that promotes
social well-being. A paced-based approach promotes a framework that allows
stakeholders to both develop shared meanings on place and establish promoters for action
that can help guide public policy to engage local stakeholders and encourage nurturing
interactive placed – focused dialogues by entering into a place-based approach discusses
policy and institutional structures operating at the local, provinces and federal lvels in
relation to this approach.

3.4 Principles of Community Development

Community Development has been previously defined as any action taken by any agency which
is primarily designed to benefit the entire community. This defined by the following principles:

- Start with the people

- Build relationships, by introducing new ideas, showing how they meet identified needs
- Projects to be undertaken should be kept a simple as possible.
- There should be the involvement of as many community people as possible in all
activities from the start of any project.
- Train people close to their home communities.
- Train in locally acceptable ways.
- Train trainers who can then in turn train others.
- Involve local leadership
- Cooperate with governments.
- Encourage interdependent relationships vs dependent or totally independent relationships
- Planning services
- Servicing self help groups.
- Naming support and social action groups
- Building community networks
- Improving quality of life
- Working towards social justice
 - Empowering individual and communities.

- Start with the people –

Here, CD should be the sole prerogative of the immediate beneficiaries. It should be people
oriented. The communities should be solely allowed to decide on their immediate needs. A
community as example may be in need of both water and good roads. But if they are
allowed their choice, probably they would decide on water first before the road construction.
Here, efforts should be intensified on the provision of water.

Community development should be people-driven and should embrace perceived

community needs.

- Secondly, CD should build bridges and relationships, by introducing new ideas, showing
how they can be able to meet identified needs.

- Projects to be undertaken on behalf of the community should be kept as simple as before.

It should be what the community will be able to afford. The technology a times when
possible sheared be locally sourced.

- In case of training programmes, people should be trained within their communities to

reduce transportation costs, and moreover, training should be done in locally acceptable
ways, and if possible train those that can evenly retrain others.

3.5 Community Development Processes

In order to streamline our development, there are specific sets of guidelines that need to be
followed. The development process consists of a set of seven steps, transaction between the
different communities when the cul… are matched that describe the finalization of each step.

Depending on the situation not all the seven steps are necessary.

1. Presentation of the idea.

2. Unite requirements for idea execution
3. Design specification
4. Time and cost estimates
5. Implementation
6. Testing
7. Completion

1. Presentation of an idea – Here a community who lacks electricity will want the community to
be connected to the national and this may be referred to as rural electrification. Some other
communities may need rural transformation through opening up of road networks for the
evacuation of farm produce from the rural areas to urban markets.
2. Second step in the process - uniting of requirements for idea execution. When a community
presents an idea for execution, there is need to draw a road map for the execution of the idea.
Here the community may need to form a committee on rural electrification as it concerns the
community. Here members of the committee will now put heads together and see how that
need can be achieved.

3. Then comes the step of Design Specification. This includes time and cost estimates. How
much would be needed for its implementation and how the funds would be sourced. It would
also determine the physical instruction in terms of how many poles to be created, points of
erection and how many homes would be affected.

4. Implementation stage – the implementation stage launches all planned efforts and directly
attempts to facilitate community change. Building on the previous three stages of
community action. Throughout the precious stages, resources were gathered and assessed
subgroups formed to focus on specific tasks and active citizens recruited.
In this implementation stage, these resources are formerly committed and people are given tasks
of going forward to achieve the goals established by the organization and its subgroups to
maximize their impact, each subgroup should –

a. Meet to review goals, objectives and immediate steps for action as action efforts are
launched, it is essential that all participants be clear about the planned goals and the
methods for meeting these goals. It may be the case that some subgroups needs certain
clarification on how to proceed and the resources available to support successful action.

b. Identify clear and measurable stages or benchmark for all objectives. While goals,
objectives, and action plans have already been established, it will be useful to identify
clear benchmarks or measurable impacts. This will serve to provide activists with
feedback and to show that action efforts are making progress. Such measurable impacts
will also show the general public that the organization is fostering positive changes on
behalf of the community. As stated tasks are achieved, these can be promoted and
marketed accordingly.

5. Testing – Empowered with plans and a detailed background, subcommittees can move
forward. As they take action, opportunities and mechanism for feedback and discussion
should be presented. These opportunities can be through meetings, informal gatherings or
established contacts can be arrived at to provide the insight and advice needed to adjust
action plans. As achievements are made and measurable impacts achieved, it is important to
celebrate and promote them through informal celebrations and other promotional awareness.
It may also be the case that some action efforts have failed. The fact that these did not reach
success is irrelevant, and should be celebrated as the first effort of what will be many valid
action efforts. CD is achieved if diverse groups are brought together and channels of
communication established. From this process, future efforts will emerge that will achieve
success.

6. Completion – CD and locally based actions are a never ending process. Both need to be
 continuously cultivated. As progress in various forms is made, it is essential that mistakes,
obstacles, and inconsistencies in application be identified and addressed. To fine tune
actions, opportunities to effectively measure outcomes and provide feedback are vital to the
long-term achievement of goals.
To provide feedback, formal debriefing meetings should be established at the conclusion of
action efforts. These meetings can evaluate progress, identify obstacles and explore new
means of dealing with unforeseen problems. At these meetings, all subgroups / committees
can report on their activities, progress, obstacles and methods for adjusting to challenges.
The development of any community is not a onetime event in which success or failure is
detailed. It is a process where the bringing together of actively interested and diverse
community action process, channels of communication and interaction are established that
cut across class and other lines. This is a remarkable achievement and represents Community
Development.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE ONE

(1) Name and explain 3 approaches to community development

ANSWERS

They are:-

- Bottom up approach
- Upgrading community based components
- Community development Critical approach
- Community Driven Development Approach

4.0 Conclusion

Unit one module one (1) has shown that there is no communion of people without unity. The
aggregate interaction of the people is hinged on unhindered unity existing among them. A
community is an aggregate of people who have common linguistic affinity within a geographic
proximity working for a specific interest.

5.0 Summary

The unit was able to define the concept of community development, the historical development
of community development, approaches to community development and principles of
community development and a detailed fact on the processes of community development.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

Question (1) Define and state five principles of community development

Question (2) Define the term “Placed – based approach to community development”

7.0 References / Further Reading

1. Sanders, “Theories of Community development” rural sociology, March (1958),

2. Murray G. Ross, with B. W. Lappin. Community organization theory principles and

practice (1958).

3. Warner Bloomberg Jnr. “Community Organization” in Social Problems. A

modern Approach (1958).

4. S. M. Ngie. Minority Policies and Rural Development in Nigeria, ABU Press, Zaria,
(1994)

UNIT TWO:

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AS AN INSTRUMENT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Definition of Community Development
3.2 Policy Issues in Community Development
3.3 Goals of Community Development
3.4 Methods of organizing Community Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference / Further Reading
1.0 Introduction

To achieve economic growth and social changes where people are more eligible to receive
services than there are public funds available to pay for those services, requires the spreading of
efforts so that local communities and individuals can participate. In this unit, you will learn
about some policy issues, the goals in organizing of community development.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:-

- Define community development

- Evaluate policy issues in community development
- State the goals of community development and
- Describe the methods of organizing community development

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Definition of community development

The United Nations Economic and Social Council defines CD as the process by which the
efforts of the people themselves are united with those of the governmental authorities to improve
the economic and socio- cultural conditions of communities to integrate these communities into
the life of the nation, and to enable them to contribute fully into national progress. These
essential elements are:

(1) The participation by the people themselves in effort to improve their level of livelihood.

(2) Secondly, the provision of technical and others in ways that encourages initiative, self
and mutual help and make them more effective. It is expressed in programs designed to
achieve a wide variety of specific improvements

3.2 Policy Issues on Community Development

CD whose major thrust is emphasized on streamlined change, population participation and

leadership training involves a dynamic interaction between the central government and the
villages or communities. The level of success in this form of relationship has become an
instrument for forging a more constructive role for government in development, helping to
establish on the one hand a better understanding between the ruler and the ruled within the
village and between the central government and the village authorities on the other. The ability
of community development to adapt itself to changing conditions in the village and the
community life is largely due to its pragmatic approach to problem-solving in community
development.

3.3 Goals of Community Development

Community development is concerned with the development of the human elements within a
community. This implies the realization of human potentialities and its ability to control his
environment as a measure of real development and an increase in material progress and a
corresponding increase in the development of human capacities and social institutions which
would have otherwise been superficial and temporary.

The major goals of community development should be –

- To induce social change for balanced human and material resources

- To strengthen the institutions structure so as to facilitate social change and the process of
growth
- To promote social justice by permitting the less privileged groups to give expression to
their aspiration and to participate in development activities

ACTIVITY

(1) Define and name some perceived goals of community development

Answer

Definition as stated above.

Goals – To induce Social Change

- Promote social justice, equity in resource management

3.4 Methods of Organizing Community Development

CD being an instrument for inducing change has to give close attention to the strategy and
tactics that it considers using and the time needed to achieve its objectives. The methods to be
used, depends largely on the characteristics of the community concerned. In most cases, local
survey to generate data or information is the first requirement of local action and thus should be
done with the full participation of the rural people. The information collected should be used for
a diagnosis covering as many aspects of community life as possible. On the basis of this,
together with the projection of existing trends, it is possible to formulate alternative action
proposals.

4.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, the massive commitment of national resources towards the elimination of poverty
and to have each distribution of basic amenities throughout the nation should be aligned with CD
process to ensure meaningful rural development.

5.0 Summary

In this unit, policy issues, goals and methods of organizing CD was highlighted and explained.
CD remains a reliable tool in rural transformation.

6.0 Reference / Further Readings

S. M. Ngie. Minority, Policies and Rural Development, ABU, Press, Zaria 1994.

Ishaya Sarki Habu, Theory and Practice of Policies

Introductory Notes for University Students, Abu, Zaria, (Unpublished).

UNIT THREE:

RURAL LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Traditional Leadership Institutions and Community Development
3.2 Defining the traditional Institution
3.2.1 The Role of the Traditional Institution and Community Development
3.3 Government and Local Institutions
3.3.1 The Conflict of priorities
3.4 Effective Leadership in Rural Areas
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

Leadership is very important in any organization. The leadership of any organization to a large
extent will determine the viability of the organization. Some communities have not realized
stated objectives due to bad and inept leadership style.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

- Understand the concept of leadership at the community level.

- Explain the theories and approaches to leadership
- Discuss effect leadership as an agent of rural transformation

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The concept of Leadership vis-avis the traditional institutions at the

community Level
Leadership is a sterling ability to move men and material resources for the attendance of enacted
policies or the carriage of the resolution of the people. Leadership has either been defined or
explained in various ways according to relevant experts. It is important to understand what
leadership is in terms of definition, nature and characteristics.

Leadership can be defined as an influenced process. Areas of influence, include official position,
financial controls, organizational influence, knowledge, interpersonal contacts; personal
characteristics. It involves one person trying to get others do something that he wants them to
do. This is influencing the activities of an organized group towards goal setting and
achievement. It further implies that a leader must be able to influence the followers towards
setting appropriate goals and towards effective achievement. Leadership is a sterling ability to
move men and material for the attendance of the enacted policies or the people in such a manner
to bring to bear the resources of such resolution. A leader is a coordinator and a participating
type so as to bring about functional result in the organizational set up in the community.

Leadership is the ability to influence authority and power to direct and re-direct priorities for
effectuating the stipulated goals of an organization. Rural leadership therefore is the ability of a
person designated as a leader to influence and control the community efforts towards the
realization of the objective of an area.

Traditional rulers are the custodians of local tradition and customs. They exercise traditional
authority which is usually obtained from father to son, according to local customs and traditions.
Their major functions are the fact that they help the local councils to maintain law and order in
their local domains.

Secondly, they serve as a link between the people and the government by explaining to the
people what the government is doing what problems his immediate environment is confronted
with. An example may be the issue of flooding or erosion. They are also the chief priest or
heads of all the traditional religion and ceremonial worship

3.2 Defining the Traditional Institution

Since the pre-colonial days, even before the advent of African civilization, there was traditional
institution in Africa that serves as the head of government. There was government that was
traditional in nature, tailored according to cultural contemplation to accommodate the pattern of
living reasonable for then political engineering and social relations.

The government covered among other things any exigency that may consciously or
unconsciously result whose spontaneity may discomfort our geo-centric occupation. The
government had all the elements of the present day organs of governance, being the legislature,
judiciary and the executives sometimes embedded in one person.

The effectiveness and practicability of the three depended essentially on the persons holding
and molding the political authority. The traditional institution is a respected organ in the socio-
political hierarchy of authority in any geographic divide. The traditional rulers are more
knowledgeable in rural governmental affairs. The historical development of the people are
being handed over to the custodians of culture being local kings. These kings relate with each
other and as such the development question is handled by the local leaders through studies of
their existence and what the previous kings had dominantly settled their minds on. Geographic
settlement and discrepancy emanating from boundary adjustments need the input of the
traditional system.

The community has a human heart and feeling and in such position, every effort for its
maintenance and sustainability will always be on how every facet of organization is put in place.
The traditional lords should be recognized in the political schemes of the country’s advancement
and be used for more able areas but through the pragmatic belief and consciousness of making
things happen for the realization of this. The role of the traditional institution is to liaise with the
government and the people within their geographical areas with the intention of discussing their
problems and solutions.

Here, the traditional rulers can set up committees whose duty would be to marshal out the
community desires for physical solutions. They are to open channels through which physical
and material resources can come to the area. It is also their role to galvanize means of economic
production for the furtherance of development. The rural areas cannot just develop on the
platform of sycophancy or parasitic tendency but only fervent recourse to abide by accepted
norms.

Furthermore, their roles can be said to be the following:

- To make peace, adjudicate cases and provide equity and justice.

- It is the duty of the traditional lords to provide the forum for rectification of grievances.
- It is also their duty to provide project and propagate representative government which
will be all embracing and accommodating.
- It is also their duty to organize economic units and develop along product lines. This
can be achieved through mobilization, education and channeling of resources to that area
and concertizing the people to follow suit.
- Lastly, it is their duty to be objective and not subjective in their reasoning, allocation of
values and adjudicating of cases.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

(1) Name with examples the salient functions of the traditional institution

ANSWER

1) Maintenance of law and order

2) To propagate representative governance that act as the in between the government and
the people
 3) Custodian of the traditional institution.

4) Organization of economic duties.

3.3 Government and the Local Institution

The 1976 Local Government reforms gave impetus to local institutions. Government had
generally piloted development programs through statutory or constitutional provisions which
imperatively dictate the role the government should take. For example, the 1999 constitution
provides the fundamental objectives and directive principles of state policy which pivotally
enumerated the objectives and principles of the government to the entire geographical boundaries
in Nigeria.

The government as a matter of necessity should then accordingly:

- Provide the executive capacity, for the local leaders in harnessing , propagating and
projecting the aims of the rural areas within their confines.

- They should resuscitate all organs and agencies of local leadership respecting cultural
contemplations.

- Also, providing capital and material resources to the local population for self – reliance
and economic involvement.

- The government should establish community agencies to be controlled by the local

chiefs with authority.

- As a matter of priority should engender economic development in the local areas.

The government in order to bring about development in the rural areas has legal means avenues
of promoting human resources, development and management which basically is the central
focus of an enduring development. The contemplation of the government must resolve around
how to organize the rural areas with industrial inputs for greater results and again their
contemplations should be to stop the waste of industrial resources.

Furthermore, the government should create institutions like, social, economic, industrial resource
and cultural groups for practical and effective growth in local science. The people in these local
institutions should be experienced personnel who are educated people so as to be able to control
and manage their functions. The essence of local institutions is to put into perspective the
reasonable decisions of the people into focus thereby guiding against any infiltration of ideas
which may emanate from the distortion of priorities. The establishment of local institutions will
bring glaringly the picture of the rural needs, gazette them for real solution and consequent
growth and promotion of the motives of the rural dwellers.
The social resource group will see to the organizational relationship growth and commitment to
the attainment of an enduring social stratum.

The economic resource group will see to the management of local economic resources.

The industrial resources group which pivotally must be responsible for industrial initiation and
training of local personnel on technical lines for the change in the rural set-up.

The cultural resource group should be in charge of the maintenance of the good aspect of culture
and expunge or eradicate the harmful ones. Example is the widowhood practices in the Eastern
part of Nigeria.

The support of the government to all these groups will greatly impact on the transformation of
the rural set-up.

3.4 Conflict of priorities at the community level

The traditional values though revered in the society sometimes engage in activities that negate
the essence of their existence. They sometimes act outside their assigned functions. The crux of
the matter is that the development of the rural areas would have been put in a better perspective
if the traditional institution is deeply involved in local restructuring.

There is also the issue of lack of enlightenment. Those selected to lead are often not enlightened
on matters concerning their immediate domains. Most of them are into power due to hereditary
consequences that may not have any experience in the art of administration and development.
The structure of traditional administration had made it increasingly difficult to use the local
leaders to create enabling governmental role.

Another area of conflict between the traditional institution in one hand and the other levels of
government is the non-inclusion of their roles in the Nigerian Constitution. The government is
of the opinion that traditional administration is their creation and therefore should abide by their
administrative bureaucracy.

3.5 Effective Leadership at the Community Level

Leadership is an integral part of management. Leadership effectiveness measures to an extent to

which the leader achieves the functions of his office or set out goals. Leaders should therefore,
have the following characteristics, intelligence, self-confidence, initiatives, capacity, and socio-
economic status. Leadership characterized by mediocrity cannot achieve the set-out goals. The
rural leadership has its statutory functions or its target associated with them. It is the
responsibility of the leadership to achieve these targets. Failure means slowing down progress,
which reflects on output. The problem this creates is ultimately traced to the leadership.
4.0 Conclusion

In any organization, business or community leadership plays a major role in the survival of such
organizations. Leadership takes the decisions and make sure they are carried out. Here,
traditional institutions have a crucial role to play in community development

5.0 Summary

The unit analyzed the issue of rural leadership in terms of defining the traditional institutions.
The role of traditional institutions and community development, government and local
institution, the conflict of priorities and effective leadership at the community level.

6.1 Tutor-Marked Assignments

Question (1) List the salient character traits of a community leader

Question (2) Define leadership and state why it is necessary at the community level

7.0 References / Further Readings

1) Umebali E. E. Chukwu Emeka, E. E. O and Njoku A. O (ed) (2000). Contemporary

Issues in Local Government and Rural Development. Enugu. Computer Edge
Publishers.

UNIT FOUR:

GROWTH MODELS AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Growth models in Rural Development
3.1.1 Classical and neo-classical model
3.1.2 Internal combination theory
3.1.3 Basic Resource Theory
3.1.4 Dual Economy Model
 3.1.5 Expert Led Model
3.1.6 Urban Industrial Model
3.1.7 High Input pay-off Model
3.1.8 Diffusion Model
3.1.9 Induced Model
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

Models are abstractions from reality which are used in explaining rural community development
and growth. Rural growth is necessary as it is used to demonstrate rural development. Rural
development assumes a under view and therefore embraces all fields of human endeavors.
Growth models are used to explain rural growth which brings about rural development.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

- Explain the usefulness of rural growth models.
- Define what models are and their usefulness.
- Discuss growth models and their effect on rural transformation.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Classical and Neo-classical growth model

The classical and neo-classical or new classical model states that the growth of any economy
whether rural or non-rural is a function of capital investment and the employment of lab our.
However, capital tends to flow into sectors characterized by high rate of return and high marginal
productivity to promote economic growth in rural areas. It is necessary to undertake measures
which will raise the rate of the return without regulation and with no thought of conservation. A
situation which intensifies the operation of diminishing returns. Another limitation is its
abstraction from technological changes. The role of natural resources in promoting development
is a function of technological change, for example, the impact of agricultural technology.

In such an economy, capital accumulation plays the classical role off being the engine of growth
but for a steady growth, agriculture must be commercial, a process which requires considerable
investment by the government in the agricultural sector as in Nigeria. It implies that resources
must be concentrated in the dynamic, commercial modern sector while withdrawing from the
subsistence sector for this purpose.

This model does not give an accurate representation of the structure and performance of a typical
under developed country. It was believed that this strategy would guarantee cumulative growth
of incomes, employment and rapid structural transformation of underdeveloped economies. The
problem confronting the classical model is that there must not be much skilled manpower to
harness the resources.

Secondly, it does not sufficiently emphasize the operation of the laws of diminishing return to
labour or capital in the face of rapid population growth and eventually static population and
technology. There is no regulation on the harnessing of the resources of the community.
Optimal harnessing is a function of the level of technology.

3.2 Internal Combination Theory

Internal combination theory attributes economic growth and development to forces within the
region or the internal sources including technology specialization, economies of scale and the
existence of growth, stimulating institutional, political, administrative arrangements. These can
be deliberately created or modified. Internal combination theory ignores the importance of
improved growth of labour as a factor in economic development. It ignores the role of
community service and infrastructure, which by generating external economies account for high
rate of return to capital investments.

Internal combination theory places an exaggerated emphasis on the factor and input prices as a
determinant of investment and growth thereby ignoring the role of institutional and
organizational arrangements. Moreover, it ignores the crucial role of technology, which by
shuffling the production function to the right tends to reduce cost and increase the rate of returns
on capital investments.

3.3 Basic Resource Theory

The basic Resource Theory states that economic growth depends on the presence, availability,
good and reliable magnitude of basic natural resources within a particular or economic regions.

The development resources attracts investment capital to these areas which in term increases
income and employment. The availability of resources in rural areas does not mean economic
development. It is only with the combination of factors of production that economic
development can come in. The theory argues that the development of these resources attracts
investment capital to these areas and increase income and enhances employment. It would be
wrong to assume that the availability of basic natural resources in an area is sufficient guarantee
for rapid development.

The basic result theory does not sufficiently emphasize the operation of diminishing returns to
labour or capital in the face of rapid population growth and essentially static production
technology. Besides, in many countries, the exportation of basic resources fully encounters a
bottle-neck way of labour scarcity and higher wages. To break this bottle neck will be by the
way of labour saving technology.

3.4 Dual Economy Model

This model distinguishes between modern and rural sectors. In rural sector, there is the absence
of savings and capital formation, no technology, use of family labour which produces for only
family consumption. The modern sector is market oriented and uses capital equipment and
technology. Based on the foregoing, therefore, resources are concentrated on the dynamic
commercial sector for this purpose. However, the implication is that all resources should be
channeled to the modern sector.

Nevertheless, there are some limitations to this model, there are no savings that will necessitate
capital formation. The idea that resources should be concentrated in already developed areas
does not lead to development. And lastly, it assigns very restrictive role to agriculture.

3.5 Export-led Model

This explains economic development in terms of emergencies and expansion of markets for
exports production. This achieves cumulative growth in income, employment, etc. The opening
of market in other parts of the world expanded the demand for export of which production was
intensive in the use of the abundant land and labour resources of the less developed economies.
This led to a fuller utilization of previously under-utilized law and labour. The expansion of
exports also increased investments in infrastructure facilities.

The limitation to this model is that it assumes a perfectly elastic export demand for agricultural
exports. The model ignores that crucial question of demand and market access for the
agricultural exports of less developed countries. Also, there is no mention as to the strategy for
promoting agricultural production.

Lastly, the model has not offered guide in an increasingly industrialized economy where there is
competition for agriculture, and the provision of raw materials between export market and
domestic agro-allied industries.

3.6 Urban Industrial Model

This model explains the fact that the nearer the location of agricultural production to urban areas,
the greater the probability of increased agriculture output, employment and incomes. This is
because nearness to urban area reduces transportation, cost of both output and input and creates
an expanded market for agricultural products, thus encouraging specialization.
3.7 High Input Pay-off Model

This model assigns a strategy role to new high yielding input varieties and educated rural labour.

3.8 Diffusion Model

This explains why there is substantial productivity difference among farmers in the same
economic and geographical areas. This is mainly due to differences in farmers adoption of new
varieties of seeds and mechanization including chemical inputs.

3.9 Induced Model

Problems arise in the course of economic development. The problems are also handled as they
come. The contribution of the model includes identifying relevant variables and carrying out
research. They are also part of the government policy. The growth models explain ways and
means of developing the rural areas.

4.0 Conclusion
This unit has discussed the growth models which try to describe the various views of rural
development. The models are characterized by some limitations. This model encourages
enhanced rural output and employment and income of the rural people. The models demonstrate
the various approaches to the rural development.

5.0 Summary

The growth models are more in number and each has its own approach to rural development.
They range from classical to neo-classical models and serve as guides to development in the
rural areas.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

Discuss the relevance of these models in rural development .

7.0 References / Further Readings

Olajide, S. O. et al (1981). Elements of Rural Economics: Ibadan University Press. Publishing

House, University
 UNIT FIVE

PRINCIPLES AND PHILOSOPHIES OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Principles and Philosophies of Development
3.1.1 Principles of citizen Participation
3.1.2 The principle of self-help
3.1.3 The principles of felt-need
3.1.4 The principle of self-reliance
3.1.5 The principle of self-growth
3.1.6 The principle of self-direction
3.2 Conditions that can generate interest in industrial self-development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

There is need for a student to know the meaning of principles and philosophies as regards
community development. Community development plays a significant role in the national
economy through the rural economy. A principle is deliberately evolved to produce or determine
desired results.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

- Discuss the meaning of principles and philosophies with special emphasis on community
development
- State and explain different principles as regards community development
- Analyze conditions that can generate such interests in an individual

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Principles and Philosophies in Development

A principle is a spring of actions according to Webster’s Reference Library. It is manifested in
common-sense and value statement which serves as a guide to action. A principle is embedded
in some basic truth, law or assumption which portrays some essential quality or element that
determine some intrinsic natural or characteristics of behaviour.

The principle of self-preservation is the basis for reasoning or action. This is so because it is a
rule of action or conduct from impulse, installation or incitement. This is a major attribute due to
the fact that every principle is meant to produce or determine a particular result(s) or outcome,
such as self-actualization in the growth of democracy, the attainment of popular participation in
community programmes. Also, it elicits understanding on which community competence is
built.

A principle can be viewed as a comprehensive proposition from which others are derived. It can
also be the ultimate basis of the existence of any feelings through an action geared towards the
attainment of desired objectives.

On the other hand, the philosophy behind the principle is a guide to action, which can be neatly
woven into the process of community development. A principle is deliberately evolved to
produce or determine desired results. Community development denotes social change, and a
major implication is that this change can be deliberately induced to produce the desired result of
improving the system values, structures and usages for local communities. As a tool for
purposive social change, community development must be guided by principles aimed at
producing in its citizens the will to be determined to realize the objectives for community
improvement. Hence, the preparation of citizens for effective participation in the social,
economic and political advancement of their communities desires and possibly, the compulsion
to accept the fact that people can be deliberate in intent and sturdy in action in overcoming such
limiting circumstances of life such as poverty, ignorance, disease and the idea that people can
work themselves out of their inhibitions into transforming the community.

Community development involves a problem-solving process, through which citizens are

enabled to grow in competence for a co-operative solution to community problems. Any
principle built around the need to attain such growth will form the veritable spring board for
action to enable the people identify their problems, and to deal and learn from their problems in
order to move forward. Some of such principles may be identified as follows:

3.1.1 Principle of Citizen Participation

This principle is deeply inherent in the very concept of community development, which enjoins
that whatever is done to improve the welfare of a people must endeavor to elicit the enthusiasm
of such a people. The idea of participation as it applies to community development strongly
implies that success is assumed where the effort of a local community is supplemented or
aroused by the direction of government authorities. This idea portrays community development
as a cooperation or partnership in progress.
The principle further stipulates that the local people should take part in the planning, execution,
utilization assessment of the social amenities or facilities designed to improve their welfare. It is
such participation that gives the people the pride of ownership of the facilities completed in the
process of community development.

The principle of citizen participation emphasizes the initiative of the people as the means of
stimulating the active involvement of all citizens in the work of community development. This
implies that the stimulus needed for the success of development programmes has come both from
the people themselves and from governmental authorities. The community itself has to learn to
realize and express its particular needs for development while executive planning must be based
on the needs rather than on programmes laid down from some more remote source, and therefore
neither truly represent what is actually required by the community nor likely to evoke the
enthusiasm of the people or to serve their active participation.

3.1.2 The Principle of Self Help

This is the main end-product of community development.

- Enables people to exploit to their advantage the resource which would, otherwise, be
dormant.

- Makes use of under-utilized labour.

- Increases the competence and confidence of a community in handling of its affairs.

- Constitutes a pre-requisite for survival in the modern world.

- Enables people to change the way they look at their responsibilities and helps them to
cultivate the sense of local initiative and effort.

- Enhances the development of democratic values and processes.

- Promotes the idea of ultimate control by the people.

- Fosters a substantial degree of freedom by individuals and groups.

- Leads to a considerable amount of government decentralization.

- Promotes widespread citizen participation.

3.1.3 The Principle of Felt-Need

This stresses that people must be able to identify what they want to do in order to achieve their
desired development. This is possible if they are able to understand what stands in their way to
progress, and are able to do something to remove . This obstacle is known as the problem of
such a community. The idea of needs arises from the lack of absence of something which in the
opinion of such a population would facilitate the improvement of the welfare of the community
if it had been present or available.

Hence, anything which may be considered essential for maintenance of a desired state of affairs
is a need. A need therefore represents an unbalance or lack of adjustment between a present
situation and condition, a new or changed set of conditions assumed to be more desirable. A
need therefore exposes the problem, as it implies a gap between the two conditions of what really
exists and what should preferably exists in the life of a community.

3.1.4 The Principle of Self-Reliance

This principle promotes self-growth. It upholds the need for people to take their destiny in their
own hands. This is fast growing as a new formula for community development. Its widespread
acceptance in the development planning of most African countries tends to give greater stimulus
and cohesiveness to CD in these countries. The principle promotes innovative and offers the
psychological condition which is fundamental to self-employment. Self-reliance demands that
community members should apply their knowledge and skills to the resources at their disposal.

The implication is that in the process of CD, citizens must endeavour to develop and sustain a
society – free of poverty, ignorance disease and squalor. This they can achieve through putting
in check those physical limitation human weakness and the social and institutional constraints
that can militate against the use of natural resources. This means that the development of
communities should accommodate the integration of various aspects of community improvement
such as agriculture, health, nutrition family life, education, training and approach technologies.

3.1.5 The Principle of Self-Growth

This principle maintains that a community does not have to accept, or even wait to have a
solution to its problems, perhaps worked out by outsiders who have no connections with the
community. It has to be able through constant practice, to diagnose its own problems. In this
process, the community should strive to rely, as much as possible, on its own resources. It is
such reliance on the resources of the community that leads to an appreciation and good
management by its members of what external resources that may be infused, from time to time,
in the community effort, either by government of external specialized agencies.

Self-growth implies that people can develop a stable response and self-reliant citizenry capable
of mobilizing local resources for the satisfaction of the needs of their community and the
attainment of a decent and wholesome life. This means that people need change for better living.
Self-growth maintains that they are capable of changing.
3.1.6 The Principle of Self-Direction

When a nation strives for self-reliance, it must be engaging in activities aimed at maximizing the
use of its local resources in carrying out its programmes. The principle of self-direction stresses
that individuals and communities have the capacity to motivate themselves internally to carry out
activities on their own initiative to achieve positive results for personal and community
development. The thrust of this principle is based on the philosophical ideal that adults have the
capacity to develop the self-concept and the self-esteem that can help them to be self-directed.
This concept is progressive in nature, and confirms the fact that self-direction cannot be a static
process. The individual has the propensity towards the social rather than the individual demands
to the terms of the society, in the process of his survival in that society. This may raise the issue
of the possibility of some constraints in the use of self-direction in carrying out project, which
are community – based than individual based.

Activity (1) Define the terms principle and philosophy

Answer: A principle is deliberately evolved to produce determined desired results.

Philosophy can be defined as that which is rational, reasonable sound, calm and humanitarian.

3.2 Conditions that are necessary for the generation of the process of felt-need

- The first condition here is the generation of interest to be part of the community
development process in the place where the individual lives and work.

- Secondly, the demand of the work schedule taken up as an individual or professional

- Thirdly, exhibiting the love for community development activities for their own sake.

- The issue of pecuniary benefit and progression in the political arena in terms of seeking
for political office at the grassroots level.

4.0 Conclusion

A veritable feature of community development, self-direction can both prepare a community for
the desired social change and remove the syndrome of alienation from the community
development process.

5.0 Summary

This unit was able to analyze the principle and philosophy behind the concept of community
development. Most of the principles like felt need, self-growth and direction were discussed in
details.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

Question (1) State and define the principle and philosophy in community

development Question (2) Discuss the principle of Felt-need in community

development

7.0 References / Further Readings

Olajide, S. O. et al (1981). Elements of Rural Economics: Ibadan University Press. Publishing

House, University
 UNIT SIX:

THE CONCEPT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 The Concept and Definition of Rural Environment
3.1.1 Nature of Rural Development
3.1.2 Poor infrastructural facilities
3.1.3 High population Density and Gross Illiteracy
3.1.4 Low Technological Base and Underdevelopment
3.2 Concept of Development
3.3 Indices of Development
3.4 Steps in Engineering Development in Rural Areas
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction

There is need to understand the concept of rural development to aid the understanding of
community development. This is so especially in developing nations. Rural development is
synonymous with community development.

2.0 Objective

By the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

- Explain the concept of rural environment

- Explain the concept of development

- Discuss the indices of development and steps to bring about development in rural areas.

- Explain the concept of rural development

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Definition and Concept of Rural Development

Rural development has been defined in various ways by different authors as follows:
- As a process whereby concerted efforts are made in order to facilitate significant
increases in rural resource productivity with the central objective of enhancing rural
income and increasing employment opportunities in rural communities for rural dwellers
to remain in the area.

- An integrated approach to food production, provision of physical, social and institutional

infrastructures with an ultimate goal of bringing about qualitative changes which
culminate in improved standard of living of rural population.

- It also involves effecting improvement in living standards of farmers and the rural
populace in general.

- The main concern in rural development is to bring about the modernization of rural
society through a transition from traditional isolation to integration with the nation. It
constitutes a process of planned change for which one approach or the other is adopted
for improvement and or transformation of the lot of rural populace. It is concerned with
the improvement of living in the rural areas on a self-sustaining basis through
transforming the social-spatial structures of their productive activities.

- It involves creating and hindering opportunities for individuals to realize full potentials
through education and share in the decision and action which affect their lives. An effort
to increase rural output creates employment opportunities and root - out fundamental
cases of poverty, disease and ignorance.

The Concept of Rural Environment

Development as a concept has been subjected to various theoretical interpretations and empirical
operationalization consequently, it eludes any precise definition. Nonetheless, most students of
change would agree with the notion that development is a process by which a continuous
increase in system’s efficiency produces the conditions which results in general upliftment. It is
that process which is concerned with the general improvement of man’s living conditions. Thus,
both the physical and psychological elements of development mutually reinforce each other in
the process of general upliftment, which is indispensable to development.

Therefore, rural development is a determined and concise attempt to focus on the general
upliftment of man’s living conditions in the rural area.
3.1.1 Nature of rural development

Rural infrastructure constitutes the substance of rural welfare. Efforts to raise rural welfare must
therefore go beyond the traditional and limited approach of raising per capita income through
agriculture. Agricultural developments projects to the provision of rural basic needs such as
health and medical facilities, rural transportation facilities, electricity, pipe-borne water and
schools. Rural Nigerians must be appreciated beyond their roles as mere producers of food and
fiber for the needs of the urban economy.

3.1.2 Poor Infrastructural Facilities

It is either there is complete absence of infrastructural facilities or they are in poor conditions
such facilities includes good road network, electricity, pipe borne ware, health facilities.
Although they are capital intensive, they are essential in bringing about economic development.

3.1.3 High population Density and gross illiteracy

Rural environments witnesses high population density. They cluster within specific areas and
thereby causing congestion. There is no family planning, due to the low literacy rate. Greater
percentage of the rural people are not educated and this affects in the area of decision- making
and in the management of economic activities.

3.1.4 Low Technological Base and Under Development

Rural environment is characterized by low technology, which reduces output. There is also under-
employment. Labour intensive activities reduce output and theory creating disguised
unemployment.

3.2 The Concept of Development

Development could be defined as a process of sustained increases in total and per capita income
accompanied by structural transformation and modernization of socio-economic environment. It
could be economic development or growth. Economic growth does not present the sources of
increase in per capita income or the character of factors of production and infrastructure
facilities.

Economic development takes into account the distribution, sources of growth, development and
infrastructure and administrative framework essential to sustained economic. In particular,
development implies not merely the growth of per capita income or real income, but also its
distribution, the sources of growth, the development of infrastructure, and administrative
framework essential to sustained economic growth.

3.3 Indices for Development

Increase in per capita income – income per head

This is a major index that determines whether a society is developing or not. But where the
index signifies an increment, that means that there is a development effort.
 - There is also more even distribution of income where by not few individuals are holding
the nation to ransom. Money is circulated in the hands of larger number of individuals.

- Reduction in the level of unemployment. Where many people are employed, this means
more people paying taxes and this is meant to be used for the development of the society.

- There is danger in a mono-economy. A mono economy is a situation where an economy

earns income in a single item or commodity. Example is Nigeria that is depending
mainly on oil. So therefore, investment should be made into other ventures for
diversification.

- There is also the increase in the supply of high level manpower. .

- Balanced development should be seen in both the rural and the urban centers.

3.4 Steps in engineering development in the rural areas.

- The first step is carrying out informal survey and fact finding missions.

- Identifying small groups, leaders and interest groups.

- The third step is the identification of community problems.

- After the identification of the problems, the citizens and the government should be aware
of it.

- There should also be what is known as plan articulation, proceeding on the planned
action of change and evaluation and re-evaluation where necessary.

Activity 1 – Name 5 indices of

Development Answer:

1. Per capita income increment

2. Even distribution of income

3. Reduction in unemployment

4. Diversification of the economy

5. Supply of high level of manpower

4.0 Conclusion

This unit explains the concept of rural development. Rural development refers to any package
designed for those living in the rural areas and most Nigerian live in the rural areas where they
derive their means of livelihood. Government at various levels has developed programmes that
could enhance rural development. The private sector also has major role to play in rural
development.

5.0 Summary

Developing the rural area will enhance the national income as most of resources are tapped in the
rural areas. Entrepreneurs should start thinking of establishing their business in rural areas

Reference
Umebali.E.E (2004): Rural Resources Farm Business and Rural Development.
 UNIT 7
INTEGRATED RURAL
DEVELOPMENT TABLE OF
CONTENTS
1.0 Introductions
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Integrated rural development

3.2 The role of government
3.2.1 The non government Agencies
3.2.2 The rural community
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Further Reading
7.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The aim of any rural development programme should be to strengthen the socio
economic infrastructure of development in the rural area to alleviate rural poverty.
In this unit, you will learn about integrated approach to rural development which
has such components as economic and integration through participative learning.

2.0 By the end of this unit a student should be able to:

- state and describe the approaches to rural development

- Use your knowledge of the course to evaluate the role of your own
community in rural development.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The integrated approach to rural development is a deliberate effort aimed at
locating key rural development projects that will in turn attract other basic
infrastructural facilities. In other words rural development project should have
linkage and multiplying effects, for example the construction of a major feeder
road should form the basis for the location of large community farm, potable
water supply, postal facilities, rural electrification, community skill centers and
markets.
In the same vein, rural communities are agricultural in nature but agricultural
development alone is not enough how ever intensified, and therefore cannot
produce balanced rural development of adequate capacity, able to upgrade rural
life. Therefore rural agricultural development should lead to the development of
Agro- allied industries. Integrated rural development will thus combine modern
agricultural development and the development of light and cottage industries
including Services that give evident promise of improving life’s and income of
the rural area dweller. Integrated rural development involves massive
investment hence, it require the joint action between the governments at its various
level, the private enterprise and the rural community being developed.
3.3 THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

The Federal Government guidelines for the reform of the local government
system in Nigeria in 1976 provided a frame work for the decentralization of some
important function of state government to local government in order to harness
local resources for rapid development. One of the effects of the 1976 local
government reforms therefore, has been the tendency to integrate community
development activities and rural region programmes in to the local government
system. Local government bodies are expected to provide the principal local
organization through which development at the local level operate. Local
government is typically expected to provide the equipment, technical staff and
necessary funds for completion and future maintenance of community projects. It’s
also the local authority that the community look up to for assistance in providing
materials and advice in the process of executing community project. The local
government are statutory bodies with legal powers to tax, regulate and promote
grassroots activities and allocate resources. The Federal Government in
conjunction with the World Bank had established integrated Agricultural
development projects in the states aimed at developing the rural areas. Another
programme for action for accelerated rural development by the government was
the establishment of the direct orate for food, Roads and rural infrastructure with
the mandate to:
- Effectively promote a framework for grass root social mobilization
- Mount a virile programme of development monitoring and
 performance evaluation and
- Undertake the construction of about 60,000 kilometer of rural roads

3.2.1 NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATION

Nongovernmental organizations are like public services organizations that are not
funded by the government which are private in nature. They make contributions
within the framework of the planning towards integrated rural development in a
combination of agricultural modernization and rural industrialization. An
example is the Fadama World Bank Project going on the six geopolitical zone of
the nation.

3.2.2 THE RURAL COMMUNITY

The part played by the rural population itself in rural development is what is
called community self help programme. In many rural communities in Nigeria,
rural development is synonymous with community self help. The rural population
funding by competitive donations , levies or local taxation, the building of local
infrastructures such as feeder roads, bridges and culverts rural electrification,
water boreholes and pipe borne water. They also generate and employ funds to
build schools both primary and secondary. They build health centers, maternity
homes and cottage hospitals. They strategy for acceleration the pace of rural
development is based on the principle of working in close partnership with the
people. The idea here is to sensitize and mobilize the entire population
especially at the grass root level and actively involve them in effective, economic
and social activities. The involvement of the people can be achieved through their
voluntary association, community town unions, age and wrestling groups.
ACTIVITY 1

How effective are the current policies on rural development?

4.0 CONCLUSION
Rural development is a joint exercise between the governments the private
enterprises and the rural community being developed. For integrated results the
three sectors have to interact in paining an implementation. The government is
very much committed to rural development as an indication of its responsiveness
to the need of the people and for the fact that development from below has gained
the wide recognition globally as a strategy for accelerating social and economic
progress.
5.0 SUMMARY
It has been stated that integrated rural development requires joint action between
the government at its various levels, the private enterprises and the rural
community concerned. The individual roles of the three parties in rural
development were highlight and was concluded by reiterating that with about 80%
of Nigerians living in the rural areas. Rural development is undoubtedly the real
foundation upon which any meaningful and sustainable national development can
be built in Nigeria .

6.O TUTOR –MARKED ASIGNMENT

What do you understand by integrated rural development?

7.0 FURTHER READING

Ndegwa etal (1987) Management for Development Probity in Themes in Africa
Today. OUP Glasgow .
E.C Amnucheazi (1979) Reading in social Science issues in National Development
4th Dimension Lagos .

UNIT 8
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTUR ES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Social infrastructure

3.1.1 Medical and health facilities
3.1.2 Potable water and rural electrification
3.1.3 Education

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Further Reading
7.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Social infrastructure support sustained Economic growth and improve quality of
health and living conditions. In this unit you will learn about social infrastructure
and rural development. The will be a special focus on the provision of medical
and health facilities, potable water supply, rural electrification and education .
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit 9 students should be able to:

- Explain what constitutes social infrastructure.

- Assess the importance of social infrastructure in the development of the
rural areas.
3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE

Social infrastructures remain the core element of rural welfare. This effort to raise
rural welfare must necessarily go beyond the traditional and limited approval of
raising per capital income through agricultural development project to the
provision of the rural basic needs in term of health and medical facilities,
electricity, potable water and schools. Rural Nigerians must be appreciated
beyond their roles as mere producers of food and fiber for the needs of the urban
economy to their roles as consumers and citizens equally entitled like their urban
counterparts to the good things of life .

3.1.1 MEDICAL AND HEALTH FACILITIES

In addition to realizing new income opportunities through production for the
market, rural dwellers want to be rescued from the savages of disease,
malnutrition and ignorance. The health status of rural dweller is seriously
impaired by such factors as their sources of drinking water , house types
environmental sanitation, personal hygiene, nutritional status and literacy level.

3.1.2 POTABLE WATER AND RURAL ELECTRIFICATION

Majority of the inhabitant of the rural areas obtains their drinking water from
streams, rivers with only a negligible number having dug- wells and boreholes.
Adequate power supply is a pre-requisite for both economic and socio political
development of any country. It is for this reason that some communities stretch
their resources beyond tolerable limits to find money to electrify their villages.

3.1.3 EDUCATION
Formal and informal education imparts the ability to read and write and thereby
enhances the production in two ways; First, famers are better able to understand
and apply new economic information such as fertilizer, plant diseases and seed
quality. Others are pest control instructions, machinery operation and maintenance.
Secondly education enhances the knowledge that rural dwellers have of the
nutrients value of food thereby maximizing their nutritional and social welfare.
Finally, education gives rural people dignity, self- respect and sense of belonging.

ACTIVITY
What appropriate technologies do we need for sustaining rural based
industrialization?

4.0 CONCLUSION
Rural development seeks to achieve improvement in the quality and standard of
living of the majority of the people in the rural areas through the provision of
social infrastructure whose major components includes health facilities, education
and rural utilities.

5.0 SUMMARY
The units dealt with the element of social infrastructure and have argued that
provision of social infrastructure holds the key to the attainment of the objective
of the rural development which is the improvement in the quality and standard of
living in the rural areas.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What are social infrastructures and how do they facilitate the process of rural
development?

7.0 FURTHER READING

P. Ndegwa etal (1987) Management for development priority themes in Africa
today. Oup Glasgow.
K. Pultaswamalalt (1990) Poverty and Rural Development intermediate
technology publications, London .
 UNIT 9
SOCIAL CHANGE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
 3.1 Nature of social changes in rural areas
3.2 Forms of social change
3.3 The school of thought
3.4 Sources of social changes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
7.0 Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rural areas are characterized by social changes, some maybe positive and some
negative. As is expected in a dynamic environment, changes will continue to occur.
However such changes permeate every facet of the rural development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit a student should be able to:
- State the nature of social changes.
- Explain the forms of social changes
- Discuss the two schools of thought in social change in the rural
development.
- Enumerate the sources of social change.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 NATURE OF SOCIAL CHANGES IN RURAL AREAS

Social change is a process by which alterations occurs in the structure and
functions of a social system (social group, community). Any change that occurs
either in idea, norms, value, role, and social habits of a group or in the composition
or organizations of their society could be referred to as social change.

3.4 FORMS OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN RURAL AREAS .

- Modifications in human attitudes and behavior pattern as a result of

education e.g. improved seedling in the area of farming.
 - Alteration in social conditions resulting from changes in political or social
organization. This will result into loss of part of the family’s labour supplied
by the children, an example is the instituting of universal primary
education for universal basic educations.
- Effecting reforms in major legacy and functional system of the society, an
example is the passing the law on valued added tax. Whenever a law is
passed it will call for a change in the way of life of people and this further
call for adjustment.
- Changes in the materials culture i.e. in the arts an artifact of the culture. This
is often the outward manifestation of changes in the non- material aspects of
culture. Social changes penetrate all aspects of social life and may manifest
as:
- Economic change- This occurs in the mode of production, economic
relations and statuses of people in the society e.g. industrialization,
production of crops for sales rather than domestic consumption. It could be
the location of mineral in commercial quantities that will enhance income
and employment .
- Political change – This deals with the change in the distributions and
operating mechanism of social and political power within the social system
for materials, power concentration in the hand of chiefs.
- Technological changes – Technological changes entails way of applying
scientific and other organized knowledge to practical task. Technological
changes that are evident in other area are transportation, communication,
health, education, housing and leisure.
- Cultural changes - This referred to the changes in the non-material aspects of
culture e.g. religion and the belief system.
Behavioral changes - This is a part of cultural changes, but it specifically embraces
changes arising from the influence of reduction on the attitude and overt reaction
of people.
Social change maybe planned or unplanned. Planned social change has to do with
human intervention in the shaping and direction of change towards some
predefined goals.
Unplanned social change is the type that occurs suddenly usually though the act of
nature, thereby affording human beings no chance to plan before it occurs. Change
may also be total or segmental in its coverage. Total change is that which covers a
wide range of activities, which may lead to a complete transformation of peoples
way of life or their social institution. Segmented change as the name implies
covers only a particular portion and may not call for a total transformation of the
system.
A change can also be coercive, compulsory, voluntary or democratic. A coercive
change is one that is forced on members of the society. A community that decides
to embark upon self-help projects plans for voluntary and democratic change. So
also is a nation which, after a referendum, decides to switch from a parliamentary
to a presidential form of government. Change could be imminent, referring to
internally generated changes which occur without any external influence.
Contact change refers to change that is introduced into the system from sources
external to that contact change or direct contact change. Selective contact change
occurs when an outsider unintentionally communicates an innovation into a
social system.
Direct contact change deliberately introduces a new idea into the social system
with the aim of bringing about the change in specific aspect of the system
activities.
Theories of change have generally been concerned with;
- The sources of social change
- The time of span of change
- The effect of change on the changing unit.
3.3 THE SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS
- The Diffusion school : It views social change as an educational process. It
places less emphasis on the internal state of individuals but hold that the
world society could be divided into two campuses on the basis of the relative
modernity or permittivity of each segment.
- The Conflict Camps
-
This school of thought views man in the totality of his social relations and
maintains that the gathering of small bit of facts about the past and aspects of the
society can never yield the big truths about the social order itself.
3.5 SOURCES OF SOCIAL CHANGES

A; Invention involves the recombination of existing cultural traits to fashion out

new thing and the rate of which this takes place is directly related to the existing
cultural base.
 - Discovery is the sharing with others of a perception of a fact object or
relationship which has always existed but was not known. Discovery can
enhance the cultural base in a society and therefore the rate of invention.
- Diffusion involves the spread of cultural traits from one group to another.
The following have enhanced cultural diffusion:
(1) Increased and more efficient communication facilities.
(2) The speed with which people can now travel from part of the world to
another and ,
(3) The existence of specifically trained personnel for the diffusion of
innovation. Other sources of social change include; formal educational
institutions, urbanization, governmental policies, application of science and
technology.
- Culture and structure of the society: This is when specific cultural traits
become tightly interwoven with others in mutually interdependent manner.
Change in that direction becomes almost impossible e.g. the rearing of cows
and the religion of Fulani’s.

PREVAILING ATTITUDES AND VALUES

A society that changes rapidly is the one changes in which its members are critical
and skeptical of parts of its traditional cultures and are ready to accommodate and
experiment with the new ideas of technology, originating externally and suppresses
all those that do not confirm to its internal norms and values with change more
slowly than the one which is liberal.
- Migration and population changes: This is mainly the movement of the
people from one place to another, which brings them in contact with new
cultural traits prevalent in other areas. This social and cultural change is
greater in society where there is constant emigration and immigration.

- Perceived Need: Here the society emphasis in determined by the need it

perceives. Emphases are placed on food and raw materials if it is in the rural
areas.
4.0 CONCLUSION
There is need for the students to acquaint themselves with the rural social
changes as they bring about rural development. I t is expected that the inhabitants
of the rural areas will contribute maximally to those social changes that will
enhance rural development. Meanwhile, it has to be taken into consideration that
high illiteracy level of the rural people retard positive changes
.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has considered rural social change, schools of thought and their
sources. The positive social change will enhance the welfare of the rural dweller.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.0 Define the term “social change”
2.0 How does social change contribute to rural development?

7.0 FURTHER READINGS

Umebali E.E (2004) Rural Resource Farm Business and Rural Development
Lagos. Computer Edge Publishers.
 UNIT 10
RURAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Rural Education

3.1.1 The rural area
3.1.2 Education of rural women

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A student in this unit will learn about rural education and how it transforms the
rural areas. Women education is highlighted as an integral part of rural education.
Most poverty and deprivation is found in the rural areas, due to the sparse
population pattern of rural population and the concurrent problem of poor
communication network due to difficult terrains. Also, there are several logistic
problems in providing the rural dweller with their fair share of education.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit a student should be able to;
 - Discuss the provision of formal education to rural education.
- Discuss the various difficulties associated with rural education .
- State the relevance of women education to rural development .
3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 RURAL EDUCATION

The important of education in an individual life cannot be over emphasized. It has
long been acknowledged that education greatly affects an individual’s life
chances. This is confirmed by the high rates of income return to education. It is
however reasonable to assume that the accessibility to the school will be an
important factor making for its utilization. The rural areas are as deprived in
education as they are in other respects. Two sets of statistics could illustrate this;
The first is the figure of literacy and Secondly the proportion of children of
primary school age who are attending school. The rural areas present a picture of
severe and growing educational under- development. This impairs social
economic and political development of the rural community which are already
desperately poor and frustrate other possible aim for education, connected with the
wider definition of development such as social justice , personnel development of
the people, the position of women and even levels of sickness and mortality.

3.1.1 RURAL AREAS

The rural areas are comparatively under privileged. This partly reflects the fact
that rural families are also poor and partly the general bias in favor of the urban
areas occasioned by the dual economy of Nigeria like any other developing
country. The disparity emerges in primary school environment that are lightly
skewed in favor of the urban centers. This urban bias is even more pronounced at
the higher levels of education. The first step towards securing social justice in the
education sector of the rural population would be to devote more attention to the
primary as compared with the higher levels of education. But a solution was
however found by the Federal Government with the establishment of Universal
Basic Education (UBE) of the present administration , amongst others to boost
basic education in the rural area and to reduce the urban- rural disparity in the
provision of education.
3.1.2 EDUCATING THE RURAL WOMEN
The rural woman is besotted with a lot of problems amongst which is lack of
education.
Resistance to the provision of education for rural women sometimes , is the result
not only of their general state of subjugation but also of the fact that the role which
is assigned to them does not seem to imply any need for education.
In addition, rural women, when they marry by custom go to live with their
husband’s families. To spend time and money in educating a doctor who is going to
take whatever she has gained away in marriage and a benefit to her immediate
family. However, quite apart from the considerations of social justices there is a
strong case on pragmatic grounds for giving some priority to female education the
rural women constitute a substantial proportion of the population. Educating them
therefore would release and inform the constructive abilities of a substantive part
of the rural population. It is also believed that both the health and nutrition of
children are better where women have received some education. There is also a
link between female education and lower fertility. All these are desirable for their
own self improvement as well as having their contribution to make to economic
and social transformation of the rural sector.
Activity 1

What role should women play on rural development?

4.0 CONCLUSION
The yawning gap in education system between the rural areas and urban centers is
not in doubt. There is great inequality in the distribution of such education as is
available between the rich and the poor, rural and urban dwellers and men and
women. This discrimination increases at the higher level of education. As
educational inequality preserves existing inequalities in power and wealth, its
reduction would represent an important steps toward great social justices .

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit was solely about the education of the rural women and the perceived
impacts. It also made a critique on the phenomenon of rural education and
discussed also the disparity between urban and rural education .
6.0 T.M.A
Define the term Education, why is it needed for rural transformation?
7.0 FURTHER READING
A.M Yakubu etal (1966) the UNO at 50, an Appraisal Workshop Proceedings,
Kaduna .
Amucheazi, E.C (1999) Reading in social sciences issues in welfare development.
 UNIT 11
THE RURAL COMMUNITY AND ITS YOUTH DEVELOPMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Self help

3.1.1 Two way Communication
3.1.2 Development Alternative

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 T.M.A
7.0 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit will examine how youth in the rural areas are fused into the framework of
community development and become active participant for the overall
development of the rural community. Community development has long been
employed to co-opt local population behind new practices ranging from health and
hygiene on the one hand, to farming methods on the other. Its use in this way,
though pragmatically useful will probably be no more important in the long run
than its value in two other respect respects:

1- Strengthening the sense of community solidarity in a locality in order to

make community action more effective. 2- Increasing the local
participation in the formulation and implementation of official policies.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, a student should be able to,
- Define the term “community development”
- Have a better understanding of community development.
- Evaluate the role of the rural youth in the organization and execution of
community development projects.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3. I COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

This is a process by with the efforts of the people themselves are united with
those of the governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural
conditions of communities and to integrate these communities into the life of the
nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national progress . This complex of
processes made up of two essential elements; the participation of the people
themselves in effort to improve their level of living with their initiatives and the
provision of technical and others in ways which encourages initiative, self-help and
mutual help and make these more effective. It is expressed in programmes
designed to achieve a wide variety of specific improvement.

3.1.1 SELF-HELP
Development is meaningful where the masses of the people remain helpless. The
aim of community development is to stimulate self determination through self
help. By self-help members of community can also provide themselves with
amenities such as classroom, borehole, good roads which might not otherwise be
available to them.

3.1.2 TWO WAY COMMUNICATION

The essence of good communication cannot be over emphasized here. The

contradictions in community development can only be resolved by incorporating in
the planning process a strong vertical line of two-way communications and a
clear hierarchy in which decisions of different degrees of generality can be made
at different levels, in consultation with the people themselves at village level or
with their representatives at higher levels.
There is an inevitable tension between the decentralized decision making inherent
in community development and the reconciliation of divergent local trends and
interests in a national plan for development.

3.1.3 THE DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVE

The rural society is often based on age grading, providing both peer group support
and a means by which the young maybe inducted into the skills ‘ traditionally
thought necessary for the adults. Government ought not to allow infatuation with
modernization to prevent it from using this indigenous youth services as a means
of bringing about desirable forms of development in the village. There is every
justification for giving special attention to the needs of the rural youth. They
represent the majority of the population, the majority of the unemployed and the
future of the country. In doing this, the assistance of the indigenous leadership of
the village communities the chiefs and the elders, should also be enlisted. The
youths should be trained in activities directly relevant to the villages’ own
development aspiration and where feasible, in roles which they can continue to
perform within their communities after their training is completed
.
Activity

What role do you think the rural youth can play in the organization and execution
of community development project?

4.0 CONCLUSION
Community development is distinguished from social work in the community by
its concentration on the needs of communities rather than on those of individual
members or families. The aims of community development as earlier indicated
are twofold, first to strengthen the services of the community and help members
to find common solution to their problems, some of which might be tackled by
self- help activities and secondly to encourage greater participation by members of
the community in the making and implementation of decision which affects them.

5.0 SUMMARY
The subject of rural development is community development and self-help
efforts. The improvement of agriculture and the provisions of labour intensive
employment within the rural communities are necessary tools in the
empowerments of the rural youths.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What do you understand by the concept of self-help, how does self-help efforts
help in the employment of youth in the rural areas.

7.0 REFERENCES
Jennings A etal, the challenges of development in the eighties; our response
Oxford, perzanon, 1982

UNIT 12
ATTITUDES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT STAFF TOWARDS RURAL
DEVELPOMENT.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents

3.1.1 The Strategy of Development From Below

3.1.2 Rural Community Development and Local Government
3.1.3 General Attitude Towards Development
3.1.4 Attitudes Towards Community Development

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The focus of discussion in this unit is on development from “below” its strategy
and attitudes towards community development from the perspective of local
government staff and the general public. Development from below is gaining wide
recognition as strategy for accelerating social economic progress among leaders
and the people of the developing nations. The skills knowledge and capacities of
people estimate important resources in self-help efforts therefore in our analysis;
attention would be given to the means of improving and utilizing human
resources in rural and community development undertakings.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, a student should be able to;
- Explain the strategy of development from below
- Assess the attitudes of the local government staff as well as the general
public to rural development efforts

3 MAIN CONTENTS

1.1 THE STRATEGY OF DEVELPOMENT FROM BELOW

Development from below has gained wide recognition as a strategy for enhancing
social economic development in our time. This trend is currently manifested by
the government’s commitment to be more response to the needs of the people. The
Federal government guidelines for the reform of the local government system
provides a framework for the decentralization of some important functions of state
government to local governments in order to harness local resources for
accelerated development. To archive its major objectives, the functions of local
government bodies were based on; a detailed local knowledge for efficient
performances, community responsiveness and participation, significant use of
discretion of understanding of individuals.

3.1.2 RURAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND THE LOCAL

GONERNMENT
Community development stimulates the self-help efforts of the people with
reliance as much as possible on their own initiative to bring about a closer
association between that effort and services of the government. A local government
on the other hand is a statutory body with legal powers to tax, regulate and
promote local activities and allocates resources. It is to the local authority that the
community often looks up for assistance in providing materials and advice in the
process of executing community projects . Local government are typically
expected to provide the equipments, funds for their completion and future
maintenance of such projects similarly to discharge their duties effectively. Local
government needs the support of a participating and co-operative public. The close
interdependence of local government suggests that a chief requirement for the
successful implementation of community programmes is the existence of strong
and popular local government institutions. The execution of this function may call
for a shift in the primary role of government from one of maintaining law and
order to one of working with and helping people to achieve their objectives. The
need for the guidance, direction and assistance of local authorizes in these
programmes can be the essential components for the successful initiation and
conduct of community development activities.
3.1.3 GENERAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT

The general attitude possessed by officials with respect to the nature of

developmental activity and social change, shapes and conditions the decision
reached and the approaches pursued by government administrators is becoming an
increasing important factors in Nigeria as national policy seeks to engage active
grass root participation in social and economic development.

3.1.4 ATTITUDE TOWARDS COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community development aims to improve the material and social conditions of
people through local action. This approach to development generally attempts to
strike a balance between satisfying demands for amenities and the need to raise the
income and productivity of the rural sector of the society. In many places,
government offices only assume that the end result of community development is
materials’ improvement. As a result great emphasis has , been placed on
infrastructure, such as the building of roads, schools, dispensaries, community
halls while insufficient attention is given to improved methods of farm
production or to basic educational programmes. Even though physical
improvement are an essential aspect of community development, in a broader
sense and encompasses efforts to promote the growth of the people themselves
through education, training and a broadening of horizons.

ACTIVITY

Explain the term “development from below” and how appropriate is it an approach
to rural development.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In view of the mutually reinforcing function of local government and
development activities, the discussion in this unit was able to determine whether
the attitudes and views held by key local government administrations are
congruent with the ideals of community development and constitutes a factor
likely to promote or retard community and rural development efforts.

5.0 SUMMARY
The unit have systematically analyzed attitudes toward rural and community
development held by local government officials and the general public.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the general attitudes of local government staff to the development of the
grass roots?

7.0 FURTHER READINGS

E.C Amucheaz (Ed) Readings in social sciences issues in National Development,
Lagos, 1979.
Ekireme Okoh (Ed) National Conference on the New Local System in Nigeria,
UNN, 1980.
 UNIT 13
SOCIAL WELFARE IN RUARAL DEVELOPMENT

Table of contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents.
3.1 The philosophy behind social welfare in rural development.

3.11 The Neo-classical perspective.

3.1.2 The Marxist school.
3.1.3 The issue of Social policy.

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 T.M.A
7.0 Further Readings

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

1.0 INTRODUCTION.
The unit is all about some definitions of social welfare, the neo-classical and
Marxist perception of social welfare as well as the policy issues in social welfare.

2.0 OBJECTIVES.
A student at the end of this unit, should be able to :
- Give a good definition of social welfare,
- Identify the various schools of social welfare and evaluate the policy
issues in social welfare.
-
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL WELFARE .

The achievement of social welfare first and foremost is the alleviation
of poverty in its many ramifications.
This cannot be solely a matter of redistributing more fairly what
 wealth is available, and the distribution network to be incorporated
within a policy for economic growth. In other words, it depends on the
achievements of developments in the best sense of the word
.
3.1.2 THE NEO-CLASSICAL PERSPECTIVE.

Economist of the Neo- Classical school, argue that development will

occur only if countries liberate their economies from the hammer of
government intention I other that the neutral advantages of a free
market maybe realized. However, close examination of the
requirements for growth and for an effective social policy makes it
clear that government intention is unavoidable, and that it calls for
planning in which these aspects are closely integrated.
3.1.3 THE SOCIAL POLICY
In the provision and development of social services, the key requirement seems to
be the use of what is how often called appropriate technology. A number of factors
combine to make social welfare approaches in the developed countries unsuitable
for use in many third world countries.
How GNP (Gross National Product) is important among these factors indicating a
need to concentrate on preventive rather than remedial services. In that respect,
poverty has ton be focused on through the pursuit of growth and a more equitable
distribution of resources like land, capital and a healthy environment rather than
through income maintenance services.

ACTIVITY
What would you advocate for the reason behinds social welfare in rural
development?

4.0 CONCLUSION
Social welfare policy based on direct work with individuals and families in
need is inappropriate for third world countries is a feature of many aspects of
social welfare. This has been the case in land reform and agriculture
improvement, in education and support of the needy in health, the
improvement of nutrition in electing greater participation in decision making
by the population.

5.0 SUMMARY
The unit amply death with the definition of social welfare considered the
major school of thought concerned with social welfare and policy issues in
the field.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT.
What is the main thirst of social welfare policy as it relate to the grassroots
developments

7.0 FURTHER READING

1.0 Adelment I. etal, Economic growth and Socialm Ewuity
developing countires Stanford University Press.
2.0 Abel-Smith B. etal, Poverty development and health policy
WHO Geneva.
 Unit 14
HEALTH AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents

1.1 Rural Nutrition.

3.1.2 Public Hygiene.
3.1.3 Primary Health Care.
3.1.4 The social Policy.

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 T.M.A
7.0 Further Readings.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit will highlight health and rural development, health problems in relation
to rural development. It will also focus on health ands nutrition, public hygiene and
primary health care. In other words, what roles do these arms of health delivery
services play in the development of the rural sector?
The human and social cost of ill-health do not require elaboration, the physical
and mental suffering, the death and bereavement and family relationships either as
a direct results of illness or of the economics deprivation which it bring in its
……………
Its impact on development in its narrower, purely economics serves is no less
serious.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, a student should be able to:
- To appreciate the roles of nutrition, public hygiene and primary health
care services in the development of the rural sector.
- Appreciate the human and social costs if ill-health in the rural community.

MAIN CONTENTS

2.1 NUTRITION
The occupation of the rural dwellers is mainly agricultural in nature. The
connection between nutrition and poverty is clear from the fact that it is in the
poorest countries that it is more prevalent. This is partly from agriculture under
development. It is also due to the inadequate distribution of the means of existence
written the country or communities concerned. A smaller past of the problem
results from dietary customs. One of the aspects of this is preferred ……………..
feeding of the male gender.
As a result, women and growing girls may receive only what is left over which is
not only less attractive but also less nourishing. A malnourished population is one
whose immune system is weakened and vulnerable to disease and as such becomes
less productive.

3.1.2 PUBLIC HYGIENE.

The provision of potable water and effective sewage and refuse disposal must be
given equal importance with nutrition in any preventive health programme. They
are inter related. Lack of pure water supply breeds such disease as diarrhea.
Infection of the gut and other water borne ailments which impair on the ability to
ingest food.
But water control has even greater significance fort diet than the supply of water
for drinking would imply, for it is required for food crops and stock both of which
may die off in a prolonged drought. Floods on the other hand can cause
in…………… damage as it occurs almost annually in some low-lying rural
communities. Natural water supplies, which are not carefully monitored, are also a
source of disease. They provide a breeding place for mosquitoes, or snails
harboring disease and flatworm. The disposal of human and domestic waste poses
similar questions about rural public hygiene and its implication for development.
Latrines are often times dugged near wells meant for drinking water.
3.1.3 PRIMARY HEALTH CARE.
The world health organization (WHO) initiated the movement towards the
development of a primary health care programme in the rural areas in 1975
underlying the lack of adequate health services in the villages. The programme
advocated the appointment of primary health care workers with broad backgrounds
and a commitment to community participation.
Participation was obviously necessary of health education was to be relevant in
local terms and effective in changing behaviors, but there was to be relevant in
local terms and effective in changing behavior, but there was also the growing
belief that people should have more say in something which affect them and their
families so intimately. Apart from the right of everybody to understand the reasons
for decision to share in making the people will only co-operate in a health
programme intelligently and with the conviction if they are thus involved. The
ultimate aim after all is to establish habits consistent with health and hygiene as
accepted features of daily life.
ACTIVITY
Kindly assess the primary health care in Nigeria. Has it fulfilled its purpose?

4.0 CONCLUSION.
The primacy of preventive and environmental health is emphasized in this unit. It
was also implied that the developing counties would not be able to meet the health
needs of the mass to their people if they attempt to base their provision on models
of the advanced countries, as it may not necessary be the most effective approach
with their own socio-economics and political environment. An appropriate
technology for health based on the local situation is therefore required.

5.0 SUMMARY
The unit dealt with health and rural development in which we focused attention on
the roles of nutrition public hygiene and primary health care delivery services in
the socio-economics development of the rural communities.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

“Health is wealth”. Discuss this statement in the concept of health and rural
development in Nigeria.

7.0 FURTHER READING

Akin L. Mabogunje: the development process; A spatial perspective. London 1989
Amucheazi (Ed) Readings in Social sciences in National development.
 UNIT 15
THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT.

TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents

3.1 Definition of community development

3.1.1 Academic outlook.
3.1.2 Organizational outlook.

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 T.M.A
7.0 Further reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Community development is a re...................tool for rural transfer motion, therefore
in this, a student will learn about the theory and practice of community
development by exploring the philosophy, the strategies and the programme that
are associated with it.
Community development has become a subject of great intellective curiosity, thus
the literature in the subject matter is fast growing. This is even more so as the
subject matter cuts across disciplines like economics, sociology, history,
anthropology and political science as well as development studies.
1.0 OBJECTIVES.
At he end of this unit a student should be able to
- Develop a good conceptive framework of community development
describe in clear terms the practice of community development.

2.0 MAIN CONTENT.

2.1 DEFINITION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
While other concepts of development studies such as economics development
political development coupled with the problem of precise definition for
development, community takes it for granted and concerns itself instead with what
the precise definition of community should be. This is based on the premise that
one needs to know what the community is before one can develop it. But even then
the interdisciplinary nature of community may simply be defined as a population
living within the legally established city limit. The definitions of community
development are many but can be classified into two groups.
- Those who originate from the academic circle advanced in books and
articles written on the subject; and those that originate from conferences
and seminars.
3.1.1 ACADEMIC OUTLOOK
The academic definition focusing on the social and educational values of
community development, have stressed the spontaneity and growth of initiatives
the independence of action and the emotional and psychological growth which
community development bestows on the people who practice it. The ultimate goal
of community development is to help evolve through a process of organized study,
planning actions in the physical social environment that is best suited to the
maximum growth, development and happiness and as productive members of their
society.
3.1.2. ORGANIZATIONAL OUTLOOK
The definition that comes under third group, have tended to emphasize the role of
the government in community development. Accordingly they have presented
community development as a virgin soil for the extension of bureaucratic power.
The 1948 Cambridge conference on African administration defines. Community
development as a movement designed to the promote better living for the who
community with the active participation and if possible on the initiative of the
community and where this is not forthcoming spontaneously by the use of
technology for arousing and stimulating it in other to secure its active and
enthusiastic response to the movement in 1956 the United Nations Economics and
Social Council came out with its own definitions which regards the community
development as the process by which the efforts of the people themselves are
formed with those of the governmental authorities to improve the economic, social
and culture conditions of the communities into the life of the nation and to enable
them contribute to national progress. These conferences and seminars definitions
are the ones most often adopted in the developing counties. The reason being that
in these countries, community development starts as an institutionalized part of
government machinery.
ACTIVITY
Differentiate between community and rural development. State why they are inter
related.

3.0 CONCLUSION
Community development as strategy for implementing the conceptive
formulations would be the mobilization of all the people affected by direct
participation in solving perceiving problem. This community development is a
problem-solving device, a decision-making process which comes close to the
rational model.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the conception definition of community
development, the philosophy, strategy and programmes associate with community
development.
6.0 TMA
State and explain the academic definition of community development.
7.0 FURTHER READING.
Jessie Bernard, community disorganization, international Encyclopedia of Social
Sciences, vol 38 1- 4 Macmillian 1968.
 UNIT 16
PROBLEMS OF DEVELOPMENT AT THE COMMUNITY LEVEL.

TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0 introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1.1 Finance
3.2. Personnel and competence.
3.3 Politic and leadership
3.4 The community
3.1.5 Planning and ideology

4.0 Conclusion.
5.0 Summary
6.0 TMA
7.0 Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are so many problems confronting community development at the grass root
level.
Measuring development at the local level can be done in form of infrastructural
facilities provided and services delivered in this unit, a student will be concretely
exposed to the specific problems facing community at the local level.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, a student should be able to
- Identity the major problems militating against community development
in Nigeria in their development efforts.
- Raise the issues discussed under each of these factors or problems
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 PROBLEM AREAS.
In community development efforts some problem areas are indentified as that of
finance, personnel, politics and leadership, community attitude intergovernmental
relations, planning and ideology. This is one way of classifying these problems. It
can also be classified as institutional problems, political problems and societal
problems. The first classification is favoured as just to allow the many issues
generation by each problem.
3.1.1 FINANCE
Finance has been observed to be the area of focus in any developmental effort. It is
the mainstay of local government, people talk move about finance, about how the
competing needs in a community cannot be effective booked. Too much money is
spent on recurrent budget sometimes up t between 80 – 90% leaving a smaller
percentage for social and community services. This is not helped by the low
interval revenue capacity of local government which amounts to, in average cases,
not more than 10% of the local government revenue. The overdependence on
statutory allocation has made the prospect of economic and social development
painfully slow in local government coupled with this; leadership is slow to explore
alternative sources of revenue in local govt. Despite the low level of finance,
massive corruption takes place in local government. Both administrative and
political officials are involved.
Contracts are issued even to council staff and politicians see council as a place of
rehabilitation and service to the community. Evidence of corruption surfaces from
inspection reports and probe panels, into local government. Money meant for
projects are embezzled.

3.1.2 PERSONNEL AND COMPETENCE

Surveys have shown that in recent years, the quantum of staff has increased. Also
there has been more quality of staff in administration than the technical and
professional fields in local government. A survey in 1997 by the UNDP shows that
the planning and research unit of local government has been understaffed and staffs
who manage this unit of local government do to receive any special training to
prepare them for such jobs.
One also hardly finds an economist or a statistician or a social scientist in this
department. Many of the staff in the health offices is community health staff.
Medical doctors are difficult to come by at the community level.
Agriculturalists are largely those who have gone for only an ordinary diploma level
of Education. The import of all these is the fact that planning for development is
handicapped in local government because of the death of appropriate staff. Plans
therefore become an incremental thing, a traditional muddling through, than an
objective and data fed document. Professional advice to politician too suffers as a
result of the quality of intellectual weight brought to bear on the exercise when it
comes to its implementation, it is re……… with the same stories. Targets and
standards in plans may suffer as a result of poverty of professional requirements
and competence. Even where there are qualified staffs to do this, they will still fall
victim of the corruptive influence of society brought to bear by either the
contractor or politician or community pressure. In summary, local government lack
the executive, technical and professionals competence to formulate good plans and
to implement them.
3.1.3 POLITICS AND LEADERSHIP
The attitude of politicians to development may not coincide with established ways
to doing community needs assessment by the local government bureaucracy. Some
projects are outrageously cited even without assessing their utility. Political criteria
override data based issues. The political imposes his will partly because of the
impulse driven by his constituency needs and because of his party manifesto more
importantly is his perception of the community and the going-on the other tier of
government.
3.1.4 THE COMMUNITY
The communities often feel marginalized I development. Local government plans
and executes them. Even community development efforts are not adequately
supported by local government. Even where the intervention occurs it is not done
in a participatory manner. The net effect of this is that the community feels
marginalized from development programs and efforts. This also affects the
sustainability of projects. The programme and project are community driven and
participatory the more would want to own and sustain the programme. This is a far
cry from what happened at the local level. This is why the community is not
bothered when a health centre is burgled or the roof of a primary school is blown
off. They see themselves removed from the process as the initiative and execution
was all by the governments.
Community attitude also reinforces the corruptive attitude of politicians instead of
demanding for accountability from the politicians who amass lots of wealth and
status symbols while in office, they perceived this as the ultimate objective of
politics. Such polities actors are acclaimed they end up saying “this is our time” the
actor who dies not seize such an opportunity is branded a “fool” Going into polities
means going to cut ones cake from the government.
3.1.5 PLANNING AND IDEOLOGY
Local government plans in Nigeria are supposed to fit into state and national plans.
In the 1975 plans, the Federal Government came up with very catching phrases
that defined the objectives of the plan such as a just and equalitarian society, a land
full of opportunities these were supposed to also serve as the ideology of the plan.
Since then subsequent plans built their overall objectives around these. However
the implementation of plans since 1974 – 80 has not demonstrated any systematic
effort to achieve these objectives instead plans have become more and more
meaningless because they become mere documents of intentions rather documents
of communications.
This attitude has spilled over too the state and local government. State government
have not demonstrated any leadership planning neither have they showed any
commitments; if plans are the instruments for development , which in reality they
are, the lack of commitment to them means lack of systematized development.
The type of development that takes place at the state and local government levels
are impulsive, haphazard and un-coordinate. The cumulative effects of a plan or
evidence of phased development is yet to be seen.
Rolling plans ids yet to benefit the rural population. The state and local
government are satisfied with the provision of social services and rural
infrastructure. Their hope is that this attempt on their part to intervene in real
economic development. Attempts have stopped in either agriculture or building of
rural markets. Agriculture production is not enough to stimulate the rural economy.
Even then it is faced with many problems. Markets can be seen as mere social and
commercial entities that facilitates trade. The real problem is in the area of
production. Agricultural production alone cannot improve the economic nature
which ought to have been promoted by now so also glaring area like small scale
industries of an agrarian nature and of nature relevant to community resources.
Such direct interventions are lacking and unit more investment is planned in
employment generating ventures in rural communities; the standard of living of the
rural person will not appreciate. This is really the challenges for local government
and other ties of government as they plan for rural development. The capitalist
ideology which operates at the national level must also start penetrating the rural
areas for concomitant development.

ACTIVITY
Identify problems of development in the community level.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Problems confronting community development can be classified as institutional
and societal problems. Under institutional problems are personnel, finance,
planning. Even for the whole country the threat to development has been that of
attitude. It has become the malaise of politicians and careers civil servants. Both
parties co-operate s to channel resources away from the planned activities and
stopped the development process. The bureaucrats do the paper work and cover up.
Despite all the accountability measures, loop holes are still opened by those who
should close them. The value system the society has to change for any meaningful
development to take place at all levels of government.
5.0 SUMMARY
Six problems were identified in his unit as the ones confronting rapid development
at the Community development.
The problems so identified are finance, personnel and competence, politics,
community attitude, corruption and planning and ideology.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT.
In what ways has planning and ideology become a problem of development at the
local government?
7.0 FURTHER READING
Oyeyipo A Udoh: Local government as a vehicle for National development
(published by the department of local government studies ABU Zaria 1984)
Gboyega A Political values and local government in Nigeria (Malthouse Press,
Lagos 1987)