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The Impact of Listening to Music on Cognitive

Performance
By Arielle S. Dolegui
2013, VOL. 5 NO. 09 | PG. 1/1 CITE REFERENCES PRINT 636

IN THIS ARTICLE
Arielle S. Dolegui graduated in 2013 with a ABSTRACT
concentration in Psychology/Biopsychology from Methodology
Listening to music for relaxation is common among students
University of Maryland, Baltimore County in Participants
Catonsville, MD. to counter the effects of stress or anxiety while completing
difficult academic tasks. Some studies supporting this tech- Materials
nique have shown that background music promotes cognit-
Procedures
FROM THE INQUIRIES JOURNAL BLOG ive performance while other studies have shown that listen-
ing to music while engaged in complex cognitive tasks can Results
impair performance. This study focuses on the impact differ- Discussion
ent genres of music, played at different volume levels, have
on the cognitive abilities of college students completing aca- References
demic tasks. Appendix

KEYWORDS
Many students listen to music to alleviate the emotional ef- Cognitive Performance Music Cognition

fects of stress and anxiety when engaged in complex cog- Test-taking Study Habits Music Therapy

nitive processing, such as studying for a test, completing

homework assignments, or while reading and writing. This
practice is so common that it would be beneficial for college students to understand the role that music
plays on cognitive performance. Research demonstrating the effects of music on performance is well

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2/4/2021 The Impact of Listening to Music on Cognitive Performance - Inquiries Journal

documented, but have shown ambiguous evidence on this matter. In studies conducted to learn about
the effects of musical distraction on cognitive task performance, the findings have demonstrated the
idea of music improving cognitive performance (Cockerton, Moore, & Norman, 1997), but there has
also been research contradicting those results, where music was found distracting for participants per-
forming cognitive tasks (Furnham & Bradley, 1997). However, with the plethora of music genres avail-
able to music listeners, it is important to understand how different types of music impact performance.
Additionally, very few studies address the interaction between the intensity or volume of the music
played and its effect on cognitive processing. The present study aims to understand the effect of listen-
ing to different genres of music played at different volume levels on cognitive task performance.

Many students choose to listen to a preferred genre of music when they study or do their homework
without understanding the potential harmful effects of such practice. A study conducted by Smith and
Morris (1977) addressed this question by studying the effects of sedative and stimulative music. The
study focused on the influence these two distinct genres of music have on performance, anxiety, and
concentration. Participants had to indicate their preferred genre and were requested to repeat a set of
RELATED READING numbers backwards while listening to either the stimulative, sedative, or no music. The results indic-
ated that participants performed worse while listening to their preferred type of music. Additionally, in
Psychology » Emotion the no music condition, participants performed best. These results indicate that a preferred type of mu-
The Impact of Music on sic can serve as a distracting factor when one is engaged in a cognitively demanding task perhaps due
Emotion: Comparing
to the fact that less cognitive resources are available when the attention is drawn to the lyrics, emo-
Rap and Meditative
tions, and memories that such music can evoke. Participants who listened to sedative music performed
Yoga Music
better than participants who listened to simulative music and worse than those who listened to no mu-
sic at all. These results indicated that stimulative music is a stronger distractor and obstructs cognitive
Music » Music Industry processing more than sedative music does.
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Internationally...

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The influence of music on cognitive performance has also been linked to personality types. A study
conducted by Furnham and Bradley (1997) illustrated pop music as a distracter on the cognitive per-
formance of introverts and extraverts. They predicted that extraverts would outperform introverts in the
presence of music. The participants were required to perform two cognitive tasks: a memory test with
both an immediate and a delayed recall and a reading comprehension test. The two tasks would be
completed in the pop music condition as well as in silence. The results determined that immediate re-
call on the memory test was severely impaired for both introverts and extraverts when the pop music
was played. In the delayed recall component of the memory test, introverts showed significantly poorer
recall than did extraverts in the pop music condition as well as introverts in the silent condition. Also the
introverts’ performance on the reading comprehension task in the pop music condition was impaired
when compared to extraverts in the same condition and to introverts who performed the task in silence.
Overall, the researchers determined that pop music served as a distractor for the cognitive perform-
ance of both extraverts and introverts; however, introverts seemed to be most affected. Interestingly,
this study revealed some evidence that overall background noise, such as television, music, and chat-
ter could improve performance in complex cognitive tasks for extraverts, although it will significantly im-
pair introverts’ performance (Furnham & Bradley, 1997).
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Studies involving noise as a distraction have demonstrated the same ambiguous results regarding their
effect on cognitive processing as studies involving background music. Dobbs, Furnham, and McClel-
land (2011) conducted a study that tested the effect of distracters, specifically background noise and
music, on cognitive tasks for introverts and extraverts. The researchers hypothesized that performance,
for both introverts and extraverts, would be worse in the presence of music and noise than it would be
in silence; specifically, for all the cognitive tasks, performance would diminish in the presence of back-
ground noise, improve with only background music, and be optimal in silence. The findings supported
their predictions and showed that cognitive performance in silence was better than performance with
background music, which in turn was better than performance with background noise. The results also
demonstrated that, overall, performance in silence was best when compared to performance in back-
ground noise and music (Dobbs, Furnham, & McClelland, 2011). In contrast, a study conducted by Pool
(2002), monitored the distracting effects of background television on homework performance and did
not find any significant impairment on homework assignments when students were distracted by televi-
sion while working on those assignments. These findings indicate that background noise, just like back-
ground music impacts cognitive performance in ways that have not been fully understood by
researchers.

Although previous research has established that music can either distract or facilitate cognitive task
performance, improved performance in the presence of music might be directly related to the type of
music listened to (Cockerton, Moore, & Norman, 1997). A study conducted by Hallman, Price, and Kat-
sarou, (2002) supported this argument. In fact, they tested the effect of calming and relaxing music on
arithmetic and memory performance tests in children ranging from ages ten to twelve. They found bet-
ter performance on both tasks in the calming and relaxing music condition when compared with a no-
music condition. They also tested these children in an arousing, aggressive, and unpleasant music
condition, and the results showed that their performance on both tasks was heavily disrupted and led to
a lower level of reported altruistic behavior by the children (Hallman, Price, & Katsarou, 2002). Al-
though these data did not find that calming music enhanced performance, one might imply that this
type of music can provide a soothing environment that puts students at ease, facilitating cognitive
processing.

The present study considers the effects of two different types of music at varying intensities on cognit-
ive task performance and compared them to tasks performed in silence. It was predicted that tasks per-
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formed in silence would yield better results than tasks performed both in the soft music and the loud
music conditions, demonstrating that music is a distracter to cognitive performance. Additionally, per-
formance scores were expected to be significantly lower in the presence of loud music at a high intens-
ity, suggesting that both the type of music and the volume at which the music is played are contributors
to the distracting effect of music. Finally, performance was predicted to be significantly higher in the
presence of soft music compared to loud music.

Methodology
Participants
Thirty-two undergraduate students (twenty-five females, seven males), ranging in age from 20 to 41
years from the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC) at Shady Grove participated in this
study. Participants were selected from a psychology class and received extra credit for their participa-
tion as agreed on by the class’s instructor. All students participated on a voluntary basis.

Materials
This study used five different arithmetic tests to measure cognitive performance (Appendix A). The
tests consisted of 20 different operations: 5 multiplication, 5 division, 5 addition, and 5 subtraction prob-
lems. The order of operations was randomized throughout the tests. No question involved operations
with more than a three-digit number. The five tests were similar in difficulty. Loud music was defined as
heavy-rock metal music, and the song used in that condition was “Not Ready to Die” (Demon Hunters,
2004). Soft music was defined as classical piano-only music, and the piece that was used in that condi-
tion was “Morning Light” (Beeson, 2004).

Procedures
The study was conducted in rooms assigned by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC)
at Shady Grove. Participants were given informed consent forms to fill out at the beginning of the ex-
periment and a research participation credit sheet. A repeated-measure design was used in this study.
All thirty-two participants were exposed to all five conditions. The researcher explained to participants
that music would be played while they solved the questions on the tests. The volume at each music
condition was adjusted as the experiment progressed.

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The participants were asked to solve five arithmetic tests with twenty different questions on each test.
The first test was conducted in the soft music condition at low intensity (Test 1- SM-LO), and the
second test, in the loud music condition at low intensity (Test 2-LM-LO). The third test was performed in
complete silence (Test 3- SIL). The fourth and fifth tests were conducted in soft music and loud music
conditions, respectively, both at high volume intensity (Test 4-SM-HI and Test 5 LM-HI). The parti-
cipants were allowed sixty seconds to complete each test. There was a twenty second waiting period
between each test. The participants were not allowed to use a calculator or any other electronic device
to complete the questions on the tests.

Results
This study was conducted in a repeated-measured design; therefore, a paired sample t-test was used
for the analysis. An alpha level of .05 was used for the analysis. The independent variable was the type
of music played at two different levels of intensity: high intensity and low intensity. The dependent vari-
able was the performance score, which was measured in terms of accurate answers obtained in each
of the tests. The tests were not graded for completion but for accuracy only.

In agreement with the first hypothesis, performance scores were significantly higher in silence (M=
12.94) than in all four music conditions, intensity levels, and types of music combined (M= 11.99),
t(31)= 2.21, p <.05. The second hypothesis was also supported in the study; participants obtained sig-
nificantly higher test scores at low intensity (M= 25.63) than at high intensity of both types of music (M=
22.34), t(31)= 4.75, p <.001. Performance scores were also significantly higher in silence (M= 12.94)
than in loud music at high intensity (M= 10.78), t(31) = -2.90, p< .05.

However, there was also no significant difference in test scores between participants in the soft music
conditions (M= 23.75) and performance in the loud music conditions (M= 24.22), t(31)= -0.56, p= 0.582.

Discussion
The present study sought to demonstrate the impact of different genres of music played at different
volume levels on cognitive performance. In accordance with the first hypothesis, participants performed
better in silence than they did in any music conditions. The findings were also in agreement with the
second hypothesis. They demonstrated that the performance was significantly worse in the presence of
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2/4/2021 The Impact of Listening to Music on Cognitive Performance - Inquiries Journal

loud music at high intensity. Contrary to the third hypothesis, however, there was no significant differ-
ence between the type of music that was played and performance scores. The scores were not signific-
antly higher in the soft music versus the loud music condition. Interestingly, there was no difference
when the scores from the soft music at high intensity were compared to scores from the loud music at
high intensity.

These results seem to parallel those of Smith and Morris (1977). In their study, they also found that
participants performed better on a cognitive processing test while listening to no music than they did
while listening to either stimulating or sedative music. They determined that performance is impaired
with music and optimized with no music. However, their study revealed that participants performed sig-
nificantly better while listening to sedative music than they did while listening to stimulating music,
whereas the current experiment found no significant difference in test scores between the loud music
and soft music conditions.

The third hypothesis suggested that performance would be better in the soft music condition when
compared to the loud music condition because it was believed that classical music would provide a
positive, soothing, and comfortable environment for the participants due to its relaxing tone that will fa-
cilitate information processing. However, that hypothesis was not supported by the results; it is import-
ant to note that the overall performance was significantly lower in the loud music at high intensity.
Based on these results, the presence of lyrics and the consistent use of louder instruments, such as
drums, bass and, electric guitar to the heavy metal rock music can be seen as reasons for its distract-
ing effects.

Interestingly, while the findings of this study revealed that it is the intensity of the music rather than the
type of music that matters the most when it comes to cognitive performance, it is still noteworthy to
point out that scores were significantly higher when participants completed the tests in the silence con-
dition. Through this process, it can be implied that it is easier to process information in the presence of
a minimal level of distraction. It can be implied that students should not listen to any music or allow any
auditory disturbance while studying to obtain maximum performance level. Students should strive to
study and learn in an environment such as the library or a private study room that is as quiet as pos-
sible, especially when the material requires higher cognitive processing.

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The sample size was the major limitation of this study. Although two of the predictions were supported
with this sample, large samples could have provided more reliable significances that could be general-
ized to the college student population. Due to the limited availability of participants, this study was con-
ducted in a repeated-measured design, which could also be a limiting factor. The sequence in which
the tests were given was not randomized throughout the experiment; as such, learning effects could
account for the improvement in later tests as the study progressed. Future research should strive to
change the sequence in which the tests are administered to guarantee that the results obtained are
those of the treatment effects and to eliminate or reduce possible learning effects.

The design of the room could also be another limitation to this experiment. Where participants were
seated in the room could have had an effect on how the music was heard. Hence, for participants sit-
ting closer to the speakers, the music was louder than those who were sitting on the other side of the
room. This variance in volume level may have either positively or negatively affected the results. Al-
though, some of the results from this study showed that the arithmetic problems were a sufficient tool to
assess cognitive performance; however, they may have been too simple for students on the collegiate
level to perform. Besides, there were no mathematical base level assessments conducted prior to the
study. Participants with stronger skills could have had a biased advantage, whereas those with lower
mathematical skills would have had a biased disadvantage. Future research should plan to design
more complex cognitive processing tests, such as memory tests or reading comprehension questions
from standardized tests like the GRE or the SAT. This could provide a more accurate depiction of the
participants’ cognitive processing abilities.

Results from the current study demonstrated how important it is to consider the effects of distracting
music on cognitive performance. It was shown that the volume plays a crucial role and could be more
important than the type of music played. However, data from this study has demonstrated that silence
seems to be the best environment to maximize performance when engaging in cognitive activity. Clas-
sical music was not shown to enhance performance contrary to the study’s expectations. Hence, the
direct benefits of listening to music on cognitive processing could be more of a fantasy than a reality.

References
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2/4/2021 The Impact of Listening to Music on Cognitive Performance - Inquiries Journal

Beeson, Sean. (2004). Morning Light. On Ivory Dreams [CD]. United States: Serenity Studio LLC.

Cockerton, T., Moore, S., & Norman, D. (1997). Cognitive test performance and background music.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85(3, Pt 2), 1435-1438.

Demon Hunter. (2004). Not ready to die. On Summer of Darkness [CD]. Nashville, United States: Solid
State.

Dobbs, S., Furnham, A., & McClelland, A. (2011).The effect of background music and noise on the cog-
nitive test performance of introverts and extraverts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(2), 307–313.

Furnham, A., & Bradley, A. (1997). Music while you work: The differential distraction of background mu-
sic on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11(5),
445-455.

Hallman, S., Price, J., & Katsarou, G. (2002). The effects of background music on primary school's pu-
pils' task performance. Educational Studies, 28(2), 111-122.

Pool, M. M. (2002). Distraction effects of background television on homework performance. Noise and
Vibration Worldwide, 33(1), 24-28.

Smith, C.A., & Morris, L. W. (1977). Differential effects of stimulative and sedative music anxiety, con-
centration, and performance. Psychological Reports, 41, 1047-1053.

Appendix

TEST 1- SM- LO TEST 2 – LM- LO TEST 3-SIL TEST 4- SM-HI TEST 5– LM-HI
1. 9+9 = 1. 8+9 = 1. 6+7 = 1. 5+6= 1. 7+9 =

2. 11-8 = 2. 13-8 = 2. 12-7 = 2. 11-7 = 2. 41-7 =

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2/4/2021 The Impact of Listening to Music on Cognitive Performance - Inquiries Journal
3. 21÷7 = 3. 21÷3 = 3. 24÷4 = 3. 26÷2 = 3. 36÷2 =

4. 12 x 3 = 4. 12 x 3 = 4. 11 x 5 = 4. 9 x 5 = 4. 9 x 3 =

5. 8+13 = 5. 8+14 = 5. 7+15 = 5. 6+17 = 5. 5+19 =

6. 81÷9 = 6. 35÷5 = 6. 35÷5 = 6. 40÷5 = 6. 20÷5 =

7. 35-7 = 7. 25-7 = 7. 26-9 = 7. 27-9 = 7. 28-9 =

8. 4 x 7= 8. 4 x 6= 8. 8x7 = 8. 6 x 9 = 8. 9 x 9 =

9. 64÷8 = 9. 24÷8 = 9. 34÷2 = 9. 54÷2 = 9. 48÷4 =

10. 27+9 = 10. 17+7 = 10. 18+7 = 10. 19+9 = 10. 18+8=

11. 10-2 = 11. 13-5 = 11. 14-5 = 11. 16 -9 = 11. 17 -9 =

Monthly Newsletter Signup
The newsletter highlights recent selections from the 12. 9 x 6 = 12. 9 x 4 = 12. 7 x6 = 12. 8x6 = 12. 8x7 =
journal and useful tips from our blog.
13. 18 ÷6 = 13. 18 ÷3 = 13. 18 ÷3 = 13. 32 ÷4 = 13. 32 ÷8 =
Email First Name
14. 6+9 = 14. 16+7 = 14. 26+9 = 14. 25+9 = 14. 15+9 =
- Subscribe -
15. 7 x 8 = 15. 31-6 = 15. 21-6 = 15. 31-6 = 15. 31-4 =

16. 32-6 = 16. 7 x 7 = 16. 4 x 9 = 16. 7 x 9 = 16. 7 x 5 =

Follow us to get updates from

17. 48 ÷8 = 17. 36 ÷6 = 17. 49 ÷7 = 17. 49 ÷7 = 17. 28÷7 =
Inquiries Journal in your daily feed.
Follow @inquiriesjourn 18. 5 x 7 = 18. 8 x 7 = 18. 7 x 3 = 18. 8 x 9 = 18. 9 x 4 =

19. 8 + 6 = 19. 9 + 8 = 19. 6 + 9 = 19. 19 + 7 = 19. 29 + 8 =

20. 22-8 = 20. 21-6 = 20. 19-8 = 20. 38-9 = 20. 36-9 =

CITE REFERENCES PRINT 636

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