used to specify season, along with the season definition are listed in Table 3-2, below.

Valid
entries for the attribute months are a “0” to indicate no months are being reassigned to the season
or a space-delimited list with each value ranging from 1 to 12 where 1 represents January and 12
represents December. A season may be specified only once. The months reassigned to a season
should be listed on a single record separated by at least one space. A month can only be assigned
to one season. It is only necessary to specify the seasons/months that are to be reassigned. If 0 is
entered for a season, then default assignments will be used for any month that is not listed for a
different season.

Table 3-2. Season Secondary Keywords and Definitions

Secondary
Season Description Default Month Assignments
Keyword
SUMMER Midsummer with lush vegetation June, July, August
AUTUMN Autumn with unharvested cropland September, October, November
Late autumn after frost and harvest, or
WINTERNS December, January, February
winter with no snow
Winter with continuous snow on the
WINTERWS December, January, February
ground
Transitional spring with partial green
SPRING March, April, May
coverage or short annuals

3.2.12 To Run or Not (RUNORNOT)

Before beginning to read and process the datafiles, AERSURFACE will read through all
of the inputs in the control file regardless of any errors or warnings that may be encountered. If a
fatal error is encountered, then further program calculations will be aborted. Otherwise, the
program will attempt to run. The RUNORNOT keyword has been included on the CO pathway
to allow the user to specify whether to RUN the program and perform all the calculations, or
only process the control file and check for warnings and errors and summarize the setup
information. The syntax of the RUNORNOT keyword is summarized below:

3-17
 Syntax: CO RUNORNOT RUN or NOT
Type: Mandatory, Non-repeatable

3.3 Output Pathway (OU)

The OUtput pathway is used to specify user-defined filenames for program generated
output files that cannot be entered as an argument at the command prompt when AERSURFACE
is executed. Those that can be entered as a command-line argument include: 1) an input
summary file that replicates the control file inputs and includes a summary of warnings and
errors encountered during processing and 2) a log file that records more detailed information
about the input data that are read during program execution (see Section 3.0). The OU pathway
is required to be included in AERSURFACE input control file; however, all file-specific
keywords are optional. If the user prefers that default filenames are assigned, the OU pathway
can be empty with only the OU STARTING and OU FINISHED records specified and
AERSURFACE will used the default filenames shown in Table 3-3. All output files that can be
specified in the OU pathway are generated based on the debug options that are specified with the
DEBUGOPT keyword in the CO pathway (see Section 3.2.3) in combination with the types of
data that are used to derive the surface characteristic values specified with the DATAFILE
keyword in the CO pathway (i.e., land cover, percent impervious, and percent canopy). It
preferable to specify user-defined filenames rather than use default filenames to avoid
unintentionally overwriting files with the same name output from previous AERSURFACE runs.

3.3.1 Surface Characteristic Values File for AERMET (SFCCHAR)

As referenced above, the user can specify the name of the file that will contain the surface
characteristic values calculated by AERSURFACE that will be formatted input to AERMET. It
is entered in the OU pathway with the SFCCHAR keyword. IF SFCCHAR is omitted from the

3-18
OU pathway, the default filename, sfc_chars.out, will be assigned. The usage and syntax of
SFCCHAR keyword is summarized below:

Syntax: OU SFCCHAR path_filename

Type: Optional, Non-repeatable

where path_filename is the user-defined path and filename of the surface characteristics file. The
path can be entered as the absolute path or a relative path, relative to the working directory. If the
path is omitted, the file will be created in the working directory. The combined path and filename
is limited to 200 characters and should be enclosed in quotes (“”) if either the path or filename
includes spaces.

3.3.2 Debug Output Files

There are several debug files that can be generated by AERSURFACE. A file’s creation
is based on the debug options that are specified with the DEBUGOPT keyword in the CO
pathway (see Section 3.2.3) and the types of data that are input to AERSURFACE (i.e., land
cover, percent impervious, and percent canopy). The user has the option to enter a user-defined
path and filename for any of these debug files by specifying the primary keyword associated with
the debug file, followed by a path and filename. For any keyword and path\filename
combination that are omitted on OU pathway, AERSURFACE will use the default filename and
create the file in the working directory. There is a distinct primary keyword associated with each
debug file. The general usage and syntax for the keywords is summarized below and a list of the
keywords as well as the associated debug option, description, and default filename is provided in
Table 3-3. Note: Though the entry of any of the debug file keywords and associated path
and filenames are optional, each keyword that is specified must include an associated
filename and a filename must be preceded by the associated keyword.

3-19
 Syntax: OU primary_keyword path_filename
Type: Optional, Non-repeatable (each primary keyword in Table 3-3 can only be
used once)

where primary_keyword is a primary keyword from Table 3-3 and path_filename is the user-
defined path and filename of the output file. The path can be entered as the relative or absolute
path. A relative path is relative to the working directory. The combined path and filename are
limited to 200 characters and should be enclosed in quotes (“”) if either the path or filename
includes spaces.

Table 3-3. OU Pathway Primary Keywords and Default Filenames

Keyword DEBUGOPT Description Default Filename
SFCCHAR Surface characteristic values formatted sfc_chars.out
for input to AERMET
EFFRAD EFFRAD Table of effective radius values by effective_rad.txt
sector and month
NLCDGRID GRID Land cover grid for import into GIS landcover.txt
MPRVGRID GRID Impervious data grid for import into impervious.txt
GIS
CNPYGRID GRID Canopy data grid for import into GIS canopy.txt
NLCDTIFF TIFF Land cover debug file containing TIFF lc_tif_dbg.txt
tag and GeoKey values
MPRVTIFF TIFF Impervious debug file containing TIFF imp_tif_dbg.txt
tag and GeoKey values
CNPYTIFF TIFF Canopy debug file containing TIFF tag can_tif_dbg.txt
and GeoKey values

In addition to the files listed in Table 3-3, AERSURFACE will also automatically
generate an input summary file that replicates the control file inputs and a summary of warnings
and errors encountered during processing and a log file that records more detailed information

3-20
about the input data that are read during program execution. These filenames can be defined by
the user at the time the program is executed at the command-line prompt. Refer to Section 1.0
details about how to run AERSURFACE from the command-line and how to specify the paths
and filenames for the input control file, log file, and summary file. Refer to Section 4.3 for
additional descriptive information about the various output files generated by AERSURFACE.

3.4 Sample AERSURFACE Control File

Figure 3-1 is a sample AERSURFACE control file for the location of the meteorological tower at
the Raleigh-Durham International Airport (RDU) using the 2016 NLCD. This example is for
demonstration purposes only, to demonstrate the usage of various keywords and is not intended
to be representative of how the site would normally be processed. A summary of the options used
in the sample control file follows.

In this example, the RDU station is processed as the PRIMARY meteorological station
which means site-specific data are not used. Otherwise, the NWS/FAA station would be
specified as the SECONDARY station. The default ZORAD option will be used to calculate the
surface roughness length. Because default options are used, the OPTIONS keyword and
parameters could be omitted in this case. For the ZORAD option, a default radius of 1 km will
be used to compute surface roughness length. Because this is the default radius value, the
ZORADIUS keyword and parameter could be omitted. Surface characteristics will be based on
2001 land cover which is supplemented with both impervious and canopy data. GRID and TIFF
debug files will be generated for each of the land cover, impervious, and canopy GeoTIFF data
files. Per the OU pathway, user-defined filenames will be used for the GRID debug files, but
default filenames will be used for the TIFF debug files.

The CLIMATE keyword indicates that moisture conditions are AVERAGE, but there is
at least one month with continuous snow cover (SNOW), and the regional climate conditions are
non-arid (NONARID). Months are reassigned from the default season assignments with March
reassigned from Spring to winter without continuous snow cover, and January is defined as

3-21
having continuous snow cover meaning more than 50% of the month experienced continuous
snow cover. Note, because SNOW was specified on the CLIMATE keyword, AERSURFACE
will assume all winter months experience continuous snow cover unless winter months are
explicitly assigned to either winter with continuous snow (WINTERWS) or winter without
continuous snow (WINTERNS).

Based on the FREQ_SECT and SECTOR keywords, monthly values of surface

characteristics will be computed. Surface roughness length will be computed for three wind
sectors and only sector 2 which is largely comprised of runways will be processed using airport
surface characteristic values. Figure 3-2 Shows the three sectors defined in the sample control
file in Figure 3-1, overlaid with land cover from the 2001 NLCD for RDU.

The RUNORNOT keyword indicates that AERSURFACE will attempt to run after
checking the control file.

3-22
** Sample control file – for demonstration purposes only

CO STARTING
TITLEONE Sample AERSURFACE Control File
TITLETWO RDU - Met Tower, 2016 NLCD

** Using default options for OPTIONS keyword and parameters

OPTIONS PRIMARY ZORAD

DEBUGOPT GRID TIFF

CENTERLL 35.892300 -78.781900 NAD83

DATAFILE NLCD2016 "RDU_2016_NLCD_LC.tiff"

DATAFILE CNPY2016 "RDU_2016_NLCD_Can.tiff"
DATAFILE MPRV2016 "RDU_2016_NLCD_Imp.tiff"

** Use default 1 km radius

ZORADIUS 1.0

CLIMATE AVERAGE SNOW NONARID

** Get monthly values for three sectors

** Vary AP/Non-AP sectors
FREQ_SECT MONTHLY 3 VARYAP

** index start end

SECTOR 1 30.00 60.00 NONAP
SECTOR 2 60.00 225.00 AP
SECTOR 3 225.00 30.00 NONAP

** Reassign months with continuous snow cover in January

SEASON WINTERNS 12 2 3
SEASON WINTERWS 1
SEASON SPRING 4 5
SEASON SUMMER 6 7 8
SEASON AUTUMN 9 10 11

RUNORNOT RUN
CO FINISHED

OU STARTING
SFCCHAR "rdu_2016_lc_can_imp_zorad_sfc.txt"
NLCDGRID "rdu_2016_lc_can_imp_zorad_lc_grid.txt"
CNPYGRID "rdu_2016_lc_can_imp_zorad_can_grid.txt"
MPRVGRID "rdu_2016_lc_can_imp_zorad_imp_grid.txt"
OU FINISHED

Figure 3-1. Sample AERSURFACE Control File

3-23
Figure 3-2. 2016 NLCD for RDU International with Wind Sectors
Starting at 30, 60, and 225 Degrees

3-24
 Running AERSURFACE

4.1 Command Prompt and Command-line Arguments

The AERSURFACE executable file 1 available on EPA’s SCRAM website has been
compiled for the Microsoft Windows operating system and runs at a command prompt.
AERSURFACE, can be run from the command prompt by entering the path and filename of the
AERSURFACE executable file (e.g., aersurface.exe) with up to three command-line arguments
which can be included to specify the path and filename of the input control file, the output
summary file, and the output log file, in that order. This is demonstrated as follows:

Path-to-aersurface.exe\aersurface
Path-to-aersurface.exe\aersurface path\control_file
Path-to-aersurface.exe\aersurface path\control_file path\summary_file
Path-to-aersurface.exe\aersurface path\control_file path\summary_file path\log_file

The first example assumes that the control file is located in the working directory and is named
aersurface.inp. When executed in this way, the default names aersurface.out and aersurface.log
will be used for the names of the summary and log files, respectively. In the remaining examples,
the path and filename of the control file is specified. If the path and filename of the summary
file or subsequently the log file is not included, AERSURFACE will get the base path and
filename of the control file (without the extension) and set the path and filename of the summary
and log files equal to the base path and filename and add the extension .out and .log,

1
Included with the AERSURFACE executable file are NAD Grid conversion files (conus.los and conus.las) for
converting coordinates between NAD27 and NAD83 datums for the conterminous U.S. (CONUS) and Alaska. Earlier
versions of AERSURFACE that processed only the 1992 NLCD allowed the user to specify coordinates referenced to
either the NAD27 datum or NAD83 and AERSURFACE would convert user coordinates or coordinates derived from
the NLCD file to be consistent. This capability has been carried forward for the CONUS and also works for Alaska.
When conversion is needed between NAD27 and NAD83, the NAD Grid conversions files provided with the
AERSURFACE executable (aersurface.exe) need to be stored in the directory with the executable. However,
AERSURFACE has not been extended to make similar conversions for older datums specific to Hawaii and Puerto
Rico. When running AERSURFACE for locations in Hawaii and Puerto Rico, the coordinates entered by the user
should be referenced to the NAD83 datum or the WGS84 ellipsoid, and NAD83 should be specified as the datum
entered in the AERSURFACE control file. AERSURFACE treats NAD83 and WGS84 identically.
4-1
respectively. The path to each of the files entered in the command prompt can be entered as an
absolute or relative path (i.e., relative to the working directory).

4.2 Error and Warning Messages

While processing the control file and input data files, AERSURFACE writes messages to
the summary file, log file, and to the screen. These could be in the form of errors and warnings
that were encountered when initially checking the format of the control file as well as
dependencies in the options selected or issues encountered while reading the data input files
during processing. Informational messages may also be recorded to document specific
information about the data that were processed. Errors, such as a malformed control file, invalid
options, or missing or incorrectly formatted data files will cause AERSURFACE to abort
processing prematurely. These errors will need to be corrected before AERSURFACE can
complete successfully. Warnings, however, do not halt processing, but should be evaluated by
the user after AERSURFACE has completed to ensure results were not affected. Some examples
of warnings include data values that are out-of-bounds or a default value is assumed. The user
should inspect both the summary and log output files and review all messages that were recorded
during processing and determine if the control file or data need to be evaluated to ensure the
results were not impacted in an adverse or unexpected manner.

4.3 Summary of Output Files Generated by AERSURFACE

This section provides a summary of the different files that can be generated by
AERSURFACE and their contents. The files that are described include the summary and log files
that are generated automatically during each AERSURFACE run, the required surface
characteristics file that contains the calculated values and is formatted for input to AERMET, and
the various optional debug files. For additional information on the output options used to
generate specific files, refer to Section 3.2.

4-2
 4.3.1 Auto-generated Files

Each time an AERSURFACE run is performed, a summary file and a log file are
automatically generated. The default filenames for these two files if not provided by the user are
aersurface.out and aersurface.log, respectively. These default filenames can be overridden with
user-defined names when AERSURFACE is executed from the command-prompt (see Section
4.1). Additional descriptions of these two files and their contents are provided in the next two
sections.

Summary File (aersurface.out)

The first part of the summary file replicates the AERSURFACE control file verbatim as a
record of the control file structure and exact options and inputs. The summary file also indicates
if the setup completed successfully, meaning there were no formatting issues or conflicts with the
options specified in the control file when it was checked before processing. If the setup
completes without error, then the summary file will subsequently indicate if processing the data
files completed successfully. All error, warning, and informational messages encountered are
listed at the bottom of the summary file.

Log File (aersurface.log)

The log file records detailed information about the datafiles as they are read such as the
filename and if the file was opened successfully, the spatial resolution of the file, the number of
rows and columns of data, and the organization of the data in the file. The log file also provides
the counts of each land category by sector within the area used to calculate the surface
characteristics values. Detailed warning and error messages are also recorded in the log file as
processing continues.

4-3
 4.3.2 Surface Characteristics

As stated in Section 3.3.1, the keyword SFCCHAR and the user-defined path and
filename of the surface characteristics file that contains calculated surface characteristic values
formatted for input to AERMET are the only required entries in the OU pathway. This file
includes a compact summary, in list format, of the processing options specified in the control
file. The lines that make up the summary of options contain the double asterisks (**) in the first
two columns of each line so that AERMET will ignore them. Following the options summary are
the frequency, number of sectors, and airport flag, along with the sector definitions and surface
characteristic values formatted with the appropriate keywords as required by AERMET.

4.3.3 Debug Files

Whether or not debug files are created by AERSURFACE and which files are created is
controlled with the DEBUGOPT keyword on the CO pathway (see Section 3.2.3) in conjunction
with the type of datafiles processed in addition to land cover (i.e., impervious and canopy), and
the method used to calculate surface roughness length (i.e., ZORAD or ZOEFF, see Sections
2.4.1 and 3.2.2). Regardless which method is chosen or which debug options are selected,
AERSURFACE will only create those debug files that are consistent with the method specified
and the data that are input. AERSURFACE will not generate an error or abort processing if
debug options on the CO pathway or file types specified on the OU pathway are inconsistent
with the surface method specified or data that are input. For debug files created that are not
specified on the OU pathway, AERSURFACE will use the default filenames.

There are three categories of debug files: effective radius, TIFF debug, and grid files.
Each of these are ASCII text files that can be opened with a standard text editor. A summary of
the contents of each these are discussed in the sections that follow.

4-4
 Effective Radius File (default = effective_rad.txt)

The effective radius file is only applicable with the ZOEFF option for calculating
effective surface roughness. AERSURFACE generates this file when the ZOEFF secondary
keyword is specified with the OPTIONS keyword on the CO pathway and the EFFRAD
secondary keyword is specified with the DEBUGOPT keyword, also on the CO pathway. This
file provides a summary, by sector and month, of the calculated fetch, the effective roughness
computed traversing from the tower location, the effective roughness computed traversing
toward the tower, the final effective roughness value, and the mean roughness computed for each
concentric ring from the tower to just beyond 5 km. The default path and filename of this file
can be overridden using the EFFRAD primary keyword on the OU pathway. If omitted from the
OU pathway, the default filename, effective_rad.txt, will be used, the file will be created in the
working directory.

TIFF Debug Files (defaults = lc_tif_dbg.txt, imp_tif_dbg.txt, and can_tif_dbg.txt)

AERSURFACE will create a separate TIFF debug file for each TIFF datafile processed
(i.e., land cover, impervious, and canopy) when the TIFF option is specified with the
DEBUGOPT keyword on the CO pathway (see Section 3.3.2). These debug files contain a
record of each of the TIFF tags and GeoKeys read during processing. The TIFF tags and
GeoKeys store information about the organization of the data within the file and how the data are
georeferenced for extraction and interpretation. This information can be used to troubleshoot the
data files if warnings are issued during processing or results are questionable. The default paths
and filenames of these files can be overridden using the primary keywords NLCDTIFF,
MPRVTIFF, and/or CNPYTIFF on the OU pathway. If omitted from the OU pathway, the
default filenames, lc_tif_dbg.txt, imp_tif_dbg.txt, and can_tif_dbg.txt, will be used, and the files
will be created in the working directory.

4-5
 Grid Files (defaults = landcover.txt, impervious.txt, and canopy.txt)

Similar to the TIFF debug files, AERSURFACE will create separate grid debug files for
each TIFF datafile processed (e.g., land cover, impervious, and canopy) when the GRID option is
specified with the DEBUGOPT keyword on the CO pathway (see Section 3.3.2). Each of these
debug files contain a grid of the values extracted from the corresponding datafile with reference
information about the number of rows, columns, and the horizontal resolution of the data. The
default paths and filenames of these files can be overridden using the primary keywords
NLCDGRID, MPRVGRID, and/or CNPYGRID on the OU pathway. If omitted from the OU
pathway, the default filenames, landcover.txt, impervious.txt, and canopy.txt, will be used, and
the files will be created in the working directory.

4-6
 Appendix A: National Land Cover Database Definitions

Table 5-1. NLCD 1992 Class and Category Descriptions and Color Legend
Class\ Value Classification Description
Water areas of open water or permanent ice/snow cover.
11 Open Water - areas of open water, generally with less than 25% cover of vegetation/land cover.
12 Perennial Ice/Snow - areas characterized by year-long surface cover of ice and/or snow.
Developed areas characterized by a high percentage (30 % or greater) of constructed materials (e.g. asphalt, concrete,
buildings, etc.).
21 Low Intensity Residential - areas with a mixture of constructed materials and vegetation. Constructed
materials account for 30% to 80% of the cover. Vegetation may account for 20% to 70 % of the cover. These
areas most commonly include single-family housing units. Population densities will be lower than in high
intensity residential areas.
22 High Intensity Residential - areas highly developed where people reside in high numbers. Examples include
apartment complexes and row houses. Vegetation accounts for less than 20% of the cover. Constructed
materials account for 80% to100% of the cover.
23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation - areas of infrastructure (e.g. roads, railroads, etc.) and all highly
developed areas not classified as High Intensity Residential
Barren areas characterized by bare rock, gravel, sand, silt, clay, or other earthen material, with little or no "green"
vegetation present regardless of its inherent ability to support life. Vegetation, if present, is more widely
spaced and scrubby than that in the green vegetated categories; lichen cover may be extensive.
31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay - perennially barren areas of bedrock, desert pavement, scarps, talus, slides, volcanic
material, glacial debris, beaches, and other accumulations of earthen material.
32 Quarries/Strip Mines/Gravel Pits - areas of extractive mining activities with significant surface expression.
33 Transitional - areas of sparse vegetative cover (less than 25% of cover) that are dynamically changing from
one land cover to another, often because of land use activities. Examples include forest clear cuts, a
transition phase between forest and agricultural land, the temporary clearing of vegetation, and changes
due to natural causes (e.g. fire, flood, etc.).
Forest areas characterized by tree cover (natural or semi-natural woody vegetation, generally greater than 6
meters tall); tree canopy accounts for 25% to 100% of the cover.
41 Deciduous Forest - areas dominated by trees where 75% or more of the tree species shed foliage
simultaneously in response to seasonal change.
42 Evergreen Forest - areas dominated by trees where 75% or more of the tree species maintain their leaves all
year. Canopy is never without green foliage.
43 Mixed Forest - areas dominated by trees where neither deciduous nor evergreen species represent more
than 75% of the cover present.
Shrubland areas characterized by natural or semi-natural woody vegetation with aerial stems, generally less than 6
meters tall, with individuals or clumps not touching to interlocking. Both evergreen and deciduous species of
true shrubs, young trees, and trees or shrubs that are small or stunted because of environmental conditions
are included.
51 Shrubland - areas dominated by shrubs; shrub canopy accounts for 25 to 100% of the cover. Shrub cover is
generally greater than 25% when tree cover is less than 25%. Shrub cover may be less than 25% in cases
when the cover of other life forms (e.g. herbaceous or tree) is less than 25% and shrubs cover exceeds the
cover of the other life forms.
Non-natural areas dominated by non-natural woody vegetation; non-natural woody vegetative canopy accounts for 25%
woody to 100% of the cover. The non-natural woody classification is subject to the availability of sufficient ancillary
data to differentiate non-natural woody vegetation from natural woody vegetation.

5-1
 61 Orchards/Vineyards/Other - orchards, vineyards, and other areas planted or maintained for the production
of fruits, nuts, berries, or ornamentals.
Herbaceous upland areas characterized by natural or semi-natural herbaceous vegetation; herbaceous vegetation
Upland accounts for 75% to 100% of the cover.
71 Grasslands/Herbaceous - areas dominated by upland grasses and forbs. In rare cases, herbaceous cover is
less than 25%, but exceeds the combined cover of the woody species present. These areas are not subject to
intensive management, but they are often utilized for grazing.
Planted/Cultivated areas characterized by herbaceous vegetation that has been planted or is intensively managed for the
production of food, feed, or fiber; or is maintained in developed settings for specific purposes. Herbaceous
vegetation accounts for 75% to 100% of the cover.
81 Pasture/Hay - areas of grasses, legumes, or grass-legume mixtures planted for livestock grazing or the
production of seed or hay crops.
82 Row Crops - areas used for the production of crops, such as corn, soybeans, vegetables, tobacco, and
cotton.
83 Small Grains - areas used for the production of graminoid crops such as wheat, barley, oats, and rice.
84 Fallow - areas used for the production of crops that do not exhibit visible vegetation as a result of being
tilled in a management practice that incorporates prescribed alternation between cropping and tillage.
85 Urban/Recreational Grasses - vegetation (primarily grasses) planted in developed settings for recreation,
erosion control, or aesthetic purposes. Examples include parks, lawns, golf courses, airport grasses, and
industrial site grasses.
Wetlands areas where the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water as defined by Cowardin
et al., (1979).
91 Woody Wetlands - areas where forest or shrubland vegetation accounts for 25% to 100 % of the cover and
the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water.
92 Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands - areas where perennial herbaceous vegetation accounts for 75% to 100%
of the cover and the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water.
Reproduced from the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium Website at http://www.mrlc.gov

5-2
 Table 5-2. NLCD 2001-2016 Class and Category Descriptions and Color Legend
Class\ Value Classification Description
Water
11 Open Water - areas of open water, generally with less than 25% cover of vegetation or soil.
12 Perennial Ice/Snow - areas characterized by a perennial cover of ice and/or snow, generally greater than
25% of total cover.
Developed
21 Developed, Open Space - areas with a mixture of some constructed materials, but mostly vegetation in the
form of lawn grasses. Impervious surfaces account for less than 20% of total cover. These areas most
commonly include large-lot single-family housing units, parks, golf courses, and vegetation planted in
developed settings for recreation, erosion control, or aesthetic purposes.
22 Developed, Low Intensity - areas with a mixture of constructed materials and vegetation. Impervious
surfaces account for 20% to 49% percent of total cover. These areas most commonly include single-family
housing units.
23 Developed, Medium Intensity - areas with a mixture of constructed materials and vegetation. Impervious
surfaces account for 50% to 79% of the total cover. These areas most commonly include single-family
housing units.
24 Developed High Intensity -highly developed areas where people reside or work in high numbers. Examples
include apartment complexes, row houses and commercial/industrial. Impervious surfaces account for 80%
to 100% of the total cover.
Barren
31 Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay) - areas of bedrock, desert pavement, scarps, talus, slides, volcanic material,
glacial debris, sand dunes, strip mines, gravel pits and other accumulations of earthen material. Generally,
vegetation accounts for less than 15% of total cover.
Forest
41 Deciduous Forest - areas dominated by trees generally greater than 5 meters tall, and greater than 20% of
total vegetation cover. More than 75% of the tree species shed foliage simultaneously in response to
seasonal change.
42 Evergreen Forest - areas dominated by trees generally greater than 5 meters tall, and greater than 20% of
total vegetation cover. More than 75% of the tree species maintain their leaves all year. Canopy is never
without green foliage.
43 Mixed Forest - areas dominated by trees generally greater than 5 meters tall, and greater than 20% of total
vegetation cover. Neither deciduous nor evergreen species are greater than 75% of total tree cover.
Shrubland
51 Dwarf Scrub - Alaska only areas dominated by shrubs less than 20 centimeters tall with shrub canopy
typically greater than 20% of total vegetation. This type is often co-associated with grasses, sedges, herbs,
and non-vascular vegetation.
52 Shrub/Scrub - areas dominated by shrubs; less than 5 meters tall with shrub canopy typically greater than
20% of total vegetation. This class includes true shrubs, young trees in an early successional stage or trees
stunted from environmental conditions.
Herbaceous
71 Grassland/Herbaceous - areas dominated by gramanoid or herbaceous vegetation, generally greater than
80% of total vegetation. These areas are not subject to intensive management such as tilling, but can be
utilized for grazing.
72 Sedge/Herbaceous - Alaska only areas dominated by sedges and forbs, generally greater than 80% of total
vegetation. This type can occur with significant other grasses or other grass like plants, and includes sedge
tundra, and sedge tussock tundra.
73 Lichens - Alaska only areas dominated by fruticose or foliose lichens generally greater than 80% of total
vegetation.

5-3
 74 Moss - Alaska only areas dominated by mosses, generally greater than 80% of total vegetation.
Planted/Cultivated
81 Pasture/Hay - areas of grasses, legumes, or grass-legume mixtures planted for livestock grazing or the
production of seed or hay crops, typically on a perennial cycle. Pasture/hay vegetation accounts for greater
than 20% of total vegetation.
82 Cultivated Crops - areas used for the production of annual crops, such as corn, soybeans, vegetables,
tobacco, and cotton, and also perennial woody crops such as orchards and vineyards. Crop vegetation
accounts for greater than 20% of total vegetation. This class also includes all land being actively tilled.
Wetlands
90 Woody Wetlands - areas where forest or shrubland vegetation accounts for greater than 20% of vegetative
cover and the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water.
95 Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands - Areas where perennial herbaceous vegetation accounts for greater than
80% of vegetative cover and the soil or substrate is periodically saturated with or covered with water.
Reproduced from the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium Website at http://www.mrlc.gov

5-4
 Appendix B. Surface Characteristic Lookup Tables

Table 6-1 through Table 6-6 provide the values of albedo, Bowen ratio, and surface roughness,
respectively, based on the NLCD92 land cover categories. Each table includes a column containing
references used in estimating the values for each surface characteristic parameter and each land cover
category. As explained in Section 2.0, more than one value of surface characteristics may be listed for
certain land cover categories depending on user responses to specific prompts regarding the site location.

6-1
 Table 6-1. Seasonal Values of Albedo for the NLCD 1992

Class Seasonal Albedo Values1 Reference

Class Name
Number
1 2 3 4 5
11 Open Water 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 AERMET2,3
12 Perennial Ice/Snow 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 Stull & Garratt4
21 Low Intensity Residential 0.18 0.45 0.16 0.16 0.16 Estimate5
22 High Intensity Residential 0.18 0.35 0.18 0.18 0.18 Stull6 & AERMET7
23 Commercial/Industrial/Transp 0.18 0.35 0.18 0.18 0.18 Stull6 & AERMET7
Bare Rock/Sand/Clay (Arid Region) 0.2 NA 0.2 0.2 0.2 Garratt8
31
Bare Rock/Sand/Clay (Non-arid Region) 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 Garratt8 & AERMET7
32 Quarries/Strip Mines/Gravel 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 Garratt8 & AERMET7
33 Transitional 0.18 0.45 0.18 0.18 0.18 Estimate9
41 Deciduous Forest 0.17 0.5 0.16 0.16 0.16 Stull6 & AERMET7
42 Evergreen Forest 0.12 0.35 0.12 0.12 0.12 Stull6 & AERMET7
43 Mixed Forest 0.14 0.42 0.14 0.14 0.14 Estimate10
Shrubland (Arid Region) 0.25 NA 0.25 0.25 0.25 Stull6
51
Shrubland (Non-arid Region) 0.18 0.5 0.18 0.18 0.18 Estimate11&AERMET7
61 Orchards/Vineyards/Other 0.18 0.5 0.14 0.18 0.18 Estimate12
71 Grasslands/Herbaceous 0.2 0.6 0.18 0.18 0.18 AERMET2
81 Pasture/Hay 0.18 0.6 0.14 0.2 0.2 AERMET2,13
82 Row Crops 0.18 0.6 0.14 0.2 0.2 AERMET2,13
83 Small Grains 0.18 0.6 0.14 0.2 0.2 AERMET2,13
84 Fallow 0.18 0.6 0.18 0.18 0.18 Garratt8
85 Urban/Recreational Grasses 0.18 0.6 0.15 0.15 0.15 Estimate14
91 Woody Wetlands 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 Stull6 & AERMET7
92 Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 Stull6 & AERMET7

6-2
1 Values are listed for the following seasonal categories: 1 - Late autumn after frost and harvest; or winter with
no snow; 2 - Winter with continuous snow on ground; 3 - Transitional spring with partial green coverage or
short annuals; 4 - Midsummer with lush vegetation; 5 - Autumn with unharvested cropland
2 Estimate based on AERMET User’s Guide, Table 4-1.
3 We assume no freeze of the water and no seasonal changes in albedo.
4 Estimate based on Stull, Table C-7 and Garratt, Table A8. Assume fresher snow and more ice in seasonal categories 3 & 4
and older snow in seasonal categories 1, 2, & 5.
5 Assume an equal mix of three classes: “High Intensity Residential”, “Mixed Forest”, and “Urban/Recreational Grasses.”
6 Estimate based on Stull, Table C-7.
7 Estimate based on AERMET User’s Guide, Table 4-1 albedo value for winter with continuous snow cover.
8 Estimate based on Garratt, Table A8.
9 Assume “Transitional” is similar to Class 84: “Fallow”. A warning will be issues to the user if this category appears in more
than 10% of the land cover data.
10 Estimate based on the average of Classes 41 and 42.
11 Estimate based on the non-arid shrubland having more vegetation that the arid-region shrubland.
12 Estimate based Class 51: “Shrubland (non-arid region)” for seasonal categories 1, 2 & 4 and AERMET User’s Guide
(“Cultivated Land”) for seasonal categories 3 & 5.
13 Estimate based on AERMET User’s Guide; assume more vegetation in summer and soil being wetter in spring than in fall.
14 Estimate based on AERMET User’s Guide (“Cultivated Land”) for seasonal category 3 & 4, and Garratt, Table A8 for
seasonal categories 1, 2 & 5.

6-3
 Table 6-2. Seasonal Values of Bowen Ratio for the NLCD 1992
Seasonal Bowen Ratio1 Seasonal Bowen Ratio1 Seasonal Bowen Ratio1
Class Reference
Class Name Average Wet Dry
Number
1 22 3 4 5 1 22 3 4 5 1 22 3 4 5

11 Open Water 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 AERMET&Oke3

12 Perennial Ice/Snow 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 AERMET&Oke3

21 Low Intensity Residential 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.5 0.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 Estimate4
22 High Intensity Residential 1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 AERMET&Oke3
23 Commercial/Industrial/Transp 1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 AERMET&Oke3
Bare Rock/Sand/Clay
6.0 NA 3.0 4.0 6.0 2.0 NA 1.0 1.5 2 10.0 NA 5.0 6.0 10 AERMET&Oke3
(Arid Region)
31
Bare Rock/Sand/Clay
1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 AERMET&Oke3
(Non-arid Region)

32 Quarries/Strip Mines/Gravel 1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 AERMET&Oke3

33 Transitional 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 2.0 0.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 Estimate5

41 Deciduous Forest 1.0 0.5 0.7 0.3 1.0 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.5 0.6 2.0 AERMET&Oke3

42 Evergreen Forest 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 1.5 0.5 1.5 0.6 1.5 AERMET&Oke3

43 Mixed Forest 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.9 0.35 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.35 1.75 0.5 1.5 0.6 1.75 Estimate6

Shrubland (Arid Region) 6.0 NA 3.0 4.0 6.0 2.0 NA 1.0 1.5 2.0 10.0 NA 5.0 6.0 10.0 AERMET&Oke3
51
Shrubland (Non-arid Region) 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.0 3.0 0.5 2.5 2.5 3.0 Estimate7

61 Orchards/Vineyards/Other 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 AERMET&Oke3

6-4
 AERMET&Oke3
71 Grasslands/Herbaceous 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0

81 Pasture/Hay 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 AERMET&Oke3

82 Row Crops 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 AERMET&Oke3

83 Small Grains 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 AERMET&Oke3

84 Fallow 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 AERMET&Oke3

85 Urban/Recreational Grasses 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 AERMET&Oke3

91 Woody Wetlands 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 Estimate7
Emergent Herbaceous
92 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 AERMET&Oke3
Wetlands

1 Values are listed for the following seasonal categories: 1 - Late autumn after frost and harvest; or winter with no snow; 2 - Winter with
continuous snow on ground; 3 - Transitional spring with partial green coverage or short annuals; 4 - Midsummer with lush vegetation; 5 -
Autumn with unharvested cropland
2 Values for seasonal category 2 are based on the AERMET User’s Guide (EPA, 2018a) and Oke (1978), Tables 4-2a-c, Bowen ratio values for winter with
continuous snow cover, except for class 11 with the assumption the water does not freeze.
3 Values for seasonal categories 1, 2, 3 & 5 are based on AERMET User’s Guide (EPA, 2018a), Tables 4-2a-c and Oke (1978).
4 Estimate based on composition being an equal mix of three classes: “High Intensity Residential”, “Mixed Forest”, and “Urban/Recreational Grasses.
5 Estimate based on the Bowen ratio of “Transitional” being between the Bowen ratio of Classes 31 and 71.
6 Assume “Mixed Forest” is composed of equal parts of “Deciduous Forest” and “Evergreen Forest.”
7 Estimate based on comparison to Bowen ratio for other classes.

6-5
 Table 6-3. Seasonal Values of Surface Roughness (m) for the NLCD 1992
Seasonal Surface Roughness1 (m) Reference
Class
Class Name
Number 1 2 3 4 5
11 Open Water 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 Stull2
12 Perennial Ice/Snow 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 Stull2

21 Low Intensity Residential 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.40 0.40 Estimate3

22 High Intensity Residential 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 AERMET4

Commercial/Indust/Transp
0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 Estimate5
(Airport)
23
Commercial/Industrial/Transp
0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 Estimate5
(Non-airport)
Bare Rock/Sand/Clay
0.05 NA 0.05 0.05 0.05 Slade6
(Arid Region)
31
Bare Rock/Sand/Clay
0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Slade6
(Non-arid Region)
32 Quarries/Strip Mines/Gravel 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Estimate7
33 Transitional 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Estimate8
41 Deciduous Forest 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.3 1.3 AERMET4
42 Evergreen Forest 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 AERMET4
43 Mixed Forest 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.3 Estimate9
Shrubland
0.15 NA 0.15 0.15 0.15 50% Cat. 51 (Non-Arid)10
(Arid Region)
51
Shrubland
0.3 0.15 0.3 0.3 0.3 AERMET4
(Non-arid Region)
61 Orchards/Vineyards/Other 0.1 0.05 0.2 0.3 0.3 Garratt11
71 Grasslands/Herbaceous 0.01 0.005 0.05 0.1 0.1 AERMET4
81 Pasture/Hay 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.15 0.15 Garratt11 & Slade12
82 Row Crops 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.2 0.2 Garratt11 & Slade12
83 Small Grains 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.15 0.15 Garratt11 & Slade12
84 Fallow 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.05 Estimate13
85 Urban/Recreational Grasses 0.01 0.005 0.015 0.02 0.015 Randerson14
91 Woody Wetlands 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 Estimate15
Emergent Herbaceous
92 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 AERMET4
Wetlands

6-6
1 Values are listed for the following seasonal categories: 1 - Late autumn after frost and harvest; or winter with
no snow; 2 - Winter with continuous snow on ground; 3 - Transitional spring with partial green coverage or short
annuals; 4 - Midsummer with lush vegetation; 5 - Autumn with unharvested cropland
2 Estimate based on Stull, Fig 9.6. We have specified a larger roughness than the AERMET “calm open sea”
roughness value because we have assumed that most of the water is closer to land and will experience waves
and be closer to the shoreline, increasing roughness.
3 Assume 50% “High Intensity Residential” (22), 25% “Mixed Forest” (43), and 25% “Urban/Recreational Grasses”
(85), using a weighted geometric mean value.
4 Based on the AERMET User’s Guide (EPA, 2018a).
5 For airport sites, assume 90% of land cover is “Transportation” with roughness similar to Class 31 (Bare Rock/
Sand/ Clay) and 10% is “Commercial/Industrial” with roughness similar to Class 22 (High Intensity Residential).
For non-airport, assume 10% of land cover is “Transportation” and 90% is “Commercial/Industrial”. Weighted
geometric mean values are used.
6 Estimate based on Slade, Table 3-1, assuming the surface is not completely level due to inclusion of some
larger rocks.
7 Estimate reflecting “significant surface expression”
8 Estimate reflecting significant mix of different land cover classes. A warning will be issued to the user if this
category appears in more than 10% of the land cover data.
9 Assume “Mixed Forest” is 50% “Deciduous Forest” and 50% “Evergreen Forest”, using a weighted geometric
mean value.
10 Assume arid region would have approximately 50% less vegetation than a non-arid region.
11 Estimate based on Garratt, Table A6.
12 Estimate based on Slade, Table 3-1
13 Based on class 31 (“Bare Rock/Sand/Clay”) for seasonal categories 1 &2 and 81, 82, 83 (“Pasture/Hay”, “Row
Crops” & “Small Grains”) for seasonal categories 3, 4, & 5, with seasonal category 5 having a more similar
amount of vegetation to seasonal category 3 and, therefore, the same roughness.
14 Estimate based on Randerson, Table 5.4
15 Assume 50% Mixed Forest (43) and 50% Emergent Herb Wetlands (92), using a weighted geometric mean
value.

6-7
 Table 6-4. Seasonal Values of Albedo for the NLCD 2001-2016

Class Seasonal Albedo Values1 Reference

Class Name
Number
1 2 3 4 5
11 Open Water 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 NLCD 1992 Cat. 11
12 Perennial Ice/Snow 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 NLCD 1992 Cat.12
21 Developed, Open Space 0.18 0.6 0.15 0.15 0.15 NLCD 1992 Cat. 85
22 Developed, Low Intensity 0.18 0.45 0.16 0.16 0.16 NLCD 1992 Cat. 21
23 Developed, Medium Intensity 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 NLCD 1992 Cat. 23
24 Developed, High Intensity 0.18 0.25 0.18 0.18 0.18 NLCD 1992 Cat. 23
Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay) (Arid Region) 0.2 NA 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 31
31
Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay) (Non-arid Region) 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 31
32 Unconsolidated Shore 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
41 Deciduous Forest 0.17 0.5 0.16 0.16 0.16 NLCD 1992 Cat. 41
42 Evergreen Forest 0.12 0.35 0.12 0.12 0.12 NLCD 1992 Cat. 42
43 Mixed Forest 0.14 0.42 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 43
Dwarf Scrub (Arid Region) 0.25 NA 0.25 0.25 0.25 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
51
Dwarf Scrub (Non-arid Region) 0.18 0.5 0.18 0.18 0.18 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
Shrub/Scrub (Arid Region) 0.25 NA 0.25 0.25 0.25 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
52
Shrub/Scrub (Non-arid Region) 0.18 0.5 0.18 0.18 0.18 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
71 Grasslands/Herbaceous 0.2 0.6 0.18 0.18 0.18 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
72 Sedge/Herbaceous 0.2 0.6 0.18 0.18 0.18 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
73 Lichens 0.2 0.6 0.18 0.18 0.18 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
74 Moss 0.2 0.6 0.18 0.18 0.18 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
81 Pasture/Hay 0.18 0.6 0.14 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 81
82 Cultivated Crops 0.18 0.6 0.14 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 82
90 Woody Wetlands 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
91 Palustrine Forested Wetland 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
92 Palustrine Scrub/Shrub Wetland 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
93 Estuarine Forested Wetland 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
94 Estuarine Scrub/Shrub Wetland 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
95 Emergent Herbaceous Wetland 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
96 Palustrine Emergent Wetland (Persistent) 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
97 Estuarine Emergent Wetland 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
98 Palustrine Aquatic Bed 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
99 Estuarine Aquatic Bed 0.14 0.3 0.14 0.14 0.14 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92

1 Values are listed for the following seasonal categories: 1 - Late autumn after frost and harvest; or winter with
no snow; 2 - Winter with continuous snow on ground; 3 - Transitional spring with partial green coverage or
short annuals; 4 - Midsummer with lush vegetation; 5 - Autumn with unharvested cropland

6-8
 Table 6-5. Seasonal Values of Bowen Ratio for the NLCD 2001-2016
Seasonal Bowen Ratio1 Seasonal Bowen Ratio1 Seasonal Bowen Ratio1
Class Reference
Class Name Average Wet Dry
Number
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
11 Open Water 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 NLCD 1992 Cat. 11
12 Perennial Ice/Snow 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 NLCD 1992 Cat.12
21 Developed, Open Space 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 85
22 Developed, Low Intensity 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.5 0.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 NLCD 1992 Cat. 21
Estimated2
23 Developed, Medium Intensity 1.2 0.5 1.1 1.1 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8 3.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 3.0

24 Developed, High Intensity 1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 23
Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay)
6.0 NA 3.0 4.0 6.0 2.0 NA 1.0 1.5 2.0 10.0 NA 5.0 6.0 10.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 31
(Arid Region)
31
Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay)
1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 31
(Non-arid Region)
32 Unconsolidated Shore 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
41 Deciduous Forest 1.0 0.5 0.7 0.3 1.0 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.5 0.6 2.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 41
42 Evergreen Forest 0.8 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 1.5 0.5 1.5 0.6 1.5 NLCD 1992 Cat. 42
43 Mixed Forest 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.9 0.35 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.35 1.75 0.5 1.5 0.6 1.75 NLCD 1992 Cat. 43
Dwarf Scrub
4.0 NA 2.0 3.0 4.0 1.5 NA 0.8 0.9 1.5 7.0 NA 4.0 6.0 7.0 Estimated from Cat 52
(Arid Region)
51
Dwarf Scrub
1.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.0 3.0 0.5 2.5 2.5 3.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
(Non-arid Region)
Shrub/Scrub
6.0 NA 3.0 4.0 6.0 2.0 NA 1.0 1.5 2.0 10.0 NA 5.0 6.0 10.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
(Arid Region)
52
Shrub/Scrub
1.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.0 3.0 0.5 2.5 2.5 3.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
(Non-arid Region)
71 Grasslands/Herbaceous 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71

6-9
72 Sedge/Herbaceous 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
73 Lichens 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
74 Moss 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
81 Pasture/Hay 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 81
82 Cultivated Crops 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 NLCD 1992 Cat. 82
90 Woody Wetlands 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
91 Palustrine Forested Wetland 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
92 Palustrine Scrub/Shrub 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
93 Estuarine Forested Wetland 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
94 Estuarine Scrub/Shrub 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
95 Emergent Herbaceous 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
96 Palustrine Emergent Wetland 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
97 Estuarine Emergent Wetland 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
98 Palustrine Aquatic Bed 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 NLCD 1992 Cat. 11
99 Estuarine Aquatic Bed 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 NLCD 1992 Cat. 11

1 Values are listed for the following seasonal categories: 1 - Late autumn after frost and harvest; or winter with no snow; 2 - Winter with continuous
snow on ground; 3 - Transitional spring with partial green coverage or short annuals; 4 - Midsummer with lush vegetation; 5 - Autumn with
unharvested cropland

2 Estimated from categories 22 (Developed - Low Intensity) and 24 (Developed – High Intensity).

6-10
 Table 6-6. Seasonal Values of Surface Roughness for the NLCD 2001-2016

Class Seasonal Surface Roughness1 (m) Reference

Class Name
Number
1 2 3 4 5
11 Open Water 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 NLCD 1992 Cat. 11
12 Perennial Ice/Snow 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 NLCD 1992 Cat. 12

Developed, Open Space (Airport) 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 Estimated2

21

Developed, Open Space (Non-airport) 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.03 Estimated2

Developed, Low Intensity (Airport) 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.03 Estimated2
22

Developed, Low Intensity (Non-airport) 0.07 0.05 0.09 0.1 0.09 Estimated2

Developed, Medium Intensity (Airport) 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.06 Estimated2
23

Developed, Medium Intensity (Non-airport) 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 Estimated2

Developed, High Intensity (Airport) 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 Estimated2
24

Developed, High Intensity (Non-airport) 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 Estimated2

Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay) (Arid Region) 0.05 NA 0.05 0.05 0.05 NLCD 1992 Cat. 31
31 Barren Land (Rock/Sand/Clay) (Non-arid
0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 NLCD 1992 Cat. 31
Region)
32 Unconsolidated Shore 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 NLCD 1992 Cat. 31
41 Deciduous Forest 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.3 1.3 NLCD 1992 Cat. 41
42 Evergreen Forest 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 NLCD 1992 Cat. 42
43 Mixed Forest 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.3 NLCD 1992 Cat. 43
Dwarf Scrub (Arid Region) 0.05 NA 0.05 0.05 0.05 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
51
Dwarf Scrub (Non-arid Region) 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.1 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
Shrub/Scrub (Arid Region) 0.15 NA 0.15 0.15 0.15 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
52
Shrub/Scrub (Non-arid Region) 0.3 0.15 0.3 0.3 0.3 NLCD 1992 Cat. 51
71 Grasslands/Herbaceous 0.01 0.005 0.05 0.1 0.1 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
72 Sedge/Herbaceous 0.01 0.005 0.05 0.1 0.1 NLCD 1992 Cat. 71
73 Lichens 0.01 0.005 0.05 0.05 0.05 Estimated

6-11
 74 Moss 0.01 0.005 0.05 0.05 0.05 Estimated
Pasture/Hay (Airport) 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 NLCD 1992 Cat. 21
81
Pasture/Hay (Non-airport) 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.15 0.15 NLCD 1992 Cat. 81
Cultivated Crops (Airport) 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 NLCD 1992 Cat. 21
82
Cultivated Crops (Non-airport) 0.03 0.014 0.04 0.2 0.2 Estimated
90 Woody Wetlands 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
91 Palustrine Forested Wetland 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
92 Palustrine Scrub/Shrub Wetland 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
93 Estuarine Forested Wetland 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 NLCD 1992 Cat. 91
94 Estuarine Scrub/Shrub Wetland 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
95 Emergent Herbaceous Wetland 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
96 Palustrine Emergent Wetland (Persistent) 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
97 Estuarine Emergent Wetland 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 NLCD 1992 Cat. 92
98 Palustrine Aquatic Bed 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Estimated
99 Estuarine Aquatic Bed 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Estimated

1 Values are listed for the following seasonal categories: 1 - Late autumn after frost and harvest; or winter with
no snow; 2 - Winter with continuous snow on ground; 3 - Transitional spring with partial green coverage or
short annuals; 4 - Midsummer with lush vegetation; 5 - Autumn with unharvested cropland
2 Surface roughness lengths for categories 21-24 that make up the Developed class of categories in the 2001-
2016 NLCD are calculated as a weighted geometric mean of a combination of the following 1992 NLCD
categories (see applied weights in tables below):
• High Intensity Residential (22)
• Bare Rock/Sand/Clay (31)
• Mixed Forest (43)
• Urban/Recreational Grasses (85)

6-12
 Appendix C. Alphabetical keyword reference

This appendix provides an alphabetical listing of all of the keywords used by the
AERSURFACE program. Each keyword is identified as to the pathway for which it applies, the
keyword type: mandatory (M), optional (O) or conditional (C), and either repeatable (R) or non-
repeatable (N), and with a brief description of the function of the keyword. For a more
complete description of the keywords, including a list of associated parameters, refer to the
Detailed Keyword Reference in Section 3.0 or the Functional Keyword/Parameter Reference in
Section 8.0.

7-1
 Table 7-1. All Primary Keywords Available in AERSURFACE
Keyword Path Type Keyword Description
ANEM_HGT CO O - N Anemometer height (for ZOEFF roughness option)
CNPYGRID OU O - N Debug file - Canopy data grid
CNPYTIFF OU O - N Debug file - Canopy debug file containing TIFF tag and GeoKey
values
CENTERLL* CO M - N Met tower coordinates in latitude and longitude
CENTERXY* CO M - N Met tower location in UTM coordinates
CLIMATE CO O - N Climate and moisture parameters of study area
DATAFILE CO M - R Land cover input datafiles (including impervious and canopy data)
DEBUGOPT CO O - N Debug options for debug files
EFFRAD OU O - N Table of effective radius values by sector and month
FREQ_SECT CO O - N Indicates temporal frequency of surface values, number of roughness
sectors and if site is an airport or if airport flag is sector dependent
FINISHED ALL M - N Identifies the end of pathway inputs
MPRVGRID OU O - N Debug file - Impervious data grid
MPRVTIFF OU O - N Debug file - Impervious debug file containing TIFF tag and GeoKey
values
NLCDGRID OU O - N Debug file - Land cover data grid
NLCDTIFF OU O - N Debug file - Land cover debug file containing TIFF tag and GeoKey
values
OPTIONS CO O - N Processing options
RUNORNOT CO M - N Indicates to stop execution after checking control file setup or continue
processing if not errors found
SFCCHAR OU M - N Averaged surface characteristic values formatted for input to AERMET
SEASON CO O - R Used to reassign months to seasons to override default
assignments
SECTOR CO C - R Define roughness sectors and indicate if airport values should be used.
STARTING ALL M - N Identifies the end of pathway inputs
TITLEONE CO M - N First line of title for output
TITLETWO CO O - N Optional second line of output title
ZORADIUS CO O - N Fixed radius for averaging roughness (for ZORAD roughness option)
*
User must specify either CENTERXY or CENTERLL.

Type: M - Mandatory N - Non-Repeatable

O - Optional R - Repeatable
C - Conditional

7-2
 Appendix D. Functional keyword/parameter reference

This appendix provides a functional reference for the keywords and parameters used by the
control for the AERSURFACE program. The keywords are organized by functional pathway, and
within each pathway the order of the keywords is based on the function of the keyword within the
preprocessor. The pathways used by the preprocessor are as follows, in the order in which they appear
in the control file and in the tables that follow:

CO - for specifying overall job COntrol options; and

OU - for specifying OUtput file information.

The pathways and keywords are presented in the same order as in the Detailed Keyword Reference in
Section 3.0.

Two types of tables are provided for each pathway. The first table lists all of the keywords for
that pathway, identifies each keyword as to its type (either mandatory or optional and either repeatable
or non-repeatable), and provides a brief description of the function of the keyword. The second type of
table presents the parameters for each keyword in the order in which they should appear in the control
file where order is important and describes each parameter in detail.

The following convention is used for identifying the different types of input parameters.
Parameters corresponding to secondary keywords which should be input "as is" are listed on the tables
with all capital letters (they are underlined in the table). Other parameter names are given with an initial
capital letter and are not input "as is." In all cases, the parameter names are intended to be descriptive
of the input variable being represented, and they often correspond to the Fortran variable names used in
the preprocessor code. Parentheses around a parameter indicate that the parameter is optional for that
keyword. The default that is taken when an optional parameter is left blank is explained in the
discussion for that parameter.

8-1
 Table 8-1. Description of Control Pathway Keywords
CO Keywords Type Keyword Description
STARTING M - N Identifies the start of pathway inputs
TITLEONE M - N First line of title for output

TITLETWO O-N Optional second line of title for output

OPTIONS O – N Processing options

DEBUGOPT O – N Debug options for debug files

CENTERXY* M - N Met tower location in UTM coordinates

CENTERLL* M - N Met tower coordinates in latitude and longitude

DATAFILE M-R Land cover input datafiles (including impervious and canopy data)

ZORADIUS O–N Fixed radius for averaging roughness (for ZORAD roughness option)

ANEM_HGT O-N Anemometer height (for ZOEFF roughness option)

CLIMATE O-N Climate and moisture parameters of study area

FREQ_SECT M - N Indicates temporal frequency of surface values, number of roughness

sectors and if site is an airport or if airport flag is sector dependent
SECTOR C-R Define roughness sectors and indicate if airport values should be used.

SEASON O-R Used to reassign months to seasons to override default assignments

RUNORNOT M - N Identifies whether to run program or process setup information

only
FINISHED M - N Identifies the end of pathway inputs

*
User must specify either CENTERXY or CENTERLL.

Type: M - Mandatory N - Non-Repeatable

O - Optional R - Repeatable
C - Conditional

8-2
 Table 8-2. Description of Control Pathway Keywords and Parameters
Keyword Parameters
TITLEONE title1
where: title1 First line of title for output, character string of up to 200
characters
TITLETWO title2
where: title2 Second line of title for output, character string of up to 200
characters
OPTIONS PRIMARY ZORAD
or or
SECONDARY ZOEFF
where: PRIMARY Site processed for primary surface characteristics and will generate
keywords for primary values for AERMET (default)

SECONDARY Site processed for secondary surface characteristics and will

generate keywords for secondary values for AERMET.

ZORAD Calculates the average roughness from the meteorological tower

out to a default radial distance of 1 km. (default)

ZOEFF Research grade method for calculating roughness that estimates

fetch based the growth of the IBL due to changes in roughness
downwind. Average roughness is computed over the estimated
fetch, approaching the meteorological tower.

DEBUGOPT EFFRAD and/or GRID and/or TIFF or ALL

where: EFFRAD Generates file containing the effective radius for surface roughness
computed for each sector/month (only applicable for ZOEFF option
specified with the OPTIONS keyword)

GRID Generates grid file of land cover data and, if applicable, separate
files for impervious, and canopy data, displaying the 10x10 km grid
of values extracted from each GeoTIFF data file

TIFF Generates debug file containing a list of all TIFF tags, GeoKeys,
and associated values read from the land cover file and, if
applicable, separate files for impervious and canopy data files

ALL Generates all debug files listed above without having to list each
debug option separately

8-3
CENTERXX easting northing utm_zone datum

where: easting UTM easting coordinate in meters

northing UTM northing coordinate in meters

utm_zone UTM zone entered as a positive integer

datum Geodetic datum on which coordinates are based. The datum should
be entered using one of the following secondary keywords: NAD27
or NAD83, which refer to the North American 1927 datum and the
North American 1983 datum, respectively. NAD83 should also be
used for coordinates referenced to the GRS80 and WGS84 datums
since the small differences are inconsequential for the purposes of
AERSURFACE.

User must specify either CENTERXY or CENTERLL.

CENTERLL latitude longitude datum
where: latitude Latitude in decimal degrees (Northern hemisphere = positive value)

longitude Longitude in decimal degrees (Western hemisphere = negative value)

datum Geodetic datum on which coordinates are based. The datum should be
entered using one of the following secondary keywords: NAD27 or
NAD83, which refer to the North American 1927 datum and the
North American 1983 datum, respectively. NAD83 should also be
used for coordinates referenced to the GRS80 and WGS84 datums
since the small differences are inconsequential for the purposes of
AERSURFACE.

User must specify either CENTERXY or CENTERLL.

DATAFILE data_type path_filename

8-4
 where: data_type Type of data and year the data represent. The following are
valid secondary keywords for data_type:

NLCD1992: 1992 NLCD land cover

NLCD2001: 2001 NLCD land cover
NLCD2006: 2006 NLCD land cover
NLCD2011: 2011 NLCD land cover
NLCD2016: 2016 NLCD land cover
MPRV2001: 2001 percent impervious
MPRV2006: 2006 percent impervious
MPRV2011: 2011 percent impervious
MPRV2016: 2016 percent impervious
CNPY2001: 2001 percent canopy
path_filename
CNPY2006: 2006 percent canopy
CNPY2011: 2011 percent canopy
CNPY2016: 2016 percent canopy
ZORADIUS radius
where: radius Distance from the meteorological tower in kilometers over which the
surface roughness length will be averaged
ANEM_HGT anem_ht (ibl_factor)
where: anem_ht Height, in meters, at which the wind measurements are taken at the
site that will be processed. The accepted value for anem_ht ranges
from 1.0 meter to 100.0 meters. Only applicable for the ZOEFF
option for calculating roughness.

Optional unitless parameter, ranging from 5.0 – 10.0, used to compute

(ibl_factor)
the reference height of the IBL. The IBL reference height is the
product of the anem_ht and the ibl_factor. The default IBL factor is
6.0. The IBL factor is an experimental value for which a
recommended value has not yet been established.

8-5
CLIMATE sfc_moisture snow_cover arid_condition
where: sfc_moisture Surface moisture based on precipitation amounts for the period
that will be modeled, relative to the previous 30-year
climatological record for the region. Valid entries: WET, DRY, or
AVERAGE (or AVG) (default = AVERAGE)

Site experienced continuous snow cover within at least on month

snow_cover during the winter. Valid entries: SNOW or NOSNOW (default =
NOSNOW)

arid_condition Enter ARID (desert-like) or NONARID (default = NONARID),

NONARID is an invalid entry in combination with continuous
snow cover (SNOW)
FREQ_SECT frequency number_sectors airport_flag
where: frequency Period of time for which the surface characteristics are calculated,
valid entries: ANNUAL, SEASONAL, or MONTHLY.

number_sectors Integer number of roughness sectors that will be defined using the
SECTOR keyword. Sectors are only applicable to roughness
length. The number of sectors can range from 1 to 12 or 16.
AERMET allows a maximum of 12 sectors, but AERSURFACE
can calculate roughness for 16 sectors which can be useful for
comparing roughness lengths to a standard 16-direction wind rose
plot. When 16 sectors are specified, AERSURFACE results
cannot used as input to AERMET.

airport_flag Indicates whether AERSURFACE will apply airport or non-

airport roughness values to all wind sectors, or if the sectors vary.
Valid entries: AP, NONAP, or VARYAP where: AP indicates
airport roughness values will be applied to all sectors for any land
cover category that has separate airport and non-airport values;
NONAP indicates that non-airport values will be applied; and
VARYAP informs AERSURFACE to treat each sector separately
based on how the sector is identified based on SECTOR keyword.

8-6
SECTOR sector_index start_dir end_dir airport_flag
where: sector_index Links a specific sector to a set of site characteristics and should be
entered as consecutive integers beginning with the number 1.

start_dir Starting direction of the sector in whole degrees. Considered part of

the sector.

end_dir Ending direction of the sector in whole degrees, but excluded from
sector.

Sectors should be defined in a clockwise manner, and must cover the

full 360° circle around the meteorological tower without gaps or
overlap. (i.e., They must be defined so that the end of one sector
corresponds to the beginning of another. When 2 – 12 sectors are
defined, each sector must be a minimum of 30°. 16 sectors must each
be 22.5°. When 1, 8, 12 or 16 is entered for the number of sectors on
the FREQ_SECT keyword, the SECTOR keyword may be omitted
and default sectors used unless VARYAP is entered as the
airport_flag attribute for the FREQ_SECT keyword

airport_flag Identifies whether the individual sector should be processed using

airport or non-airport related roughness length values. This attribute
is required when the secondary keyword VARYAP is entered as the
airport_flag attribute for the FREQ_SECT keyword which means
each sector will be assigned individually. When that is the case, the
airport_flag should be specified using the secondary keyword AP to
indicate it is an airport sector or NONAP to indicate it is a non-airport
sector.
SEASON season months
where: season Secondary keyword that identifies one of five seasonal definitions:
SUMMER, AUTUMN, WINTERNS, WINTERWS, SPRING.

months Space-delimited list of integer months assigned to the season. Valid

entries are 0 – 12, where 1 = Jan, 2 = Feb … 12 = Dec. Zero (0)
indicates no months are being reassigned to the season. A season may
be specified only once. The months reassigned to a season should be
listed on a single record separated by at least one space. A month can
only be assigned to one season. It is only necessary to specify the
seasons/months that are to be reassigned. If 0 is entered for a season,
then default assignments will be used for any month that is not listed
for a different season.
RUNORNOT RUN or NOT
where: RUN Indicates to run full preprocessor calculations
NOT Indicates to process setup data and report errors, but to not run full
preprocessor calculations

8-7
 Table 8-3. Description of Output Pathway Keywords
OU Keywords Type Keyword Description

STARTING M - N Identifies the start of output pathway inputs

SFCCHAR M - N Averaged surface characteristic values formatted for input to AERMET
EFFRAD O-N Table of effective radius values by sector and month
NLCDGRID O-N Land cover data grid
MPRVGRID O-N Impervious data grid
CNPYGRID O-N Canopy data grid
NLCDTIFF O-N Land cover debug file containing TIFF tag and GeoKey values
MPRVTIFF O-N Impervious debug file containing TIFF tag and GeoKey values
CNPYTIFF O-N Canopy debug file containing TIFF tag and GeoKey values
FINISHED M - N Identifies the end of output pathway inputs

Table 8-4. Description of Output Pathway Keywords and Parameters

Keyword Parameters
SFCCHAR path_filename
EFFRAD
NLCDGRID
MPRVGRID
CNPYGRID
NLCDTIFF
MPRVTIFF
CNPYTIFF

where: path_filename User-defined path and filename. The combined path and filename is limited to
200 characters and should be enclosed in quotes (“”) if either the path or
filename includes spaces.

8-8
 Appendix E: Implementation of ZOEFF Option in AERSURFACE, Version 20060

9.1 Method

A research grade method (ZOEFF) for computing an effective surface roughness length, Z0,
using land cover data from the National Landcover Database (NLCD) was first implemented in
19039_DRFT and carried forward in version 20060 for further evaluation. The method used to
compute roughness in prior versions has been retained as the default option and is hereon is referred to
as the ZORAD option. The default method (ZORAD) computes Z0 as an inverse distance weighted
geometric mean of the representative roughness values extracted from the NLCD for a default fixed
upwind radial distance of 1 kilometer, relative to the location of the meteorological measurement site.
Z0, can be calculated for multiple wind sectors to account for substantial directional differences in land
cover type.

The experimental method, ZOEFF, determines the upwind distance from the meteorological
tower, or fetch, over which to compute an effective roughness value, rather than using a fixed radial
distance. The method is based on the distance required to grow the internal boundary layer (IBL) to
some defined height at the measurement tower due as changes in surface roughness are encountered as
the air flows toward the tower. A final effective roughness length is then calculated over the derived
fetch. As with the original default method, Z0 can be computed for multiple wind sectors. The
estimated fetch for which the effective roughness is computed will vary by sector.

9.2 Scientific Basis

The growth of the IBL is influenced, in part, by the mechanical forcing due to friction caused
by the roughness of the earth’s surface. This method (ZOEFF) for calculating effective roughness is
based on the cumulative growth of the IBL as air flow encounters surface roughness elements as it
approaches the tower.

9-1
 This method was adapted from a model coding abstract (MCA) and MATLAB code developed
by Dr. Akula Venkatram 2, based on methods proposed by Miyake (1965) and Wiering (1993), to
estimate surface roughness as a function of the growth of the internal boundary layer (IBL). A review
of methods for estimating the height of the IBL, which discusses Miyake’s related work, was
performed by Garratt (1990). Venkatram’s original MCA (edited) is included as Section 10.0 of this
User’s Guide.

As described by Wieringa (1993) and stated in Venkatram’s MCA and Garratt (1990), the
growth of the IBL (h), with distance (x) over a constant roughness, can be described by the following
equation:

𝑑𝑑ℎ 𝑢𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑘 4
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑈𝑈(ℎ) 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � ℎ �
𝑍𝑍0

where, Z0 is the surface roughness, k is 0.4 (von Kármán constant), u* is the surface friction velocity,
and U(h) is the mean wind speed at the height of the IBL.

As described in Venkatram’s MCA, integrating Equation 4 between two points, xi and xi+1,
produces the following equation for the growth of the IBL and can be used to calculate the growth of
the IBL between two points based on the average roughness and distance between them:

ℎ𝑖𝑖+1 ℎ𝑖𝑖
ℎ𝑖𝑖+1 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 1� = ℎ𝑖𝑖 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 1� + 𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖+1 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ) 5
𝑍𝑍0𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑍0𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

where Z0avg is the average roughness between the two points xi and xi+1. (Whereas Venkatram used a
simple arithmetic mean of the two roughness values at xi and xi+1, the implementation of this method
(ZOEFF) in AERSURFACE uses a geometric mean of the two roughness values for consistency with

2
Dr. Akula Venkatram is a professor at the University of California, Riverside in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering. Venkatram was an original member of the American Meteorological Society/Environmental Protection Agency
Regulatory Model Improvement Committee (AERMIC) during the development and promulgation of AERMOD.
9-2
the default method in AERSURFACE version 13016, retained in this version (20060) as the ZORAD
method).

By setting a target IBL height, href, at the measurement site based on some multiple of the measurement
height and setting a fixed distance to represent delta x over which each Z0avg is computed, the change in
the IBL height can be calculated for each delta x to determine the distance, xrad, required for the
cumulative growth for each delta x from an initial h = Z0 at xrad. The current implementation uses a
default value for href that is equal to 6 times the anemometer height. This factor can be changed through
user input.

Once xrad has been determined, per Venkatram, the effective roughness (Z0eff) for the sector is
computed over the distance xrad as the solution to the following equation:

ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 1� + 𝑍𝑍0𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ) 6
𝑍𝑍0𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

9.3 Implementation

The horizontal grid resolution of the land cover data processed by AERSURFACE is 30 meters.
To implement the ZOEFF method for determining Z0eff, AERSURFACE first divides the land cover
into concentric rings out to an initial radial distance of 5 km from the meteorological tower, with each
ring having a depth equal to the horizontal grid resolution of the data (30 meters). The rings are then
subdivided by sector as shown in Figure 9-1.

9-3
 Figure 9-1. Concentric Rings Defined around Meteorological Tower to
Calculate IBL Growth

As with previous versions of AERSURFACE, seasonal roughness values have been assigned to
each land cover category and are stored in a data table in the AERSURFACE source code. Monthly
values of Z0 are computed for each ring segment within each sector using the seasonal lookup tables
and the values associated with the season to which each month is assigned. The monthly Z0 value for a
ring segment is computed as an inverse distance weighted geometric mean of the roughness values
associated with each of the grid cells that make up the ring segment based on the distance of each grid
cell from the meteorological tower. The inverse distance weighted geometric mean is computed using
equation 1 in Section 2.4.1.1 for the default ZORAD option but limited to the grid cells that comprise
the ring segment. Like the ZORAD option, an inverse distance weighted approach is used because the
width of a sector increases with distance from the measurement site. Thus, ring segments farther from
the met tower are comprised of more grid cells than ring segments closer to the tower. If a direct area
weighted approach were used, the land cover farther from the site would receive a higher effective
weight than land cover closest to the site when the fetch is derived as described next.

Using Equation 5 above, the amount of fetch required for the cumulative growth of the IBL to a
default height of six (6) times the height of the anemometer at the tower location is determined. The
value, six (6), is referred to as the IBL factor and can be set by the user. The default value for the IBL
factor is based on Wieringa’s “roughness blending height” of 60 m (Wieringa, 1976) given that 10 m is
a common anemometer height at NWS/FAA weather stations. As Venkatram points out in his MCA
and is discussed by Wierenga (1993), Miyake’s research was based on surface releases when the

9-4
vertical plume spread is of the order of href. The IBL factor may need to be varied based on the release
height or anemometer height.

The fetch (xrad) required to grow the IBL to a target height (href) is determined by summing
smaller changes in the height of the IBL that are associated with fixed, shorter lengths of assumed
homogeneous roughness based on the previously computed Z0 values for the individual ring segments
within a sector. Within a user-defined sector, the fetch is first estimated by starting at the tower location
and summing incremental IBL heights across the concentric ring segments out from the tower. The
geometric mean of the roughness (Z0avg) of two adjacent rings is computed and treated as the
homogenous surface and distance over which to compute an incremental change in the height of the
IBL. The distance is taken to be from the center of one ring segment to the center of the adjacent ring,
30 meters. This occurs outward across the concentric rings until the sum of the individual heights
equals or exceeds href. If href is not reached within a 5 km radial distance from the tower (which can
occur for very long fetches over a very smooth surface), the estimated fetch is limited to 5 km. The
effective roughness is then computed for the sector from the tower out to the distance for this estimated
fetch using equation 6, above.

The fetch (xrad) is recomputed iterating across the concentric rings going toward the tower,
starting at the distance determined from the first set of iterations and stopping at the location of the
meteorological tower. If the height of the IBL at the tower is computed to be higher than the href, then
the fetch is recomputed starting one ring closer to the tower than the original estimated fetch. If the
computed height of the IBL at the tower is lower than the target IBL, the fetch is recomputed starting
one ring width farther than the original estimated fetch. An interpolated distance based on the target
IBL height at the tower is taken as xrad iterating across the rings toward the tower. The average
effective roughness is then computed for the sector for this new value of xrad using equation 6, above.
The final value for Z0eff is computed as the simple arithmetic mean of the two calculated effective
roughness values based on the calculated for the distance xrad iterating outward from the tower and the
calculated distance xrad iterating over the rings toward the tower.

9-5
 These steps are repeated to compute monthly values of Z0eff for each user-defined sector. Annual
and seasonal values are then computed from the monthly values based on the temporal frequency
specified by the user in the control file.

9-6
 Appendix F: Venkatram Model Coding Abstract – Estimating Effective Roughness

On estimating effective roughness

Akula Venkatram
December 24, 2009

If wind speed is measured on a tower located in a spatially inhomogeneous area, we need an

effective roughness height to estimate the surface friction velocity and other micrometeorological
variables. This effective roughness should represent the combined effect of the roughness elements
that the boundary layer encounters on its way to the measurement location. A heuristic approach to
this calculation is based on estimating the combined effect of the internal boundary layers associated
with the changes in the roughness as the air travels over a spatially inhomogeneous path. If we assume
that the roughness is constant between two points along this path, the change in the internal boundary
layer height, h, between these two points is given by (Miyake, 1965 quoted in Wieranga, BLM, 63,
323-363, 1993):

7
𝑑𝑑ℎ 𝑢𝑢∗ 𝑘𝑘
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑈𝑈(ℎ) 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � ℎ �
𝑧𝑧0

Integrating this equation between points, xi and xi+1, gives

ℎ𝑖𝑖+1 ℎ𝑖𝑖
ℎ𝑖𝑖+1 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 1� = ℎ𝑖𝑖 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 1� + 𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖+1 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ) 8
𝑧𝑧0𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧0𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

where

z0avg = (z0 (i)+ z0 (i +1))/ 2. 9

10-1
This implicit equation can be used compute the height of the internal boundary layer as a function of
distance from the measurement location.

At the measurement location, the combined internal boundary height has a vertical structure
that reflects the roughness elements contributing to its growth. The lowest part of the boundary layer is
representative of the roughness elements closest to the measurement location, and the upper part of the
boundary layer reflects the roughness elements furthest from the location. This suggests calculating h
with the initial h1 = z01 and then stopping the integration when the internal boundary height reaches a
multiple, β, of zmeas given by href = βzmeas. The radius of influence, xrad, is the distance at which this
boundary layer height reaches href.

Then, the effective roughness is the solution of the integral of Equation 7, assuming that an
effective constant roughness, z0eff, applies to the region 0 to xrad:

ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 �𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � − 1� + 𝑧𝑧0𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 10
𝑧𝑧0𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

This equation can be solved numerically to yield z0eff.

It is clear that β is a critical parameter that needs to be determined by comparing the computed
effective z0 with a value inferred from simultaneous measurements of surface friction velocity and
wind speed using sonic anemometers. Then,

−𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑧𝑧0𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) = 𝑧𝑧𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � � 11
𝑢𝑢∗

The computed z0eff is likely to apply only to surface releases, and only when the vertical plume
spread is of the order of href. If we want to estimate dispersion from an elevated source, we might have
to calculate a z0eff for a href corresponding to a multiple of the release height. This means that z0eff will
vary with source height.

10-2
 Appendix G: Inter-comparison of AERSURFACE

An inter-comparison of values of surface roughness length, estimated using AERSURFACE

version 20060, is presented, as well as a comparison of corresponding AERMOD results for several
different source types and configurations. This inter-comparison was first presented as Appendix G of
the AERSURFACE User’s Guide (EPA, 2019d) for version 19039_DRFT of AERSURFACE in which
meteorological processing was performed with AERMET version 18081 and dispersion modeling was
performed with AERMOD version 18081. The inter-comparison has been updated using
AERSURFACE version 20060 and version 19191 of AERMET and AERMOD. The original inter-
comparison was performed using the 2011 edition of the 2001 National Land Cover Database (NLCD).
With the generation and release of the 2016 NLCD by the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics
(MRLC) Consortium, led by the US Geological Survey (USGS), the 2001 NLCD land cover and
percent impervious data were also updated with corrections and refinements. Those updates were
carried forward through subsequent updates of the 2006 and 2011 NLCD data years released as new
versions at the time of the release of the 2016 NLCD. The update to the 2001 NLCD did not include an
update to the 2001 percent tree canopy data; therefore, the 2001 NLCD that is currently available from
the MRLC does not include 2001 percent tree canopy data. For consistency, the inter-comparison
presented in this appendix to the AERSURFACE User’s Guide for version 20060 is also based on the
2011 edition of the 2001 NLCD which was used for the inter-comparison presented in Appendix G to
the AERSURFACE User’s Guide specific to version 19039_DRFT. Unless otherwise stated,
references to the 2001 NLCD are meant to refer to the 2011 edition of the 2001 NLCD. Also included
in this update to the inter-comparison is a comparison of surface characteristic values estimated using
the 2016 NLCD with those estimated using the 2011 edition of the 2001 NLCD.

Surface characteristics were estimated using the two AERSURFACE options for estimating
surface roughness length (ZORAD and ZOEFF) and by varying combinations of input data (i.e., land
cover, percent impervious, and percent canopy). The comparisons that are presented below are not an
evaluation of the updated AERSURFACE tool. Rather, because version 20060, like version
19039_DRFT, includes a research grade method (ZOEFF) for estimating surface roughness length and
the use of supplemental percent impervious and percent canopy data beginning with the release of the

11-1
2001 NLCD, this comparison is a limited demonstration of differences in results using the different
roughness options and varying the NLCD input data. Estimated values of albedo and Bowen ratio are
unaffected by the choice of option for estimating surface roughness length or the use of the impervious
and canopy data; therefore, albedo and Bowen ratio are not presented as part of this comparison.

11.1 AERSURFACE Scenarios and Meteorological Data Processing with AERMET

Three NWS/FAA meteorological sites were selected for this comparison, including: Hartsfield-
Jackson Atlanta International Airport (ATL), Baton Rouge Metropolitan Airport (BTR), and Raleigh-
Durham International Airport (RDU). Because the version of the 2001 NLCD (2011 edition) that was
available at the time this comparison was first performed included land cover, impervious, and canopy
data, this comparison primarily uses the 2011 edition of the 2001 NLCD. Based on historical satellite
imagery, BTR appears to have experienced only a small amount of change in land use from 1992 to
2001 in the near proximity to the tower. Thus, additional comparisons of surface roughness values
estimated using the ZORAD and ZOEFF options with the 1992 NLCD land cover data were performed
to show differences in results between the two NLCD datasets (1992 and 2001). The 1992 NLCD land
cover data combined with the default ZORAD is equivalent to running AERSURFACE version 13016
with land cover data only from the 1992 NLCD.

As discussed in Section 2.1, the land cover classification scheme changed from the 1992 to the
2001 NLCD for certain land cover categories. These changes prompted adding the capability to
AERSURFACE to supplement land cover with impervious and canopy data beginning with the 2001
NLCD.

For each station location, surface characteristic values were estimated for the AERSURFACE
scenarios listed in Table 11-1. Table 11-2 lists the additional AERSURFACE scenarios for which
surface characteristic values were estimated for BTR using the 1992 NLCD.

Table 11-1. 2001 NLCD (2011 Edition) AERSURFACE Scenarios for ATL, BTR, and RDU
Roughness Option 2001 NLCD (2011 Edition) Scenario Name
Data Inputs

11-2