POETRY

‘DREAMING BLACK BOY’ BY JAMES BERRY

POET:
James Berry (1924-) is a Jamaican poet, writer and editor who has lived most of his life in the
United Kingdom. As a young man he spent a short time in the United States, but he disliked the
treatment of blacks there and returned to Jamaica. He is one of the first black writers in Britain
to achieve wider recognition by the British literary community. One critic writes, “Berry’s
poetry not only reflects both Jamaican and British cultures, but also merges them to ‘make it
new.’ His poetry explores the experience of being black in Britain.

TITLE:
The title is deceptive. The poem could be about a boy dreaming of fantastic adventures or of
becoming a successful man in the future. The subject of the poem is a “black” boy. He is not a
mere boy. The adjective “black” is loaded with a history of suffering and discrimination. The
aspirations of black boys in the United States, the United Kingdom or other countries where they
are a racial minority are different from those of boys who are not black.

SPEAKER:
The speaker wishes for things throughout the poem that should be guaranteed just be his being
human. The speaker is either a boy who understands all aspects of living in a world as a black
child or he is an adult black man who is reflecting on a life time of racial discrimination.

MOOD:
Like the attitude of the black boy, the atmosphere of the poem is one of despair, sadness and
deep suffering.
TONE:
The speaker’s tone has a degree of wistfulness, subdued optimism, restrained anger, sadness and
despair.
DICTION:
Through his descriptive language and the use of allusions we learn that the speaker is intelligent,
observant, cautious, insightful, and sophisticated.
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THEME:
Some of the themes expressed in the poem are: the impact of racism on black people; the role of
teachers in contributing to low expectations in students; children’s awareness of being treated
unfairly; institutionalized discrimination; the desire for equality; and the powerlessness of
childhood.
CONTENT:
In the first stanza, the speaker wants to be seen by his teacher. He desperately craves the same
attention other students get when they do well in and out of the classroom. He wishes he had the
confidence to speak up in class when he has an answer. He confirms that he feels powerless,
voiceless and invisible.
Lines 6 and 7 express the speaker’s desire not to be stereotyped. He dispels the common belief
that all blacks are meant for menial work since he can think critically. He does not want to be
relegated to being the proverbial ‘hewer of wood and drawer of water.’
In lines 8-10, the speaker has dreams of being educated and well-travelled. He uses the
demeaning image “lick[ing] boots” to point out that he does not want to be servile or subservient
in order to make a living. He longs for unbarred access to places where people and institutions do
not discriminate against him because his skin is black.
In lines 15-20, he personifies ‘life’. He wishes he did not have to live always being on the
defensive and having his guard up against actual or imagined assaults. He wishes that the ‘same
way’ fate (‘creation’) has given him the strength to withstand prejudice; he yearns for fate to give
him the ability to grow internally, to have dignity and to exceed the limits society has set for him.
In line 19, the speaker dreams of having Paul Robeson’s voice as his own is important. Robeson
was an African American icon (1898-1976) known for his deep, distinctive voice. He was a
Renaissance Man who epitomized black manhood as a star athlete singer, actor, lawyer, and
human right activist. In wanting “… my inside eye a sun,” the speaker wishes his spirit to be
expansive and brilliant for all to see. However, in lines 20-21 he realizes that being exceptional
does not amount to much if people continue to be repulsed by him.
In lines 22-23, the speaker alludes to white terrorist groups like the Klu Klux Klan and skinheads
who terrorize black people by committing acts of arson and murder against them. Even as a child
he is fearful of naming them outright, since he knows they kill with impunity. He wishes they
would find something constructive to do like setting good examples instead of participating in
heinous acts.
He is tired of the hypocrisy of ‘religious’ people who plot to hurt others, instead of praying for
their own salvation at night. He wishes his differences were not always highlighted by
insensitive people who act as if he is an alien. The speaker seems to be saying that he has the
right to full citizenship like others in society, since he was born there and not on Mars.

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In lines 27-28, he wishes that only children and not adults were frightened behind the brave
facades they display to the world. He knows that adults are also afraid and humiliated and he
cannot look to them for protection from the forces that plague him.
In line 29, the speaker expresses in his childlike way, the magnitude of his ability to endure pain.
The word ‘suffer’ is repeated three times in the final stanza. His final appeal is vague. Being a
black boy is synonymous with being afraid and suffering. He wishes that with adulthood things
would change, but from what he has seen, he knows that is not true.
Each stanza in the poem begins with “I wish”, mirroring the way a young child is often repetitive
in expressing himself. At the end of the poem, the speaker appears hopeless. He begins the
poem wishing for things he would like for himself and ends wishing that “… nobody would want
to earn the terrible burden I can suffer.” In essence, he is reflecting on what he could have done
to deserve such suffering. He does not wish for anyone to suffer the way he has because of the
colour of his skin.

“IT’S THE CONSTANT IMAGE OF YOUR FACE” BY DENNIS BRUTUS

POET: Dennis Brutus (1924-2009) was a South African poet, educator, journalist and anti-
apartheid activist during the 1960’s. Because of his activism, he was prohibited from teaching,
writing and publishing his work in South Africa. He was imprisoned and spent 16 months in the
cell next to Nelson Mandela’s on the infamous Robben Island. Brutus lived and worked outside
of South Africa until the end of apartheid in 1990. He was eulogized as ‘a fearless campaigner
for justice, a relentless organizer, an incorrigible romantic, and a great humanist and teacher.’
TITLE:
The title of the poem makes one think of a lover who is smitten by the face of his/her beloved
and ruminates on the loveliness of the image. The title might also refer to a facial expression of
anguish or joy that has left and indelible mark on someone’s memory.

SPEAKER:
The speaker is a politician or a statesman, and is reflecting on an incident that has occurred in the
past. He is candid in his reflections, unapologetic for his actions and seems prepared to live with
the consequences. The speaker could be deemed inexperienced in his dealings with women,
having devoted much of his time and energy to politics or his country. He believes his service to
his nation supersedes all else.
He is urbane, intelligent and even scholarly in putting forward an argument for what he has said
and done.
MOOD:

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 The atmosphere is solemn with a palpable feeling of sadness. There is a prevailing sense of
guilt and resignation.
TONE:
The tone of the speaker encompasses a range of emotions. For the most part he is determined
and deliberative as he recounts the particular incident. At times his tone is remorseful, conflicted,
sad and wistful.
DICTION:
From the speaker’s use of language one can conclude that he is well-educated and intelligent.
His use of jargon shows that he is familiar with the practice of law and is able to present an
argument from two opposing perspectives. He is dialectical, analytical and sophisticated in his
speech.
THEME:
The poem contains an array of themes: patriotism; divided loyalties; romantic love versus love of
one’s country; the complexity of maintaining personal relationships; and negotiating a balance
between the private and the public aspects of one’s life.
CONTENT:
The first five lines of the pome create an atmosphere that is tinged with much anguish. Line 1,
which is the title of the poem, is pregnant with emotion as the speaker states candidly that he is
haunted or constantly reminded of the face of an individual. Why would the image of a person’s
face keep flashing through the speaker’s mind? What wrong has he done that he is disturbed by
this memory?
In line 2, the speaker states that he remembers sitting in his chair, holding a face in his hand.
The speaker does not know if the face belongs to a woman, a child or even an animal. The
individual is kneeling before the speaker, as opposed to sitting beside him.
The speaker admits that over the years he has experienced a great deal of emotional pain because
of what he saw in those eyes.
One could picture a man sitting in his chair with a female, kneeling before him. Her “…face
framed in my hands,” conveys an image of a portrait, confined in a picture frame, bordered on
two sides. It is as if the speaker has the individual’s life in his hands.

SOUTH BY KAMAU BRATHWAITE

Kamau Brathwaite is a Barbadian poet, playwright and scholar who has been described as ‘the
most important poet within the English-Speaking Caribbean. He is known for using non-
standard dialect and ‘linguistic and typographic innovations’ in his work. The themes in

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Brathwaite’s poetry focus on dislocation, exile and the historical and contemporary experiences
of people of African ancestry.

TITLE:
South if one of the four cardinal directions and is the direct opposite of north. South also refers
to the southern hemisphere which includes the islands of the Caribbean, the continents of South
America, Antarctica, Australia and the southern part of Africa. The southern states of the United
States of America are called the ‘South’ and have historically been associated with centuries of
racial oppression of black people.

North on the other hand, refers to the northern hemisphere and includes Asia, Europe and North
America where the climate and terrain are different from the south. The northern hemisphere
reportedly has more land than the south, and the southern hemisphere has more water than the
south.
The title of the poem gives nothing away of the poet’s intention. As one reads the poem, there is
movement form the south to the north and back to the south, which appears to the paradise on
earth.

SPEAKER:
The poem takes place in the mind of the speaker. He longs to return to his homeland and the sea.
He craves the familiar setting of his youth, and is insightful and creative in his descriptions. He
is well-travelled and adventurous and possesses cosmopolitan sensibilities. He is unabashedly
biased in his feelings for his island and is intent on showcasing his respect and love for the sea.

MOOD:
The atmosphere changes throughout the poem. There is a sense of nostalgia that is almost
mournful as it depicts feelings of longing, dissatisfication and deprivation. In other parts of the
poem the mood is upbeat and cheerful, uplifting, exuberant and celebratory.

DICTION:
The language used is sophisticated, creative and deliberative. The speaker presents a well
structure narrative that displays his imaginative use of metaphor, allusions and vivid descriptions
that appeal to the senses of sight and sound, The poem is both a person odyssey (journey) and a
presentation of historical events in a unique way.
THEME:

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The themes include the river as a metaphor for life; the dislocation of people due to oppression
or social unrest; the aftermath of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade; the idealization of childhood;
and the longing for home.

CONTENT:
The first two words of line 1 bring a feeling of immediacy to the poem and place the reader in
the middle of a discourse that is evolving. The speaker appears to be proffering a counterpoint to
an argument or repositioning an opinion that is different from the one he has held before.
Whatever has been stated in the past, today the speaker is reminiscing about the islands’ beaches
and the lovely scenery that accompanies them.
The reader does not know specifically where these islands are located. Are they the Caribbean
islands, Hawaiian islands or islands in the Indian Ocean? The poet is from the Caribbean so one
could infer that the speaker is referring to the islands of the Caribbean region.
In the first stanza, one sees and hears “the…bright beaches: blue mist… the fishermen’s
houses…shores…sound of the sea…life heaved and breathed…the turbulent soil,” where the
speaker was born. The descriptive language creates images of idyllic landscapes of flowing
water, dazzling sunlight and blue seas.
This is a world that is alive with sound and colour. Although it is a picturesque scene of a
tropical landscape, all has not been peaceful. The ‘turbulent soil’ speaks to a history of racial
and political struggle.
In stanza two, the word ‘then; is used again in line 5 to refer to a period of time, an era, that has
long gone. Since leave the island the speaker has travelled widely. In the northern hemisphere
he endured old climates and wintery precipitation ‘far from the beaches.’ The landscapes on the
continent of Africa , he regarded as ‘saltless savannahs.’ If the speaker were dissatisfied in all
the places he lived, why didn’t he return home? He his exile from his country been voluntary or
forced?
In lines 11-12, after making sojourns to several parts of the world, the speaker has settled in a
place that is clustered with trees. Symbolically, woods or forested areas represent a state of
confusion or the lack of clarity. In this dreary, gloomy place where the speaker now loves, he
feels oppressed.
Everywhere he has travelled, the speaker has missed the distinctive taste of salt water and has
measured all water against its unique flavor. To him, rain water is ordinary and the river water is
unappealing and bland.
In stanza three, he switches from the pronoun “I” to ‘we’; including himself in a community of
special people who are ‘born of the ocean’. For these individuals, no comfort can be found in
rivers. Rivers, like oceans, are bodies of water, but to him that is where the similarities end.
Like the continuous movements of the rivers the speaker’s ‘longing’ for his homeland never
stops.

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An image is created of the slow, methodical flow of a river on its journey to the sea. Unlike the
sea that ebbs and flows, the river moves in one direction.
In lines 15-17, the river is attributed with showcasing people’s lack of ambition and their
inability to bring about meaningful change. In essence, the river is disliked because it brings into
stark focus, lives devoid of purpose. The speaker personifies the rivers, making them wise and
discerning. They are free and not caught up in the existential angst of humanity to make their
lives meaningful. The speaker speaks for himself and others when he states ‘we resent them this
wisdom.’
In lines 17-18, there is an image of people strewn along the banks of rivers engaged in all
manner of menial activities, hoping from improvement in their condition. They watch the rivers
pass by, but the rivers for their part, are unconcerned by humanity’s plight. The phrase ‘cunning
declensions’ creates the impression that the rivers are sly. They never reveal anything about
themselves as they maintain their circuitous course to the sea.
In stanza 4, the speaker begins with the repetition of the phrase used in line l – “But today”—
making the declaration that there will be a deviation from what has occurred previously. The
speaker says he ‘would join’ the river; which differs from he ‘will join’ the river. He has
decided not to be a passive spectator; however, he cannot physically join the river on its journey.
In lines 20-22, the speaker stresses the letter ‘s’ in these lines creating the sound of flowing
water. The river has human qualities. It is patient and it takes its time. The river seems to be a
conduit of a people’s history, and from this stand point as a repository of past events; the speaker
can join the river in reflecting on what has transpired over time.
The speaker can go with the flow, as he negotiates the negatives that would be encountered on
this journey. The river sometimes breaches its banks and ‘washes us up on the flats.’
Nevertheless, it mvoes forward in a world where human relations are fraught with pain,
catastrophe, hurt and hatred. This could be an allusion of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and to
a history of colonialism and dislocation of Africans in the Diaspora.
In line 23, there is an image of a peaceful, pastoral setting where one is welcomed and allowed to
have a respite, an opportunity to regroup. There is a reprieve from the hazards of a disinterested
river. However, as in line 24 states, the journey must continue, like a procession, moving from
under perilous conditions, until it reaches the sea.
In stanza 5, the speaker returns to his musings about his boyhood on a tropical island. In line 25,
he has made the journey with the river to the sea and is welcomed by the waves. He has made
the journey in his minds, and is describing the exaggerated and highly idealized images retained
from his childhood.
The speaker’s observations are made from the sky, and he has a panoramic view. His arrival at
the ocean is sudden and the scene jumps out at him.

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His tone is at once upbeat, inspired and happy. He is home! He is rejuvenated as the waves
‘splash up from the rocks to refreshen us’ The river is no more. He and it have found their
rightful place in the ocean. The landscape is a wonderful, idyllic scene of bright, splashing
waves, blue sea shells, paths made of pebbles and fishermen’s thatched-roof houses. It is a
glorious setting!
The tableau is fixed in time. Children playing and setting traps on the sea shores speak to the
intruders and ‘remember us just as we left them.’ The speaker and his companions, these exiles,
have been away from home. Now they are not strangers or aliens; they are readily embraced
because they belong.
The speaker’s fantasy continues in the final stanza. Not only do the children remember the
speaker, but a fisherman takes time from his catch to greet them in lines 32-34.
It is no accident that a starfish, often referred to as the ‘star of the sea,’ lies in its pool,
undeterred. It is a symbol of rebirth and regeneration; as well as a talisman (charm/good luck)
that creates safe travel over troubled water. It is also regarded as an emblem of salvation during
trying times.

The creates that populate this part of the world: starfish and sea gulls and humanity welcome
them home. The arrival at the ocean brings the journey to an end and is akin to heaven or
paradise. The morning, which speaks to a new beginning, is described as ‘limitless’ - - infinite -
- and filled with possibilities. To arrive at the sea is the completion of a cycle filled with new
experiences and a future waiting to be forged.

WEST INDIES, U.S.A.

Title:
The title seems to assert that the West Indies is a state in the United States of America, the same
way there is New Jersey, U.S.A. or California, USA. Once can contend that since the United
States has not physically appropriated the West indies in the same manner it has Puerto Rico and
Hawaii, the title must allude to a cultural or economic fusing of the West Indies to the USA.
The title seem mocking or even insulting as it infers that the West Indies, as a region has been
subsumed into the United States.

SPEAKER:
The speaker is cosmopolitan, well-travelled, imaginative and observant. He is discerning and
candid. He sees the American influence on the Caribbean and does not believe it is positive.

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The speaker is aware of the USA’s double-standards in its immigration policies towards
Caribbean people.
MOOD:
The mood of the poem changes at several points. At the beginning there is a feeling of jaded
indifferences. There is also an underlining tension born out of deprivation and despondency.
There are feelings of unfairness, exclusion and disenfranchisement. The poem ends with an
atmosphere charged with foreboding and imminent danger.

TONE:
The speaker’s tone could be deemed mocking, haughty sarcastic, denigrating, resentful, and
pessimistic.

DICTION:
The sophisticated language used throughout the poem comprises excerpts from other poems,
proverbs and famous quotes. The speaker’s vocabulary reveals that he is educated and knows
how to craft his speech to bring about the desired effect. His use of figurative language (smile,
metaphor) creates vivid images and gives several levels of meaning to the poem. The speaker
uses the pronoun ‘we’ including himself in a community of travelers.

THEME:
The themes in the poem include the United States’ hegemony in the Caribbean; the notion of
nationalism and sovereignity of small island states existing in the shadow of the USA, double
standards of the USA’s immigration policies; and the examination of what is a ‘Caribbean
identity’

CONTENT:
The speaker beings the first line of the poem looking down from his vantage point of almost six
miles in the air. From his aerial view, the “West Indian” islands are spread out against the
endless green of the ocean. In line 2 he compares the configuration of the islands to dice thrown
randomly on the green fabric of a gambling table.
The allusion to the unpredictable nature of gambling continues in line 3: “some……not” Puerto
Rico has hit the jackpot and is given the moniker of “Dallas of the West Indies”
Why would Puerto Rico be singled out for such commendation? What makes Puerto Rico stand
apart from the other islands? Is this praise due to its modern infrastructure and perceived
prosperity? Or does it speak to Puerto Rico’s unique relationship with the United States?

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In labelling Puerto Rico ‘Dallas of the West Indies’ the speaker cleverly alludes to the
annexation of the state of Texas (once a part of Mexico) to the United States in 1845. He seems
to be establishing a parallel between the acquisition of Texas and the ceding of Puerto Rico to
the United States in 1898. In the same way Dallas is regarded as a booming commercial center,
Puerto Rico is seen as a prosperous island.

In lines 4-6, as the speaker descends he observes the cloud with ‘silver linings,’ alluding to the
maxim, ‘very cloud has a silver lining.’ Are the clouds, evidence of industrial pollution derived
from factories’ emissions? Or are these clouds harbingers of things to come? Despite the clouds,
the ‘silver linings’ might represent economic opportunities in Puerto Rico that are lacking in
other nations in the region.
San Juan, the capital of Puerto Rico is a spectacle from the sky and is compared to the sparkling
gold ring of a ‘maverick’, which extends the gambling metaphor. A maverick stands apart from
ordinary men because of his love of risk-taking and living on the edge. One wonders why Puerto
Rico is conferred this dubious status.
In the second stanza, the speaker reflects on the state of the airports that “we’d” flown into
throughout the Caribbean. He switches from calling the region the West Indies, to referring to it
as the Caribbean, which many historians deem its correct name because of its original
inhabitants, the Caribs.
One can infer that the speaker is a seasoned traveler. He has witnessed firsthand the different
environs and attitudes of the citizens who inhabit these islands.
To the speaker, airport terminals are like ‘calling cards.’ He collects the various ‘cultural
fingermarks’ which leave negative imprints on the memories of visitors. These images reflect
the identity and socio-economic status of the people who live there. In Haiti, the signs are hand-
written and not professionally printed, which speaks to the severe economic conditions existing
on that island. In Trinidad, the adjective ‘sleazy’ conjures up a seedy, disreputable atmosphere,
mirrored in the artwork designed solely for the consumption of tourists. In Antigua, the baggage
handlers are slow and contemptuous in executing their duties. The St. John airport in Antigua
contrast significantly with the St. John (San Juan) in Puerto Rico, not only in language but in
status.
In line 12, “And now for plush San Juan,” tells that the speaker has visited San Juan before and
knows that there is a drastic difference in the amenities offered there. One almost hears the
attendant drum roll that is given when a revered object is about to be unveiled.
In line 13, the word ‘but’ tells that the speaker’s expectations may be dashed. The statement,
‘you’re safe in my hands’ speaks to the pilot’s tone which is imbued with a sense of authority,
control and almost godlike status as he lands the airplane. His ‘drawl’ indicates that he is an
American, most likely a southerner.

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Instead of being able to explore the airport in San Juan, in transit passengers must stay on the
plane in Puerto Rico.
In lines 15-16, the pilot’s statement is inserted in the poem as direct speech. He is speaking as an
ex-officio member of the United States government.
In lines 17-18, the speaker’s tone is sarcastic. He refers to Uncle Sam, the national
personification of the United States government (depicted as a wizen old man dressed in red,
white and blue) as subtle. He points out that the pilot tells the passengers to ‘stay on the plane’
when he really means the U.S. government does not want an influx of ‘desperate blacks…[to]…
re-enslave this Island…” in search of economic opportunities.
In 18, Puerto Rico is called ‘this Island of the free.” The ‘I’ is written in upper-case and italized
as though it is a proper noun. Is the speaker hinting that Puerto Rico is no ordinary island?
In defining Puerto Rico in this way, is the speaker state that Puerto Rico is emancipated while
the other islands are in bondage? But how ‘free’ is Puerto Rico when its sovereignty is
undefined? Is the speaker subtly pointing out that Puerto Rico is an appendage of the U.S. which
is often referred to as ‘The Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave,; making it by extension
the property of America and not a free nation?
In lines 19-21, the speaker states that there is now “barbed electric fence around ‘America’s back
yward’” erected to keep the masses out. The phrase “American backyard” alludes to a term
coined by former U.S. president, Ronald Reagan who is responding to the emergence of anti-
American regimes in Latin America and the Caribbean during the early 1980’s, said the US
government would not tolerate the establishment of such governments in America’s backyard.
The phrase ‘…give me your poor..’ is taken from an inscription on the Statute of Liberty calling
to the oppressed, poor, and persecuted masses from Europe, to immigrate to the U.S. in the early
20th century. The early immigrants to the United States were welcomed to Ellis Island, unlike
these immigrants who are barred from Puerto Rico.
Ellipses are used to show that much of the statement has been truncated. What goes before and
after is irrelevant. This short phrase is not meant for the people of the Caribbean. There is no
hope of any of these American ideals being realized for them in Puerto Rico.
In lines 22-25, the speaker watches through the reinforced glass window which also works to
keep him inside of the plane. He admits from his biased perspective that there is a marked
contrast between Puerto Rico and the other islands; and he feels he is being denied something he
greatly desires.
The San Juan airport is a hive of activity with patrolling police vehicles, baggage trucks; and
everything is executed with ‘fierce efficiency’. Workers are not just productive; they go about
their work with a sense of purpose and with military precision. Before long, the plane is airborne
again.
In lines 26-30, while the airplane is still low, the speaker is able to clearly delineate between his
first impression and reality.

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The speaker now sees the ugly side of San Juan that might have easily gone undetected from a
higher altitude. In between or juxtaposed to the material opulence of San Juan is the poverty and
squalor of shanty towns. There is a distinct line between the ‘haves and have nots’. The “…
Rastas with pushcarts…” are contrasted with the owners of condominiums and expensive cars
who are at the top of the economic hierarchy. What glittered like gold in lines 5 and 6 now looks
like fool’s gold. The truth of the proverb: “All that glitters is not gold” is affirmed.
In line 30, the speaker compares the capital of Puerto Rico with its roads, buildings and cars to a
broken “..TV set that’s fallen off the back of a lorry.” The idiomatic expression, to fall off the
back of a truck, means to take possession of a stolen object.
One can imagine the ‘shattered innards’ of a television: the circuit board; the metal parts; the
chunk of broken glass; the intertwining wires, ‘microchips’ and ‘painted valves’ scattered in the
street.
Why did the speaker compare Puerto Rico to a television? Is it because a television projects an
image that is not real? What one sees on the TV screen is convoluted and designed to present a
false image of reality. The media in the United States have been masterful in transmitting
images around the world of America and its culture that often do not coincide with reality.
The final stanza of the poem consists of a mere two lines. They are a parting short at a country
that does not allow the speaker access to it. Puerto Rico is reduced to a shattered television set; it
is broken and whoever possesses it, is in receipt of stolen property.
The poem ends with a palpable aura of foreboding that something ominous is about to occur.
From afar, Puerto Rico looks like a prosperous modern country, but upon closer scrutiny, the
island is not so desirable after all.

TEST MATCH SABINA PARK

TITLE:
The title could be misleading. The reader might believe the poem is about a historic cricket
match that was played at Sabina Park in Jamaica. After reading the poem, the title seems more
about a match of wills between two cultures, personified in the words and attitudes of an English
tourist and a stadium of Caribbean spectators.

SPEAKER:
The speaker is an English tourist who attends a cricket match between England and the West
Indies being played at Sabina Park in Jamaica. He arrives at the stadium with a haughty,
condescending attitude, cataloguing all that is wrong with the environment and the spectators.
With an ethnocentric stance, he contrasts his own experiences at cricket matches in England
with what he sees and hears in the Caribbean.

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MOOD:
The mood at the beginning of the poem is upbeat, characterized by pride and condescension as
the speaker flaunts his skin and his ‘otherness’ in the stadium. The atmosphere switches to one
that is uproariously comical, mocking and rowdy as the spectators show no deference to the
speaker. At the end of the poem, the feeling is one of dejection and embarrassment; as
crestfallen, the speaker leaves the stadium.

TONE:
Initially, the speaker’s tone is condescending, haughty, scornful and disparaging. Later it
becomes exasperated, anxious, embarrassed and dejected, bordering on pathetic.

DICTION:
The language in the pome alternates between the Standard English of the speaker to the
nonstandard dialect of the spectators. The two varieties of English firmly establish the
differences between race, social status and behavior of the individuals. The speaker’s language
is highly critical and pejorative. The spectators take pride in using their ‘nation language’ to
poke fun at the speaker.
THEME:
There are several themes in this poem ranging from ethnocentrism, racial pride, and the attitudes
inherent in white skin privilege. The poem also highlights the use of sports as a vehicle for
leveling the historical and socio-economic playing field. In this poem, the notion of racial
superiority does not extend to the cricket pitch. The use of language to include or exclude others
is also another theme in the poem.
The word ‘strut’ in line 2, connotes a sense of self-importance. The speaker is not simply
walking, there is finesse, and an attitude of pride associated with the movement as he enters
Sabina Park.
The English cricketers are batting, but by the speaker’s own admission they are ‘boycotting
excitement bravely’. The game is boring and lacks excitement. The next line, ‘something is
badly amiss,’ indicates that things are quite different from what the speaker is accustomed to in
England.
In lines 3 and 4, the poet skilfully uses the literary device of pun to poke fun at the poor
performance of the two British cricketers: Geoff Boycott and Dennis Amiss.
In the second stanza, the speaker notes that the game being played bears no resemblance to the
game that is played at the iconic cricket pitch of Lord’s. He does not identify any deviations

13
from the game’s rules; but the spectators who are characterized as a loud, unruly crowd are not
what he is used to seeing at cricket matches in London.
He adds that they are ‘caged’ which indicates that the spectators view the match from behind
iron mesh or some type of bars, unlike the open, unrestrained, environ of Lord’s. The word
‘caged’ alludes to a zoo or a place where animals are set apart from civilized society. He sums
up the spectators as loud, biased and ‘quick to take offence. How did the speaker arrive at this
conclusion? Did he say something to awaken the spectators’ ire?
In stanza 3, the speaker uses the score of England’s innings; then he interjects the direct speech
of a spectator; which contrast sharply with his own.
In lines 10-12, the Jamaican speaker truncates words and omits letters. In speaking his dialect he
show scant respect for the Queen’s English in much the same way he ridicules the performance
of the English cricketers.
The British are doing so poorly the spectator suggests that “…praps dem should-a-borrow
Lawrence Rowe!”, a prolific West Indies batsman, to render assistance to their side. This type of
banter or mock sport, although foreign to the speaker, is an integral part of Caribbean cricket
culture.
In stanza 4, the poet repeats the same form as the previous stanza. The speaker comments on the
progression of the match; then inserts a direct quote from a spectator.
In line 13, “And on it goes,” seems to refer to both the batting and the behavior of the spectators.
The speaker blames the wicket for the poor performance, not the players. He seems concerned
that the ‘crowd [is] restless.’ From his perspective, the mob might be getting ready or not.
A spectator’s comments in lines 15-17, addresses the proud Englishman as a ‘white bwoy,’ not a
gentleman; and places him within the family of the poorly performing cricketers who are bent on
sending them to sleep. The white skin commands no respect. The spectators show no deference
to him or his countrymen.
The speaker launches a defense in the fifth stanza, in an attempt to explain the English
cricketers’ uneventful showing at the wickets. He announces that he speaks with ‘Hampshire
drawl’ as if his accent is potent enough to stand up to the biting criticism of the Jamaican patois.
He describes the weather in various parts of the United Kingdom, which differs considerable
from the Caribbean climate. Some of his explanations are nonsensical; for example his reference
to the monsoon season in Manchester, which is distinctly an Asian phenomenon. Does he
believe that the spectators know nothing of the world and would not be cognizant of his
misrepresentations?
In line 22, he realizes that he is unable “…to convince even myself,” furthermore, the spectators.
Like the English cricketers, the speaker is facing a ‘sticky wicket,’ which is an uncomfortable or
difficult situation.

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The final stanza differs from the first stanza when the speaker walked into Sabina Park with an
aura of pride and superiority. He admits that the “crowd’s ‘busin’ drives me out.” In using the
nonstandard form of the word “abuse” he shows he has capitulated from the pinnacle.
The spectators’ language, like their cricketers have proven to be more potent than that of the
visitors.
Unlike the high and mighty attitude he possessed when he entered the stadium, the speaker now
sneaks out of the park with his proverbial tail between his legs. He is not cocky anymore. He is
“..unable, quite, to conceal a blushing nationality.” For the speaker, the English cricketers’
performance has been a national and racial disappointment. The white skin, once his badge of
honour has lost its luster, and is now red with embarrassment.

SONNET COMPOSED UPON WESTMINSTER BRIDGE SEPTEMBER 3, 1802

TITLE:
The title of poem is straightforward. It states that the sonnet - - a fourteen line lyric poem – was
written in Westminster Bridge in London, England in early 19th century. Why did they poet
compose the piece of literature on the top of a bridge? Why was he on the bridge? What awe
inspiring event occurred to move the poet to document it?
SPEAKER:
The speaker is an imaginative person who sees the bustling city of London from a totally new
and different perspective. The speaker must have travelled across Westminster Bridge several
times, yet on this specific occasion, he has a defining experience that moves him. It would be
incorrect to contend that the speaker and the poet are the same.

MOOD:
The poem evokes a feeling of awe or amazement at the startling beauty of the city. The
atmosphere created is one of serenity.

TONE:
The speaker’s tone expresses reverence and deference for nature. His tone reveals that he is
overwhelmed and awe-struck by the city’s beauty. He is celebratory in his description of the
miraculous scene that is London in the early morning.
DICTION:
The language is mostly figurative. The speaker’s use of personification imbues the “City” with
the characteristics of a beautiful woman clothed in a lovely garment. Through this use of

15
evocative language, the mundane elements of the city are reframed in colourful, vivid imagery.
It is instructive to note that the poet has used a poetic form created for the subject of love to
express the intense feelings that the scene evokes in him.
THEME:
The dominant theme is that natural beauty exists even in an urban, highly industrialized which
would be deemed antithetical to nature. Another theme is that beauty may be found in the most
unlikely of places.

CONTENT:
In line 1-3, the speaker points out that there is nothing on earth or in nature more beautiful than
what he sees before. He goes on to say that anyone who passes such a spectacular scene without
acknowledging its beauty must be “dull…of soul.” The use of the words ‘fair; and ‘majesty’
connotes a sense of physical loveliness that is elevated above the ordinary.
In line 4, one learns that the speaker is commenting on the city of London. The city has been
personified and has the characteristics of a lovely woman clothed in beautiful garments. The
dress that adorns her is the glory of early morning, signaling the beginning of a new day.
In lines 5-8, there is no physical activity as everything is ‘silent’ and ‘bare’. The speaker lists the
structures that make up the city and surrounding area that lies beyond its boundaries. The
buildings are manmade, and not elements of nature, yet as part of the city’s skyline they now
seem beautiful and natural.
Everything is lovely. The sky is clear as the factories have not begun belching smoke into the
air.
In lines 9-10, the speaker is astonished by the way the early sun light has made the natural beauty
of the “…valley, rock or hill…” more apparent.
In line 11, the use of an exclamation mark underscores the excitement and awe he feels upon
seeing the still and restful city.
In line 12, the river is personified as a man who has the leisure to do whatever he wants and now
he “…glideth at his own sweet will…” The river has been churned up by the movement of
vessels passing to and fro and it is now calm and smooth.
In line 13, the speaker is again struck by the unbelievable sight before him. The exclamation,
“Dear God!” expresses his disbelief or is uttered prayerfully in acknowledging God’s presence in
this tableau. He personifies the houses, depicting them as living beings who are now asleep.
In the last line of the poem, the “mighty heart” or the pulse of the city is quiet. Later in the day,
the engine of commerce will begin again and this beautiful scene will be erased.

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 OLE HIGUE BY MARK MCWATT
Mark McWatt (1947-) is a Guyanese poet, short story writer, editor and educator who lives and
works in Barbados. McWatt has stated that much of his writing is rooted in the Guyanese
landscape, and in his experiences of that landscape. He says “…I always write for a Caribbean
type of audience. I have in mind Guyanese and Barbadians and Jamaicans as reading what I am
writing and understanding it.”
TITLE:
The phrase sometimes written in expanded form as Ole Higue, refers to a supernatural character
found in Caribbean folklore. This nocturnal being is also called a jumbie, soucouyant and
backoo as is a composite of a vampire and a witch.
In Caribbean folklore the Ole Higue or Old Hag is an old woman. She sheds her skin at nights;
stores it in a calabash and turns into a ball of fire before going on her mission to suck the blood
of babies.

SPEAKER:
The speaker is an old woman who in this dramatic monologue defends her compulsive
behaviour. She is reviled by mothers of young children, yet she believes she plays an important
role in society. She is self-centered, clever and insightful.

MOOD:
There is a conscientious, irritable mood to the poem, which gives way to a brief feeling of
remorse and a prevailing sense of smugness.

TONE:
The speaker’s tone switches from being defensive, argumentative and exasperated, to being
fleetingly sensitive. Her tone is mostly spirited, self-satisfied and resigned.

DICTION:
The structure of the speaker’s sentences, the rhetorical questions she poses, her choice of words
and the items she references are identifiably Caribbean. Her descriptions are vivid and skillfully
crafted to reflect her reputation.

THEME:
The main themes are: human have a penchant for blaming supernatural phenomena for life’s
horrors; superstitious beliefs allow individuals to cope with life’s tragedies; and the supernatural
gives meaning to the inexplicable.

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CONTENT:
The “You” the speaker is addressing in the first line of this dramatic monologue is an unknown
audience, and not necessarily a specific person. She seems to have been accused of some deed
and finds it necessary to defend herself in an attempt to clear her name, garner sympathy or
restore her reputation.

As the speaker states her point-of-view, she gives insight into her character. She acknowledges
in lines 1-4, that she does not like travelling around at night without her skin, turning herself into
a ball of fire and scaring people; but she is compelled to do so. She alludes to an old wives’ tale
told in the Caribbean of a hag who sheds her skin at night, turns into a ball of fire and scares
superstitious people. The speaker’s narrative seems to be a response to the persona in
Wordsworth McAndrew’s poem of the same title.

She contends in line 5 that being an Ol’ Higue is not as rewarding as it appears since what she
acquires is too little for the effort she expends.

In lines 6-8, the speaker acknowledges that she would rather “take [her] blood…like everyone
else…”—well-seasoned – in black pudding instead of bland, baby blood.

In lines 9-11 she points out that her path is not free of obstacles. She must be on guard for salt,
because if it touches her skin it could injure or kill her. Another ruse used to obstruct the Ol’
Higue from getting to her intended victims is to place a pile of rice at the entrance of the house.
Once she sees the rice she must count every grain before she can gain access. The intention is to
keep her employed until the sun rises, making it impossible for her to enter the house and suck
the baby’s blood.
In stanza 2, the harridan puts up a defense for why she kills babies. She states almost tenderly
that she finds their scent irresistible and is tempted by the purity of the untainted blood running
through their body. She knows that the babies are at the beginning of the life cycle, and she is at
the end; but she has the power to alter this natural cycle. She prolongs her aged existence by
bringing the babies’ lives to a premature end.
In lines 20-23, the speaker justifies her behaviour, identifies her audience and reveals the
important role she has played in society from time immemorial.
In lines 24 she reconciles that if she did not exist throughout history, who would mothers hold
responsible for the death of their babies? Line 25 is ambiguous. Is the speaker asking if mothers
would admit to the crime of infanticide if she did not exist, or would they want to commit
‘murder’ over the loss of their baby?

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In lines 26-28 the speaker points out that whatever was said previously, she is sincere in
expressing her belief that as long as women have babies, and babies die; there will always be the
need for a scapegoat. Therefore, the myth of her existence will never die.

POEM: THE WOMAN SPEAKS TO THE MAN WHO HAS EMPLOYED HER SON BY
LORNA GOODISON
Lorna Goodison is a Jamaican poet, writer and illustrator whose poems often focus on women’s
issues including sexuality, equality, love and motherhood. She also writes about racial issues
and experiences of the marginalized. Goodison is known for blending both Standard English and
non-standard dialects as she writes about life in Jamaica. Critics have noted that her use of
different registers brings depth and many layers of meaning to her poetry.

TITLE:
The poem’s long title is deceptive. The reader assumes that the ‘son’ is an adolescent and his
mother is speaking on his behalf. One could infer that she is either expressing gratitude to her
son’s employer for hiring him or she is a concerned parent negotiating the terms of her son’s
employment, since this might be his first job.

SPEAKER:
The speaker’s remarks which are presented in a dramatic monologue could have been gleaned
from gossip. It seems that she has first-hand knowledge of her subject since she discloses
intimate details about the mother. One can conclude that the mother is religious, proactive,
determined, courageous and a single parent.
The speaker not only has background information about the mother and son, but she is the person
who speaks on behalf of the mother and addresses the employer directly. If this is correct, then
the title and the speaker are out of sync, since the mother never actually ‘speaks to the man’.
If the speaker and the mother are the same, then she has chosen to speak in the third person
giving herself emotional distance from the situation at hand.

MOOD:
The mood of the poem is serious, solemn and resigned.

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TONE:
The speaker’s tone is matter-of-fact, expectant, incredulous, angry, mocking, resigned and sad.

DICTION:
The speaker uses both Standard English and a non-standard register. There are several allusions
to biblical stories and popular maxims. The language is tongue-in-cheek, colloquial, and
switches between the past and present tense.

THEME:
The universality of hope and a mother’s dreams for her children are major themes in the poem.
Other themes include death at an early age; the gun-culture’s impact on poor communities; the
challenges of female headed households and the rearing of boys; the impact of absent fathers on
boys; and the correlation between poverty and crime.

CONTENT:
In the first four lines of the poem the reader finds out the back story to the subject’s life. In
stating that her ‘son was first made known to her’ the speaker infers that the pregnancy came as a
surprise, and therefore was unplanned. Physical discomfort, emotional sensitivity, and morning
sickness made her aware of her pregnancy.

One could deduce that the subject was either irresponsible and did not use contraceptives or she
was a naïve girl who was seduced by an older, experienced man, She might have been callow
enough not to know how a woman becomes pregnant.
In lines 5-6, the notion of the mother’s naivete is affirmed since she depends on ‘signs’ and not
her own presence of mind to confirm her pregnancy. The line, learning that ‘she was not alone
in her body,’ implies that her body was taken over by a being, rendering her without agency to
act on her own behalf.

Once the mother recognizes that she is pregnant, she holds on to her unborn child for nine
months. She doesn’t attempt to abort the fetus and it is not born prematurely.
In line 8, the phrase, ‘tight up under her heart’ shows that the woman cared deeply for her unborn
child.

In line 9, the mother’s hopes or expectations for her child are set high before his birth. She
envisions him as her vehicle out of poverty. Maybe he will be given an opportunity to provide
financial assistance to his family. Maybe he will secure the elusive visa to North America and
show his gratitude by sending regular remittances to his mother.

20
The speaker catalogues the dreams of the mother to highlight the universality of hope, especially
for poor people. The word ‘hope’ is repeated three times in lines 10-11, as if to say when there is
a dearth of material resources and opportunities, ‘hope’ can be found in large supply. Hope is
used both as a noun and a verb, to embody the dreams of the poor.
In line 12, the statement, ‘He had no father’ is a stinging indictment of the man who does not
assume responsibility for the child he has sired. The phrase ‘the man she made him with’
underscores that the child’s conception, was more mechanical i.e. made – rather than emotional.
There is a biological father, but no parent.
Lines 13-16, would be comical if they were not so callous and candid in expressing the
phenomenon of absentee fathers. The man ‘… was fair-minded’; he had several children and did
not contribute to the emotional or financial well-being of any of them.
The third stanza continues to chronicle the mother’s supportive attitude in being both the father
and mother to her son. As established earlier, like all parents, she had high expectations for her
young child. Unfortunately those hopes are dashed in lines 21-24 when the boys makes it known
that he has been recruited by a gunman.
The irony of the situation is that the son feels a sense of pride in being allocated ‘one whole
submachine-gun.’ He believes he is held in such high esteem by the gunman that he has been
given the responsibility of a weapon to wreak death and violence on himself and his community.
In stanza 4, the speaker changes to the present tense and addresses the ‘employer’ directly. In
alluding to Matthew 7:9, she questions the boy’s depiction of the man being ‘like a father to
him.’ If poverty led the boy to seek material goods, why would the older man offer him certain
death? The statement accuses the man of being deliberately wicked with no consideration for the
boy’s welfare.
The mother is proactive and has prepared herself for the inevitable. In lines 29-32, she has
outfitted herself with the best funeral garb ‘for the day he draws his bloody salary.’ The woman
knows that her child will be killed and couches this in her belief that he will reap the ‘bloody
salary’ for the violent actions he has sown.
In lines 33-36, the speaker admits that the gunman’s influence and power are formidable that the
mother as a mere mortal cannot wage a winning battle against him or the vise he has on her son.
According to the speaker, the mother’s faith is her only recourse; and she has engaged the forces
of heaven against the gunman. She looks to God and the power inherent in a ‘mother’s tears’ for
help.
The mother’s tears and psalms have dual purposes. The psalms are recited to shield her son, but
they are read to inflict injury on the gunman. The tears are a manifestation of the pain and grief
the mother feels for her son; and they indict the man who has given her cause to cry.
The final stanza contains several biblical allusions whose meanings are not straightforward. In
lines 42-44, there is the allusion to the mothers of Judas Iscariot and one of the thieves crucified
with Jesus. These women seem to belong to a club of mothers of infamous offspring. Is the

21
speaker insinuating that even people who have don some of the most ignominious acts in human
history have mothers. Are these women culpable for their son’s actions? The mother is a
member of a money-saving club called a meeting in Barbados, a partner in Jamaica and susu in
other Caribbean islands.
The speaker says the mother has two ‘draws’ (payments) coming from the ‘partner’ because she
has shouldered the responsibility of being both mother and father to the boy. She brought him
into the world and she will be there when his life comes to an end.
The last line of the poem speaks to the finality of the mother’s perspective. She has made the
necessary provisions. She has prepared herself materially and spiritually; and there is nothing
more within her power that can be done.
The word ‘Absalom’ at the end of the poem is stated in the same way ‘AMEN’ ends in a prayer.
However, it is pregnant with meaning as it alludes to Absalom, the son of King David, who is
killed after conspiring to murder his father. In accepting the employment of the gunman, the
young boy has in essence plotted against his mother’s investment in and expectations for him.
He has killed her hopes.
The mother, like King David, will experience profound grief over the death of her wayward son.

POEM: A STONE’S THROW by Elma Mitchell

POET:
Elma Mitchell (1919-2000) was a British poet who was credited with having the ‘rare ability of
making tough, compassionate and compelling verse out of the minutiae of domestic existence.’
Several of her poems brings an original perspective to issues of inequality; gender bias and
patriarchy, and their effect on women.

TITLE:
In terms of distance, a stone’s throw often refers to a place not too far from one’s reach or within
close proximity. It could also refer to having a psychological or moral perspective that is similar
to someone else’s, therefore passing judgement on that individual would be hypocritical.
When one interprets the poem’s title in this context, it brings to mind the saying, ‘There but for
the grace of God, go I.” It seems to say that without God’s intervening grace, everyone is a
stone’s throw from committing a malevolent act or having something unfortunate done to him.

SPEAKER:

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In this dramatic monologue, the speaker is addressing an unknown audience that he wants to
convince or who shares his point-of-view. He is a sadist since he takes pleasure in recalling the
pain inflected on a woman. He seems to have a fixation on sex as he constantly uses sexual
terminology to express himself. He is a misogynist who objectifies a woman who is the subject
of the poem. He uses stereotypes to categorize the woman as a harlot. He is self-righteous,
mean-spirited, cruel, hypocritical and cowardly. As he tells his tale, he unknowingly reveals his
character, which is one of the elements of a dramatic monologue.
MOOD:
The atmosphere is sexually charged and violent. There is an underlying sense of sexual
frustration disguised in brutality. A feeling of menace, of unfinished business lingers at the end
of the poem.
TONE:
One can hear the pride in the speaker’s tone as he gleefully relates this tale of violence. He is
boastful, nonchalant, condescending, dismissive, self-righteous and callous. In retelling the
incident, his tone reflects the enjoyment and satisfaction gained from his participation in the act.

DICTION:
The speaker exposes his sexual disposition by using graphic language with sexual overtones. He
speaks in stereotypes and generalizations, always making sure to add some follow-up
commentary to his statements. His remarks are clipped, speedy and lacking in thought. He
speech is punctuated mostly by commas, highlighting the short pauses between comments. Most
of his utterances speak to actions without reflection. By using the pronoun ‘we’ he includes
himself in an anonymous group, thereby forfeiting all personal accountability.
THEME:
The themes in this poem relate directly to the issue of religion and gender. They include feigned
morality; the inequality of women; sexual repression exhibited in violence; extrajudicial
punishment; use of power; and human beings’ penchant for judging others.

CONTENT:
In line 1, the using the subject pronoun, ‘we’ the speaker announces that he is part of a group or
accompanied by at least one other individual.
In lines 2-3, through direct speech, the speaker reports what took place in three short statements;
the first two are punctuated by exclamation marks.
Lines 1-5 set up an image of a female being pursued. One is not sure if the female is human or
animal. The fact that the speaker states ‘We caught her,’ in line 4, leads one to infer that the
female was attempting to elude her pursuers, but was eventually caught.
23
The action is not taking place in the present as the speaker is retelling what transpired in the last.
One wonders who comprises his audience and what is his purpose for telling the tale?
The remarks in line 2-3 reveal a great deal: “We’ve got her!’ echoes the triumph in having
caught the female. ‘Here she is!” exhibits the woman for all to see. “It’s here all right.’ affirms
her identity.
In the second stanza, the reader now knows that the female is human. She is grudgingly
described by the speaker as ‘a decent-looking woman’ but adds ‘you’d have said,’ as a corollary
to distance himself from admitting that he found her physically attractive.
Line 7, stated in a flippant, off-handed manner relegates the woman to a stereotype. The
comment ‘(They often are)’ says she is not an individual, but belongs to a group or type. The
woman is described by the speaker as being extremely frightened, and even with her clothing and
hair disheveled her beauty is apparent. The word ‘tousled’ leads one to believe that her hair and
clothing were slightly ruffled, as if she were engaging in some playful activity.
The speaker states euphemistically, ‘we roughed her up/A little, nothing much.’ His version of
events is a lie. He wants to imply that they did not use force in their pursuit and capture of the
woman.
The more the speaker talks, the more he reveals his true character. In lines 11-16, it is implied
that the woman is a prostitute. The speakers seems to have prior knowledge of her interactions
with men. How did he come by this information? Was he one of her clients? Did he hear tales
of individuals who have intimate contact with her?
The speaker and other men took advantage of the opportunity to fondle the woman’s body. He
points out that this ‘was not the first time’ she had been felt up by men so their actions were not
out of the ordinary. In using the adjective ‘greedy’ in line 14, he describes the way their hands
roamed over her body, connoting an appetite that needed to be sated. One imagines a frenzy of
hands probing every area of her body.
In line 15, the speaker points out that his hands and those of his companions were ‘virtuous.’ The
phrase ‘of course,’ in line 16 reinforces the idea that their actions were above reproach, unlike
the other hands who have committed acts of fornication with the woman.
The speaker knows that their behaviour was far from honourable. What virtue could be derived
from assaulting a scared woman? Their behaviour gives a new meaning to the religious term
‘laying on of hands.’ The speaker is self-righteous, and therefore oblivious to the import of his
statements.
Why did the men assault the woman in this manner? Was this something they always wanted to
do, but did not have the temerity to carry out individually?
In the fourth stanza the word ‘if’ is used to diffuse the men’s cruelty. They manhandled her and
bruised her flesh. The use of the phrase ‘shuddering skin’ removes it form her body giving the
skin a line of its own.

24
The speaker has carnal thoughts; and has reframed the assault language of erotic love. The term
‘love bites’ connotes a bite made during intercourse; it is at once pleasurable and painful, and
leaves a mark or hickey on the skin. The speaker mitigates their maltreatment of the woman by
asserting that what is in store for her will be worse.
As if listing dishes on a menu, in lines 20-23 he outlines the order in which the atrocities will be
leveled. She will be hit by ‘the hail of kisses of stone.’ Like precipitation, stones will rain down
on the woman. He adds the legal term ‘assault and battery,’ and states the ‘frigid rape’ will be
the last [final] course. ‘Frigid rape’ is an oxymoronic expression because the speaker is inferring
that the woman will be sexually assaulted, but not penetrated as in an actual rape. The phrase
expresses the inability to consummate the physical act of a sexual assault.
In lines 23-24, the phrase ‘to come of right,’ signifies that everything she has endured so far was
an appetizer leading up to the piece de resistance, and the woman getting what she deserves.
In line 25, one must ask whose ‘… justice must be done…? The phrase ‘Thy will be done,’
comes to mind. Why have these people participated in an act of extrajudicial punishment? Who
were the judge and jury? Whose laws did the woman break? Who are they to dispense the
punishment? This is indeed a classic example of ‘justice’ by the mob.
In line 27, the poet uses the literacy device of dramatic irony, where the speaker sums up what
the reader has known all along: the men relished the brutal assault of the woman. The speaker
admits with glee, ‘It tastes so good.’ There is delight, a deliciousness to the beating and fondling
of the woman; which extends the metaphor of a meal with many courses to sate their appetites.
In stanza 5, the poem takes a turn. The phrase ‘And then,’ alerts the reader to the change in the
speaker’s attitude. He is let down from his high of sadistic gaiety. The speaker’s tone is
contemptuous as he spits out a list of names for the person who disrupted their frenzy.
The individual cannot be labelled in one word. He is a ‘guru,’ a name given to someone who is
an expert or has expertise in religious, philosophical or spiritual matters. He is a ‘preacher’, a
speaker of the gospel. Labelling him as a ‘God-merchant’, alludes to the man’s trade in things
pertaining to God. The final description “God-knows-what’ speaks to the idea that the man
cannot be placed in any category. The poet is skillful in using this term, since God knows the
identity of this man (Jesus) even if the mob is unaware of whom he is.
In line 31, the unnamed man speaks to the woman. To do this, he must come between the woman
and the mob, putting himself in harm’s way. Again, the speaker voices his prejudices by saying
one “(should never speak to them)”, stigmatizing the woman as a prostitute, and thus unworthy
of basic decency.
The man, who intervenes on the woman’s behalf is literally and religiously her savior. He
stoops to “her level” on the ground. Taken figuratively, the man was not critical of the woman.
He did not see himself as morally or socially superior to her. To him she was a human being and
not the object of ridicule and immortality that the mob perceived her to be.

25
In lines 34-35, “Writing in the dust/something we could not read,” could be seen as the man
playing for time to unsettle the mob. However, one wonders why they were unable to read this
inscription. Was it written in a foreign language or was it illegible? By writing in the sand, was
it his intention to show the mob that they lacked discernment in their condemnation of another
human?

In lines 35-41, one of the poem’s themes of judging others is highlighted. The speaker admits
that what the man saw in the woman, they did not want to see until he looked at them; then the
woman looked at them and they in turn looked at themselves.
The mob had been acting without thought or a moral compass. They were focused on carrying
out their type of justice without realizing the level to which they had descended. No words are
exchanged between the man and the woman. The mob is not addressed in any audible way, but
they get the message.
The final stanza conjures up an image of the men skulking away, in a state of dejection. They
are unable to sate their appetite for brutality, yet they remain defiant. They do not discard their
rocks, they hold on to them in the same manner they hold on to their prejudices and
misconceptions.
They reserve the right to throw stones at someone else another day, given the ‘urge.’ Any
insight they gained from the encounter with the man is fleeting. They have no intention of
inculcating it into their daily lives. There is no desire to change. True justice, which is
characterized by fairness, rationality and law, can never be the domain of the mob.
The poet has used the concept of intertextuality in crafting her poem from an original story taken
from the Gospel of Jon 8: 3-11. In the Bible story a woman is accused of adultery and is brought
before Jesus because according to Mosaic Law, she should be stoned to death. Jesus states the
famous lines, “He that is without sin among you, let him cast the first stone at her.” Her accusers
scatter. Jesus tells the woman he does not condemn her and to go and refrain from sinning.
This poem can be read without prior knowledge of its origin. The poem and the Bible story both
explore themes of forgiveness, compassion and the error of judging others.

ONCE UPON A TIME BY GABRIEL OKARA

Gabriel Okara (1921-) is a Nigerian poet and novelist; and is counted among the founders of
modern African literature. In his work and in his life, Okara has attempted to reconcile the
influence of Western culture and language on traditional African culture. Okara incorporates
African thought, religion, folklore, and imagery into both his verse and prose. His themes are at
the ‘same time African and universal and focus on conflict between tradition and modernity,
homesickness and the suffering of war.’
Title:

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The title evokes the feeling of childhood. Because the title is a universal or common beginning
of fairy tales and tall tales, it sets the poem in a make believe world: a time that no longer exists.
Speaker:
The speaker is either a father talking to his son or an older male speaking to a youth. His
purpose is to inform and pass on what he has learnt. He is nostalgic for things of the past and all
that has been lost.

Mood:
The poem creates an atmosphere that is mournful and sad. Disappointment and a sense of
longing are felt throughout the poem.
Tone:
The poem’s tone is conversational, sardonic, nostalgic, wistful and anguished.
Diction:
The speaker’s language is detailed, straight-forward and uncomplicated. The structure of the
pome conforms to some of the literary conforms to some of the literary conventions of a fairy
tale. The poem’s an empty platitude with no genuine feelings attached to it. There is a limit to
how many times he may visit his friends before he is refused admission.
In stanza 4, the word ‘so’ tells that the speaker’s perspective has changed. He has gone from
feeling to thinking. His interaction with others are now calculated. There is no spontaneity as the
heart has been usurped by the mind.
He has had to develop a different persona for various occasions; the same way he changes his
clothing for different events. The only thing that is constant is his fake smile which puts others
at ease.
In lines 25-27, the speaker admits that he has become like the people he spoke of in stanzas 1-4.
He no longer possesses any sincere or genuine feelings. He has learned to be deceptive,
dishonest and insincere like everyone else.
In lines 28-32, the speaker is artful in pointing out the subtle nuances in making disingenuous
statements like saying ‘good-bye’ when one really means ‘good-riddance.’ The reader is made
to reflect on his own unconscious use of such remarks.
As he addresses the youngster in stanza six, the speaker’s desire for change is palpable. He
dislikes what he has become and yearns to go back to what he was.
He acknowledges that the more he conforms to societal influences, the more his own voice
becomes ‘muted’ or silenced. In lines 37-39, he is impassioned, as he tells the young man he
was to ‘relearn’ how to laugh again. The snake, a symbol of deceit, is reflected in the speaker’s

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mirror. The imagery of the cunning serpent is effective in highlighting the poem’s theme of
duplicity. The speaker displays his teeth but not in an authentic smile.
In the following the archetypal form of fairy tales, there must be a transformation or some
noticeable change at the end of the tale. The poem must have a happy ending and good should
triumph over evil. The speaker’s appeal for redemption is found in the final stanza. He looks to
the innocence of childhood for reprieve. He became corrupted when his mind (thinking)
superseded his heart (feeling). He implores the child to help him regain the childlike quality of
spontaneous laughter.
It is important to note that the adult is looking to the child for guidance. A child’s behavior is
usually governed by his subjective reaction to his environment. His interactions are for
framework of the elder citizen passing historical information on to someone from a younger
generation is a significant part of the African oral tradition.
Theme:
There are several themes in this poem which include: re-evaluating ‘progress’ in contemporary
society; a hankering for lost values and traditions; the duplicity of modern man; the lack of love
in human interaction and the untainted innocence of youth.
Content:
The first line is the poem’s title and the opening line of many fairy tales and tall tales. It
immediately conveys two things to the readers: he will be listening to a narrative; and the
speaker is either addressing his biological child or a young man.
The first stanza conveys the feelings of a make believe time, when some unidentified beings:
‘they’ were genuine in their interactions. Now they are insincere, since their false smiles never
reach their eyes. In keeping with the imagery of a fairy tale, the language used is effective in
conjuring up images of ogres and goblins with “… their ice-block cold-eyes.”
The heart is a universal symbol of love. If the laughter is now done “… with their teeth,” instead
of “…with their heart…”, this means love is absent. Their eyes that once held laughter now look
closely for something negative (“shadow”) to use against them.
The poem’s second stanza expresses similar sentiments to the previous one. Shaking hands,
which is essentially an act of friendship, respect and trust, has now become a distraction for
people to search the speaker’s pockets. Lines 10-12 indicate that people are looking for
something material, like a bribe or information to use against him. They are no longer interested
in simple friendship. Their actions are not governed by love, but by a hidden agenda.
In stanza 3, the speaker tells of the deceit of feigned hospitality. He is no longer welcomed with
sincerity into the homes of his acquaintances. In line 13, two direct quotes express standard
remarks people make in daily discourse, when extending an invitation to their home. When the
speaker accepts his host’s/hostess’ invitation, he realizes it was just the most part, free of guile.
The psychic and emotional rebirth that the speaker desires brings to mind the hackneyed maxim
– “Once a man, twice a child” -- an adult in his dotage reverts to the behavior of a child.

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The speaker’s request to be childlike again can only be achieved with the mental and physical
decline that goes with it. It is a paradox. The speaker longs for the past, and in so doing reveals
the hypocrisy of the modern world.

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