Job Analysis: Definition, Importance, Components,

Methods, Purpose, Process

Job analysis is the process of studying and collecting information relating to
the operations and responsibilities of a specific job.

The information thus collected is analyzed, and the facts about the nature of
job working conditions and qualities in an employee can be easily known. Job
analysis defines the jobs within the organization and the behaviors necessary
to perform these jobs.

Job Analysis is a systematic exploration, study, and recording of a specific job’s

responsibilities, duties, skills, accountabilities, work environment, and ability
requirements.

it also involves determining the relative importance of the duties,

responsibilities, and physical and emotional skills for a given job.

Definition of Job Analysis

Mathis and Jackson (1999) view job analysis as a systematic way to gather and
analyze information about the content and human requirements of jobs and
the context in which jobs are performed.

Dessier (2005) defines job analysis as the procedure through which job analyst
determines the duties of different positions of an’ organization and the
characteristics of the people to hire them.

Dale Yoder (1983) defines job analysis as “a process in which jobs are studied
to determine what tasks and responsibilities they include their relationships to
other jobs, the conditions under which work is performed, and the personnel
capabilities required for satisfactory performance.”
In the opinion of Strauss and Sayles (1977), job analysis consists of two parts, a
statement of work to be done (Job description) and the skills and knowledge
which must be possessed by anyone filling the job (Job Specification)”.

According to Gary Dessler, “Job analysis is the procedure for determining the
duties and skills requirements of a job and the kind of person who should be
hired for it.”

According to Edwin B. Flippo, “Job Analysis is the process of studying and

collecting information relating to the operation and responsibilities of a
specific job.”

Job analysis is a systematic way to gather and analyze information about the
content and the human requirements of jobs and the context in which jobs are
performed.” – Decenzo and Robbins.

Job analysis involves collecting data about the performance of the job in an
organization.

However, this definition is probably too simplistic when all of the different
types of information that must be collected are considered.

For example, the data collected should clearly describe exactly what is
required to perform a specific job.

This should include the:

 Knowledge: Knowledge is defined as the degree to which a job holder

must know specific technical material.
 Skill: Skill is defined as adequate performance on tasks requiring tools,
equipment, and machinery.
 Abilities: Abilities refers to the physical and material capabilities needed
to perform tasks not requiring the use of tools, equipment, and
machinery. Further, where the job is completed must be considered.

So the types of information to be collected by a job analysis are shown below:

  Work activities.
 Work-oriented activities.
 Machines, tools, equipment, and work aids are used.
 Job-related tangible and intangible.
 Work performance.
 Job context.
 Personal requirement.

So. job analysis is the process of determining and reporting pertinent

information relating to the nature of a specific job. It is the determination of
the tasks that comprise the job and the skills, knowledge, abilities, and
responsibilities required of the holder for successful job performance.

The end product of a job analysis is a written description of the actual

requirements of the job.

Features of Job Analysis

From the definitions in the preceding section, we can list out the features of
job analysis as follows:

1. Job analysis is a process of gathering relevant information about various

aspects of a job and identifying tasks required to be performed as part
of it.
2. It approaches systematically defining the role, context, conditions,
human behavior, performance standards, and responsibilities of a job.
3. It helps in establishing the job’s worth to an organization. In other
words, it measures the value and contribution of a job to the growth of
the organization.
4. It establishes job-relatedness, which is crucial for HR decisions involving
recruitment, selection, compensations, training, health, and safety.

Uses or Objectives of Job Analysis

A sound human resource management practice dictates that a thorough

job analysis should be done, as it may provide a deeper understanding of the
behavioral requirements of jobs.
This, in turn, creates a solid basis on which to make job-related employment
decisions. Job analysis information is used for many purposes:

Organizational structure and design

By clarifying job requirements and interrelationships among jobs,

responsibilities at all levels can be specified, promoting efficiency and
minimizing overlap or duplication.

Human resource planning

Job analysis is the foundation of forecasting the needs for human resources
and plans for such activities as training, transfer, or promotion.

Job analysis information is incorporated into a human resource information

system.

Work simplification

Job analysis provides information related to the job, and this data can be used
to make the process or job simple.

Work simplification means dividing the job into small parts, i.e., different
operations in a product line or process, improving production or job
performance.

Setting up of standards.

Standard means minimum acceptable qualities or results or performance or

rewards regarding a particular job.

Job analysis provides information about the job, and the standard of each can
be established using this information.
Support for personnel activities

Job analysis supports various personnel activities like recruitment, selection,

placement, training and development, wage administration, performance
appraisal, etc.

Job description

A job description is a job profile that describes the contents,

environment, and condition of jobs. It is prepared based on data collected
through job analysis. It provides information relating to the activities and
duties to be performed in a job.

Job description differentiates one job from another by introducing unique

characteristics of each job.

Job specification

A job specification is another notable objective of job analysis. It includes

information relating to the requirements of skills and abilities to perform a
specific task.

It states the minimum acceptable qualifications that an incumbent must

possess to perform the assigned duty successfully. The job specification
statement identifies the knowledge, skills, abilities needed to perform
that task effectively.

Job classification system

Selection, training, and pay systems often key to job classification systems.

Without job analysis information, it is impossible to determine the

relationships among jobs in an organization reliably.
Job evaluation and compensation

Job analysis also provides the required information that is necessary for
evaluating the worthiness of jobs.

After the preparation of job description and job specification statements, it

assists in the evaluation of actual performance against the predetermined
standard. Then the deviation (if any) is found out that has taken place during
action.

Moreover, it helps establish the value of different jobs in a hierarchical order,

allowing comparing jobs one from another.

These, in turn, are valuable in helping managers identify the kinds of

employees they should recruit, select, and develop and provide guidance for
decisions about training and career development, performance appraisal, and
compensation administration.

Strategic Choice of Job Analysis

The following strategic guidelines should be examined when deciding whether

to conduct a job analysis;

1. The primary purpose for conducting a job analysis should be specified

(such as establishing wage rates or recruiting) to help ensure that all
relevant information is examined.
2. The primary purpose of conducting a job analysis should be input for
the types of information collected (for example, work activities,
machines & tools used, or job context).
3. The purpose of the job analysis, the types of information required, the
time & cost constraints, the level of employee involvement & the level
of detail desired should be specified before choosing one or more of
the available data collection methods.
4. The strategy of an organization can influence which human resource
activities will be emphasized. In turn, certain human resource activities
(such as selection or performance appraisal) may require different job
analysis methods.
 1. Managers should follow or include the following steps when
conducting a job analysis.
2. Determine the purpose of the job analysis.
3. Identify the jobs to be analyzed.
4. Determine the data collection method.
5. Explain the process to employees & involve them.
6. Collect job analysis information.
7. Process the job analysis information.
8. Review & update frequently.
5. The job analysis should be designed so that job descriptions & job
specifications can be derived easily.
6. Managers should communicate all relevant information to employees
concerning the job analysis to prevent unnecessary uncertainty &
anxiety.
7. If major organizational changes have taken place, managers should
consider conducting a job analysis.
8. If major organizations are anticipated, managers should consider
conducting a more future-oriented job analysis.

Purposes of Job Analysis

The data collected from the job analysis can be used for a variety of purposes.

These are:

1. Job description.
2. Job specification.
3. Job evaluation.

Job Description

Job descriptions describe the duties, responsibilities, working conditions, and

activities of a particular job. Job descriptions vary in terms of the level of detail
provided.

However, several components are present in virtually every job description—

for example, the job title, type of summary, and worker requirements.
One valuable source for locating standardized job descriptions is the
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), published by the US Department of
labor, providing more than 12,000 occupations. Managers can adapt the
standardized job descriptions from the DOT to the specific jobs within their
firm.

Job Specification

Job specifications detail the knowledge, skills, and abilities relevant to a job,
including the education, experience, specialized training, personal traits, and
manual dexterity required. The job specification is important for several
reasons.

First, certain jobs have the qualifications required by law.

For example, airline pilots, attorneys, and medical doctors all need to be
licensed. Another type of job specification is based on professional tradition.

For example, university professors must usually hold a Ph.D. or equivalent

degree if they will be in a tenure track position.

Finally, job specifications might involve establishing certain standards or

criteria that are deemed necessary for successful performance.

Job Evaluation

The information gathered during a job analysis can be used as input for the
organization’s job evaluation system. The job evaluation determines the
worth of a particular job to the organization.

This information is primarily used to determine the pay for the job. Thus,
employees should be paid more for working on more difficult jobs.

Components of Job Analysis

A job can be broken into several components and arranged into a hierarchy of
work activities. This hierarchy is depicted in the following figure;
 Element
 Task.
 Duty.
 Position.
 Job.
 Occupation.
  Job Family.

Element

The smallest practical unit into which any work activity can be subdivided.

Task

An identifiable unit of work activity produced through the application of a

Composite of methods, procedures, and techniques.

Duty

An individual performs several distinct tasks to complete a work activity for

which he or she is responsible.

Position

The combination of all the duties required of one person performed a job.

Job

A group of positions that are the same enough or their job elements tasks and
others to be covered by the same job analysis.

Occupation

Jobs combined across organizations based upon the skills, exhaustion, and
responsibilities required by the jobs.

Job Family

A category in which similar cocoons are grouped.

Steps in Job Analysis Process

There are six steps in doing a job analysis process. Let’s look at each of them.
The steps are shown in the following figure:

1. Decide how we will use the information.

2. Review relevant background information.
3. Select representative positions.
4. Analyze the job.
5. Verify the job analysis information.
6. Develop a job description and job specification.
Step 1: Decide how we will use the information.

Decide how we will use the information since this will determine the data we
collect and how we collect them. Some data collection techniques – like
interviewing the employee and asking what the job entails – are good for
writing job descriptions and selecting an employee for the job.
Other techniques, like the position analysis questionnaire, do not provide
qualitative information for a job description.

Instead, they provide numerical ratings for each job: these can be used to
compare jobs for compensation purposes.

Step 2: Review relevant background information

Review relevant background information, such as organization charts, process

charts, and job descriptions. Organization charts show the organization-wide
division of work, with titles of each position and interconnecting lines that
show that reports to and communicates with whom.

A process chart provides a more detailed picture of the workflow. A process

chart shows the flow of inputs to and outputs from the job we analyze in its
simplest form.

Finally, the existing job description usually provides a starting point for
building the revised job description.

Step 3: Select representative positions

Select representative positions. There may be too many similar jobs to analyze
them all. For example, it is usually unnecessary to analyze the jobs of 200
assembly workers when a sample of 10 jobs will do.

Step 4: Analyze the job

Analyze the job by collecting data on job activities, required employee

behaviors, working conditions, and human traits and abilities needed to
perform the job. For this step, use one or more of the job analysis methods.

Step 5: Verify the job analysis information.

Verify the job analysis information with the worker performing the job and
with his immediate supervisor. This will help confirm that the information is
factually correct and complete.
This review can also help gain the employee’s acceptance of the job analysis
data and conclusions by giving that person a chance to review and modify our
description of the job activities.

Step 6: Develop a job description and job specification

Develop a job description and job specification. The job description is a

written statement that describes the activities and responsibilities of the job
and its important features, such as working conditions and safety hazards.

Job specification summarizes the personal qualities, traits, skills, and

background required for getting the job done. It may be in a separate
document or the same document as the job description.

Job Analysis Methods

An organization uses different methods to collect information and conduct job

analysis.

These methods are;

1. Observation method.
2. Job performance.
3. Work sampling.
4. Individual interview.
5. Structured questionnaire.
6. Critical incident method.
7. Diary method.
Observation method

In this method, the observer observes a worker or a group of workers doing a

job. He makes a list of all the duties performed by the worker and the qualities
required to perform those duties.
It is a direct method. Direct exposure to jobs can provide a richer and deeper
understanding of job requirements than works’ descriptions of what they do.

If the work in question is primarily mental, observations alone may reveal little
useful information.

Job performance

With this approach, an analyst does the job understudy to get firsthand
exposure to what it demands.

With this method, there is exposure to actual job tasks and the physical,
environmental, and social demands of the jobs. It is suitable for jobs that can
be learned in a relatively short period.

Its main limitation is that when the employee’s work is being observed, the
employee becomes conscious. This method is inappropriate for jobs that
require extensive training or are hazardous to perform.

Work sampling

Under this method, a manager can determine the content and pace of a
typical workday through a statistical sampling of certain actions rather than
through continuous observation and timing of all actions.

Individual interview

Here a manager or job analyst visit each job site and talks with employees
performing each job. A standardized interview form is used most often to
record the information.

Frequently, both the employee and the employee’s supervisor must be

interviewed to obtain a complete understanding of the job. In some cases, a
group of experts conducts the interview. They ask questions about the job,
skill levels, and difficulty levels.
They ask questions and collect information, and based on this information,
and job analysis is prepared.

This method can provide information about standard and non-standard

activities and physical and mental work.

In short, the worker can provide the analyst with information that might not
be available from any other source. Its main limitation is that workers may be
suspicious of interviewers and their motives.; interviewers may ask ambiguous
questions. Thus, the distortion of information is a real possibility.

Structured questionnaire

A survey instrument is developed and given to employees and managers to

complete.

The main advantage of this method is that information on many jobs can be
collected inexpensively in a relatively short time. This method is usually
cheaper and quicker to administer than other methods.

Questionnaires can be completed off the job, thus avoiding lost productive
time. Its main limitation is that it is time-consuming and expensive to develop.
The rapport between analyst and respondent is impossible unless the analyst
is present to explain and clarify misunderstandings.

Such an impersonal approach may have adverse effects on respondent

cooperation and motivation.

Critical incident method

In this method, the employee is asked to write one or more critical incident
that has taken place on the job. The incident will explain the problem, how it is
handled, qualities required and difficulty levels, etc. The critical incident
method gives an idea about the job and its importance.
A critical means important, and incident means anything which takes place on
the job. This method focuses directly on what people do in their jobs, and
thus, it provides insight into job dynamics.

But this method takes much time to gather, abstract, and categorize the
incidents. It may be difficult to develop a profile of average job behavior as
this method describes particularly effective or ineffective behavior.

Diary method

Under this method, companies can ask employees to maintain log records or
daily diaries, and job analysis can be done based on information collected
from the record.

A log record is a book in which employee records /writes all the activities
performed by him on the job.

The records are extensive and exhausted in nature and provide a fair idea
about the duties and responsibilities in any job. In this method, the worker
does the work himself, and the idea of the skill required, the difficulty level of
the job, and the efforts required can be known easily.

Job Analysis Tools

Job Analysis supports all other management activities, including recruitment

and selection, training and development need analysis, performance analysis
and appraisal, job evaluation, job rotation, job enrichment and enlargement,
the right job-individual, creation, and regulation of entry and exit of talent in
an organization.

There are various tools and techniques, such as the O-Net model. PAQ model.
FJA model.

F-JAS model and competency model that helps HR managers to develop

genuine job description and job specification data. Though not very new, only
a few very high-profile organizations use these specialized tools and
techniques.
Not very common in use, but once understood, these systematic approaches
prove extremely useful for measuring the worth of any job in an organization.

1. O*Net Model.
2. FJA Model.
3. PAQ Model.
4. F-JAS Model.
5. Competency Model.
6. Job Scan.

O*Net Model

The beauty of this model is that it helps managers or job analysts in listing
job-related data for a huge number of jobs simultaneously. It helps collect and
record basic and initial data, including educational requirements, physical
requirements, and mental and emotional requirements to some extent.

It also links the compensation and benefits, perks, and advantages to a

prospective candidate for a specific job.

FJA Model

FJA stands for Functional Job Analysis and helps in collecting and recording
job-related data to a deeper extent. It is used to develop task-related
statements.

Developed by Sidney Fine and his colleagues, the technique helps determine
the complexity of duties and responsibilities involved in a specific job.

This work-oriented technique works based on the relatedness of job data,

where the complexity of work is determined on a scale of various scores given
to a particular job. The lower scores represent greater difficulty.
PAQ Model

PAQ represents the Position Analysis Questionnaire. This well-known and

commonly used technique analyzes a job by getting the questionnaires filled
by job incumbents and their superiors.

Designed by a trained and experienced job analyst, the process involves

interviewing the subject matter experts and employees and evaluating the
questionnaires on those bases.

F-JAS Model

Representing Fleishman Job Analysis System is a basic and generic approach

to discover common elements in different jobs, including;

 verbal abilities,
 reasoning abilities,
 idea generation,
 quantitative abilities,
 attentiveness,
 spatial abilities,
 visual and other sensory abilities,
 manipulative abilities,
 reaction time,
 speed analysis,
 flexibility,
 emotional characteristics,
 physical strength,
 perceptual abilities,
 communication skills,
 memory,
 endurance,
 balance,
 coordination, and
 movement control abilities.
Competency Model

This model talks about employees’ competencies in terms of knowledge, skills,

abilities, behaviors, expertise, and performance.

It also helps understand what a prospective candidate requires at the time of

entry in an organization at a particular designation in a given work
environment and schedule.

The model also includes basic elements such as qualifications, experience,

education, training, certifications, licenses, legal requirements, and a
candidate’s willingness.

Job Scan

This technique defines the personality dynamics and suggests an ideal job
model.

However, it does not discuss the individual competencies such as intellect,

experience, or physical and emotional characteristics of an individual required
to perform a specific job.

Different tools can be used in different situations. The selection of an ideal job
analysis tool depends upon job analysis needs and objectives and the amount
of time and resources.

Key Factors in Job Analysis

There are a few key factors in job analysis. These are as follows:

Task identity

Employees receive more satisfaction from doing a ‘whole’ piece of work. This
is likely to happen when the job has a distinct beginning and end, visible to
the employee and others.
Employees must see the work results they have produced either
independently or as a part of a team.

Variety

Employees, who perform repetitive tasks, which offer no challenge, may lose
interest and become bored and dissatisfied. Greater variety can improve
interest, challenge, and commitment to the task. Variety means more than
simply adding an extra but similar task.

For example, processing different forms would not make the work more
meaningful as there would be no extra challenge.

Too much variety can also be frustrating and a source of conflict and
dissatisfaction. The optimum amount of variety will differ from person to
person and could depend on the level of the position.

Responsibility

Employees need to feel responsible for a significant part of the work they
perform, either individually or as part of a team.

Work should be identified, enabling employees to see that they are personally
responsible for the successes and failures of their actions.

Autonomy

This goes hand in hand with responsibility. Employees should have some areas
of decision-making within the framework of their job.

Autonomy means giving more scope to employees to regulate and control

their work.
Working environment

A job should provide a safe and healthy working environment that is free from
discrimination and harassment. It is also important to consider the types of
work aids and equipment required to perform the role.

Interaction with others

Employees need to understand their reporting relationships.

For example, employees must know to whom they report. It is important to

identify the level of interaction that is required with key internal and external
customers.

Recognition and support

Employees need jobs that contribute to self-respect, particularly through

acceptance and recognition by fellow workers and supervisors.

Jobs should permit relationships between individuals and encourage

teamwork; otherwise, the employee can feel isolated, resulting in negative
feelings about their work and work environment.

Outcomes and performance measures

Employees need to know what their particular targets are and how they relate
to the organization’s overall operation. This will involve identifying the
outcomes required of the position.

The standard of performance also needs to be identified, along with

performance measures. This feedback will provide employees with an
equitable capacity for ongoing learning and advancement.

Guidelines for Job Analysis

Before actually analyzing the job, using one or more of the tools we turn to in
the following section, keep four practical guidelines in mind.
 1. Make the job analysis a joint effort by a human resources specialist,
the worker, and the supervisor. The human resource manager might
observe the worker doing the job and have both the supervisor and
worker fill out job questionnaires. Based on all that, the specialist lists
the job duties and required human traits. The supervisor and worker
then review and verify the HR manager’s list of the job’s activities and
duties.
2. If several employees are doing the same job in different
departments, collect job analysis information from employees in
different departments, not just one. The way someone with a
particular job title spends his time is not necessarily the same from
department to department.
3. Make sure the questions and processes are clear to the
employees. (For example, some might not know what we mean when
we ask about the job’s “mental demands.”) Catch problems early.
4. Use several different tools for job analysis. Generally, try not to rely
on a questionnaire but perhaps supplement the survey results with a
short follow-up interview. The problem is that each tool has potential
drawbacks.

Importance of Job Analysis

Job analysis is a process. The importance of job analysis are;

1. Planning and organizing of program.

2. Obtaining current information.
3. Conducting needs research.
4. Establishing priorities.
5. Collecting job data.
6. Preparing job description.
7. Developing job specifications.
8. Maintaining and updating the job description and job specification.
Planning and organizing of program

The first step is to plan and organize the job analysis program. Planning is
done before gathering data from the employees. It is important to identify the
objectives of the job analysis.

Top management support is needed to make job analysis a success. A

person is designated as in charge of the program, and required authority and
responsibility are assigned. The schedule of the program and budget
estimation is prepared.

Obtaining current information

Current job design information is collected, and the analyst does the study of

job description, job specification, processes used, manuals, and organization
flow charts.

Conducting needs research

The analyst determines which manager, the department requires the job
analysis. Research is conducted to determine the purpose of the job analysis
and the method used to gather relevant information.

Establishing priorities

With the help of various managers of the related department, an HR manager

will identify and prioritize the jobs to be analyzed.

Collecting job data

The next step is collecting the data related to the job selected for the analysis
as they are being performed in the organization.
Preparing job description

Using job information obtained from job analysis, a job description is being
prepared. It states the full information about the job, including the working
conditions, nature of the job, processes, machines, and materials used.

Developing job specification

Job specifications are developed using the information given in the job
description.

A job specification is a statement regarding human qualities that are required

to perform a particular job. Such information is used to select the person
matching the requirements of the job.

Maintaining and updating the job description and job specification.

Once a job description and job specification have been completed and
reviewed, a system must be developed to keep them current.

Job requirements and employee requirements may be changed over time, and
accordingly, job descriptions and specifications need to be adapted.

Conclusion

Employee turnover is a severe problem in most industries.

Turnover is harmful because it causes serious inconveniences, high costs,

wastage of trained workforce, reduces morale and motivation. It occurs mainly
due to frustration for the following reasons:

 A mismatch between expectation and reality like work,

 A mismatch between requirements of the job and capabilities,
 A mismatch between responsibility and compensation.

This mismatch has arisen because the actual work has not been properly
defined, designed, and disclosed.
This leads to the concept of job analysis. F.W. Taylor, the father of Scientific
Management, also emphasized conducting and studying each part of the job
scientifically to develop one best way of doing a task.

Let us now define a job.

Organizations consist of positions that have to be staffed by the right person.

A job is defined as a collection of duties and responsibilities given to an

individual employee. Jobs are important to individuals.

They help determine living standards, places of residence, status, and even
one’s sense of self-worth. Jobs are important because they are the vehicles
through which works are accomplished.

Job analysis is an essential prerequisite for the effective management of the

human resources of an organization. It is the process of gathering relevant
information about a job. It specifies the tasks involved in a job and the factors
that influence the performance of that job.

As a process, it is capable of producing results with great practical relevance

for human resource management.

Job analysis has applications in almost all the HR activities of an

organization.

It acts as the basis for decisions involving human resource planning,

recruitment and selection, training and development, compensation fixation,
job evaluation, performance evaluation, career management, and the
health and safety of employees.
Job Description: Definition, Importance, Job
Description Writing Guide

Job descriptions are used for a variety of

reasons. They are a tool for recruiting, determining salary ranges and levels or
grades, establishing job titles, creating employee’s job goals and objectives,
and conducting performance reviews.

they can also be used for career planning, creating reasonable

accommodations, and meeting legal requirements for compliance purposes.

Because of this, it is imperative to have written job descriptions that accurately

reflect the employees’ current job duties and responsibilities.

The record that keeps all the relevant information about a job is called a job
description. It is a written statement of what a jobholder does, how it is done,
and why it is done.

It should accurately portray job content, environment, and conditions of

employment. A common format for a job description includes:

 the job title,

 the duties to be done,
 the main features of the job,
 the authority and responsibilities of the jobholder.
It must be kept in mind that the working environment changes because of
changes in production technology, market demand, and customer choices,
and competitors’ strategies.

So job description needs to be reviewed and updated. HR managers must

appraise the changes that are likely to occur over time.

Job Description Definition

A job description is a written statement of what the worker actually does, how
he or she does it, and what the job’s working conditions are.

It lists a job’s duties, responsibilities, reporting relationships, working

conditions, and supervisory responsibilities—one product of a job analysis.

“A job description is an organized, factual statement of the duties and

responsibilities of a specific job.” – Edwin B. Flippo.

“A job description indicates the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job. It

identifies what is done, why it is done, where it is done, and briefly, how it is
done.” – Decenzo and Robbins.

Sections of a typical job description include;

 Job identification
 Job summary
 Responsibilities and duties
 Authority of incumbent
 Standards of performance
 Working conditions
 Job specifications

Importance of Job Description

Job descriptions are usually essential for managing people in organizations.

Job descriptions are required for recruitment so that managers and applicants
can understand the job role. Job descriptions are necessary for most people at
work.

A job description defines a person’s role and accountability.

Without a job description, it is usually challenging for a person to commit to

or be held accountable for a role properly.

This is especially so in large organizations. Job descriptions improve an

organization’s ability to manage people and play roles in the following ways:

 Clarifies employer expectations for the employee,

 Provides the basis of measuring job performance,
 Provides a clear description of the role for job candidates,
 Provides a structure and discipline for the company to understand and
structure all jobs and ensure necessary activities, duties and
responsibilities are covered by one job or another,
 Provides continuity of role parameters irrespective of manager
interpretation,
 Enables pay and grading systems to be structured fairly and logically,
 Prevents arbitrary interpretation of role content and limit by employee
and employer and manager,
 Provides reference tool in issues of employee/employer dispute,
 Provides reference tool for discipline issues,
 Provides important reference points for training and development
areas,
 Provides neutral and objective (as opposed to subjective or arbitrary)
reference points for appraisals, performance reviews, and counseling,
 Enables formulation of skill set and behavior set requirements per roll,
 Enables the organization to structure and uniformly manage roles, thus
increasing efficiency and effectiveness of recruitment, training, and
development, organizational structure, workflow and activities,
customer service, etc.,
 Enables factual view (as opposed to instinctual) to be taken by
employees and managers in career progression and succession
planning.
Limitations of Job Descriptions

Prescriptive job descriptions may be seen as a hindrance in certain

circumstances:

 Job descriptions may not be suitable for some senior managers as they
should have the freedom to take the initiative and find fruitful new
directions;
 Job descriptions may be too inflexible in a rapidly-changing
organization, for instance, in an area subject to rapid technological
change;
 Other changes to job content may lead to the job description being out
of date;
 The process that an organization uses to create job descriptions may not
be optimum.

Difference between Job Description and Job Specification

Both the Job description and Job specification are two integral parts of job
analysis. They define a job fully and guide both employer and employee on
how to go about the whole process of recruitment.

Job Description Job Specification

A job description lists job duties, A job specification is a list of a job’s

responsibilities, reporting “human requirements,” that is, the
relationships, working conditions, requisite education, skills,
and supervisory responsibilities. experience, personality, and so on.

Job specification contains education,

The job description contains job
experience, training, judgment,
title, job location, job summary,
initiative, physical effort,
nature and objectives of a job, tasks
communication skills, emotional
and duties to be performed,
characteristics, unusual sensory
working conditions, machines, tools,
demands such as sight, smell, and
and equipment to be used in a job.
hearing.
 The main purpose of a job specification
The main purpose of the job
is to analyze whether candidates are
description is to collect job-related
eligible to apply for a particular job
data to advertising a particular job.
vacancy or not.

It helps recruit a team of an

organization to understand what level
It helps in attracting, targeting,
of qualifications, qualities, and set of
recruiting, and selecting the right
characteristics should be present in a
candidate for the right job.
candidate to make him or her eligible
for the job opening.

Job Specification gives detailed

It clarifies what employees are information about any job, including
supposed to do if selected for that job responsibilities, desired technical
particular job opening. and physical skills, conversational
ability, and much more.

It helps in selecting the most

It also clarifies who will report to
appropriate candidate for a particular
whom.
job.

While job specification is all about the

A job description is all about the
education and qualification of the
execution of duties.
employee before his recruitment.

The Job descriptions are what is

Job specifications are what is needed
expected to do and what is involved
to do the job.
in the job.

Steps of Writing Job Descriptions

The following steps are required to write or prepare a job description;

1. Start with a job analysis,

2. Identify essential rather than marginal functions,
 3. Cover the key areas,
4. Write in a simple style.

1. Start with a job analysis

Writing the job description is normally preceded by a job analysis.

The job analysis is a study of the job or role that helps the employer identify and describe the
essential functions of a position and the competencies, knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to
fulfill the functions.

2. Identify essential rather than marginal functions

the next step is to identify the job’s essential functions, the purpose of the job, and the
importance of actual job functions in achieving this purpose.

In evaluating the importance of job functions, consider, among other things, the frequency with
which a function is performed, the amount of time spent in the function, and the consequences if
the function is not performed. In defining the essential functions of a job, it is important to
distinguish between methods and results.

While essential functions need to be performed, they often do not need to be performed in one
particular manner.

3. Cover the key areas

Job descriptions describe the job and not the individual who fills the job. They are written
narratives of the major duties and responsibilities of a job position or job role.

The job description also states the results expected of anyone in the job. There are many formats
used in preparing job descriptions.

Typically, the key areas to include are:

 Job Title,
 Position reports to (line manager title, location, and functional manager),
 Job purpose summary (ideally one sentence),
 Key responsibilities and accountabilities (or duties typically 8-15 numbered points)
 Dimensions/Territory/Scope/Scale indicators (the areas to which responsibilities extend and the
scale of responsibilities – staff, customers, territory, products, equipment, premises, etc.),
 Hours of work
 Date and other relevant internal references,
4. Write in a simple style

Job descriptions should be written in brief and clear sentences. Let’s look at the job description
sample;
Job Description Writing Guide

This guide provides the basics of writing a job description and covers the following sections of
the job description:

 Position Details
 Job Duties (“What you do”)
 Performance Standards (“How you do it”)
 Job Factors

For more comprehensive instruction, the Compensation Department offers Job Description
workshops to provide administrators, managers, supervisors, and staff employees with the
necessary tools to write effective job descriptions.

Please see the Compensation Main page or FSDP page on the Organization Development
website for dates and times of the next Job Description Workshop available to you.

Position Details

This Position Details section contains general information about the job – the current or
requested classification, working title, pay range, exemption status, department name and
number, position number, percentage of effort, the job description summary, comparable
positions, etc.

Working Title

The working title for a job should be based upon the main function or role of the job.

It is important to stray away from vague and particular job titles instead create a working title
that appropriately describes both the level of responsibility and role of the job. Here are some
examples of good working titles and those that need some improvement:

Job Description Summary

The job description summary:

 Contains 1-3 paragraphs

  Summarizes the main points of the job description, which may include key responsibilities,
functions, and duties; education and experience requirements; and any other pertinent
information (i.e., scheduling requirements, travel, etc.)
 It is used in job postings

Comparable Positions

Use this section to list any positions in the department that have a similar role or level of
responsibility. It is useful to the Compensation Analyst during the classification process and
helps to ensure positions are classified consistently.

Example of the Position Details.

Job Duties

The Job Duties section is the foundation of the Job Description. It conveys the complexity,
scope, and level of responsibility of a job. Due to the significance of this section, it is important
to accurately, concisely, and completely describe the duties and responsibilities of a job.

This section of the Job Description is comprised of three main elements:

Key Accountabilities

The main areas of responsibility within a job or “buckets of work.” Job description usually
contains three to five Key Accountabilities.

Duty Statements

Sentences that provide additional information about the tasks associated with Key
Accountability.

Percentage of Time

Estimates the portion of the job that is spent on a particular Key Accountability.

Job Duties Writing Methods

When the Job Duties are well written and organized, they can accurately convey the complexity,
scope, and responsibility of a job. To assist in the organization and writing of the Job Duties, two
writing methods have been developed:

Method # 1:

1. Think of the job in terms of its Key Accountabilities or main responsibilities/functions. Typically,
a job will have 3 – 5 major Key Accountabilities. Here are some examples:
1. Budget Management
2. Executive Support
3. Event Coordination
2. After establishing the Key Accountabilities, generate specific job duties associated with each.
These are the individual tasks or duties that correspond to Key Accountability. For example,
specific Budget Management duties might include:
1. Prepare budgetary reports
2. Analyze expenditures
3. Monitor levels
3. Condense the specific job duties into two to three concise “Duty Statements,” beginning each
statement with an action verb.

Method # 2:

1. Brainstorm a list of all the duties required to perform the job. These are the individual tasks
completed on a daily, weekly, monthly, or annual basis. Below is an example of a task list:
1. Arrange for catering
2. Compose and types correspondence
3. Coordinate logistical support for meetings, seminars, and departmental events
4. Determine and secures the event location
5. Make travel arrangements
6. Monitor levels
 7. Prepare budgetary reports
2. Review the list and group the duties based upon the specific functions and responsibilities of the
position, also known as Key Accountabilities.
3. Establish Key Accountabilities. For this group, the Key Accountabilities may include Event
Coordination, Administrative Support, and Budget Administration.
4. Condense the specific job duties into two to three concise “Duty Statements,” beginning each
statement with an action verb (see page 8 for a list).

Here is an example of a well written and organized Key Accountability Section in a Job
Description:

Key Accountability Event Coordination

Coordinate all Dean’s Office events. This includes securing the event location,
scheduling presenters, coordinating event marketing materials and programs,
Duty Statements
maintaining the RSVP list, and making all catering arrangements. At the event,
supervise the event staff and greet the guests.

Percentage of Time 15%

To summarize, here are some things to remember when completing the Job Duties section of the
job description:

 The Job Duties section should contain 3-5 Key Accountabilities.

 Title each Key Accountability section to summarize the function/role.
 Include 2-3 concise Duty Statements for each Key Accountability. The Duty Statements expand
upon that particular area of responsibility and the role and complexity of the position.
 Begin Duty Statement with an action verb (see page 8 for a list).
 Limit the listing of Duty Statements and Key Accountabilities to what is required to perform the
job.
 Do not include duties that are no longer performed or those that may be required in the future.
 Write the duties in terms of what the position requires, not based upon the capabilities of any
individual.
 Determine an accurate percentage of time the incumbent should spend on that particular Key
Accountability over a year.

Performance Standards

The Performance Standards section:

  Conveys the expectations of the job.
 Depicts the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to be successful in the job.
 It provides a basis for measuring performance.

This section is typically completed by either the supervisor, hiring manager, or designated
administrator in the department.

There is a Performance Standards section associated with each Key Accountability, which
provides information about the performance expectations of that particular area of responsibility.

Here is an example of a Performance Standard for the “Event Coordination” example in the Job
Content Section:

Key Accountability Event Coordination

 Coordinate departmental and programmatic events

 Secure the location
 Schedule presenters
 Make travel arrangements
Duty Statements  Coordinate the production of program/event marketing materials
 Maintain RSVP list
 Make arrangements for catering and any necessary equipment.
 Staff the event

 Event Coordination activities are expected to be carried out with minor

supervision.
 Must be capable of setting priorities and working under pressure
Performance Standards  Must be able to multi-task, planning several events simultaneously
 The ability to work well with internal and external participants is essential.
 Knowledge of Microsoft Office Suite is imperative.

Job Factors

The Job Factors section of the job description outlines the job’s knowledge and skills to
function successfully. The Job Factors cover various areas of the job, for example, the level of
education/experience required, supervision received, and analytical skills and ability required for
the job.

The assignment of Job Factors should be completed by the supervisor, hiring manager, or
departmental administrator and should reflect the general responsibility level of that position.

For example, an employee in an Administrator classification would not be expected to be

responsible for interviewing, selecting, and hiring someone into an Administrator IV position but
may be responsible for interviewing, selecting, and hiring a student worker.
It is important to remember to include only information that pertains to the position
and not specific to the skills, experience, and education of the incumbent.

The following are all the Job Factors listed in a job description and examples of responses:

Minimum Education Level Required Baccalaureate

The minimum experience level required Three years of relevant administrative, marketing, and/or
event planning experience is preferred.
All qualifications listed must be job-related.

The amount of supervision received by

the employee
The incumbent reports to the Assistant Director.
What are the job classification and the
working title of the supervisor?
After the initial orientation, the incumbent will be given
general direction from the Assistant Director but is
How, and to what extent, is the employee’s
expected to perform duties and responsibilities
work checked?
independently.
Note the distinction between initial or
special training and ongoing supervision.

The analytical skill required. The job requires excellent analytical and communication
skills, as statistical and financial reporting are essential
What is the complexity of standardization of elements of this position.
the tasks which are performed?

BOTH the level and budget volume

(Dollar Amount) of financial The incumbent is responsible for managing event
responsibility/accountability budgets.

The extent of the employee’s responsibility This includes collaborating on budget development,
for calculating and verifying figures; monitoring and approving budgetary expenditures, and
gathering data; typing requisitions or budget analyzing statistical and financial reports.
documents; monitoring or analyzing
expenditures; preparing reports; approving The budget for a single event can range from $5,000 –
purchases; planning and authorizing $50,000.
department or grant budgets, etc.

The impact of actions carried by this Poorly executed events could result in a negative image for
position the School and the University or potentially lose funding
opportunities.
 What are the probable results of inadvertent
error or mistake in judgment, interpretation,
or exercise of responsibility?

BOTH the diversity and complexity of the

supervision exercised
This position is not responsible for supervising any staff
List the job classification and working titles positions.
of those directly trained and/or supervised
by this person.

The scope of the human resources impact

of this position

Explain the supervisory role in hiring,

firing, promoting, evaluating, increasing
salaries, etc., of other employees. Occasionally responsible for interviewing prospective
candidates and providing input into the hiring process.
Does the position carry “lead”
responsibility?

Explain how and to what extent the

employee checks the work of others.

BOTH the level and nature of the The incumbent has regular contact with senior-level
INTERNAL contacts University staff and faculty, such as Deans, Directors,
Senior Administrators, etc.
What, if any, University departments make
the incumbent contract. Besides, the incumbent maintains contact with several
areas across the University, including University
Why are these contacts made, and how Marketing Communications, Institutional Advancement,
frequently are they made? the Special Events Office, etc.

BOTH the level and nature of the EXTERNAL External contacts include staff members at other colleges
contacts and universities, government, and industry representatives.

Job Description dos and Don’ts

Before writing a job description, here are some helpful hints to consider:

DO:

 Refer to the Job Description Writing Guide

  Attend a Job Description Workshop
 Use a factual and impersonal style when writing the job description
 Base the job description on the department’s needs
 Write an accurate, concise, and complete job description
 Use complete sentences
 Keep sentence structure as simple as possible, omitting unnecessary words that do not
contribute pertinent information.
 Begin each duty/task with an action verb (see page 8 for a list).
 Be consistent when using terms like “may” and “occasionally.” (These should be used to
describe tasks performed once in a while or tasks that only some employees perform.)
 Refer to job titles rather than incumbents, i.e., “Reports to_______ Manager” instead of
“Reports to Mary Smith.”
 Be precise. This is critical for accurate job evaluation and analysis.
 Focus on critical activities.
 Use a logical sequence in describing duties and responsibilities (Key Responsibility first, followed
by the corresponding duties)
 Call your Compensation Analyst for guidance.

DON’T:

 Use the narrative form when writing a job description.

 Base the content of the job description on the capabilities, skills, and interests of the incumbent
 Write the job description based upon the desired job classification.
 Write the job description as step by step guide on how to do the job.
 Include minor or occasional tasks, which are not unique to a specific job.

Job Description Action Verbs

Accommodate Communicate Draft Interface Recruit

Achieve Compile Edit Interpret Reduce

Acquire Complete Eliminate Interview Regulate

Address Compose Enforce Investigate Report

Adjust Compute Establish Issue Research

Administer Conduct Evaluate Lift Resolve

Advise Confer Execute Maintain Review

Allocate Consolidate Expand Manage Schedule

 Analyze Construct Explore Monitor Search

Apply Consult Facilitate Motivate Select

Appoint Control Formulate Negotiate Solve

Approve Coordinate Furnish Observe Specify

Arrange Correspond Generate Operate Strategize

Assess Counsel Guide Organize Streamline

Assign Create Handle Participate Strengthen

Assist Customize Hire Perform Summarize

Audit Delegate Identify Plan Support

Augment Deliver Illustrate Predict Teach

Authorize Demonstrate Implement Prepare Train

Budget Design Improve Present Translate

Calculate Develop Improvise Process Troubleshoot

Circulate Devise Incorporate Program Update

Clarify Direct Increase Provide Validate

Clear Disseminate Inform Quantify Verify

Collaborate Distinguish Initiate Recognize

Collect Distribute Instruct Recommend

Combine Document Interact Record

 
Job Specification

A job specification is concerned with a list of a job’s “human requirements,”

that is, the requisite education, skills, personality, etc. It States minimum
acceptable qualifications and is used to select employees who have the
essential qualifications.

Job specifications list the knowledge, skills, and abilities an individual needs to
perform a job satisfactorily.

Knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) include education, experience, work skill
requirements, personal abilities, and mental and physical requirements.

Job specifications for a data entry operator might include a required

educational level, a certain number of months of experience, a typing ability of
60 words per minute, a high degree of visual concentration, and working
under time pressure.

It is important to note that accurate job specifications identify what

Knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) a person needs to do the job, not
necessarily what qualifications the current employee possesses.

Job Specification Definition

Having developed the job description, job specifications should be prepared.

It is of utmost importance to determine the characteristics of a suitable person
who will do the job effectively and efficiently.
Based on the information acquired through job analysis, the job
specification identifies the knowledge and skills needed to do the job
effectively.

It is a statement giving the details of the physical makeup, education, training,

intelligence, aptitudes, and other relevant specifications required in the
applicant to perform the job satisfactorily.

Some of these attributes are measured through tests like intelligence tests,
aptitude tests, and others.

Examples include SAT, GMAT, TOEFL for admission for graduate studies in USA
universities. Job specification can include a minimum desirable score for
selection in such tests.

A person specification is used to match the right person for the job. It
describes the desirable personal attributes of the job holder. The specification
should specify the person:

1. Skills on the job,

2. Knowledge of and for the job,
3. Length of experience for the job,
4. Attitude for the job,
5. Degree of education,
6. A desirable amount of previous experience in similar work and specific
skills required,
7. Preferences,
8. Presentability,

A job description and job specification are prepared from the information
collected through job analysis. The difference between a job description and a
job specification is simple.

The job description explained the duties to be performed.

A job description is a written statement that defines the duties, relationships,
and results expected of anyone in the job. It is an overall view of what is to be
done with the job.

A job specification is what requirements are necessary to perform the

task.

Job specifications are more specific and more in-depth. A job specification
analyzes the kind of person that an organization hires to do the job. That is to
say, and it lists the qualifications of a job incumbent.

What Should a Job Specification Include?

A job specification includes the following information:

 The technical, organizational, communicative, and creative skills and

abilities employer expect from an ideal candidate,
 Any specific qualifications or education required for the role,
 The level of experience needed in other similar organizations or
equivalent roles,
 The kind of personality that would fit in with the team and with the
organization’s ethos,
 Character traits that are likely to help them to do the job effectively,
 Any preferred achievements.
Alec Rodger’s Seven-Point Plan And Munro
Fraser’s Five-Fold Grading System
Posted on 8 listopada, 2010. Filed under: bzowy, HR, knowledge
management, Organizacje, satysfakcja pracownicza | Tagi: bzowy, Fraser Five-Fold, HR, metody
rekrutacji, Munro, rekrutacja |

Introduction

These notes have been produced to assist members of appointing committees in their task
of choosing the best person for the vacancy. The guidance is given in general terms and is
applicable to appointments of all categories of staff. As general notes, they may not all be
applicable to every post.

The Human Resources Office will send a copy of these notes to each member of an
appointing committee, but Chairpersons of appointing committees should ensure that all
members of the committee have seen these notes and should remind members of the
guidance herein, in particular those relating to equal opportunities.

These several steps of recruitment process will help you in choose your own way of hire
employees. Lets start!

Action Before Advertising

An appointing committee can only make a sensible choice if it knows what the duties of the
post are and what type of person is being sought. When considering what type of person is
needed, the wider needs of the unit beyond the duties of the particular vacancy may also be
relevant. Proper planning at the initial stage of recruitment will save time and avoid
confusion at the final stage. What should take the following action before an advertisement
is drafted?
Job Description
This is a statement of the main tasks and responsibilities which comprise the job. A job
description need not be unduly lengthy or complex, but will usually consist of the following
elements:
The main purpose of the job; more than one sentence is not usually necessary.
The main tasks of the job. Vague statements, which give no indication of the main tasks,
should be avoided.
The scope of the job. The main tasks may not indicate the scope or importance of the job,
and so it may be necessary for the number of people to be supervised, the type and number
of equipment etc to be given.
Person Specification

This describes the ideal person to fill the job, and is a profile of the personal skills and
characteristics the appointing committee should be looking for. Examples of some
commonly-used systems are given in Appendix A. These examples would have to be
modified to meet the needs of particular posts. The person specification cannot form a rigid
framework for the appointing committee’s decision, but it should help members to be
realistic and systematic and reduce the margin of error.

It is important to bear in mind equal opportunities issues when drawing up job descriptions
and person specifications.

The above documents are to assist the appointing committee and are not intended to be
sent to applicants, although the job description may form the basis of the further
particulars.

Advertising

The purpose of an advertisement is to indicate to someone with the right skills and qualities
that this is a suitable post for him or her. It has to do no more than catch the eye and
arouse interest. The wording of the advertisement should state concisely what the job
entails and what qualities are needed of the appointee. Care should be taken to avoid any
discriminatory statement. Full details of the job should be given in further particulars to be
sent to everyone enquiring about the post.

The Chairperson of the appointing committee should send the draft advertisement to the
Human Resources Office, which will arrange for the advertising. The further particulars
should also be sent to the Human Resources Office in all cases and not just where the
advertisement advises applicants to contact the Human Resources Office.

Membership of Appointing Committees

In all cases there should be at least two people in an appointing committee, and it is
desirable that the membership should consist of men and women.

The composition of appointing committees is specified only for teaching faculty posts. For all
other posts the composition is determined by the head of the relevant unit under authority
delegated by the Council through the Vice-Chancellor. In all cases it is desirable that the
membership should include people who have received training in interviewing techniques
and that a member of the committee should be familiar with the working conditions of the
post.

Methods of Selection

The methods of selection adopted by an appointing committee should include an interview.

To improve reliability, the selection process includes consideration of the information in the
candidate’s application form and in references. Appointing committees may choose other
methods of selection appropriate to the particular post, e.g. typing tests, lecture, ‚in-basket’
exercise. There are no personality or aptitude tests formally recommended for use by
appointing committees in the University. If a committee chooses to apply such a test, it
should ensure that the test is relevant and non-discriminatory, that it is operated by
someone trained in the use of that test, and that the results are used as additional, helpful
information rather than a pass/fail criterion.

Short-Listing
There are no guidelines on the number or proportion of applicants who should be short-
listed for interview or on whom references should be called. If there is a large number of
apparently suitable applicants, the committee need not short-list all of them and, if it
wishes, may call references on about twenty and call to interview only the number who can
be fitted into one day.
Arrangements before the Interview
Proper preparation before the interviews is vital to ensure that the interviews are conducted
to maximum effect.
All members of the appointing committee should read the candidates’ papers, the
references, the job description and the person specification carefully before the interview.
Arrangements should be made to receive the candidates and to show them somewhere
comfortable and convenient to wait before the interview begins.
All candidates should be given the names and posts of members of the appointing
committee, and members should be identified at the start of the interview.
Thought should be given to the lay-out of the interview room. The candidate’s chair should
be placed so he/she is comfortable and can converse easily with all members of the
appointing committee.
A ‚Do Not Disturb : Interview in Progress’ notice should be placed on the door of the
interview room. If there is a telephone in the room, calls should be diverted to another
number.
During the Interview

The purpose of the interview is to give further information through questions and
observation of the candidate’s demeanour on whether the candidate has the qualities and
experience required for the particular post. All of the questions must therefore relate solely
to this purpose.

Members of the appointing committee should meet for 15-30 minutes before the first
interview to review the papers, consider what questions will need to be put to candidates
and decide on procedural matters, e.g. whether members should give each other a brief
summary of their views on candidates after each interview, or whether comments should be
left until all candidates have been seen. Any discussion about procedures, or the scope of
duties, should be resolved at this meeting or earlier and not take place in front of a
candidate. When interviewing candidates:
Listen carefully to what the candidate says, and the way it is said.
Frame your question so that the candidate has to give a full answer in his/her own words to
the point. So avoid leading questions, or ‚closed’ questions which call for an answer ‚yes’ or
‚no’.
Avoid talking too much or dominating the discussion, and allow the interviewee to answer
the question.
Look out for the answer that has been prepared for expected questions and that is designed
to please the appointing committee rather than give the truth.
Be sure that your judgements are not based on prejudice, but solely on the evidence you
have as to how well the interviewee could do the required job.
Beware the ‚halo’ effect, i.e. where the candidate gives an immediate favourable impression
which then distorts your judgement of what follows.

Appointing committees should bear in mind the full range of skills, aptitudes and experience
for all the duties of the post, and should ensure that they explore fully each candidate’s
ability and background in these respects. The committee should do this through appropriate
questions during the interview, and might also wish to set special tests to examine
particular skills. For example, all teaching faculty posts have teaching as an important
element of the job, and committees may wish to ask candidates to give a seminar or
lecture. If a candidate has not had the experience to make such a test appropriate, the
committee nevertheless should explore the candidate’s attitudes and consider whether he or
she has those aptitudes that underpin competence in teaching, and not simply knowledge of
the discipline.

Feel free to make notes during each interview. After the interviews, members should
compare all the candidates, bearing in mind the job description and the person
specification. The committee should be clear why it has chosen the successful candidate and
why each other candidate was not chosen. Those reasons should be recorded in case any
applicant submits a claim of discrimination to an industrial tribunal.

One way of assisting members of the appointing committee to structure their judgements
on each candidate is to set up a grid showing an assessment of each candidate in respect of
each quality or skill you are looking for; an example of such a grid is given as Appendix B.

An administrative officer, who is not a member of the committee, should be present during
the interviews or during the final discussions, to record the key decisions. In the case of
teaching faculty posts, this record should be submitted to the Vice-Chancellor with the
recommendation for appointment.

Do not forget that the interview is also the opportunity for the applicant to find out more
about the job and the University, and that the appointing committee will want to persuade a
good applicant that this is the right place for him or her. The applicant should therefore be
asked if there are any questions he or she wishes to put. It will also often be helpful to
applicants to be shown around the place of work and given the opportunity to talk to other
employees.
Avoidance of Discrimination

Discrimination against a person on the grounds of that person’s sex or marital status, on
racial grounds or on grounds of disability is illegal in Poland.

A number of factors as well as sex, marital status, disability or race might lead to
discriminatory practices in recruitment, e.g. religion, sexual orientation. For all applications,
appointing committees should follow the principle that they are assessing the ability of the
applicant to carry out the duties of the post, and any factor that is not relevant to this
should be disregarded. They should also note when considering applicants for part-time
posts that the Conditions of Service, including promotion procedures, apply equally to part-
time and full-time employees. Information on applicants’ ethnic origin is not submitted to
appointing committees, but this information is collected with applications, and is used for
statistical analyses only.

The following notes are intended to assist members of appointing committees in avoiding
discrimination. Further advice on general or individual issues may be obtained from the
Human Resources Division.
Recruitment Action Affected by these Acts of Parliament
The Sex Discrimination Act, the Race Relations Act and the Disability Discrimination Act
affect the work of appointing committees by making unlawful discrimination:
in the arrangements made for the purpose of determining who should be offered
employment. ‚Arrangements’ include advertising, deciding to call references, short-listing,
and the interview itself. It is unlawful to make any discriminatory arrangements, even
where the person appointed is more suitable than the person discriminated against, e.g.
failing to call a man for interview for what is unlawfully considered to be a woman’s job
even though the woman appointed was better qualified; in the terms on which employment
is offered to someone;
by refusing or deliberately omitting to offer someone employment, or
by failing to make a reasonable adjustment which would allow a disabled applicant who was
otherwise suitable for the post to be employed.
Direct and Indirect Discrimination

Under the Sex Discrimination Act and Race Relations Act direct discrimination and indirect
discrimination are unlawful. The Disability Discrimination Act refers simply to
‘discrimination’. The meaning of direct discrimination is self-evident, and is unlawful even if
the action is well-intentioned, e.g. appointing a woman in place of a better-qualified man to
achieve a better balance between the sexes, or failure to appoint a non-white person to a
group where problems had arisen in the past when such an appointment had been made.

Indirect discrimination occurs when an employer sets a requirement for a job which is not
justified, is to the individual’s detriment and with which the proportion of a particular sex or
racial group who could comply is considerably smaller than the proportion who could not
comply, e.g. setting an upper age qualification for entrance to the Civil Service
discriminated against women with different career patterns from men, and setting
unnecessarily high standards of literacy in Polish discriminated against immigrants.
Appointing committees setting requirements for a post should therefore consider carefully
whether only a minority of a particular sex or racial group could comply with it, and then if
that is the case whether the requirement is justified, i.e. necessary, rather than convenient
or administratively desirable.

Genuine Occupational Qualification

It is possible in limited cases to advertise for a person of a particular sex or racial group
where this is strictly necessary. This is known as a ‚genuine occupational qualification’. The
circumstances where this is allowable are limited and include, e.g. where the essential
nature of a job calls for a person of a particular sex for reasons of physiology (e.g. male
model) or authenticity in dramatic performances, or where the job needs to be held by a
man or a woman for reasons of decency or privacy, or where the holder of a job provides
individuals with personal services promoting their welfare or education and services can be
most effectively provided by a person of a particular sex.

Questions in Interview
Appointing committees should not only avoid making decisions on discriminatory grounds,
they should also avoid asking questions of interviewees that might give the impression of a
discriminatory attitude. Questions put to an interviewee should be relevant only to finding
the person’s suitability for the post. In questioning interviewees, members of appointing
committees are advised:
to avoid making general assumptions about the emotional or physical characteristics of
members of one sex or racial group;
to avoid making general assumptions about a particular social role for members of one sex.
Questions about marriage plans or family intentions should not be asked, as they could be
construed as showing bias.
where it is necessary to assess whether personal circumstances will affect performance of
the job (for example, where it involves unsocial hours or extensive travel) this should be
discussed objectively without detailed questions based on assumptions about marital status,
children and domestic obligations, and questions should be asked equally of men and
women candidates.
to avoid making assumptions about what a disabled person can do and about their
requirements in the workplace. However, a disabled candidate should be asked what
adjustments (if any) they would require to the workplace or conditions of service to enable
them to do the job.
Employment of People with Disabilities

The following notes are intended to provide brief guidelines on avoiding unjustifiable
discrimination against candidates with a disability. If an application is received from a
person with a disability, it is recommended that Human Resources should be contacted for
more detailed advice.

The person specification should be task specific, to avoid unjustifiable requirements which
would exclude disabled candidates. For example, the requirement to hold a driving licence
will discriminate against candidates with a visual impairment or certain other conditions. For
a job such as van driver or chauffeur, this is fair; however, for a job which merely requires
the person to travel, public transport or taxis may be a workable alternative and to require
a driving licence could be unjustifiable.

The job description where possible should distinguish between significant and minor duties.
This will make it easier to decide which duties can be reallocated (should it be necessary to
enable a suitable candidate with a disability to do the job.

Arrangements for job interviews may need to be altered to avoid putting at a disadvantage
a candidate with a disability. Examples include: reserving a parking space for someone with
walking difficulties; holding interviews in a wheelchair accessible room; allowing the
candidate to bring with them a signer or reader; allowing a longer interview time to discuss
any adjustments to duties or the workplace which might be needed.

Under the Disability Discrimination Act, an employer is required to consider whether

reasonable adjustments can be made to the workplace the duties or the conditions of the
post to enable an otherwise suitable candidate who is disabled to do the job. Examples of
such adjustments include installing a ramp to allow wheelchair access to a building;
allocating a minor duty (such as occasional cover for a telephonist by a person with a
hearing impairment) to someone else; or adjusting the hours of work to allow a later start
for someone who would find rush hour travel difficult. What is a reasonable adjustment will
depend on the cost involved, the impact on other employees and how effective it would be
in facilitating the proper performance of the job. It is good practice to involve the candidate
in discussions about what adjustments (if any) would be necessary as they may have
experience of what is most effective.

Various schemes exist to facilitate the employment of people with disabilities. These include
arrangements for a trial period of employment; a government subsidy to compensate an
employer where an employee with a disability is less productive than an able bodied person
would be; and grants towards the purchase of special equipment or building modification.

Majority Voting

In all cases it is desirable that decisions should be arrived at by consensus rather than by
voting, but if voting is necessary the Chairperson has a casting vote as well as an initial
vote. In the case of teaching faculty posts, if the division of opinion has been sharp and the
voting close, this should be referred to the Personnel Officer, Senior Pro-Vice-Chancellor or
Vice-Chancellor, as appropriate and the ‚minority’ have the right to request that the Vice-
Chancellor should be informed of their views with the recommendation for appointment.

Communication with Candidate After Interview

In some cases the Chairperson may wish to speak to the favoured candidate after the
interview but before any necessary formal approval has been obtained (e.g. from the Vice-
Chancellor in the case of teaching faculty posts). It must be made clear that formal approval
has to be obtained, and no letter should be sent which could be read as an offer of
employment.

Formal Approval of Appointment

In the case of appointments of teaching faculty, the Vice-Chancellor’s approval is required.
The Chairperson of the appointing committee should forward the committee’s
recommendation on a form supplied by the Human Resources Office. Please note that it
may take a few days for this form to be returned to the Recruitment Office; a letter of
appointment will be sent out within 48 hours of receipt of the form. Please advise the
appointee that this is the case, and not that they will be sent a letter the day after a
decision has been reached.Other appointments are made on the recommendation of the
Chairperson of the appointing committee.
Confidentiality

All proceedings of appointing committees, including the names of candidates, are strictly
confidential and must not be divulged to those who are not members of the appointing
committee, other than authorised University officers and in relation to short-listed
candidates for teaching faculty posts in the following circumstances. The Chairperson of the
appointing committee may decide at the time of advertising that certain details of short-
listed candidates who are called to give a presentation should be available to members of
the Subject Group or the School, as decided by the Chairperson; these details will consist
only of the names and lists of publications. It is the responsibility of the Chairperson to
arrange for these details to be available in the relevant School Office after the short-listing.
This process may be followed only if the further particulars of the post have stated what will
happen and that the candidates may specify at the time of application that their application
should remain confidential throughout the appointing process. In such cases, the appointing
committee should decide how the confidentiality could be maintained whilst still requiring
the candidate to give a presentation.

Communications with Unsuccessful Candidates

The Human Resources Office will write to candidates to inform them that they have been
unsuccessful, but not until they are asked to do so by the Chairperson of the appointing
committee. It is good practice for the Chairperson to speak promptly to any internal
candidates who are unsuccessful to inform them of the decision and to give feedback on
their candidacy, if requested.

 APPENDIX A: Person Specification

 A person specification describes the ideal person to fill the job, and is a profile of the
personal skills and characteristics you will look for in the recruitment and selection
process. Two well-known systems are suggested in drawing up a person
specification: Alec Rodger’s Seven-Point Plan and Munro Fraser’s Five-Fold Grading
System. Each of these gives certain headings under which the attributes of the ideal
candidate can be classified. The characteristics listed below are examples only. The
person specification will list those characteristics that are required for the particular
post. Particular care should be taken to avoid unnecessary requirements which would
unjustifiably discriminate against applicants with a disability.

 Alec Rodger’s Seven-Point Plan

 1)Physical make-up health, appearance, bearing and speech.
2)Attainments: education, qualifications, experience.
3)General intelligence: intellectual capacity.
4)Special aptitudes: mechanical, manual dexterity, facility in use of words and
figures.
5)Interests intellectual, practical, constructional, physically active, social, artistic.
6)Disposition acceptability, influence over others, steadiness, dependability, self-
reliance.
7)Circumstances: any special demands of the job, such as ability to work unsocial
hours, travel abroad, etc.
Munro Fraser’s Five-Fold Grading System:

1)Impact on others physical make-up, appearance, speech and manner.

2)Acquired qualifications education, vocational training, work experience.
3)Innate abilities quickness of comprehension and aptitude for learning.
4)Motivation individual goals, consistency and determination in following them up,
success rate.
5)Adjustment emotional stability, ability to stand up to stress and ability to get on with
people.

The characteristics identified as necessary through analysis of the job description are then
entered against the appropriate heading. It is usual to enter two levels, indicating what
would be sought in the ideal candidate, and what would be the minimum acceptable level to
do the job. It is also important to indicate those personal characteristics or circumstances
which would definitely be unacceptable in the prospective job-holder.