L-2 & 3

Determinant:

Let us consider a 3 ß 3 matrix A. then its determinant is

𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐1

det A or |A| = �𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐2 �=𝑎𝑎1 (𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐3 − 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐2 ) -𝑏𝑏1 (𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐3 − 𝑎𝑎3 𝑐𝑐2 ) + 𝑐𝑐1 (𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏3 − 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏2 )
𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐3

𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐2 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
= 𝑎𝑎1 � 2 2 �-𝑏𝑏1 �𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 �+𝑐𝑐1 � 2 2 �
𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐3 3 2 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3

Minor of a 1 Minor of b 1 Minor of c 1

So, cofactor = (-1)r+c Minor; where r is the no of rows of the element and c is the no of columns
of the element.

𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
Thus the cofactor of a 1 = (-1)1+1� 2 2 �= +(𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐3 − 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐2 )
𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐3
𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐2
The cofactor of b 1 =(-1)1+2�𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 � = -(𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐3 − 𝑎𝑎3 𝑐𝑐2 )
3 2

𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2
The cofactor of c 1 = (-1)1+3� � = +(𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏3 − 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏2 )
𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3

The determinant = a 1 (cofactor of a 1 ) + a 2 (cofactor of a 2 )+ a 3 (cofactor of a 3 )

Various types of matrices

1. Square matrix: A matrix, in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, is
called a square matrix.
a11 a12 … a1n
a21 a22 … a2n 1 2 3
23
e.g. A = �… … … … … … … … . .� , � �, � 5 6 7 �
45
an1 an2 ann 8 9 10

A matrix which is not square matrix may be called as a rectangular matrix.

𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑎𝑎13
e.g. � 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 �
21 22 23
2. Null (zero) Matrix: Any matrix, in which all the elements are zeroes, is called a null (zero)
matrix.

000
e.g. � �
000
3. Unit (Identity) Matrix: A square matrix is called a unit matrix if all the diagonal elements are
unity and non-diagonal elements are zero.

100
10
e.g. I2 = � �, I3 = �0 1 0�
01
001

NOTE: A square matrix A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is unit matrix if

𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1 for i = j

= 0 for i ≠ 𝑗𝑗

4. Triangular matrix: A square matrix, all of whose elements below the leading diagonal are
zero, is called an upper triangular matrix. A square matrix, all of whose elements above the
leading diagonal are zero, is called a lower triangular matrix.
a11
a12 a13 … a1n
0a22 a23 … a2n 2 3 1 2 3
e.g. � …………………….. � , � �, � 0 4 1 �(all the elements below the diagonal are zero)
05
0 0 0 ann 006

a11 0 0 … . .0
⎡a a 0 … . .0⎤
⎢ 21 22
⎥ 50 2 00
⎢ a 31 a 32 a 33 … . 0 ⎥ �7 8�, �4 1 0�(all the elements above the diagonal are zero)
⎢ … … … … … … … … … ⎥ 56 7
⎣ an1 an2 an3 … . ann ⎦

5. Diagonal matrix: A square is called diagonal matrix, if all of its non-diagonal elements are
zero.

200
20
e.g. � �, �0 5 0�( both upper and lower triangular)
05
006
The sum of all the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called its trace.

Then trace = 2+5+6 =13.

If all the diagonal elements are equal to a scalar quantity (λ) i.e; 𝑎𝑎11 = 𝑎𝑎22 = 𝑎𝑎33 =
⋯ … … . 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =λ, then the matrix is called a scalar matrix.
 𝜆𝜆 0 0
e.g. �0 𝜆𝜆 0�( if λ= 1,scalar matrix reduces to a unit matrix)
0 0 𝜆𝜆
6. Transpose of a matrix: The matrix of order n ß m obtained from any matrix A of order m ß n,
by interchanging its row and columns is called the transpose of A and is denoted by
𝐀𝐀𝐓𝐓 or 𝐀𝐀˜ 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐀𝐀ˊ .

1−3 1 2
e.g. if A = � � then transpose of A = � �
2 5 −3 5

7. Symmetric and Skew-symmetric matrices: A square matrix A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is said to be

symmetric if 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 for all integral values of i and j. e.g.

𝑎𝑎 ℎ 𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎 ℎ 𝑔𝑔
𝐓𝐓
A = � ℎ 𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓 � then 𝐀𝐀 = � ℎ 𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓 �
𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐

i.e; 𝐀𝐀𝐓𝐓 = A

Again, a square matrix A such that 𝐀𝐀𝐓𝐓 = - A is said to be skew-symmetric.

i.e; 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = − 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 for all i and j

Note: All diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are zero.

8. Conjugate of a matrix: If the elements of a matrix A are complex quantities, then the matrix
obtained from A, on replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate complex numbers, is
said to be the conjugate matrix of A and is denoted by A or A∗ .

Example:

1 − 5𝑖𝑖 − 2 + 7𝑖𝑖 5 2𝑖𝑖 1 + 5𝑖𝑖 − 2 − 7𝑖𝑖 5 − 2𝑖𝑖

A = � −5 + 6𝑖𝑖 3 − 4𝑖𝑖 – 𝑖𝑖 − 2 � then A = � −5 − 6𝑖𝑖 3 + 4𝑖𝑖 + 𝑖𝑖 −2 �
−3 − 5𝑖𝑖 4 + 5𝑖𝑖 0 − 7𝑖𝑖 −3 + 5𝑖𝑖 4 − 5𝑖𝑖 0 + 7𝑖𝑖

9. The conjugate transpose or hermitian conjugate of a matrix:

The matrix, which is the conjugate of the transpose of a matrix A is said to be conjugate
transpose of A and is denoted by

Aˊ or AT or A+

Example:
 −2 + 3𝑖𝑖 − 5𝑖𝑖
−2 + 3𝑖𝑖 3 − 4𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
if A = � � then 𝐴𝐴˜ = �3 − 4𝑖𝑖 − 5 − 3 𝑖𝑖 �
−5𝑖𝑖 − 5 − 3𝑖𝑖 4 + 𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖 4 + 𝑖𝑖
−2 − 3𝑖𝑖 + 5𝑖𝑖
so, Aˊ or AT or A+ = �3 + 4𝑖𝑖 − 5 + 3𝑖𝑖 �
−𝑖𝑖 4 − 𝑖𝑖

10. Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian matrices:

A square matrix A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is said to be hermitian if A = 𝐀𝐀ˊ . i. e. 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 for all i and j .

A square matrix A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is said to be skew-hermitian if 𝐀𝐀ˊ = - A. i.e., 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = − 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 for all I and j.

NOTE: Every diagonal elements of a hermitian matrix are real.

Every diagonal elements of a skew-hermitian matrix is either zero or a pure imaginary number.

11. Adjoint of a square matrix: If A= �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � be a square matrix of any order and 𝐀𝐀 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 represents
the cofactor of the element 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 in the determinant |𝐀𝐀| i.e., �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � of the square matrix A, then the
transpose of the matrix �𝐀𝐀 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj A.
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎3 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎3
Let, A =� 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3 �, then |𝐀𝐀| = � 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3 �
𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2 𝑐𝑐3 𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2 𝑐𝑐3

𝐀𝐀 𝟏𝟏 𝐀𝐀 𝟐𝟐 𝐀𝐀 𝟑𝟑
The matix formed by the cofactor of the elements in |𝐀𝐀| is � 𝐁𝐁𝟏𝟏 𝐁𝐁𝟐𝟐 𝐁𝐁𝟑𝟑 �
𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 𝐂𝐂𝟑𝟑

𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
Where, A 1 = = � � = (𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐3 − 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐2 ) , A 2 = - � 1 3 � = −(𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐3 − 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐1 ),
𝑐𝑐2 𝑐𝑐3 𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐3

𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎3 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎3

A3 = � � = (𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐2 − 𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐1 ), B 1 = - � 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 � = −(𝑎𝑎1 𝑐𝑐3 − 𝑎𝑎3 𝑐𝑐2 ), B 2 = � 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 � = (𝑎𝑎1 𝑐𝑐3 − 𝑎𝑎3 𝑐𝑐1 )
𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2 2 3 1 3

𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2
B 3 = � 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 � = −(𝑎𝑎1 𝑐𝑐2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐1 ), etc.
1 2

𝐀𝐀 𝟏𝟏 𝐁𝐁𝟏𝟏 𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏
Then the transpose of the matrix of co-factors �𝐀𝐀 𝟐𝟐 𝐁𝐁𝟐𝟐 𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 � is called the adjoint of the matrix A
𝐀𝐀 𝟑𝟑 𝐁𝐁𝟑𝟑 𝐂𝐂𝟑𝟑
and is written as adj A.
12. Singular and Non-Singular Matrices: A square matrix A =�𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �is known as singular
matrix if its determinant |𝐀𝐀| = 0 i.e. �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � = 0.

In case |𝐀𝐀| ≠ 0 the matrix A is known as non-singular matrix.

13. Reciprocal Matrix or inverse of a matrix: If there exists a square matrix B of the same
order as that of A such that AB = BA = I, I being a unit matrix of the same order then B is said
to be the inverse of A and is denoted by A-1. Thus by definition,

AA-1 = A-1A = I.

Inverse matrix in terms of its adjoint,

𝟏𝟏
A-1 = |𝐀𝐀| adj A

NOTE: The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix to be invertible is that it is
non-singular. i.e., |𝐀𝐀| ≠ 0.

Normal form or Canonical form:

By using elementary transformation (both row and column), any non-singular matrix can be
reduced to one of the following forms:

10
1.[𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟 ] (if r = 2 then� �)
0 1
2.[𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟 𝑂𝑂]

𝐼𝐼
3.� 𝑟𝑟 �
𝑂𝑂
𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟 𝑂𝑂
4. � �
𝑂𝑂 𝑂𝑂
Where, I r is the unit matrix of order r. O represents the zero matrix.