CROP PROTECTION

Objectives of crop protection

To provide suitable condition that will enable crops to grow without insect /pest destruction,
disease infestation as well as weed infestation.

WEEDS

This is a plant growing where it is not wanted or it is simply a plant out of place.

Therefore the above definition means that a bean plant in the cassava garden can be
considered as a weed.
If weeds are not controlled ,they have adverse effect on the crop plants as well as the
quality of the plant and the produce.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WEEDS IN CROP PRODUCTION

1. Weeds compete with crops for basic growth requirements such as water, mineral
nutrients, sunlight or growing space.
2. Weeds lower the quality of crop products e.g. seeds or any other part of the weed
mixes up with the crop products.
3. The weeds mix up with the crop products making processing difficult e.g. cotton and
black jack.
4. Weeds lower the quality of pastures drastically in terms of palatability.
5. Some weeds are poisonous to humans and animals if eaten e.g. thorn apple, tick berry,
Sodom apple etc.
6. The control of weeds by chemical, mechanical or other means is expensive.
7. Weeds may harbor plant pests and diseases and act as a source of infestation for the
crop.
8. Water weeds tend to block irrigation, drainage and navigation channels.
9. They also reduce the size of water reservoirs.
10. Weeds increase the costs of production through cultivation, mowing chemical
control etc.
11. Land value is reduced especially by perennial weeds e.g. heavy thickets of tick berry.
12. Some weeds are alleromorphic i.e. they produce toxic exudates which can kill crop
plants e.g. sedges.
13. Weeds tend to make harvesting difficult e.g. red rice weed in rice, wild finger millet,
and Black jack in cotton.

Positive effects of weeds;

1. Some weeds are used as human food e.g. pig weed and spider flower weed.
2. Weeds in the garden tend to offer surface cover hence reducing water loss through
evaporation and erosion.
3. Some weeds especially non-poisonous are used in making manure when they
decompose hence improve upon fertility.
4. Some weeds are used for thatching houses in many communities e.g. spear grass.
 5. Some weeds are a source of livestock feeds e.g. spear grass, couch grass etc.

FACTORS THAT MAKE WEEDS SUCCESSFUL AGAINST CROPS

1. Weeds have faster growth rates therefore out compete the main crops e.g.
Macdonald’s weed, black jack, star grass.
2. Some weeds produce a lot of seeds therefore have higher rates of multiplication and
survival compared to the main crop e.g. black jack.
3. Some weeds are vegetatively propagated e.g. couch grass therefore they have high
chances of survival due to short lifespan.
4. They are less palatable to animals than crops e.g. Sodom apple, thorn apple, tick berry
etc.
5. Some weeds have long dormancy periods therefore can survive harsh conditions e.g.
black jack.
6. Some weeds are resistant to pests and diseases e.g. star grass, witch weed etc.
7. Some weeds can withstand harsh conditions of drought, fire and floods e.g. spear
grass.
8. Some weeds e.g. wandering Jew are heavy feeders compared to the main crop.
9. Some weeds have diverse or various dispersal mechanisms e.g. black jack.
10. Some weeds e.g. star grass, couch grass have perennating organs.

TABLE SHOWING COMMON WEEDS OF EAST AFRICA

No. COMMON BOTANICAL LIFE PROPAGATION

ANME NAME SPAN/LIF
E CYCLE
1. Black Jack Bidens pilosa Annual Seeds
2. Sodom apple Solanum Incanum Perennial Seeds
3. Couch grass Digitaria Perennial Seeds
Scalarum
4. Guinea grass Pannicum Perennial Seeds
Maximum
5. Pig weed Amaranthus Spp Annual Seeds
6. Love Setaria Annual Seeds
weed/Bristly verticillata
Foxtail grass
7. Goat weed Agerantum Annual Seeds
Conyzoides
8. Spear grass Imperatta Perennial Rhizomes
Cylindrica
9. Lemon grass Cymbopogon Perennial Splits
afronardus
10. Oxalis species Oxalis Perennial Seeds
 Coniculatta
11. Thorn apple Datura Perennial Seeds
Stramonium
12. Double Thorn Oxygonium Biannual Seeds
urinatum
13. Wild Finger Eleusive Indica Annual Seeds
Millet
14. Nu grass Cyperus rotundus Perennial Bulbils
15. Star grass Cynodon dactylon Perennial Seeds / runers
16. Milk weed Euphorbia Annual Seeds
heterophylla
17. Phytolacca Spp Pnytolacca Perennial Seeds
dodecandra
18. Tridax Spp Tridax Annual Seeds
Procumbens
19. Mexican Targets Minuta Annual Seeds
Marigold
20. Macdonalds Galinsoga Annual Seeds
weed Parviflora
21. Devil’s horse Acheranthus Annual Seeds
whip aspera
22 Wandering Jew Commelina Perennial Seeds/Splits/Slips
banghlensis
23. Nile Cabbage Pistia stratiotes Perennial Runners
24. Witch Striga Perennial Seeds
Weed/Striga hermontheca
Spp
25. Creeping Kyllinga erecta Perennial Seeds/Splits
sedges
26. Thick berry Lantana Camara Perennial Seeds
27. Water hyacinth Eichhornia Perennial Splits/splits
Crassipes
28. Spider weed Gynachondra Biannual Seeds
glynandropsis
29. Lions ear Leolinetus Annual Seeds
repetifolia
30. Black night Solanum nigrum Annual Seeds
shade
31. Cats tail grass Sporobolus Perennial Splits / Seeds
Pyriamidalis
32. Elephant grass Pennisetum Perennial Cuttings / Splits
puperium
33. Green leaf Desmodium Annial Seeds
desmodium intortum
34. Silver leaf Desmodium Annual Seeds
desmodium uniculatum

CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS

a) Lifespan/ lifetime.
Lifespan is the period the weeds take to grow, mature and die. According to this
weeds are sub divided into;

i. Annual weeds.
These are weeds which complete their life cycle in one season /one year.
They grow, flower and set seeds in one year.
They usually survive by producing many seeds e.g. pig weed, black jack.

ii) Biennial weeds; These are weeds that complete their lifecycle in more than one
year but less than two years.
The first year is usually for vegetative growth and seed formation
They produce only from seeds; e.g. American wild thistle and wild onions.
iii) Perennial weeds; These are weeds that have a life cycle of more than two years.
They usually have specialized underground food reserves e.g. stolons, rhizomes,
corms, tubers etc.
b) Life size and shape, Under this there are broad leaved weeds e.g. goat weed, lantana
camara, Nut grass etc and Narrow leaved weeds which are mainly grasses e.g. spear
grass, couch grass etc.
c) seed type:
i. Monocotyledonous weeds which are mainly grasses.
ii. Dicotyledonous weeds which are largely non grasses.
d) According to growth habits and botanical nature i.e. water weeds, Sedges, grasses,
herbaceous and woody weeds.

THE MAIN COTROL MEASURES OF WEEDS

There are a number of methods that are used to control weeds by farmers
and those include:-
• Cultural method
• Mechanical / physical method
• Biological method
 • Chemical method
• Legislative method
• Integrated weed control.
The use of any , of the above methods keep on varying from one place to
another depending on the type of weed, the type of plant grown, the
economic status of the farmer and environmental conditions.

1. CULTURAL METHODS.
1. Use of crop varieties suitable for the existing soils and environmental factors hence
quicker growth and suppresses weeds.
2. Use of good husbandry practices like use of clean planting materials, timely planting
and appropriate application of fertilizers.
3. Use of recommended seed rate since a low seed rate gives plenty of spaces for weed
growth.
4. Mulching, this controls weeds by cutting off light therefore weeds can not germinate.
5. Flooding, this is mainly applied to control water weeds especially in rice gardens.
6. controlled Burning, this kills both weeds and their seeds especially if the fire is hot
enough.
7. Crop rotation, this controls weeds since every crop has its own weeds with various
practices involved.
8. Use of trap crops, this is mainly applied to control parasitic weeds like striga in maize
and sorghum gardens.
9. Use of controlled grazing on pastures since weeds are not palatable so animals will
feed selectively.

2. MECHANICAL METHODS.

This is application of machinery to control weeds in the field. This method is very efficient in
controlling annual weeds however; perennial weeds require repeated weeding since these
weeds can send out shoots.

The following are the various mechanical methods.

1. Hand pulling, this is a practical method where individual plant weeds are pulled. It is
a very efficient method best applied on annual weeds especially in rows of cultivated
crops.
2. Hand hoeing, this is a very common method usually applied by small scale farmers to
eliminate weeds by use of a hand hoe.
3. Tillage, this is a practical method of controlling weeds of all classes, if tillage is
performed well, weeds cannot flower and produce seeds.
4. Slashing/ mowing, this is a very successful method in controlling tall weeds; it is
quick and effective if done repeatedly.
 3. Flaming, this is method of controlling weeds however it requires that crop stems
should be more resistant to flames than weeds.

3. BIOLOGICAL METHOD.

This involves the use of natural enemies e.g. predators to control weeds on condition that the
natural enemy should be harmless to the desired plants.

Examples
• Use of rabbits to control the Mc Donald’s eye in Banana plantation.
• Control of water hyacinth using beetles
• Control of lantana camara by lantana burgs and goats

Advantages
• Does not pollute the environment.
• Doesnot affect the soil structure.
• It is cheap once the biological agent has been identified.
Disadvantages
• The biological agent of weed control may later become a pest
especially when the weed is eaten up.
• It requires a lot of research in establishing the biological agent hence
making it tiresome.
• It does not destroy the underground parts of the weed.
• It takes a long time for the weed to be eaten up from the garden thus
becoming expensive.
• Some weeds do not have appropriate biological agents.
• The agents may destroy predators and pollinator at the same time.
• It cannot eradicate weeds with seeds that remained dormant in the soil.

4. CHEMICAL METHOD.

This method involves the use of chemicals called herbicides to protect crops from weeds.

Classification of herbicides
Classification according to time of application
• Pre- emergency herbicides.
These are applied to control weeds from the surface before crops
emerge.
• Post – emergence herbicides
These are applied after the crop seedlings have emerged out of the
soil.
Classification according to mode of action
• Contact herbicides
 These will kill only the part of the weed with which they
come into contact e.g paraquant (Gramaxone) . They are mainly
used to kill the shoot system of the weeds.
• Systemic herbicides
These are absorbed and translocated into the plant and will kill
the weeds by disrupting the physiology of the weed. They are
also called translocated herbicides.
Classification according to selectivity of the herbicides
Selectivity of the herbicide refers to the capacity of a herbicide
to be able to kill a given species of weeds and not another plant .
• Selective herbicides
These kill certain weeds in preference to another.
• Non – selective herbicides
These kill only weeds to which they have been applied or to those
that they get into contact with.
Examples of common herbicides
• 2, 4 – D, It is a selective translocated herbicides that controls broad - leaf
weeds. It is applied as a post – emergency herbicides
• MCPA is selective herbicides that control broad - leaf weeds. it is applied
as a past – emergence herbicides.
• Paraquat (Gramaxone)
It is a non- selective and non- systemic herbicide that controls broad
leaf weeds and young grasses.
• Simazine; controls broad - leaf weeds and grasses.
• 2, 4, 5 – T. It is systemic and kills woody weeds.
• Atrazine, used for broad - leaf weeds and grasses. It can be applied both
past - emergence and pre – emergency.

METHODS OF HERBICIDE APPLICATION

1. Pre-emergence application:
This is a method of application where a herbicide is applied in the field to control
weeds before crops emerge or come out/ establish.

2. Post emergence application:

This is a method in which herbicides are applied in the field to control weeds after
crops have established or emerged.

ADVANTAGES OF CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL

1. It increases yield because it can be used to control weeds in good time e.g. pre-
emergence treatment.
 2. It is more effective in controlling weeds within rows of crops.
3. It is effective where mechanical weed control can not be used e.g. in sugar cane and
sisal plantations.
4. It reduces the number of tillage operations hence improving soil structure.
5. It eliminates the drudgery of hand pulling as in mechanical weed control.
6. It is time saving as large areas of land can be effectively covered within a short time.
7. It minimizes labor intensely.
8. There is no destruction of roots of crops as in mechanical weed control.
9. Translocated herbicides are more effective against perennial rhizomatous weeds.

Disadvantages of chemical weed control:

1. It is expensive in terms of buying herbicides and spraying equipments.

2. Lack of technical know how amongst rural farmers.
3. Ineffective accessibility of the chemicals to farmers.
4. Unless properly used can destroy required crops.
5. They tend to persist in soil and can cause harm in the subsequent seasons to crops.
6. Chemicals may alter/ change soil PH.
7. Herbicides pollute the environment i.e. water and air.
8. Unless properly applied can be poisonous to man and animals.
9. Herbicides can kill even useful organisms e.g. pollinators, predators etc.

Conditions for maximum effectiveness of herbicides

- Herbicides should be mixed in proper concentration
- Correct herbicide should be used for the intended weed.
- Do not spray when its going to rain
- Do not spray in a windy weather because chemicals will drift from the
target weed to other plants
- Ensure that you do not use or spray expired herbicides
- Apply the herbicides at the correct stage of crop growth
- Apply the herbicide at the correct stage of weed growth

Precautions to take when using herbicides

• Read the labels and instructions carefully before mixing the chemicals.
• Wear protective clothes e.g. overalls, gloves, masks, rubber boots.
• Trouser with turn outs where granules / dust particles can collect
avoid them.
• While in fields, avoid drinking , eating and smoking
• Do not keep chemicals in unlabeled container i.e avoid transferring
chemicals to beer bottles, containers e.t.c
• Keep all chemicals in locked places out of children’ reach.
• Dispose of empty container, safely by burning or burying the m to
avoid them from being leaked by animals.
• Donot blow blocked with your mouth.
• Wash the protective clothes thoroughly with soap.
• Wash your hands thoroughly with soap after handling chemicals.
• In case a farmer in hales unknowingly drinks or comes in contact with
chemicals , seek medical advice.
• Avoid spraying in windy conditions to avoid drift but spray following the direction of
wind.
• Apply at the correct stage of crops as some crops may be killed if applied at a wrong
stage.
• Apply herbicides at the correct stage of weeds as some weeds tend to resist herbicides
attack.
• Spraying should not be done in wet weather or when it looks like it is going to rain as
the rain tends to wash away the herbicides.
• Apply the herbicides at the recommended rate of application or dosage.

Legislative weed control

This involves laws and regulations to control introduction of weeds into the
country or from one country to another.

CROP PESTS

The word Pest comes from a Latin word pestis which means a plague or devastating causing
a lot damage or harm on the crops. Therefore a pest is an organism that causes losses in crop
yields e.g. insects, mites, molluscs, vermins, fungi, viruses etc.

A pest is also defined as any living organism that destroys crops in the field or stores e.g.
man.

In plants the majority of the pests are insects because;

 They can fly over a wide area causing a lot of effect.

 They have high rates of multiplication therefore can produce a large number of young
ones.
 They are small in size and can not be detected.
 Since they are small their rate of food consumption is low.
 They have the ability to transform into dormant stages.

GENERAL DAMAGES CAUSED BY PESTS.

 a. They interfere with the physiological functions of the plant e.g. mineral absorption,
respiration etc.
b. They inject toxins or pathogens within the plant which interferes with the growth.
c. They intend to taint the products with choking smell.
d. The excreta can mix up with the products, making processing difficult.
e. Pests may mix up with the crop produce this lowers the quality.
f. They cause premature ripening of seeds and fruits.
g. They interfere with the germination by eating the embryos and roots e.g. termites.
h. They reduce the storage life of the produce.
i. They cause loss of viability.

CATEGORIES OF PESTS

Pests can be categorized according to the habits and mode used for attacking the plants.

a) BITTING AND CHEWING PESTS.

These pests have modified mouth parts called mandibles for biting and chewing the
vegetative parts of a plant e.g. stems leaves etc.

Examples include:

- Banana weevils, Maize stock borer, Locusts, Grasshoppers, Cockroaches, Mantis, and
Termites etc.

DAMAGES CAUSED BY BITTING AND CHEWING PESTS.

a. They eat and reduce assimilation tissues like leaves leading to reduced growth rates.
b. They interfere with the transport systems of the plants by making tunnels in stems.
c. They eat the buds and internodes therefore distort growth.
d. They attack the flowers and they reduce seed production.
e. Some attack seeds and cause injury on them.

b) PIERCING AND SUCKING PESTS.

These pests have stylets that have been modified to pierce the tissues of the plant and suck
sap e.g. Aphids, White flies, Leaf hoppers, Cotton strainers, Meanly bugs.

DAMAGES CAUSED BY PIERCING AND SUCKING PESTS.

c) They suck sap and cause loss of plant nutrients.

d) They remove growth auxins that control growth and development.
e) They reduce assimilating organs by causing wounds on them e.g. leaves.
f) They create entry points for organisms that cause diseases.
g) They reduce floral organs e.g. flowers reducing on seed and fruit production.
h) They inject disease causing organisms on the plant.
 COMMON STORAGE PESTS

a) Maize weevils [sitophilus zeamais]

It is common in stored grains such as maize.

The members of this group usually bore into host materials that is why they are classified as
boring insects.

CONTROL

- Clean stores and seeds in the stores.

- Treat seeds with lindane dust and Malathion.
b) Bean bruchids.

These are small whitish grabs which attack beans.

The adult females are black and they lay eggs on the pods which hatch into larvae and bore
through the bean pods.

CONTROL;

 Threshing immediately after harvesting.

 Treating seeds with lindane dust and Malathion.
 Spraying with a recommended insecticide.

c) Red flour beetle [tribolium casteneum.]

These are small red beetles that breed and feed on maize flour.

CONTROL; Proper storage of the flour.

d) ANGOUIMOIS GRAIN MOTH; This attacks sorghum, wheat, maize etc.

e) RODENTS. Examples rats, mice etc.

GENERAL CONTROL MEASURES OF PESTS:

i) CULTURAL MEASURES.
a) Use of clean planting materials i.e. seeds and other planting materials that are free
from pests and diseases.
b) Timely planting and harvesting. This helps plants to escape from pests and diseases.
c) Crop rotation, this helps to break down the life cycle of pests.
d) Flooding: This helps to control pests in rice gardens by cutting off air.
e) Mulching: This helps to control pests in coffee and banana plantation. E.g. banana
weevils and star scales.
f) Destruction of alternate hosts, this controls pest.
g) Use of trap crops, to attract insect pests which are eventually destroyed.
h) Planting resistant varieties, Which can resist pest and disease attack.
 i) Destruction of volunteer crops in the gardens.
j) Proper spacing, E.g. in groundnuts where close spacing is used.
k) Carrying out tillage operations to break down the life cycle of pests.
l) Use of close or dead season, to interferer with crop pests.

ii) BIOLOGICAL MEASURES.

This is the use of natural enemies in order to reduce or prevent damages to crops.

The natural enemies are either parasites or predators.

Advantages of biological method

a) There is no toxic effect built up in the food chain.

b) There are no residues left to cause pollution in the environment.
c) Pests can resist biological control at a minimum level.
d) It’ is self adjusting and adapting.
e) It requires very little attention and it is cheap.

DISADVANTAGES:

a) The mechanism is slow and needs patience.

b) It does not cause absolute eradication of pests.
c) Biological agents are very specific and can kill only one pest.

iii) MECHANICAL METHOD.

This involves the use of physical or mechanical means to reduce the number of pests in the
field and crop stores.

It involves the following. Sound, Dehydration, Radiation e.g. x-rays, ultra violet lights.

iv) CHEMICAL METHODS.

This is the use of chemicals called pesticides to reduce the number or eradicate pests from the
fields or stores.

Advantages of chemical method

a) It is cheap and effective.

b) It is quick.
c) It kills more than one pest on the garden or store.
d) The chemical is delivered effectively to the crops.
e) Farmers can take individual action to save their crops.

DISADVANTAGES
 a) It needs technical skills in operation.
b) It requires more labour to apply.
c) The chemical may be expensive.
d) Chemicals may pollute the environment.
e) Chemicals are poisonous to man and other organisms.
f) Chemicals may kill useful organisms like bees.
g) Some pests may be resistant to the chemicals applied.

PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL PESTICIDE

a) It must be toxic only to the pests.

b) It must be harmless to man and other organisms like pollinators.
c) It must be moderately persistent for some time in the crop.
d) It must be harmless to the crops.
e) It must leave no residues or waste products on the crop or environment.

CROP DISEASES

A disease is a physiological disorder or structural abnormality that causes damage to the plant
or plant products hence causing heavy economic losses.

DAMAGES CAUSED BY DISEASES ON CROPS.

 They cause heavy economic losses.

 They lead to reduced crop yields.
 They lead to poor quality yields.
 It makes harvesting, processing and storage difficult.
 They reduce the growth of high value crops.

CLASSIFICATION OF CROP DISEASES

i) VIRAL DISEASES:

These are diseases that are caused by pathogen called virus.

A virus is very small microscopic organism which leaves and multiplies in living tissues and
they are protein nature.

SYMPTOMS OF VIRAL DISEASES

 Leaf chlorosis [yellowing of leaves].

 Leaf curling.
 Distortion [Malformation] of plant parts.
 Stuntedness.
 Excessive branching.
 Leaf mottling .
EXAMPLES OF VIRAL DISEASES

- Maize streak, Cassava mosaic, G.nut rosette, Brown streak, Tobacco mosaic, Potato
leave curl, Citrus tristeza.

a) BACTERIAL DISEASES.

These are disease caused by pathogen called bacteria.

The infection is spread through the following:

i. Infected seeds.
ii. Rain splash.
iii. Irrigation water.
iv. Planting equipments.
v. The bacteria enter the plants through natural openings e.g. lenticels, stomata, and
wounds.

Symptoms of bacterial diseases

 Wilting of leaves.
 Gall formation.
 Necrosis [Death of some plant parts).
 Blights [abnormal death of tissues.]

Examples of bacterial diseases

- Potato wilt, Tomato blight, Potato blight, Tomato wilt, Cankers.

b) FUNGAL DISEASES.

These are diseases caused by fungi and they are the most dangerous since they contribute
about 70% of the plant diseases.

They are usually spread by wind and rain splash.

Examples of fungal diseases

- Powder mildew, Maize smut, Blank stem rust of wheat, dumping off, and fusarium
wilt in cotton.

HOW DISEASES ARE SPREAD IN THE CROP GARDEN.

- Through wind or air currents e.g. spores which cause fungal diseases.
- Through water or rain splash which carries pathogens from one plant to
another.
- Through contact between infected and health plant.
- Through contaminated plant materials e.g. seeds, cuttings, etc.
- Contaminated equipments like pangas, hoes, knife etc.
- Sucking pests which inject infected saliva into the plant.
 - Through contaminated irrigation water.
- Through contaminated mulching materials.
- Through contaminated organic manures.
- Infection by infected smokers.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES

- Chlorosis i.e. yellowing of leaves.

- Necrosis i.e. death of plant tissues.
- Growth malformations e.g. hypertrophy, hypotrophy, galls.
- Over florification i.e. excessive formation of flowers and leaves.
- Wilting i.e. drying of leaves due to excessive loss of water.
- Gummosis i.e. excessive formation of gums in trees.
- Phyllody i.e. a condition in which the flowers are replaced by the leaves.
- Rosette, i.e. a condition in which leaves are glued so close to each other such
that internodes are not present.
- Fan branching that is excessive production of branches on a tree.

GENERAL CONTROL METHODS OF DISEASES

1. Timely planting of crops to escape from diseases.

2. Use of clean planting materials which are free from diseases.
3. Quarantine measures to prevent movement of infected plants and their products.
4. Crop rotation to interfere with the life cycle of diseases.
5. Elimination of alternate hosts to avoid spread of disease pathogens.
6. Soil treatment to kill soil borne diseases by fumigation.
7. Use of resistant or tolerant varieties these can resist disease pathogens.
8. Proper drainage to prevent soil borne diseases.
9. Seed dressing can be used to destroy spores on the seeds.
10. Diseased plants should be uprooted and burnt.
11. Pruning to remove infected parts of plants.
12. Close spacing to control Groundnut rosette.
13. Destruction of crop residues which can harbor pathogens.
14. Use of disinfected tools to prevent spread of diseases.
15. Use of closed season to starve the organisms to death.

GRASSLANDS AND PASTURES

Grassland refers to any plant community that is dominated by species of grass.

Grass is a crop, having a high feed value at a certain stage of its growth.
A pasture is a crop consisting of either grasses or legumes sown singly or in a mixture and
used for feeding animals.

Importance of pastures

Pastures are the cheapest source of feed for animals

Pasture provide a cover to the soil,hence protecting it from the sun and erosion

Pasture plants ,mainly legume improve soil fertility through fixation of nitrogen and addition
of organic matter to the soil

Roots of grasses improve the soil structure by binding soil particle together

Deep rooted pasture plants recycle plant nutrient from deeper layer to soil surface for other
plant use

They can break the life cycle of pests when planted with crops in rotation

They reduce water evaporation from the soil by acting as soil cover

They help in utilizing idle land

They provide awide range of nutrients to the animals

Examples of grass pastures include;

 Star grass - Cynodon dactylon.

 Guinea grass - Panicum maximum.
 Thatch grass - Hyparrhenia rufa.
 Rhodes grass - Chloris gayana.
 Kikuyu grass - Pennisetum Clandestinum
 Nandi grass - Seteria anceps.
 Elephant grass - Pennisetum purpureum.
 Congo signal grass - Brachiaria Spp
 Guatamala grass - Tripscum laxum.
 Paspalm/ Carpet grass - paspalum notatum.

Examples of legume pastures;

 Green leaf desmodium - Desmodium intortum.

 Silver leaf desmodium - Desmodium uncinatum
 Glycine - Glycine wightii.
 Stylo - Stylosanthes gracilis
 Centro - Centrosema Pubescens
 Lucerne - Medicago sativa
 Clovers - Trifollium SPP
 Siratro - Macroptilium atropurpureu.

TYPES OF GRASSLANDS

1. Permanent/ natural grasslands.

These consist of natural forage e.g. grasses, shrubs and other kinds of herbs.
The population of each variety depends on climate and the management, with dry
areas having more shrubs and less grass.
They are generally low in nutritive value but can be improved therefore be called
improved grasslands.

2. Temporal or ley grasslands.

These are artificial grasslands planted by man.
They consist of mainly introduced grasses and legumes.
They can be either a pure-grass stand with high nutritive value or a grass-legume
mixture.

Signs that show/ indicate that pastures need improvement

- Presence of poor unproductive grasses and weeds.
- The presence of overgrown pasture with flowers and a large production of
stemmy part than the leafy part.
- Livestock hunt for palatable pasture during grazing.
- The presence of marshy areas with stagnant water acts as a breeding place for
parasites.
- The presence of a layer of undecayed plant residues which prevents the
movement of water, air and nutrients.
- The presence of a lower portion of productive grass.
- Poor livestock conditions.

Improvement of natural grasslands:

1. Fencing and division of the area into paddocks.

2. Controlled grazing on sub-divided area e.g. rotational grazing.
3. Controlled burning of grass in some paddocks to give fresh growth.
4. Application of fertilizers e.g. lime and (NH4)2SO4
5. Cutting or slashing of grass to give fresh growth and open up the area.
6. Conservation of grass or fodder for animal feeding e.g. silage, hay.
7. Provision of water in different paddocks for animals to drink.
8. Draining water logged areas for pastures.
9. Irrigation of dry areas.
10. Removal of weeds.
11. Spraying with molasses especially on standing hay.
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD PASTURE PLANT

1. A good pasture should be leafy; therefore a good pasture should have a high leaf-stem
ratio since the feeding value lies in the leaves.
2. Durability, a good pasture should withstand mechanical injury caused by grazing and
trampling of animals.
3. Adaptability, a good pasture should be adaptive to extremes of climatic conditions for
example drought or excessive rainfall.
4. Rapidly growing, a good pasture should be rapidly growing to produce maximum
amount of leaves in a given season.
5. Persistent/ long life span, a good pasture plant should have a long life span, this cut
down costs in replacement.
6. It should be resistant to pests and diseases.
7. It should be of a suitable height.
8. It should be of a good nutritive value.
9. It should be palatable and attractive i.e. animals should voluntarily and readily eat it.
10. Ease of establishment, a good pasture should be easy to establish.
11. Ease of management, a good pasture should easy to manage in terms of fertilizer
response etc.

ESTABISHMENT OF PASTURES

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE ESTABLISHING PASTURE IN AN AREA;

1. soil type:
The soil type where pasture is to be established should be well textured, structured
with high nutrient amounts etc.
2. topography:
This determines the rate at which soils can be eroded, pastures grown in hilly areas
should be established along contours to avoid erosion.
On a flat land the whole area can be ploughed for pastures.
3. climate
This influences the choice of area for pasture and the timelines of sowing the pasture
seeds.
4. Seed quality.
- The seed for sowing should be viable.
- It should be free from contamination by weeds.
- It should have fast dormancy period.
- It should be of a right size and mature.
- It should be healthy and free from disease.

5. Pests and diseases.

Pastures should be established in an area free from pests and diseases.
6. Economic factor.
 The amount of capital spent on pasture establishment should be less than the gains of
the end product.

PROCEDURES OF PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT

1. SEEDBED PREPARATION;
The seedbed for the establishment of grass land must be;
a) Fine in order to bring a small seeds into close contact with soil particles and
moisture.
b) Firm in order to bring small seeds into close contact with soil particles and
moisture.
c) Weed free so that the new grass may establish itself without competition.

The above procedures are achieved by the following operations.

1. Burn, clear or slash the remains of the previous crop before the start of the rains.
2. Plough the area to burry weeds and allow weeds to germinate and plough again.
3. Apply SSP fertilizers at a rate of 150-250kg/ ha/ year to facilitate rood development.
4. Before planting harrow the area to break soil clods and mix soil with the fertilizers.
2. SEEDING/ SOWING;
Sowing may be carried out by;
a) Drilling:
Under this method a drilling machine is used.
It is an efficient method since the seeds are placed at the correct depth.
It is advantageous since the amount of seeds used are minimized.
b) Broad-casting.
The seeds are thrown evenly across the ground by use of hand, hand-held
equipment (seed fiddle) or fertilizer spreader during calm weather.
This is an easy, cheap and quick method.

NOTE: Do not sow under strong winds or sticky seedbed conditions, use morning or evening
for sowing.

c) Planting of vegetative materials.

These include stem cuttings, stolons or root divisions in furrows which are then
covered over.

PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Objectives of pasture management

1. To utilize pastures efficiently, this is achieved through using optimum stocking rate.
2. To conserve some pastures in form of hay or silage for use during drought.
3. To allow productive animals to graze on the best quality pastures.
4. To maintain pastures in vigorous state of growth, this can be achieved by avoiding
overgrazing.
5. To maintain productivity and balance of variable pasture species by regular
application of fertilizers and adapting rotational grazing.

TYPES OF PASTURES STANDS:

1. Pure - grass pasture.

2. Grass- legume mixture (mixed pasture) stand.
IMPORTANCE OF GRASSES IN THE GRASS/LEGUME PASTURE
MIXTURES
1. It increases total herbage production since combination of grass/legume give
more
2. It ensures stability of production since growth patterns of grass and legume
vary
3. It increases the energy value of pasture although grasses are generally lower in
crude protein content than legume
4. It suppress weeds under proper management
5.

ADVANTAGES OF LEGUME in MIXTURE OVER PURE GRASS PASTURE

1. They are nutritionally rich in crude protein, energy and minerals than pure grass
pastures.
2. Grasses in association with legumes benefit from nitrogen fixed by legumes.
3. There is no need of applying nitrogenous fertilizers.
4. They are better soil fertility builders than grasses alone.
5. They give quick and effective ground cover thereby controlling soil erosion.
6. Legumes extend the grazing period into the dry season by remaining green in the dry
period
7. Because of the their deep root system,legume are able to tap leached nutrients from
deeper soil levels to top soil
8. They increase the palatability of pasture since they highly palatable
9. They reduce cases of bloat in animals since they are not very succulent

FORAGE CONSERVATION.

1. HAY
a) STANDING HAY:
This is the type of forage i.e. grass, legume or a combination of both which after it has
grown to maturity is left in the field to dry after which it is fed to livestock.
b) CUT HAY.
This is the type of forage which is cut at early stages of flowering, dried and later fed
to animals.
This is forage that has been cut, dried and baled.

Advantages of feeding animals on hay;

 1. It important for proper functioning of the digestive system in ruminants.
2. It is the cheapest source of nutrients for grazing animals.
3. It prevents acidic acidiosis due to excess feeding on concentrates.
4. It increases the butter fat content in milk.
5. They are important sources of minerals and vitamins.

Disadvantages of feeding animals on hay:

1. It causes bloat if fed in larger amounts.

2. It is low in palatability however, this can be improved by application of molasses and
sugar beat.

PROCEDURE OF MAKING HAY

1. Cut grass/forage at the beginning of flowering stage.

2. Leave the forage in the field to become partially dry or use artificial heating to dry it
partially.
3. Apply 13kg of sodium chloride solution per tone of hay to avoid molding.
4. Store the cut forage away from moisture.

2. SILAGE:

This is forage preserved in a fresh and succulent form. It is green forage preserved without
drying.

This is cut forage which is converted into succulent form through fermentation.

PROCEDURES OF MAKING SILAGE:

1. Cut forage /grass or fodder to be ensiled when fully grown but still green at the
flowering stage.
2. This material is then chopped into small pieces and put in a silo or silage pit.
3. Air is removed quickly by trampling or passing a machine over the silo. This
promotes anaerobic conditions which lead to lactic acid which prevents silage from
rotting.
4. Cover the top of the silo with a plastic sheet or soil.
5. Keep the silo rain-proof by building a shade over it.
6. Add preservatives like molasses to improve on the aroma, taste and nutritive value of
silage.

Types of silos: Pit silo - Trench silo - Heap silo.

PASTURE PRESERVATIVES/ ADDITIVES:

1. Dilute HCL or H2SO4 which reduces the PH of silage.

 2. Molasses to facilitate fermentation to produce more acids like butyric, lactic, acetic
etc.
3. Starchy feeds like ground maize, sorghum, cassava.
4. Urea to make complete feed by increasing crude protein content.
5. Formalin or formal dehyde to kill bacteria.

How to produce good quality silage

1. Harvest the crop in highly nutritive stages i.e. at flowering so as to cater for crude
protein and carbohydrate content.
2. Exclude air as soon as possible.
3. In case of high moisture content wilt the fodder/grass.
4. Add additives like urea, molasses etc.
5. Fill the silo immediately to avoid aerobic conditions which result into rotting.
6. Mix pasture grasses and legumes to obtain better quality silage.

ADVANTAGES OF SILAGE

1. It increases the number of animals per unit area.

2. Enables storage of a large amount of nutrients in a small space.
3. Enables overcoming shortage of herbage for grazing.
4. Overcomes risks of fire as compared to hay.
5. Leads to mechanization.
6. For sale to get income
7. To conserve forage in a succulent form
8. To avoid wastage in periods of plenty and bundance
9.

DISADVANTES:

1. Requires capital for machinery.

2. Requires a lot of labour.

GRAZING MANAGEMENT

Objectives

1. To maintain productivity and quality of pastures as much as possible.

2. To maintain proportions of variable species of pastures.
3. To ensure efficient utilization of the forage.
4. To achieve high animal production e.g. milk, beef etc.

The objectives can be achieved by;

 i. Grazing when the nutritive value of pastures is still high.
ii. Using optimum stocking rate.
iii. Giving forage to rest after grazing.
iv. Conserving surplus forage for later use in scarcity.
v. Adapting suitable grazing systems.

TYPES OF GRAZING SYSTEMS

1. Continous grazing
This is an extensive system of grazing where animals remain in a pasture area for a
long time. It is commonly practiced in range lands.
2. Rotational grazing.
This is the sequential grazing of pastures for a short period followed by a rest period.
It usually involves dividing the pastures into paddocks.
3. Deferred grazing.
This involves setting a side some pastures in paddocks during grazing season for use
when forage availability is low or scarce i.e. making standing hay. These usually have
low feeding value and palatability.

4. Zero-grazing/stall feeding.
It is the feeding of cut forage to sheltered livestock. It is a very intensive method.

Advantages stall feeding.

 Milk production is high since animals use less energy in stalls.

 The stocking rate is high since the number of animals kept per unit area is high.
 The collection of manure is easy since animals are kept in store.
 There is better management of the animals kept.
 Animals kept are saved from thieves and predators.
 There is a high level of disease and parasite control.
 There is better management of pastures since animals do not trample them.
 It makes it possible to keep cattle in extreme climatic conditions.

 Disadvantages;
 Animals do not get enough exercise this leads to dullness
 The construction of the zero grazing units is expensive.
 Collection of forage is tiresome since animals depend on collected forage.
 If the stall is not cleaned regularly the dung and urine may accumulate and cause foot
root.
 The machines used in harvesting forage are expensive.

COMMON TERMS USED IN PASTURE GROWTH.

1. SEED INOCULATION:
 This is addition of effective rhizobia to leguminous seeds prior to planting to promote
nitrogen fixation.

Outline the importance of seed inoculation.

- It increases pasture yields.

- It improves protein content in the forage/ pasture.
- It minimizes the use of nitrogenous fertilizers in the soil.
- The legume can be used to make green manure.
2. DIRECT SOWING
This is when seeds are sown directly in a prepared seedbed.

Conditions favoring direct sowing of pasture

- Lower amounts of rainfall.

- The inclusion of legumes in the pasture.
- Storage of fertilizers in the soil.
- Low concentration of pests and diseases in field.
- Low intensity of erosion in the soil.

3. UNDER SOWING
This refers to the establishment of pasture under crop cover usually maize.
4. OVER SOWING.
This is the introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture.
5. TOPPING.
This is the removal of stemmy fibrous material left over after a period of pasture
grazing.

CROP IMPROVEMENT

This is the art and science of changing crop plants genetically.

In crop improvement plants are evolved or varieties are produced of good economic grains.

A VARIETY/ CULTIVAR:

This is a group of similar plants which by performance or structural characteristics can be

distinguished from other varieties within the same species.

ACLONE:

This is a group of similar individuals within a variety having the same genotype.

Objectives of crop breeding

1. To increase crop yields.

 2. To develop better quality crops in terms of size, shape, colour, taste, milling quality,
baking quality etc.
3. To modify the growth habits to suit production conditions.
4. To develop crop varieties that are resistant to pests and diseases.
5. To modify growth cycles to suit better in the available growing season e.g. early
maturing varieties.
6. To get varieties that are highly adoptable to wild climatic conditions.
7. To develop crop varieties that have better response to manure or fertilizer application.

GENERAL BREEDING METHODS IN CULTIVATED CROPS

i. Introduction
ii. Selection
iii. Hybridization.
iv. Production of synthetic varieties.
v. Back cross method.
vi. Test cross.

a) INTRODUCTION.
This is when a new variety of a crop is got from a new place and introduced into
another place.
Through introduction, more desirable traits are brought in.
b) SELECTION:
This consists of picking individual or groups of crops whose characters are
favorable from a mixture and used for crossing.
c) HYBRIDISATION: (HYBRID VARIETIES)
A hybrid is a product between genetically unlike parents.
It refers to F1 populations used for commercial planting.
Hybridization is done to combine desirable genes found into two or different
genotype.
Hybridization results into hybrid vigour or heterosis.
d) SYNTHETIC VARIETIES.
A synthetic variety is produced by hybridization of all possible combinations
among selected parents.
The parents may be clones, inbred or mass selected populations with different
genetic constitution.
e) BACK-CROSS METHOD.
This is a cross of a hybrid i.e. F1 off-springs with either of its parents.
This is used to improve varieties that excel in a number of characters but are
lacking a few traits.
a) TEST-CROSS.
This is when F1 off-spring is crossed with a recessive parent.