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CH 29 Multimedia - Learning - in - Second - Language - Acquisition

This document discusses research on using multimedia for second language acquisition. It proposes a cognitive processing model for second language acquisition based on interactionist models and cognitive theory of multimedia learning. For each phase of the model, it discusses the cognitive processes, how multimedia can support the processes, and the effectiveness of multimedia support based on research.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

100 views22 pages

CH 29 Multimedia - Learning - in - Second - Language - Acquisition

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lunar89

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CHAPTER 2 9

Multimedia Learning in Second

Language Acquisition

Jan L. Plass
New York University

Linda C. Jones
University of Arkansas

Abstract of ideas, maintenance of social relations, and

creation of discourse, all of which require
In this chapter, we discuss research on the development of several core competen-
second-language acquisition with multi- cies. These include input competencies, such
media. We propose a model of cognitive as listening and reading, and output compe-
processing in second-language acquisition tencies, such as speaking and writing, and
that is based on interactionist models and entail the process of receiving (input), at-
on a cognitive theory of multimedia learn- tending to (interaction), and assigning mean-
ing (CTML). For each of the major phases ing (output) to verbal (aural or written)
in this model, we discuss the cognitive pro-
and/or visual stimuli. They also include com-
cessing involved, describe how multime-
petencies in communicating in the target
dia can be used to support these processes,
and report what the research says about the language, which includes an understanding
effectiveness of such multimedia support. of the cultural and situational context of
We discuss limitations of existing research, such communication.
derive implications for cognitive theory The goal of learning a language is ul-
as well as for designers of instructional timately to develop these core competen-
multimedia materials for second-language cies. However, the approaches taken to
acquisition, and suggest directions for the teaching and learning of a second lan-
future research. guage have changed considerably over the
past 40 years, loosely mirroring the de-
velopment of psychological theories and
What Is Second-Language Acquisition
models of teaching and learning. A brief
with Multimedia?
overview of some of the most important
approaches might be helpful in defining
Introduction
what constitutes second-language learning
The use of a language – whether first or and acquisition with multimedia (Kern &
second – has as its goal the communication Warschauer, 2000).
467

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468 the cambridge handbook of multimedia learning

The structural approach, advocated early of the learning process on the learner as
in the 20th century, focused on the system an active constructor of meaning. Instead
of structures that defines a language and of insisting on a model of transferring the
viewed language learning as the formation correct structure from the teacher to the
of habits. Following the influence of behav- student, the acquisition of a second lan-
ioral psychologists such as John Watson and guage was now viewed as an individualized
B. F. Skinner, language competencies were psycholinguistic process that, based on in-
thought to be best attained by drills of dia- put that was comprehensible and natural,
logues and language patterns based on lin- allowed learners to develop their own lin-
guistic categories, and with an emphasis on guistic competence and, in the process, con-
grammatically correct responses to linguistic struct their own grammar of the language
stimuli. These drills, including, for example, (Krashen, 1 982).
audiolingualism, where grammar and vocab- The notion of active learning empha-
ulary are taught orally, were designed with- sized by this constructivist perspective could
out consideration of the cognitive or social not be realized without introducing a social
processes involved in these competencies. component into the learning process. The
Advocates of what has come to be known sociocognitive perspective focuses on the in-
as the cognitive approach to learning chal- teraction of and communication among
lenged the behaviorist view in the late 1 95 0s learners, redefining language competence
and early 1 960s by emphasizing the im- by extending its linguistic focus to include
portance of considering the mental pro- sociolinguistic and communicative compe-
cesses involved in learning. In language tence (Atkinson, 2003 ; Hymes, 1 972). In
learning, Noam Chomsky proposed that lan- this approach, the development of lan-
guage development was facilitated by in- guage competencies is seen as embedded
nate cognitive structures, not by behav- in the particular sociocultural context that
ioral reinforcement (Chomsky, 1 95 7). With emphasizes both the learners’ development
this approach, second-language teaching be- of cognitive structures and the social com-
gan to focus on developing learners’ use of ponent of discourse and activity (Canale &
cognitive strategies to improve competence Swain, 1 980).
in the language and incorporated learning In current views, a language is acquired
materials that were based on an under- in the process of natural communication,
standing of learners’ cognitive processing as compared to the conscious process of
of the information (Bacon, 1 992; Chamot, learning the language as emphasized by the
1 995 ; Chamot, & Küpper, 1 989; Long, 1 989; structural approach (Krashen, 1 988). For the
O’Malley, Chamot, & Walker, 1 987; Plass, purpose of this chapter, we will therefore
Chun, Mayer, & Leutner, 1 998; Postovsky, adopt the term second-language acquisition
1 981 ; Rost, 1 990). With the spread of the to describe the meaningful interaction in
cognitive approach, the process of language the target language where the focus is on
learning was no longer restricted to pas- communication, and the acquisition of the
sive, drill-and-practice, grammar-based ac- language incidental, and the term second-
tivities but instead emphasized the devel- language learning when the focus is on formal
opment of linguistic competencies based instruction about the language.
on prior knowledge, linguistic knowledge,
and interaction with and understanding
Second-Language Acquisition
of the text (Fischer & Farris, 1 995 ;
with Multimedia
Joiner, 1 986, 1 997; Lynch, 1 995 ; Pusack &
Otto, 1 997). Multimedia can be defined as the use of
Somewhat parallel to the increase in pop- words and pictures to present material
ularity of the cognitive approach to second- (Mayer, 2001 ). In this context, words are
language learning, a constructivist perspec- verbal materials that can be presented in
tive was introduced that placed the agency printed or in spoken form. Pictures are either

static materials, such as diagrams, graphs, Students have control over their learning
photos, or maps, or dynamic materials, such environment. They can access helpful ma-
as animation or video. The use of multime- terial as needed, and can review the text as
dia to acquire or learn a second language preferred. Upon completion of work with
can be defined in the context of any of the the multimedia materials, students engage
approaches to language learning described in a series of activities in the target language
previously. For the purpose of this chap- with the literary passage serving as a starting
ter, we will focus on second-language ac- point for discussion, argumentation, and ne-
quisition with multimedia, that is, the use gotiation of meaning. In relation to the mul-
of words and pictures to provide meaning- timedia activity, students write a criticism of
ful input, facilitate meaningful interaction the material reviewed, develop a video that
with the target language, and elicit meaning- presents their interpretation of what they
ful output. In the following section, we will have read, or give a group presentation to
review the research literature that describes their peers in the classroom environment.
what we know about the use of multimedia They post questions about the text and read
for second-language acquisition based on the other students’ responses on a shared discus-
cognitive and constructivist/sociocognitive sion list that is used by readers all over the
approaches. First, however, we will provide world to exchange their thoughts.
an example of second-language acquisition
with multimedia.

What Do We Know About

Second-Language Acquisition
An Example of Second-Language with Multimedia?
Acquisition with Multimedia
Research that examines second-language ac-
Consider the following language learning quisition with multimedia runs the gamut
scenario: Students read a literary passage in from studies of instructional strategies for
a multimedia environment. In a traditional second-language acquisition that involve
print-based scenario, students would read multimedia to those that focus on multi-
the material and consult their dictionary as media learning theories based in cognitive
needed to access translations of more dif- psychology. For the purpose of this chap-
ficult words. Alternatively, presented in a ter, we will use the interactionist perspective
multimedia environment, students are first of second-language acquisition (Chapelle,
introduced to a prereading advance orga- 1 997, 1 998; Gass, 1 997; Long, 1 985 ; Pica,
nizer, for example a video, that helps them 1 994), which defines three functions that are
activate their prior knowledge of the mate- deemed crucial to language acquisition and
rial to come, allows them to reflect upon the learning: comprehensible input (Krashen,
topic at hand, and enables them to better 1 982), interaction (Long, 1 985 ), and com-
process the input once they begin to read. prehensible output (Swain, 1 985 ; Swain &
After viewing the advance organizer, stu- Lapkin, 1 995 ). In the terms of this ap-
dents next access the text and read through proach, second-language acquisition with
it in a somewhat linear fashion. However, multimedia is the use of words and pic-
hyperlinks related to particular words and tures designed to support the comprehen-
phrases within the text are available on sible input that the learner is exposed to and
each screen and provide helpful informa- interacts with, and to elicit and negotiate
tion in the form of translations, descriptive comprehensible output. As shown in Fig-
sentences, background information, pronun- ure 29.2, Chapelle (1 998) describes a sim-
ciation guides, images, or video. See Fig- plified model of interactionist components
ure 29.1 for an example of such an environ- of the second-language acquisition process
ment (Chun & Plass, 1 998). in research.

Figure 2 9.1 . Picture annotation in the second-language acquisition multimedia learning environment
Ciberteca (Chun & Plass, 1 998).

In Figure 29.2, Input describes the wealth suggesting that we should “provide learners
of linguistic material that the learner is pre- with comprehensible input rather than just
sented with. Yet, only input that is apper- input” (Chapelle, 1 998, p. 9). Thus, the in-
ceived can potentially be acquired (Chapelle, teraction that occurs is two-way – directed
1 998). Therefore, in order to help students toward the support of input and directed to-
more richly apperceive incoming informa- ward the support of output.
tion, and eventually produce comprehen- The comprehension of the semantic con-
sible output, interaction in the form of in- tent of the apperceived input can be accom-
formation links that provide simplification, plished with or without an understanding
elaboration, clarification, definitional sup- of the syntax. Intake is comprehended in-
port, or redundancy is needed (Chapelle, put that can be integrated into the learner’s
1 997, 1 998; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1 991 ), linguistic system. Comprehensible output,

Figure 2 9.2 . Interactionist model of basic components in the second-language acquisition process
adopted from Chapelle (1 998).

Figure 2 9.3. Integrated model of second-language acquisition with multimedia.

in which students identify their errors and acquisition, elements of an interactionist

adjust to correct these errors, is the ob- perspective of second-language acquisition
servable result of comprehensible input (Chapelle, 1 997; 1 998), and elements of
and interaction. This output can be seen the cognitive theory of multimedia learning
through communicative and noncommu- (Figure 29.3 ).
nicative goal-oriented tasks, such as problem In the following sections, we will, for
solving, communication of ideas, vocabulary each of the major phases in this integrated
identification, and so on (Chapelle, 1 998). model, describe the cognitive processes in-
These same strategies can be well adapted volved, outline strategies of supporting these
to multimedia environments with the com- processes using multimedia, and discuss the
puter acting as a partner in the learning results of research on the effectiveness of
process. Therefore, the question of what these strategies for second-language acqui-
we know about second-language acquisition sition with multimedia.
with multimedia can be further specified
to ask: In what way can multimedia sup-
Comprehensible Input:
port second-language acquisition by provid-
Selecting/Apperception
ing comprehensible input, facilitating mean-
ingful interaction, and eliciting comprehen- Before multimedia information can be pro-
sible output? cessed, words and pictures need to be se-
There are few research studies that use lected from what is presented, that is, learn-
both second-language acquisition theory and ers need to direct their attention to a specific
multimedia learning theory as their founda- portion of the wealth of the linguistic and
tion. One reason for this might be that there nonlinguistic information they receive that
are no models of second-language acquisi- they deem relevant. Verbal information that
tion that incorporate elements of multime- is selected is internally represented in a
dia learning (CTML). As a case in point, the text base, whereas selected pictorial infor-
interactionist model of second-language ac- mation is internally represented in a visual
quisition shown in Figure 29.2 does not in- image base. In the interactionist model of
corporate any explicit references to the pre- second-language acquisition, this process is
sentation mode of the linguistic input. The described as apperception, and the process of
components and processes described by this focusing attention on certain aspects of the
model, however, are of a generative nature target language is often referred to as noticing
that has parallels to Mayer’s (2001 ) Cog- (Schmidt, 1 990). Influenced by Vygotsky’s
nitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (see (1 996) concept of the zone of proximal de-
chapter 3 ). We therefore propose an in- velopment (ZPD), second-language acqui-
tegrated model that incorporates elements sition theory suggests that learners acquire
of Ellis’s (1 997) model of second-language language best by reading or listening to

material that is just beyond their current lev- et al., 1 998), although in one case students
els of competence (Krashen, 1 982). Krashen appeared to prefer to look up the English
calls linguistic material comprehensible input translations instead of using multimedia an-
when it is one step (i + 1 ) above students’ notations (Davis & Lyman-Hager, 1 997).
current levels of competence (i), in which Aural input in listening comprehension
case more aspects of the input can be no- can be enhanced through dynamic visual in-
ticed, and, as a result, the acquisition of the formation. Research has found, for example,
language is more likely (Doughty, 1 991 ). that video is able to support the processing of
In order to facilitate the acquisition of a linguistic information and facilitate language
second language, multimedia can be used to comprehension (Neuman & Koskinen, 1 992;
enhance the input and increase the likeli- Sharp, Bransford, Goldman, & Risko, 1 995 )
hood of noticing. Strategies involving mul- as well as vocabulary acquisition (Duquette
timedia that have been used for the support & Painchaud, 1 996). Hernandez (2004) con-
of noticing include highlighting or other- ducted a systematic study of different pre-
wise marking words, sentences, and linguis- sentation modes for comprehensible input
tic features, often in conjunction with pro- in listening comprehension. In this research
viding comprehension aids in the form of with students of English second language
multimedia annotations and pairing words (ESL), scenes from a feature movie were
with images. Input enhancers for aural in- presented either as audio (narration) only, as
put that use multimedia include the use of audio with captions, audio with video, or au-
captioned text, nonverbal cues (e.g., sup- dio with video and captions. No differences
plemental video images), instant feedback were found among the four groups in vocab-
to listening tasks, and repetitions of the ulary acquisition. However, groups receiving
audio input. video (audio with video, or audio with video
Early research on vocabulary learning and captions) comprehended the narration
with text and pictures has consistently found better than those who did not, an effect that
an input enhancement effect that resulted in was stronger for learners with high-spatial
better retention of vocabulary words when ability than for those with low-spatial ability.
they were paired with pictures, a finding The results of this study emphasize the im-
that led to the development of the dual- portance of considering presentation modes
coding theory (Deno, 1 968; Paivio, Clark, & other than text for providing and enhancing
Lambert, 1 988; Paivio & Desrochers, 1 979). input. Other research has found that pro-
In some cases, retention was increased when viding instant feedback to comprehension
the pictorial presentation of the word was test items during listening tasks (Brett, 1 997)
displayed before the written presentation and exact repetitions of the auditory input
(Brown, 1 993 ). (Jensen & Vinther, 2003 ) can also serve as
For written input in reading compre- input enhancers.
hension, enhancement has been provided
in the form of annotations for vocabu-
Interactive Processing:
lary items in the text. In order to show
Organizing/Comprehension
that annotations are available, words or sen-
tences are often marked or highlighted. Once visual and verbal material has been se-
Although simple highlighting may not nec- lected or noticed, it needs to be organized
essarily result in better vocabulary acqui- into visual mental representations and ver-
sition (De Ridder, 2002), the highlighting bal mental representations. Part of this pro-
of words in conjunction with multimedia cess is to connect words to form a verbal
glosses has facilitated both vocabulary acqui- model and to connect images to form a picto-
sition and reading comprehension (Chun & rial model. In second-language acquisition,
Plass, 1 996a, 1 996b; Laufer & Hill, 2000; Liu these processes focus on understanding the
& Reed, 1 995 ; Lyman-Hager, Davis, Burnett, semantic content of the input and form-
& Chennault, 1 993 ; Omaggio, 1 979; Plass ing a verbal model that also may include

syntactic information, and developing a pic- cently been applied to multimedia learn-
torial model that includes linguistic as well ing environments, and research on their
as nonlinguistic pictorial information. effectiveness is one of the most widely
Interactive processing theory (Kim, 2002; studied topics in the context of second-
Samuels & Kamil, 1 984; Silberstein, 1 987; language acquisition with multimedia. Sev-
Swaffar, Arens, & Byrnes, 1 991 ) is a pop- eral of our own studies (Chun & Plass, 1 996a,
ular approach to describe the process of 1 996b; Jones, 2001 ; Jones & Plass, 2002;
organizing in the context of reading and lis- Plass et al., 1 998; Plass, Chun, Mayer, &
tening comprehension. Interactive process- Leutner, 2003 ) have explored the use of
ing includes lower-level (bottom-up) strate- annotations in second-language multimedia
gies that emphasize words, structures and environments for reading and listening com-
sounds, and higher-level (top-down) strate- prehension. These studies investigated how
gies that promote visualization or inferen- the availability of visual and verbal annota-
tial strategies. Beginning second-language tions for vocabulary items in the text facil-
learners, for example, focus primarily on itates vocabulary acquisition as well as the
word identification or bottom-up process- comprehension of a foreign language literary
ing in listening and reading activities. More text. We found that especially the availabil-
proficient second-language learners use the ity of picture annotations facilitated vocab-
available textual clues to confirm but also ulary acquisition, and that vocabulary words
predict information about the text (Fischer learned with picture annotations were bet-
& Farris, 1 995 ). Within interactive process- ter retained than those learned with tex-
ing, meaningful interaction with the mate- tual annotations (Chun & Plass, 1 996a). Our
rial is essential in order to help students research showed in addition that inciden-
construct meaning, especially when learners’ tal vocabulary acquisition and text compre-
prior knowledge of a text is low (Faerch and hension was best for words where learners
Kaspar, 1 986). Multimedia-based strategies looked up both picture and text annotations
to facilitate such interaction include provid- (Plass et al., 1 998).
ing multimedia annotations for vocabulary Other researchers have replicated these
words and providing learners with a degree studies and extended them to other learners,
of control over the environment that allows settings, and languages. Al-Seghayer (2001 )
them to meaningfully interact with the ma- compared the effect of glosses that con-
terial according to their needs and styles. tained text and pictures with glosses that
As part of the interaction and meaning- contained text and video and found that
making process, learners who are engaged in the words annotated with glosses that in-
input processes such as reading and listen- cluded video were retained better. Yoshii &
ing learn vocabulary incidentally, or as a by- Flaitz (2002) examined the effects of dif-
product of their goal to comprehend the in- ferent annotation types in the form of text,
put (Hulstijn, 1 992; Hulstijn, Hollander, & pictures, and a combination of the two in
Greidenhaus, 1 996; Yoshii & Flaitz, 2002). a multimedia-based reading comprehension
However, if the input is too challenging, activity on ESL students’ vocabulary learn-
learners may incidentally learn words in- ing. Their results of both immediate and de-
correctly (Hulstijn, 1 992; Yoshii & Flaitz, layed tests showed that definitions for key-
2002). In order to prevent this, researchers words in the form of both text and pictorial
have examined the use of various interactive annotations led to better vocabulary learn-
strategies, such as providing marginal glosses, ing than did the single annotations. How-
to assist learners in vocabulary acquisition ever, pictorial annotations led to greater re-
as they read a paper-based text (Hulstijn sults on pictorial and written vocabulary
et al., 1 996; Kost, Fost, & Lenzini, 1 999; recognition tests than did text annotations
Watanabe, 1 997). while text annotations lead to greater re-
The use of annotations, or glosses, as an sults on the production test than did picto-
interactive processing strategy has more re- rial annotations.

Jones and Plass (2002) investigated sim- of 7–1 0 years of previous English instruc-
ilar questions in the context of listening tion with identical reading materials about
comprehension by providing students with historical events in the Middle East in two
a choice of pictorial and written verbal an- treatment groups. In the learner-controlled
notations for vocabulary in a listening text. condition, students were able to review
They found that students recalled more vo- and access helpful material as needed. In
cabulary and remembered more ideas from the program-controlled condition, students
the text when they chose both verbal and vi- had a predefined pace and sequence of the
sual annotations for unknown words. How- instruction. Results showed that students
ever, results of delayed vocabulary and com- who could freely interact with the mate-
prehension tests showed that, over time, the rial and access information as desired re-
effect of visual annotations decayed much called more ideas from the text than learners
less than the effect of verbal annotations, who did not have control over pace and or-
emphasizing the importance of visual input der. In addition, learners with less-efficient
in listening comprehension. English-learning strategies performed signif-
A controversial question related to pro- icantly worse in the program-controlled con-
viding annotations in a second-language text dition than in the learner-controlled condi-
is whether or not these annotations should tion, whereas learners with more efficient
include translations in the learner’s first lan- strategies did not differ. Yeh and Lehman
guage. Advocates of a communicative ap- (2001 ) argue that learner control provides
proach reject any such translations (Krashen, students with the opportunity to interact
1 982, 1 988; Underwood, 1 984), citing that with the materials to construct meaning,
the need to infer meaning from context pro- and that this interaction is especially nec-
motes a higher investment of mental effort, essary for students with less efficient learn-
deeper processing, and, thus, deeper learning strategies. However, learner control re-
ing (Craik & Lockhart, 1 972). Grace (1 998) search has received much criticism (Reeves,
empirically examined this question in the 1 993 ), and the preceding findings should be
context of French vocabulary acquisition in further investigated as they are in contrast to
a multimedia environment with dialogues research conducted in other areas, where re-
from a French comic books series. In addi- sults have shown that low prior-knowledge
tion to providing images, sound, and text learners need guidance and structure in mul-
annotations to all learners, one group re- timedia learning environments and that only
ceived sentence-level translations of the di- advanced users are able to navigate such
alogue, whereas the control group did not. systems without such guidance (Lawless &
Grace found in both immediate and delayed Brown, 1 997).
tests that interaction with these multime- We investigated a similar issue in our
dia components resulted in increased vocab- own research where we conducted two stud-
ulary knowledge for both groups. Further, ies on the use of annotations while reading
learners who received translations remem- a German text. In one study, learners had
bered significantly more words than learners the choice of selecting visual and/or verbal
who did not. These results, obtained with annotations for unknown vocabulary (Plass
beginning-level students, indicate that, espe- et al., 1 998). In another study, learners were
cially for novices, translations may be helpful assigned to treatment conditions in which
as input enhancers. they had to view visual annotations, ver-
Another issue that is relevant for interac- bal annotations, or visual and verbal anno-
tive processing is the level of control over tations. The control group received no an-
the order and pace as well as choice of ma- notations (Plass et al., 2003 ). Our research
terials that learners are afforded in a mul- showed that learning environments that pro-
timedia environment. A study by Yeh and vide a choice of visual and verbal annotations
Lehman (2001 ) provided students of En- equally supported visualizers and verbalizers
glish foreign language (EFL) with a range in their different learning preferences. We

found that these two types of learners did the incoming information is integrated
not differ in their overall vocabulary acqui- (Mayer, 2001 ).
sition, but that they used different types of In the acquisition of a language, the com-
annotations during the reading process, and prehension of the linguistic input, involving
corresponding different cues to retrieve the both semantic and syntactic processing, has
translations for vocabulary words during the as its result what is often referred to as intake,
test (Plass et al., 1 998). However, when in- that is, “comprehended language that holds
stead of giving them a choice, learners were the potential for developing the learners’
assigned to use either visual or verbal an- linguistic system” (Chapelle, 1 998, p. 23 ).
notations or both, learners with low-verbal The process of integration involves the de-
or low spatial ability who had to learn from velopment of the linguistic system based
visual annotations experienced higher cog- on the intake, which, in the case of multi-
nitive load and remembered fewer words media learning, is comprised of verbal and
than learners with high verbal ability or high pictorial components.
spatial ability. Independent of their abilities, Multimedia-based approaches employed
learners assigned to receive only visual an- to support the integration of newly acquired
notations comprehended the text less well information with prior knowledge include
(Plass et al., 2003 ). These results indicate the use of advance organizers (Ausubel,
that annotations meant to enhance the lin- 1 968). Providing introductory material in
guistic input need to be designed with care advance of the learning materials, and
and suggest that learners should have con- thereby activating existing prior knowledge,
trol over the learning environment, with the enables students to more successfully com-
option to view annotations rather than have prehend the input they receive in a reading
them displayed by default. or a listening environment. For second-
A different type of interaction takes place language acquisition, studies have consis-
between the individual, his or her prior tently found that advance organizers in the
knowledge, and the text. Pica, Doughty, and form of questions, statements, images, brain-
Young (1 986) and Doughty (1 991 ) suggest storming, or video have helped students to
that the interactive nature of multimedia, grasp the concepts presented in the mate-
when under a learner’s control, mimics real- rial that followed (Hanley & Cole, 1 995 ;
life interaction, in particular when one re- Herron, 1 994, 1 995 ; Herron, Hanley, &
quests clarification, checks for comprehen- Cole, 1 995 ; Herron, York, Cole, & Linden,
sion, or strives to confirm or understand the 1 998; Teichert, 1 996). For example, Herron
topic at hand. This interaction will be re- (1 994) found that asking students to watch
viewed next, when we discuss the process a video without providing precursor infor-
of integrating information. mation was not sufficient for comprehend-
ing a second-language video. Instead, ad-
vance organizer information in the form of
Intake/Integration
several short sentences, written in French,
Once incoming information has been that summarized the principle scenes of
organized into verbal and pictorial mental the video greatly helped students to pro-
models, referential connections between cess a video and many associated concepts
these models need to be established, that found throughout each scene of the video.
is, the verbal and pictorial mental repre- Herron et al. (1 998) further examined ad-
sentations need to be integrated. Although vance organizers in the form of declara-
all of the processes described in this model tive and interrogative phrases. Prior to re-
require cognitive resources, the integration viewing the video, separate treatment groups
of the representations into a coherent men- heard either declarative phrases that repre-
tal model is the most demanding process sented information within the video or heard
because it also involves the retrieval and interrogative forms of these same declara-
processing of prior knowledge with which tive phrases. No significant differences were

found between those who received either and to move the learner from a purely se-
form of advance organizers. However, when mantic analysis of the language to a syntac-
no advance organizer information was pro- tic analysis of it” (p. 25 2). Swain and Lapkin
vided, learning was less likely. (1 995 ) extend this argument by stating that
In their study of reading comprehension learners will become more aware of linguis-
in a multimedia environment, Plass et al. tic problems brought to their attention by
(1 998) provided learners with an advance or- some form of external feedback and that
ganizer in the form of a two-minute video. this notification of a problem will “push”
Some of the propositions in the text were in- learners to modify their output. Noticing the
cluded in this video while others were not. gap leads them to produce modified out-
Propositions that were depicted in the video put and to integrate their new knowledge
were recalled significantly better than those into their current knowledge. Thus, mean-
that were not. In addition, visualizers re- ingful interaction with output can enhance
called significantly fewer propositions that second-language acquisition just as much as
were not illustrated in the video than ver- input can.
balizers. However, their recall for proposi- Numerous researchers have examined
tions that were included in the video did how learners can modify their comprehen-
not differ. sible output to make it more understand-
Other research with learners of English as able and accurate for the listener (e.g., Lyster
a foreign language (EFL) has found that stu- & Ranta, 1 997; Pica, 1 988, 1 994; Swain,
dents who received an advance organizer in 1 997; Van de Branden, 1 997). Negotiation
the form of a text paragraph better compre- of meaning was found to be particularly im-
hended the input they received from an in- portant to help students modify their out-
teractive videodisc application than students put because it allows for corrective feed-
who did not, regardless of their level of effi- back that encourages self-correction, which
ciency of English learning strategies and their then leads to more precise output rather
level of program control (Yeh & Lehman, than just simple comprehension. Numerous
2001 ). Additional research has shown that studies, in fact, have shown that when stu-
when advance organizers include pictures dents are asked to clarify incomprehensi-
and text, students acquire more from the ble remarks by native speakers, they self-
materials that follow than when they only correct their errors and thus attain a higher
include text (Herron et al., 1 995 ). level of accuracy in their comprehensible
output (e.g., Nobuyoshi & Ellis, 1 993 ; Pica,
1 988). Shehadeh (1 999) further explored
Comprehensible Output
this issue by examining students’ abilities
Comprehensible output (Swain, 1 985 ) is a to modify their comprehensible output us-
concept unique to second-language acqui- ing different types of communicative tools
sition that describes the need for use of such as picture-dictation tasks and opinion-
language in meaningful contexts to develop exchange tasks and clarification prompts by
the learners’ communicative competency. native versus nonnative speakers. Shehadeh
Thus, understanding of input is not enough; found that the picture-dictation task pro-
learners must also be given the opportunity vided for a greater proportion of modified
to produce comprehensible output, such as comprehensible input than did the opinion-
conversational exchanges, that extend “the exchange task. He also found that the fre-
linguistic repertoire of the learner as he or quency of modified comprehensible out-
she attempts to create precisely and appro- put supported the importance of including
priately the meaning desired” (Swain, 1 985 , this type of output as a part of second-
p. 25 2). Swain’s view is that comprehensible langauge acquisition.
output is meant “to provide opportunities Multimedia can be used to provide such a
for contextualized, meaningful use, to test meaningful context, that is to facilitate com-
out hypotheses about the target language, munication, and to act as a partner in this

communication (Chapelle, 1 998) by help- Nikolova (2002) conducted a study to test

ing students notice their errors, revise their elements of Channell’s (1 988) theory that
output to correct these errors, and by en- second-language learners will acquire more
gaging them in a conversation in order to vocabulary when they are engaged in devel-
achieve a stated goal. Second-language edu- oping lexical associations as they encounter
cators have been using video, online commu- new vocabulary. She examined the output
nication, Web-based authentic materials in of learners as a result of either learning from
the target language, and speech recognition a computerized text that contained sound,
to elicit meaningful output with much suc- text, and images as annotations, or of be-
cess in the classroom (Bernstein, Najimi, & ing asked to develop their own multime-
Ehsani, 1 999; Chun, 2001 ; Herron, Dubreil, dia annotations. Nikolova found that stu-
Cole, & Corrie, 2000; Lee, 1 998; Nelson, dents who developed their own annotations
& Oliver, 1 999). However, few studies recalled words from the text better when
have investigated the issue of comprehen- time on task was not considered than groups
sible output empirically within a multi- that received premade annotations. How-
media environment, and these studies did ever, when time on task was included in the
not fully implement the communicative analysis, group differences disappeared. She
approach discussed in the preceding text. concluded that, although students’ vocab-
In her study of the effectiveness of anno- ulary acquisition benefited from the devel-
tations in listening comprehension, Jones opment of their own multimedia materials,
(2004) used different types of vocabulary additional time is required because of the
tests to examine students’ vocabulary ac- creative activity itself.
quisition. One vocabulary test subscale em-
ployed test items based on recognition of
words and recognition of pictures, another
employed test items consisting of recall of Limitations of Existing Research on
words. The results of this research showed Second-Language Acquisition
that the teaching mode (visual or verbal with Multimedia
annotation available) did not affect perfor-
mance on either the pictorial or written Over the past decade, research on second-
recognition subscale, but that on the ver- language acquisition with multimedia has
bal recall subscale, learners who had re- significantly expanded our knowledge of
ceived pictorial annotations did not perform how multimedia can enhance students’
as well as learners who had received ver- second-language development. Despite this
bal annotations or both types of annota- progress, limitations exist in the present
tions. These results suggest that in multime- research that stem from problems with
dia learning environments, teaching modes the research design and implementation
and test modes should be compatible, and and from limitations within the areas
that testing should not be conducted us- of second-language acquisition that have
ing textual items only when the instruction been investigated.
involved pictures. With regard to the design of empirical
Borras and Lafayette (1 994) examined studies, researchers in second-language ac-
students’ abilities to produce comprehensi- quisition with multimedia are faced with the
ble output when exposed to a French video challenging task of conducting their inves-
with subtitles. They found that when sub- tigations in authentic settings in which the
titles were provided with the video, stu- language is acquired in natural communica-
dents not only comprehended the input bet- tion, while at the same time employing rigor-
ter than when subtitles were absent but also ous research designs that can provide results
produced superior comprehensible commu- that are meaningful and relevant. The study
nicative output than did those without the of language acquisition during natural com-
helpful text aid. munication does not readily allow for the use

of rigorous quantitative designs, and studies vides detailed information about students’
that did try to employ quantitative meth- actual behavior during the learning task that
ods in unaltered natural settings tended to be can be used to supplement performance data
forced to employ suboptimal designs that led obtained using learning outcome measures
to a limited validity of the findings. Research (Leutner & Plass, 1 998).
design problems observed in this context re- Problems related to the design of empir-
veal that some studies did not include use- ical inquiries can often be addressed by us-
ful control groups, did not assign participants ing a theoretical foundation from which to
to treatment groups randomly, did not con- derive the research questions of the study.
trol for confounding variables, used outcome If such a framework is not articulated, or
measures with limited reliability and valid- if frameworks are used that only focus on
ity, and employed sample sizes that were too the second-language acquisition aspect of
low for meaningful analysis of the results. In the materials and do not include multi-
order to avoid these problems, researchers media learning theory, research designs of-
must either conduct studies of a more ex- ten lack rigor in the missing area. We have
perimental nature in less authentic settings, therefore proposed the integrated model
or employ research methodologies that are shown in Figure 29.3 , which combines an
more appropriate to the study of language second-language acquisition approach and
acquisition in situ. a cognitive approach to multimedia learn-
The problem with specifying meaningful ing. Based on this model, research ques-
control groups is related to another research tions can be derived that incorporate both
design issue we encountered repeatedly. aspects of second-language acquisition and
Many studies of second-language acquisition multimedia learning and advance insights in
with multimedia employed a media com- both areas.
parison approach, examining, for example, With regard to other limitations for exist-
the effects of multimedia instruction versus ing research, we found that certain areas in
standard classroom instruction. While such second-language acquisition have received
a research design might be useful in some less attention by empirical researchers than
very limited cases, any attempt to meaning- others. One example is the study of listen-
fully compare the effectiveness of different ing comprehension in a multimedia environ-
media in a “horse race” is bound to encounter ment, which has received very little atten-
such a significant number of variables that tion to date (Brett, 1 995 , 1 997; Hernandez,
cannot be controlled for that the findings 2004; Jones, 2004; Jones & Plass, 2002). Be-
from such a comparison are all but meaning- cause listening comprehension is considered
less (Clark, 1 983 ). It appears to be far more to be the foundation of language learning
useful to compare different treatment con- that leads to more productive reading, writ-
ditions within a particular medium. ing, and speaking skills (Feyten, 1 991 ; Joiner,
Another area for improvement concerns 1 986), this area of second-language develop-
the use of learning outcome measures. The ment should be more closely examined in a
typical measures used, such as recall pro- multimedia environment.
tocols, cloze exercises, and production or Another area that lacks investigation is
recognition tests of vocabulary, represent that of comprehensible output. Typical re-
what Myers (1 990) refers to as off-line mea- search studies in second-language acquisi-
sures of the product of comprehension. Bet- tion with multimedia assess output of lan-
ter examples can be found in studies that guage competence obtained after interaction
used measures such as think-aloud protocols with an second-language acquisition multi-
and other language output strategies to as- media environment, but do not provide stu-
sess learning, as done, for example, by Chun dents with an opportunity to adjust their
(2001 ), Lomicka (1 998), and Wade, Buxton, output based on interaction and feedback.
and Kelly (1 999). In addition, researchers This is very much counter to Chapelle’s
have employed user-tracking software that, (1 997) argument that interaction is crucial to
embedded in the learning environment, pro- supporting both comprehensible input and

comprehensible output. If, for example, stu- opment of cognitive theory (e.g., Johnson-
dents were allowed to recheck their knowl- Laird, 1 988; Just & Carpenter, 1 992; Kintsch,
edge after additional interaction with the 1 998). The study of second-language ac-
material as suggested by feedback, the study quisition, however, introduces several vari-
of the original and the revised output could ables, such as communication with other
be very useful for understanding the pro- learners and authenticity of the language
cesses of language acquisition indeed. input. Most of the research that included
A further issue is related to the materi- these variables employed research designs
als used for empirical studies. Existing re- that are less suited for the advancement of
search has primarily been conducted with cognitive theory. In addition, the absence
materials solely designed for language teach- of models or theories combining second-
ing, leaving open the question as to whether language acquisition theory and cognitive
the findings obtained with these materials theories of multimedia learning makes it
transfer to materials that were not specifi- even more difficult to find studies that incor-
cally designed for learners of the language, porate both approaches. The implications
such as target culture Web sites and videos for cognitive theory that we can derive from
that provide authentic language experiences the research we reviewed in this chapter are
to students. Although Kern’s (1 995 ) hall- therefore modest.
mark study on computer-mediated com- Predictions from the Cognitive Theory
munication has established that collabora- of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001 ) that
tion and interaction in the second-language have been tested in the area of second-
learning environment can promote lan- language acquisition are the multimedia prin-
guage acquisition, little to no empirical re- ciple and individual differences principle. For
search has been conducted to examine the the multimedia principle, although some
learning in more authentic settings, such studies have shown the visual mode to be
as multimedia-mediated communication or stronger than the verbal mode (Jones & Plass,
video conferencing, that engage students in 2002; Kellogg & Howe, 1 971 ; Terrell, 1 986),
direct communication. it is the combination of both visual and ver-
A final limitation is that we have yet bal presentations of information that has
to see the results of the studies described most strongly and consistently supported lis-
so far implemented into large-scale multi- tening and reading comprehension and vo-
media and Web-based applications. There cabulary acquisition (Chun & Plass, 1 996a,
are, however, exceptions to this, includ- 1 996b; Jones, 2001 ; Jones & Plass, 2002;
ing the multimedia-based materials pub- Plass et al., 1 998). For the individual differ-
lished with some language textbooks (e.g., ences principle, second-language acquisition
Amon, Muyskens, & Omaggio Hadley, research with multimedia has found indi-
2000; Heining-Boynton, Cowell, & Torres- cations that by providing learners with the
Quiñones, 1 999) and, most notably, the de- choice of using visual versus verbal anno-
velopment of the Web-based French lan- tations in support of a reading text, vocab-
guage program Français Interactif (University ulary acquisition can be equally supported
of Texas, 2004). However, although anecdo- for visualizers and verbalizers (Plass et al.,
tal evidence rates these materials very high, 1 998). When learners were assigned to treat-
no systematic research has been conducted ment conditions with specific types of an-
to examine their effectiveness. notations, vocabulary acquisition was worse
for learners with low verbal ability and low
spatial ability compared to learners with
high spatial ability and high verbal ability
Implications of the Research for when they received visual annotations. Vo-
Cognitive Theory cabulary recall did not differ for learners
with different levels of verbal or spatial abil-
The study of language and its acquisition has ity when they received verbal annotations
long been an important source for the devel- (Plass et al., 2003 ).

However, it may be interesting to observe The availability of text and pictures allows
that some of the other multimedia learning learners to construct verbal and visual men-
principles that were found in the context tal models of the input and build connec-
of science learning are not likely to extend tions between them. These connections pro-
to the area of second-language acquisition vide learners with two types of cues for the
without modification. For example, the co- retrieval of the learned material as compared
herence principle suggests that unneeded or to only one when they learn with text only.
irrelevant words reduce learning of scientific Several research studies have consistently
content and should therefore be removed shown that performance is enhanced when
from the text. This principle does not extend visual and verbal annotations are provided
easily to second-language acquisition, where rather than verbal annotations only (Chun
any meaningful linguistic input has poten- & Plass, 1 996a, 1 996b; Jones, 2004; Jones &
tial value for the acquisition of the language, Plass, 2002; Plass et al., 1 998). These studies
and where the relevancy of words cannot be show that vocabulary acquisition and com-
as clearly established as for texts that de- prehension were improved when aural or
scribe scientific systems and their causal re- written input was enhanced by visual and
lations. Similar arguments can be made for verbal annotations.
the redundancy principle and the modality
principle – reading and listening are two com-
petencies that both need to be developed, individual differences principle
and in many cases one is used as input en- Students acquire language better when they
hancement for the other. have the choice of visual versus verbal an-
notations than when they do not have this
choice. The availability of materials in dif-
ferent presentation modes allows learners
Implications of the Research for
to choose those modes that correspond to
Instruction Design their preferred learning style (e.g., visual-
izers/verbalizers). With additional informa-
The research described in this chapter of- tion only displayed upon request, learners
fers a set of principles and recommendations can manage the level of cognitive load they
for the design of instructional multimedia experience. In comparison, displaying addi-
materials for second-language acquisition. tional information by default requires learn-
These principles and recommendations are ers to process it to evaluate its relevancy for
not meant to be prescriptions. They should the comprehension of the materials, poten-
be used with the context in which they tially causing higher cognitive load. To sup-
were obtained in mind and with an eye port the different learning styles and cog-
on the specific characteristics of the mate- nitive abilities in learners (Reinert, 1 976),
rials and learners for whom materials will giving students opportunities to choose the
be designed. processing mode (visual or verbal) in which
they access supportive information may be
Principles the most effective strategy of learner sup-
port to employ in a multimedia environment
Principles are research findings that are in
(Jones & Plass, 2002; Plass et al., 1 998). Re-
line with research in other areas or existing
search has shown that visualizers and ver-
principles (Mayer, 2001 ) and that have been
balizers prefer to use different types of an-
found to apply in the context of second-
notations and that they use different cues to
language acquisition with multimedia.
retrieve learned material (Plass et al., 1 998).
Studies in which learners were not given a
multimedia principle choice resulted in higher cognitive load, es-
Students acquire language better from input en- pecially for learners with low verbal abil-
hanced by text and pictures than by text alone. ity and low spatial ability, when they were

assigned to view additional information in a the materials are not necessarily presented
visual format. in an order that needs to be followed to as-
sure comprehension. Giving learners, espe-
advance organizer principle cially those with low language proficiency
Students acquire language better when they or less-efficient language-learning strategies,
view an advance organizer before receiving the choice to modify the input they receive,
input in reading or listening activities. Ad- potentially making it easier to comprehend,
vance organizers presented in visual and verbal may indeed facilitate the acquisition of the
modes are more effective than those presented language. For example, learners may clarify
in only the verbal mode. Advance organiz- more difficult passages by clicking on key-
ers, presenting higher-level conceptual infor- words to access translations and or picto-
mation and summaries as a prereading or a rial representations. Instructional designers
prelistening activity, allow learners to acti- should consider the task requirements of the
vate relevant prior knowledge and therefore learning environment and learner character-
to more easily integrate the new informa- istics such as language proficiency and effi-
tion into their linguistic system. Several re- ciency of language-learning strategies when
search studies have consistently shown that making a decision as to how much learner
any form of advance organizer will improve control to provide.
comprehension of a listening or reading ac-
tivity (Herron, 1 994, 1 995 ; Herron et al., comprehensible output
1 995 , 1 998, 2000). They also show that ad- There is considerable research evidence that
vance organizers presented using text and learners acquire language better when they
pictures are more effective than when they are engaged in communicating in language,
are presented in text format only (Herron that is, in producing output, and espe-
et al., 1 995 ). cially when they are asked to monitor and
analyze their own output and, if neces-
Recommendations sary, correct it (e.g., Lyster & Ranta, 1 997;
Recommendations are research results that Pica, 1 988, 1 994; Swain, 1 985 , 1 997; Swain
have not been replicated in more than a & Lapkin, 1 995 ; Van de Branden, 1 997).
few studies and that do not extend findings When provided with appropriate feedback,
from other areas to second-language acquisi- for example, students can check their re-
tion with multimedia. Additional research is sponses, seek further clarification and then
needed to show whether these recommen- present newly formed output that demon-
dations can be replicated as principles that strates their enhanced competence. How-
are specific to second-language acquisition. ever, research investigating how this interac-
tion with learners’ output can be facilitated
learner control in a second-language multimedia-learning
environment is lacking.
There is indication that students acquire lan-
guage better when they have control over
the order, pace, and choice of multimedia appropriate testing
materials than when the order, pace, and In addition to principles and recommen-
choice are controlled by the computer (Yeh dations related to the effect of multime-
& Lehman, 2001 ). Providing learners with a dia on second-language acquisition, there is
choice of the order in which they proceed also evidence that the testing mode used
through a multimedia environment may al- should coincide with the mode of the an-
low them to manage the cognitive load they notations accessed in a multimedia environ-
experience and the amount and sequence of ment (Chun & Plass, 1 996a; Jones, 2004).
input they process at any given time. This This is particularly true when students are
may be a finding specific to second-language asked to produce in writing the translations
acquisition where, unlike in science learning, of key vocabulary words. Recognition of

vocabulary usually involves multiple-choice language educators use in the classroom,

testing whereby learners guess or select the then we must conclude there is still more
correct response from the list of words pro- promise than actual delivery of the poten-
vided. On the other hand, recall or produc- tial of multimedia to enhance the second-
tion tests demand the retrieval of vocabulary language acquisition experience. In many
from memory. Such a strategy is more diffi- cases where innovative uses of technology
cult because students are not provided with have been developed, the research neces-
cues to retrieve the correct response from sary to understand the success of such uses
long-term memory (Cariana & Lee, 2001 ; has been lagging behind. There are several
Glover, 1 989; McDaniel & Mason, 1 985 ). unanswered questions related to the use of
When the multimedia-based annotated in- multimedia to make input more compre-
formation provided does not coincide with hensible, elicit meaningful output, and facil-
the testing mode used in a production test, itate learners’ interaction with the input and
output of knowledge is hindered, which is output. Chapelle (1 998) discussed some of
not the case when the mode of the test items these questions in the form of hypotheses for
and that of the annotated information pro- the development of computer-assisted lan-
vided coincide. guage learning materials for second-language
acquisition. Most of these hypotheses, pub-
lished several years ago, have to date not
Future Directions for Research been empirically investigated. For future
research, an adaptation of her questions,
related to the enhancement of second-
Our discussion of research on second-
language acquisition materials through the
language acquisition with multimedia learn-
use of multimedia, can be summarized as
ing and the implications for cognitive the-
follows:
ory and instructional design we provided
in this chapter cannot be concluded with- Comprehensible Input
out outlining some directions that future re- r How can multimedia be used to en-
search can and should take. These recom- hance noticing of relevant linguistic fea-
mendations fall into three principal areas. tures of the input?
One area is concerned with finding better r How can multimedia help learners in
ways to exploit the potential of multime- comprehending the semantic and syn-
dia in second-language acquisition, for en- tactic aspects of the input?
hancing comprehensible input, facilitating
meaningful interaction, and eliciting com- Comprehensible Output
r How can multimedia enhance learners’
prehensible output. A second area is related
to measures used to assess language compe- opportunities to produce output in the
tence. The third area is concerned with the target language?
need for a stronger integration of second- r How can multimedia help learners no-
language acquisition research with cognitive tice errors in their output and correct
theories of multimedia learning and the in- them?
vestigation of principles found in fields such Interaction
as the comprehension of scientific materials r What kind of multimedia-based
in the context of second-language acquisi- second-language acquisition tasks can
tion (see parts 2 and 3 in this handbook). be provided that engage learners in
interaction with language input and
Enhancement of Second-Language output?
Acquisition Materials Through r How can multimedia help learners
Multimedia
modify the structure of the target
If published research is any indication of language input to make it more
the kind of multimedia materials second- comprehensible?

There are several areas of second- context of science learning can be applied to
language acquisition where only little second-language acquisition.
research has been conducted on the use
of multimedia in general. For example, lis- Glossary
tening comprehension has only been in-
vestigated in few studies, and the pro-
Advance organizer : Introductory materi-
duction of meaningful output, although
als provided in advance of learning
well-developed conceptually lacks empir-
that are intended to activate or pro-
ical research in the context of multi-
vide prior knowledge relevant to the
media learning.
learning material.
Annotations: Visual or verbal supplemen-
Language Competence Assessment tary items, such as a translation or vi-
Language educators are already using a di- sual representations, that provide ad-
verse set of methods to assess language pro- ditional information for selected key-
ficiency, and researchers should incorporate words present within the text.
more of these measures into their studies. In Apperception: The process of selecting
addition to recognition tests or cloze tests for words and pictures to support interac-
vocabulary and recall protocols for compre- tion and thus attain comprehension of
hension, researchers would gain deeper in- the material.
sights into the second-language acquisition Authentic materials: Materials created for
process, if students’ abilities to utilize newly a native language audience, that have
acquired vocabulary were examined in com- not been pedagogically designed for
municative contexts and natural settings, second-language learners.
as think-alouds and other authentic out- Comprehensible input: Input that is
put. In addition, performance data should made more understandable for stu-
be enriched by observing learners’ behav- dents through the use of interaction
ior during the learning process (Leutner & with the target material.
Plass, 1 998). Comprehensible output: Output that is
modifiable for learners through identi-
Integration of Second-Language fication of their errors and allowance
Acquisition and Cognitive Theories for adjustments to previously submit-
of Multimedia Learning ted responses.
Incidental vocabulary learning: A process
A final area for future research is the inte-
whereby students learn vocabulary as
gration of second-language acquisition the-
an aside as they engage in reading and
ory and cognitive theories of multimedia
listening.
learning. For example, when designing mul-
timedia materials for comprehensible input, Input: The process of receiving informa-
the level of cognitive load induced by the tion, either verbally or visually.
input enhancement and the role this load Interaction: Use of any number of helping
may play in the acquisition of vocabulary aids such as annotations, images, elabo-
and construction of meaning needs to be ration, simplification, clarification, def-
taken into consideration. We have proposed initional support, or redundancy to as-
a model (Figure 29.3 ) that combines ele- sist learners’ comprehension of input or
ments of second-language acquisition theory presentation of output.
with elements from Mayer’s (2001 ) cogni- Interactionist perspective: A language learn-
tive theory of multimedia learning. Future ing strategy that defines three functions
research needs to investigate the specifics of that are deemed crucial to language ac-
this model and, in particular, to what extent quisition, comprehensible input, inter-
effects and principles that were found in the action, and comprehensible output.

Interactive processing theory: A theory that Ausubel, D. (1 968). Educational psychology: A

refers to the interaction between the cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart, &
individual, his or her prior knowledge, Winston.
and the input. Bacon, S. (1 992). Authentic listening in Spanish:
L1: The typical reference for the native or How learners adjust their strategies to the
difficulty of the input. Hispania, 75 , 3 98–
first language of an individual, sample
41 1 .
or population.
Bernstein, J., Najimi, A., & Ehsani, F. (1 999).
L2: The typical reference for the second Subarashii: Encounters in Japanese Spoken
language of an individual, sample or Language Education. CALICO Journal, 1 7 ,
population. 3 61 –3 84.
Language acquisition: The result of mean- Borras, I., & Lafayette, R. C. (1 994). Effects
ingful interaction in the target language of multimedia courseware subtitling on the
where the focus is on communication speaking performance of college students of
and the acquisition of the language is French. The Modern Language Journal, 78(1 ),
incidental. 61 –75 .
Language learning : The result of instruc- Brett, P. (1 995 ). Multimedia for listening
comprehension: The design of a multimedia-
tion about the target language.
based resource for developing listening skills.
Noticing : The process of focusing atten- System, 2 3 , 77–85 .
tion on input. Brett, P. (1 997). A comparative study of the ef-
Output: The process of assigning meaning fects of the use of multimedia on listening com-
to visual or verbal input. prehension. System, 2 5 , 3 9–5 3 .
Propositions: Individual idea units present Brown, C. (1 993 ). Factors affecting the acquisi-
in a reading or a listening passage. tion of vocabulary: Frequency and saliency of
words. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady
Spatial ability: A cognitive strength that is
(Eds.), Second language reading and vocabu-
a relatively stable indicator of how well lary learning (pp. 263 –286). Norwood, NJ:
individuals can process visual stimuli. Ablex.
Learners with high spatial ability can Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1 980). Theoretical
process visual information better than bases of communicative approaches to second
those with low spatial ability. language teaching and testing. Applied Linguis-
Verbal ability: A cognitive strength that tics, 1 (1 ), 1 –47.
is a relatively stable indicator of how Cariana, R. B., & Lee, D. (2001 ). The effects of
well individuals can process verbal in- recognition and recall study tasks with feed-
formation. Learners with high verbal back in a computer-based vocabulary lesson.
ability can process verbal information Educational Technology Research and Develop-
better than can those with low verbal ment, 49(3 ), 23 –3 6.
ability. Chamot, A. (1 995 ). Learning strategies and lis-
tening comprehension. In D. J. Mendelsohn &
J. Rubin, (Eds.), A guide for the teaching of sec-
ond language listening (pp. 1 3 –3 0). San Diego:
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CH 29 Multimedia - Learning - in - Second - Language - Acquisition

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CH 29 Multimedia - Learning - in - Second - Language - Acquisition

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CHAPTER 2 9

Multimedia Learning in Second

Abstract of ideas, maintenance of social relations, and

What Do We Know About

Figure 2 9.3. Integrated model of second-language acquisition with multimedia.

in which students identify their errors and acquisition, elements of an interactionist

communication (Chapelle, 1 998) by help- Nikolova (2002) conducted a study to test

vocabulary usually involves multiple-choice language educators use in the classroom,

Interactive processing theory: A theory that Ausubel, D. (1 968). Educational psychology: A

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