Mechanical Engineering Department Rens : Fluid Mechanics (MEng 2113) Chapter 2 Fluid Statics Prepared by: Addisu Dagne February, 2017Introduction Fluid Mechanics A Gas | | Liquids Statics | [Dynamics / SYKE-0 SF >0,Hows Ame) | Water Of, sony | Nyete. Alcohols, etc. Prewu’e Buoyancy Compressible/ Incompressible ZI™ Laminar/ ‘Surface Turbulent Compressbilty Density Viscrty Steady/Unsteady Viscous/Inviscid ‘ ‘ Chapter 1: Introduction Fluid Dynamics: Chapter 2: Fluid Statics Rest of Course \Introduction e This chapter deals with forces applied by fluids at rest or in rigid-body motion (there is no relative motion between adjacent layers). ¢ In both instances there will be no shearing stresses in the fluid, and the only forces that develop on the surfaces of the particles will be due to the pressure. The fluid property responsible for those forces is pressure, which is a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. e Thus, our principal concern is to investigate pressure and its variation throughout a fluid and the effect of pressure on submerged surfaces.Pressure ¢ Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress. e Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter (N/m), which is called a pascal (Pa). That is, 1 Pa=1 N/m? © The pressure unit pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice. Therefore, its multiples kilopascal (1 kPa =103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa =10° Pa) are commonly used.Pressure ¢ Other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe, are bar and standard atmosphere 0° Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa e The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). ¢ Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere , and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gage pressure.Pressure e Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure. e Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are related to each other by Pygage = Paps — Patm Pyac = Patm — Paps e In thermodynamic relations and tables, absolute pressure is almost always used. Throughout this course, the pressure P will denote absolute pressure unless specified otherwise.Pressure eee See eee ee eee eee Bi, Aasscsbeesese pemacees Pas Pam Pam Pi xd Absolute vacuum = vacuumPressure at a point Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the impression of being a vector. However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. That is, it has magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity. This can be demonstrated by considering a small wedge- shaped fluid element that was obtained by removing a small triangular wedge of fluid from some arbitrary location within a fluid mass. ¢ Since we are considering the situation in which there are no shearing stresses, the only external forces acting on the wedge are due to the pressure and the weight.Pressure at a point ¢ For simplicity the forces in the x direction are not shown, and the z axis is taken as the vertical axis so the weight acts in the negative z direction.Pressure at a point e From Newton’s second law, a force balance in the y- and z directions gives SE = p,dxdz — p,dxdssin0 = 0 (a) dxdy8z 2 SE = p,dxdy — p,dxdscos0— y—— = 0 (b) ° where p,, py and p, are the average pressures on the faces, y and p are the fluid specific weight and density e From the geometry dy=dscosd 6z=dssind ¢ The last term in Eq. b drops out as 5x ,5y and 6z—0 and the wedge becomes infinitesimal, and thus the fluid element shrinks to a point. oePressure at a point e Thus substituting and simplifying results Py=P,; P,=P, OF Py =P. =P; ¢ Thus we conclude that the pressure at a point in a fluid has the same magnitude in all directions. It can be shown in the absence of shear forces that this result is applicable to fluids in motion (rigid body motion, no relative motion between layers) as well as fluids at rest. ¢ This important result is known as Pascal’s lawVariation of pressure with depth e Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more fluid rests on deeper layers, and the effect of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced by an increase in pressure. © To obtain a relation for the z variation of pressure with depth, consider a rectangular fluid element of height Az, length Ax, and unit depth (into the page) in equilibrium. e Assuming the density of the fluid p to be constant, a force balance in the vertical z-direction gives SanfF Variation of pressure with depth DSF,=ma,=0: P,Ax— P, Ax — pg Ax Az=0 e Where W =mg = pgAxAz is the weight of the fluid element. e Dividing by Ax and rearranging gives AP = P, — Py = pg Az = y; Az © ¥,= pg is the specific weight of the fluid. e Thus, we conclude that the pressure difference between two points in a constant density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance Az between the points and the density p of the fluid. e In other words, pressure in a fluid increases linearly with depthVariation of pressure with depth ¢ For small to moderate distances, the variation of pressure with height is negligible for gases because of their low density. ¢ The pressure in a tank containing a gas, for example, can be considered to be uniform since the weight of the gas is too small to make a significant difference. Also, the pressure in a room filled with air can be assumed to be constantVariation of pressure with depth ¢ If we take point | to be at the free surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere, where the pressure is the atmospheric pressure P.,,,, then the pressure at a depth h from the free surface becomes P=Py,+pgh or Paage = egh e Liquids are essentially incompressible substances, and thus the variation of density with depth is negligible. ¢ This is also the case for gases when the elevation change is not very large.Variation of pressure with depth ¢ For fluids whose density changes significantly with elevation, a relation for the variation of pressure with elevation can be written as ae dz e The negative sign indicates that pressure decreases in an upward direction. e When the variation of density with elevation is known the pressure difference between points | and 2 can be determined by integration to be 2 ap =Pr—Pr=—| agafF Variation of pressure with depth Pressure is independent of the shape of the container. The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal plane in the same fluid. Pa= Pye Po= Pp = Pe= Pr = Po = Paun + gh Pye)Variation of pressure with depth Fa=P2A2 Application of Pascal’s law © Two hydraulic cylinders of different areas could be connected, and the larger could be used to exert a proportionally greater force than that applied to the smaller. Fy=PiAy e Noting that P, =P, since both pistons are at the The area ratio A, /A, is called samme tevel the ideal mechanical advantage . of the hydraulic lift. = Ear eeu ae Ak 7AMThe Manometer e An elevation change of Az in a fluid at rest corresponds to AP/pg, which suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure pressure differences. A device based on this principle is called a manometer, and it is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. e¢ Amanometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated.U-tube Manometer ¢ Consider the manometer that is used to measure the pressure in the tank. Since the gravitational effects of gases are negligible, the pressure anywhere in the tank and at position | has the same value. e Furthermore, since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal direction within a fluid, the pressure at point 2 is the same as the pressure at point 1, P;=P,. The differential fluid column of height h is in static equilibrium, and it is open to the atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2 is determined directly by P2 = Pam + ghU-tube Manometer ¢ where p is the density of the fluid in the tube. Note that the cross-sectional area of the tube has no effect on the differential height h, and thus the pressure exerted by the fluid. e However, the diameter of the tube should be large enough (more than a few millimeters) to ensure that the surface tension effect and thus the capillary rise is negligible.EXAMPLE 1. Measuring Pressure with a Manometer e A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in the Fig. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank. Pam = 96 kPaSolution Assumptions The fluid in the tank is a gas whose density is much lower than the density of manometer fluid. Properties The specific gravity of the manometer fluid is given to be 0.85. We take the standard density of water to be 1000 kg/m3. Analysis The density of the fluid is obtained by multiplying its specific gravity by the density of water, which is taken to be 1000 kg/m3: p= SG (py,0) = (0.85)(1000 kg/m’) = 850 kg/m? Then from Eq. 3-12, P = Pam + pgh 1N 1kPa = 96 kPa + (850 kg/m’)(9.81 mvs) (0.55 Sl = 100.6 kPa Discussion Note that the gage pressure in the tank is 4.6 kPa.Multifluid Manometer e Many engineering problems and some manometers involve multiple immiscible fluids of different densities stacked on top of each other. e Such systems can be analyzed easily by remembering that (1) the pressure change across a fluid column of height h is AP = pgh, (2) pressure increases downward in a given fluid and decreases upward (i.e., P, >Prop)» and (3) two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at rest are at the same pressure. bottomMultifluid Manometer ¢ The last principle, which is a result of Pascal’s law, allows us to “jump” from Pat one fluid column to the next in Fluid 1 manometers without worrying about pressure change as long as we don’t jump over a different fluid, and the fluid is at rest. Then the pressure at any point can be determined by starting with a point of known pressure and adding or subtracting pgh terms as we advance toward the point of interest. a Pam + pighy + pagh, + psgh3 = P;Differential Manometer e Manometers are particularly well- A flow section or flow device suited to measure pressure drops across a horizontal flow section between two specified points due to the presence of a device such as a valve or heat exchanger or any resistance to flow. e This is done by connecting the two legs of the manometer to these two points, as shown in the Fig. © The working fluid can be either a Fig. Measuring the pressure gas or a liquid whose density is p,. drop across a flow section or The density of the manometer fluid =, flow device by a is p,, and the differential fluid differential manometer. height is h.Differential Manometer A flow section or flow device e Arelation for the pressure difference P,-P, can be obtained by starting at point 1 with P,, moving along the tube by adding or subtracting the pgh terms until we reach point 2, and setting the result equal to P,: P, + pig(a + h) — pagh — p.ga = P2 Note that we jumped from point A horizontally to point B and ignored the part underneath since the pressure at both points is the same. Simplifying P, — Pz = (p2 — pi)ghEXAMPLE 2. Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer © The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown in Fig. below. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if h; =0.1 m, hy =0.2 m, and h, = 0.35 m. Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be 1000 kg/m?, 850 kg/m?, and 13,600 kg/m?, respectively.Solution Analysis Starting with the pressure at point 1 at the air—water interface, moving along the tube by adding or subtracting the pgh terms until we reach point 2, and setting the result equal to P,, since the tube is open to the atmosphere gives Py + PwaterGhi + poiGhe — PmercuryGhs = Pam Solving for P, and substituting, Py = Patm — PwaterS%y — PoiGhe + Pmercury9hs = Pam + G(Pmercuryhs — Pwatert — poitht2) = 85.6 kPa + (9.81 mvs*)[(13,600 kg/m*)(0.35 m) — (1000 kg/m)(0.1 m) 1N 1kPa — (850 kg/m*)(0.2 ho ( : mn kg - we) (son ham) = 130 kPaExercise 1 ° The gage pressure of the air in the tank shown in Fig. below is measured to be 65 kPa. Determine the differential height h of the mercury column. Oil SG=0.72 ‘Mercury SG = 13.6 Ans. h= 47 emExercise 2 ¢ Freshwater and seawater flowing in parallel horizontal pipelines are connected to each other by a double U-tube manometer, as shown in the Fig. Determine the pressure difference between the two pipelines. Take the density of seawater at that location to be p = 1035 kg/m}. Can the air column be ignored in the analysis? Ans. 3.39 kPaExercise 3 e Two water tanks are connected to each other through a mercury manometer with inclined tubes, as shown in the Fig. below. If the pressure difference between the two tanks is 20 kPa, calculate a and 0. Ans a=7.50cm 6=34.0°Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces e Aplate exposed to a liquid, such as a gate valve in a dam, the wall of a liquid storage tank is subjected to fluid pressure distributed over its surface e Ona plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces, and we often need to determine the magnitude of the force and its point of application, which is called the center of pressure.Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces Pat {\ e In most cases, the other side of the plate is open to the atmosphere (such as the dry side of a gate), and thus atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the plate, yielding a zero resultant. e Insuch cases, it is convenient to subtract atmospheric pressure and work with the gage pressure only Pam + egh (2) Pam Considered (0) Pi Subtracted ‘pghHydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces ¢ Consider the top surface of a flat plate of arbitrary shape completely submerged in a liquid. The plane of this surface (normal to the page) intersects the horizontal free surface with an angle 0, and we take the line of intersection to be the x- axis. P=Po+ pgh dA v= {av=|PdA=F, Plane surfaceHydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces ¢ The absolute pressure above the liquid is Py, which is the local atmospheric pressure P.,,,, if the liquid is open to the atmosphere (but Py may be different than P,,,,, if the space above the liquid is evacuated or pressurized). e Then the absolute pressure at any point on the plate is P = Py + pgh = Py + pgy sin e where h is the vertical distance of the point from the free surface and y is the distance of the point from the x-axis. | e The resultant hydrostatic force Fp acting on the surface is determined by integrating the force P dA acting on a differential area dA over the entire surface area, Fp= [ eu- [e+ pay sin #) dA = PyA + pgsina | yA A h AHydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces © But the first moment of area J ya is related to the y- coordinate of the centroid (or center) of the surface by 1 So— | yda ¢ Substituting * Fa = (Po + pgyc sin AA = (Po + pghc)A = Pc A = Pay A Where P, = Py + pghe is the Pan y Free surface pressure at the centroid of the x surface, which is equivalent to the average pressure on the surface, and hg = yc sin @ is the vertical distance of the centroid from the free surface e of the liquid .fF Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces Thus we conclude that | z Line of action e The magnitude of the resultant force acting oie ol S ona plane surface of a Fr=PoA Fo completely submerged plate in a homogeneous (constant density) fluid is equal to the product of the pressure P, at the centroid of the surface and the area A of the surface.Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces Center of pressure ¢ The line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force, in general, does not pass through the centroid of the surface— it lies underneath where the pressure is higher. The point of intersection of the line of action of the resultant force and the surface is the center of pressure. The vertical location of the line of action is determined by equating the moment of the resultant force to the moment of the distributed pressure force about the x-axis. It gives YeFR = [sean- [ iP. + eaysin ey aa ~ P, | yaa pgsina | yeaa I, I, I, I, YeFr =Poyc A + pgsin@ ly.oHydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces Center of pressure ° where yp is the distance of the center of pressure from the x-axis and; _ [ yeaa is the second moment of area ha 0 A (also called the area moment of inertia) about the x-axis. The second moments of area are widely available for common shapes in engineering handbooks, but they are usually given about the axes passing through the centroid of the area. Fortunately, the second moments of area about two parallel axes are related to each other by the parallel axis theorem, which in this case is expressed as Io = bac + YAHydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces ¢ where I ,, ¢ is the second moment of area about the x-axis passing through the centroid of the area and yc (the y coordinate of the centroid) is the distance between the two parallel axes. ¢ Substituting the F, relation and the I ,, g relation and solving for yp gives lec Ye = Yo * Ty Po(pg sin JA ¢ For Py =0, which is usually the case when the atmospheric pressure is ignored, it simplifies to have Ye“ Yor TRHydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces ¢ Knowing yp, the vertical distance of the center of pressure from the free surface is determined from hp = yp sin 0. ¢ Thel ,, ¢ values for some common areas are given below. For these and other areas that possess symmetry about the y-axis, the center of pressure lies on the y-axis directly below the centroid. © The location of the center of pressure in such cases is simply the point on the surface of the vertical plane of symmetry at a distance hp from the free surface.y be x biz al2 al2 A= aby Iyy = ad312 Aaa, ly o= TRU (2) Rectangle (b) Circle y ¥ 2013 x os” a ag an al2 al2 4 Ae abl2, Ig. g = ab436 A= aR, itil (Tangle (e) Semici LX A= mab, ly o= mab (0) Ellipse A= rrabl2, Ip ¢ = 0.109757ab (1) SemiellipseHydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces Special Case: Submerged Rectangular Plate me Po © Consider a completely submerged 4 8 rectangular flat plate of height b and 5 width a tilted at an angle @ from the horizontal and whose top edge is horizontal and is at a distance s from the free surface along the plane of the plate, as shown in the Fig. The resultant hydrostatic force on \ the upper surface is equal to the average pressure, which is the pressure at the midpoint of the Fa = [Py + pg(s + bi2) sin bab surface, times the surface area A. That is (a) Tilted plate6 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces Fa = Po A= [Pp + pg(s + b/2) sin éJab ¢ The force acts at a vertical distance of hp = yp sin@ from the free surface directly beneath the centroid of the plate where b ab'12 Yp = S += 4+ ——___——_—____. 2 [s+ b/2 + Po/(pg sin @)Jab b b? Se 2 * T2[s + b2 + PoApgsin dy] e When the upper edge of the plate is at the free surface and thus s =0 Tilted rectangular plate (s = 0): F, = [Po + pg(b sin @)/2]abHydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane surfaces Oo Py Py Fr= (Po + pgh)ab | ee Fa= [Py + eg(s + b/2)]ab (b) Vertical pate (c) Horizontal plate Fe = [Py + pg(s + b/2)Jab Fe = (Po + pgh)abHydrostatic Forces on submerged curved surfaces For a submerged curved surface, the determination of the resultant hydrostatic force is more involved since it typically requires the integration of the pressure forces that change direction along the curved surface. The easiest way to determine the resultant hydrostatic force F, acting on a two-dimensional curved surface is to determine the horizontal and vertical components F,, and Fy separately. Consider the free-body diagram of the liquid block enclosed by the curved surface and the two plane surfaces (one horizontal and one vertical) passing through the two ends of the curved surface as shown in the fig. below.Hydrostatic Forces on submerged curved surfaces ¢ The resultant force acting on the curved solid surface is then equal and opposite to the force acting on the curved liquid surface (Newton’s third law). Free-body diagram of the enck liquid blockHydrostatic Forces on submerged curved surfaces e The weight of the enclosed liquid block of volume V is simply W =pgV, and it acts downward through the centroid of this volume. Noting that the fluid block is in static equilibrium, the force balances in the horizontal and vertical directions give Horizontal force component on curved surface: Fu = Fy Vertical force component on curved surface: Fy=Fy+W e where the summation Fy +W is a vector addition (i.e., add magnitudes if both act in the same direction and subtract if they act in opposite directions). e The magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the curved surface is Fr= VF4, + F§,, and the tangent of the angle it makes with the horizontal is tan a = Fy/F,Hydrostatic Forces on submerged curved surfaces e Thus, we conclude that 1. The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force acting on acurved surface is equal (in both magnitude and the line of action) to the hydrostatic force acting on the vertical projection of the curved surface. s The vertical component of the hydrostatic force acting on a curved surface is equal to the hydrostatic force acting on the horizontal projection of the curved surface, plus (minus, if acting in the opposite direction) the weight of the fluid block. ¢ The location of the line of action of the resultant force (e.g., its distance from one of the end points of the curved surface) can be determined by taking a moment about an eo appropriate point.Hydrostatic Forces on submerged curved surfaces e When a curved surface is above the liquid, the weight of the liquid and the vertical component of the hydrostatic force act in the opposite directions.fF Hydrostatic Forces on submerged curved surfaces e When the curved surface is a circular arc (full circle or any part of it), the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the surface always passes through the center of the circle. ¢ This is because the pressure forces are normal to the surface, and all lines normal to the surface of a circle pass through the center of the circle. e Thus, the pressure forces form a concurrent force system at the center, which can be reduced to a single equivalent force at that pointHydrostatic Forces on submerged curved surfaces e Finally, hydrostatic forces acting on a plane or curved surface submerged in a multilayered fluid of different densities can be determined by considering different parts of surfaces in different fluids as different surfaces, finding the force on each part, and then adding them using vector addition. e Fora plane surface, it can be expressed as Plane surface in a multilayered fluid: Fr= DSFri= DPciAi e Where Pci = Po + pighc, | is the pressure at the centroid of the portion of the surface in fluid i and A, is the area of the plate in that fluid. The line of action of this equivalent force can be determined from the requirement that the moment of the equivalent force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the individual forces about the same point.Hydrostatic Forces on submerged curved surfaces ¢ The hydrostatic force on a surface submerged in a multilayered fluid can be determined by considering parts of the surface in T different fluids as different surfaces. : Water it Plane surface in a multilayered fluid: Fr= DFri= DPciAi waExample 3. Hydrostatic Force Acting on the Door of a Submeraed Car e Aheavy car plunges into Z a lake during an accident Lake and lands at the bottom of the lake on its wheels. The door is 1.2 m high am and 1 m wide, and the top edge of the door is 8 m below the free surface of the water. e Determine the hydrostatic force on the door and the location of the pressure eo center. xSolution Assumptions 2 wn The bottom surface of the lake is horizontal. The passenger cabin is well-sealed so that no water leaks inside. The door can be approximated as a vertical rectangular plate. The pressure in the passenger cabin remains at atmospheric value since there is no water leaking in, and thus no compression of the air inside. Therefore, atmospheric pressure cancels out in the calculations since it acts on both sides of the door. The weight of the car is larger than the buoyant force acting on it.Solution Analysis The average pressure on the door is the pressure value at the cen- troid (midpoint) of the door and is determined to be Pave = Po = pQhc = pg(s + b/2) = (1000 kg/m’) (9.81 mvs*)(8 + 1.2/2 (ooh ae) = 84.4 kKN/m? Then the resultant hydrostatic force on the door becomes Fa = PayeA = (84.4 KN/m?) (1 m X 1.2 m) = 101.3 KN The pressure center is directly under the midpoint of the door, and its dis- tance from the surface of the lake is determined from Eq. 3-24 by setting Py = 0 to be b? 1.2 Wee b Y=St>+ 2642 °* 2 * 120@+122) 2o1mExample 4 e A4-m-high, 5-m-wide rectangular plate blocks the end of a 4-m-deep freshwater channel, as shown in the Fig. The plate is hinged about a horizontal axis along its upper edge through a point A and is restrained from opening by a fixed ridge at point B. e Determine the force exerted on the plate by the ridge. = a 4mfF Solution e A rectangular plate hinged about a horizontal axis along its upper edge blocks a fresh water channel. The plate is restrained from opening by a fixed ridge at a point B. The force exerted to the plate by the ridge is to be determined. e Assumptions. Atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the plate, and thus it can be ignored in calculations for convenience.Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m’ throughout. Analysis The average pressure on a surface is the pressure at the centroid (midpoint) of the surface, and is determined to be Prog = Po = p8he = pg(h/2) = (1000 kg/m?)(9.81 mvs?) (4/2 wi ik ——<* __ | = 19.62 kN/m? 1000 kg- m/s? Then the resultant hydrostatic force on each wall becomes Fy = Py A= (19.62 kN/m’)(4 mx5 m) =392 kN ‘The line of action of the force passes through the pressure center, which is 24/3 from the free surface, _ 2h _2x(m) 3 3 Taking the moment about point A and setting it equal to zero gives YiMs=0 > Fa(s+yp) = Fridge AB =2667m yp Solving for Frage and substituting, the reaction force is determined to be SEYP pp, — 42.667) (36) ny - 288 KNExample 5 e Along solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m hinged at point A is used as an automatic gate. When the water level reaches 5 m, the gate opens by turning about the hinge at point A. e Determine the hydrostatic force acting on the cylinder and its line of action when the gate opens andSOLUTION The height of a water reservoir is controlled by a cylindrical gate hinged to the reservoir. The hydrostatic force on the cylinder and the weight of the cylinder per m length are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Friction at the hinge is negligible. 2 Atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the gate, and thus it cancels out. Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m? throughout. Analysis (a) We consider the free-body diagram of the liquid block enclosed by the circular surface of the cylinder and its vertical and horizontal projec- tions. The hydrostatic forces acting on the vertical and horizontal plane sur- faces as well as the weight of the liquid block are determined as Horizontal force on vertical surface: Fy = F, = PygA= pghoA= pg(s + R2)A = (1000 kg/m*)(9.81 m/s’)(4.2 + 0.8/2 m)(0.8 m X 1 (Gait ae) = 36.1 kN Vertical force on horizontal surface (upward): Fy = Pa A= pghc A= pQMrotomA = (1000 kg/m’) (9.81 mvs’)(5 m)(0.8 m X 1 "(Son ae) = 39.2KNWeight of fluid block per m length (downward): W = mg = pgv = pg(R? — 7R/4)(1 m) = (1000 kg/m?) (9.81 m/s*)(0.8 m)2(1 — 7/4)(1 mooie we) = 1.3 KN Therefore, the net upward vertical force is Fy = Fy — W = 39.2 — 1.3 = 37.9 kN Then the magnitude and direction of the hydrostatic force acting on the cylindrical surface become Fa = VFA + Fi = V36.7 + 37.9? = 52.3 KN tan @ = Fy/F,, = 37.9/36.1 = 1.05 > @ = 46.4°fF Example 6 e A4-m-long quarter-circular gate of radius 3 m and of negligible weight is hinged about its upper edge A, as shown in the Fig. The gate controls the flow of water over the ledge at B, where the gate is pressed by a spring. Determine the minimum spring force required to keep the gate closed when the water level rises to A at the upper edge of the gate.ia > Solution e Assumptions 1. The hinge is frictionless. 2. Atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the gate, and thus it can be ignored in calculations for convenience. 3. The weight of the gate is negligible. ° We consider the free body diagram of the liquid block enclosed by the circular surface of the gate and its vertical and horizontal projections. © The hydrostatic forces acting on the vertical and horizontal plane surfaces as well as the weight of the liquid block are determined as follows e We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3 throughout.Horizontal force on vertical surface: Fy =F, = Pye A= pglicA = pg(R/2)A = (1000 kg/m? )(9.81 m/s”)(3 /2 m)(4m x3 m) ee 1000 kg - m/s: =176.6KN Vertical force on horizontal surface (upward): F, =P, A= pghcA= P&hregamA = (1000 kg/m*)(9.81 m/s*)(3m)(4 m x 3 (saan) 1000 kg -m/s* ass2 EN The weight of fluid block per 4-m length (downwards): W = pg = pg[ wx? /4] = (1000 kgm? )(9.81 m’s*)[ (4 m)x@ | a | =277.4 KN 1000 kg - m/s? Therefore, the net upward vertical force is Fy =F, —W =353.2-2774 =75.8kN© Then the magnitude and direction of the hydrostatic force acting on the surface of the 4-m long quarter-circular section of the gate become Fp =\F3 + Fe = (176.6 KN)? +(75.8KN)? =192.2 KN tang = Ft = 1S8KN =———=0.429 >» 9=23.2° Fy 176.6KN e The minimum spring force needed is determined by taking a moment about the point A where the hinge is, and setting it equal to zero, YiM4=0 > FRRsin(90-0)— Forcing R = 0 Solving for Fypring and substituting, the spring force is determined to be Fogring = FpSit(90- 8) = (192.2 KN) sin(90°—23.2°) = 177 KNBuoyancy, Floatation and stability e Itis a common experience that an object feels lighter and weighs less in a liquid than it does in air. This can be demonstrated easily by weighing a heavy object in water by a waterproof spring scale. Also, objects made of wood or other light materials float on water. e These and other observations suggest that a fluid exerts an upward force on a body immersed in it. This force that tends to lift the body is called the buoyant force and is denoted by F,. e The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure in a fluid with depth.fF Buoyancy, Floatation and stability Consider, for example, a flat plate of thickness h submerged in a liquid of density p; parallel to the free surface, as shown in the Fig. The area of the top (and also bottom) surface of the plate is A, and its distance to the free surface is s. The pressures at the top and bottom surfaces of the plate are pr gs and p, g(s + h), respectively. | L 7 x god pigs + HABuoyancy, Floatation and stability ° Then the hydrostatic force Fyop = pr gsA acts downward on the | top surface, and the larger 5 force Fhottom = Pr (8 + HYA acts upward on the bottom nL surface of the plate. ote ¢ The difference between these two forces is a net upward pgs +h)A force, which is the buoyant force, Fa = Foottom ~ Ftop = prg(s + h)A — p,gsA = p,ghA = p,gVBuoyancy, Floatation and stability where V = hA is the volume of the plate. But the relation p; gV is simply the weight of the liquid whose volume is equal to the volume of the plate. Thus, we conclude that the buoyant force acting on the plate is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the plate. Note that the buoyant force is independent of the distance of the body from the free surface. It is also independent of the density of the solid body. This is known as Archimedes’ principle, after the Greek mathematician Archimedes (287-212 BC), and is expressed as The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.Buoyancy, Floatation and stability Floating bodies are a special case; only a portion of the body is submerged, with the remainder poking up out of the free surface. Fz = (y)(displaced volume) = floating-body weight Neglect the displaced air up here. (Displaced volume) x ( y of fluid) = body weightBuoyancy, Floatation and stability e A body immersed ina fluid 1) Remains at rest at any point in the fluid when its density is equal to the density of the fluid, 2) Sinks to the bottom Ca ) (neutrally eee when its density is greater than the density of the fluid, and 3) Rises to the surface of the fluid and floats when the density of the body is less than the density of the fluid PtExample 1 ¢ Acrane is used to lower weights into the sea (density =1025 kg/m3) for an underwater construction project. ¢ Determine the tension in the rope of the crane due to a rectangular 0.4-m x 0.4-m x 3- m concrete block (density = 2300 kg/m3) when it is (a) suspended in the air and (b) completely immersed in water. Ia Fy ‘WaterAnalysis (a) Consider the free-body diagram of the concrete block. The forces acting on the concrete block in air are its weight and the upward pull action (tension) by the rope. These two forces must balance each other, and thus the tension in the rope must be equal to the weight of the block: V = (0.4 m)(0.4 m)(3 m) = 0.48 m? Fr, air = W = Proncrete GV _ a e 1kN ) _ (2300 kg/m) (9.81 mv/s?)(0.48 maa kgm) ~ 108 kN (b) When the block is immersed in water, there is the additional force of buoyancy acting upward. The force balance in this case gives - i 3 2 3 ei ae) a Fs = pr gv = (1025 kg/m3)(9.81 mvs?)(0.48 m "(sass ig-ma) ~ 48KN Fy, water = W — Fy = 10.8 — 4.8 = 6.0 KN Discussion Note that the weight of the concrete block, and thus the tension @ of the rope, decreases by (10.8 — 6.0)/10.8 = 55 percent in water.Example 2 e A170-kg granite rock (p = 2700 kg/m3) is dropped into a lake. A man dives in and tries to lift the rock. Determine how much force the man needs to apply to lift it from the bottom of the lake. Do you think he can do it? Analysis The weight and volume of the rock are 1 W = mg = (170kg)(9.81m/s” =1668N e to) 1kg-m/s” m__170kg “p 2700kg/im> The buoyancy force acting on the rock is 1N Fy = Pra &V = (1000 kg/m’ )(9.81 m/s* )(0.06296 m* I; ae The weight of a body submerged in water is equal to the weigh of the body in air minus the buoyancy force, Wo yar = Wey i: - Fg = 1668-618 = 1050 N = 0.06296m? JoanExample 2 e This force corresponds to a mass of Water mn — awe _ LON 1N ; )=107 kg g 9.81 ns’ (1 kg- m/s’ ¢ Therefore, a person who can lift 107 kg on earth can lift this rock in water.An important application of the buoyancy concept is the assessment of the stability of immersed and floating bodies with no external attachments. This topic is of great importance in the design of ships and submarinesStability of Immersed and Floating Bodies e A body is said to be in a stable a equilibrium position if, when displaced, C it returns to its equilibrium position. Conversely, it is in an unstable equilibrium position if, when displaced Stable (even slightly), it moves to a new equilibrium position. 4 Stability considerations are particularly important for submerged or floating Unstable bodies since the centers of buoyancy and gravity do not necessarily coincide. e Asmall rotation can result in either a restoring or overturning couple.fF Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies e For example, for the completely submerged body shown in the Fig. , which has a center of gravity below the center of buoyancy, a rotation from its equilibrium position will create a restoring couple formed by the weight , and the buoyant force, which causes the body to rotate back to its original position. () e Thus, for this configuration the body <> WD is stable. It is to be noted that as long Restoring as the center of gravity falls below Stable couple the center of buoyancy, this will always be true; that is, the body is in a stable equilibrium position with respect to small rotations.fF Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies ¢ If the center of gravity of the completely submerged body is above the center of buoyancy, the resulting couple formed by the weight > D and the buoyant force will cause the body to overturn and move to anew equilibrium position. C) e Thus, a completely submerged . . 2 Overturni body with its center of gravity caine : Unstabl above its center of buoyancy aa is in an unstable equilibrium position.Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies For floating bodies the stability problem is more complicated, since as the body rotates the location of the center of buoyancy (which passes through the centroid of the displaced volume) may change. A floating body can be stable even though the center of gravity lies above the center of buoyancy. This is true since as the body rotates the buoyant force, shifts to pass through the centroid of the newly formed displaced volume and, as illustrated, combines with the weight, to form a couple which will cause the body to return to its original equilibrium position. However, for the relatively tall, slender body shown in Fig. below, a small rotational displacement can cause the buoyant force and the weight to form an overturning couple as illustrated.c = centroid of original c'= centroid of new Restoring displaced volume displaced volume couple Stable ¢ = centroid of original c’= centroid of new Overturning displaced volume displaced volume couple eo UnstablefF Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies Metacenter eZ 1 Overturning Reson moment | moment / (b) Stable (c) Unstable (a) Stable e A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus the center of gravity G is below the centroid B of the body, or if the metacenter M is above point G. However, the body is eo unstable if point M is below point G.Part Il Fluids in Rigid-Body MotionIntroduction e In this section we obtain relations for the variation of pressure in fluids moving like a solid body with or without acceleration in the absence of any shear stresses (i.e., no motion between fluid layers relative to each other). e Many fluids such as milk and gasoline are transported in tankers. In an accelerating tanker, the fluid rushes to the back, and some initial splashing occurs. But then a new free surface (usually non-horizontal) is formed, each fluid particle assumes the same acceleration, and the entire fluid moves like a rigid body. ¢ No shear stresses develop within the fluid body since there is no deformation and thus no change in shape. Rigid-body motion of a fluid also occurs when the fluid is contained in a tank that rotates about an axis.Fluids in Rigid-body Motion ¢ Consider a differential rectangular fluid element of side lengths dx, dy, and dz in the x-, y-, and z-directions, respectively, with the z-axis being upward in the vertical direction . Noting that the differential fluid element behaves like a rigid body, Newton's second law of motion for this element can be expressed as dF =om- a Where @ 5m = p dV = p dx dy dz is the mass of the fluid elementFluids in Rigid-body Motion © @ is the acceleration, and $F is the net force acting on the element. © Two types forces act on the fluid element in Body forces such as gravity that act throughout the entire body of the element and are proportional to the volume of the body (and also electrical and magnetic forces, which will not be considered in this course), and ii. Surface forces such as the pressure forces that act on the surface of the element and are proportional to the surface area (shear stresses are also surface forces, but they do not apply in this case since the relative positions of fluid elements remain unchanged). ¢ Note that pressure represents the compressive force applied on the fluid element by the surrounding fluid and is always directed to the surface.Fluids in Rigid-body Motion ¢ Taking the pressure at the center of the element to be P. the pressures at the top and bottom surfaces of the element can be expressed as P + (aP/az) dz/2 and P — (aP/az) dz/2, respectively. e Noting that the pressure force acting on a surface is equal to the average pressure multiplied by the surface area, the net surface force acting on the element in the z-direction is the difference between the pressure forces acting on the bottom and top faces, oFs.=(P- ee te ay (P+ 2) x dy = FE ax dy Similarly, the net surface forces in the x- and y-directions are BF, ~ Pax dy dz and OF = —F duty