Report to the Department of Education,

Employment and Workplace Relations

Scoping study into approaches

to student wellbeing

LITERATURE REVIEW

PRN 18219

July 2008
 Literature Review - Scoping study into approaches to student wellbeing

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................... 2

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 4

SECTION 1: PROJECT OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 4
SECTION 2: WHAT IS STUDENT WELLBEING? ........................................................................................ 5
SECTION 3: THE OUTCOMES OF STUDENT WELLBEING AND ITS PATHWAYS .................................... 6
1. Physical and Emotional Safety ..................................................................................................... 6
2. Pro-social values .......................................................................................................................... 7
3. A supportive and caring school community.................................................................................. 7
4. Social and Emotional Learning .................................................................................................... 7
5. A Strengths-based Approach ........................................................................................................ 8
6. A sense of Meaning and Purpose.................................................................................................. 8
7. A Healthy Lifestyle........................................................................................................................ 9
SECTION 4: INTERNATIONAL FOCUS ON STUDENT WELLBEING ....................................................... 9
SECTION 5: STUDENT WELLBEING IN THE AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT .......................... 9
5.1: Australian Government National Frameworks in Education .................................................... 9
5.2 Report on the of the Responses of State and territory and non-government education
authorities to the Concept of a National Student Wellbeing Framework ....................................... 11
5.3 Student Wellbeing in State and Territory Curriculum and Policy Documents ................... 11
SECTION 6: WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACHES TO STUDENT WELLBEING: ISSUES OF SCHOOL
LEADERSHIP, IMPLEMENTATION AND SUSTAINABILITY OF STUDENT WELLBEING INITIATIVES .......... 12
SECTION 1: PROJECT OVERVIEW............................................................................................... 13
1.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 13
1.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................... 13
1.3 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 14
SECTION 2: STUDENT WELLBEING AND ITS PATHWAYS ................................................... 16
2.1 WHAT IS STUDENT WELLBEING?................................................................................................... 16
The Definition of Student Wellbeing Used in this Report ............................................................... 21
Explanations of Key Terms in this Definition ................................................................................. 21
The Assumptions Underpinning this Definition.............................................................................. 22
2.2 THE PATHWAYS TO STUDENT WELLBEING .................................................................................... 22
The seven pathways identified from the research ........................................................................... 23
SECTION 3: THE OUTCOMES OF STUDENT WELLBEING AND ITS PATHWAYS ........... 31
3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 31
Productivity .................................................................................................................................... 32
Social Inclusion .............................................................................................................................. 32
Social Capital ................................................................................................................................. 33
3.2 ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ............................................................................................................ 33
Increasing Student Motivation........................................................................................................ 33
Increasing Student Engagement ..................................................................................................... 33
Increasing Student Attendance and School Completion ................................................................. 33
Decreasing Problem Behaviour at School...................................................................................... 34

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 Literature Review - Scoping study into approaches to student wellbeing

3.3 THE SEVEN PATHWAYS TO WELLBEING .................................................................................. 34

SECTION 4: INTERNATIONAL FOCUS ON STUDENT WELLBEING.................................... 53
4.1 THE EUROPEAN NETWORK OF HEALTH PROMOTING SCHOOLS (NOW KNOWN AS THE SCHOOLS
FOR HEALTH IN EUROPE)..................................................................................................................... 53
4.2 THE INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR HEALTH PROMOTION AND EDUCATION (IUHPE) (1999).... 54
4.3. SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL ASPECTS OF LEARNING (SEAL) PROGRAM (UK)............................ 54
4.4. THE COLLABORATIVE FOR ACADEMIC, SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING (CASEL) (USA)... 54
4.5 THE POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY MOVEMENT (USA) .......................................................................... 55
SECTION 5: STUDENT WELLBEING IN THE AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT57
5.1: AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT NATIONAL FRAMEWORKS IN EDUCATION ....................................... 57
Common Threads............................................................................................................................ 57
Major Differences........................................................................................................................... 61
Other frameworks relevant to student wellbeing ............................................................................ 61
5.2 RESPONSES BY STATE, TERRITORY AND NON-GOVERNMENT EDUCATION AUTHORITIES TO THE
CONCEPT OF A NATIONAL STUDENT WELLBEING FRAMEWORK.......................................................... 62
Responses to concept of a Student Wellbeing National Framework............................................... 63
Current Practices in Student Wellbeing in Jurisdictions................................................................ 64
Limitations and gaps ...................................................................................................................... 65
The perceived role of the Australian Government and future directions........................................ 67
Partners in student wellbeing ......................................................................................................... 68
Issues and further comments by respondents.................................................................................. 68
5.3 STUDENT WELLBEING IN STATE AND TERRITORY CURRICULUM AND POLICY DOCUMENTS .. 69
SECTION 6: WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACHES TO STUDENT WELLBEING...................... 79
6.1 ISSUES OF SCHOOL LEADERSHIP, IMPLEMENTATION AND SUSTAINABILITY OF STUDENT
WELLBEING INITIATIVES ..................................................................................................................... 79
Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 84

7. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 85

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Executive Summary
The enhancement of student wellbeing is emerging as an important approach to the
development of students’ social, emotional and academic competence and a significant
contribution to the ongoing battle to prevent youth depression, suicide, self harm, anti-
social behaviour (including bullying and violence) and substance abuse.
The Australian Government is committed to reducing disadvantage in Australia and to
improving students’ educational outcomes and school retention rates. Identifying and
reducing the barriers to learning, including those linked to student wellbeing, can help to
maximise the educational and social outcomes for all students. The Ministerial Council on
Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) has identified “the active
participation of young people in economic and social life” as a strategy for reducing
depression, drug and alcohol abuse, crime, vandalism and other problems faced by young
people.
The purpose of the present Scoping Study, commissioned by the Department of Education,
Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) as a project of the National Schools Drug
Education Strategy (NSDES), aims to explore the value of developing an overarching
national framework/policy statement that encompasses a more holistic and comprehensive
approach to student wellbeing as a first step towards embedding student wellbeing in a
school’s curriculum. The project will investigate current national and international research
and State/Territory government and non-government approaches to student wellbeing, and
make recommendations about future directions in this area.
This Executive Summary is structured as follows:
Section 1 provides an overview of the project.
Section 2 discusses “What is Student Wellbeing”, exploring various definitions of this
concept, leading to a proposal for a working definition that may inform future work on a
National Framework in this area.
Section 3 examines the outcomes of, and pathways to, wellbeing, which is conceptualised
in a model that draws together the various influences on student wellbeing and their
consequences.
Section 4 examines the international literature on student wellbeing and its relationship
with schooling.
Section 5 summarises the current picture in relation to student wellbeing in the Australian
context, summarising the place of wellbeing in policy, curriculum and pedagogy.
Section 6 concludes this literature review, with a discussion of the evidence in relation to
whole school approaches to student wellbeing.

Section 1: Project Overview

The Scoping Study includes four phases of data gathering:

Phase 1: A review of research literature (both nationally and internationally) and
relevant educational policies & initiatives in student wellbeing.

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Phase 2: Consultations with each state and territory government and non-government
education authority and relevant experts in the field.
Phase 3: Testing feasibility of features of a potential framework with school
practitioners.
Phase 4: Provide documentation and analysis of key issues and recommendations for
future directions for student wellbeing.
This literature review is Phase 1 of the Scoping Study into Approaches into Student
Wellbeing. Phase 1 has involved two major elements:

• A review of the current Australian and International research on evidence based

links between student wellbeing and learning outcomes.

• A review of current Australian Government and state and territory government and
non-government education authorities’ policies, programs and practices.

Section 2: What is Student Wellbeing?

The first step in the literature review was to explore how student wellbeing has been
defined in the research literature. A comprehensive range of definitions of wellbeing is
outlined in the report, drawing from the fields of education, health and social and
psychological sciences. However, only three definitions were found that specifically focus
on student wellbeing as opposed to general wellbeing. The limitation of these existing
definitions for school practice is outlined and a new definition has been developed for this
report which synthesises the most common and relevant characteristics that appear in
current definitions of wellbeing, namely:

• Positive affect (an emotional component)

• Resilience (a coping component)

• Satisfaction with relationships and other dimensions of one’s life (a cognitive

component

• Effective functioning and the maximizing of one’s potential (a performance

component)
The definition developed for this report is:

Student wellbeing is defined as a sustainable state of positive

mood and attitude, resilience, and satisfaction with self,
relationships and experiences at school.

Student wellbeing is described as pervasive in that it affects most aspects of a student’s

functioning at school. A student’s level of wellbeing is indicated by the degree to which the
student demonstrates effective academic and social and emotional functioning and
appropriate behaviour at school
Seven pathways have been identified from the theoretical and research literature that have
the power to facilitate the development of student wellbeing. The definition above is based
on the assumption that student wellbeing is the outcome of a student’s access to many, and
sometimes to all, of these pathways. The seven pathways that have been identified from
the research literature are:

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1. Physical and emotional safety

2. Pro-social values
3. A supportive and caring School Community
4. Social and emotional learning
5. A strengths-based approach
6. A sense of meaning and purpose
7. A healthy lifestyle.
These pathways to student wellbeing are interrelated but still separable. They interact with
each other to enhance student wellbeing. The whole (i.e. wellbeing) is greater than just
the sum of the parts (i.e. the pathways).
Each of the seven pathways is discussed in terms of the research evidence on its effects on
important student outcomes. The research evidence on the effects of student wellbeing
and its pathways indicates that students with high levels of wellbeing and/or access to
many of its pathways are more likely to have:

• higher academic achievement and complete Year 12;

• better mental health (i.e. they have lower and/or less severe rates of illnesses
such as depression and anxiety); and

• a more pro-social, responsible and lawful lifestyle (i.e. they display concern for
the wellbeing of others, make responsible decisions about the consequences of
their actions on themselves and others [including using drugs and alcohol in a
responsible way], and do not violate the laws and norms of their society).
All three outcomes contribute significantly in the long-term picture to greater participation
in the workforce (and hence greater productivity), more social inclusion, and more
effective building of Australia’s social capital.
Enhancing student wellbeing and its pathways can increase academic achievement both
directly but indirectly. The four main mechanisms by which the enhancement of student
wellbeing and its pathways can indirectly improve academic achievement are:

• By increasing student motivation to participate and achieve;

• By increasing student engagement with, and participation in, learning;

• By increasing student attendance and hence increasing school completion; and

• By decreasing problem behaviour at school and hence decreasing levels of

suspension and exclusion from school.

Section 3: The Outcomes of Student Wellbeing and its

Pathways

1. Physical and Emotional Safety

Multiple studies have identified a strong link between bullying others at school and later
violent, antisocial and/or criminal behaviour. A strong link has also been identified
between being bullied at school and a range of mental health difficulties (such as anxiety

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and depression) as well as loneliness, low self esteem and poor social self concept.
Addressing bullying and violence in schools assists the mental health of all students and
creates a learning environment in which wellbeing can thrive.

2. Pro-social values

Many researchers have included the teaching of pro-social values as part of their overall
and moderately successful anti-bullying, anti-violence or student wellbeing interventions.
Many of the school projects in the Australian Government’s Values Education Good Practice
Schools Project have been shown to extend the strategies, options and repertoires of
teachers for effectively managing learning environments and for developing positive school
and class environments that positively influence both student and teacher behaviour.

3. A supportive and caring school community

A supportive and caring school community is characterised by positive school and classroom
climates; students’ having a sense of connectedness and belonging to a good school of
which they are proud; caring, supportive and respectful relationships with teachers;
positive relationships with other students and involvement by their parents with the school.
When students have these experiences at school they are more likely to have higher levels
of wellbeing. Many studies have identified a range of positive benefits from being part of a
supportive and caring school community such as:

• Increases in academic achievement as a result of the indirect effects of higher levels

of participation, higher levels of engagement, attendance and participation.

• Reductions in anti-social behaviour such as bullying, violence and vandalism

• Reductions in students’ dropping out of school

• Less drug, tobacco and alcohol use

• Increases in mental health and reductions in emotional distress

• Later age for first sexual experience

• Decreases in disruptive behaviour in school

• Greater acceptance of authority and the school’s values

• More acceptance of responsibility for regulating their own classroom behaviour.

4. Social and Emotional Learning

It is now well established across research studies that social and emotional skills (such as
the ability to work cooperatively with others, manage one’s emotions, cope with setbacks
and solve problems effectively) are integral parts of academic success. The outcomes of
teaching such social and emotional skills include improved school performance, better
problem solving and planning, more use of high-order thinking skills and higher levels of
pro-social and non-disruptive behaviour.
A recent meta-analysis of 207 studies of social-emotional learning (SEL) programs
conducted by a CASEL research team (Durlak, et al., 2008) found that students who
participated in SEL programs:

• Improved significantly in their social and emotional skills and their attitudes to
themselves, others, and school

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• Displayed more classroom pro-social behaviour and fewer disruptive and

aggressive behaviours

• Experienced lower levels of depression

• Scored 11 percentile points higher on standardized achievement tests, relative to

peers not receiving the program.
A student’s level of social competence and their friendship networks have been shown to be
predictive of both their current and future academic achievement. Social skills are seen as
“academic enablers”, that is, skills that help students to make the best of their ability.
Using pro-social skills such as active listening, helping, cooperating, and sharing can help
students to function more effectively in both social and academic contexts, as both
contexts require similar skills.
Experiencing ongoing positive emotions has been found to enhance an individual’s capacity
for optimistic thinking, problem solving and decision making and to lead to more flexible,
innovative and creative solutions.

5. A Strengths-based Approach

A converging message from many areas (eg the Positive Psychology movement, the
Collaborative for Academic and Social-Emotional Learning (CASEL) and the Positive Youth
Development movement) is the importance of strengths-based approaches to promoting
student wellbeing and academic engagement.
A “strength” is defined as a natural capacity for behaving, thinking and feeling in a way
that promotes successful goal achievement. Strengths can be intellectual or personal (eg
character traits or the ability to self-manage). A strengths-based approach is based on the
assumption that having the opportunities to use one’s strengths in schoolwork or in the
general life of the school or classroom produces more positive emotions, leads to higher
levels of engagement and produces better learning outcomes, especially for those students
whose strengths are not in the traditional academic domain. The Multiple
Intelligences/Bloom Planning Matrix and the VIA Strengths Survey are two tools for helping
students to identify strengths and engage their strengths through a variety of diverse
school-based learning tasks and activities.
Young people are more likely to be fully engaged and experience “psychological flow” when
involved in an intellectually challenging activity that utilises their strength(s) and has a
degree of challenge that requires a reasonably high level of skill and attention in a specific
domain (eg building a model, or playing a musical instrument). Research has identified that
high teacher expectations and the provision of intellectually challenging activities for
students are two approaches to building strengths.

6. A sense of Meaning and Purpose

A sense of meaning can be defined as involvement in a task or activity that impacts on

people other than just oneself. A sense of purpose can be defined as involvement in a
worthwhile task or activity. Having no sense of meaning in life has been shown to be
associated with psychopathology, whilst having a positive sense of life meaning is
associated with greater wellbeing. Recent research has highlighted the importance of
“student voice” in giving students a sense of meaning and connectedness to the curriculum.
Student participation is a recognised feature of high performing schools and has a positive
effect on learning in the classroom and engagement in school.

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Other school initiatives that have been found to foster a sense of meaning and purpose and
enhance student engagement and learning include: peer support programs and student
participation in class-wide or school-wide leadership and decision-making structures (eg
circle time, classroom councils, classroom committees or school-wide Student
Representative Committees). Similarly students’ participation in sports teams, art and
drama groups and membership of pro-social youth groups has been identified as one of the
most prevalent protective factors in enhancing youth wellbeing.
Engaging students in community service (or service learning) is another approach that many
schools are using to facilitate educational experiences and outcomes and provide students
with a sense of meaning and purpose. It has been suggested that community service may be
linked to academic success because it can give students a feeling of usefulness and being
valued and can also demonstrate to students the usefulness of what they are learning in
school to the “real world”.

7. A Healthy Lifestyle

Students’ health has been shown to be associated with a sense of connectedness to school,
family and community. Lower levels of education have been shown to be associated with
poorer mental and physical health. A study of more than five thousand American high
school students found that higher life satisfaction was associated with lower levels of
smoking and irresponsible use of alcohol, marijuana, and other illegal drugs, lower levels of
teen pregnancy and lower levels of driving while intoxicated.

Section 4: International Focus on Student Wellbeing

There is a clear trend for countries around the world to incorporate a focus on student
wellbeing and/or its pathways into the curriculum and other school programs. However
there is also a consistent message from evaluations of these initiatives that implementation
is complex and requires a whole school approach which incorporates a positive school
ethos, planning for sustainability and collaborative partnerships. This section provides an
overview of some of the more significant international student wellbeing initiatives such as:
the European Network of Health Promoting Schools, the Social and Emotional Aspects of
Learning (SEAL) program in the UK, the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional
Learning (CASEL) in the USA and the Positive Psychology movement.

Section 5: Student Wellbeing in the Australian Educational

Context

5.1: Australian Government National Frameworks in Education

The current scoping study into student wellbeing has taken consideration of a range of
other frameworks, including the following:

• The National Framework for Health Promoting Schools (HPS)

• The two National initiatives based on the HPS model:

o MindMatters: secondary focus
o KidsMatter: primary focus

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• National Framework for Values Education

• National Safe Schools Framework (NSSF)

• Principles for School Drug Education

• National Drug Strategy (2004-2009)

• National Suicide Prevention Strategy

• National Action Plan on Mental Health (2006-2011)

Although each document offers some unique features based on its particular focus, an
overview and synthesis of the key national frameworks and initiatives indicates a strong
focus on the promotion of wellbeing and mental health through:

• Early intervention with students who are at risk for mental illness, behaviour
problems, poor physical health, anti-social behaviour and substance abuse;

• School-based prevention programs that develop student resilience and other

aspects of social and emotional learning;

• The development of a safe, supportive and values-based school ethos; and

• School connectedness and social connectedness.

Many frameworks and initiatives also advocate that schools contribute to the future
capacity of students to participate in the workforce in a sustainable way and contribute to
community productivity, and the promotion of pro-social values and students’ civic
engagement.
Three other significant Australian Commonwealth goals align with these frameworks and
initiatives:

• Combating economic and social disadvantage;

• Closing the gap between indigenous and non-indigenous people in terms of health
and life expectancy, infant and child mortality and educational outcomes; and

• Ensuring social inclusion so that all Australians have the opportunity to fully
participate through the benefits of work, education, community engagement and
access to basic services.
One common thread in most of the Australian Government frameworks is that there are
common risk factors that contribute to priority health problems such as drug-related risk
and harm, youth anxiety/depression and youth suicide and social dislocation. Another
common thread is that there are positive pathways that enhance student wellbeing and
student engagement in learning.
Some of the common threads in the Australian Government National Frameworks in
Education are consistent with many of the “active ingredients” or key components
identified in the research literature as critical to the implementation and sustainability of
student wellbeing initiatives. These common threads are:

• A whole child focus;

• The assumption that student wellbeing impacts on student learning;

• A whole school approach;

• A values-based & inclusive approach;

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• A focus on safe & supportive school environment/ethos;

• The important role of the teacher;

• Programs should be across all school years;

• The importance of strong school leadership;

• Partnerships with parents and the community; and

• A strong focus on prevention and early intervention.

5.2 Report on the of the Responses of State and territory and non-
government education authorities to the Concept of a National Student
Wellbeing Framework

All jurisdictions were invited to complete a questionnaire in October 2007 which asked their
views on student wellbeing and the advantages and disadvantages of a National Framework
in student wellbeing.
A broad National Framework for Student Wellbeing was generally welcomed by all
jurisdictions which they saw as needed to provide clarity, coordination, and consistency
across jurisdictions and within schools. Many commented on the importance of evidence-
based practice within such a framework. Respondents highlighted the importance of
prevention and early intervention with a whole child and whole school focus that would
strengthens the links between student wellbeing and learning outcomes. The need for both
funding support and teacher professional learning was emphasised together with the need
to consult with all jurisdictions. One of the main challenges was seen as encouraging
schools and educators to change their traditional emphasis on welfare, student deficits,
targeted populations and specific programs to a focus on universal student wellbeing and an
emphasis on whole school change.

5.3 Student Wellbeing in State and Territory Curriculum and Policy

Documents

An analysis of policy documentation of curriculum content and/or learning outcomes

showed that, although there is considerable variation across Australian educational
jurisdictions in their focus on student wellbeing, there is also evidence of a growing
emphasis on the importance of student wellbeing and its pathways. In some cases student
wellbeing is positioned at the centre of everything that happens at school (e.g. South
Australia). In other states it has a strong presence within Essential Learnings, pedagogical
principles, a wellbeing policy or overarching learning outcomes (e.g. Northern Territory,
Western Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland and the Australian Capital
Territory). In some states wellbeing is located within the Health and/or Physical Education
curriculum either as the main focus (e.g. Tasmania, Queensland) or as an additional focus
(e.g. Northern Territory, Victoria, Western Australia). However it appears that very few
states and territories have made available a range of effective online teacher resources for
the implementation of wellbeing. In some cases (e.g. New South Wales) there are
convincing objectives but a limited focus on skills, strategies, resources and
implementation.

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Section 6: Whole School Approaches to Student Wellbeing:

Issues of School Leadership, Implementation and
Sustainability of Student Wellbeing Initiatives

Over the last decade, there has been a research shift from a focus on the short-term
effectiveness of innovations towards a focus on creating conditions for longer-term
sustained success in ‘normal’ school circumstances. There are now a great many evaluation
studies and meta-analytic studies that have consistently identified school-based factors
that are associated with the successful and enduring implementation of student wellbeing
initiatives. Good Practice examples at the school system level (eg the Catholic Education
Office in Melbourne) and individual school levels are discussed.

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Section 1: Project Overview

1.1 Introduction

The Australian Government is committed to reducing disadvantage in Australia and to

improving students’ educational outcomes and school retention rates. Identifying and
reducing the barriers to learning, including those linked to student wellbeing, will help
maximise the educational and social outcomes for students.
The Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA)
has identified “the active participation of young people in economic and social life” as a
strategy for reducing depression, drug and alcohol abuse, crime, vandalism and other
problems faced by young people. In addition, there is a growing level of interest and
discussion on the linkages between student outcomes and the factors which affect a
student’s capacity to learn effectively. Recent research points to academic performance
being closely linked to student wellbeing. Student wellbeing encompasses a range of
physical, emotional and mental health issues, all of which impact on a student’s
educational outcomes and school retention.
The purpose of the present Scoping Study is to explore the value of developing an
overarching national framework/policy statement that encompasses a more holistic and
comprehensive approach to student wellbeing as a first step towards embedding student
wellbeing in a school’s curriculum. The project will investigate current national and
international research and State/Territory government and non-government approaches to
student wellbeing, and make recommendations about future directions in this area.
The Scoping Study is funded under the National School Drug Education Strategy (NSDES) and
appropriated under the Quality Outcomes Program. Funding under the NSDES is applied to
projects with a national, strategic focus and for projects in Australian states and
territories. Funding is directed towards fostering the capacity of school communities to
provide safe and supportive school environments for all Australian school students,
enhancing school drug education programmes and the management of drug related issues
and incidents in schools.

1.2 Project Objectives

The objectives of this study are to document:

• a broad definition of student wellbeing for the purposes of this Project through
research and consultation with key stakeholders

• evidence, through undertaking research and analysis of Australian and overseas

literature, on:
o links between student wellbeing and student learning outcomes and
whether student wellbeing contributes to achieving these outcomes
o the impact on student learning outcomes of student wellbeing issues such
as bullying, physical and mental health, overweight and obesity, poor
nutrition and student or family drug abuse, interpersonal relationships, etc.

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o the impact of a whole school approach on student wellbeing.

• current State and Territory government and non-government approaches to student

wellbeing;

• policies/procedures that schools or jurisdictions have in place to address student

wellbeing, including
o how these policies/procedures are implemented, the degree of
effectiveness, and the performance measures currently used by State and
Territory government and non-government education authorities to
determine effectiveness
o a review of the key and common principles that underpin current Australian
Government policies that are conceptually linked to student wellbeing such
as National Safe Schools Framework, Framework in Values Education,
Health Promoting Schools, Drug Education Initiatives and School Chaplaincy
o the extent to which student wellbeing policies and procedures are
integrated into the school curriculum
o how student wellbeing is defined and measured
o other areas and organisations involved in student wellbeing, including for
example health, sport, etc.
o limitations and/or gaps of current approaches to student wellbeing.

• key stakeholder views and ideas about future directions in this area, including
whether there is support for developing an overarching national framework/policy
statement to underpin student wellbeing; and the implications of such a statement
on current/future wellbeing activities.

• recommendations on key issues and future directions for student wellbeing.

1.3 Methodology

A four phased approach to data gathering will be used in this Study:

Phase 1: A review of research literature (both nationally and internationally) and
relevant educational policies & initiatives in student wellbeing.
Phase 2: Consultations with each state and territory government and non-government
education authority and relevant experts in the field.
Phase 3: Testing feasibility of features of a potential framework with school
practitioners.
Phase 4: Provide documentation and analysis of key issues and recommendations for
future directions for student wellbeing.
The purpose of this report is to provide a comprehensive Literature Review in relation to
Phase 1 of the Methodology. This includes two key steps as detailed below:

Step 1: A review of the current Australian and international research on evidence based
links between student wellbeing and learning outcomes.

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Step 2: Current Australian Government and state and territory government and non-
government education authorities’ policies, programs and practices.

The objectives for the Literature Review are:

1. A review of the literature to develop a broad definition of student wellbeing for the
purposes of this Project
2. Evidence, through undertaking research and analysis of Australian and overseas
literature, on the links between student wellbeing and student learning outcomes
and whether student wellbeing contributes to achieving these outcomes
3. Evidence, through undertaking research and analysis of Australian and overseas
literature, on the impact on student learning outcomes of student wellbeing issues
such as bullying, physical and mental health, overweight and obesity, poor nutrition
and student or family drug abuse, interpersonal relationships, etc.
4. Evidence, through undertaking research and analysis of Australian and overseas
literature, on the impact of a whole school approach on student wellbeing.
5. A review of the current State and Territory government and non-government
approaches to student wellbeing
6. A review of the current Australian government policies/frameworks that inform
student wellbeing.

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Section 2: Student Wellbeing and its

Pathways
This section of the report discusses “What is Student Wellbeing”, exploring various
definitions of this concept, leading to a proposal for a working definition that may inform
future work on a National Framework in this area.

2.1 What is Student Wellbeing?

Over the last ten years there has been a gradual shift in both research and school practice
away from the concept of student welfare and towards the concept of student wellbeing.
This trend towards wellbeing is consistent with a positive psychology approach (e.g. Ryff
and Singer, 1996; Seligman, 2002) and more recently the positive education approach
(Gable & Haidt, 2005; Noble & McGrath 2008; Seligman 2008) which focuses on wellbeing
and its determinants. This focus has evolved over many years. As early as 1930, mental
health was defined as “the adjustment of human beings to the world and to each other with
a maximum of effectiveness and happiness” (Menninger, 1930 p.1). In 1947 The World
Health Organization (WHO) defined health in terms of wellness, that is physical, mental,
and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease (WHO, 1958, p.1).
Richard Eckersley (2005) argues that schools should be dedicated to creating capable,
confident, young people who are equipped to face the ups and downs of life. To this end he
advocates that schools should focus on developing student wellbeing to produce happier,
healthier and more productive young people who flourish as human beings. Research
suggests that, overall, students who have high levels of wellbeing tend to be better
problem-solvers, show better work performance and achieve more highly, have more
positive and meaningful social relationships, display virtues such as forgiveness and
generosity, be more resistant to stress, and experience better physical and mental health
(Frisch, 2000; Veenhoven, 1989).
Fraillon (2004) has argued for the development of a consistent national definition of
student wellbeing that can be applied across all Australian schools in order to establish
common understandings and language to support the development of national student
wellbeing policies and programs.
However this is not an easy task. There are very few definitions of wellbeing to be found in
the academic literature and hardly any definitions of “student wellbeing”. Pollard and Lee
(2003), among others, have commented on the “elusive” nature of the wellbeing construct
which has made it difficult for researchers to define and measure. Others, such as Diener,
1984, and Ryff, 1989 have also lamented the lack of an adequate conceptualisation of
wellbeing especially when applied to students (Huebner, 1997). Fraillon (2004) notes that
whilst most educators and psychologists advocate a focus on student wellbeing, there is
very little consensus on what student wellbeing is.
There are many largely subjective hypotheses about the key ingredients of wellbeing. Park
(2004) asserts that wellbeing is synonymous with the everyday term “happiness” but others
disagree, arguing that happiness is short-lived but wellbeing is relatively stable and
experienced over time.
Different professional disciplines have taken different perspectives on wellbeing.

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The clinical and health perspective tends to define wellbeing as the absence of negative
conditions such as depression, anxiety or substance abuse. Contemporary psychologists tend
to operationalise wellbeing in terms of happiness and satisfaction with life (Kahnemann,
Diener & Schwartz, 1999), Seligman 2002) and/or as the presence of a significant number of
positive self-attributes (Keyes, 1998; Ryff & Singer, 1996). Sociologists and community
workers have focused on wellbeing in terms of “broader meanings and difficulties in social
processes in young people’s lives and how these impact on individual behaviour” (Bourke &
Geldens, 2007, p.42). This report has taken an educational perspective.
Fraillon (2004) in his MCEETYA report entitled Measuring Student Well-Being in the Context
of Australian Schooling, conducted an audit of existing theoretical models of wellbeing and
found significant variation in both the magnitude and scope of the hypothesized
characteristics of wellbeing. The examples in the chart below illustrate this variation.

Definition Author(s) Key Features

Wellness is an integrated method of Dunn, 1961 Maximising one’s

functioning which is oriented toward potential
maximising the potential of which an
individual is capable.

Taking responsibility for your health means Ardell, 1982 An active process
making a conscious commitment to your
Pursuit of excellence in
well-being. It involves a recognition that
physical, mental,
you choose a positive existence for the
pursuit of excellence affecting all four emotional and spiritual
aspects of being – the physical, mental, realm
emotional and spiritual realm

An active process through which you Hettler, 1984 An active process

become aware of, and make choices that
Fulfilment
you hope will lead to a more fulfilling,
more successful, more well life. As such, Holistic
wellness is an approach that emphasises
the whole person, not just the biological
organism.

Wellness implies a lifestyle with a sense of Lowdon, Davis, Balanced lifestyle

balance. This sense of balance arises from a Dickie, &
balance, or harmony within each aspect or Ferguson, 1995
‘dimension’ of life.

The striving for perfection that represents Ryff, 1995 Maximising one’s
the realisation of one’s true potential. potential

Wellness, or a sense of well-being includes Corbin, 1997 Living and working

one’s ability to live and work effectively effectively
and to make a significant contribution to
Contributing to society
society.

A way of life oriented toward optimal Witmer & Integration of mind body
health and well-being in which mind, body, Sweeney, 1998 and spirit
and spirit are integrated by the individual

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 Literature Review - Scoping study into approaches to student wellbeing

Definition Author(s) Key Features

to live life more fully within the human
Living fully in the natural
and natural community.
community

The ability to successfully, resiliently, and Weisner, 1998 Resilience

innovatively participate in the routines and
Successful community
activities deemed significant by a cultural
participation
community. Well-being is also the states of
mind and feeling produced by participation Routines and activities
in routines and activities

A holistic subjective state which is present Stewart-Brown Holistic

when a range of feelings, among them 2000
Positive emotions
energy, confidence, openness, enjoyment,
happiness, calm and caring are combined
and balanced.
(This definition is used by the Catholic
Education Office in Melbourne).

Well-being is a complex construct that Ryan & Deci, Optimal functioning

concerns optimal experience and 2001
functioning.

Subjective well-being (SWB) represents Diener & Happiness

people’s evaluations of their lives, and Biswas-
Positive emotions
includes happiness, pleasant emotions, life Diener,2002
satisfaction, and a relative absence of Life satisfaction
unpleasant moods and emotions. Absence of negative
emotions

Wellbeing is not simply an absence of Keyes, 2002 Positive feelings

mental illness but the presence of positive
Positive psychosocial
levels of feelings and psychosocial
functioning
functioning. It is about flourishing rather
than languishing.

Well-being is the state of successful Bornstein, Integration of physical,

performance throughout the life course Davidson, cognitive, and social-
integrating physical, cognitive, and social- Keyes, & Moore, emotional functions
emotional functions that results in 2003
Productivity in the
productive activities deemed significant by
community
one’s cultural community, fulfilling social
relationships, and the ability to transcend Fulfilling social
moderate psychosocial and environmental relationships
problems. Well-being also has a subjective Resilience
dimension in the sense of satisfaction
associated with fulfilling one’s potential. Satisfaction
Maximising one’s
potential

[wellbeing is] peoples’ positive evaluations Diener & Satisfaction

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 Literature Review - Scoping study into approaches to student wellbeing

Definition Author(s) Key Features

of their lives which includes positive Seligman, 2004
Positive emotions
emotion, engagement, satisfaction, and
meaning. Meaning
Engagement

Well-being comprises life satisfaction and Headey & Positive feelings

positive feelings such as joy and vitality. Wooden,2004
Life satisfaction

Wellbeing consists of three components: Park, 2004 Positive mood

relatively high levels of positive affect
Satisfaction
(mood), relatively low levels of negative
affect, and the overall judgment that one’s Low levels of negative
life is a good one. Satisfaction is the mood
cognitive component.

Wellbeing, especially positive wellbeing, is Eckersley, 2005 Meaning in life

strongly related to meaning in
Maximising one’s
life….wellbeing is about more than living
potential
‘the good life’; it is about having meaning
in life, about fulfilling our potential and
feeling that our lives are worthwhile.

Wellbeing is a positive state of affairs, Prilleltensky & Positive state

brought about by the simultaneous Prilleltensky,
Satisfaction of needs
satisfaction of personal, organizational, 2006
and collective needs of individuals and Wellbeing is interactive
communities. between groups,
communities, and
individuals

Wellbeing is more than pleasant emotions; Huppert, Baylis Sustainable

it is a positive and sustainable condition & Keverne, 2006
Thriving and flourishing
that allows individuals, groups or nations to
thrive and flourish. Our concept also Resilience
encompasses human resilience; there will
always be setbacks inherent in the process
of living and the ability to develop and
thrive in the face of such adversity is a key
element of wellbeing.

A state of health, happiness and prosperity. Babington, 2006 Health

It includes subjective judgments about
Happiness
happiness or satisfaction about life as a
whole, including its social, cultural, Prosperity
spiritual and emotional aspects. Satisfaction with social,
cultural, spiritual and
emotional aspects of life

Mental health can be conceptualized as a WHO, 2007 Resilience

state of well-being in which the individual
Maximising one’s
realizes his or her own abilities, can cope

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 Literature Review - Scoping study into approaches to student wellbeing

Definition Author(s) Key Features

with the normal stresses of life, can work potential
productively and fruitfully, and is able to
Productive outcomes
make a contribution to his or her
community. Contribution to
community

Sustainable psychological well-being refers Huppert, 2008 Positive mood

to lives going well. It is the combination of
Effective functioning
feeling good and functioning effectively. It
includes the experience of negative Resilience
emotions and managing them successfully.

Having agency or power to take NSW Autonomy

independent action, leading to some Commission for
Safety
control and capacity to act independently Children and
in everyday life. Having a sense of security Young People Engagement with life
to be able to engage fully with life and do 2007 Positive sense of self
the things that one needs to do. Having a
positive sense of self: that is feeling that Views of Valued by others
you are an okay or good person, and being Children and
recognised as such by those around you—for Young People on
who you are as well as what you do. wellbeing

There appear to be only three definitions that specifically focus on student wellbeing as
opposed to general wellbeing:
“Wellbeing is a positive emotional state that is the result of a harmony
between the sum of specific context factors on the one hand and the
personal needs and expectations towards the school on the other hand.”
(Engels, Aelterman, Van Petegem, & Schepens, 2004, p128);

“Wellbeing is the degree to which a student feels good in the school

environment.” (De Fraine, Van Landeghem, Van Damme & Onghena, 2005);

“Wellbeing is the degree to which a student is functioning effectively in

the school community.” (Fraillon, 2004).
Some researchers and writers have proposed that there are several different types of
wellbeing (e.g. Pollard & Lee, 2003) such as psychological wellbeing, physical wellbeing,
social wellbeing, spiritual wellbeing and cognitive wellbeing. However it seems more useful
to perceive these as dimensions of wellbeing rather than separate types of wellbeing.
Fraillon (2004) has advocated a multi-dimensional model of wellbeing and Park (2004) has
also proposed that wellbeing is a multidimensional construct that includes both cognitive
components such as judgment and satisfaction and affective components such as positive
mood (Park, 2004).
The most common characteristics that appear in current definitions of wellbeing appear to
be:

• Positive affect (an emotional component);

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• Resilience (a coping component);

• Satisfaction with relationships and other dimensions of one’s life (a cognitive

component); and

• Effective functioning and the maximizing of one’s potential (a performance

component).

The Definition of Student Wellbeing Used in this Report

Seedhouse (1995) concludes that it is not possible to develop water-tight definitions of any
key human concepts such as knowledge, happiness, wisdom or wellbeing but that
professionals who focus on wellbeing can still proceed with their core business with a clear-
enough idea of what they are aiming to do. The definition that has been developed for this
report is consistent with the direction taken by Fraillon (2004) but it is more expansive. It is
based on a synthesis of all of the features in available definitions of wellbeing and student
wellbeing. It is a broad, overarching construct.

Student wellbeing is defined as a sustainable state of positive mood and attitude,

resilience, and satisfaction with self, relationships and experiences at school.

Explanations of Key Terms in this Definition

Sustainable
Student wellbeing is sustainable in that it is relatively consistent and able to be maintained
over time even though ongoing life events may result in temporary emotional reactions
(Diener, 1994). Studies with young people have found that their level of life satisfaction is
reasonably stable across time (Suldo and Huebner, 2004).
Positive mood and attitude
This can be described as the tendency or disposition to experience predominantly positive
emotions (eg excitement, anticipation, joy, fun, confidence, affection) across situations
and time (Perrewe and Spector, 2002, p. 37) and to demonstrate a mostly positive approach
to all aspects of school, concentrating on and amplifying the positives.
Resilience
The ability to cope and bounce back after encountering negative events, challenging tasks,
difficult situations or adversity and to return to almost the same level of emotional
wellbeing; the capacity to maintain a healthy and fulfilling life despite adversity and even
be strengthened by the experience (McGrath & Noble, 2003).
Satisfaction with self, relationships and experiences at school

A relatively positive cognitive appraisal by students of themselves and their lives (Huebner,
Suldo, Smith, & McKnight, 2004) in terms of their own behaviour, personal characteristics,
academic and other school-based performance, and their general school experiences (eg
how they are treated by others at school, the kind of learning tasks they undertake, their
involvement with community service, peer support, sporting teams and clubs and so on).
Suldo, Shaffer & Riley (2008) assert that children’s own perception of the quality of their
life is probably the most important indicator of their level of wellbeing.

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The construct of “satisfaction with self, relationships and experiences at school” has some
similarities to self-acceptance but it is more than that. Several researchers have argued
that satisfaction with aspects of one’s life is not the same as self-esteem (Bender, 1997;
Huebner, 1997) and factor analytic studies have supported this distinction (Huebner 1995;
Terry and Huebner 1995). Global self-esteem generally refers to an overall evaluation of
one’s behaviour and personal characteristics, whereas life satisfaction is a more
comprehensive construct that involves cognitive judgments of satisfaction in a number of
life domains (Huebner, 1997). The concept of self-esteem does not have the currency in
schools that it once had. Seligman (1995) pointed out some of the pitfalls of the construct
of self-esteem when he said:
“Armies of … teachers, along with … parents, are straining to bolster
children’s self esteem. That sounds innocuous enough, but the way they
do it often erodes children’s sense of worth. By emphasizing how a child
feels, at the expense of what the child does-mastery, persistence,
overcoming frustration and boredom and meeting a challenge-parents and
teachers are making this generation of children more vulnerable to
depression”. (Seligman, 1995 p.27).

The Assumptions Underpinning this Definition

This definition assumes that:

• Student wellbeing is an outcome for which there are a number of key

determinants. The more user-friendly term “pathways” has been adopted to
identify the key determinants.

• Student wellbeing is pervasive in that it affects most aspects of a student’s

functioning at school.

• There are seven different pathways to student wellbeing which, although

inevitably interrelated are also discrete enough to be separable.

• There are different levels of student wellbeing and that the more pathways that a
student can access, the higher their level of wellbeing is likely to be.

• Levels of student wellbeing are indicated by the degree to which a student

demonstrates effective academic and social and emotional functioning and
appropriate behaviour at school. The concept of maximising one’s potential,
although a common thread in the academic literature on wellbeing is considered
not to be helpful either as part of a definition of student wellbeing nor as an
indicator of student wellbeing. The concept of effective functioning is a preferred
alternative for its practicality. As noted by Fraillon (2004) effective functioning is
more readily observed and measured and it is almost impossible to identify what a
student’s “potential” (across a range of school contexts) actually is.

2.2 The Pathways to Student Wellbeing

This report uses the more user-friendly term “pathways to student wellbeing” in place of
the more clinical term “determinants of wellbeing” to indicate that there are many
directions that schools can take to enhance student wellbeing. These pathways are, as

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mentioned in an earlier section, interrelated but able to be articulated and detailed

separately. Each of the seven pathways is described below with some explanation as to how
it is linked with wellbeing.
In Section three each of the seven pathways will be discussed in terms of the research
evidence on its effects on important student outcomes. The three most important of these
are academic achievement, mental health and pro-social, responsible and lawful lifestyle.
These three outcomes contribute significantly (in the bigger and longer-term societal
picture) to productivity, social inclusion and the building of social capital. In the school
context, the building of social capital refers to the ways in which schools enhance the
productive capacity of students to work collaboratively and productively to contribute to
the school community and later to the broader community. Student equity and access are
also facilitated through academic achievement.

The seven pathways identified from the research

In summary the seven pathways are:

1. Physical and emotional safety;
2. Pro-social values;
3. A supportive and caring school community;
4. Social and emotional learning;
5. A strengths-based approach;
6. A sense of meaning and purpose; and
7. A healthy lifestyle.
These seven pathways are explained in more detail below.

1. Physical and emotional safety

Feeling safe from violence, putdowns, being bullied or harassed is an important pathway to
wellbeing (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Lee & Smith, 1999). A “safe school” is one in which
all members of the school community share and enact a “Safe School’ vision which
includes:

• A clear and transparent “safe school” policy

• Procedures and training which ensure that all staff effectively manage situations
involving actual or potential victimisation, harassment or violence, and

• A “safe school” curriculum.

2. Pro-social values
Pro-social values are the relatively stable, pervasive and enduring holistic beliefs that
people hold about what is right and wrong and the principles that underpin how they live
their life. Values form a “moral map” which can guide student behaviour and choices. Pro-
social values emphasise the importance of harmony and respect, care and concern for
others. Eckersley (2005) has commented that most societies have tended to reinforce
values that emphasise social obligations and self-restraint and discourage values that
promote self-indulgence and anti-social behaviour. Fraillon (2004) has noted that making

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contributions to others is implicitly and explicitly indicated as a desirable educational

outcome in all Federal, State and Territory Curriculum Standards documents.
The key pro-social values are:

• Compassion: Caring about the wellbeing of others and helping where you can;

• Cooperation: Working together to achieve a goal;

• Acceptance of differences: Recognising the right of others to be different and

not excluding or mistreating them because they are different; acting on the
inclusive belief that others are fundamentally good;

• Respect: Acting towards others in ways that respect their rights eg to have
dignity, have their feelings considered, be safe and be treated fairly;

• Friendliness: Acting towards others in an inclusive and kind way;

• Honesty: Telling the truth and owning up to anything you have done;

• Fairness: Focusing on equity and addressing injustices; and

• Responsibility: Acting in ways that honour promises and commitments and

looking after the wellbeing of those less able.
A caring and supportive classroom environment with a focus on pro-social values and
behaviours makes it less likely that students will behave in anti-social ways (Wentzel,
2003). Several studies in the US have provided evidence of a link between improved
academic outcomes and the quality teaching of values and student wellbeing and social
development (Benninga et al., 2003, 2006; Zins et al., 2004).
Many other researchers have identified the importance of teaching pro-social values as part
of enhancing student wellbeing (eg Battistich et al., 2001; Cowie & Olafsson, 2000; Cross,
et al., 2004; Flannery et al., 2003; Frey et al., 2000). Pro-social behaviour and positive
relationships are underpinned by pro-social values.

3. A Supportive and Caring School Community

Research studies have identified a supportive and caring school community as one in which
students regularly experience:

• Positive school and classroom climates (e.g. McMillan & Reid, 1994);

• A sense of connectedness and belonging to a good school of which they are proud
(e.g. Anderman, 2003);

• Caring, supportive and respectful relationships with their teachers who also hold
high expectations of them (e.g. Nettles, Mucherach and Jones, 2000);

• Positive relationships with other students; and

• Involvement by their parents with the school.

When students consistently have these experiences at school they are more likely to act
resiliently and have higher levels of wellbeing (Benard, 2004; Kaplan & Maehr, 1999; Ma,
2005). Gonzalez and Padilla (1997) found resilient students’ sense of belonging to school
was a significant predictor of their academic resilience.
The research in relation to the factors that contribute towards a safe and caring school
community is examined in more detail below.

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Positive school and classroom climate

Connectedness to school and a sense of belonging are influenced by the overall climate of
the specific school and the classrooms within that school (Ma, 2005; Simons-Morton, Crump,
Haynie, & Saylor, 1999).
Comer, Haynes, Joynes, & Ben-Avie (1996) and Haynes, Emmons & Ben-Avie, (2001) have
identified some of the dimensions of a positive educational climate:

• There is order and discipline and students feel safe because the rules are being
followed by students and the discipline policy is consistently and fairly enforced.
Suldo, Shaffer & Riley (2008) found that students who frequently violated school
rules tended to have lower wellbeing;

• Students treat each other well;

• Teacher-student relationships are positive because of both the competence and

relational ability of teachers;

• There is parental involvement with the school eg frequent communication between

home and school and parent visits to the school);

• Students have equal access to the school’s resources; and

• The school building has a positive appearance and it and the school grounds are
well maintained.

A sense of connectedness and belonging to a good school of which they are proud
Connectedness involves a subjective perception that one has a close relationship with, and
belongs to a specific group of people (Lee & Robbins, 1998). School connectedness involves
a sense of being cared for, accepted, valued and supported and finding enjoyment and fun
with others within the school environment (McGraw, Moore, Fuller & Bates 2008).
Baumeister & Leary (1995) have argued that the need to belong is a basic human and
pervasive drive and that a student’s perception that they are cared about and supported is
especially significant in creating a sense of belonging and wellbeing. Pride in belonging to
what students perceive to be “a good school” has also been linked to student wellbeing
(Anderman, 2003).
Involvement in extra-curricular activities and exposure to a challenging curriculum can also
contribute to school connectedness as well as resilient behaviour (Alva, 1999; Gonzalez and
Padilla, 1997; Waxman and Huang, 1996; Catterall, 1998; Finn & Rock, 1997; eg Nettles,
Mucherach and Jones, 2000; Floyd, 1996; Hymel, Comfort, Schonert-Reichl, & McDougall,
1996; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Waxman et al., 2003).

Caring supportive and respectful relationships with their teachers who also have high
expectations of them.
Caring, supportive and respectful teacher-student relationships are critical to many aspects
of student wellbeing (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Osterman,2000). A study conducted by
Suldo, Shaffer & Riley (2008) affirmed the link between positive relationships with teachers
and levels of wellbeing a finding consistent with research that shows that students who
perceive high levels of support from teachers also have higher life satisfaction (Natvig,
Albreksten, & Qvarnstrom, 2003; Suldo & Huebner, 2006). Similarly Opdenakker and Van
Damme (2000) and Wubbels et al., (2006) found that secondary students had higher
wellbeing when they perceived that their teacher cared for them, was attuned to their

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needs and was willing to help and lower wellbeing when their teacher was perceived as
strict and admonishing. Wentzel (1997) conducted a longitudinal study of 248 middle school
students and found that their perception of the level of “pedagogical caring” in their
teachers '(i.e. how much they cared about the student as a person and their learning,
listened to them and provided helpful feedback and support) was strongly and significantly
related to their levels of motivation.
A meta-analytic study by Marzano, Marzano & Pickering (2003) found that the quality of the
teacher-student relationship was the most important factor in effective classroom
management and students’ engagement in learning. Similarly Hattie (2004) identified that
one of characteristics of highly skilled teachers as communicating high respect for students.
Deakin, Crick and Wilson (2005 and Cawsey (2002) claim that quality classroom
relationships are critical for promoting the values and dispositions that are for necessary for
students to undertake personal responsibility for life-long learning.
Marzano et al., (2003) have argued that positive student-teacher relationships cannot just
be left to chance and that it is a teacher’s professional responsibility to ensure that they
establish a positive relationship with each student,. Having high expectations of students is
one aspect of this support (National Research Council, 2004).

Positive Peer Relationships

One of the strongest themes in research into school wellbeing (eg Zins et al., 2004) is the
significant contribution of positive peer relationships to a sense of community and student
wellbeing. Feeling accepted by peers and having positive peer interactions can enhance the
confidence of vulnerable students and make it more likely that they will behave in ways
that further encourage positive interactions with others. Friendships provide students with
social support, opportunities to practise and refine their social skills and opportunities to
discuss moral dilemmas and, in doing so, develop empathy and socio-moral reasoning
(Schonert-Reichel, 1999; Thoma & Ladewig, 1991). The more students get to know each
other the more likely they are to identify and focus on similarities between themselves and
other students and become more accepting of differences (Noble and McGrath, 2008).

Involvement by their parents with the school

A study by Suldo, Shaffer & Riley (2008) identified parental involvement in schooling as
another aspect of the kind of caring and supportive school community that is associated
with high levels of wellbeing. Parent involvement was defined as students' perceptions of
their own parents’ presence at school and parental contact with school personnel. Suldo et
al. (2008) note that participation in schooling may be one way through which parents
express support for their children

4. Social and Emotional Learning

It is now well established that social and emotional skills which assist students to get along
well with others, work cooperatively with others, show empathy, manage their emotions,
cope with setbacks and solve problems effectively are positively linked to wellbeing and
specifically to resilience and satisfaction with relationships (Bornstein et al., 2003; Huebner
1991a, 1991b; Ryff & Keyes, 1995)

An Overarching Model of Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)

CASEL (The Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning—see www.casel.org)
has identified a model of SEL using the following five basic categories of social and

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emotional learning:

• Self-awareness (e.g. accurately assessing one’s own feelings, interests, values &
strengths; understanding one’s own thinking and learning processes; and
maintaining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence);

• Self-management (e.g. regulating emotions to handle stress, control impulses and

persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress toward
personal and academic goals; and expressing emotions appropriately;

• Social Awareness (e.g. being able to take the perspective of others and empathise
with them; recognising and appreciating individual and group similarities and
differences; and recognising and using family, school and community resources);

• Relationship Skills (e.g. establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding

relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure;
preventing, managing, and resolving interpersonal conflict; and seeking help when
needed); and

• Responsible Decision-Making (e.g. making decisions based on consideration of

ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others
and likely consequences of actions; applying decision-making skills to academic
and social situations; and contributing to the well-being of one’s school and
community.

Self-efficacy and Self-discipline

Previous research has documented moderate relationships between academic self-efficacy
(that is, the belief that students have the capacity to undertake the tasks they are given)
and life satisfaction among students in elementary, middle, and high school (Huebner,
Gilman, & Laughlin, 1999; Suldo & Huebner, 2006). Duckworth & Seligman (2006a & 2006b)
found that one likely explanation for girls’ learning advantage over boys — despite no
documented intellectual advantage — was that they were more self-disciplined. This may
lead to girls having greater confidence in their capacity to undertake assessed tasks.

Social Skills
Most researchers agree that social competency is an essential part of a student’s capacity
for “effective functioning” in their school community (Leary, 2000; Mooij, 1999; Pollard &
Lee, 2003; Roberts, 2002; Willard, 1993; Wyn et al., 2000). Examples of learning–related
and friendship-related social skills include: sharing resources and workload, cooperating,
respectfully disagreeing, negotiation, having an interesting conversation, presenting to an
audience; and managing conflict well (McGrath & Francey, 1991; McGrath, 2005; McGrath &
Noble, 2003). Students with high levels of wellbeing are more likely demonstrate more pro-
social behaviour (Gilman, 2001).

Emotions
The understanding and management of one’s emotions and the capacity to generate
positive emotions are commonly cited components of wellbeing (Salovey et al., 2003).
Emotional management includes the self-regulating processes of monitoring, evaluating and
modifying emotional reactions (Pollard & Davidson, 2001). The Positive Psychology model
(Fredrickson, 2001) has emphasised the importance for wellbeing of both experiencing and
learning how to generate positive emotions. Major categories of positive or pleasant

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emotions include those of low arousal (e.g., contentment), moderate arousal (e.g.,
pleasure), and high arousal (e.g., euphoria). They include positive reactions to others (e.g.,
affection), positive reactions to activities (e.g., interest and engagement), and general
positive moods (e.g., joy) (Deiner, 2006). Fredrickson (2001) has developed a ‘broaden-and-
build theory of positive emotions that proposes that positive emotions help people to be
better problem-solvers through empowering them to become more open-minded and to
think more flexibly.

Coping Skills
Students with high levels of wellbeing are more likely to demonstrate more effective coping
skills and self-reliance (Greenspoon and Saklofske, 2001; Neto, 1993).
Many researchers (e.g. Martin and Marsh,2007; Waxman, Gray & Padron 2003) have cogently
argued that there are two types of student resilience. The first can be termed “general life
resilience” and the second “educational or academic resilience”. General life resilience has
most commonly been seen as effective coping responses to “acute” situations or adversities
(e.g Lindstroem, 2001; Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000; Masten, 2001; Werner, 2000). On the
other hand education/academic resilience has been hypothesized to involve coping with
chronic educational situations such as difficulties with reading, a lack of access to materials
and equipment or living in a household that doesn’t support school learning. Studies into
educational/academic resilience have focused on students with chronic underachievement
such as those with learning disabilities (e.g. Margalit, 2004; Meltzer, 2004; Miller, 2002) and
those in ongoing disadvantaging home situations characterized by poverty, (Gonzalez &
Padilla, 1997), a minority group background (e.g. Overstreet & Braun, 1999) or parental
drug and alcohol abuse. Such students are more likely to face chronic failure and threats to
confidence (Martin & Marsh, 2007) and become de-motivated and disengaged in school.
Specific coping skills that have been identified include:

• Rational and optimistic thinking (Peterson 2000; Seligman, 1995; Gillham &
Reivich 2004; Seligman, Reivich, Jaycox & Gillham (1995), including the capacity
to use optimistic explanations of why failure occurred. (Linnenbrink & Pintrich,
2002). In their overview study, MacLeod and Moore (2000) concluded that an
optimistic way of interpreting and adjusting to negative life events is an essential
component of coping and wellbeing. Students with high levels of resilience and
hence wellbeing are more likely to use more optimistic thinking (Ben-Zur, 2003;
Seligman 1995);

• The capacity to “emotionally distance” from distressing experiences (Benard,

2004);

• The ability to set, plan for and achieve personal and academic goals (Grant &
Dweck 2003; McMillan & Reid, 1994; Waxman, Gray and Padron, 2003; Wayman,
2002); and

• The use of appropriate humour (Benard, 2004; Lefcourt, 2001).

Empathy
Empathy contributes to the development of pro-social values and positive relationships
have both affective and cognitive components. Cognitive empathy involves detached
intellectual perspective taking and affective empathy is about the vicarious experience of
another person’s feelings (Gladstein, 1983).

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5. A Strengths-based Approach
A strengths-based approach has been advocated by many researchers and writers as an
important pathway to student wellbeing (eg Elias et al. 2003, Seligman 2008, Fox Eades
2008; Jimerson et al., 2001, 2004; McGrath & Noble, 2005; Noble & McGrath, 2008; Rhee,
et al. 2001). It has also emerged as a significant theme from the Positive Youth
Development’ movement (eg Benson, 1997, 1999; Catalano, et al.,1999). The Positive
Psychology model also includes “strengths” as one of the foundations of wellbeing
(Seligman, 2008).
A “strength” can be defined as a natural capacity for behaving, thinking and feeling in a
way that promotes successful goal achievement (Linley & Harrington, 2006). A strengths-
based approach identifies and builds on strengths but doesn’t ignore the fact that
weaknesses also need to be understood and managed (Clifton & Harter, 2006).

6. A Sense of Meaning and Purpose

A sense of meaning can be defined as involvement in a task or activity that impacts on
people other than just oneself whilst a sense of purpose can be defined as involvement in a
worthwhile task or activity (Noble & McGrath, 2008). Finding meaning and purpose is a core
developmental task for all young people and especially for adolescents (Crawford & Rossiter,
2006).
Opportunities for students to participate in and make a significant contribution to the
school community can also assist the development of resilience (Benard, 2004). Community
service (or service learning) both within and outside the school is one way in which schools
can facilitate educational experiences that provide students with a sense of meaning and
purpose. Participating in structured extracurricular activities such as team sport or clubs
(Gilman, 2001; Mahoney, 2000; Mahoney and Cairns, 1997; Mahoney and Stattin, 2002;
Mahoney, Stattin, and Magnusson, 2001; Wong and Csikszentmihalyi, 1991) or in community
service activities (Maton, 1990; Wong and Csikszentmihalyi, 1991) has been shown to be
associated with higher levels of student wellbeing. It has been suggested that the
opportunity for structured peer social interaction that occurs in such activities is part of
this link (Park, 2004).
Helping others in a less structured way has also been shown to link with high levels of
student wellbeing (McCullough, Huebner & Laughlin, 2000). Post (2008), reports that the
research literature indicates that volunteering and altruistic behaviour impacts positively
on student wellbeing and mental health, positive mood, social competence and self-esteem
and increases an individual’s sense of meaning or purpose.
Student autonomy has been shown in many studies to contribute to a sense of meaning and
purpose and enhance student resilience (e.g. Benard, 2004; Bridges, 2003). Autonomy can
be described as behaviour that is willingly chosen and endorsed (Chirkov, Ryan, Kim, &
Kaplan, 2003) and is similar to the concept of self-determination (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In
the school context a student can demonstrate autonomy in many ways such as acting on
curiosity to instigate and make plans for a project, reflecting on and evaluating their own
learning (Ryff & Singer, 1996), making choices in relation to learning tasks and topics and
being involved with student leadership, representation and peer support structures.
Research has demonstrated that students who have a reasonable degree of autonomy at
school are more effective learners, are more motivated to achieve and have more positive
mood and satisfaction at school (Wubbels, Brekelmans and Hoodmayers, 1991).
Spirituality has also been described by many as part of a positive sense of meaning and

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purpose in life (Adams & Benzer, 2000; Burrows, 2006; Ryff & Singer, 1996; Tsang &
McCullough, 2003) and as contributing to wellbeing.
“Spiritual well-being is often seen as a sense of connectedness to
something larger than oneself, bringing with it a sense of meaning,
purpose and personal value” (Burrows, 2006, p 6).
The right to a sense of spiritual well-being is mentioned in the 1989 United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child and Burrows (2006) has argued that schools have a
duty to ensure that a student’s spirituality is nurtured.
Spirituality has begun to be recognized as a construct distinct from religion for many people
(Ingersoll, 1998). Spirituality can be distinguished from religiosity in that religiosity involves
an active search for and maintenance of faith in a notional divine entity or object (Hill,
Pargament, Hood, McCullough, & Sawyers, 2000). The broader notion of spirituality also
incorporates individual systems of moral and social beliefs and purpose that are not linked
to a belief in the sacred. Adams and Benzer (2000) argue that it is possible to be either
spiritual or religious or both. Tacey (2000) has outlined a concept of “generic spirituality”
which is more about seeking truth and what’s meaningful and sacred about life and does
not necessarily focus on a specific religious tradition. Burrows (2006) notes that for some
schools there is still some reluctance to use the terms “spiritual” or “spirituality”
(Chittenden, 2000) because of its connotation with religion.

7. A Healthy lifestyle
The “healthy lifestyle” pathway includes self–protective behaviours that minimise risk and
maximise wellbeing such as:

• Sensible eating and a good diet;

• Physical activity;

• Avoidance of drug use;

• A self-protective approach to sexuality; and

• Sun protection (Bornstein et al., 2003; Pollard & Davidson, 2001).

School-based health programs have been shown to improve student health (Blanksby &
Whipp, 2004; Bornstein et al., 2003; Luepker et al., 1996) but Fraillon (2004) concludes
that, although this conclusion is unequivocal, he is not convinced that the physical pathway
to wellbeing is significant. On the other hand Frisch (2000) has concluded that wellbeing in
young people is positively linked to both physical health and healthy lifestyle behaviours
such as exercise and healthy eating and negatively linked to health-compromising
behaviours such as tobacco, drug and alcohol use and poor diet. In one study, non-resilient
students were found to frequently report feeling tired (Waxman and Huang, 1996).
Students’ health has links with their sense of connectedness to school, family and
community (AIHW 2007). Taking part in physical activity has been shown to contribute to
wellbeing in both the short and long term by generating positive emotions and reducing
feelings of stress, anxiety and depression (Dunn et al. 2001).

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Section 3: The Outcomes of Student

Wellbeing and its Pathways
3.1 Introduction

In this section, each of the seven pathways will be discussed in terms of the research
evidence about its positive impact on important student outcomes. The three most
important of these are academic achievement, mental health and pro-social, responsible
and lawful lifestyle. The student wellbeing pathways model (see Figure 1) explains the
overall picture.

Figure 1: The Student Wellbeing Pathways Model

In summary, the research evidence on the effects of student wellbeing and its pathways
indicates that students with high levels of wellbeing and/or access to many of its pathways
are more likely to:

• Have higher academic achievement and complete Year 12

• Have better mental health (i.e. lower and/or less severe rates of illnesses such as
depression and anxiety)

• Engage in a more pro-social, responsible and lawful lifestyle (that is, they display
concern for the wellbeing of others, make responsible decisions about the
consequences of their actions on themselves and others [including using drugs and
alcohol in a responsible way], and do not violate the laws and norms of their
society). In some ways the term “ethical choices” may be preferable to “lawful

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lifestyle” but it was felt that “ethical choices” is a more difficult concept both to
articulate and to measure.
All three outcomes contribute significantly (in the bigger and longer-term societal picture)
to greater participation in the workforce (and hence greater productivity), more social
inclusion, and more effective building of Australia’s social capital.

Productivity

The rates of Year 12 completion and participation in further education are much lower in
disadvantaged groups such as students from low socio-economic backgrounds, indigenous
Australians, and Australians from regional and remote areas (Gillard, 2008). Student equity
and access are facilitated through improvements in academic achievement. Academic
achievement and completion of Year 12 leads to greater employability, less reliance on
welfare support and a higher likelihood of participation in further education. These
outcomes in turn further increase the likelihood of sustainable employment, adequate
income and self-sufficiency.
On the other hand an Australian early school leaver can expect to earn approximately
$500,000 less in the course of their working life than someone who completes Year 12
(Department of Premier and Cabinet, 2005). It has been estimated that early school leaving
(and the associated lower levels of educational achievement) costs Australia $2.6 billion a
year in higher levels of social welfare, costs associated with health and crime prevention,
lower revenue from income taxes, lower levels of productivity and a smaller Gross Domestic
Product. There is also a social impact in terms of repeated inter-generational problems of
low academic outcomes, unemployment and poverty, lower levels of participation in the
political process and less contribution to the community (Black 2006; Department of
Premier and Cabinet, 2005; Muir et a., l 2003).
In school contexts, depression adversely affects school performance (Andrews, Szabo and
Burns, 2001). Mental illness can be a barrier to participation in the workforce and, in many
cases, to self-sufficiency. This is especially true when it is accompanied by substance
abuse. Enhancing student wellbeing and some of its pathways can contribute to lower levels
of mental illnesses such as depression and anxiety.
Students who (as adolescents and later as adults) have a lifestyle which enhances their
relationships with others in their community, and does not involve substance abuse nor
bring them into contact with the justice system are more able to participate in the
workforce and the life of their community. Costs associated with road trauma, the justice
system, hospital care and welfare are also reduced.

Social Inclusion

Social inclusion is the process of enabling all Australians to share in the nation’s prosperity
by ensuring that everyone has the opportunity and skills to gain employment, access
community services, be socially connected, deal with personal crises and have their voices
heard (Australian Social Inclusion Board, 2008). Students who have opportunities to achieve
academically, to be assisted with the prevention and amelioration of mental health
difficulties and to engage in behaviours that are indicative of a pro-social, responsible and
lawful lifestyle are more able to fully participate in their community.

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Social Capital

In a school context, the building of social capital refers to the ways in which schools
enhance the productive capacity of students to work collaboratively and productively and
contribute to the school community and later to the broader community. Academic
achievement, mental health and a pro-social, responsible and lawful lifestyle can help
students to become adults who are able to contribute to Australia’s social capital

3.2 Academic Achievement

The relationship between many of the pathways and academic achievement is bi-
directional. For example school connectedness contributes to student academic outcomes
but student academic outcomes also contribute to school connectedness (Mok, 2006).
Enhancing student wellbeing and its pathways can increase academic achievement both
directly but indirectly. The four main mechanisms by which the enhancement of wellbeing
and its pathways can indirectly improve academic achievement are:

• By increasing student motivation to participate and achieve;

• By increasing student engagement with and participation in learning;

• By increasing student attendance and hence increasing school completion; and

• By decreasing problem behaviour at school and hence decreasing levels of

suspension and exclusion from school.

Increasing Student Motivation

Many studies have identified a link between increased motivation and increased academic
achievement (e.g. Croninger & Lee, 2001; Resnick, Bearman & Blum, 1997).

Increasing Student Engagement

Engagement with classroom learning appears to be a good predictor of early academic skill
development (DiPerna, 2006). Engagement is evidenced by a student’s active participation
in classroom learning tasks (Greenwood, Horton, & Utley, 2002) and a student’s attention,
interest and investment of time and effort (Mark, 2000).
Increases in engagement have been linked to improvements in academic outcomes and
reductions in school absenteeism (e.g. Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Croninger & Lee, 2001).
Many researchers (e.g. Alexander, Entwisle & Horsey, 1997; Alexander, Entwisle & Kabbani,
2001; Finn, 1989, 1993) have used research evidence to argue that dropping out of school is
a long-term process of disengagement that starts as early as the second year of primary
schooling.

Increasing Student Attendance and School Completion

Improvements in school attendance are very strongly linked to improvements in academic

outcomes (Croninger & Lee, 2001). On the other hand absenteeism is a predictor of leaving
school early, future criminality, alcoholism, and occupational difficulties (Hersov & Berg,
1980). Absenteeism among indigenous students is markedly higher than among non-
Indigenous students as is low academic achievement and lower Year 12 completion rates

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(Bourke, Rigby and Burden, 2000).

Regular school attendance is a critical factor in student success and poor school attendance
and the associated loss of learning time can have lifelong consequences for students.
Students who are regularly absent from school are at the greatest risk of: becoming
disconnected from their teachers and peers, dropping out of school early, becoming long-
term unemployed or homeless, working in unskilled jobs, being caught in the poverty trap,
becoming dependent on welfare and being involved in the justice system (DeRosier,
Kupersmidt, & Patterson, 1994; Gerics & Westheimer, 1988; Hersov, 1960; Lee and
Burkham, 1992; National Strategy for Equity in Schooling, 1994). Students from
disadvantaged backgrounds have higher rates of school absenteeism than other students
(House of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training,
1996).
Lower levels of academic achievement are the inevitable outcome of missing significant
amounts of learning time through not regularly attending school. Bampton, Daniel &
Dempster & Simons (2008) have reported the results of a study into rates of absenteeism
and mobility amongst students attending Queensland state schools. The results indicated
significant prediction of levels of student achievement from levels of student attendance.
One of the most concerning aspects of student absenteeism is the fact that it is associated
with dropping out of school before completion of Year 12 (and in some cases before
completion of Year 10). Leaving school early is associated with:

• Poorer mental and physical health: Students who do not complete secondary
school are almost four times more likely to report poorer health;

• A higher likelihood of child abuse and neglect when early leavers become parents;

• Higher instances of homelessness, drug and alcohol abuse and criminal activity;
and

• Mortality rates up to nine times higher than the general population (Black 2006;
Chapman et al. 2002; Department of Premier and Cabinet, 2005; Long, 2005;
Pallas, 1995; Vinson, 2004).

Decreasing Problem Behaviour at School

Disruptive and other problem behaviours at school are associated with lower levels of
academic achievement (Farrington, Loeber, Elliott, Hawkins, Kandel, Klein et al.,1990;
Hinshaw, 1992a, 1992b). There is usually an associated loss of learning time through
suspension and exclusion from school. Indigenous students have higher rates of suspension
than non-indigenous students (Bourke, Rigby and Burden, 2000). Decreasing problem and
disruptive behaviour can contribute to higher levels of academic achievement.

3.3 The Seven Pathways to Wellbeing

This review of the literature has identified that, in summary, there are seven pathways to
student wellbeing. These are as follows:
1. Physical and emotional safety;
2. Pro-social values;
3. A Supportive and caring school community;

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4. Social and emotional learning;

5. A strengths-based approach;
6. A sense of meaning and purpose; and
8. A healthy lifestyle.
These pathways to student wellbeing are interrelated but still separable. They interact with
each other to enhance student wellbeing. The whole (i.e. wellbeing) is greater than just
the sum of the parts (i.e. the pathways). Each of these pathways is discussed below in
relation to student learning.

1. Physical and Emotional Safety

Concern about bullying reflects a growing awareness of the rights of all people to be safe
from victimisation and abuse, including women, those with a different sexual orientation,
people from different ethnic or religious groupings and people with disabilities (McGrath &
Noble, 2006).
Multiple studies have emphasised the link between bullying others at school and later
violent, antisocial and/or criminal behaviour. (e.g. Nansel, Overpeck, Haynie, Ryan &
Scheidt, 2003; Nansel, Overpeck, Pilla, Ruan, Simons-Morton & Scheidt, 2001; Sourander,
Jensen, Rönning et al., 2007). Olweus (1993) found that approximately 60 percent of boys
identified as regularly bullying others were convicted of a crime by the age of 24 and 40
percent of them had three or more convictions by age 24.
Rigby and Slee (1999) have noted that adolescents who bully others have a higher likelihood
of school absenteeism, engaging in vandalism and graffiti, shoplifting and getting into
trouble with the police. Students who bully others are not only at risk of becoming serious
violent offenders but are also at risk of engaging in domestic violence and raising children
who themselves engage in bullying others.
Students who are bullied are likely to react with a range of mental health difficulties such
as anxiety and depression (Rigby, 2001; Slee 2006). In a meta-analytic review of 20 years of
research Hawker and Boulton (2000) concluded that it was clear that being a target for
bullying was associated with depression, loneliness, anxiety, low self esteem and poor
social self concept. Similar data showed that young people who reported lower levels of
wellbeing were more likely to report feeling unsafe at school and to have been harmed at
school through school bullying or school violence (Valois et al., 2001). Nansel et al. (2001)
also found that students who had been bullied demonstrated poorer social and emotional
adjustment, greater difficulty making friends, poorer relationships with classmates and
poor academic achievement.
Addressing bullying and violence in schools assists the mental health of all students and
creates a learning environment in which wellbeing can thrive. Low levels of bullying are
more likely in schools where there is effective leadership which articulates a vision for
student wellbeing underpinned by pro-social values (such as respect and acceptance of
differences) and an effective and consistent whole school positive behaviour management
program (McGrath & Noble, 2007).

2. Pro-social Values
Values education is defined as any explicit and/or implicit school-based activity which

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promotes student understanding and knowledge of values and which develops the skills and
dispositions of students so they can enact the particular values as individuals and as
members of the wider community (National Framework in Values Education, p.10). Values
education is now seen to include moral, character, and civics or citizenship education in
response to the need to discover new ways of dealing with the ongoing problems of racism,
drug abuse, domestic violence, sexual abuse, AIDS and new terrorisms (Lovat & Clement
2008).
From their experience in working with schools implementing the National Framework in Values
Education, Lovat and Toomey (2007) have concluded that values education is at the heart of all
pedagogy and curriculum. Teaching values is seen by several researchers as an inextricable part
of any effective teaching and schooling because values education encapsulates the moral
dimension of all effective learning (Carr, 2006; Halliday, 1998; Lovat & Clement 2008). Based
on data from the Australian Government’s Values Education Good Practices Schools (VEGPS)
project Lovat & Clement (2008) argue that any educational regime that excludes a values
dimension in learning will be weakening the potential effects of all learning (including
academic learning) and weakening the potential impact on student wellbeing.
Values are the basis of any school culture, and they articulate the essence of the school’s
philosophy, its goals and how it goes about achieving them. Many researchers have included the
teaching of pro-social values as part of their overall and moderately successful anti-bullying,
anti-violence or student wellbeing interventions (Battistich et al., 2001; Cowie & Olafsson,
2000; Cross et al., 2004a; Flannery et al., 2003; Frey et al., 2000). Both Lovat & Clement
(2008) and Lovat and Toomey (2007) have focused more on the benefits of values education to
enhance quality teaching than to achieve specific student learning outcomes. They highlight
the key role of teachers in forming positive relationships (commitment and care) with their
students through their implementation of values education initiatives. These class or school
initiatives become the basis for developing their students’ personal character and their
citizenship skills.
In the VEGPS projects values education initiatives have been shown to extend the strategies,
options and repertoires of teachers for effectively managing learning environments and for
developing positive school and class cultures that positively influence both student and teacher
behaviour (Lovat & Clement 2008). It is difficult to establish a strong causal link between
values education and student learning. However the documented results of the VEGPS project,
stage one indicate the beneficial effects of values education on student motivation to learn
“with even more than a hint of improved academic achievement” (Lovat & Clement, 2008
p.12). This quotation, however, does not appear to do justice to the rich range of the projects
that were part of the VEGPS project and which are discussed in Lovat & Toomey (2007) and/or
presented at the Values Education conferences. Many of these initiatives were part of the
formal and/or informal school curriculum and engaged students in purposeful authentic
learning activities that were valued by the students, had broader community value and met or
exceeded mandated curriculum goals (Holdsworth, 2002).

3. A Supportive and Caring School Community

Being part of a supportive and caring school community has many benefits for students.

School Connectedness
A comprehensive Australian longitudinal study of adolescents showed that 40 percent of the
students surveyed felt that they did not have anyone in or outside of school who they perceived

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knew them well or who they could trust. Young people reporting low connectedness were two
to three times more likely to experience depressive symptoms compared to peers who felt
more connected (Glover, Burns, Butler & Patton, 1998). Baumeister and Leary (1995, p.497)
characterise the need to belong or feel connected as “a pervasive drive to form and maintain
at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive and significant interpersonal relationships”.
They state the failure to fulfil this need can create long lasting pathological consequences.
They argue that a student’s perception that they are cared about and supported in class and
school is especially significant in creating a sense of belonging. On the other hand, when
students experience feelings associated with a lack of belonging, rejection or isolation, such as
grief, jealousy, anger and loneliness, they are less likely to conform to school rules and norms
(Wentzel & Asher, 1995) and more likely to have negative perceptions of school and
schoolwork, avoid school and leave school at an early age (Ladd, 1990).
Many studies have identified links between school connectedness and a range of positive
outcomes in relation to student learning. These are summarized below.

School connectedness is linked to increased engagement and participation at school

Not surprisingly research has shown a strong link between school connectedness and students’
levels of engagement, enjoyment of school and investment of themselves in the process of
learning (Benard, 2004; McGraw et al., 2008). In her review of research Osterman (2000)
identified trends that suggested that when students experience a sense of belonging and
acceptance they are more likely to participate more at school, be more interested and engaged
with classroom and school activities, show more commitment to their school and their
schoolwork and have a positive orientation towards school and teachers.

School connectedness is linked to higher levels of academic achievement

Students are more likely to succeed academically when they feel connected to school
(Battistich & Hom, 1997; Catalano, Haggerty, Oesterle, Fleming, Hawkins 2003; Goodenow,
1993; Lee, Smith, Perry & Smylie, 1999; Schapps, 2003; Voelkl, 1995). One study
(Anderman, 2003) found that the grade point averages of students in years 6-8 were
positively associated with their sense of belonging to their school.

School connectedness is linked to school completion

An Australian study (Bond, Butler, Thomas, Carlin Glover, Bowes & Patton, 2007) found that
the likelihood of completing school was reduced for students with low school
connectedness. Other studies have obtained similar results Connell, Halpern-Felsher,
Clifford, Crichlow & Usinger, 1995; Finn & Rock, 1993; Goodenow, 1993; Wentzel, 1998).

School connectedness is linked to reductions in anti-social or disruptive behaviour and

increases in pro-social behaviour
Several studies have identified that school connectedness can lead to reductions in anti-
social behaviour such as bullying, violence and vandalism (Lonczak, Abbott, Hawkins,
Kosterman & Catalano 2002; Resnick, Bearman & Blum, 1997; Schapps, 2003; Wilson &
Elliott, 2003). Studies of social development have demonstrated that students who do not
find rewarding experiences and positive relationships in school will seek them elsewhere,
potentially in behaviors and relationships that place them at risk (Bond, et al., 2007).
Osterman (2000) identified trends in her overview of research for students who felt more
connected to school to act supportively towards others, demonstrate more pro-social
behaviour, demonstrate greater acceptance of authority and accept more responsibility for

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regulating their own behaviour in the classroom.

School connectedness is linked to lower rates of health-risk behaviour (e.g. drug, tobacco
and alcohol use) and mental health problems
Young people are more likely to have mental health problems and to use substances in the
later years of schooling if they report low school connectedness and interpersonal conflict
in early secondary school (Blum & Libbey, 2004; Bond, et al., 2007; Resnick, 2000). In one
study, Australian adolescents who reported low school connectedness were two to three
times more likely to experience depressive symptoms compared to peers who felt more
connected (Glover, Burns, Butler & Patton 1998). These results are consistent with those
from other studies that have demonstrated that school connectedness has the power to
reduce student substance abuse and mental health difficulties (Blum & Libbey 2004; Bond,
Butler, Thomas, Carlin Glover, Bowes & Patton, 2007; Catalano, Haggerty, Oesterle et
al.,2004; Glover, Burns, Butler et al.,1998; Lee , Smith, Perry & Smylie, 1999; Libbey,
2004; Lonczak, Abbott, Hawkins, Kosterman & Catalano 2002; McNeely & Falci, 2004;
Resnick,2000; Resnick, Harris & Blum,1993).
School connectedness has also been linked to a later age for first sexual experience
(Lonczak, Abbott, Hawkins, Kosterman & Catalano 2002; Samdal, Nutbeam, Wold &
Kannasm 1998).

Teacher-student relationships and peer relationships

A positive school culture is characterised by both positive peer relationships and positive
teacher-student relationships (McGrath, 2007) and the systematic promotion and facilitation of
positive relationships at school has been identified by many researchers as a core component
for improving student wellbeing, enhancing school culture, preventing school violence and
bullying, successfully engaging students’ intrinsic motivation to learn and improving student
academic outcomes (Battisch, 2001; Battisch et al., 1995; Benard, 2004; Resnick et al., 1997).
When a school works to facilitate positive school-based relationships bullying is less likely to
thrive, student wellbeing is enhanced and there is a greater likelihood of higher student
engagement with school (Blum & Libbey, 2004; Galloway & Roland 2004; Schaps & Lewis, 1999;
McGrath & Noble, 2003). Schaps (2003) has argued that a positive school culture underpinned
by the intentional facilitation of positive relationships predisposes students to:

• Adopt the goals and values of the school

• Show more compassion and concern for others and more altruistic behaviour

• Be more prepared to resolve conflicts fairly

• Engage in more altruistic and pro-social behaviour

• Adopt an inclusive rather than exclusive attitude toward others.

Eaton (1979) found that poor or conflicted relationships between teachers and students was
the most significant factor related to absenteeism and other studies have supported this
conclusion (Bealing, 1990; Harte, 1994). Corville-Smith and colleagues (1998) found
evidence that a student’s negative perception of school and school personnel may be a
predictor of future absenteeism. Moos and Moos (1978) also found that a negative classroom
environment and a perceived lack of teacher support led to increased student absenteeism.
Studies of students who drop out have shown that the most common reason given is that
their teachers do not care about them, do not offer academic and social support and are

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unwilling to help with problems (Fine, 1986; Macleod, 1987). Croninger & Lee (2001) found
that the secondary students who benefited most from a supportive relationship with their
teachers were those most at risk of dropping out, especially if they were from socially
disadvantaged backgrounds.
Young people who have poor relationships with peers and/or teachers are more likely to
use drugs and engage in socially disruptive behaviours, report anxiety/depressive
symptoms, have poorer adult relationships in general and fail to complete secondary school
(Resnick, Harris & Blum, 1993; Bond, Carlin, Thomas, 2001; Barclay & Doll, 2001; Catalano,
Kosterman, Hawkins et al., 1996; Doll & Hess, 2001; Marcus & Sanders-Reio, 2001).
Positive teacher-student relationships contribute significantly, not only to student
wellbeing and pro-social behaviour but also to their learning outcomes (Benard, 2004;
(Fraser & Walberg, 2005; Fredriksen & Rhodes, 2004; Pianta et al., 2002; Battisch, 2001).
If students feel valued and supported by their teacher then they are more likely to be
motivated to learn (Wentzel, 1997). Benard (2004) has written about the importance of
“turn-around teachers” in helping children develop educational resilience. Such teachers
refrain from judging, and do not take students’ behaviours personally. They may also
proactively seek referrals to social service agencies for overwhelmed families. Many
students feel they “owe” something to a teacher who shows genuine interest in and care
for them (Davidson, 1999; Stipek, 2006) and may be less likely to disappoint them by failing
to complete assignments or engaging in anti-social behaviour. Children who recognise the
satisfaction that derives from teacher approval may also be more likely to work towards
academic achievement (Fredriksen & Rhodes, 2004).
In a meta-analysis of more than 100 studies, Marzano et al. (2003) found that the quality of
the teacher-student relationship was also the most important factor in effective classroom
management and students’ engagement in learning. Over a year, teachers who had high-
quality relationships with their students had 31 per cent fewer discipline problems, and
related problems than other teachers. Many different research studies are remarkably
consistent in their conclusions about students’ ideas about the qualities of a “good
teacher”, focusing mostly on the interpersonal quality of their relationship with their
teachers (e.g. Arnold, 2005; Rowe, 2004, Trent, 2001; Werner, 2000; Ruddick et al., 1997).
These qualities include being respectful and friendly, showing affection and support,
listening, being empathic, noticing when a student is absent and being interested in them.
Marzano et al. (2003) argue that positive student-teacher relationships cannot just be left
to chance and that it is a teacher’s professional responsibility to ensure that they establish
a positive relationship with each student. Possible research-based strategies/approaches
include: teachers working harder to get to know students, treating them as individuals and
expressing interest in their personal lives outside school (Slade & Trent 2000); teachers
using more effective classroom management (Marzano et al., 2003); and students having
more contact over time with fewer teachers. In secondary schools, block scheduling (classes
of at least 90 minutes long) offer teachers more opportunity to interact with students for
sustained periods of time. Since the classes are less rushed, informal teacher-student
interactions as well as academic interactions are more likely to occur (Stipek, 2006).
Positive and supportive peer relationships can also motivate students to engage in learning
activities and socially appropriate behaviour (e.g., Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Wentzel,
1991, 1999). Students who believe that their peers are supportive and care about them
tend to be more engaged in positive aspects of classroom life, pursue academic and pro-
social goals more frequently, and earn higher grades than students who do not perceive

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such support (e.g., Goodenow, 1993; Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989; Wentzel, 1994,
1998).
Friendships provide students with social support, opportunities to practise and refine their
social skills and opportunities to discuss moral dilemmas and, in doing so, develop empathy
and socio-moral reasoning (Thoma & Ladewig, 1991; Schonert-Reichel, 1999). The more
students get to know each other the more likely they are to identify and focus on
similarities between themselves and other students and become more accepting of
differences. Criss et al. (2002) have demonstrated that peer acceptance and peer
friendships can moderate aggressive and acting-out behaviour in young children with family
backgrounds that are characterised by family adversity (such as economic/ecological
disadvantage, violent marital conflict and harsh family discipline).
One of the most comprehensive evidence based teaching strategies that link student
wellbeing with academic and social-emotional learning and positive peer relationships is
cooperative learning. Over a thousand research studies have documented the many student
benefits of cooperative learning (Benard, 2004; Marzano, et al., 2001) which include
improvements in academic outcomes, positive peer relationships, social skills, empathy,
motivation, acceptance of diversity (ethnic, racial, physical), conflict resolution, self-
esteem, self-control, positive attitudes to school, and critical thinking (Johnson & Johnson,
1989; Johnson, et al., 2001; Slavin, 1995). Cooperative learning and cooperative group work
have also been associated with lower levels of bullying, an increased ability to tolerate
different perspectives on the same issue and increased levels of assertive problem-solving
skills (Johnson, et al., 2001; Ortega & Lera, 2000).
Circle Time is another pedagogical process that builds classroom community and teaches
social-emotional learning. Research outcomes for the use of Circle Time demonstrate an
improvement in classroom ethos, inclusion and greater teacher and peer support and
improvements in peer relationships, reduced behaviour problems and more engagement and
attention to work (Roffey 2006, 2008; Taylor 2003). Teachers also identified significant
positive changes in individual students relating to their social-emotional skills and oral
literacy. These skills included self-confidence, expression of feelings, problem solving,
conflict resolution and social skills.
Other strategies that have been found to improve peer relationships and enhance student
learning include Restorative Practices (eg Armstrong & Thorsburne, 2006), and peer support
structures (such as peer counselling, peer mediation, peer mentoring/buddy systems and
peer tutoring) (Stanley & McGrath, 2006).

4. Social and Emotional Learning

It is now well established that social and emotional skills such as the ability to work
cooperatively with others, manage one’s emotions, cope with setbacks and solve problems
effectively are integral parts of academic success. The learning outcomes of teaching such
skills include: improved school performance; improved learning-to-learn skills; better
problem solving and planning capacity; and greater use of higher level reasoning strategies
as well as higher levels of pro-social behaviour; and a better understanding of the
consequences of their behaviour (Devaney, et al.,2006.; Greenberg, et al., 2000; Zins, et
al., 2004).
Other research studies have demonstrated that students who experience opportunities for
social-emotional learning participate in class more, demonstrate more pro-social behaviour,

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have fewer absences and improved attendance, show reductions in aggression and
disruptive behaviour and are more likely to complete school (Zins, Weissberg, Wang, &
Walberg 2004; Devaney et al., 2006).
Zins et al. (2004) also report several studies that have demonstrated that students’ pro-
social behaviour is directly linked to positive intellectual outcomes and predicts their
performance on standardised achievement tests. Several research studies have provided
evidence for positive associations between socio-emotional skills and both social and
academic success (eg see reviews by Brackett & Salovey, 2006 and Mayer, Salovey, &
Caruso, 2004). Gil-Olarte Márquez, Martín & Brackett (2006) used a self-report instrument
to assess the socio-emotional skills of high school students and found that the results
predicted students’ final academic results. A student’s level of social competence and their
friendship networks has been found to be predictive of their later academic achievement
(Caprara et al. 2000; Wentzel & Caldwell 1997).
High levels of social-emotional competency is also linked to a number of student wellbeing
and mental health outcomes such as improved coping abilities (Salovey et al., 1999),
limited drug and alcohol addiction (Trinidad & Johnson 2002), capacity to mediate
aggression (Jagers et al., 2007), enhanced general psychosocial functioning (McCraty et al,
1999). Increases in social and emotional competency have also been shown to lead to
increased school connectedness (Whitlock, 2003) and reductions in school bullying (Bear et
al., 2003)
A major new American meta-analysis of 207 studies of social-emotional learning (SEL)
programs conducted by a CASEL research team (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, &
Schellinger, 2008) involving more than 288,000 students from urban, suburban, and rural
elementary and secondary schools reveals that students who participate in such programs
profit in multiple ways. The programs included values/character education, anti-bullying
prevention programs, conflict-resolution training and resilience programs. To be included in
the meta-analysis, research studies had to involve students 5-18 years old who did not have
any identified problems, that is, the intervention was directed at the general school
population of students, not a specific “problem” group and to include a control group.
Students who participated in these programs (when compared to students who did not)
showed positive benefits such as: improved social and emotional skills; more positive
attitudes about themselves, others, and school; more pro-social classroom behaviour; fewer
conduct problems such as classroom misbehaviour and aggression; less emotional distress
(e.g. stress and depression) and higher academic results. Across the studies evaluating
academic outcomes, students who had participated in SEL programs scored 11 percentile
points higher on standardized achievement tests compared to peers who did not have the
opportunity to participate in the program. Moreover, among those studies that collected
follow-up data in each of the above categories, the positive benefits to students were
found to persist over time.
The meta-analysis identified three major types of school-based SEL programs:

• Classroom Programs Conducted by Teachers. These usually took the form of a

specific curriculum or set of lesson plans delivered within the classroom setting
only.

• Classroom Programs Conducted by Researchers. These were similar to those

conducted by teachers, with the major difference that researchers administered
the intervention.

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• Multi-Component Programs. These types of programs added another component to

classroom- based strategies that varied depending on the investigation—for
example, a component involving parents or a school-wide component that stressed
the importance of reorganizing school structures and practices in order to
encourage and support students’ positive development, for example, through
school climate improvement strategies.
The study found that the classroom programs conducted by teachers were effective in each
of the six outcome areas and that multi-component programs (also conducted by school
staff) were effective in four of the six outcome areas. Furthermore, only when school staff
(not researchers and developers) conducted the intervention did students’ academic
performance improve significantly. The clear implication is that school-based social-
emotional programs should become a part of routine school practice. If conducted by
personnel from outside the school there is a lower likelihood of good results.
However these CASEL findings from USA school-based programs need to be treated with
some caution if applied to other countries such as Australia. Many of the American SEL
programs do not ‘fit’ the Australian education context because they are highly structured,
highly sequenced and “manualised”. This is not the way Australian teachers teach. When
100 schools participating in the KidsMatter project were given the choice of Australian SEL
programs or American SEL programs most of the participating schools chose Australian
programs such as the Bounce Back! Classroom Resiliency Program (Peterson, 2007) a
literacy-based program which provides curriculum resources but also provides teachers with
professional autonomy to choose and integrate material and activities that are appropriate
to their students’ wellbeing needs and school context.
Elias (2003) argues that SEL curriculum programmes are a high priority for education. Elias
& Weissberg (2000, p.264) explain it thus:
“Social and emotional development and the recognition of the relational
nature of learning and change are the fundamentals of human learning,
work and accomplishment. Until this is given proper emphasis, we
cannot expect to see progress in making schools safer, drug-free, with
fewer students who don’t care and want to drop-out, or with better
tolerance of people who are different”.

Social skills
Schools are social centres and students’ academic engagement and success in that milieu
depends on their capacity to develop positive relationships with peers and their teachers.
Social skills allow students to actively participate and engage in any group work or learning
activity that involves cooperation with their peers.
Positive peer relationships are more likely when students are directly taught the skills for
empathic responding and pro-social behaviour, and when students have opportunities to
practise them in authentic and naturally-occurring settings over time rather than simply
being urged to use them (McGrath, 2005). Prevention programmes that focus on teaching
social skills and social perspective taking have shown considerable promise in promoting
student wellbeing, and reducing anti-social and bullying behaviours (Tolan & Guerra, 1998;
Dryfoos, 1990). Systematic programmes for teaching social skills and empathy can help to
reduce aggression and contribute to higher levels of achievement and resilience (Caprara et
al., 2000; Catalano et al., 2003; Hawkins et al., 2001; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2003;
Wentzel, 2003; Wentzel & Caldwell, 1997; Wentzel & Watkins, 2002).

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Several research studies (such as Bursuch & Asher 1986; DiPerna & Elliot 2000) have
demonstrated that social skills facilitate academic success. Wentzel (1993) and Malecki and
Elliot (2002) found students’ social behaviour in years six and seven predicted their
academic point averages. DiPerna, Volpe and Elliott (2005) found that social skills was one
of two factors that predicted engagement with classroom learning which in turn was shown
to be linked to academic achievement in primary-aged students. Teachers have identified
competence in the social skills of cooperation and self-control of critical importance for
school success (Lane, Givner & Pierson 2004; Meier, DiPerna and Oster 2006).
Several other research studies have provided evidence for positive associations between
social skills and both social and academic success (e.g. see reviews by Brackett & Salovey,
2006 and Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). A student’s level of social competence and their
friendship networks are predictive of their academic achievement (Caprara et al. 2000;
Wentzel & Caldwell 1997). Wentzel and Watkins (2002) point out that social skills are
academic enablers, that is, skills that help students to make the best of their ability. They
also note that students who enact pro-social behaviours such as active listening, helping,
cooperating, and sharing may function more effectively in both social and academic
contexts as both contexts require those skills.

Positive Emotions
Positive emotions have been found to enhance an individual’s capacity for optimistic thinking,
problem solving and decision making and to lead to more flexible, innovative and creative
solutions (Isen 2001, 2003). Children’s negative emotions such as anger, sadness or anxiety
narrow their capacity for learning. In contrast positive emotions have the ability “to undo” the
effects of stress and recover more quickly from the effects of negative emotions and encourage
both emotional and physical resilience (Fredrickson & Tugade 2004). Positive emotions are also
related to developing more pro-social behaviours, positive relationships and support networks
and better physical health, less sick days and a quicker recovery from illness (Lyubormirsky,
King & Diener, 2005). One study that explored the links between students’ positive emotions,
coping and engagement in learning in a sample of 293 students in grades 7 to 10 (Reschly,
Huebner, Appleton & Antaramian 2008). As expected frequent positive emotions during class
lessons were associated with higher levels of student engagement and negative emotions with
lower levels of engagement.

Coping skills
Educational resilience increases the likelihood of success in school despite adverse
environmental situations and backgrounds that have resulted from by early traits,
conditions and/or experiences (Waxman, Gray & Padron, 2003). Waxman and Huang (1996)
found that resilient students (compared to non-resilient students) had significantly learning
involvement, task orientation and satisfaction than non-resilient students. Resilient
students also reported higher social and academic self-concept and achievement
motivation. Alva (1991, p.19) found educationally resilient students’ were able to maintain
high levels of achievement, motivation and performance, despite stressful events and
conditions that placed them ‘at risk’ of academic failure and dropping out of school. These
resilient students reported higher levels of educational support from their teachers and
friends and had higher aspirations to attend school and college. Waxman, Gray & Padron’s
(2003) comprehensive review of research studies identified that students with high levels of
educational resilience appear to:

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• Be more persistent and attentive;

• Demonstrate leadership skills;

• Work well with other students;

• Frequently volunteer answers;

• Be more engaged in their school work;

• Be generally more enthusiastic, energetic and better behaved; and

• Receive more teacher attention and praise.

While educators cannot control what happens to their student within their family and
community contexts, they can change educational policies and practices to ensure they
address the specific needs of students at risk of academic failure (Waxman, Gray & Padron
2003). In this context it is noteworthy that most Australian teachers who were surveyed in a
large research survey believed that the most influential factor which fostered student
resilience was firstly the students’ personal dispositions and character strengths and
secondly the role of the family (Oswald, Johnson & Howard 2003). In this study, apart from
those at junior primary level, the teachers tended to undervalue the importance of their
own support and influence and the resilience and social-emotional skills they can teach to
foster student resilience. Similarly in a US study that compared 250 resilient, average and
non-resilient students in 3 elementary schools the teachers perceived the major factors
that contributed to the low levels of success of non-resilient students was the lack of
parental involvement or low student motivation and the low self-esteem of the students.
They did not mention any school, teaching or classroom factor (Waxman, Gray & Padron
2003).

5. A Strengths-based Approach
A converging message from many areas including the Positive Psychology movement (Fox
Eades 2008; Noble & McGrath 2008; Seligman, 2008), the Collaborative for Academic and
Social-Emotional Learning (CASEL), educational psychology (eg Jimerson et al. 2004; Rhee,
et al., 2001) and the Positive Youth Development movement (eg Benson, 1997, 1999;
Catalano,et al.,1999) is the importance of strengths-based approaches in the promotion of
student wellbeing and academic engagement. Leading researchers in CASEL argue that:
… there is no good alternative to a strengths-based approach to working
with children. It involves a) establishing positive relationships with
children based on their assets and their potential contributions as
resources to their schools and b) finding naturally occurring contexts in
which they can enact positive roles for which they must learn skills to be
successful (Elias, Zins, Graczyk & Weissberg 2003 p.305).
A “strength” can be defined as a natural capacity for behaving, thinking and feeling in a
way that promotes successful goal achievement (Linley & Harrington, 2006). A strengths-
based approach is based on the assumption that using one’s strengths in schoolwork (or in
one’s job) produces more positive emotions, is more engaging and productive and produces
better learning outcomes than working on one’s weaknesses, especially for those students
whose strengths are not in the traditional academic domain (Noble 2000). As Spreitzer
(2008) states, individuals who are given feedback on their strengths are significantly more

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likely to feel highly engaged and to be more productive than those who are just given
feedback on their weaknesses.
A strengths-based approach does not ignore weaknesses but rather achieves optimisation
when strengths are built upon and weaknesses are understood and managed (Clifton &
Harter, 2006). When people work with their strengths they tend to learn more readily,
perform at a higher level, are more motivated and confident, and have a stronger sense of
satisfaction, mastery and competence (Clifton & Harter 2006; Linley & Harrington, 2006;
Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Strengths are either cognitive/intellectual or personal (ie
about ‘character’). Schools can play an important role in helping students to firstly identify
their relative strengths and weaknesses and secondly engage their strengths through a
variety of diverse school-based activities.

Cognitive Strengths

Howard Gardner’s (1999) model of multiple intelligences (MI) is consistent with a strengths
orientation and provides directions for the identification and development of students’
cognitive/intellectual strengths. MI theory has been widely adopted in schools since its
publication over twenty years ago and identifies eight intelligences. The eight intelligences
are linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence,
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, naturalist intelligence, interpersonal (people) and
intrapersonal (self) intelligence.
With the increasing diversity of students in the same classroom differentiating the
curriculum to effectively cater for the wide range of student differences is now seen as one
of the greatest challenges facing teachers today (Tomlinson & Eidson, 2003). A key national
policy recommends that teachers use a “flexible range of pedagogical and curriculum
approaches which provide for a range of individual differences” (Australian Curriculum
Studies Association, 1996). Curriculum differentiation has been defined as consistently
using a variety of teaching approaches to vary curriculum content, learning processes and
products, assessment and the learning environment in response to the learning readiness
and interests of academically diverse students (Tomlinson & Eidson, 2003).
Philosophically there appears to be widespread acceptance by Australian teachers for the
need to differentiate the curriculum to cater for student diversity in every classroom and it
is a focus in most curriculum documents. However many teachers still lack confidence in
their ability to know ‘how to’ differentiate and thereby enhance their student engagement
in the curriculum. For example the most common research focus identified by the school’s
executive staff in a current project involving 24 Catholic primary and secondary city and
country schools in NSW is how to develop their teachers’ skills in differentiating the
curriculum to enhance their students’ engagement in learning (Noble, 2008a). Similarly the
major focus of a recent NSW Association of Heads of Independent Schools Directors of
Curriculum/Studies conference was curriculum differentiation (Noble, 2008b).
The integration of Gardner’s multiple intelligences (MI) model and Bloom’s revised
taxonomy (McGrath & Noble, 2005a) has been widely advocated in curriculum documents
and in educational resources as a systematic framework for teachers to differentiate the
curriculum based on different cognitive strengths. MI theory is the only theory of
intelligence that incorporates interpersonal (understanding others) and intrapersonal
(understanding self) intelligences. Using MI theory as a framework for curriculum

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differentiation encourages teachers to embed tasks that develop students’ skills in these
social-emotional domains as well as the more traditional academic domains.
The use of MI theory for curriculum differentiation has been shown to build positive
educational communities in which students value and celebrate student differences and for
students who struggle with learning to achieve more academic success (Kornhaber, et al.,
2003; McGrath & Noble, 2005a, 2005b; Noble 2004). Kornhaber et al.(2003) evaluated
outcomes in forty-one schools that had been using MI theory for curriculum differentiation
for at least three years and found significant benefits of the MI approach in terms of
improvements in student engagement and learning, in student behaviour, and in parent
participation. There were particular benefits for students with learning difficulties who
demonstrated greater effort in learning, more motivation and improved learning outcomes.
A widely used curriculum planning tool in Australian schools for curriculum differentiation is
the MI/Bloom Matrix (McGrath & Noble, 2005a, 2005b). Teachers’ use of the matrix in two
primary schools over eighteen months was shown to increase their sense of professional
competency in effectively catering for diverse students’ learning needs and developed their
competencies in helping their students to set goals and make meaningful choices about
their learning tasks and products (Noble, 2004).

Character Strengths and Values

Peterson & Seligman (2004) have developed a model of 24 character strengths that are
ubiquitous (widely recognised across cultures), contribute to individual wellbeing, are morally
valued, are trait-like and measurable, and are distinct and malleable (Peterson, 2006). They
have also developed an online self-survey for use by adults and children. Both the adult and
youth version have been demonstrated to be reliable, valid and stable over at least 6 months
(Park & Peterson 2005). Peterson (2006) and Seligman (2002) argue that everyone has signature
strengths (typically two to five top strengths) and that the engagement of these signature
strengths at school or in the workplace enhances an individual’s wellbeing.
The benefits of both Gardner’s framework of multiple intelligences and Peterson and
Seligman’s character strengths are that both offer systematic frameworks for adaptation in
educational contexts. Firstly the two frameworks can be used by educators to help students
identify their cognitive and character strengths. Secondly they can be used to help educators to
make student wellbeing a priority by creating strengths-based school environments that value
different strengths and provide curriculum and instruction that actively engages students with a
diverse range of abilities and character strengths. Although Gardner’s model has been widely
used in schools the application of the VIA strengths in education is in its infancy.
Csikzentmihalyi et al (1993) has identified that young people are more likely to be fully
engaged and experience ‘psychological flow’ when involved in an intellectually challenging
activity that utilises their strength(s) and has a degree of challenge that requires a reasonably
high level of skill and attention in a specific domain (eg building a model, or playing a musical
instrument). Being in a state of “flow” also increases young people’s satisfaction (from the
completion of a task or the creation of a product or performance) and enables them to have
some respite from worries and problems they may be experiencing. In their comprehensive
review of studies of students with low levels of resilience, Waxman, Gray, & Padron, (2003)
found these students demonstrated low levels of student engagement in learning.
Csikmentihalyi’s work indicates the importance of providing challenging and strengths-based
activities that would help students develop new skills, focus their attention and give them
relevant feedback and clear goals.

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Other research has found that in classrooms where teachers provided intellectually challenging
and socially supportive environments, pressed students for deeper understanding and supported
their autonomy, students had higher engagement, more positive emotions and were more
strategic about their learning (Stipek, 2002; Turner, Meyer, Cox, DiCintio & Thomas, 1998). In
contrast where teachers focused only on academic content and created a negative social
environment, students were more likely to be disengaged and more apprehensive about making
mistakes. However if teachers focus only on the social dimensions and fail to intellectually
challenge students then they are less likely to be cognitively engaged in learning (Fredricks,
Blumenfeld & Paris 2004). Cognitive engagement is enhanced when students actively discuss
ideas, debate points of view and critique each other’s work (Guthie & Wigfield, 2000; Meloth &
Deering, 1994; Newmann, 1992).
Research over the last thirty years or so has clearly demonstrated the powerful effect of
teacher expectations on student wellbeing and learning. As Weis and Fine (2003) have
observed, low teacher expectations about what students can learn and understand often
reproduce and reinforce social inequalities along racial, ethnic, social class and gender
lines. Schools in the NSW Priority Action Schools Program (PASP) were identified as schools
that have “deep needs”. The 74 schools in the program are in communities that have
sustained periods of cumulative disadvantage so that community strength and wellbeing are
seriously eroded. Many teachers in the program noted that when they raised their
expectations of their students and made their students clearly aware of this, they were
consistently rewarded by improved student learning performance. Students’ confidence in
their learning and self esteem increased and their behaviour improved (Groundwater-Smith
& Kemmis, 2004). One school noted that supporting students without intellectually
challenging them can actually lead to learned helplessness. This school indicates there
needed to be a shift in this mindset of teacher “support” to one of teacher high
expectations with challenging curriculum which encourages students to reach their
“personal best” levels of performance in learning and behaviour.
This school’s observations are supported by Dweck’s (2006) research on the importance of
teachers shifting from a ‘fixed’ mindset of student abilities which can’t be changed to a
‘growth’ mindset that highlights that good pedagogy can build on strengths and enhance
student academic engagement and success. Brendtro, Brokenleg and Van Bockern’s (1990)
research with youth at greatest risk stated that too often educators aspire to “fix” youth
and make them “OK” but a focus on remediation alone is not sufficient to give them the
maximum chance to strive and thrive in school and in life.
In the same way that individual students can develop learned helplessness, schools can also
be seduced by pervasive pessimism, that is, “these students can’t learn and there is
nothing I can do about it” or “these students come from such dysfunctional or
disadvantaged backgrounds that schools cannot make a difference”. Hoy, Tarter and
Woolfolk-Hoy’s (2006) research documents the importance of collective teacher efficacy or
academic optimism in schools where teachers perceive that students are willing to learn,
that parents are supportive and that the task of improving student learning outcomes is
achievable. Their research in 96 high schools (Years 9-12) indicated that teachers’
collective efficacy or academic optimism that they could improve student learning
outcomes was more important than the students’ socio-economic status and other
demographic data and previous achievement history in determining students’ academic
achievement. The crucial importance of enhancing teachers’ academic optimism or efficacy
about their capacity to “make a difference” especially for non-resilient students is
highlighted in recent large scale Australian study (Osward, Howard & Johnson 2003) which

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showed that teachers attributed students low resilience to personal or family factors rather
than factors under teacher control.

6. A Sense of Meaning and Purpose

A sense of meaning can be defined as involvement in a task or activity that impacts on

people other than just oneself. According to Seligman (2002 p.260) “a meaningful life is one
that joins with something larger than we are – and the larger that something is, the more
meaning our lives have”. He states that life is given meaning when we use our signature
strengths every day in the main realms of living “to forward knowledge, power or
goodness”. A sense of purpose can be defined as involvement in a worthwhile task or
activity (Noble & McGrath, 2008).
In a review of work on the construct of “meaning”, Yalom (1980; in Zika & Chamberlain,
1992) found that a lack of meaning in life was associated with psychopathology, while
positive life meaning was associated with strong religious beliefs, membership in groups,
dedication to a cause, life values, and clear goals. Lazarus and DeLongis (1983; in Zika &
Chamberlain) suggested that sources of personal meaning influence processes of coping.
Ryff (1989) and Ryff & Keyes, (1995) have proposed and tested a theoretical model of
psychological well-being that includes 6 dimensions of wellbeing, one of which is purpose in
life. She suggested that a critical component of mental health includes “beliefs that give
one the feeling that there is purpose in and meaning to life” (Ryff, 1989, P. 1071).
A key issue in student wellbeing is the degree to which social changes, including the
processes of social fragmentation and individualisation have increased uncertainty in young
people’s lives. This uncertainty underscores the need for young people to develop a sense
of meaning and purpose. The Australia 21 research 2007 report “Generations in Dialogue
about the Future: the hopes and fears of young Australians” and the 2020 Youth Forum
both demonstrated that young people value the opportunity to discuss the future and that
schools can provide such opportunities to facilitate their making sense and meaning of their
world and their lives. These opportunities offer the potential to increase their engagement
and their capacity to cope well with daunting challenges.
Most current curriculum initiatives focus on the importance of an authentic curriculum for
students that has relevance, meaning or “connectedness” to their lives. The importance of
student voice in giving students a sense of meaning and connectedness to the curriculum is
emphasised in recent research (Fielding & Bragg, 2003; Johnson & O’Brien 2002). Significant
in this research is that, when students are given a “voice”, they become more engaged in
learning and they build more positive relationships with their teachers. A strong theme that
emerged the National Safe Schools best Practices Grants Program involving 171 schools was
that project effectiveness and satisfaction was high in schools where students had
significant ownership of the projects (McGrath, 2007).
Student participation and voice is a recognised feature of high performing schools and has a
positive effect on learning in the classroom and engagement in school (Black, 2007).
Participation in initiatives in school and community projects like Education Foundation
Australia’s ruMAD (Are you making a difference?) program and Student Action Teams
(Holdsworth, 2002) have been found to create genuine and meaningful contexts in which
students have investigated issues of real concern to them and have taken action to bring about
change both in their school and in the community. In such initiatives students worked in a team
to identify and tackle a school or community issue, research it, make plans and proposals about

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it and take action on it. Many of the projects chosen were based on student wellbeing topics
such as values, health, drug use, safety, homelessness, environment and thread through
programs addressing issues of Civics and Citizenship education (Holdsworth, 2002; Chapman et
al. 2007). Such initiatives were part of the formal or informal school curriculum and engaged
students in purposeful authentic learning activities that were valued by the students, had
broader community value and met or exceeded mandated curriculum goals (Holdsworth, 2002).
Community service (or service learning) is another way in which schools are facilitating
educational experiences that provide students with a sense of meaning and purpose.
Community service has been shown to enhance students’ academic learning, transfer of
knowledge, critical thinking skills as well as their personal efficacy and moral development,
social skills, empathy and social responsibility and civic engagement (Elias, 2006; Astin & Sax
1998; Astin, Sax & Avalos, 1999, Eyler & Giles, 1999; Rhoads, 1997; 1998; Markus, Howard &
King, 1993)

Wierenga, et al., (2003) concluded that community-based projects are most successful when
students believe in what they are doing, have opportunities to make real decisions, are heard,
have the skills to see the task through and do it well and work with others to be part of
something bigger than just themselves. Morsillo & Fisher (2007) worked with year 10 students
who were disengaged from school and alienated from their neighbourhoods. This project
incorporated the active ingredients of ‘service learning’ where students are placed in the
active role of problem-solvers confronting a relevant but loosely structured community-based
problem or goal. The intent is that the outcomes benefit both the recipients and the students
who provide the service (see www.servicelearning.org). In Morsilla and Fisher’s study students
worked in small groups to create meaningful community projects of their choice designed to
show how “we will make a difference in our community”. The projects included a public
underage dance party, and the development of children’s activities at a refugee cultural
festival.
Billig’s (2004) extensive review of the service learning research concluded that students
participating in service learning generally do better than others on school engagement,
attitudes towards school, attendance, communication with parents about school, test scores,
grade point average and problem-solving skills. Most of this research however is cross-sectional
and cannot inform causality. Hanson, Austin and Lee-Bayha (2003) studied 7th, 9th and 11th
grade students in nearly 1700 schools and reported that student ‘opportunities for meaningful
participation’ in schools, homes, communities and among peers were strongly related to
standardised test scores. From these data the causal connection can work in both directions,
with academically well-performing students enjoying closer relationships with adults and more
opportunities for leadership, responsibility and meaningful contribution.

Scales et al. (2006a) reported on a longitudinal study that indicates the contribution that
service can make to academic achievement. They found students who had greater
“connection to community” in middle school, including participating in community service,
youth programs and religious community were three times more likely than others to have a
B+ or higher average three years later in high school. In another study Scales et al. (2006b)
reported that principals in low-SEP (socio-economic position) schools were more likely to
positively judge service learning’s impact on academic achievement, engagement and
student attendance for their students. In these schools students from low SEP backgrounds
scored better on most academic success variables than low-SEP peers with less or no service
learning.

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In their study Benson et al. (2006) also found greater academic benefits for students from low
SEP backgrounds and speculated that it may be because a sense of empowerment and playing
useful societal roles may be in shorter supply for these students compared to students from
higher SEP backgrounds. Moreover service learning may provide students with multiple sources
of instructive feedback, high teacher expectations and a positive relationship with these
teachers and the service learning recipients. In support of such reasoning, Follman and Muldoon
(1997) reported that students’ school attendance increased on days they had service learning
which the authors interpreted as the students’ concern that they would disappoint the service
recipients if they skipped school. As noted by Benson et al (2006, p.55) “community service and
service learning may be related to academic success because they provide young people with
two key resources: a feeling of usefulness and being valued, and a way of tangibly
demonstrating to students the utility of the ‘real world’ of what they learn in school”.

Eyler (2000) concludes that “we know that service learning has a small but consistent impact
on a number of important outcomes for students. Now we need to empirically answer questions
about improving the academic effectiveness of service learning” (p.16). Although there appear
to be benefits in student learning in their engagement in service learning Butin (2003) argues
there is little empirical evidence that service learning provides substantive, meaningful and
long-term solutions for the communities they are supposedly helping. Both Butin (2003) and
Eyler (2000) conclude that service learning needs more rigorous and sustained research.
Another longitudinal study linked volunteering in adolescence with positive mental health and
wellbeing in adulthood. Wink and Dillon (2007) examined data gathered from two adolescent
research cohorts first interviewed in the 1930s and subsequently interviewed every ten years
until late 1990s. They used a multidimensional measure of generative behaviour, defined as
behaviour indicative of intense positive emotions extending to all humanity was measured on
three dimensions: givingness, pro-social competence and social perspective. The results of the
study indicated that generative adolescents become both psychologically and physically
healthier adults. Wink and Dillon’s study lends support to the notion that “it is good to be
good”, that there is a lifelong benefit for young people who begin being altruistic in their teens
and that the benefits of altruism accrue across the entire lifespan.
Other school initiatives that have been found to foster a sense of meaning and purpose and
enhance student engagement and learning include:

• Peer support programs (e.g. peer mediation, buddy systems, mentoring systems and
peer tutoring) (Stanley & McGrath 2006)

• Circle of friends (Frederickson & Turner, 2003; Newton & Wilson, n.d)

• Student participation in class-wide or school-wide leadership and decision-making

structures (e.g. circle time, classroom councils, classroom committees or school-
wide Student Representative Committees (McGrath & Noble 2003).

• Participation in sports teams, art and drama groups and membership of pro-social
youth groups has been identified as one of the most prevalent protective factors in
enhancing youth wellbeing (Bond et al 2000).

7. A Healthy Lifestyle
A study of more than five thousand American high school students found that higher life
satisfaction was associated with decreased likelihood of smoking and irresponsible use of
alcohol, marijuana, and other illegal drugs (Zullig et al. 2001). This negative association

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between life satisfaction and drug use/abuse was especially robust for children younger
than 13 years of age. Other important outcomes related to lower life satisfaction include
teen pregnancy (e.g., Guijarro et al., 1999), driving while impaired, and being a passenger
in a car driven by an intoxicated driver
Students’ health has been shown to be associated with their sense of connectedness to
school, family and community (AIHW 2007). Individuals with higher rates of education
report fewer illnesses and have better mental health and wellbeing than those with lower
levels of education (Turrell et al., 2006). The health behaviours of young people, including
levels of physical activity, eating habits, substance abuse (tobacco, alcohol and drugs) and
sexual practices are all important determinants of their current and future health and
wellbeing status. Childhood and adolescence is a critical time for the development of
health behaviours and the patterns that develop during their school years often continue
into adulthood (Dimitrakaki & Tountas, 2006; WHO, 2004).
Schools can have a direct and indirect impact on student health and wellbeing. For example
schools directly teach students the benefits of physical activity, good nutrition and sun care
and the adverse effects of substance abuse, alcohol abuse and smoking within the Physical
Health and Wellbeing curriculum. However there is now sound empirical evidence that a
safe and pro-social school environment where students feel connected, and supported by
peers and teachers and experience a sense of meaning and purpose in their academic
engagement in learning has an indirect effect but plays a critical role in students’ health
and wellbeing. Students without social supports have higher rates of morbidity and
mortality than those with social networks (AHIW, 2007). Schools play an important role for
some students who are not coping well physically and/or mentally by providing
psychological and social-emotional support and also directing them to quality health
services (Benard, 2004).These school protective factors in turn positively influence health-
related factors such as their resilience, injury risk, diet and ability to acquire quality
medical care (AHIW, 2007).
Appropriate health and education programs are also cost effective. For example, each
additional year of secondary education attained reduces the probability of public welfare
dependency in adulthood by 35 percent (NHMRC 1996). A World Bank Report (1993) cited
strong economic evidence of the cost effectiveness of tobacco, drug and alcohol education
and education to prevent early and unprotected sex.
The Minister for Health and Aging, Nicola Roxon (2007) quotes the figures of one in four
Australian children as now being overweight or obese. The Minister notes that the
consequences go beyond personal consequences to national concerns about the future
effect on both the economy and productivity. Access Economics estimates that the total
cost of obesity to the Australian economy, including productivity costs and lost wellbeing, is
already $21 billion a year. New national figures incorporating a sample of younger children
will be available in the next few months (National Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity
Survey). Obesity is linked with social isolation and lower educational and income
attainment throughout life (Schwimmer et al., 2003; Christoffel & Ariza, 1998).
Physical activity is important in maintaining good health, including reducing risk of
overweight/obesity, high blood pressure and cardiovascular risk. In 2004-5 only 46 percent
of boys and 30 per cent of girls aged between 15-24 participated in levels of physical
activity recommended in the national guidelines (AHIW 2007). Taking part in physical
activity also improves mental wellbeing in both the short and long term by reducing feelings
of stress, anxiety and depression (Dunn et al. 2001).

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For children and young people who are still growing, a sound nutritional intake is needed to
support their growth and normal development. In 2004-5 only one quarter of young people
aged 12-18 met the daily guidelines for 3 or more serves of fruit per day. In some
disadvantaged school communities providing nutritious meals to children had been found to
be an important factor in their participation in classroom learning activities.
Important school, family and community factors that prevent adolescents engaging in
unsafe or unwanted sexual behaviour include a connection to school, a strong relationship
with parents and open communication with sexual partners (WHO, 2005).

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Section 4: International Focus on Student

Wellbeing
Most Western democracies are experiencing similar social and health issues, including rising
rates of mental illness and high levels of social exclusion. Many international governments
are looking to education services to support prevention and early intervention initiatives to
address these issues.
Some of the more significant international student wellbeing initiatives include:

• The European Network of Health Promoting Schools: (ENHPS)/ Schools for Health:
(SHE)

• The International Union for health Promotion and Education and the Social and
Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) program in the UK

• The Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) in the USA

• The Positive Psychology movement.

International research and evaluation on effective educational practices consistently shows
that implementation for student wellbeing initiatives is complex, the different pathways to
student wellbeing are interdependent, and the promotion of wellbeing involves whole
school approaches which incorporate a supportive ethos, strong relational values and skills,
student participation, collaborative partnerships and learning integrated in the curriculum
(Dryfoos, 1990; ENHPS, 2002).

4.1 The European Network of Health Promoting Schools (now

known as the Schools for Health in Europe)

The health-promoting schools (HPS) model is a global concept aimed at achieving both
educational and health outcomes for all young people. Education and health are considered
to be inextricably linked. A health-promoting school is defined as one that is constantly
strengthening its capacity as a healthy setting for living, learning and working (WHO 1996).
The international HPS movement reflects a conceptual shift from a sole focus on individual
lifestyle factors to include addressing the broader social and environmental determinants of
student wellbeing. This means that in addition to developing personal competencies it is
necessary to influence policies, re-shape environments, build partnerships, and bring about
sustainable change through participation and ownership of change by all stakeholders.
The European Network of Health Promoting Schools (ENHPS) was initiated in 1992 as a pilot
approach involving 4 countries, and now has over 40 members. It is a partnership between
participants in European countries with international institutional support from: The
European Commission, The Council of Europe and the World Health Organization Regional
Office for Europe (Barnekow et al., 2006).
In Australia the health-promoting schools model takes a multi-faceted approach and
incorporates the integration of three important aspects:
1. Curriculum, teaching and learning practices;
2. School organization, ethos and environment and

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3. Partnerships and services.

4.2 The International Union for Health Promotion and

Education (IUHPE) (1999)

IUHPE commissioned a comprehensive review of the evidence about the factors that
contribute to effectiveness in school health promotion. This review revealed the following
factors contributed to the effectiveness of school health interventions:

• Having a focus on cognitive and social-emotional outcomes as a joint priority with

behavioural change.

• Implementing comprehensive and holistic programs that link the school with
agencies and other sectors dealing with health.

• Ensuring that an intervention is substantial, implemented over several school years

and relevant to changes in young people's social and cognitive development.

• Giving adequate attention to capacity building through teacher training and the
provision of resources.

4.3. Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL)

program (UK)

England is a member of the ENHPS. Work in England has focused strongly on the social and
emotional aspects of learning (SEAL),) developing programs for both primary (Weare &
Gray, 2004) and secondary schools and social emotional and behavioural skills (DfES, 2005).
The implementation of the SEAL program is in its infancy but there has been some criticism
about its overly narrow focus. Carol Craig (2007), Director of the Scottish Centre for
Confidence and Wellbeing, has written of her concerns about the SEAL program, arguing
that it needs to be less prescriptive and more flexible and should include a wider range of
skills such as those more closely associated with resilience (eg optimism thinking). She has
also recommended that SEAL incorporates a strengths-based approach and that the social
and emotional learning is embedded in other aspects of the classroom and the general
curriculum and supported by engaging pedagogy.

4.4. The Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional

Learning (CASEL) (USA)

CASEL (www.casel.org) is a consortium of researchers and educators based at the University

of Illinois, Chicago. It is a not-for-profit organisation whose major goals are educational
improvement and children’s health and wellbeing. CASEL publishes major reviews of the
research evidence about what approaches are effective and what whole school practices
influence implementation and sustainability of student wellbeing initiatives (see Durlak et
al. 2008 in Section 3 for a summary of a recent CASEL comprehensive meta-analysis). CASEL
is currently working to establish Illinois as a state model for fostering the implementation
of widespread, evidence-based, integrated SEL programming into schools through
collaborations with state agencies, districts and schools.

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4.5 The Positive Psychology Movement (USA)

This relatively new field of psychology began in the USA in 2000. It has been defined as the
scientific study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing and
optimal functioning in people, groups and institutions (Gable & Haidt 2005). The aim of
positive psychology is to shift the focus in psychology from a preoccupation with
weaknesses and repairing what’s not working to building and enhancing an individual’s
positive qualities (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
Positive Psychology has three central concerns: positive emotions, positive individual traits,
and positive institutions.

• Understanding positive emotions is defined as “the study of contentment with the

past, happiness in the present, and hope and optimism for the future”.

• Understanding positive individual traits is defined as “the study of the strengths

and virtues, such as the capacity for love and work, courage, compassion,
resilience, creativity, curiosity, integrity, self-knowledge, moderation, self-
control, and wisdom”.

• Understanding positive institutions is defined as “the study of the strengths that

foster better communities, such as justice, responsibility, civility, parenting,
nurturance, work ethic, leadership, teamwork, purpose, and tolerance”
(www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu).
The potential application of this Positive Psychology framework to education has only been
considered for a short time (e.g. Noble & McGrath, 2008). So far there is considerable
evidence to support the positive effect on wellbeing of some of the individual components
of Positive Psychology but no evidence to support the application of the model per se to a
realistic and whole-school setting in which classroom teachers attempt to teach it through
the curriculum and embed it in the daily life of the classroom. There is mixed research
evidence on the effectiveness of one program (the Penn Resiliency Program-PRP) that has
features of a Positive Psychology approach but this program has only been used as a short-
term small-group program delivered after school by multiple leaders, not as a school-based
curriculum program.
As a number of researchers (e.g. Clift & Jenson, 2005; Rowling & Jeffreys, 2006) have
explained, randomised control trials that are advocated as the best forms of evidence in
clinical trials of approaches and programs in Health and Psychology (such as the PRP) do not
easily translate into curriculum programs that involve classroom or school change. There
are several reasons for this. Firstly, the theoretical understandings and practical processes
of educational change are ignored in the process of randomisation in which concerns about
sampling override concerns about optimal school/classroom implementation conditions.
Secondly, the statistical assumptions that underpin randomised control trials are less valid
in contexts requiring organisational or structural change and therefore the conclusions that
are likely to be drawn are limited in terms of their effective translation into whole-school
programs (Rowling & Jeffreys, 2006).
A clear message in the research literature is that implementing a whole school and whole
system initiative that leads to successful outcomes is complex and it can be difficult to
achieve enduring changes in school practices that have the potential to impact on student
wellbeing (Elias et al., 2003). Whole-school programs also need to be a good fit with the
culture of the school and its community. In their review, Elias et al., (1997) found that no

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projects or initiatives lasted very long if they had not been designed to be a “good fit” with
the school. Pre-packaged initiatives that may have been developed in one cultural context
(eg some of the heavily manualised programs in the USA which have a “minute-by-minute”
script) have also been shown to “fade out” more quickly than those which are put together
by the school itself from available evidence-based components (Moos, 1991).

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Section 5: Student Wellbeing in the

Australian Educational Context
This section of the report examines Australian Government National Frameworks in
Education relevant to student wellbeing. It then goes on to discuss state and territory and
non-government education authorities’ reactions to the concept of a National Student
Wellbeing Framework. This section concludes with a review of Student Wellbeing in state
and territory curriculum and policy documents.

5.1: Australian Government National Frameworks in Education

An overview and synthesis of key national frameworks and initiatives indicates a very strong
focus on the promotion of wellbeing and mental health through:

• Early intervention with students who are at risk for mental illness, behaviour
problems, poor physical health, anti-social behaviour and substance abuse

• School-based prevention programs that develop student resilience and other

aspects of social and emotional learning

• The development of a safe, supportive and values-based school ethos

• School connectedness and social connectedness

Many frameworks and initiatives also advocate that schools contribute to:

• The future capacity of students to participate in the workforce in a sustainable way

and contribute to community productivity

• the promotion of students’ civic engagement

Three other significant Australian Commonwealth goals align with these frameworks and
initiatives:

• combating economic and social disadvantage

• closing the gap between indigenous and non-indigenous people in terms of health
and life expectancy, infant and child mortality and educational outcomes

• ensuring social inclusion so that all Australians have the opportunity to fully
participate through the benefits of work, education, community engagement and
access to basic services.

Common Threads

The following National frameworks and directions were reviewed:

• National Framework for Health Promoting Schools (HPS)

• The two National initiatives based on the HPS model:

o MindMatters: secondary focus
o KidsMatter: primary focus

• National Framework for Values Education

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• National Safe Schools Framework (NSSF)

• Principles for School Drug Education

• National Drug Strategy (2004-2009)

• National Suicide Prevention Strategy

• National Action Plan on Mental Health (2006-2011).

Reference to the Healthy Children, Australian Early Development Index and Civics &
Citizenship Education frameworks will also be made where appropriate.
A common thread in all the Australian Government frameworks is that there are common
risk factors that contribute to priority health problems such as drug-related risk and harm,
youth anxiety/depression and youth suicide, social dislocation and mental health
problems). A similar common thread is that there are positive pathways that enhance
student wellbeing and student engagement in learning. Arguably a key underlying principle
of all the frameworks is that school based prevention and early intervention can make a
significant difference to student wellbeing and student engagement in learning.
The vision statement for health-promoting schools in Australia is that:
All children in Australia will belong to school communities which are committed to
promoting lifelong learning, health and wellbeing.
The KidsMatter initiative aims to:

• Improve the mental health and well-being of primary school students;

• Reduce mental health problems among students (eg., anxiety, depression and
behavioural problems) and iii) Achieve greater support and assistance for students
experiencing mental health problems.
The MindMatters initiative is a mental health promotion, prevention and early intervention
program for secondary schools with the aim of building positive school environments.
The vision statement for the National Framework in Values Education includes:
Developing student responsibility in local, national and global contexts and
building student resilience and social skills.
The three other points in the vision statement refer to values being incorporated in school’s
mission/ethos, policies, teaching programmes and practices.
The vision statement for the National Safe Schools framework is
All Australian schools are safe and supportive environments
The vision statement of the National Drug Strategy (under review) is:
To improve health, social and economic outcomes by preventing the
uptake of harmful drug use and reducing the harmful effects of licit and
illicit drugs in Australian society.
The Principles of School Drug Education have been accessed for this report as they provide
a framework to support effective drug education practice in schools.
All of the above frameworks advocate:

i) A whole child focus

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Each framework focuses on the wellbeing of the whole child in terms of their social,
emotional, physical, intellectual and spiritual dimensions.

ii) The assumption that student wellbeing impacts on student learning

None of the frameworks explicitly define student wellbeing. However student wellbeing is
inferred by their focus on the development of the whole child and/or the dimensions of
child development. All infer that adversity, such as poor mental or physical health,
substance abuse or physical or psychological unsafe home and school environments,
adversely affects student development and student engagement in learning.

iii) A whole school approach

All frameworks infer the key role of schools in promoting student wellbeing for lifelong
learning. All adopt a whole school perspective and focus on the protective environmental
factors that schools can provide as well as the skills, knowledge and understandings they
can teach to enhance student wellbeing. They all advocate an integrated, comprehensive,
multi-dimensional approach linking curriculum with the school ethos/environment and the
community. A recurring emphasis is the importance of fostering positive relationships and a
safe and supportive school environment.

iv) The need for a coherent framework for student wellbeing & whole
school improvement
Although each framework has a different emphasis (eg drug education vs values education
vs safe schools vs healthy schools etc) arguably the theme of student wellbeing underpins
each framework. Each National framework is offered as a unifying framework for school
policy for school improvement, and by implications, a framework to enhance student
wellbeing. The frameworks all advocate a system-wide approach that seeks a
comprehensive and unifying response across each school’s policies, practices and programs.

v) The importance of evidence-based practice

All frameworks advocate evidence-based practices that take the best available evidence
from a variety of credible sources, evaluate the relevance of the evidence to the
students/school context and apply it to achieve effective prevention and intervention.

vi) The need for collaboration

Although there is some reference to the importance of collaboration, for example teachers
working in teams (HPS), it is not proposed as a key ingredient in the success of
implementation and sustainability of frameworks. The Values framework does not mention
staff collaboration but does stress the importance of positive relationships.

vii) A values-based & inclusive approach

Each framework is underpinned by a social justice/social inclusion perspective that includes
ALL students based on values of respect, caring and support.

viii) A safe & supportive school ethos

Each framework focuses on the importance of a safe, caring and responsive school
environment to connect students to school. MindMatters has the supportive environment as
one of the three areas of action. Similarly Kidsmatter identifies a positive school

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community as one of the four key components to support student mental health and
wellbeing.

ix) The important role of the teacher

All frameworks highlight the importance of the teacher’s role in enhancing student
wellbeing and offering the potential to have a significant impact on students’ lives.
However in some frameworks such as the Drug Education framework the teacher’s role in
actively engaging students in the specific curriculum (e.g. NSSF and Drug Education)
through student-centred learning is emphasised as one of the more important active
ingredients. In other frameworks (such as HPS) the role of the teacher is part of a more
holistic approach incorporating effective teaching.
Each framework emphasises the importance of the teacher in exercising autonomy over
curriculum development based on the individual needs of their students and the
class/school context. As noted in the NHMRC (1996) report, teacher professional autonomy
and judgement is a key factor in gaining teachers’ commitment to a program and to
enhancing their confidence in adapting, developing and implementing the program
successfully.
The professional development of teachers is seen as a key component of the
implementation strategy for most of different frameworks and initiatives (for example
NSSF, MindMatters project: Rowling and Mason, 2007)

x) Approaches should be embedded in the curriculum

All frameworks recommend that key learnings (for example, in drug education, values
education, anti-bullying initiatives, social-emotional curriculum etc) are integrated into the
curriculum rather than implemented as an “add-on” which is separate to the curriculum.

xi) Approaches should be across all school years

All frameworks recommend that the school and class practices that align with the
framework be across all school years, and be developmentally appropriate and meet the
social-emotional needs and contextual needs of the students.

xii) The importance of strong school leadership

Although the frameworks adopt a whole school approach in most documents (except for
MindMatters) there is no elaborated reference to the role of school leadership in school
improvement in document guidelines. This is in contrast to the evidence which strongly
supports the key role of ongoing school leadership in the effective implementation and
sustainability of wellbeing initiatives (e.g. Leithwood et al., 2004, Elias et al., 2003,
Teddlie et al., 2000).

xiii) Partnerships with parents and the community

All frameworks highlight the importance of developing school-parent partnerships and
partnerships with the community. HPS also advocates partnerships with local agencies.
Kidsmatter highlights parenting education and support as one of the four key components in
which parents receive opportunities to access information on child development and
parenting.

xiv) A Strong focus on both prevention and intervention

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All frameworks advocate a focus on prevention and the frameworks that address young
children such as KidsMatter and Australian Early Education Index particularly highlight the
importance of early prevention “the earlier the better” and intervention in fostering
student wellbeing. The Early Education Index focuses more on the role of communities in
early prevention rather than schools.

xv) Student ownership

A very large number of the school-based projects funded by both the NSSF Best Practices
Grants Program and the Commonwealth Values Education Grants Program focused on topics
designed to develop students’ social and emotional wellbeing and, in particular on
developing student resilience. Many NSSF projects also focused on values and many Values
Education projects also focused on safe school cultures/learning (Holdsworth, 2002;
Chapman et al., 2007, McGrath, 2007).

Major Differences

As expected each document emphasises its particular focus. HPS particularly focuses on a
whole school approach as underpinning wellbeing. Of interest is that both staff and parent
wellbeing are seen as integral to student wellbeing.

• Kidsmatter particularly focuses on teaching students skills in social and emotional

learning for students as one of its four components. Schools choose an evidence-
based program based on CASEL criteria for social-emotional learning.

• MindMatters focuses on mental health and resilience and includes grief and loss.

• NSSF places importance on schools providing a physical and psychological safe

environment for children that is free from neglect, abuse, harassment, violence and
bullying.

• Values framework focuses on the importance of the nine values to underpin school
and classroom practices.
Drug education highlights the importance of explicitly teaching students information about
drugs, especially in the middle school years. However without reducing the role of drug
education programs, the Principles in School Drug Education particularly highlight the shift
in thinking to curriculum and classroom learning as part of a broader and comprehensive
approach to drug prevention for students and school communities.
All frameworks offer a broad set of underpinning principles that collectively describe
effective school practices. There is an expectation that diverse Australian schools will
interpret and implement these principles to meet their own needs.

Other frameworks relevant to student wellbeing

Statements for Learning for Civics & Citizenship

The statements are designed to provide guidelines for curriculum development across
Australia for Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 on the following aspects of Civics and Citizenship
Education, namely Government and Law, Citizenship in a Democracy, and Historical
perspectives.

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Healthy Children; Strengthening Promotion and Prevention Across Australia National Public
Health Strategic Framework for Children 2005–2008. This initiative seeks to strengthen the
capacity of the health sector and wider community to support communities, families,
parents and professionals to promote health and wellbeing from the ante-natal period to 12
years. One aim is to close the health gap and tackle the specific needs of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander children. This document does not specifically mention the role of
schools.

The National Drug Strategy (2004-2009)

Drug use is identified in this strategy as one of a number of social and health problems that
share common determinants. A strong focus on prevention and resilience aligns this
strategy with drug education.

The Australian Early Development Index: Building Better Communities for Children Project
(AEDI)
This index focuses strongly on prevention and early intervention. It is a measure of how
young children are developing in different communities and is administered through the
Royal Children’s Hospital in Melbourne and funded by DEEWR. The focus is on the
importance of investing resources and energy into a child’s early years, when their
brain is developing rapidly in order to bring life-long benefits to them and to the whole
community.

The National Action Plan on Mental Health 2006 – 2011 (COAG)

There is an Australia-wide acceptance that mental health is a major problem for the
Australian community. There is a strong emphasis on prevention and early intervention
through building resilience and coping skills of children, young people and families and the
promotion of wellbeing and mental health. The National Suicide Prevention Strategy is part
of this overall plan.

5.2 Responses by State, Territory and Non-government

education authorities to the Concept of a National
Student Wellbeing Framework

All jurisdictions were invited to complete a questionnaire last October which asked their
views on student wellbeing and the advantages and disadvantages of a National Framework
in student wellbeing. All but one government jurisdiction responded as well as several
Catholic and Independent jurisdictions (see Table 2 below). Individuals representing School
Drug Education and Road Aware, and two catholic schools also responded. The Catholic
Education Office in Melbourne updated their response in June 2008.
In summary, a broad National Framework for Student Wellbeing was generally welcomed by
all jurisdictions based on a need for clarity, coordination, and consistency across
jurisdictions and within schools, developed from evidence based practice. Respondents
highlighted the need for prevention and early intervention with a whole child/whole school
focus that strengthens the link between student wellbeing and learning outcomes. The need
for teacher professional learning and funding was emphasised together with the need to
consult with all jurisdictions. One of the main challenges was seen as engaging schools and
educators to shift their traditional perceptions on welfare, targeted populations and

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programs/curricular components to a focus on universal student wellbeing and an emphasis

on whole school change.
Table 2: Responses to DEEWR survey on a potential National Framework in Student
Wellbeing

Government Catholic Independent

ACT X X X / No information

NSW X X X

NT X

QLD X X

SA X X

TAS X

VIC X X

WA X X SDERA

Responses to concept of a Student Wellbeing National Framework

All but one jurisdiction were positive to the idea of a National Framework, several strongly
so.
Rationales for supporting a National Framework on Student Wellbeing:

• Will provide a stronger focus on and higher significance for student wellbeing;

• Student wellbeing needs to be seen as “core business” - have higher status;

• Will provide leverage / expansion for focus on student wellbeing;

• A National Framework provides leadership for schools/systems;

• Student wellbeing needs a whole school approach;

• Places the whole child at the centre of focus;

• The need for a pro-active approach;

• Provides a stronger focus on prevention / early intervention;

• Offers cohesion across current National policies;

• It will provide consistency re definition / conceptual clarity;

• Offers consistency re implementation of student wellbeing initiatives;

• There is a need to dismantle the current “silo” approach;

• We need a holistic/ integrated approach to student wellbeing — not “add on”;

• We need a dual focus on health and education outcomes;

• A National Framework would help to identify good (evidence-based/values-based)

practices;

• Will provide a benchmark.

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Provisos:

• Should not be imposed /mandatory (noted in particular by Independent school

jurisdictions);

• A framework should not be too prescriptive / needs a broad framework;

• There is a need for teacher professional learning;

• It should be resourced;

• We should not throw out good programs that are already in existence.

Current Practices in Student Wellbeing in Jurisdictions

There is a lack of clarity about the definition of student wellbeing and current school and
system practices vary widely across Australia. Several jurisdictions are in the process of
reviewing current policies in area of student wellbeing.
Three jurisdictions have a major focus on student wellbeing with detailed frameworks
already in place, focusing on the whole child within the whole school:

• ACT: Every Chance to Learn: A curriculum document with a strong student

wellbeing focus — up to schools how they implement. Incorporates a visiting school
wellbeing team.

• Victoria: Catholic Education Office, Melbourne: Student Wellbeing Strategy Plan

with each primary school with school based core leadership teams consisting of
school leaders and the Student Wellbeing Coordinator; most of whom have been
funded by the Diocese to take university based credential training.

• South Australia: Learner Wellbeing Framework: The SA Department of Education

and Children’s Services (DECS) has put student wellbeing centre stage with their
Learner Wellbeing Framework. Wellbeing refers to the physical, social and
emotional welfare of students which is integral rather than incidental to learning.
This Framework refers to the whole person in five dimensions that overlap and
interconnect with each other: cognitive, emotional, physical, social and spiritual.
The Framework addresses the four domains in which student wellbeing is
addressed: curriculum and pedagogy, policies and procedures, the learning
environment and partnerships.
Other jurisdictions (eg NT and WA) are moving in this direction with overarching learning
outcomes that include student wellbeing.
In other states and territories there are numerous policies and practices that address
various aspects of student wellbeing although the term “student wellbeing” is not used
consistently; the terms: student welfare and pastoral care are more common.
Although some jurisdictions have developed a cohesive, pro-active, universal approach to
student wellbeing with an overarching framework or policy, many continue to have a
reactive “welfare” focus for targeted and vulnerable populations

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Current National frameworks, especially the Values Framework and the National Safe
Schools Framework are the foundations for policies that inform student wellbeing in several
jurisdictions. Mindmatters, Drug Awareness and Health Promoting Schools are referred to
but are less frequently mentioned.
Some jurisdictions have a congruent whole school approach to student wellbeing, others are
more fragmented and appear to be “cherry picking” from existing initiatives without
considering issues of implementation or coordination with other policies and practices
In independent schools policies/practices related to student wellbeing are the responsibility
of the individual school with the support from the State Association of Independent Schools
Central Office for professional development, guidance and consultancy.
All the States and Territories’ responses on student wellbeing had a stronger focus on social
and emotional issues than physical wellbeing although sport and physical education were
mentioned several times. Sexual orientation was mentioned once and nutrition not at all.
There would appear to be a need to strengthen the links between physical, social and
psychological wellbeing for students and their learning outcomes. Only a few respondents
referred to the links between student wellbeing and learning outcomes.
With some significant exceptions there were very few comments on the processes of
implementation and effective pedagogy to enhance student wellbeing.
Student participation/student voice did not feature strongly though partnerships with
parents were often mentioned.

In schools
State and Territories governments provide schools with support in the form of professional
training to implement strategies such as the National Safe Schools Framework. Most schools
are encouraged to develop whole school strategies and their own school policies which sit
within the overarching National frameworks. There is variation in how each school’s policies
and strategies are developed, monitored and evaluated although consultation with parents
is often suggested.
Most Catholic and Independent schools say they comply with legislative requirements but
the implementation of policies is up to schools to suit their own contexts, especially their
faith based practice. The main exception is the appointment by the Catholic Education
Office in Melbourne of a student wellbeing coordinator in each school, supported by a
cluster approach and professional accredited learning programs. Guidance officers and
counsellors were mentioned in a few responses as providing a leading role in student
wellbeing in their schools, with the potential for preventative work as well as to support
individual students.

Limitations and gaps

Several respondents talked about the need to move away from an individual reactive focus
to a whole school preventative focus where student wellbeing is a priority: Some suggested
amendments:

• Student wellbeing is mandated at the system level and is separate from behaviour
management

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• Student wellbeing is considered the core business of schools

• There is a need for an on-going discussion about whole school change within a
health promotion framework including the practical implementations.

• A move away from individual interventions that focus on traditional notions of

welfare and counselling to whole school approaches that focus on student
wellbeing.
Another issue was the plethora of programs and policies that relate to student wellbeing,
yet there is a perceived lack of understanding about student wellbeing issues, a lack of
cohesion between different policies and programmes and the risk of potential duplication:

• Conceptual/common understandings are inconsistent, with some definitions of

student wellbeing being broad and others specifically addressing individual
components of wellbeing,

• Within most jurisdictions there is a separation of functions around student

wellbeing leading to duplication and a narrow understanding of, for example, drug
education and how this relates to student wellbeing

• Lack of consistency in approaches to student wellbeing and to how student

wellbeing is defined in different jurisdictions.
The ways in which policies and practices were developed in schools was also an issue of
concern, as was the time required to implement what might be seen as additional rather
than integral school business. Issues mentioned were:

• Schools’ lack of consultation with all stakeholders leading to inconsistency, imposed

policies, lack of support from the school community etc.

• Time pressures which may inhibit the development, implementation and reflection
on student wellbeing policies

• Crowded curriculum and lack of common understanding about what constitutes

student wellbeing

• Lack of evidence base, including analysis of the needs of each school and the
desired outcomes and therefore a difficulty in assessing the appropriateness of
different policies/programmes.
A number of jurisdictions reiterated the need for an overarching policy that incorporates all
areas of student wellbeing.
A major but necessary challenge was seen in shifting the emphasis away from program
implementation to strategic implementation of whole school approaches which include the
key areas of:

• School culture, environment and ethos

• Curriculum, teaching and learning

• School community partnerships

• Organisational structures, processes and procedures

“There is an ongoing need for raising awareness around the difference between
wellbeing and welfare, prevention and intervention and whole school strategic
approach versus programmatic responses” (CEOM June 2008).

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The perceived role of the Australian Government and future directions

Several respondents made strong recommendations that the Australian Government take a
leadership role to develop a clear definition and a common understanding of student
wellbeing, to raise the profile of student wellbeing and to link student wellbeing to student
learning outcomes. Such Government support was seen as important in informing and
encouraging schools to broaden their understanding of student wellbeing. Some suggestions
are to:

• Integrate local, state and national educational agendas into a coherent framework
that clearly links student social and emotional wellbeing with the learning
environment and student learning outcomes;

• Ensure a common understanding of student wellbeing and provide access to

appropriate expertise across the portfolios of health, welfare and education;

• Develop an overarching framework that links everything together for schools,

develop tools for implementation such as action plans, case studies, audit tools;

• Establish clear links to educational outcomes, not just health outcomes;

• Provide a continued focus on student learning; and

• Provide support and advocacy for the work that is already happening in student
wellbeing to position this as central to learning and wellbeing locally and across all
education sectors in Australia.
Many respondents also wanted the development of an evidence base on student wellbeing
which would underpin a policy framework on student wellbeing and inform best practice
initiatives. These initiatives should be appropriately funded. Some of the recommendations
are as follows:

• Base a student wellbeing framework on sound research around health and wellbeing
promotion rather than a deficit model;

• Fund action research in a variety of settings and evaluate;

• Continue a focus on program evaluation and improved accountability and system

performance measures, linked to improved student learning and wellbeing
outcomes;

• Further develop existing databases of empirically evidenced programmes; and

• Provide funding for specific populations, such as Indigenous school communities,

refugees, and culturally and linguistically diverse communities.
Several of the respondents expressed the need for a review of current policies and
practices at both Australian government and state and territory levels and the need to
integrate existing programmes that inform student wellbeing into a more holistic approach.
Co-ordinating different educational initiatives with other areas, such as health was also
mentioned.
Support for the development of student wellbeing initiatives at the school level was also
seen as a potential role for the Australian Government. Some of the issues raised included
the following recommendations:

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• Successful implementation requires ownership by schools and sectors;

• Further staff development/professional development is required;

• Provision of parent education opportunities that are school based; and

• Work on building and nurturing relationships in schools.

One respondent advised that the government take a minimalist approach which involved
the provision of a source of existing strategies and examples of best practice.

Partners in student wellbeing

A broad range of areas and organizations have some involvement in student wellbeing.
Primarily these include the following sectors:

• Health

• Physical education/sport

• Curriculum

• Nutrition

• Child protection/police

• Disability

• Aboriginal education and training

• Equity

• Universities (developing programmes and undertaking research)

• Community organizations/local councils/NGOs

Issues and further comments by respondents

• There is a need to keep the topic of student wellbeing as a central agenda item
for discussion across the States

• Schools should be modelling values

• The quality of in-school relationships will need addressing

• The need for professional learning/ resources was highlighted many times across
the survey

• A framework requires in-school consultation — not imposing policies

• We need guiding principles/support for implementation

• A focus on student wellbeing is congruent with positive behaviour approaches and

also with restorative practices

• A focus on student wellbeing provides for student participation/student leadership

• One jurisdiction (SA) focuses on Birth — Yr 12, the rest K-12 or P-12. There is little
discrimination between primary and secondary sectors although evidence

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elsewhere shows that students experience less wellbeing in school as they get
older.

• There is a the challenge of engaging schools with whole school change — not
focusing on individuals

• The importance of partnerships

• Issues of inclusion

• A national wellbeing conference was mooted as well as a national wellbeing “think

tank” to discuss, plan and progress

• Promotion of an international study tour to showcase and investigate innovative

practices in the area of whole school preventions with an emphasis on school
community partnerships.

• Development of a Student Wellbeing and the Arts Portfolio area of responsibility

to explore, build and develop opportunities for schools to be involved in
innovations in this area.

Further observations
The responses were written by individuals, not as an outcome of consultation so they do not
necessarily reflect a consensus. None of the responses articulated conceptual
models/beliefs on student wellbeing underlying current school and system practices,
especially for “at-risk” populations and special needs. This is likely to be a challenge for
the implementation of a student wellbeing framework. Deficit labels which attract funding
for instance are not congruent with an interactive whole school approach to student
wellbeing which focuses on inclusion, the whole child and an interactive model.
There were only indirect references to school leadership and only one reference on
collaborative relationships to facilitate school improvement. There was no reference on the
links between student wellbeing and teacher wellbeing.
The comments from some respondents on time and curriculum demands means that any
new framework needs to emphasise doing things differently, not additionally.
There is little reference to “joined up thinking” although several mention the need for
consistency across both schools and jurisdictions.
Little was said about the congruence of positive approaches to behaviour within a student
wellbeing framework and what this means for students who present with more challenging
behaviours. Similarly, issues in regard to students with special needs were not addressed.

5.3 Student Wellbeing in State and Territory Curriculum

and Policy Documents

The following section briefly summarises the current position in relation to the inclusion of
Student Wellbeing in State/Territory curriculum and policy document.

Australian Capital Territory (ACT)

The ACT’s Curriculum Framework, Every Chance to Learn is underpinned by core principles
that relate to wellbeing. Seven of the 25 Essential Learnings focus on wellbeing and three

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of these are considered to be interdisciplinary. The pedagogy that underpins

implementation is based on the NSW Quality Teaching model which highlights
connectedness, positive, caring, safe and supportive classroom environments, challenge,
engagement and meaningful learning

New South Wales (NSW)

Student Wellbeing appears to have a lower profile in NSW. The focus is more on student
welfare and its links with good discipline and effective learning. There is no specific focus
on wellbeing across the curriculum in NSW. However The Personal Development Health and
Physical Education Curriculum does have a focus on interpersonal relationships, personal
skills and decision-making about lifestyle choices. The Early Years Strategy (2006) aims to
assist students to learn confidently, grow strongly and strengthen connections. The Middle
Years Strategy aims to enhance student engagement, resilience and success. Both
strategies appear to be more about objectives than strategies and skills and little support
for teacher implementation and practice is to be found. Pedagogy is based on the NSW
Quality Teaching model which highlights connectedness, positive, caring, safe and
supportive classroom environments, challenge, engagement and meaningful learning

Northern Territory
Wellbeing is explained thus: mental and emotional wellbeing refers to how a person feels,
thinks and acts. If s/he feels “good”, this translates into positive feelings, positive
relationships with other people, decisiveness about themselves and an ability to cope with
the stresses of every day life
The Curriculum Framework consists of four categories of Essential Learnings (across 8
learning areas). Three of these categories focus on student wellbeing and, in particular, the
development of identity, personal values, resilience, empathy, integrity, relationship skills
and working cooperatively, working in groups and making a contribution to one’s own
learning and the community
The Health and Physical Education Learning Area takes a holistic approach and is organised
into three strands, each having some connection to student wellbeing. These are:

• Promoting Individual and Community Health;

• Enhancing Personal Development and Relationships; and

• Participation in physical activity and movement.

Queensland
The Queensland Essential Learnings are linked only to specific discipline-based learning
areas but are also broadly described as encompassing social and personal competence.
There appear to be no specific curriculum areas with a significant focus on students’ own
wellbeing. The Health and Physical Education curriculum focuses to some extent on
personal and interpersonal skills but primarily in relation to health choices. However it is
also acknowledged that there will be other aspects of curriculum, school policies and
procedures, and community partnerships that will also contribute to and enhance student
health and wellbeing in the school setting. Some principles of the Queensland Productive
Pedagogies model have links with wellbeing eg connectedness, supportive classroom
environment, mutual respect between teachers and students, recognition of difference,
building a sense of community and identity and the encouragement of active citizenship
within the classroom.

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South Australia
Wellbeing is described as referring to children and students’ physical, social and emotional
welfare and development which are seen as integral rather than incidental to learning.
Student wellbeing is at the centre of the Learner Wellbeing Framework (Birth to Year 12)
which refers to the whole person across cognitive, emotional, physical, social and spiritual
dimensions.
Two of the 5 South Australian Essential Learnings that focus more directly on student
wellbeing are (1) Identity (developing a positive sense of self and group, accepting
individual and group responsibilities and respecting individual and group differences) and
(2) Interdependence (working in harmony with others and for common purposes, within and
across cultures).
There are a few curriculum documents that articulate how student wellbeing might be
achieved but not much information about the processes of implementation, pedagogy or
integration with key learning areas.
The Health and Physical Education Learning Area has three strands, two of which relate to
wellbeing. These are Physical Activity and Participation and Personal and Social
Development. The Personal and Social Development strand focuses on values, building a
positive self-concept, relationships with others and working cooperatively, and developing
skills and knowledge that will enhance students’ own growth.

Tasmania
Student wellbeing is not integrated with overall curriculum and is mainly addressed through
the Health and Wellbeing Curriculum which focuses physical, social, emotional, mental and
spiritual wellbeing. There are three main strands which focus on teaching students skills for
becoming resilient, ethical, responsible, active, interpersonally effective, civic-minded and
healthy people. Some of the values that underpin the Health and Wellbeing Curriculum also
relate to student wellbeing eg connectedness, resilience, integrity, responsibility and
equity.

Victoria
The Victorian Essential Learning Standards are the basis for curriculum and assessment in
Victorian schools and the strand that has a strong connection with wellbeing is the Physical,
Personal and Social learning strand. It has four domains, all of which focus on student
wellbeing in some way. These are: (1) Health and Physical Education, (2) Interpersonal
Development, (3) Personal Learning and (4) Civics and Citizenship. The main focus of this
strand is on the link between student wellbeing and learning.

Western Australia
Three of the 13 Overarching Learning Outcomes in Western Australia focus on student
wellbeing. These are: (1) students value and implement practices that promote personal
growth and wellbeing; (2) students are self-motivated and confident in their approach to
learning and are able to work individually and collaboratively; and (3) students recognise
that everyone has the right to feel valued and be safe, and, in this regard, understand their
rights and obligations and behave responsibly.
All learning areas are expected to contribute to these overarching outcomes for students.
Three of the five values that are identified as underpinning the Curriculum Framework also
relate to student wellbeing: Self acceptance and self-respect, respect and concern for
others and their rights and social and civic responsibility,

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The Western Australian Health and Physical Education Curriculum focuses on strategies and
skills that will assist students to develop skills for safety, physical activity, self-
management and relationships.

Table 3: Summary of State/Territory Curriculum and Policy in relation to Student

Wellbeing

Wellbeing: Definitions, Frameworks, Curriculum, Pedagogy etc

Curriculum
ACT Curriculum Framework: Every Chance to Learn
Core Principles include:

• The development of each student as a learner, person, community member and

contributor to society.

• The development of the whole child – intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally,

morally and spiritually

• The specific focus of student wellbeing is on supporting students to take positive

action and responsibility for their physical, social, emotional, moral and spiritual
health.
Some of the other principles that underpin the curriculum framework include:

• The belief that every child can learn

• Building on strengths

• Being equitable and inclusive

• Ethical practice
Essential Learnings
ACT
The following 7 of the 25 Essential Learnings focus on wellbeing:

• The student makes considered decisions*

• The student acts with integrity and regard for others*

• The student contributes to group effectiveness*

• The student takes action to promote health

• The student is physically skilled and active

• The student manages self and relationships

• The student understands and values what it means to be a citizen within a democracy
Three of these *are considered interdisciplinary across all learning areas
Pedagogy
Pedagogy is based on the NSW Quality Teaching model which includes principles that
relate to student wellbeing such as:

• The importance of connectedness and a positive, caring, safe and supportive

classroom environment

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• Classrooms need to be challenging and engaging and students need to see value [ie
meaning] in what they are learning.

Curriculum
There is no specific focus on wellbeing across the curriculum. However The Years K-6
PDHPE (Personal Development Health and Physical Education) Curriculum has a focus on
interpersonal relationships and making and acting on lifestyle decisions about nutrition,
hygiene, consumerism, drug use, the environment and disease prevention. The Years 7-10
PDHE Curriculum also includes personal skills as part of the curriculum
Student Welfare policy
Student Wellbeing appears to have a lower profile in NSW. The focus on welfare is
stronger. The main focus of the Student Welfare Policy is on the links between student
welfare, good discipline and effective learning. There are mentions in the policy about:

• The link between positive climate and good discipline

• The importance of maximising student participation in decision making and ensuring

that principles of equity and fairness are reflected in school practice

• Developing and implementing policies and procedures to protect the rights, safety
and health of all school community members

• Monitoring attendance and ensuring that students attend school regularly

• Valuing and providing opportunities for all students to develop the skills involved in
positive relationships, social responsibility, problem solving and dispute resolution

• Valuing difference and discouraging narrow and limiting gender stereotypes

• Incorporating students’ views into planning related to school climate and organisation

• Providing resources and opportunities for students to gain leadership experience using
a range of mechanisms, including student representative councils or school
parliaments.

• Encouraging students to have a sense of belonging to the school community

NSW
The Early Years Strategy (2006) has three goals: learning confidently, growing strongly
and strengthening connections. The underlying principle of this strategy is strengthening
the academic and social foundations on which children’s lives are built. The strategy aims
to promote student health, wellbeing and resilience to ensure effective learning. There is
a focus on the direct teaching of positive social behaviour and values, positive classroom
environments, student leadership and participation, self-respect and the development of
cross-cultural understandings. At this stage the strategy appears to be more about
objectives than skills and strategies, There is little obvious support for teachers for
practice and implementation.
The Middle Years Strategy (2006) also has three goals; engagement, resilience and
success. The strategy is based on actions that improve student wellbeing and help them
become responsible, resilient and successful. There is a focus on implementing whole
school approaches that maintain safety, build positive peer and student–teacher
relationships, provide opportunities for student leadership and participation, foster social
skills, respect and strong values, develop student responsibility and provide targeted
early intervention and support. There is a specific focus on conflict management, anti-

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racism and anti-bullying, and other welfare and social justice programs and approaches.
As with the Early Years strategy, this strategy appears to be more about objectives than
skills and strategies and, similarly, there is little obvious support for teachers for practice
and implementation
Pedagogy
The NSW Quality Teaching model which includes principles that relate to student
wellbeing such as:

• The importance of connectedness and a positive, caring, safe and supportive

classroom environment

• Classrooms need to be challenging and engaging and students need to see value [ie
meaning] in what they are learning.

Definition of Student Wellbeing

Wellbeing is explained as follows:
Mental and emotional wellbeing refers to how a person feels, thinks and
acts. If s/he feels “good”, this translates into positive feelings, positive
relationships with other people, decisiveness about themselves and an
ability to cope with the stresses of every day life
Curriculum
The Curriculum Framework consists of four categories of Essential Learnings (across 8
learning areas). The following three categories focus on student wellbeing
Category I: The Inner Learner
Focuses on students developing identity, personal values, resilience, empathy and
integrity and valuing diversity
Category 3: The Collaborative Learner
Focuses on relationships, effective communication strategies, listening to others views,
understanding others, developing the social values of compassion and integrity, dealing
constructively with conflict, fulfilling group responsibilities, sharing own ideas, working in
groups.
Category 4: The Constructive Learner
Focuses on students reflecting on how they can make a useful difference eg by
contributing to their own learning and wellbeing (including healthy living) and
contributing at a local and global level.
The Health and Physical Education Learning Area takes a holistic approach based around
NT The World Health Organisation’s definition health as “a state of complete mental,
physical and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. A
Health Promoting Schools approach is recommended. THE HPE are organised into three
strands, each having some connection to student wellbeing:

• Promoting Individual and Community Health (eg physical, social, emotional, mental
and spiritual dimensions of health and wellbeing, disease prevention, nutrition, first
aid, safety and risk reduction in relation to drugs, sexuality etc,

• Enhancing Personal Development and Relationships (eg physical, social and

emotional development, sexuality and the challenging of stereotypes and shaping of

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identity, effective relationships, community values, attitudes and standards of

behaviour)

• Participation in physical activity and movement (skills for physical activity and the
benefits of physical activity)

Curriculum
The Essential Learnings are linked only to specific discipline-based learning areas but are
broadly described as encompassing knowledge, skills and attributes that are:

• specific to content areas

• required for complex, real-life challenges eg higher-order thinking skills and social
and personal competence.
There appear to be no specific curriculum areas with a significant focus on students’ own
wellbeing, However teachers are advised that student health and wellbeing issues should
be addressed primarily in the context of the Years 1-10(HPE) Health and Physical
Education syllabus. In this syllabus personal and interpersonal skills are linked primarily to
health choices and include:

• Working cooperatively with others

• Building and maintaining self-esteem

• Setting realistic goals

• Coping with anxiety

• Resisting pressures

• Communicating effectively

• Making decisions

• Managing conflict

• Dealing assertively with social situations in which health behaviours usually take
QLD
place.
However it is also acknowledged that there will be other aspects of curriculum, school
policies and procedures, and community partnerships that will also contribute to and
enhance student health and wellbeing in the school setting.
Pedagogy
Some principles of the QLD Productive Pedagogies model have links with wellbeing eg:

• The importance of connectedness and developing a supportive classroom environment

in which there is mutual respect between students and teachers and recognition of
difference.

• The importance of using teaching that builds a sense of community and identity

• The encouragement of active citizenship within the classroom

Definition/Description of Student Wellbeing

Wellbeing refers to children and students’ physical, social and emotional

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welfare and development. Evidence suggests that these elements are

integral rather than incidental to learning. A learner will find it difficult to
engage with learning programs if they are distracted by significant physical,
social and emotional issues.
Curriculum
Student wellbeing is at the centre of the Learner Wellbeing Framework (Birth to Year 12)
which refers to the whole person across cognitive, emotional, physical, social and
spiritual dimensions. Wellbeing is described as being achieved through curriculum and
pedagogy, policies and procedures, the learning environment and partnerships.
There are 5 Essential Learnings, two of which focus more directly on wellbeing

• Identity: developing a positive sense of self and group, accepting individual and group
responsibilities and respecting individual and group differences

• Interdependence: working in harmony with others and for common purposes, within
and across cultures
SA
There are a few curriculum documents that articulate how student wellbeing might be
achieved eg through a positive whole school ethos and classroom environment and
positive teacher-student relationships. However there isn’t very much information about
the processes of implementation, pedagogy or integration with key learning areas.
The Health and Physical Education Learning Area has three strands:

• Physical activity and participation

• Personal and social development

• The health of individuals and communities

The Personal and social development strand focuses on values, understanding ‘self’ and
“self and others”, building a positive self-concept and establishing relationships with
others across diverse groups in the world around them. There is also a focus on working
cooperatively, understanding the physical, spiritual, social, cognitive and emotional
changes that occur over the life span, and developing skills and knowledge that will
enhance their own growth and their relationships with others in a variety of contexts.

Curriculum
Student wellbeing is addressed mainly in the Health and Wellbeing Curriculum, which
adopts a broad definition of health which focuses on five (overlapping) dimensions of
physical, social, emotional, mental and spiritual wellbeing. There are three main strands
which focus on assisting students to become resilient, responsible, active and healthy
people by:

• Understanding health and wellbeing

TAS • Having concepts and skills for movement and physical activity

• Having skills for personal and social development, based on identity, relationships and
self-management skills.
The Health and Wellbeing curriculum document makes links between health and
wellbeing and outcomes such as acting ethically, developing a positive identity, gaining a
sense of direction, school success at school, positive communication and skills for civic

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participation, advocacy and citizenship. Values that are identified as underpinning the
curriculum and which also relate to student wellbeing include: connectedness, resilience,
integrity, responsibility and equity.
Wellbeing is not clearly integrated with overall curriculum and it is assumed that basic
skills such as literacy and numeracy can be addressed in the Health and Wellbeing
curriculum rather than the other way round.

Curriculum
The Victorian Essential Learning Standards are the basis for curriculum and assessment in
Victorian schools. There are three VELS strands:

• Discipline-based Learning

• Interdisciplinary Learning (Thinking processes, Design, creativity and technology, ICT

and Communciation)
VIC
• Physical, Personal and Social learning
The Physical, Personal and Social learning strand is the one that focuses most on aspects
of student wellbeing and it has four domains:

• Health and Physical Education (Movement and physical activity; health

knowledge)

• Interpersonal Development (Building social relationships; working in teams;

Managing conflict)

• Personal learning (Self-knowledge; responding to feedback; self-management and

organisation; values)

• Civics and Citizenship (Civics knowledge and understanding; community

engagement)

The focus of the Interpersonal Development and Personal learning domains is on the link
between wellbeing and learning. Teachers are reasonably well supported by on-line
resources in their implementation and assessment of a these VELS domains

Curriculum
WA There are 13 Overarching Learning Outcomes (OLOs) and the following three focus on
student wellbeing:

• Students value and implement practices that promote personal growth and well-being

• Students are self-motivated and confident in their approach to learning and are able
to work individually and collaboratively.

• Students recognise that everyone has the right to feel valued and be safe, and, in this
regard, understand their rights and obligations and behave responsibly.
All learning areas are expected to contribute to these overarching outcomes for students.
Three of the five values that are identified as underpinning the Curriculum Framework
also relate to student wellbeing:

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• Self acceptance and respect of self, resulting in attitudes and actions which
develop each person’s unique potential — physical, emotional, aesthetic,
spiritual, intellectual, moral and social;

• Respect and concern for others and their rights, resulting in sensitivity to and
concern for the well-being of others, respect for others and a search for
constructive ways of managing conflict;

• Social and civic responsibility, resulting in a commitment to exploring and

promoting the common good; meeting individual needs in ways which do not
infringe the rights of others; participating in democratic processes; social justice
and cultural diversity.
The Health and Physical Education Curriculum (HPE) focuses on strategies and skills that
will assist students to develop:

• Skills to keep themselves safe, maintain their own wellbeing and reduce risks to their
health.

• Skills for physical activity

• Self-management skills

• Interpersonal skills (especially negotiation, being assertive and conflict management

skills)

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Section 6: Whole School Approaches to

Student Wellbeing
6.1 Issues of School Leadership, Implementation and
Sustainability of Student Wellbeing Initiatives

There are many common threads in the current National educational frameworks that are
key factors in relation to effective implementation and sustainability of wellbeing
initiatives. These are:

• A focus on the whole child

• An assumption that student wellbeing impacts on student learning

• The importance of a whole school approach

• The importance of staff collaboration

• The importance of a values-based & inclusive approach

• The need for a safe & supportive school ethos

• The key role of the classroom teacher

• Implementation across all school years

• The vital importance of effective school leadership

• Partnerships with parents and the community

• A focus on both prevention and intervention, preferably early intervention

The following section outlines guidelines from research into successful program
implementation and sustainability.
Over the last decade, there has been a research shift from a focus on the short-term
effectiveness of innovations and towards a focus on creating conditions for success in
‘normal’ school circumstances (Elias, 2003; National Health and Medical Research Council
(1996).
Elias, Zins, Graczyk & Weissberg (2003/CASEL) have identified from their comprehensive
research of hundreds of studies of school initiatives the following school-based factors that
are associated with the successful and enduring implementation of these initiatives. These
factors are:

• The presence of a coordinator or team to oversee the implementation of the

initiative and resolution of day-to-day problems;

• Involvement of teachers with high shared morale, good communication and a

sense of ownership in the new initiative;

• Ongoing processes that foster teachers’ formal and informal professional

development including the involvement of acknowledged experts;

• High participation of all students in the school in the initiative;

• High visibility of student wellbeing as a priority in the school and community;

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• Components that explicitly teach values such as respect, cooperation support and
social-emotional learning skills that encourage classroom participation, positive
interactions with teachers/peers and good study habits;

• Varied and engaging teaching methods;

• Links made to the stated goals of the school and jurisdiction;

• Consistent support from the school principal; and

• The need for a balance of support from new and seasoned leaders at the school
system level.

Good Practice at the School System Level

A good Australian example of a student wellbeing initiative at the school system level is the
SWAP (Student Wellbeing Action Plan) initiative of the Student Wellbeing Unit of the
Melbourne Catholic Education Office. This approach includes the appointment of a school
wellbeing coordinator in every primary school in the Melbourne Diocese who leads a core
team of staff with responsibility for the design, implementation and evaluation of the
school’s student wellbeing policy, programs and practices. The Diocese has funded 800 staff
to complete a Postgraduate Diploma in Educational Studies (Student Welfare) or Master of
Education (Student Wellbeing) at either Melbourne University or ACU National. Many of
these supported teachers have gone on to become student wellbeing coordinators.
Education Officers from the CEOM Student Wellbeing Unit lead and support schools in the
implementation of whole school approaches to student wellbeing with a focus on
prevention and within the context of the Health Promoting Schools Framework.
Organisational support is delivered through clusters of schools who are encouraged to work
together to build capacity amongst teachers and leaders in the area of student wellbeing. A
significant goal for the Diocese is to shift the individual school’s emphasis away from
program implementation to strategic implementation of whole school approaches which
includes the key areas of:

• School Culture, Environment and Ethos;

• Curriculum Teaching & Learning;

• School Community Partnerships; and

• Organisational Structures, Processes and Procedures.

Good Practice at the School level

Most of the eleven schools selected as “good practice schools” as part of the research
investigation by the Victorian Education Department’s “Safe schools are effective schools”
project endorsed student wellbeing as a school priority. This focus then provided a unifying
vision for the school practices that facilitated teacher and student wellbeing such as
building school connectedness and positive relationships, whole school positive behaviour
management, initiatives to reduce school bullying and pedagogy that supported that vision
(McGrath & Noble, 2007).

School Leadership
The research literature has highlighted the key role of school leaders, through their active,
engaged support and direction, in determining the success of any teacher implementation

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of student wellbeing initiatives. Even with a passion for student wellbeing it is much harder
for individual teachers to initiate and sustain such initiatives if it is not seen as a school
priority and their work does not have school leadership support (Kam, Greenberg and Walls
2003). In their evaluation of the primary-school-based Friendly Schools and Friendly
Families Project, Western Australian researchers Cross and her colleagues found that the
principal’s full involvement was crucial to a school’s successful implementation of the
programme (Cross et al., 2004).
Specific practices for redesigning the organisation of a school typically include leadership
vision and support for strengthening school culture and building school-community
connections, developing collaborative processes and modifying organisational structures to
align with the vision for whole school wellbeing (Leithwood et al., 2004; Reynolds & Teddlie
2000). A detailed three-to five-year strategic implementation plan has been found to be
essential for successful implementation, as vague or tentative plans never lead to success
(Annie E. Casey Foundation, 1995). Before a new initiative is implemented, school leaders
and their staff also need to take a close and honest look at the current capacity of the
school (e.g. staff, skills, services and resources) to support the initiative (Elias et al.,
2003).
The basic principles of good practice in the development and implementation of whole
school wellbeing initiatives have emerged from evaluation studies as well as large-scale
reviews and meta-analyses of a wide range of studies. These are summarised below.

Universal programs are better

School-based prevention programs that are universal (i.e. delivered to all students) are
more effective than remediation programs or programs delivered only to selected “at risk”
students. Reviews of research suggest that it is more effective to develop strengths and
protective factors than to target “at risk” factors. However, there needs to be some
attention paid to risk factors as well (eg Greenberg et al., 2001; Hawkins et al., 1999;
Hawkins, Catalona and Miller, 1992; Hawkins et al., 1992).

Whole school programs are more effective

Whole school programs are more effective than those delivered only to selected classes
within the school and programs should be embedded in the curriculum and general life of
the classroom and school (Briggs & Hawkins (1999 National Health and Medical Research
Council, 1996). A review by Wells et al. (2003) on the effect of school-based programmes
on mental health showed that whole-school programs worked best, especially if they were
implemented for longer than a year, and focused on the promotion of mental health rather
than the prevention of mental illness.

Embedding Programmes and Practices is Important

School-based prevention programmes are more effective when they are embedded in the
curriculum, practices and daily life of the school rather than being “added on” (Galloway &
Roland, 2004, Scheckner et al., 2002; Briggs & Hawkins, n.d., 1999a; Davis, Hawley,
McMullan & Spilka, 1997; National Health and Medical Research Council, 1996; Orr, 1992;).
Programmes for promoting student wellbeing are less effective if they are perceived by
teachers as “add-on extras” rather than as an integral part of their work. Sellman (2002)
has argued that if a programme or practice is just an “add-on feature” that is easy to
discard, then it is less likely to be sustained over time.

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When a programme is embedded, the skills, concepts and understandings from the
programme are located in other curriculum areas and programmes and applied in a variety
of classroom and playground contexts. The values, skills and concepts are also supported by
teaching practices, interactions and other school activities and experiences. Programmes
are adapted to fit with existing programmes and practices within the school.
Elias et al. (2003) has also highlighted the danger of using narrow programmes that do not
take into account the context of a specific school and its students. Such de-contextualised
materials and directions are unlikely to be sustainable. Crawford & Rossiter (2006) suggest
that a focus on student wellbeing will not be perceived as realistic unless it harmonises
with teachers’ ordinary experience of classroom teaching and learning and does not
compromise the integrity of their discipline area.

Focusing on multiple domains is more effective

Interventions which involve school, family and community work best (Dryfoos,1990;
Greenberg et al.,2003). By utilising these kinds of partnerships, communities can develop
common conceptual models, common language, and procedures.

It is more effective to use a multi-strategic approach than a single focus approach

A multi-strategic approach using a collection of coordinated ‘active ingredients’ works
better than a single approach and is an essential feature of any successful prevention
program (Blum 1998; Greenberg et al., 2001; Kellerman 1998; Resnick, et al. 1997;
Hawkins, Catalano & Miller 1992). Wilson, Gottfredson and Najaka (2001) have argued that
the most important question is “which combinations and sequences of strategies works
best?” rather than “which single program works best?” In their review of research, Catalano
et al., (2003) concluded that effective programs usually contained at least five different
aspects of social and emotional learning.

Prevention programs are more effective when they are delivered to children early
in their schooling

Most reviews of preventive research stress that programs which start when students are
very young are more likely to be effective (eg O’Shaugnessy, Lane, Gresham, & Beebe-
Frankenberger 2002; Severson and Walker, 2001; Durlak and Wells,1997; Dryfoos,1990;
Greenberg et al., 2003; Greenberg et al., 2001).

Long term prevention programs are more effective than short ones

Short-term preventive interventions produce time-limited benefits. Multi-year programs are

more likely to foster enduring benefits (Greenberg et al., 2003; Greenberg et al, 2001;
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 1999; Greenberg et al., 1999; Weissberg &
Greenberg, 1998).

Prevention programs are more effective when teachers act in accordance with
what they are teaching

Students respond most positively to program components when they perceive that their
teachers behave in a ways that are consistent with what is being taught (eg Ling et
al.,1998); Prosser and Deakin, 1997; Williams, 1993). Adolescents who perceive their

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learning environments include respectful and caring teachers and peers participate more in
class and complete more homework (Trent, 2002; Murdock, 1999).

Student Wellbeing initiatives can improve teacher retention

Two recent studies demonstrated that teachers who use social-emotional learning
strategies and programming in their classrooms or who are members of a school community
using social-emotional practices are generally happier and more likely to stay in the
teaching profession (Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004; Murray, 2005). In contrast Ewing
(2006) spoke about how the isolation and perceived lack of collegial or leadership support
that some young Australian teachers experienced was the main catalyst that prompted
them to leave their profession. The economic, social and psychological costs to both the
individual and to the system are obvious.

Partnerships with parents and the community are essential

Research has highlighted the importance of developing close links between parents and
schools to support student wellbeing and learning (Redding et al., 2004). Parental
involvement is associated with better student achievement, engagement, school retention
and take-up of further and higher education (Black 2007). School-community partnerships
can be student, family, school or community centered or a combination.
The evidence suggests that schools that work closely with parents to develop and
implement school-based wellbeing programs are more successful (Cross et al., 2004,
Greenberg et al., 2003, Schecker et al., 2002). Such partnerships help schools to develop
common definitions, language and procedures (Greenberg et al., 2001) Unless parents are
actively informed and involved they may not understand or accept the school’s focus on
student wellbeing and may undermine what is being taught (Kumpfer, 1997).
A recent Australian Government Report into parents’ attitudes to school (DEST 2007)
documents over two thousand parents’ responses to the survey. Parents regarded the most
important factors related to choosing a school as the “Quality of teachers” (91.3 percent);
“Secure school environment” (90.7 percent); “Discipline” (86.1 per cent); “Values” (86.5
per cent); “Facilities” (82.3 percent); and “Academic reputation” (81.2 percent). Quality
of teachers links to positive teacher-student relationships and student engagement in
learning, secure school environment links to safe and supportive environments and values
which have all been identified earlier in the report as pathways to facilitate student
wellbeing. Parents also wanted increased consistency between States and Territories in
National standards for teachers and school leaders (93.0 percent) and in curriculum (86.1
per cent).

Employment skills are linked to the skills that contribute to wellbeing

Of interest is the finding in the above-mentioned DEST (2007) survey that only 31.8 per cent
of parents thought students had adequate “job-related” skills on leaving school. Employers
in both Australia (the Mayer Report) and America (Devaney et al., 2006) identify social-
emotional skills as key competencies for school leavers. These skills include team
(interpersonal) skills such as conflict resolution and negotiation skills, communication skills,
self management skills (goal setting, self motivation and initiative), resourcefulness
including creative thinking and problem solving and competence in literacy and numeracy.
This list is supported by Bright and Earl’s (2004) research of the eight most common
qualities Australian employers ask for in job advertisements. These qualities are:

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communication skills, team skills, energetic, initiative, attention to detail, ability to handle
pressure, enthusiasm and leadership. This list highlights that academic abilities are only
one part of the picture in determining what makes someone successful in the workplace
and in life.

Summary

The use of evidence-based “good practice” which has been derived from research into
school-wide prevention programs that meet the social and emotional needs of students can
provide schools with powerful strategies for preventing and reducing bullying and anti-
social behaviour and enhancing student wellbeing, positive and pro-social behaviour and
learning outcomes. In the long term these practices can develop school community,
enhance student safety and wellbeing and become a significant aspect of overall school
improvement.

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