MADE BY:

Rajesh Singh
M. Pharm 1ST Year
RKT
 Introduction
Spectroscopy
 Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and
electromagnetic radiation as a function of the wavelength or
frequency of the radiation.
OR
 It is the measurement of electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
absorbed or emitted when molecule or ions or atoms of a sample
move from one energy state to another energy state.
 Electromagnetic Radiation:
 Electromagnetic radiation consist of discrete packets of energy
which are called as photons.
 A photon consists of an oscillating electric field (E) & an
oscillating magnetic field (M) which are perpendicular to each
other.
 Properties of Electromagnetic radiation:
(a) Wave length: It is the distance between two successive maxima
on an Electromagnetic wave. Units are:- m, cm, mm, nm and
micro meter.
(b) Frequency: Number of wavelength units pass through a given
point in unit time is called as frequency. It is denoted by “v” and
units are cycles per second, Hertz.
(c) Wave number: It is defined as the number of waves per cm in
vacuum.

(d) Velocity: it is the product of wavelength and frequency and is

equal to the velocity of the wave in the medium.
V = n ×λ
 The relationship between wavelength & frequency can be written
as: c = ν λ
 As photon is subjected to energy, so E = h ν = h c / λ
 Electronic Transitions
1. σ→ σ* transition:
 An electron in a bonding s-orbital is excited to the corresponding
anti-bonding orbital and observed with saturated compounds.
 The energy required is large.
 For example, methane (which has only C-H bonds, and can only
undergo σ→ σ* transition transitions) shows an absorbance
maximum at 125 nm.
 Absorption maxima due to σ→ σ* transition are not seen in typical
UV-VIS spectra (200 - 700 nm) but in UV-region (125- 135nm)
2. n → σ* transition:
 Saturated compounds containing atoms with lone pairs (non-
bonding electrons) like O, N, S and halogens are capable of n→ σ*
transition.
 These transitions usually need less energy than n → σ* transition.
 They can initiated by light whose wavelength in range 150 -250 nm.
 The number of organic functional groups with n → σ* peaks in the
UV region is small.
3. π→ π* transition:
 π electron in a bonding orbital is excited to corresponding anti-
bonding orbital π* and observed in conjugated compounds.
 Compounds containing multiple bonds like alkenes, alkynes,
carbonyl, nitriles, aromatic compounds, etc undergo π → π*
transitions.
 e.g. Alkenes generally absorb in the region 170 to 205 nm.
4. n → π* transition:
 An electron from non-bonding orbital is promoted to anti-
bonding π* orbital and required lower energy.
 Compounds containing double bond involving hetero atoms
(C=O, C≡N, N=O) undergo such transitions.
 n → π* transitions require minimum energy and show
absorption at longer wavelength around 300 nm. 6
.

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 DEVIATIONS:
 When a non linear curve is obtained, the system is said to undergo
deviation.
 The two types of deviations are positive and negative deviations.
 Positive deviation results in when a small change in concentration
produces a greater change in absorbance.
 Negative deviation results when a large change in concentration
produces smaller change in absorbance.

Reasons
1. Instrumental deviations – stray radiation, improper slit width,
fluctuations in single beam and monochromatic light is not used.
2. Physiochemical changes in solutions factors like association,
dissociation, ionization (change in pH), faulty development of
color (incompletion of reaction).
 Chromophore
Chromophore - Any isolated covalently bonded group that shows a
characteristic absorption in the UV/Visible region.

E.g.: -C=C-, C=0

The functional groups containing multiple bonds capable of
Absorbing radiations above 200 nm due to n→π* & π→π*
transitions.
e.g. NO2, N=O, C=O, C=N, C≡N, C=C, C=S, etc

Any substance (groups) which absorbs radiation at particular wave

length this may or may not impart colour to the compound.
 Auxochrome:
 The functional group with non-bonding electrons that does not
absorb radiation in near UV region but when attached to a
chromophore alters the wavelength & intensity of absorption. e.g.
Benzene λmax=255 nm, Phenol λmax=270 nm, Aniline λmax=280 nm

 The new chromophore that is formed is of have a different value of

absorption maximum as well as the extinction coefficient.

 Benzene - 255nm (ɛmax - 203)

 Aniline - 280nm (Emax- 1430), so the auxochrome group is - NH,

 Ex: - OH, - OR, -NH, -NHR, -NR,, -SH etc.,

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 Adsorption and intensity shifts:

1. Bathochromic Shift (Red Shift): When absorption maxima (λmax) of

a compound shifts to longer wavelength, it is known as
bathochromic shift or red shift.
2. Hypsochromic Shift (Blue Shift) When absorption maxima (λmax)
of a compound shifts to shorter wavelength, it is known as
hypsochromic shift or blue shift.
3. Hyperchromic Effect: When absorption intensity (ε) of a compound
is increased, it is known as hyperchromic shift.
4. Hypochromic Effect: When absorption intensity (ε) of a compound
is decreased, it is known as hypochromic shift.

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Laws involved
1. Beer’s law
2. Lambert’s law
3. Beer-lambert’s law
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Beer’s Law: When a beam of monochromatic light is passed
through a homogenous absorbing medium, the rate of decrease
of intensity of radiation with increase in the concentration (c)
of absorbing species is directly proportional to the intensity (I)
of the incident light (radiation) .

-dI/dc = k I
-dI/I = k d c
On integration of above equation
-ln I = k c + b ( b= integration constant) ……..(1)
When conc. = 0, then there is no absorbance. Here I = I0
Therefor substituting in equation (1)
-ln I = k × 0 + b
-ln I = b
 Substituting the value of b in equation (1)
– ln I = k c – ln I0
ln I0 – ln I = kc
ln I0 / ln I = kc (Since log A – log B = log A/B)
I0 / I = e kc ( removing natural logarithm)
I /I0 = e–kc ( inverse both sides)
I = I0 e–kc …………(2)
Lambert’s law: When a beam of monochromatic light is passed
through a homogenous absorbing medium, the rate of decrease of
intensity of radiation with thickness of absorbing medium is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light (radiation) .
dI/dt = kI
I= intensity of incident light of wavelength λ & t= thickness of
medium
Since, I = I0 e–kt ……….(3)
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Now combine the eq.(2) and eq.(3), we get;
I = I0 e–kct
Converting natural logarithm to base 10
I = I0 10–kct
Inverse on both sides
I0 / I = 10 kct
Taking log on both sides
log I0 / I = kct …………..(4)
Here, transmittance (T) = I/I0 and Absorbance (A) = log 1/T
Hence, A = log I0 / I ……………….(5)
Using eq.(4) and eq.(5),
A = kct
Instead of k we can use ɛ, the above equation will be as follow:
A = ɛct
This is mathematical equation for Beer’s- Lambert’s Law.
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 A = ɛ ct
Where A =Absorbance;
ɛ = Molecular extinction coefficient;
c = Concentration of sample;
t = Path length ( normally 10mm or 1cm)
ɛ can be expressed as follows:

ɛ = E1%1cm × 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

10

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 Instrumenation:
 Source of radiation.
 Collimating system.
 Mono-chromator system.
 Sample holder.
 Detector.
 Amplifier
 Read-out
devices.

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Source of radiation
 Requirements of an ideal source
 It should be stable and should not allow fluctuations.
 It should emit light of continuous spectrum of high and uniform intensity
over the entire wavelength region in which it’s used.
 It should provide incident light of sufficient intensity for the transmitted
energy to be detected at the end of optic path.
 It should not show fatigue on continued use.

1. Tungsten Halogen Lamp:

 Its construction is similar to a house hold lamp.
 The bulb contains a filament of Tungsten fixed in evacuated condition and
then filled with inert gas.
 The filament can be heated up to 3000 k, beyond this Tungsten starts
sublimating.
 It is used when polychromatic light is required.
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DEMERIT
 It emits the major portion of its radiant energy in near IR region of
the spectrum.

2. Hydrogen Discharge Lamp:

 In Hydrogen discharge lamp pair of electrodes is enclosed in a
glass tube (provided with silica or quartz window for UV radiation
to pass trough) filled with hydrogen gas.
 When current is passed trough these electrodes maintained at high
voltage, discharge of electrons occurs which excites hydrogen
molecules which in turn cause emission of UV radiations in near
UV region.
 They are stable and widely used.

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3. Xenon Discharge Lamp:
 It possesses two tungsten electrodes separated by some distance.
 These are enclosed in a glass tube (with quartz or fused silica) and
xenon gas is filled under pressure.
 An intense arc is formed between electrodes by applying high
voltage. This is a good source of continuous plus additional
intense radiation. Its intensity is higher than the hydrogen
discharge lamp.

DEMERIT:
 The lamp since operates at high voltage becomes very hot during
operation and hence needs thermal insulation.
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4. Mercury arc Lamp:
 In mercury arc lamp, mercury vapor is stored under high
pressure and excitation of mercury atoms is done by electric
discharge.

DEMERIT:
 Not suitable for continuous spectral studies,(because it doesn’t
give continuous radiations). 21
Collimating System
The radiation emitted by the source is collimated (made parallel) by
lenses, mirrors and slits.
Lenses:
 Materials used for the lenses must be transparent to the radiation
being used.
 Ordinary silicate glass transmits between 350 to 3000nm and is
suitable for visible and near IR region.
 Quartz or fused silica is used as a material for lenses to work below
300nm.
Mirrors
 These are used to reflect, focus or collimate light beams in
spectrophotometer.
 To minimize the light loss, mirrors are aluminized on their front
surfaces. 22
Slits:
 Slit is an important device in resolving polychromatic radiation
into monochromatic radiation.
 To achieve this, entrance slit and exit slit are used.
 The width of slit plays an important role in resolution of
polychromatic radiation.

Monochromaters
 It is a device used to isolate the radiation of the desired wavelength
from wavelength of the continuous spectra.
 The essential elements of monochromaters are:
i. An entrance slit
ii. Dispersing element
iii. Exit slit
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The entrance slit sharply define the incoming beam of
heterochromatic radiation. The dispersing element disperses the
heterochromatic radiation into its component wavelength. Exit slit
allows the nominal wavelength together with a bond of wavelength
on either side of it.

 Following types of monochromatic devices are used.

1. Filters
2. Prisms
3. Gratings

1. Filters
Two types of filters are used, they are:
a. Absorption filters- works by selective absorption of unwanted
radiation and transmits
The radiation which is required.
Examples- Glass and Gelatin filters.
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 An Absorption glass filter is made of solid sheet of glass that has
been colored by pigments which is dissolved or dispersed in the
glass.

Merits:-
 Simple in construction
 Cheaper
 Selection of the filter is easy
Demerits:-
 Less accurate
 Band pass (bandwidth) is more (±20-30nm) i.e. if we have to
measure at 400nm; we get radiation from 370-430nm. Hence less
accurate results are obtained.

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b. Interference filter
 Works on the interference phenomenon, causes rejection of
unwanted wavelength by selective reflection.
 It is constructed by using two parallel glass plates, which are
silvered internally and separated by thin film of dielectric
material of different (CaF2, SiO, MgF2) refractive index.
 These filters have a band pass of 10-15nm with peak
transmittance of 40-60%.

Merits –
 Provide greater transmittance and narrower band pass (10-
15nm) as compare to absorption filter.
 Inexpensive
 Additional filters can be used to cut off undesired wavelength. 27
 2. Prism
 Prism is made from glass, Quartz or fused silica.
 Quartz or fused silica is the choice of material of UV spectrum.
 When white light is passed through glass prism, dispersion of
polychromatic light in rainbow occurs. Now by rotation of the
prism different wavelengths of the spectrum can be made to pass
through in exit slit on the sample.
 The effective wavelength depends on the dispersive power of
prism material and the optical angle of the prism.

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3. Gratings
o They are most efficient in converting a polychromatic light to
monochromatic light. As a resolution of +/- 0.1nm could be
achieved by using gratings. As the gratings are expensive, they are
commonly used in spectrophotometers.
o Gratings are of two types.
1. Diffraction grating.
2. Transmission gratings.

1. Diffraction grating:
 More refined dispersion of light is obtained by means of diffraction
gratings.
 These consist of large number of parallel lines (grooves) about
15000-30000/ inch is ruled on highly polished surface of aluminum.
 To make the surface reflective, a deposit of aluminum is made on
the surface.
 Diffraction produces reinforcement.
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2. Transmission grating:
 It is similar to diffraction grating but refraction takes place instead
of reflection.
 Refraction produces reinforcement, this occurs when radiation
transmitted through grating reinforces with the partially refracted
radiation.
Advantages
 Grating gives higher and linear dispersions compared to
prism monochromaters.
 Can be used over wide wavelength ranges.
 Gratings can be constructed with materials like aluminium
which is resistant to atmospheric moisture.
 Provide light of narrow wavelength.
 No loss of energy due to absorption.
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Sample holder or cuvettes
 The cells or cuvettes are used for handling liquid samples.
 The cell may either be rectangular or cylindrical in nature.
 For study in UV region; the cells are prepared from quartz or fused
silica where as fused glass is used for visible region.
 The surfaces of absorption cells must be kept clean. No
fingerprints should be present on cells.
 Cleaning is carried out washing with distilled water or with dilute
alcohol, acetone.
 The cell or cuvette that contain samples for analysis should fulfil 3
conditions:
a) They must be uniform in construction, the thickness must be
constant and surfaces facing the incident light must be optically
flat.
b) The materials of construction should be inert to solvents.
c) They must transmit light of the wavelength used. 34
 Detectors
 Device which converts light energy into electrical signals, that are
displayed on readout devices.
 The transmitted radiation falls on the detector which determines the
intensity of radiation absorbed by sample.
 The following types of detectors are employed in instrumentation of
absorption spectrophotometer
1. Barrier layer cell/Photovoltaic cell
2. Phototubes/ Photo emissive tube
3. Photomultiplier tube

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 Requirements of an ideal detector:-
a. It should give quantitative response.
b. It should have high sensitivity and low noise level.
c. It should have a short response time.
d. It should provide signal or response quantitative to wide spectrum
of radiation received.

1. Barrier layer cell/Photovoltaic cell:

 The detector has a thin film metallic layer coated with silver or gold
and acts as an electrode.
 It also has a metal base plate which acts as another electrode.
 These two layers are separated by a semiconductor layer of
selenium.

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 When light radiation falls on selenium layer, electrons become
mobile and are taken up by transparent metal layer.
 This creates a potential difference between two electrodes & causes
the flow of current.
 When it is connected to galvanometer, a flow of current observed
which is proportional to the intensity and wavelength of light
falling on it.

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2. Phototubes/ Photo emissive tube:
 Consists of a evacuated glass tube with a photocathode and a
collector anode.
 The surface of photocathode is coated with a layer of elements like
cesium, silver oxide or mixture of them.
 When radiant energy falls on photosensitive cathode, electrons are
emitted which are attracted to anode causing current to flow.
 More sensitive compared to barrier layer cell and therefore widely
used.

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3. Photomultiplier tube:
 The principle employed in this detector is that, multiplication of
photoelectrons by secondary emission of electrons.
 In a vacuum tube, a primary photo-cathode is fixed which
receives radiation from the sample.
 Some eight to ten dynodes are fixed each with increasing
potential of 75-100V higher than preceding one.
 Near the last dynode is fixed an anode or electron collector
electrode.
 Photo-multiplier is extremely sensitive to light and is best suited
where weaker or low radiation is received.

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36
Read-out device
 The signals from the detector after amplification are finally
received by the recoding system or read-out device.
 The recording is done by recorder pen.

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Single beam UV-Spectrophotometer
 Light from the source is carried through lens and/or through aperture
to pass through a suitable filter.
 The type of filter to be used is governed by the colour of the
solution.
 The sample solution to be analysed is placed in cuvettes.

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 After passing through the solution, the light strikes the surface of
detector (barrier-layer cell or phototube) and produces electrical
current.
 The output of current is measured by the deflection of needle of
light-spot galvanometer or micro ammeter. This meter is calibrated
in terms of transmittance as well as optical density.
 The readings of solution of both standard and unknown are recorded
in optical density units after adjusting instrument to a reagent blank.

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 Double Beam UV-Spectrophotometer
Double beam instrument is the one in which two beams are formed in
the space by a U shaped mirror called as beam splitter or beam
chopper .
Chopper is a device consisting of a circular disc. One third of the disc
is opaque and one third is transparent, remaining one third is
mirrored. It splits the monochromatic beam of light into two beams of
equal intensities.

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Advantages of single & double beam spectrophotometer:

Single beam-
o Simple in construction, Easy to use and economical
Double beam-
o It facilitates rapid scanning over wide λ region.
o Fluctuations due to radiation source are minimized.
o It doesn’t require adjustment of the transmittance at 0% and 100%
at each wavelength.
o It gives ratio of intensities of sample & reference beams
simultaneously.

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 Disadvantages of single & double beam
spectrophotometer:
Single beam
o Any fluctuation in the intensity of radiation sources affects the
absorbance.
o Continuous spectrum is not obtained.
Double beam
o Construction is complicated.
o Instrument is expensive.

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 Comparison
s.no Single beam Double beam
1. Calibration should be done with blank Calibration is done only in the
every time, before measuring the beginning.
absorbance or transmittance of sample.
2. Radiant energy intensity changes with It permits a large degree of inherent
fluctuation of voltage. compensation for fluctuations in the
intensity of the radiant energy.
3. It measure the total amount of It measures the percentage of light
transmitted light reaching the absorbed by the sample.
detector
4. It is not possible to compare blank and It is possible to do direct one step
sample together. comparison of sample in one path
with a standard in the other path.
5. Radiant energy wavelength has to be In this scanning can be done over a
adjusted every time. wide wavelength region
6. Working on single beam is tedious and Working on double beam is fast and
time consuming. non tedious.
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Applications for UV- Visible Spectroscopy
 Qualitative & Quantitative Analysis: It is used for
characterizing aromatic compounds and conjugated olefins. It
can be used to find out molar concentration of the solute under
study.
 Detection of impurities:
 To detect impurities in organic solvents. Additional peaks can be
observed due to impurities in the sample and it can be compared
with that of standard raw material.
 Structure elucidation of organic compounds: The presence or
absence of unsaturation, the presence of hetero atoms like S, N,
O or halogens can be determined.
 Structural analysis of organic compounds:
 Molecular weight determination
 Analysis of inorganic substance.
 Measuring concentration of solutions
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 Choice of Solvent
• The choice of the solvent to be used in ultraviolet spectroscopy is
quite important.
• The first criterion for a good solvent is that it should not absorb
ultraviolet radiation in the same region as the substance whose
spectrum is being determined.
• A second criterion for a good solvent is its effect on the fine structure
of an absorption band.
• A non- polar solvent does not hydrogen bond with the solute, and the
spectrum of the solute closely approximates the spectrum that would
be produced in the gaseous state, in which fine structure is often
observed.
• In a polar solvent, the hydrogen bonding forms a solute–solvent
complex, and the fine structure may disappear.

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 Table 1, lists some common ultraviolet spectroscopy solvents and
their cutoff points or minimum regions of transparency. Of the
solvents listed in Table 1, water, 95% ethanol, and hexane are most
commonly used. Each is transparent in the regions of the
ultraviolet spectrum in which interesting absorption peaks from
sample molecules are likely to occur.

 Table 1 Solvent used

Solvents Wavelength Solvent Wavelength

Acetonitrile 190 nm n-Hexane 201 nm
Chloroform 240nm methanol 205nm
Cyclohexane 195nm Iso-octane 195nm
1,4-Dioxane 215nm Water 190nm
95% Ethanol 205nm Trimrthyl phosphate 210nm

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 Woodward- Fieser Rule
 Woodward (1941) predicted λmax values .
 Woodward–Fieser rules for dienes is either homoannular with both double
bonds contained in one ring or heteroannular with two double bonds
distributed between two rings.
λmax effect
Structural feature
(in nanometers)
Base value for heteroannular diene 214
Base value for homoannular diene 253
Increments
Double bond extending conjugation + 30
Alkyl substituent or ring residue +5
Exocyclic double bond +5
acetate group +0
Ether group +6
Thioether group + 30
bromine, chlorine +5
secondary amine group + 60
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 With the aid of these rules the UV absorption maximum can be
predicted, for example in these two compounds:
 In the compound on the left, the base value is 214 nm (a
heteroannular diene). This diene group has 4 alkyl substituents
(labeled 1,2,3,4) and the double bond in one ring is exocyclic to
the other (adding 5 nm for an exocyclic double bond). In the
compound on the right, the diene is homoannular with 4 alkyl
substituents. Both double bonds in the central B ring are exocyclic
with respect to rings A and C.

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