CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

This study intends to evaluate the existing drainage system of Taraba

State University (TSU﴿. A drainage is a pattern formed by the streams, rivers

and lakes in a particular drainage basin, used for taking away waste water from

the surrounding and discharging it into an existing natural water way. (Ramsey

1971). Drainage is an essential part of living in a city or urban area, as it

reduces flood damage by carrying water away. And all the components that

convey the sewage and other west water to a point of disposal.

The drainage typically means the control of falling water to move away from

school premise and preventing ponding that can affect landscaping.

This includes storm drainage, rain water, surface water, etc.

Drainage system issues usually occur because of ponding or standing water that

does not go away and forms puddles around the school premise. A lot of the

area becomes difficult to drain properly.

1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Since the existence of the University for over eight years now, many

changes have to take place in physical developments. During the infrastructural

development of the University, drainage facilities were not properly taken care

of in the then collage of Education Jalingo which is now Taraba State

University main campus.

Due to the present physical development in the main campus, it has

becomes very necessary that the existing drainage must be improved to ensure

proper discharge of flood within the University to safe destination.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The function of drainage in any community can not be overemphasized.

Providing adequate drainage in urban area has a necessary component in

maintaining the overall health, welfare, and economic wellbeing of the

environment and its population.

A University community deserves to have a conducive environment

which includes a well-organized drainage system for proper environmental

sanitation for conducive learning.

2
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

Aim of the Project

The aim of this project is to produce an up-to-date digital topographical

map of the university.

Objectives of the Project

1. To determine the boundary extend of the University

2. To determine the elevations of some points within the University

3. produce the topographical map of the University

4. To recommend improvement of the drainage system

5. To produce a digital terrain model of the University

6. To determine the geometry characteristics of the drainage and slope.

7. To carryout analysis of the drainage system with the view to identifying it’s

problems

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This project is to cover the whole area of Taraba State University (Main

Campus) Jalingo. It is intended to show the relief map of the university and it’s

drainage network.

3
1.6 THE STUDY AREA

The study area is Taraba State University (Main Camus) Jalingo. The

University is bounded to the West by the Bali - Jalingo Road off Wukari –

Jalingo Federal Highway, and to the North by Unguwan Kofia (ATC), and to

the East by the Children Amusement Park and to the South by the Collage of

Agriculture.

It has an estimated area of 195.29 hectares and the study area lies between

Longitude (08º53´33.6˝E, 08º54´26.3˝E) and Latitude (11º18´34˝N, 11º19

´00˝N﴿.

The location area of the project site can be seen in road map of the University.

4
ROAD MAP OF TARABA STATE UNIVERSITY (MAIN CAMPUS)

5
SATELLITE IMAGE OF TARABA STATE UNIVERSITY

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Concept of Drainage and General Background

The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage’ and

the network of such channels is called a’ drainage system’. The drainage

pattern of an area is the outcome of or depends upon the geology of the area,

nature and structure of rocks, topography slope and amount of water flowing

and the periodicity of the flow.

Drainage is also described as the interception and removal of ground and

surface water by natural or artificial means. It is also described as a line of

pipes and fittings including inspection chambers, traps, gullies etc. used for the

drainage of one building and the yards and outhouses of one property (Ramsey,

1971).

2.0.1 Types of Drainage

Basically there are two categories of drainages. These are urban storm

drainage and land drainages.

i. Urban storm drainages:

This is the system of collecting storm water in a street of a city and

conveying it through inlets to buried conduits which finally carry it to a

point where it can be safely discharged into a stream, lake or ocean.

7
 ii. Land drainage:

This is a system of removing excess surface water below the root zone to

improve plant growth or reduce the accumulation of soil salts.

2.0.2 Types of land drainage

Land drainage systems are classified into two groups

1. Surface drains

2. Subsurface drains.

2.0.3 Surface drains

Surface drains, as the name suggests, will remove water from the ground

surface prior to infiltration and can also prevent excess water from the

flowing on to an area. In short it collect water from the ground surface and

transport it to a suitable disposal point.

2.0.4 Surface drain can also be classified into two groups.

1. Contour, Swale or Movable drains; Here the surface of the drains vary from

grass to artificial creek beds.

2. Dish drains; these are drains constructed of hard units or sections laid to a

grade on a solid footing.

8
2.0.5 Subsurface drains

The main force which influences the movement of water through the soil is

gravity. The main aim of subsurface drainage is to help this water movement.

Subsurface drainage can also provide a path for water to leave the soil profile

when the water-table rises to its level.

Water must be able to move through the soil and into a drain and off the site.

This means that drains should be constructed so that they can transport water to

where it can be discharged freely and safely.

2.1 Surface and subsurface drains compared.

Both of this drainage system is very specific in both way the assist drainage

and the way in which it is achieved.

Surface drain will remove above ground water that has not, or will not

infiltrate into the soil quickly enough.

Subsurface drain will remove excess water that exists on the soil profile.

In Nigeria, except for Abuja and some first generation Universities, there is no

difference between drainage systems in agricultural setting and human

settlements. Runoffs flow into open drains with or without cover slaps and

stabilized earth ditches, while waste water (without night soil) from households

and commercial centers are discharged into the open drains, In affluent sections

of cost cities and towns, waste water is discharged into individual treatment
9
systems like septic tanks and soak ways. Wastewater from commercial and

industrial activities may be discharge directly into the environment or into

individual treatment systems, like small activated sludge systems and

stabilizations ponds.

In most high density dwelling areas, waste water is discharged directly

into the environment without treatment. This creates insanity conditions, with

household cesspools as common sights, emitting low level odour that foul the

environment. (Afri-Project consortium/River roaks, drakes & Sweeney). (2001)

2.3 Sources of data for Drainage Construction and Analysis

The major source of data for the construction of drainage and analysis of

its pattern is the relief data of the area concerned. This can be obtained on

topographical maps.

2.4 Topographical Map

A topographical map is a two dimensional representation of a three

dimensional land surface. Topographical maps are differentiated from other

maps in that they show both the horizontal and vertical position of the

terrain. Through the combination of contour lines, colors, symbols, labels

and other graphic representation, topographic map portray the shapes and

location of mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, cities, roads, bridges, and many

other natural and man made features.

10
They also contain valuable reference information for surveyors and map

makers, including bench marks, base lines, meridians and magnetic

declinations. Topographical maps are used by civil engineers,

environmental managers and urban planners, as well as by outdoor

enthusiasts, emergency service agencies and historians

(www.sarware.com/maps).

11
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

This chapter gives a detail account of the methods and principles used in

acquiring data for the production of digital topographical map of Taraba State

University, Jalingo. Such a map can serve as the basis of drainages analysis.

The instruments used for data collection and processing are discussed as well

as the field procedure.

3.1 INSTRUMENTATION

The following instruments were used for data collection:

i. Global positioning system (GPS) Hand held[etrex 10 model]

ii. Total station [ Leica Total Station TS 09]

iii. Steel tape

Those used for data processing are:

i. Computer system

ii. Printer and plotter [Konica Minolta 353serie]

The software’s used includes

i. Auto CAD 2000i\ Auto CAD 2010

ii. Arc GIS 10.2a

iii. Surfer 10.2

12
 iv. Google Earth pro 7.2

3.2 Method of Data Collection

This is the detail account of field procedure used in generating survey

data for the actualization of this project.

3.3 Reconnaissance

The term reconnaissance is used to describe a process of getting information

about the area to be surveyed prior to planning the methods and techniques to

be used in data acquisition and processing, it gives the surveyor a

comprehensive knowledge and general impression of site situation. This helps

in proper planning. Two aspects are usually involved in this operation:

i. Office planning and

ii. Field reconnaissance

3.4 Office Planning

The existing map of the project area was obtained and studied minutely.

The road network was identified and was used as a guide to defining the main

drainage framework.

3.5 Field Reconnaissance

Using the data obtained from the existing map, general site investigation

was carried out so as to ascertain the exact positions or locations of the existing

13
drainages. The corner points that forms the boundary of the entire university

was observed and sketched as required also a comprehensive sketch showing

the drainage locations was produced and the drainage were assigned numbers

for easy coordination and proper execution of field work during data

acquisition.

3.6 Field Work or Data Acquisition

In the process of acquiring data, the following sequence of operations

was conducted. Boundary survey, topographical map, spot-height, digital

terrain model, drainage patter and detailing.

i. Boundary Survey

This is a survey work carried out to obtain the coordinates of the

parameter that were linked to form the boundary of Taraba State

University Jalingo. It was conducted by the use of Leica Total Station

(TS09 model) and hand held GPS [etrex 10 model]. The parameter

survey starting from the main gate clock wisely and closing back at the

starting point.

A total number of six points were observed (TPI-TP6), and the (E,N,H) co-

ordinates of points were obtained.

14
3.7 Global Positioning System (GPS)

The word system is a pointer to the fact that there is more than one component

within it’s operation. It is made up of three components.

The satellite, the control stations and the receivers.

3.8 The Satellite

There are 32 satellites available, but only 24 satellites are put into the

orbit, the other ones are received for replacement, but 24 satellites work

constantly around the orbit.

The satellites are lunched into orbit by the U.S Defense, for security

purpose, the platform is best known to them. At any time, at least 4 of these

satellite are above the horizon which means that your receiver can locate your

exact position on the earth surface using data gathered from positions of

constellation of satellites in space. The instrument gathers sensors in the form

of impulse emitted by satellites and use same to determine or compute the

positions of points on the earth surface.

Earlier generation of GPS equipments were not precise. Thus, their uses

was limited to navigation and operations which does not require height in the

location of points. With much improvement in the precision of the GPS

equipment, it has generated interest in it’s being used for the provision of

coordinates or references points for geo-referencing after map have been

15
compiled. In this case a higher standard of Auto CAD called Auto CAD map

are used for digitizing. It’s use in this respect to over come the constraining

factor usually faced in the normal survey operation. The GPS equipment is

versatile in it’s operation, and application. It’s mode of operation depends on

the users desire.

ii. Existing Drainage Network

Since the drainages were numbered, it is good to have detailed

information of each drainage and this has to be referred to a given datum

and hence benchmark should be coordinated for this purpose.

iii. Horizontal Alignment of Drainage

Drainage network was observed critically and the drainage lines were

numbered.

The two-dimensional coordinates of the drainages lines was observed and

booked with the aid of a handheld GPS. The coordinates of the beginning

and end points on the drainage as well as the coordinates of all the running

points between the two extremes; thus the horizontal alignment was

measured and recorded as required.

iv. Spot Heightens

For the purpose of this operation, there must be a reference point of known

elevation above a given datum. This is necessary to control the elevations of

16
the entire points of interests to be observed. There are so many ways of

measuring spot heights in the field but they are basically classified into two

categories. These include conventional and modern methods.

The use was made of the GPS equipment to measure the three

dimensional coordinates of points of interest randomly to ensure complete

coverage of the entire area under study. This is done to facilitate contour

generations which is a basic tool in studying the relief pattern of the study area.

3.9 Data processing

Data Computation

This is a procedure involved in computation which is applied to the raw

data obtained from the field, so as to facilitate data presentation and analysis.

Three aspects of computations were carried out. These are

a. Computation of slope

b. Back computation (Surv CAD﴿

c. Area computation

Computation of slopes

This operation is performed after plotting the profile of drain in order to get the

gradient of the drainage and compute the proposed invert levels of the drains.

Slope = Dh/L

17
Where Dh = difference in elevation between two points

L = length separating the two points

iii. Back Computation

This operation is performed computing distance and bearings from

coordinates. Since the coordinates are obtained directly from the field by

means of a GPS instruments, it becomes necessary to compute the bearings and

distance between points along the boundary lines of the project site. The

procedure is as follows;

DN = N2-N1

DE = E2-E1

S = (DN²+DE²)

θ = Tan −¿1 ¿(DE/DN)

Where

θ = bearing between two points

S = distance between two points

N1 = Northing of points 1

N2 = northing of points 2

E1 = Easting of points 1
18
 E2 = Easting of points 2

3.10 Map Production

This is a process of producing the map or plan of an area by using the

data obtained from the field.

Computer system and application software’s were used to perform this

operation and the following procedure was followed.

Creation of Folder

A folder is a storage unit created in the computer memory for storing related

files and subfolders, the procedure of creating a folder and sub folder is:

- Click on the computer and allow it to boot

- Get into window

- Click on file

- Select new

- Click on folder

- Type the name of the folder

- Press the enter key.

How to Create a Sub Folder

Make sure that the new related folder or the one you want to create a sub folder

into it is opened. By using the procedure of getting into the window explorer;

19
 - Click on file

- Select new

- Click on folder

- Type name of the new folder

- Press enter or left click the mouse.

All the work is then transferred into the folder.

Layer Creation

This is a process of separation of data into thematic layer before the

actual conversion takes place.

It is a selective manipulation of terrain object and a collective manipulation of

associated or related terrain object into layers of separate objects geometrically

into points, line, poly line, and polygon layer. The process of creating the

layers is as follows

- Type layer command or click format, press enter. Layer box will appear

in the layer window.

- Click on new

- Type in the name of the new layer

- Click color (to select color type) from the line type, different color will

be selected for each layer:

- Highlight the layer

20
 - Click on current

- The colors are assigned to created layers

- Then click OK.

Plotting of Details

After creating a folder and the layers necessary for plotting the details into

Auto CAD environment, the following procedure is followed;

i. Inputting coordinates of the details using the keyboard into their

respective layers.

ii. The boundary layer is plotted automatically by use of AutoCAD

when the coordinate are inputted.

iii. The drainage layer is also plotted by inputting the coordinates taken

of points along the drainage lines to define the horizontal alignment

of the drainage network

iv. The contour layer was plotted by inputting coordinates of the spot

heights and their respective elevations.

It is however important to note that the above work was done using several

application software’s through the process of data export and import.

Data Export and Import

This is a process whereby data is integrated and exported from one

software and imported into another software. For example, exporting data

21
 from AutoCAD 2000i/2010, overlay drawing and importing it into Arc GIS

10.2 as well as suffer 10.2.

And this process is required for final cartographic production or for use in

the GIS environment.

1. Data Export

Exporting data is a process of transferring data from one software to

another through the extension menu that the software understand and in

this case the extensions used is data exchange format (dxf). To achieve

this, the following procedure were be followed;

- Display the file

- Click export in the file menu

- In the export window of Auto CAD 2010/2000i, select “dxf” and type

the name of the output file.

2. Data Import

Importing data is a process of receiving or accessing the exported data

into current software. The steps involved is as follows:

- Click file menu

- Highlight extension of submenu

- Enable CAD reader

- Select new view

22
 - Click add new item and a window appeared. In the window that

appeared, the location of export file can be accessed and file icon is

double clicked and the file will be accessed.

Generation of Contours

Contour lines are those lines joining points of equal elevations above a given

datum on the map.

To generate contours, Arc GIS.2 was used and the contours were generated

automatically by following a systematic procedure (algorithm) or the

instruction described by the software.

Digital Terrain Model (DTM)

This is a numerical representation of terrain features in terms of elevations and

plane metric measurements obtained by sampling a topographic surface. The

(x,y,z) coordinates of the study area was stored in a spread sheet of SURFER

9.0 in the order of x,y,z, columns respectively. This was converted into grids.

Appropriate algorithms was followed arequiredby the application software. The

DTM was generated automatically by clicking the DTM icon.

23
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This refers to the ability to visualize the processed data or information of

drainage pattern analysis of Taraba State University, Jalingo (main campus). It

is the output of captured data to developed digital terrain(DTM) through

topographic maps of specific themes.

These maps are:

4.1.2 Boundary plan

4.1.3 Contour map

4.1.4 Spot-height

4.1.5 Direction of flow basin

4.1.6 Digital terrain model

4.1.8 Drainage pattern

Drainage pattern analysis data are gathered, sorted and processed through

advance computation of drainage section equation formula. The final processed

analyzed data is represented on maps and imagery.

All the maps listed above and the data acquired for this

project are in appendix.

24
GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DRAINAGE

GEOMETRIC

CHARACTERISTICS SLOPE REMARK

LENGTH WIDTH DEPTH
DRAIN PERCENTAGE
(m) (m) (m)

A 1600 1.50 1.20 0.2% ACTIVE

B 1200 1.50 1.20 0.03% ACTIVE

C 1200 1.00 0.75 0.02% NOT SILTED

ACTIVE
D 1200 1.00 0.75 0.02% ACTIVE

E 1000 1.00 0.75 0.025% ACTIVE

F 400 1.00 0.75 0.06% NOT SILTED

ACTIVE
G 350 1.00 0.75 0.07% ACTIVE
H 200 1.00 0.75 0.12% NOT SILTED

ACTIVE
I 500 1.00 0.75 0.05% ACTIVE
J 150 1.00 0.75 0.16% ACTIVE
GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DRAINAGE

25
CALCULATION OF THE ANALYSIS

Geometric characteristics of drainage are

Length

Width

Depth

width−depth
Formula for calculating slope percentage length
∗100

Slope analysis of drain A

Length= 1600m

Width= 1.5m

Depth= 1.2m

Horizontal elevation = 1600m

Vertical elevation =1.5-1.2

=0.3m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.3/1600*100

0.3/16*1

26
=0.187

=0.02%m

Slope analysis of drain B

Length= 1200m

Width= 1.5m

Depth= 1.2m

Horizontal elevation = 1200m

Vertical elevation =1.5-1.2 =0.3m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.3/1200*100

1/12*1

=0.025

=0.03%m

Slope analysis of drain C

Length= 1200m

Width= 1.00m

27
Depth= 0.75m

Horizontal elevation = 1200m

Vertical elevation =1.00-0.75

=0.25m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.25/1200*100

0.25/12*1

=0.02%

Slope analysis of drain D

Length= 1200m

Width= 1.00m

Depth= 0.75m

Horizontal elevation = 1200m

Vertical elevation =1.00-0.75

=0.25m

Slope= HV/HE*100

28
=0.25/1200*100

0.25/12*1

=0.02%

Slope analysis of drain E

Length= 1000m

Width= 1.00m

Depth= 0.75m

Horizontal elevation = 1000m

Vertical elevation =1.00-0.75

=0.25m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.25/1000*100

0.25/10*1

=0.025%

29
Slope analysis of drain F

Length= 400m

Width= 1.00m

Depth= 0.75m

Horizontal elevation = 400m

Vertical elevation =1.00-0.75

=0.25m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.25/400*100

0.25/4*1

=0.06%

Slope analysis of drain G

Length= 350m

Width= 1.00m

Depth= 0.75m

Horizontal elevation = 400m

30
Vertical elevation =1.00-0.75

=0.25m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.25/350*100

0.25/3.5*1

=0.07%

Slope analysis of drain H

Length= 200m

Width= 1.00m

Depth= 0.75m

Horizontal elevation = 200m

Vertical elevation =1.00-0.75

=0.25m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.25/200*100

0.25/2*1

31
=0.12%

Slope analysis of drain I

Length= 500m

Width= 1.00m

Depth= elevation = 500m

Vertical elevation =1.00-0.75

=0.25m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.25/500*100

0.25/5*1

=0.05%

Slope analysis of drain J

Length= 150m

Width= 1.00m

Depth= 0.75m

Horizontal elevation = 150m

32
Vertical elevation =1.00-0.75

=0.25m

Slope= HV/HE*100

=0.25/150*100

0.25/15*10

=0.16%

33
PROPOSED DRAINAGE

GEOMETRIC

S/N DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS SLOPE REMARK SILT

LENGTH WIDT DEPTH
PERCENTAGE
m
1 1 400 1.200 1.00 0.25 PROPOSE
2 2 400 1.200 1.00 0.25 PROPOSE
3 3 450 1.200 1.00 0.22 PROPOSE

Description of the drainage location

NO OF LOCATION

34
DRAIN
A DrainA, is the main drain which is located outside the school along
Bali Jalingo road. It collects all the water from drainage B,H, I, J
and part of E then discharge to the main stream that goes to the
river.
B Drain B control the water that flow from the female hostel and
passing through staff quarters which connect to drain H, I, J and
link to drain A.
C Drain c is in the centre of the university which receive water from
part 0f drain E and dispatches to drains H and G.
D Drain D dispatches water to drain E and F.

E Drain E discharges water to the university farm.

F Drain F discharges water to the university farm.

G Drain G discharges water from the staff quarters to drain D, but is

blocked, so propose drain is made for the smooth discharging of
the water.
H Drain H is discharging water to drain A.

I Drain I is discharging water to drain A.

J Drain j is discharging water to drain A.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

35
This project has studied the existing drainage system of Taraba State

University Jalingo (main campus), Taraba State.

The following field and office operation were undertaken.

(1). Boundary survey of the entire study area was obtained by the use of Total

station and etrex 10 hand held GPS hence the three dimensional co-ordinates

of the traverse point was obtained.

(2). Horizontal alignment of the drainage lines was established using Total

Station by obtaining the co-ordinates of the end points and all turning points

within the drainage frame work.

(3). Elevations of points at an interval of 25m along the drain lines was

obtained by the Total Station.

(4). Sport height were densified within the study area by means of Total Station

and hence the three dimensional co-ordinates of points were obtained.

(5). The field data obtained was imputed into the computer and processed using

application soft wares, such products include the topographical map showing

all the drainages and the relief pattern as well as the digital terrain model.

The existing drainages were plotted and proposal was made with the view to

improving the existing situation.

5.2 CONCLUSION

36
The main aim of the project task is a topographical map showing the existing

and proposed drainages. This task was accomplished successfully. As for the

purposed drainages analyze profile of the drainages were produced and

improvement strategies were suggested.

Finally to sum it all the aim of this projects was successfully achieved.

5.3 RECOMMENDATION

There is a need for the construction of the proposed drainages in addition to the

existing drainage lines, most of which are earth drains. I will also like to

recommend that proper outlet channels should be provided to discharge water

from internal drain from the main building surroundings.

There is also need for the University Authority to embrace the existing built

drainages to prevent blockages, When next constructing drainages proper

setting out should be employed to control gradient of the drains.

There is a need to construct additional drainages at the following locations.

1. Drain C and D should be extended to the main fence and an out let

should be provided such that the water is discharged into the main

drainage along the green farm.

2. Out let channels should be constructed to collect water from drain G and

part of drain D and be discharge to the green farm.

37
 Finally there is a need for the University authority to be implementing

most of the recommendation made, which will be beneficial to the entire

University community. It is also hoped that a project of this nature

should be a continues process due to the constant development in the

University.

REFERENCES

A.M .Michael (2001). Principles of Agricultural Engineering volume II, join

brother, New Delhi

E.N bromhead (1992). The stability of slope.

38
George winter (1986). Design of concrete structure, international edition.

GLENN O. SCHWAB (1993). Soil and water conservation engineering,

fourth edition.

James H. Earle (1983). Engineering design graphics fourth edition.

NdukweK. N (2001). Digital technology in surveying and mapping,

principles, applications and legislative issues. Rhysekerex puplishers, Enugu
Nigeria.

Obando M.O (1981). Block laying and concreting, longman crumb limited,
UK.

Ramsey, J.P Wilson (1971) Land surveying, Mc Donald and evens limited,
Great Britain.
[email protected]
www.wikipedia.com
The Guardian Friday, 13 July 2009

T. William lambe and Robert Whitman (2000). Soil mechanics SI version,

gopsons papers ltd, 100%EOU, Noida India.

APPENDICES

39