Wilhelm Fliigge

Stresses in Shells

Second Edition

Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg GmbH
1973
 Dr.-Ing. WILHELM FLUGGE
Professor of Applied Mechanics, emeritus
Stanford UniverRity

With 2:37 Figure~>

ISBN 978-3-642-88293-7 ISBN 978-3-642-88291-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-88291-3

This work is suhjcct to copyriJ;1ht. AII rights are rcservc<l, whether thc whole or part of the mat·
erial is concerne<!, speciftcally those of translation, reprintlng, re-use of illustrations, broadcastlng,
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1973 • Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heide1berg New York
in 1973. Libraty ofCongress Catslog CardNumber74-183604
 PREFACE
There are many ways to write a book on shells. The author might,
for example, devote his attention exclusively to a special type, such
as shell roofs or pressure vessels, and consider all the minor details
of stress calculations and even the design. On the other hand, he might
stress the mathematical side of the subject to such an extent that he
virtually writes a book on differential equations under the guise of the
mechanical subject. The present book has been kept away from these ex-
tremes. At first sight it may look to many people like a mathematics
book, but it is hoped that the serious reader will soon see that it has been
written by an engineer and for engineers.
in a theoretical subject such as this one, it is, of course, not possible
to get very far with the multiplication table and elementary trigonom-
etry alone. The mathematical prerequisites vary widely in different
parts of the book, depending on the subject. In some parts ordinary
differential equations with constant coefficients are all that is needed.
In other sections ordinary equations with variable coefficients, prod-
uct solutions of partial differential equations, or the theory of complex
variables will be encountered. However, the author wishes to assure
his readers that nowhere in this book has an advanced mathematical
tool been used just for the sake of displaying it. No matter which mathe-
matical tool has been used, it had to be used to solve the problem at hand.
When preparing this second edition, the author stood before the
question how to react to the spreading use of computers. Many a good
book of recent vintage has been "computerized", that is, filled with
advice for the writing of computer programs. In the present book, the
challenge of the time has been faced in a different way. Program writing
is a subject in itself, not to be taught as a part of shell theory. Anothct·
task has to be accomplished here: to help the. reader understanding
the mechanics of shells, from the formulation of the differential equations
to the discussion of the result of the analysis. Therefore, details of compu-
tation have been de-emphasized, but all the diagrams displaying the
results of computations have been retained. They will show the reader how
a shell "feels" under a certain load, how it performs its load-carrying job.
The book may be divided into four parts. Chapter 1 contains prelim-
inary matter, and a reader sufficiently familiar with the basic defi-
iv PREFACE

nit.ions may omit this chapter until he finds that a real need for studying
it ari:;es.
Chapters 2 through 4 contain the membrane theory, that is the
theory of shells whose bending rigidity may be neglected. The spectac-
ular simplification thus obtained makes it possible to examine a wide
variety of shapes and support conditions. In particular, the stress
problems of tanks and shell roofs have benefited from this fact, and
many examples of these applications have been included. There is,
of course, a heavy penalty to be paid for the simplification, and the
shortcomings of the membrane theory are pointed out at many places
in these chapters. It has been considered important to show that the
inadequacies of the membrane theory can be discovered by a crit-
ical inspection of the membrane solutions, without any need for first
solving the bending problem- a task which often enough is out of reach
of the practical engineer and even of the research worker. On the other
hand, membrane theory is more than a first approximation, which some-
times works and sometimes does not. If a shell is so shaped and so
supported that it can carry its load with a membrane stress system,
it will be thin, light, and stiff and, therefore, the most desirable solution
to a design problem. Membrane theory will guide the shell designer
toward such structures.
Chapters 5 through 7 are devoted to the bending theory of shells.
It is in this field that most of the development of the last decades has
taken place. Since the solution of most problems of this category requires
a rather elaborate preparation, a careful choice of subject matter had to
be made; otherwise the proper balance between the simple and the
complicated would have been lost. In these three chapters an attempt has
been made to cover a wide variety of questions and to carry every theory
to a definite end, namely, to a set of formulas giving all the stress result-
ants and the displacements in terms of the constants of integration
and the coordinates. In many cases it has been possible to present these
re:;ults in the form of a table. It has, however, mostly been left to the
reader to adapt a solution to his particular case of boundary conditions.
Chapter 8 is concerned with the stability of shells. From a research
man's point of view this is a rather unrewarding subject. A long struggle
through the mechanics and mathematics of a problem and a tedious
numerical evaluation ultimately yield a curve or only a single numerical
factor in a simple formula. And, after all, there is only a rather loose
correlation between the actual collapse of a shell and the buckling load
obtained form a linear theory. "While in some cases a large-deformation
analysis has thrown light into a dark corner of our understanding, the
numerical labor involved is so prohibitive that the designer cannot
expect too much help from this side. In this book a choice of stability
 PREFACE \"

problems has been made which is eonsidered represent.ative of the pres-

ent state of knowledge.
Some material contained in this book has been used in courses on
shell theory and on shell design, which the author has been giving for
many years at Stanford University. However, much of what is found in
this book goes beyond the possibilities even of an elaborate university
course. It has been written for graduate students, but al::;o for engineer::;
with a graduate training. Among these, the author has been thinking
principally of two groups, namely, design engineers and stress analysts
who need shell theory for their work, and research workers entering
the field or working in it. For the first group, the book offers a body of
well-established knowledge that will help them in most cases or may show
them what can be expected of the services of a special consultant.
The second group may use the book as a text, from which to learn the
fundamentals and as a reference work upon which to base their own
work, but the time is gone when a text on shells, even an elaborate one,
could be a fairly comprehensive representation of all available knowledge.
Under the influence of an easy flow of money into an ever increasing
research community shell literature has so tremendously proliferated
that text books must restrict themselves to a choice of representative
material. The changes which have been made in this second edition.
point mostly in the direction of improving thi::; choice.
The author wishes to thank all those who have written him letters
with questions, suggestions, and corrections. Many of them will discover
traces of their letters in this new edition while others will find out that
not every suggestion could be followed. The author hopes that al:so the
:second edition will produce such a flow of communications that bring
him face to face with an otherwise invisible audience. He also wants to
thank the many students who have worked with him at Stanforcl and
who arc now scattered over a wide part of the world. In more than
two decades they have, each in this turn, provided him with a stimu-
lating exchange of thoughts and with active help in the tedious t.ask
of exploring obscure eornPrs of the subj<>ct..

w. }'liiggl'
Stanford Uniwrsity
 Chapter 1
GE~ERAL PROPERTIES OF STRESS SYSTE.ml I~ SHELLS
1 .1 Definitions ..................................................... .
1.1.1 Definition of a Shell ........................................ .
1.1.2 Stress Resultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.:l :\Icmbrane Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 }[embrane Forces in Arbitrary Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 .MOHR's Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.:l Oblique Coordinates and Skew Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1 .:1 Transformation of :\[oments 17

Chapter 2
DIRECT STRESSES IN SHELLS OF REVOLUTION 19
2.1 Ceneral Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1\l
2.1.1 Geometric Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1\l
2.1.2 .Equilibrium of the Shell Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Axisymmetric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2 Solution for some Typical Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.2.1 Spherical Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.2.2 Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2S
2.2.2.:1 Pointed Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.2.4 Toroidal Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :10
2.2.2.5 Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :31
2.2.2.6 Conical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :l.'5
2.:1 Shells of Constant Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :l8
2.4 Loads without Axial Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4.1 General Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4.2 Spherical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:1
2.4.2.1 General Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:l
2.4.2.2 Distributed Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.2.:3 Edge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.2.4 Concentrated Forces and Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'\3
2.4.3 Conical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.4.:U General Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.4.3.2 Homogeneous Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6:~
 CONTENTS vii

2.4.4 Solution for Shells of Arbitrary Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

2.4.4.1 Solution by an Auxiliary Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.4.2 Solution by Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.4.5 Shell Formed as a One-sheet Hyperboloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.5 Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.:3.1 Strains and Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i!J
2 ..'5.2 Inextensional Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.5.2.1 Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.5.2.2 Finite Solution for the Spherical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.5.2.:3 Solution for Arbitrary Shape of the ;\Ieridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~7
2.5.:l Inhomogeneous Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5.3.1 General Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.ii.3.2 Axially Symmetric Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.5.4 Toroidal Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.5.5 Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.:3.0 Statically Indeterminate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Chapter :l

DLRECT STRESSES IN CYLINDRICAL SHELLS 1u:l

;3.[ Statically Determinate Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to:l
3.1.1 General Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1u:l
3.1.1.1 Differential Equations ............................... . 103
:U.1.2 General Solution ............................... ...... 105
:l.l.L:l Homogeneous Solution ............................... . 1U9
:U.2 Tubes and Pipes ............................... ............. 110
:U.2.1 Circular Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
:U.2.2 Elliptic Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
:U.2.3 Inclined Cylinder ............................... ...... 114
:3.1.2.4 Fourier Series Solutions for the Circular Cylinder ......... 115
3.1.3 Barrel Vaults ............................... ................ 11il
:u.:u Circular Cylinder ............................... ...... 11~
3.1.:3.2 Elliptic Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
:U.:l.3 Critical RemarkR ............................... ...... 121
·3.2 Deformation ............................... ...................... 121
:l.2.1 Differential Equations ............................... ........ 121
3.2.2 Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.2.3 Fourier Series Solutions for the Circular Cylinder ................ 12:3
3.:l Statically Indeterminate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.4 Polygonal Domes ............................... ................. 129
:t4.1 Regular Dome under Regular Load ............................ 1:30
:l.4.2 Regular Dome under Arbitrary Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
:3.4.:3 Non-regular Domes ............................... ........... 146
:L3 Folded Plate Structures ............................... ............ 147
3.5.1 Uniform Load ............................... ............... 147
3.5.2 Fourier Series Form of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15:3
3.5.3 Examples ............................... ................... 154
:3.5.4 Limitations of the Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ui6
viii COXTEXTS

Chapter 4
DIRECT STRESSES IX SHELLS OF ARBITRALW SHAPE Vi7
4o1 Conditions of Equilibrium oooooo. ooooooooooooooo0ooooooooo0ooo00000 157
4o2 Elliptic Problems ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo00000 161
4o2o1 Paraboloid of Revolution, Triangular Shell ooooooooooooo0o000000 161
4o2o2 Elliptic Paraboloid oooo oooooooo0 ooooooooooooo0ooooooo0oo00000 164
4o2o3 Solution by Relaxation }!ethod ooooooooooooooooooooooo00000000 167
40:1 Hyperbolic Problems ooooooo: oooooooooooooooooooooooooo0oo000000 o0 168
4o3o1 Hyperbolic Paraboloid, Edges Parallel to Generators o00o000000000 168
4o3o2 Hyperbolic Paraboloid, Edges Bisecting the Directions of the
Generators oooooooooooooooooooooooo0ooooooooooooooooo000000o0 171
4.4 :\Iembrane Forces in Affine Shells o00ooooooo0o000000o000000000000000 179
4o4.1 General Theory oooooooooooooooooooooooo000000000000000000000 179°
40402 Applications o0oooooooooooooooooooooo0oo000000000000000000000 181
4.40201 Vertical Stretching of a Shell of Revolution 00000000000000 181
4o4o2o2 Horizontal Stretching of a Shell of Revolution ooo00000000 188.
4o4o2o3 The General Ellipsoid 0oooo ooooooo000000000000000000000 HH
4.4o2o4 Polygonal Domes ooooooooooooooooo0o0oo000000000000000 195·
4o4o2o5 Cylindrical Shells oooo0oooooooooooo000000000000000000 00 196·
4oi) Deformation 0oo00oo0ooooooooooooooooooooooooo0000o00oo00000000000 197

Chapter 5
BE~'DING OF CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHIU. LS
5o1 Differential Eqnations ooo000000000000o0000000000000000000000000ooo 204
5ol.1 Equilibrium o0oo00oo0oo00000o00o000o000000000000000o00oo0ooo 20-l
5ol.2 Deformation oooo00oo0oo00o00oooo00o000000000000oo00o00o00ooo 20fi
5ol.2o1 Exact Relations oo0oo0o ooooooo00000000o00ooo0ooooooooo 206
5ol.2o2 Approximate Relations 0 o0o000000000000000oo00ooooooooo 21:1
5ol.2o3 Secondary Stresses in l'Iembrane Theory o0oo000oooooooo o 214
5.1.3 Differential Equations for the Displacements .• 0.•. o. o. o. ooo..• 0 215
5o2 Solution of the Inhomogeneous Problem 00. 00000. 0000. 00. 000.. 0. 0. o. 217
5.3 Loads Applied to the Edges x = const. . 000. 0000• 0• 00000000o00. 00o0o 222
5.3.1 General Solution 0. 0•. 0. 00. 0•. 0•. 0. 0•.. 00••.• 0. 0•. 0000. 000.• o 222'
5.302 Semi-infinite Cylinder • 000. 0. 00• 00000. 000000• 000000000000•. o. • 226
5.303 Cooling Tower •..•. 0000000000...• 0. o•. 0•• 00•.. 0.. o0o. oooo0. o 2:H
5o3.4 Simplified Theory 0. 0•. 0• 00• 0•• 0• 0• 00000. 0000000• 00. 000o. 0o• • 2:15
5.4 Loads Applied to the Edges rf> = consto 00000000000• 0: 00000o000ooo0o• 2:lfi
5.4.1 Exact Solution . 0000. 00.. 0..• 0•• 000000••.••. 0•. 0000000. 00ooo 2:16
5.4.1.1 General Theory 000. 000. 0.. o. o00 0. 00000. 0oo00ooooooooo 236
5.401.2 One Boundary Only 00.••. o. o oo0o00. 0... 0. o•.• oo. o. oo. 240·
5.4.1.3 Symmetric Stress System 0••••. 000. 0.•. 00•... 0. 0. o.. 0o. 242
5.4.2 Barrel Vaults .•••.••• 0000.•.•••••. 0•• 0. 00. 0•.. o. o. o•. o•... oo 244
5.4.201 The Differential Equation and its Solution . 00•. o. oo•.. oo. 244
5o4o2.2 Isolated Boundary 0.. 00•... o••. 0o. 0••.. o•..•..•. oo. o•. 247
5.402.:3 Symmetric Case • 000• 0. 000•.•••. 00.•. 0• 000o.. o. . • . . • . . 250
 CONTENTS ix

5.4.:) Simplified Barrel Vault Theory ............. ............. ...... ~51

ii.4.3.1 Isolated Boundary ............. ............. .......... ~51
5.4.3.2 Symmetric Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :?.57
;).4.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :?.58
5.4.4.1 Half-filled Pipe ............. ............. ............. ~58
5.4.4.2 Barrel Vault Roof ............. ............. ........ :. 2U4

.5.5 Cylindrical Tanks and Rebted Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

5.5.1 Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
5.5.2 Solution for Constant Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
5.5.2.1 Homogeneous Problem ............. ............. ...... 271
5.5.2.2 Water Tanks ............. ............. ............. . :?.73
5.5.2.3 Other Cylinder Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5.5.3 Shell of Variable Thickness ............. ............. ......... 28\J

;).li Anisotropic Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

;).U.l Elastic Law ............. ............. ............. ......... 295
5.U.1.1 Plywood Shell ............. ............. ............. 2!Hi
5.6.1.2 Double-walled Shell ............. ............. ......... 298
5.6.1.3 Gridwork Shell ............. ............. ............. 302
5.U.1.4 Shell with Rings and Stringers ............. ............ :W8
5.U.2 Differential Equations for the Shell with H ibs ............. ..... :Ho
;). 7 .Folded Plate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :l11

Chapter 6

BENIJING STRESSES IN SHELLS O.F REVOLUTW N

ti.l Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :ll7
6.1.1 Conditions of Equilibrium ............. ............. .......... 317
U.1.2 Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :319
tU .:3 Axisymmetric Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :324

fi.2 Axisymmetric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :325

fi.2.1 Spherical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :326
6.2.1.1 Differential Equations ............. ............. ...... :326
6.2.1.2 Solution Using Hypergeometr ic Series ............. ...... :l2!J
6.2.1.:3 Asymptotic Solution for Thin-walled Shells ............. . :334
().2.1.4 Simplified Asymptotic Solution ............. ............ :341
U.2.1.5 Bending Stresses in the Vicinity of the Apex ............. 351
6.2.1.6 Concentrated Load at the Apex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :356
6.2.1. 7 Surface Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35\J
6.2.2 Shells Having a Meridian of Arbitrary Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :361
6.2.2.1 Elastic Law ............. ............. ............. .. :361
6.2.2.2 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.2.2.3 Approximate Theory for Thin Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
6.2.3 Conical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
6.2.3.1 Constant Wall Thickness ............. ............. .... 377
6.2.:3.2 Example: Sludge Digestion Tank ............. .......... :380
6.2.3.3 Wall Thickness Proportional to Distance from Apex ...... :383

6.3 Solution for the Higher Harmonics ............. ............. ....... :386
6.3.1 Spherical Shell ............. ............. ............. ....... :386
X CONTENTS

6.3.1.1 Differential Equations ..................... ............ :386

6.3.1.2 Membrane Forces and Inextensional Bending ............ :391
6.3.1.3 Oscillatory Solutions ..................... ............. :393
6.3.2 Conical Shell ..................... ..................... ..... 402
6.3.2.1 Differential Equations ..................... ........... 402
6.3.2.2 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Chapter 7
SHALLO'V SHELLS ..................... ..................... ....... 414
7.1 Differential Equations ..................... ..................... ... 414
7.1.1 Introduction ..................... ..................... ...... 414
7.1.2 Equilibrium Conditions ..................... ................. 415
7.1.3 Deformation ..................... ..................... ...... 418
7.1.4 Differential Equations ..................... .................. 420
7.1.5 Paraboloids ..................... ..................... ....... 422
7 .::! Solutions for Parabolic Shells ..................... ................. 424
7.2.1 Uniform Vertical Load ..................... .................. 424
7.2.2 Edge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
7.:J Thermal Stress Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
7 .:U Cylindrical Shell .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . 427
7.3.2 Plane Hotspot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
7.:3.3 Bending Hotspot ..................... ..................... .. 4:11

ChapterS
BUCKLING OF SHELLS
S.l Introduction ..................... ....••.............. ............ 4:1:1
8.1.1 Adjacent Equilibrium .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. 4:1:1
8.1.2 Energy Method ..................... ..................... ... 436
X-2 Cylindrical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
8.2.1 Differential Equations for Compression and Shear ............... 4:J9
8.2.1.1 Basic Concepts ..................... .................. 4:39
8.2.1.2 Differential Equations ..................... ........... 444
8.2.2 Solution for Shells without Shear Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
8.2.2.1 Two-way Compression ..................... ........... 449
8.2.2.2 Axial Compression Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
8.2.2.3 External Pressure Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
8.2.:1 Solution for Shells with Shear Load . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46:1
8.2.3.1 Torsion of a Long Tube ..................... .......... 46:3
8.2.3.2 Shear and Axial Compression in a Cylinder of Finite Length 466
8.2.4 Nonuniform Axial Compression ..................... ........... 478
8.2.5 The Beam-Column Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
8.2.5.1 The Axisymmetric Problem ..................... ....... 484
8.2.5.2 Imperfections of Shape ..................... ........... 490
8.2.6 Nonlinear Theory of Shell Buckling ..................... ...... 494
H.:l Spherical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !lOO
 CO~TENT:-:i Xl

Appendix
.FORCES AND DE.B'OR1HATlONS IN CIRCULAlt H,IXGS 507
1. Radial Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
2. Tangential Load ................................ ................... 508
:L Load Normal to the Plane of the Ring ............................... 509
4. External Moments, Turning about the Ring Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii09

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................... ................... 511

IXDEX ............................... ............................. ii20

TABLES
Table 5.1. Semi-infinite Cylinder ............................... ........ 22S
Table 5.2. Cylinder Loaded along a Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Table 5.3. Barrel Vault ............................... ............... 248
Table 5.4. Barrel Vault, Isolated Boundary .............................. 2;1:!
Table 5.5. Barrel Vault, Symmetric Case ............................... . 257
Table 6.1. Functions y. and y;, ............................... ......... 3:l8
Table 6.2. Coefficients for Spherical Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :l:l8
Table 6.3a, b. Values of ; 1 and ; 2 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.. •••.••. :l9(i
Table 6.4. Coefficients for Coni<>al Shells .........................•..... . 408
 Chapter 1

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF STRESS SYSTEll'IS

IN SHELLS
1.1 Definitions

1.1.1 Definition of a Shell

Every part of a structure, of a machine or of any other object is a
three-dimensional body, however small its dimensions may be. Never-
t.heless, the three-dimensional theory of elasticity is not often applied
when stresses in such a body are calculated. There is a simple reason
for this: Every structural element is created for a certain purpose, one
of the most frequent being 'the transmission of a force from one point
to another. Cables, shafts and columns are typical examples of such
elements which receive a force or a couple at one end and transmit it
to the other, whereas beams and arches usually transmit loads to sup-
ports at both ends. The stress analyst does not envisage these elements
as three-dimensional but rather as lines having some thickness, a kind
of ·'physical lines" as opposed to the mathematical meaning of the
word. ·when he wants to describe the stresses in them, he first defines
a cross section and then calculates the resultant of the stresses acting
in it. Instead of describing this resultant by its magnitude, direction
and location in space, he usually gives its three components and its
moments about three axes. These quantities, commonly known as the
normal force, two (transverse) shearing forces, two bending moments,
and the torque, are called the "stress resultants" in the cross section.
~ot all structural elements are of the kind just described. A second
large group consists of all those which are made to bound or enclose
some space: walls, in the widest sense of the word, e.g., the wall of a
tank, the metal hull of an airplane, or the cloth-and-rubber hull of a
balloon. All these objects cannot be described by a line, but can be
described by a plane or curved surface, and consequently, their stress
analysis must be built on the concept of a "physical surface", a surface
made of some more or less solid material, capable of transmitting loads
from one part to another and of undergoing consequent deformations.
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed.
2 CHAP. 1: STRESS SYSTEMS IN SHELLS

In the development of the mathematical theory of such structural

elements, it has become necessary to distinguish between two types:
Plane walls are called plates, while all walls shaped to curved surfaces
are called shells.
Summarizing these considerations, we may define a shell as an ob-
ject which, for the purpose of stress analysis, may be considered as the
materialization of a curved surface. This definition implies that the
thickness of a shell is small compared with its other dimensions, but it
does not require that the smallness be extreme. It also does not require
that the shell be made of elastic material. The occurrence of plastic
flow in a steel shell would not prevent its being a shell; a soap bubble
is also a shell, although made of liquid. Even the surface of a liquid,
because of the surface tension acting in it, has all the properties of a
true shell and may be treated by the methods of shell theory.
Most shells, of course, are made of solid material, and generally in
this book we shall assume that this material is elastic according to
HooKE's law.
In most cases, a shell is bounded by two curved surfaces, the faces.
The thickness t of the shell may be the same everywhere, or it may
vary from point to point. We define the middle surface of such a shell
as the surface which passes midway between the two faces. If we know
the shape of the middle surface and the thickness of the shell for every
one of its points, then the shell is geometrically fully described. Mechan-
ically, the middle surface and the thickness represent the shell in the
same way as a bar is represented by its axis and the cross section.
However, not every shell fits this description. A parachute, for in-
stance, is made of cloth, i.e., of threads crossing each other and leav-
ing holes in between. Nevertheless, it is a shell, and the "middle sur-
face" which represents it is fairly well defined, although not by the
definition just given. However, the thickness t is not easily defined in
such a case. Another example of this kind is culvert pipe used in high-
way work. For most purposes it may be treated as a shell in the shape
of a circular cylinder, and its middle surface may easily be defined.
The real pipe, however, is corrugated, and in alternate regions all of
the material lies either on one side of the "middle surface" or on the
other. For some special purposes one may, of course, consider the corru-
gated surface which really bisects the thickness, as the middle surface
of this pipe, but in many cases this is not done, and shell theory may
still be applied.
1.1.2 Stress Resultants
Before we can define stresses in a shell, we need a coordinate system.
Since the middle surface extends in two dimensions, we need two eo-
 1.1 DEFI~ITIO~~ 3

ordinates to describe the position of a point on it. Let us assume that

some system of coordinates x, y has been defined on the middle surface
so that the lines x = const. meet the lines y = const. at right angles
(GAussian coordinates). We may then cut an element from the shell by
cutting along two pairs of adjacent coordinate lines as shown in Fig. 1.1.
The cuts are made so that the four sides of the element are normal to
the middle surface of the shell.
Since it is not always possible for the distance dsx or dsy between
two adjacent coordinate lines to be the same everywhere, opposite sides
of the element will differ slightly in length. However, for the present
purpose this difference is of no importance.

Fig. 1.1. Stress resultants :mu loaus acting on a shell element

The front side of the element is part of a cross section x = const.

through the shell and has the area d.~!! . t. The stresses acting on this
area have a certain resultant which, of course, depends on the length My ..
\Vhen My approaches zero, the resultant decreases proportionately, and
the quotient "force divided by length of section" has a finite limit ..
It is therefore reasonable to call this quotient the "stress resultant" ..
It is a force per unit length of section and may be measured in lb/ft
or kg/m, for example.
For all analytical work we must resolve the stress resultant into·
components. We choose as a reference frame th:e tangent to the line
element ds 11 , another tangent to the middle surface at right angles to ds!l
(i.e., normal to the cross section), and a normal to the shell. For the
force components in these directions we give the following definitions:
In a section x = const., the force in direction x, transmitted by a
unit length of section (measured on the middle surface) is called the
normal force NJ'. It is considered positive if tensile and negative if
1*
 CHAP. 1: STRESS SYSTE~IS IN SHELLS

compressive. The normal force N!l in a section y = const. is defined

correspondingly.
In a section x = const., the force transmitted by a unit length of this
section and directed tangent to ds!l is called the shearing force Ncy·
It is considered positive if it points in the direction of increasing y on
the same side of the shell element where a tensile force N x would point
in the direction of increasing x. Correspondingly, in the section
y = const. the shearing force Nyx is defined with a similar rule for its
positive sign (Fig. 1.1 ). Evidently the sign of both shearing forces depends
on the choice of the coordinates. It changes when the positive direction
of one of them is reversed.
In a section x = const., the force normal to the middle surface
transmitted by a unit length is called the transverse force Q.,. The
positive sign of this force will be defined in (1.1 c).
The foregoing definitions apply to every shell, including shells in
which the faces and thickness are not defined. In the common case of
a shell consisting of solid material included between its faces, it is
possible to express the stress resultants as integrals of the stresses
acting on a section. Then one may consider these integral expressions
which are derived from the foregoing definitions, as the definitions
themselves. We shall now derive these integrals.
In the section x = const. (Fig. 1.2), the total force normal to this
section is by definition N., ds!l. It is the resultant of the stresses a"' which
act on this area .. Since the width ds 11 is of differential magnitude, we
may disregard a possible variation in this direction, but we have to
consider a variability of all stresses across the thickness of the shell.
It is therefore necessary to consider first an element in the cross section
which has differential magnitude in all directions. Such an element has
been shaded in Fig. 1.2. Because of the curvature of the shell, its width is
not simply d.~!l' but dsy(ry + z)fr!l, and the force transmitted through
it is
.r.+zd
Gx d :::;, - - Z.
.1 r•

The total normal force for the element ds11 • t is found when this ex-
pression is integrated between the limits - t{2 and + tf2:

N.xds 11 =
+t/2
j
-1/2
ax ds 11 r. r: z dz.

When the factor ds!l on both sides is dropped, this is the equation which
relates the normal force and the normal stress. In the same way the
shearing stresses Txy and Txz must be integrated to obtain the forces N.,y
 1.1 DEFI~ITIONS 5

and Q,.. Altogether, we have

f
+l/2
r,, +z l
. r~- c z •
K.,, = 7:,,. !I __

-If~ "
(1.1a-c)

f
+1/2

Q.c=- r" + z l .
ir.--cz
. - 1'u
-t/2

I
,...._
I
I

V Firz. l.2. Stresse• acting on a shell element

The minus sign which has been added to the equation for Qx, stipulates
that a positive transverse force shall have the direction shown in Fig. 1.1,
which is opposite to the direction of ixz in Fig. 1.2.
We may apply the same reasoning to a section y = const. and write
three more equations for the other three stress resultants; we must, of
course, keep in mind that the line element dsx has a different radius of
6 CHAP. 1: STRESS SYSTE~IS IN SHELLS

curvature, say rx. \Ve have then

+t/2
N r, + z l
) - a!! -----;:;-
1 11 = cz ,
-t/2
(1.1 d-f)

J
-t-1/2

Q!l = - 1:yz r, r: z dz.

-1/2

"When we compare (1.1 b) and (1.1 e), we see that the equality of
the shearing stresses, •xu = •ux' does not imply the equality of the
shearing forces. The difference between Nxy and Nyx vanishes only if
rx = ry (e.g., for a sphere), or if •xv does not depend on z. In a thin
shell t and z are small compared with the radii rx, ry; then the difference
between the two shearing forces is not large and may often be neglected.
When the stresses are not distributed uniformly across the thickness t,
some of them have moments with respect to the center of the section.
Since these moments influence the equilibrium of the shell element,
>ve must consider them. The moment of the stresses ax in a section
.-r = const. is referred to a tangent to the line element dsu of the middle
surface. The moment is of differential magnitude and proportional
to dsy. If it is designated by J.l1x dsy, the quantity .111x is finite and re-
presents a moment per unit length of section. Consequently, it may
be measured in such units as ft.lbjft or in·lbjft or others of the same
kind . .Jfx is called the bending moment of the section.
When the stresses ixy are distributed non-uniformly across the
thickness t, their resultant may lie anywhere in the plane of the cross
section and has a moment with respect to an axis which is normal to
the section and passes through the center of the line element dsy. This
moment is also proportional to dsy and is denoted by 1Vfxy ds!J. The
finite quantity 111xy is called the twisting moment.
One may easily read from Fig. 1.2 the relations

JUx =- f
+t/2 r
ax-"-- zdz,
+z
r.
'I
..6.J:' xy =- f
+1/:?.
+
r, z
'txy-r-.-z dZ (1.1 g, h)
-1/2 -1/2

which may be considered as the definitions of the bending and twisting

moments. The minus signs are arbitrary and fix the sign convention used
in this book (see also Figs. 5.1 b and 6.1 b).
When the same ideas are applied to a section y = const., another
bending moment and another twisting moment are obtained:

J r: J
+1/2 +t/2
M yx = - r, + z d (1.1i,j)
1lf!l = - a!I r• z z dz , iyx-r-,-z z.
-1/2 -1/2
 1.1 DEFINITIO.NS 7

_-\gain, as in the case of the shearing forces, the shear stresses in (1.1 h, j)
are equal, but the resultant moments are different. And again the
difference is not large and may often be neglected (see p. 213), but
may 'sometimes be the key to the exact formulation of a problem
(see p. 447). It will be noticed that, because of the factors (r.c + z)jr,
and (ry + z)fru, the moments are not zero when the stresses are in-
dependent of z, i.e., uniformly distributed across the thickness. These
factors are required because of the curvature of the shell and represent
the fact that the sides of a shell element are not rectangles, but trape-
zoids, and that their centroids do not lie exactly on the middle surface.
It should be noted that (1.1g-j) do not imply any particular law
of distribution of the stresses across the thickness. Whether or not the
distribution is linear, these equations are always valid as definitions of
the moments.
The transverse shearing stresses rxz and ry: do not lead to moments.
The ten quantities
Nx, N!l, NX!J' N!JX' Qx, Q!l' J.Yfx, 11{1' J.}[X'f' 1Jf!/X
describe the forces and moments acting on the sides of a rectangular
shell element. A common name for the whole group is needed, and we
shall call them the "stress resultants". It is the main purpose of Chap-
ters 2 through 7 of this book to explain the methods which allow their
computation in shells of different shapes.
Once the stress resultants are known, the stresses may be found by
elementary methods. In thin shells of homogeneous material the stress
distribution is generally not far from linear, and we may obtain the
stresses from the simple relations derived for beams of rectangular
cross section, subjected to a normal force and a bending moment:
N, 12M,z N. 12il'/•z
t3 -
a=------- a = t----
(1.2a,b)
.c t t3 ' '1

TheN-term in these formulas is called the direct stress, and the 11-l-term
is called the bending stress. If the shell thickness is not very small
compared with the radii of curvature, it may be worthwhile to take
the trapezoidal shape of the cross section into account; but then one
should also make use of the basic ideas of bars of great curvature and
consider the corresponding non-linearity in the stress distribution.
The tangential shearing stresses follow the same pattern as the bend-
ing stresses and must be handled in the same way. However, the two
formulas
N,. 121!-I,.z N.. 121l'I.,z
rx,, = -t- - _t_3_ iyx = -t- - _t_3_ (1.2c,d)

will not necessarily yield identical results. This indicates that there is
a logical objection to the assumption of linear stress distribution. Since
8 CHAP. 1: STRESS SYSTEMS IN SHELLS

the discrepancy is not large in thin shells, we may usually disregard it

at this stage of the stress analysis.
If the bending and twisting stresses are distributed linearly, the
transverse shearing stresses will have the parabolic distribution of the
shearing stresses in a beam of rectangular cross section:

Txz = -
3Q. (
2f 1 - T
4z~)
' Ty, = -
3Q.
2T ( 1 - 4z2) .
7 (1.2e,f)

If the shell is not made of homogeneous material, or if there is a

system of ribs or stiffeners incorporated into the shell, other formulas
must be set up. In the case of reinforced concrete shells some particular
problems arise.

1.1.3 Membrane Forces

Let us consider two examples of shells which behave very differ-
ently. First, roll a sheet of paper to cylindrical form and paste the
edges together. This is a cylindrical shell. Very feeble lateral forces
will suffice to produce in it a considerable deformation. The resistance
of this shell to loads is contingent upon the bending moments, and in
more complicated cases of this kind the whole group of bending and
twisting moments may come into action.
Second, take the shell of an egg or an electric light bulb. Both are
very thin and are made of rather fragile materials, but they can with-
stand remarkable forces without breaking and without undergoing a
visible deformation. In these shells a quite different mechanism of
load carrying is at work. It consists essentially of normal and shearing
forces Nz, N 9 , N"'!l' N 11 ,.. Since there is not much deformation, we
would expect the bending and twisting moments to be small, at least
in thin shells. A detailed study shows that this is true.
While the first kind of shell is not very attractive for design pur-
poses, the second one is, and whenever it is possible, engineers attempt
to shape and to support a shell so that it carries its load essentially by
normal and shearing forces. If this is done, it seems reasonable to neg-
lect the moments altogether in the stress analysis. The simple version
of shell theory which is obtained in this way is called the Membrane
Theory of Shells. We shall study it in the following chapters, and we
shall see its merits and its limitations.
If the bending and twisting moments are zero, only the forces shown
in Fig.1.1 act on the sides of the shell element. In addition there may be
a load, proportional to the area ds~ · dsu of the element, applied at its
centroid in an arbitrary direction. We shall now consider the moment
equilibrium of this force system. First, we choose as a reference axis a
normal to the middle surface, passing through the center of the element
 1.2 FORCES IX ARBITRARY DIRECTIOXS 9
(marked "pz'' in Fig. 1.1). The only moments with respect to this axis
are those of the shearing forces N:x:y and Nu:x:· The two forces Nx!J ds!l
form a couple with the arm dsx, turning counterclockwise if we look
on the upper face of the shell. The other two shearing forces, Nux ds,.,
form a clockwise couple, and there is equilibrium if

that is, if the two shearing forces are equal:

(1.3)

Next, we choose the line marked "py" as a reference axis. It is a tangent

to a line x = const. on the middle surface. With respect to this axis,
there is the moment of the transverse forces Q"'ds!l, which form a couple
with the arm dsx, but all other forces either are parallel to the axis ot·
intersect it, or they pass it so closely that their moments are infinitely
small compared with Qxdsy • dsx. It follows that Q:x: = 0. From the
moment equilibrium for the axis "px'' we find in the same way that
Q!J = 0.
Thus we arrive at a remarkable simplification of shell theory: Of
the ten unknown stress resultants, only three are left, Nx, N!l, and
N.c 11 = Ny.c· The three equations of force equilibrium, which have not
yet been used, are available and sufficient in number for calculating
these forces (see pp. 20, 104, 159). When the normal and shearing forces
hiwe been found, the corresponding deformations may be calculated, and
we may check whether or not they lead to bending stresses. In many
cases it is found that the bending stresses are negligibly small, and this
justifies the basic assumption of the membrane theory. In other cases
it is found that the deformations derived from the membrane theory
contain a discrepancy or a contradiction, and that, therefore, bending
and twisting moments must be an important part of the stress system.
·when speaking of membrane theory, membrane stresses, or mem-
brane forces (i.e., Nx, N!l, N:x:y), we do not imply that the normal forces
are necessarily tensile forces. In many shells they are compressive;
nevertheless the theory is exactly the same and is also called membrane
theory.

1.2 lUembrane Forces in Arbitrary Directions

1.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates
The membrane forces at a point of a shell represent a plane stress
system in a tangential plane to the middle surface. When these stresse~
or the stress resultants Nx, Ny, Nx!J have been calculated for the sec-
tions x = const. and y = const. passing through that point, the ques-
10 CHAP. 1: STRESS SYSTEMS IN SHELLS

t.ion may be raised as to what forces would be found if the shell were
cut in another direction, making an arbitrary angle cc with the x direc-
tion.
For a plane stress system ax, ay, ixy the answer is well known and
may be found in textbooks on elementary strength of materials. We
need only repeat the essential facts in the notation used for the stress
resultants of shells.
We consider a certain point of the shell (i.e., of its middle surface)
and define there two rectangular reference frames x, y and~' 'YJ (Fig.1.3a).
The directions x and y may be those of the GAussian coordinates used
on the preceding pages for defining the normal and shearing forces N x,
.NY, Nxy• Ny.r• and we assume now that these forces are known. "\Ve
wish to find the forces in sections ~ = const. and 'YJ = const. as defined

\J\LX ~-o"
y

N.JyN, -<
~
(a) ~"
N,y ~N
Nv
(b) (c)
Fig. 1.3. Equilibrium of triangular shell elements

hy the second reference frame (which need only be defined locally).

·we obtain them by cutting from the shell one of the triangular elements
shown in Fig. 1.3b, c.
The first of these elements has two sides ds., and d.s 11 in which tile
forces are known, and one side ds'l where two of the desired forces,
N; and N;,l' appear. The equilibrium of the six forces yields the follow-
ing equations:
N; d.s = Nxd.s!l cos rx + Nxyds!l sin z + R!l ds.r sin Y. + N xy dsx cos 'X,
R;'lds'f/ = -Nxdsysinrx + Nxydsycosrx + Nydsxcos:x- Nxydsxsinx.
·with the angle cc as shown in Fig. 1.3a, we have
dsx . ds,
d- 81j = Sln;;t;, ds" =cos :x,
and so we obtain the first and third of the following formulas:
N; = Nxcos 2 rx + N!l sin 2 rx + 2Nxy cos :x sin cc,
N" = Nxsin 2 cc + N!lcos 2 cc- 2Nxycoscc since, (1.4a-c)
N;" = (Ny- Nx)cosrx sin a+ Nxy(cos 2 a- sin2 'X).
 1.2 FORCES IN ARBITRARY DIRECTIONS 11

Eq.(1.4b) is obtained in the same way from the shell element shown in
Fig. 1.3c. The equations may also be written in the following form:

N; = ~ (N,+Ny)+! (Nx-Ny)cos2rx+N xysin2rx,

NTJ = !- (Nx + Ny) - !- (Nx- Ny) cos2rx - Nx,1 sin2rx, (1.5a-c)
.

Eq. (1.5a) gives the normal force as a function of the direction of

the section. ·when rx varies through 180°, Ne must have at least one
maximum and one minimum. We find the angles IX = 1Xo for which these
extrema occur, from the condition dNefdiX = 0. It yields
2N,.
t
an 2 rxo = J.N• - N • (1.6)

and thus determines two directions at right angles to each other which
are called the principal directions of the membrane forces at this point
of the shell. From (1.6) and (1.5c) it may easily be seen that the shear
is zero for IX = IXo. The extreme normal forces are called the principal
forces and are denoted by Na, Nb. One of them is the maximum and
the other one the minimum that the normal force Ne or NTJ can assume
for any direction at this point. From (1.5) and (1.6) one may obtain the
following formulas for these forces:
1 1 ~~~~--~~
N,, = 2 (Nx + Ny) + 2 V(Nx- Ny) 2 + 4_Ni 11 ,
(1.7)

One of the principal forces makes an angle oc0 with the x axis, the other
one with they axis, but (1.7) do not indicate which of them is Na and
which Nb. To find this out, one must use either (1.4) or MonR's circle
(seep. 12).
·when the principal directions are known at every point of the shell,
one may draw a net of curves which have these directions as tangents.
They are called the trajectories of the normal forces. They indicate the
paths along which the loads are carried to the supported edges by a
system of tensile and compressive forces in the shell. These trajectories
may give a very suggestive picture of the stresses in a shell (Figs. 2.18,
2.23), but they are laborious to obtain and not easy to represent on
paper. Therefore they are not often used in practical stress analysis
work. However, they indicate in which direction a thin shell may best
be reinforced by ribs, and in which directions the steel rods in rein-
forced concrete shells should preferably be placed.
 12 CHAP. 1: STRESS SYSTEMS IX SHELLS

1.2.2 Mohr's Circh~

Equations (1.4) indicate that the membrane forces at a point of a

shell represent a two-dimensional, symmetric tensor, just as do two-
dimensional stresses (a.,, O"u, T.xy) or strains (Ex, Eu, ~ Yxul, and the mo-
ments and products of inertia of a cross section (/.x, ly, l.,y)· In all
these cases there exists a set of formulas identical with (1.6) and (1.7),
and· there are several graphical methods available which do the same
service as these equations (e.g., the different ellipses of inertia, LAND's.
circle, MoHR's circle). Among all these devices, MOHR's circle appears.
to be the most useful one, and although graphical methods have lost

Shear

b y

~: et
Fig. 1.4. MoHR's circle for normal and shearing forres

much of their former importance, we shall describe it here in some detail

because of its usefulness for the qualitative understanding of stress·.
patterns.
We consider a certain point of the shell and the normal and shearing
forces which may be found from (1.4) for various sections passing
through this point. In a rectangular coordinate system we mark the·
points x and y with the coordinates N.x, -N". 11 and Nu, N.xu• respectively,
and then we draw a circle which has the line xy as a diameter. The
center of this circle has the coordinates ~(N.x +Nu), 0, and its radius is

V( N -N
%2 ,
)2 +N;y.-
It follows that the points a and b have the abscissas Na and Nb as given
by (1.7), their ordinates being zero. Consequently, the points x, y, a, b·
represent the forces transmitted through sections which pass through.
 1.2 FORCES I~ ARBITRARY DIRECTIONS 13
the shell point under consideration in four different directions. Since
the circle is unequivocally determined by the principal forces N a, N b,
we should necessarily have found this same circle, if we had started
from the forces N~, N~, N~~ for an arbitrary pair of orihogonal sections
passing through the same point of the shell. Hence, this circle is the
locus for all points whose coordinates are the normal and shearing forces
in sections of arbitrary direction and is a graphical representation of
the stress resultants at the particular point of the shell. It is called
MoHR's circle.
From (1.6) we see that <;:xoa = 2cx 0 , and from a well known theorem
of elementary geometry it follows that <;:. xba = cx0 •
In the lower right-hand corner of Fig. 1.4 are shown the reference
frames x, y and a, b which define the directions of the sections in which
the different forces N,., N .ry, etc. are transmitted. The force Nr, for
example, has the direction x and is transmitted in a section at right
angles to the x axis.
We may define a pole p on MoHR's cirele by drawing through one
of the points, x, y, a, b, a straight line paraJlel to the corresponding line
of the reference frame. All such lines lead to the same point p, and the
angle cx 0 is found again there. When we now choose an arbitrary ;
direction and draw parallel to it the line p; through the pole p, we may
read from the figure the following relations for the coordinates of the
point ; : Its ab8cissa is

~ (Nx+N,J -i- oxcos2(.x- a 0 )

= ~ (Nx + Ny) + oxcos2 .x 0 cos21X + oxsin2 a 0 sin21X

= ~ (Nx+N,J+ ~ (Nx-N,,)cos2:.c+Nxysin2.x,

i.e., exactly the normal force Ne as given by (1.5). The ordinate of

the point ; is
oxsin2(a- .x 0 ) = -oxsin2.x 0 cos2.x + oxcos2.x 0 sin2cc
= -Nxycos2.x+ ~ (Nx-Ny)sin2a,

and this is equal to - N< 71 •

Evidently, every point of MoHR's circle corresponds to one possible
section through the shell, and the direction of the normal force is parallel
to the line ; p in the MoHR diagram. When this direction is rotated
throu.gh 180°, the corresponding point runs just once around the whole
circle.
It should be observed that MoHR's circle requires a sign convention
of its own. While positive normal forces are always plotted to the right
14 CHAP. 1: STRESS SYSTEMS IN SHELLS

and negative ones to the left, the same positive shearing force Nx 11 had.
to be plotted downward when it was associated with N x and upward
when associated with Nu. We may easily verify the rule that the right
angle between the normal and shearing forces in a section and the
right angle between the directions in which they are plotted must
always be of opposite sense, one of them clockwise and the other one
counterclockwise. As an example, we may look at the forces Nx and Nxy
in Fig. 1.4. At the shell element they point right and up, in the MoHR
diagram they point right and down.

1.2.3 Oblique Coordinates and Skew Forces

On the curved middle surface of a shell the coordinates cannot be
simple cartesian coordinates but must be some kind of orthogonal
curvilinear coordinates. In many cases it is advisable to use, instead,

Fig. 1.5. Orthogonal force components at an oblique shell element

a non-orthogonal system which is better adapted to the general shape

of the middle surface or to the boundaries of the shell (see Chapter 4).
In such cases the lines x = const. and y = const. meet each other at
an angle w which may be constant or even vary from point to point.
The shell element is then in the first approximation a parallelogram
(Fig. 1.5).
The membrane force RxMu which is transmittecf in the side Mu of
the element, is certainly situated in the tangential plane to the middle
surface. There are different ways of resolving it into two components.
One might think of using rectangular components Nr' M11 and Nx'v M 11 •
These correspond to the definitions of normal and shearing forces given
on p. 5, if we use a rectangular reference frame x', y. The force R 11 Mx
on the adjacent side of the element should then be resolved into the
 1.2 FORCES IN ARBITRARY DIRECTIONS 15

rectangular components Nv' d.s.c and Ny'.r dsx shown in Fig.1.5, and these
forces require the use of another reference frame x, y'. The two shearing
forces Nx'u and N,,•x are, of course, not equal since equality can be
expected only for sections at right angles to each other. Therefore, the

~'iJt. 1.6. Skew force components

tensor of the membrane forces is now described by four quantities in-

stead of three. These four quantities, however, are not independent of
each other but are connected by the condition of moment equilibrium
with respect to a normal to the shell:
N x' ds!l . d.s X cos Q) - N x' !I ds !I • ds: sin Q) - N!,. dsx . d.~!/ cos (•J +
+ N"'"'ds"' · ds11 sin ro = 0
which yields the relation
(1.8)

We may avoid complications and arrive at a more natural descrip·

tion of the state of stress at a point (i.e., of the membrane force tensor)

Fig. I. 7. Relation between orthogonn I

and skew force components

if we resolve the forces R.c d.s11 and R 11 d.sx in oblique components following
the directions of the lines x = const. and y = const. (Fig. 1.6). On the
sides d.s 11 of the element we have then per unit length the "skew fiber
16 CHAP. 1 : STRESS SYSTEMS IN SHELLS

force" Nx and the "skew shearing force" Nxy which has the same direc-
tion as the orthogonal shear Nx'y but not the same magnitude. From
Fig. 1. 7 we easily read the relations between the orthogonal and the
skew forces:
~v ••
.Nx=-.-, .Nx 11 =Nx'!f- Nx•COtw .
smw
Applying the same ideas to Ru, we obtain the skew forces NY and Nux
in the section y = const. :
y - :y_.
• !I -- sin w '

Like the not·mal forces on a rectangular shell element, the skew forces N.x
or N 11 on opposite sides of the oblique element fall on the same line and
do not yield a couple. Thus the shearing forces are again alone in the
equation of moment equilibrium:
Nxyds!1 • ds.csinw- N 11 xdsx · ds 11 sinw = 0,
and hence they are again equal to each other:
N.ry=N!JX"
Having solved a shell problem in oblique coordinates x, y, we may
desire to find from the skew forces Nx, Nu, N.r 11 the components N;,
N TJ, ]I;; 'I for an orthogonal pair $, 'fJ of sections of the principal forces N a,
Nb. The set of transformation formulas needed may be found by the

~\ rt~ /y /-
~X w

Fig. 1.8. Trinngulur shell element in oblique coordinates :r, !J

method which led to (1.4). We cut from the shell a triangular element
having one side parallel to one of the new rectangular axes, and the
other two sides parallel to the directions x and y (Fig. 1.8). The equi-
librium of all forces in the direction $ yields the equation
N;d-~'1 = Nxdsycosa; + Nxyds0 sina11 + N,1 dsxsina 11 + Nxydsxcosa 11 ,
 1.3 TRANSFOR~IATION OF ~IO:\IEXTS 17

and a similar equation will be found for the n-components:

~V$, 1 ds~ = -N xdsysina; + Nxyds!l cos,x~ -i- N 11 dsxcos x~- Nxyds. sin X$.
Between the three sides of the element we have the geometric relation
sinw sina,1 cos rf.$
lli:; ~ ~·

We multiply each term in the preceding equations by one of the three

identical factors and thus obtain two of the three following equations,

l
the third of which can be derived from another triangular element:
N~ sinw = Nxcos 2 x; + Nysin 2 x~ + 2N.rycosx~sinx,i'
...V,1 sinw=Nxsin 2 a;+N11 cos 2 a 11 +2N.cysinx<cosx~, (i 9)
N;,1 sinw=Nycosx 11 sinx~-Nxcosx;sinx;+ ... I·
+ N.r"(cosa;cosx~- smx$smx,1).
To find the principal forces Na, Nb we must put N; 11 =Nub= 0.
This is an equation for the unknown angles a; and a 11 , which we now
call a" and ab. Using well-known trigonometric formulas, we may bring
this equation into the form
Nysin2x 1, - Nxsin2aa + 2Nxycos(x,. + x,) = 0.
From Fig. 1.8 we find

Xb =
7t
2 + Xa - W,

which enables us to eliminate ab. Subsequent trigonometric trans-

formation leads to an equation in which only the functions cos 2a"
and sin 2a,. occur. It has the solution

t an 2 x,. _ N,sin2w + 2N,.sinw

- , , . (1.10a)
.,
+ N ucos:..w
1v, + ').lv,,cosw
By a similar calculation we find also
'>
t an~x, N, sin 2 w + 2 N, • sin w
=- · (1.10b)
N• + N, cos 2 w + 2 N, • cos w
If we put w = nf2, both formulas coincide with our formula (1.6) for
rectangular coordinates.

1.3 Transformation of Moments

All the question we have asked and answered on the preceding
pages for the normal and shearing forces may also be formulated for
the bending and twisting moments. The answers may be found easily
Flilgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed, 2
18 CHAP. 1: STRESS SYSTEMS IN SHELLS

by reducing each moment problem to the corresponding force problem.

We simply replace each moment by a couple of forces parallel to the
middle surface. The arms of all these couples must be equal, but are
otherwise arbitrary. We choose them equal to the thickness of the shell.
"\Ve have then in its upper surface a system of normal and shearing
forces and in the lower surface a system which is identical except that
the direction of each force is reversed. We may now cut triangular and
other elements from the shell and write for each one of the two force
systems the equations of equilibrium as we did in the preceding sec-
tions. The resultant forces may then be recombined to yield bending
and twisting moments.
It follows that in all the equations and in all the diagrams of Sec-
tion 1.2 we may simply replace everywhere the letter N by Jtf to obtain
valid results for the transformation of the bending and twisting moments
to a new set of axes.
 Chapter 2

DIRECT STRESSES
IN SHELLS OF REVOLUTION
2.1 General Differential Equations

2.1.1 Geometric Relations

The particular type of shell which we are going to treat in this.
chapter appears in many technical applications, especially in the con-
struction of tanks, pressure vessels and domes.
Before we enter into the investigation of the stress resultants in the:-;e
shells, we must examine the geometry of their middle surfaces. A surface-

,--------------,.-

Fig. ~.1. Meridian of a shell of

revolution

of revolution is generated by the rotation of a plane curve about an axis.

in its plane. This generating curve is called a meritlian, and an arbitrary
point on the middle surface of the shell is described by specifying the
particular meridian on which it is found and by giving the value of a
second coordinate which varies along the meridian and is constant on
a circle around the axis of the shell, called a latitude circle.
We shall identify a meridian by the angular distance () of its plane
from that of a datum meridian and choose as second coordinate the
20 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

angle 4> between a normal to the shell and its axis of revolution. If the
middle surface of our shell is a sphere, these coordinates are the spherical
coordinates used in geography: () is the longitude and 4> is the comple-
ment to the latitude, the colatitude.
Fig. 2.1 shows a meridian of the shell. Let r be the distance of one
of its points from the axis of rotation and r 1 its radius of curvature.
In our equations we also need the length r2 , measured on a normal to
the meridian between its intersection with the axis of rotation and the
middle surface. It is the second radius of curvature of the shell, and we
read from Fig. 2.1 the relation
r = r 2 sin q,. (2.1)
For the line element ds of the meridian we have

(2.2)
and since
dr = ds cos4>, dz = ds sin 4> (2.:3a, b)
we have the relations
dr dz . A..
dcp = r 1 cos 4>, dcp = r 1 sm't'. (2.4a, b)

Finally we obtain from (2.1) and (2.4a)

_.!_ .:!!:__ = 2 cot 4> . (2.5)

r dcp r2

2.1.2 E(JUilibrium of the Shell Element

The shell element (Fig. 2.2) is cut out by two meridians and two
parallel circles, each pair indefinitely close together. The conditions of
its equilibrium will furnish three equations, just enough to determine
the three unknown stress resultants: the meridional force N q,, the hoop
force N 0 , and the shear N q, 0 .
To find these equations, let us begin with the forces parallel to the
tangent to the meridian. The shear transmitted by one of the meridional
edges of the element is N 0 q, r 1 d4>, on the opposite edge it is

These two forces are of opposite direction and therefore almost cancel
<ach other. Only their difference
&Noq,
iiiJ r 1 d() d4>
 2.1 GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 21

enters the equilibrium condition. In the same way we have the differ-
ence of the two meridional forces, but in computing it, we must bear
in mind that both the force per unit length of section, N 4>, and the
length of section rd8 vary with cf>. Therefore we have to introduce the
increment

into the condition of equilibrium. But that is not all. The hoop forces N 0
also contribute. The two forces N 0 r 1 de/> on either side of the element

ri~. 2.~. Shell element

lie in the plane of a parallel circle where they include an angle d8. They
therefore have a resultant force N 0 r 1 dcf> · d8, situated in the same plane
and pointing towards the axis of the shell. We resolve this force into
two rectangular components normal to the shell and in the direction of
the tangent to the meridian. The latter one,
N 0 r 1 dcf> d8 · coscf>,

enters our condition of equilibrium, and since its direction is opposite

to that of the increments of N O<f> and N 4>, it requires a negative sign.
Finally we have to introduce a component of the external force, which
is the product of the load component per unit area of shell surface, P<t>,
and the area of the element, r d8 · r 1 d<f>. The equilibrium condition
22 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

thus reads:
aN a
---ao
8 .; .
r d(J d</> --:- a;j; (r N.;) d<f> cl(J -
1 N 8 r1 d<f> d(J cos</> +
+ p.;rr1 d(Jd<f> = 0.
_-\ll its terms contain the product of the two differentials d(J d<f>. Dividing
by this, we get the partial differential equation
a aNo.;
8ci (r N.;)+ r 1 -ao-- r 1 N 8 cos<f> + P.; rr 1 = 0. (2.6 a)

By quite similar reasoning we obtain an equation for the forces in

the direction of a parallel circle. For the difference of the two shearing
forces which are transmitted in the horizontal edges of the shell element,
we must take into account the variability of the length of the line
element:

Then we have a term representing the difference of the two forces

N 0 • r 1 d</> and another one with the load component p 0 • Furthermore,
we have a contribution from the shear acting on the meridional edges.
The two forces N 0 .; • r1 d<f> are not exactly parallel. Their horizontal
components make an angle dO and therefore have a resultant
No.;· r1 d<f> ·cos</>. d(J
which has the direction of the tangent to a parallel circle and thus enters
onr equation. If we drop the factor d(J d<f>, common to all terms, we
haYe:
(2.6b)

The third equation refers to the forces which are perpendicular to

the middle surface of the shell. It contains contributions from both
normal forces N.; and N 0 and the third load component, Pr.
In formulating (2.6a), we have already seen that the two forces
N 0 r 1 d<f> have a horizontal resultant N 0 r1 d<f> dO. It has a component
N 0 r1 d<f> d(J sin</>,
directed normally to the shell and pointing toward its inner side. Simi-
larly, the two forces N.; r d(J, including the angle d<f>, have the resultant
N.; rd(J d<f>
in the same direction. These two forces and the component
 2.1 GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIOXS 23
of the load must be in equilibrium. This yields the equation
N 6 r1 sin</>+ N.pr- Prrr1 = 0.
We divide by r r 1 , u::;e the geometric relation (2.1), and thus get the third
of our equations:
(2.6c)

This equation not only is valid for shells in the form of a surface of
revolution, but may be applied to all shells when the coordinate lines
</> = const. and () = const. are the lines of principal curvature of the
surface. Therefore, we shall meet it again in the next chapter, and we
shall see in Chapter 4 what becomes of it when the coordinates no
longer follow the lines of principal curvature of the shell.
It is notable that (2.6c) does not contain any derivatives of the
unknowns. It may therefore always be used to eliminate one of the
normal forces and to reduce our problem to two differential equations,
with the shear and one of the normal forces as unknowns.
Till now, we have used two angular coordinates () and </>. This is
adequate for many shells with meridians of simple shape and has been
done quite generally in the theory of shells of revolution. However, the
angle </> is v.ery inconvenient if the meridian has a point of inflection.
At such a point, </> passes a maximum and afterwards begins to de-
crease. The stress resultants must therefore be double-valued functions
of</>, the two branches belonging to the two parts of the meridian above
and below the point of inflection. Even worse is the fact that the sign
of the shear N <P6 depends on the direction in which </> increases. Since
this is reversed beyond the inflection point, the shear must suddenly
have the opposite sign, without passing through zero. It is evident
that an analytical solution ftllfilling all these requirements cannot be
very simple and that numerical methods for the solution of the differ-
ential equations will also meet with difficulties. For such case:; it is
useful to replace </> by a coordinate which avoids all these difficulties,
and that is the length 8 of the meridian, measured from any datum
point, say from the vertex of the shell if such a point exists, or otherwise
from its edge. Consequently, we then replace the subscript</> by 8.
Between 8 and </> we have the relation (2.2) and introducing this into
(2.6a-c), we get
a oNos
as ao-
(rN,) + N 6 cos<f> + p.r = 0,
a aN.,
as (rNo,) = ----aiJ + N 6 ,cos<f> + p 6 r = 0, (2.7a-c)
N8 N0
-+-=Pr·
rl r2
24 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

There is still a third way of formulating the fundamental equations,

using rectangular coordinates r, z in the plane of the meridian (Fig. 2.1).
From (2.4b) we find that
a . a
aq, = rl sm'l'. az,
A-

and when we introduce that into (2.6a, b), we find

a aNo~
az (rN~)sin<f> + -arr -N~cos<f> + p~r= 0,
(2.8a, b)

There is some advantage in using this form of the equations, if the

shape of the meridian is given by its equation in rectangular coordi-
nates r, z. However, there is no particular reason to prefer for structures
shells whose meridians have a simple cartesian equation to those which
yield simple relations between </> and the radii.

2.2 Axisymmetric Loads

2.2.1 Differential E(tuations
In many practical problems the external forces have the same sym-
metry as the shell itself. Then the stresses are independent of (), and
all derivatives with respect to this coordinate disappear from (2.6).
Equations (2.6a, c) then read
d
""dcf(rN~)- r 1 Nocos<f> = -p~rr 1 ,
(2.9a, b)
N~ N8
-+-=p,..
Tl T2

Equation (2.6b) becomes independent of the other two and contains

only the shear:
d
dcp (rN~o) + r1 No~cos<f> = -p8 rr1 .

It describes a kind of torsion of the shell about its axis, a very simple
state of stress which may be treated separately. vVe eliminate it from
our further considerations by putting p 8 == 0 and N ~ 8 == 0. vVhen we
solve (2.9b) for N 8 and substitute the result into (2.9a), we obtain a
first-order differential equation for N ~. After multiplication by sin</>
it reads
 2.2 AXISY1\UIETRIC LOADS 25
The two terms at the left may be combined to form a total derivative,

d (' u , . ~) - d ( N . 2 ~
d<J> r.LV<f>8In'l-'- d<J> r 2 <l>sm 'f'),

and N 4> may be found by an integration:

(2.10}

N 0 then follows from (2.9b).

Equation (2.10) may be interpreted as a condition of equilibrium for
the part of the shell above a parallel circle </> = const. Indeed, if we cut the
shell along this circle, 2nr2 sin<f> is its circumference, and 2nN<I>r2 sin 2</>-
is the vertical resultant of all internal forces transmitted in this section.
The integral times 2n represents the distributed load applied above this
circle, if we write it as a definite integral between appropriate limits.
The upper limit, of course, will be the value </> for the circle in question,
and the lower limit will be the value </> = </>0 with which the meridian
begins (see Figs. 2.4, 2.6). When the shell has a flat top (Figs. 2.5, 2.10}
we have </> 0 = 0. The constant C represents the effect of loads which
may be applied above the circle </> = </>0 (see Fig. 2.4), 2nC being the
resultant of these forces.
If the shell is closed at the vertex, such an additional load can only
be a concentrated force P applied at this point. If no other load is,
present, we have in (2.10)

P<t> ""' 11r "" 0' 2nC= -P,

and hence the meridional force

(2.11a}

and from (2.9b) the hoop force

(2.11 b}

At the top both forces have a singularity of the second order, i.e. they
tend toward infinity as <P- 2 • We shall see later (p. 356) that the im-
mediate vicinity of this point where the concentrated load is appliedl
will be subjected to severe bending stresses but· that at some distance
the membrane forces as given by (2.11) still represent the real state
of stress.
If the shell has a flat apex </> = 0, its middle surface has there an
osculating sphere, whose radius equals r1 as well as r 2 , whence r1 = r 2 •
On the other hand, every section </> = const. normal to one of the me-
e
ridians is a tangent to another meridian and, hence, a section = const.
:26 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

The force transmitted through it may be interpreted as N; or as N 8 and,

therefore, N; = N 8 at the apex. It then follows from (2.9b) that there
1 1
N;=No= 2 p,.rJ= 2 p,.r2 • (2.12)
This equation may be used to check formulas or even as a boundary
condition from which to calculate 0 in (2.10).

2.2.2 Solution for some Typical Cases

2.2.2.1 Spherical Dome
As a first example we consider a spherical dome as shown in Fig. 2.3.
We ask for the stress resultants produced by a dead load p (weight per
unit area of the middle surface). To apply our formula (2.10), we must
:first resolve this load into its components tangential and normal to the
shell. These are
P; = p sine/>, p,.= -pcoscJ>. (2.13)
Introducing this into (2.10), we find with r 1 = r 2 =a:
4>

:N; = - ~JazpsincJ>dcJ>
asm 't'
= -pa 1 -:- ~~c/J.
sm
0
Simplifying the trigonometric expression and then using (2.9b) we find
for the stress resultants the formulas
N
1 += - 1
pa
+ coscfJ ' N6 =pa(.1 +coscfJ-coscJ>.
1 )
(2.14)

Fig. 2.3. Spherical dome

It is interesting to discuss these forces in some detail. 'When we put

4> = 0, we find N 4> = N 6 = - paf2. The meridional force N 4> is negative
throughout the hemisphere, but N 6 decreases in absolute value with
increasing cJ> and changes sign at a value cJ> = 51.82°, which follows
from the equation
cos 2cJ> + coscJ> - 1 = 0.
At the springing line cJ> = f3 of the shell dome, the meridional force N;
is an external force and is transmitted to a support. Usually, a footring
is provided and while the vertical component of N 4> is passed on to the
structure below the ring, the horizontal component produces in the
 2.2 AXISDDIETRIC LOADS 27
ring a tensile force
N= -N<I>a sin{J cosfJ.
The footring i.'J the source of a perturbation of the membrane stresses
given by our formulas. In flat domes its stress is of opposite sign to the
hoop stress in the shell, and in high domes, where the hoop stress at the
springing line is positive, it is usually much smaller than the stress in
the ring. Therefore, after the elastic deformations, the ring and the
.shell do not fit together. The continuity of deformation is re-established
by an additional bending of the shell, which will be treated in Chapter 6.
It may be mentioned here that the bending stresses are confined to a
border zone of limited width and that the major part of the shell has,
in fact, the simple stresses given by the membrane theory.
Most domes are not closed at the vertex but have a skylight, or a
ventilation opening, covered by a superstructure, the lantern. Its weight,
say 2n · P ·a since, acts on the upper edge of the shell as a vertical
line load. Since the shell can resist only tangential forces, this edge also
needs a stiffening ring, which takes the other component (Fig. 2.4) and
_P_
p sin C(

/~/r=X ~p
P cot rt. '

Fig. 2.4. Shell uome with

I
skylight

gets a compressive force from it. We find the stress resultants in such a
shell with its own dead load p and the lantern load P by returning to
the integral (2.10) and determining 0 so that for cf> =cc we have
N <I>= - Pjsincc. The simple computation leads to the following formulas:
N cos cc - cos 4> p sin cc
1 <I>= -pa sin2 c/J - sin 2 <f> '

cos cc - cos 4> ) sin cc

:Yo = p a ( . 2 cP
Bin
- cos</> + P ~
sm ..,.
.

'The difference of the two cosines is disadvantageous for numerical work,

in particular for small angles cf>, and it is better to write the formulas
in the following form:

N<l> =-
2 p a • cb
~sm-2-sin-~- -P~,
+
cc • 4> - cc sin cc
Sin'l' ~ Sin'l' (2.15)
N0 = - N <I> - p a cos cf> •
28 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

2.2.2.2 Pressure Vessels

Many preRsure vessels are built as a cylindrical drum closed at either-
end by a shell of revolution, which may be a hemisphere, a spherical
cap, a half ellipsoid or some other such shell. In shell theory they are
known as "boiler ends" and this word we shall use here.
A boiler end has to resist an internal pressure p, constant and normal
to the wall. When we let pq, = 0, p,. = p, the integral (2.10) may be
simplified considerably. Making use of (2.3a), we find
q, q,
Nq, = ~~r
r 2 s1n-.,.. 1 r9pcos<f>sin<f>d<J>
- = ~~rdr,
r 3s1n .,..
0 0

and this integral may be evaluated independently of the shape of the

meridian. Equation (2.9b) then yields the hoop force N 8 • Thus we get
the following simple expressions for the stress resultants in pressure
vessels:
(2.16)·

We shall use these formulas to study some typical forms of boiler ends ..
In a flat ellipsoid of revolution (Fig. 2.5) we have

Introducing these expressions and the load pinto (2.16), we find

No- pa2 ba- (a2- b2)sin2tf>
- 2b2 (a2 sin2 tf> + b2 cos2 tf>)''• •

At the apex</>= 0 there is Nq, = N 0 as explained on p. 25.

1-o----o - - - + - - - o ----1

Fig. 2.5. Ellipsoid as boiler end

Fig. 2.5 shows the distribution of the stress resultants in the shell.
The hoop force changes sign and becomes negative near the equator.
The zero is found where
• A. b
Sln 'f' = --===
Va2- b2
 2.2 AXISY~DIETRIC LOAm; 29

This formula yields a real angle only if afb ~ V2. If the ellipsoid is
flatter than indicated by this ratio of its axes, an equatorial zone exists
where the hoop stress is a compression. The elastic deformation of such
.a shell must be such that the diameter of its border decreases. On the
other hand, the cylindrical part of the boiler has a positive hoop force
N 0 = pa everywhere as we see from (2.9b) by putting r 1 = oo, r 2 =a.
On the parallel circle where the two parts meet, they have quite different
deformations and will not fit together without an additional deformation.
This is furnished by bending stresses, which bend the cylinder inward
and the ellipsoid outward. We shall study them in detail in Chapters 5
.and 6.

2.2.2.3 Pointed Shells

It is not necessary that the meridian meet the axis of the shell at
.a right angle. If it does not, a shell with a pointed apex results. Such
shells have some peculiarities which we shall now study in a typical
example. The meridian of the dome, Fig. 2.6, is a circle whose center
does not lie on the axis of revolution. Although the radius of curvature
r1 = a of the meridian is a constant, the radius of transversal curvature
is variable:
r2 = si~ 4> = a ( 1 - ~:~) .
We ask for the stress resultants produced by the weight of the structure,
.assuming a constant wall thickness. The load is then given by (2.13). We
find N• from (2.10) and avoid the determination of the constant C
from a boundary condition by using the mechanical interpretation of
this formula, writing the integral between the limits cf>o and cf> anu
dropping C:

N• ='- (. 4> p_a cf>) sm

•
. 4> /(sine/>- sincf> 0 )dcf>
Rill -Sill

••
0

(coscf> 0 - cos4>)- (cf>- 4>0 )sin4> 0

= -pn (sin4>- sin4>0 )sin4> •

The hoop force then follows from (2.9 b):

pa . . .
No = - sin2 cf> I (cf> - cf>o) sm c/> 0 - (cos c/> 0 - cos cf>) +
+ (sin cf> - sin c/> 0 ) cos cf> sin cf> J •
At the vertex cf> = cf>o these formulas yield N 0 = 0, but N• becomes
indefinite. We find in the usual way by differentiating the numerator
and denominator that N • also becomes zero. The stress distribution is
shown in Fig. 2.6.
30 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

In the limiting case c/>0 = 0 the ogival dome becomes a sphere,

and the preceding formulas give the stress resultants of a spherical
dome. In this limiting case N+ and N 8 are uo longer zero at the top.
One may easily see from Fig. 2.6, how the limiting case is approached
when c/>0 -+ 0: For very small values of c/> 0 , the normal forces rise rather

0.742po -0.899po

Fig. 2.6. Oglval shell Force diagrams for +o - to•

suddenly from zero to approximately - paf2. Such a sudden local

change of the stress resultants sometimes occurs in membrane theory
formulas, but it does not represent a physical reality. It would lead
to almost discontinuous deformations, and the shell avoids such states
of stress by additional bending stresses, as will be discussed in Chapter 6.

2.2.2.4 Toroidal Shell

A toroid is generated by the rotation of a closed curve about an
axis passing outside. A toroidal shell encloses an annular volume and
may be considered as a pressure vessel. Figs. 2.7 and 2.8 show meridional
~:~ections of two typical cases.

Figs. 2. 7 and 2.8. Toroidal shells

 2.2 AXISYlHlHETRIC LOADS 31
The shell, Fig. 2.7, may be cut in two parts as indicated by the broken
line. The meridian of each part begins and ends with a horizontal tan-
gent. Therefore, the meridional forces acting at each edge do not have
a vertical component and cannot transmit any vertical force from one
half of the shell to the other. Now, when the shell is filled with gas
of pressure p, this pressure has a downward resultant on the inner half
and an upward resultant of the same magnitude on the outer halL
and neither part can be in equilibrium under the action of the pressure
p and the forces on its edges. It follows that a membrane stress system
with finite values N .p, N 0 is not possible in this shell under this load.
This difficulty disappears when the two top circles have the same
radius, e.g. when the meridian of the shell is a circle (Fig. 2.8). Then (2.10)
gives with P.p = 0, p,. = P:

N.p = ( . </>paR) . </> [j(a sin<f>

asm + sm + R) cos<f> d<f> + G]

= (a sin</>:\) sin</> [- : (cos 2 <f>- sin 2 <f>) + Rsin<f> + c],

and here we can determine G so that the singularities at <f> = 0 and at
4>= n disappear simultaneously. This yields

N.p = asm. ~a+ R ( : ~

sin 4> + R) ,
However, this solution also cannot be realized in the vicinity of the
top and bottom circles without additional bending, because it again
leads to an incompatibility of deformations which we shall discuss on
p.94.

2.2.2.5 Tanks
Our next example we choose in the domain of steel tanks. Fig. ~-9
shows a spherical tank, as used for storing water or gas. It is a complete
sphere, supported along one of its parallel circles, AA. The essential
load for a water tank is the pressure of the water (specific weight y).
It is normal to the shell (P.p = 0) and proportional to the depth. If the
tank is completely filled, we have

p,. = y a (1 - cos 4>) .

By a simple integration, we find from (2.10) the meridional force

N.p = :~~'Y [j'(1- cos<f>) cos<f>sin<f>d<f> + c]

sm
ya2
= 6~
sm 'Y
[(2cos<f>- 3) cos 2 <f> + 60].
32 CH.\P. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

At the vertex cJ> = 0 the denominator vanishes. To obtain a finite value

of N.; the factor in brackets must also become zero. This leads to C = 1 j6,
and after some simple transformation we find
ya 2 1 - coscf>
~V.;= - 6 1 cf> (1 + 2 coscj>)
+ cos
and, from (2.9b),
ya 2 1 - coscf>
No=-
6 1 +cos cf>(5+4coscj>).

These formulas are valid above the supporting circle cJ> = c/>0 • In the
lower part of the shell we have to apply another value of C, which
makes N.; finite at cJ> = n. It is C = 5/6 and hence we have
N = y a 2 5 - 5 cos cf> + 2 cos2 cf>
.; 6 1 - coscf> '
V y a 2 1 - 7 cos cf> + 4 cos2 cf>
~ 0 = 6 1 - coscf> ·
The distribution of these forces is shown in Fig. 2.9.

l''iJ.C. :!.U. Spherical water tank; support at <i'o = 1:!0°

The location of the supporting circle does not influence the two
values of C. If we give it a higher or lower position, only the domains
of validity of the two pairs of formulas are changed·. The corresponding
changes in the stress resultants are indicated by dotted lines in Fig. 2.9.
They show that a position of the support below cJ> = 120° leads to com-
pressive forces in the meridian, which in a thin-walled structure like
this one should be avoided, and that a higher position cuts off the peak
value of N 8 which determines the wall thickness, but of course it leads
to a larger and more expensive support.
 2.2 AXISYl\DIETRIC LOADS 33

At the supporting ring both stress resultants change their values

discontinuously. The difference of the meridional forces is a load applied
to the ring. We resolve it into a vertical component
2ya 2
3 sin cp0 '

directed downward, which the ring must pass to its numerous supports
by bending and torsion, and into a horizontal component
2 y a2 cotcp0
-3- sincp0 '

which is a radial load applied to the ring, producing in it a compressive

hoop stress.
Here we have again a case in which the direct stresses lead to a
deformation which is incompatible with the continuity of the structure .
.-\. discontinuity in the hoop force means a discontinuity of the elastic
extension of the parallel circles. A membrane-stress system which avoids
this discrepancy cannot exist, since we have already used all available
constants to fulfill other, more important conditions. The continuity of
deformations can be re-established only by an additional bending of
the border zones of both halves of the shell, and again we have to refer
to the treatment of this problem in Chapter 6 .
.-\. similar disturbance, but of greater intensity, is caused by the
connection of the shell to the supporting ring, if this is supported by
vertical forces, as shown in Fig. 2.9. Then the ring is subject to compres-

Fig. 2.1 0. Spherical tank

bottom

sive stresses which fit the positive hoop stresses in both parts of the
shell even more poorly than these fit each other. For this reason it is
preferable to support the ring by inclined bars, tangential to the me-
ridians of the shell, or even by a conical steel plate. Then the ring is
relieved of its hoop stress and causes less disturbance of the membrane
forces of the shell.
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 3
34 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

If we change the formula for p,. slightly, writing

p,. = -y(h1 +a- a cos</>),
we may obtain the membrane forces in a spherical tank bottom such
as that shown in Fig. 2.10. The evaluation of the integral (2.10) and
subsequent application of (2.9b) yield

These are both compressive forces, and at the edge of the shell there
must be a ring to take care of the horizontal component of the meridional
force N.;.
Another kind of tank bottom which is of practical interest is shown
in Fig. 2.11 a. It is the lower half of an ellipsoid of revolution. Some
formulas concerning its geometry have already been given on p. 28. We
add here .the relation

The load on the shell is p,. = y (h + z). When this is introduced into the
integral (2.10), a somewhat lengthy integration must be performed. It
remains, however, within the domain of elementary functions and yields
finally

This may be introduced into (2.9b). It is not of much use to do this

in general terms, since a rather clumsy formula would result. ·we prefer
to write simply

N 6 =- ya 2 (h + z) -
n 2 sin2 <f> + b2 cos 2 <f> N ..
(a2 sin2 <f> + b2 cos 2 <f>)''• b2 .,.

and to use this formula for numerical work.

At the bottom of the tank,</>= 180°, we obtain ·

At the edge, </> = 90°, the meridional force is

 2.2 AXISYMMETRIC LOADS 35
This force transmits the whole water weight to the cylindrical wall. We
shall see on p. 184 how it may be transferred from there to a support.
The hoop force at cJ> = 90° is
N8 = :; [3 h (2 b2 - a2) - 2 b cz2] .

If b > af ~ 2, this may be positive when h is large enough, but it al-

ways becomes negative when the water level in the tank is lowered. If
b < af ji2, the hoop force at the edge of the bottom is always a com-
pression, independent of h.
For a tank bottom with h = 1.5a, b = 0.6a the stress resultants are
plotted in Fig. 2.11 b over the horizontal projection of the meridian.

(b)
Fig. 2.11. Ellipsol<i :ts tunk bottom, (a) tank, (b) tank hottom und stress resultunts

The figure illustrates that N.; = N 8 at the center and that the hoop-
force changes sign near the edge of the shell. The greatest compressive
force is slightly more than one half of the greatest tension.

2.2.2.6 Conical Shell

In conical shells, the slope angle cJ> is a constant and can no longer
serve as a coordinate on the meridian. We replace it by the arc length 8,.
measured from the top of the cone (Fig. 2.12). Accordingly, we have to·

use (2.7a-c). Simplifying them for axial symmetry and putting cJ> = ot:,
r = 8 cosa, r 1 = oo, r 2 = 8 cota, we find from them the following set:
d
d8 (N,8)-Na=- p 8 8, N 8 =p,8cotot:. (2.17)

3*
36 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

The second of these equations yields N 0 immediately, as a function of

the local intensity of the normal load, there being no chance of adapting
it to a boundary condition. A similar situation exists in cylindrical
shells, and we shall discuss its consequences in Chapter 3 in complete
detail.
By simple addition of both our equations we obtain a first-order
differential equation for N.:
d
ds (N 8 8) = - (Ps- p, cot C() 8,

from which we find the meridional force by simple integration:

N.=-_..!_
8
j(p.- Pr cota)8d8. (2.18)

As an example we consider a mushroomlike shelter as shown in

Fig. 2.13. The weight p of the shell has the components

p, = p sinoc, Pr = - p COSOC.
We find
N0 = - p8 cosoc cotoc
and
1 p s C 2
N
•
=---.--+-.
ssma2 s

At the free edges= l of the roof, this must give zero, whence C = pl2/(2sinoc),
which gives
pZ2-s2
N=---
·' 2 ssina ·
Fig. 2.13 illustrates this result. At the top 8 = 0 the meridional force

6pl

Fig. 2.13. Conical shell

roof

becomes infinite of the first order, as we must expect at a point support.

It may easily be checked that the vertical resultant of the forces N,
transmitted in a parallel circle approaches the total load of the shell,
when that circle is contracted into the point s = 0.
 2.2 AXISYMMETRIC LOADS 37
If the shell is not supported at the center but along the edge, the
hoop force Ne will be the same, but in the general expression for N,
the value of the constant must be chosen 0 = 0 to make the meridional
force finite at 8 = 0. This yielclli
N - - _1!_!!___
s- 2sina·
Of course, the support must be adequate to resist the thrust of the shell.
If it can resist only vertical forces, a pure direct stress system is not
possible in the shell, and the additional bending will be of such magnitude
that it upsets the stress system thoroughly in the border zone.

---- ----
---~----1
·-·--~-~--

I h2 p

"
/

vr-----
., ' /

Fig. 2.14. lXTZE tank bottom

·when we assume all distributed loads to be zero, the hoop force

will also be zero, and there remains the homogeneous solution
c
N..=--s·
It corresponds to a concentrated force applied at the top of the cone
in the direction of its axis. Its magnitude is
P = On sin2ex,
as may be found by integrating the vertical component of N, along an
arbitrary parallel circle.
For the bottom of elevated water tanks, a conical and a spherical
shell are often combined as shown in Fig. 2.14 (INTZE tank). The solution
for the spherical part is given on p. 34. For the cone we have with
Ps = 0, p, = y (h 2 - 8 sin ex)
the stress resultants
Ne= Y8 (-/!:L- 8) cos ex,
BID IX

N.= i' cota (j(h 2

8
- 8 sin ex) 8 d8 + 0].
38 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

The constant follows from a condition at the outer edge s = l of the

cone. From the weight of the cylindrical wall of the tank and from
loads which may be applied to it, there will be a vertical load, say P,
per unit of circumference. Since the cone can absorb forces only in the
direction of its generators, a ring must be provided. It receives a radial
load P cot<X, producing the hoop force
F = Pl cos<X cot<X.
The cone receives the component Pfsin<X, and the boundary condition
is therefore N. = - Pjsin<X. This determines C and then
ycota . Pl
N, = - 6- [2([3- s 3 ) smel- 3h 2 (l2- s2)]- - . - .
8 8 sma:

Where the conical and spherical parts of the bottom meet, a ring
must be provided which resists the difference of the horizontal com-
ponents of the meridional forces N., in the cone and N ~ in the sphere.
This ring may be omitted or reduced to what is needed for structural
purposes, if the dimensions of the shells are so chosen that the thrusts
of cone and sphere balance each other. This condition can, of course,
be fulfilled only for a certain load, e.g. that one belonging to the highest
water level in the tank.

2.3 Shells of Constant Strength

A shell dome looks almost like a three-dimensional arch structure.
This raises the question whether or not for a given load there also exists
a best shape, analogous to the funicular curve for the arch.
This question shows plainly the fundamental difference between the
shell and the arch. Only an arch shaped like the funicular curve is free
from bending moments; any other one needs them for its equilibrium.
Exactly the contrary is true for a shell dome. We have seen how we
can have equilibrium without bending in almost any shell for almost
any load, and the additional bending which occurs in boundary zones
is of about the same importance as the bending moments in a statically
indeterminate funicular arch.
From this situation it follows that we can ask for more than absence
of bending. We can try to find a shape of the shell such that the mem-
brane stress a has the same magnitude at every point and in every
direction.
As a problem of this type we determine the shape of a dome which
has to carry its own weight. The problem is a simple one if the dome
consists of a plain concrete shell without additional dead load. Then
 2.3 SHELLS OF CONSTA~T STRE~GTH 39
if y is the specific weight of the concrete, the load per unit area of the
surface is
p~ = yt sine[>, p,. = - 'i'l coscf>.
Introducing this into (2.9b) and putting
N~=N 8 =-at

(here a is considered positive when it is a compression, contrary to our

usual convention), we get

C1 t (_!_
rl
+ _!_)
ra
= y t cos cf> (2.19)

and resolving with respect to r 1 :

r
r1 = (y/a)rcosq,- sinrp ·

By means of the geometric relation (2.4a) this may be transformed into

a simple differential equation for r (cf>) or, better, for cf> (r):

(2.20)

It may be solved by numerical integration, beginning at the apex. There

we have r1 = r 2 , and hence from (2.19) and (2.4a):
drp y
dr =~=211·

We see that there is only one parameter, afy. It has the dimension of
a length and determines the size of the shell. When we have found r
as a function of cf>, we determine the meridian in cartesian coordinates
by a simple quadrature:

z = J tancf> dr.
The wall thickness follows from (2.9a), which here assumes the form

and yields
clt y dr
drf> = r; t tan cf> • dq, •
This equation has a simple solution, when we transform it to rectangular
coordinates r, z. We have
d d . ,1.. d dr
drp = rl da = rl sm.,. dz' -=cote[>
dz
40 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

and therefore

which is solved by
')'Z
t = t0 exp (i.

The solution is represented in Fig. 2.15. The shell may be extended to

greater angles </>, but then the exponential growth oft leads to structures
which soon cease to be thin-walled and probably are beyond the sphere
of technical interest.

Fig. 2.15. Dome of

constant strength

For domes of usual sizes, the problem of a shell of constant stress is

of no practical importance, because shells of any reasonable shape will
have direct stresses far below the admissible limit. But we see, for
example, from (2.14) for a spherical dome, that the stress resultants

Fig. 2.16. Domes of constant strength with skylight

are proportional to pa; therefore the stresses caused by the weight of

the shell are proportional to ya. This indicates that they increase in
proportion to the diameter of the dome, independently of the wall
thickness. Therefore, for every shape of the shell there exists a certain
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYJ\ThiETRY 41

size beyond which it can no longer be built in a material of a given ajy,

and the shell of constant stress is that which allows the biggest dome.
Usually a large dome will have an opening at the top. We may use
the previous solution also in this case, if we choose the thickness t so
that Nq, =-at, together with a compression ring, will be capable of
carrying the loads applied at the upper edge. But this is not the most
general solution for a dome having an opening. 'Ve find it by numerical
integration of (2.20), beginning at the edge r = b with an arbitrary
value cp = cp0 • This means that we have two parameters and hence a
greater variety of shapes. If we choose cp0 = 0, we find a dome such
as that in Fig. 2.16a, which abuts against a ring having the compressive
force atb. To avoid a local disturbance, its cross section must have the
area tb and it will be quite heavy. To carry its weight, we must choose
cp 0 > 0. Among these solutions is the one which we obtained for the
closed shell. If we choose cp 0 so that
tancp 0 y
-.b-=a
the meridian begins with a point of inflection, and for still greater values
of cp 0 we come to shapes as indicated by Fig. 2.16d.

2.4 Loads without Axial Symmetry

2.!.1 General Equations
We shall now drop the assumption that all loads and stress resultants.
are independent of the coordinate 0. The equations (2.6a-c) have already
been established for the general case. Since one of them, (2.6c), contains
no derivatives, we use it to eliminate N 0 from the other two. Making
use of the geometrical relations (2.1) and (2.5), we obtain the following
set:

aNq, . aNq, •
+ h + r 2) Nq, coscp + r 1 -----a&= -
0
r 2 a;j; smcp r 1 r 2 (pq, smcp- p, cos cp),
(2.21)

We might go one step further and eliminate Nq,o· This would lead to
a second-order differential equation for Nq,. We shall come back to this
on p. 72 and we shall see then that important conclusions may be drawn
from this equation. But for the present purpose it is simpler to use the
system (2.21 ).
42 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

If the load components P.;, p6 , p,. are arbitrary functions of </>, 8,

they may always be represented in the form

P<t> = J: P<t>n cosn8 + J: ·fi<t>,.sinn8, l

I
00 00
0 1

J: Pon sin n 8 + J: fion cos n 8,

()() 00

Po = (2.22)
1 0
J:0 p,. ncos n 8 --'-- J:1 Pr n sin n 8 ,
?0 00

Pr =

where P<t>n ... p,.,. are functions of</> only. The first of the two sums in
every line represents that part of the load which is symmetric with
respect to the plane of the meridian 8 = 0 and the second sum represents
the antimetric part.
To find the solution of the differential equations (2.21) which cor-
responds to such a load, we pick out one of the terms, say

P.; = P<t> n cos n 0 , p 6 = p 0 n sin n () , p,=p,.,.cosn8 (2.23)

for a fixed but arbitrary integer n. Evidently, the solution may be

written in the form

No=N 0 ,.eosn8, (2.24)

where N.;,., N 0 ,., N.;on also are functions of</> only. How to find them
will be the principal object of this section. Then the general solution
for a load which is symmetric with respect to the meridian will be

J: No ,. cos n 8 ,
00 00

No ~= N.;o=J: N<t>onsinn8,
u 1
(2.25)
and the antimetric part may be found in a similar way.
Now let us introduce (2.23) and (2.24) into the differential equa-
tions (2.21). If we do so, we can perform the differentiations with respect
to 8 and then drop a common factor cosn() or sin nO from each equation.
The result is t.he following set of equations:

dN<t>n
-d-~.
rl) N4> 11 cotcf>+n----:-----:i:=r
+ (. 1 +- r, N.;on
1 (-p.;,.+p,,.cotcp),
'+' r2 r2 sm'+'
(2.26)

They are the basic equations of our problem.

 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYMMETRY 43

2.!.2 Spherical Shell

2.4.2.1 General Solution
Besides the circular cylinder, which we shall treat in the next chapter
with different methods, the sphere is the simplest of all shells of revolu-
tion. It therefore yields especially simple results in finite form. They
.are a good object for a study of the typical phenomena, which we shall
meet again in other shells but then only as the results of lengthy numer-
ical computations.
With r 1 = r 2 = a the left-hand sides (2.26) become very similar to
each other:
dN+n n
(l;j;" + 2cot<f> · N+n + sin4l N+on =a (- P+n +cot</>· Prn),

dN+On n ( n )
~ + 2 cot</>· N+on + sin4l N+n =a .- Pon + sin4l Prn ·

Their sum and their difference are two independent equations for the
sum and the difference of the stress resultants,
(2.27)
namely:

~~~ + ( 2 cot</>+ si:4~) U =a (- Pon- P+n + n ~inc:s4l Prn),

(2.28a, b)
~; + (2 cot</>- si:4~) V= a (Pon- P+n- n :::s4i Pr .. ).

Both are linear differential equations of the first order. Now it is well
known that the equation
dU
d4i + p(</>). u + q(</>) = 0

has the general solution

U = [0- J qexp(f pd<f>)d<f>] ·exp(- J pd<f>).

Applying this formula to (2.28a, b), we find the following explicit solu-
tion:
U _ cotn41/2 [A
- sin24~ "-a
/ ( P+n + Pon- n +
sin4l . 2 ..1.
· ) sm
cos4l Prn , 41 d..l.]
'I' tan 2 .,.. ,

V= t:;~!~2 [B,- a J( P+n- Pon + n :nc:s4~ Prn) sin2 </> cot" : d<f>] .
(2.29a, b)
These two formulas are the general solution for the sphere, which we
shall now discuss.
44 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

2.4.2.2 Distributed Load

As an example of the application of the general solution (2.29) we
treat a shell dome subject to a wind load. It has become more or less.
customary to represent such a load as
Pr = Prt cos()= - p sin<[> cos(). (2.30)·
This is certainly a somewhat rough approximation, but at least it has.
the advantage of acknowledging the existence of a large suction on the
lee side of the building. Therefore, the pressure p in (2.30) should be
assumed as one half of the normal pressure given by the building codes.
for a surface at right angles to the wind.
If we introduce p, 1 = - p sin<[> into (2.29) and perform the in-·
tegrations, we find

U = 1 ;n~~s<f> (A 1 + pa (cos<[>- ! cos 3 <[>)],

V= 1 :n~:<I>(B1 -pa(cos<f>-! cos <f>)]· 3

From this we obtain N ~ and N ~ 8 as half the sum and half the difference,.
multiplied by a factor cos() or sin():

N~ = 8: : : (A 1 ; B1 ..1. A1 ; B 1 cos<[>+ pa ( cos 2 </>- ! cos4 <f>)],

sin8<I>
N ~9 = sina [.4
-
1 -
2-
A1 + B1
B 1 + -~cos.,..
"'-
+ p a ( cos.,.."'- - 31 cos3 .,..
"')]
.

The two constants A1 , B 1 may be determined from the condition that

the stress resultants assume finite values at <[> = 0. Since the denomi-
nator sin3 </> has a zero of the third order, the brackets must also have
one. The bracket for N~ will be zero, if we put A 1 = -~pa. From N~ 8 .
comes the same result. The first derivatives of both brackets vanish with
any choice of the constants. Vanishing of the second derivatives gives.
two equations for B1 which have the identical solution B1 = + ~pa.
\Vhen we introduce these values into the solution and determine the
hoop force from (2.6c), we have the complete solution of our problem::
N = _pa (2 + cos<f>)(1- cos<f>)cos<f>cosO
~ 3 (1 + cos<f>) sin<f> '
N pa (2 + cos<f>) (1 -cos</>) . O (2.31)·
1 ~IJ = - 3 (1 + cos<f>) sin</> sm '
N = _ pa (3 + 4 cos</>+ 2 cos2 </>) (t -cos</>) cos().
8 3 (1 + cos<f>) sin</>
The distribution of these forces over the meridian is represented in,
Fig. 2.17.
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SY:\ThiETRY 45

The dome is supported by the forces N.p and N.po appearing at the
springing line. The normal forces N <P have to equilibrate the moment of
the wind loads with respect to the diameter () = ± n/2 of the springing
line. If the shell happens to be a hemisphere, this moment is zero,

-0.667 pa -pa

Fig. 2.17. Spherical dome; stress rPsultants for wiiHI load

because all external forces pass through the center of the sphere and
hence through the axis of reference. That is the reason that we have
N <P = 0 at cf> = nf2.
The shearing fdrces N.po at the springing line resist the horizontal
resultant of the wind forces in so far as it is not resisted by the horizontal
components of the meridional forces. They are tangential to the edge
of the shell and therefore greatest at those places where the latter is

Fig. 2.18. Spherical dome;

stress trajectories for wind load

~·90'

parallel to the direction of the wind, i.e., at () = ± n/2, although the

load there is smallest. In other words, the shell carries the loads from
those zones where they are applied (near () = 0 and () = n) to the sides.
This may be recognized very clearly in a picture of the stress trajectories
which in Fig. 2.18 are shown in stereographic projection for a hemisphere.
All trajectories which meet the windward meridian () = 0 have com-
pressive forces; the others have tensile forces. On the wind side, near
the springing line, the tension trajectories have almost zero force, since
46 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

N+ = 0 there. The loads which are applied there are carried away by
the vaultlike compressive trajectories toward the sides of the shelL
Thus most of the wind pressure is brought to the springing zone lying
on both sides between (J = ± n/4 and (J = ± 3nf4. The same thing happens
to the suction in the lee except that there the tension trajectories do
the job as though they were funicular curves. Those loads which are
applied in the vicinity of the vertex are first carried by the trajectories
with great curvature but soon are transferred to those of the other
group, which finally bring them down to the sides of the shell.
The so-called wind load, which we have used here, may be subject
to much criticism from an aerodynamic point of view. The formula (2.30)
certainly comes nearer to the truth than most building codes of many
countries, which recognize only a pressure on the windward side and
ignore the suction. For a hemisphere the pressure distribution should
preferably have an axial symmetry to the horizontal diameter parallel
to the wind. Such a load distribution, as might be measured in a wind
tunnel, may always be represented in the form
00

p,. (</>, 0)
Prn (</>) cosn 0.
= ~
n=O
To determine the functions Prn(<f>), we only have to subject the values
on different parallel circles <P = const. to a harmonic analysis and then
collect the numerical values of the n-th FouRIER coefficient on different
parallel circles as a tabular representation of the function Prn(<f>).
Introducing it into (2.29) leads to N+n and N+lln• and if we have made
the computation for as many values n as are necessary for convergence,
the series (2.25) give the stress resultants N+, N 0 , N+o·

2.4.2.3 Edge Load

Let us now consider the homogeneous solution, i.e., that part of
=
(2.29a, b) which remains when we put P+ p 0 == p,. == 0. It describes the
stress resultants in a shell to which loads are applied only at the edges
or, perhaps, at the points <P = 0 and <P = n. 'Ve need it to adapt partic-
ular solutions of the inhomogeneous equations to given boundary con-
ditions or to eliminate a singularity from them. We shall study it here
in some detail and then apply it to cases where the distributed load
has axial symmetry but the boundary conditions have not.
If in (2.29) we drop all terms containing P+n• p 011 , p,., and deter-
mine N 0 from (2.6c), we have

N +n = - N 811 -- __!_ _j_

1- (A c t" .!._ _j_ B tan"
2 ( U . V) -- -2 sin2<J> " 0 2 ' " .!..)
2 ,
(2.32)
- 21 ( [! - V) -- 2 sin2
.I.N+On -
1 · (A
4> 11 co
t" 24> - B 11 t an" 24> ) .
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SY:\GUETRY 4i
The solution consists of two independent parts, with the arbitrary
factors A, and Bn.
We see at once that the case n = 1 must be treated separately,
because there both solutions are infinite at both poles </> = 0 and </> = n,
whereas for n ~ 2 the numerator has a zero of sufficient order to keep
the A solution finite (or even zero) at </> = n and the B solution at
</> = 0.
For n = 1 we have
;v
l'iq,
;u cos ()
= - "vo = 2 sin2 c/>
(A 1
c/>
cot-2 +
B tan 2 ,,
1
c/> )

(2.3:3)
•
=" . sin() ( . cl> cl>)
1Vq, 0 ~mn
2 ,~. A 1 cot~- B 1 tan~ ,
o/ ~ ~

To find out what the singularity at </> = 0 is like, we cut it out by an

adjacent parallel circle </> = const. ""' 0 (Fig. 2.19). The forces which act
on the small spherical segment that we have cut off are the stress re-
sultants Nq, and Nq,o and, possibly, an external force acting at the
pole.

~
N.,.ll./ I
f--a sin.p q,Y I
I I
I I
I ·-:.---1---. I
Fi~. 2.tn. Spherical cap ~~(J
9y-?''
I

The stress resultants have the resultant (positive to the left)

2n 2~

j N q, cos</> · cos 8 ·a sin</> d& - j N q, 0 ·sin-& ·a sin</> d&

0 0

and a resulting moment with respect to the diameter e= ± n/2 of the

circular edge :
2n
j N q, sin</> · a sin</> cos & · a sin</> d& .
0
48 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

With N.;= N.; 1 cos{) andN.; 8 = N.; 01 sin{) the integrals may be evaluated,
and if we now go to the limit cf> = 0, we find the external actions which
must be applied to the point cf> = 0 to equilibrate the internal forces.
They are a horizontal force (positive to the right)
P = na lim (N .; 1 cos cf> sine/> - N .; 61 sin cf>) (2.34a)
.;-o
and an external couple (positive as shown in Fig. 2.20)
M = na 2 lim (N.; 1 sin 3 cf>). (2.34 b)
.;-o

Fig. 2.20. t'oncentrated forces

and couples acting at the poles
of !\ spherical she 11

·when we introduce our solution (2.33) into these formulas, we find an

external force

and an external couple

For the other pole of the sphere we apply the same formulas (2.34) and
find the same force P, but in the opposite direction, and a couple
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SY:\Il\IETRY 49
The two forces form a couple too, and we see that the condition of
overall equilibrium
P · 2 a + M1 - M 2 = 0

is always fulfilled, whatever the magnitudes of A 1 and B 1 • If we choose

A 1 = 0, only a force P is applied at cf> = 0, and if we choose A 1 = B 1 ,
there is only a couple, but no choice is possible where there is nothing
at all.
The higher harmonics, n ;G 2, in (2.32) have singularities of a different
type. There is no external force or couple but a rather complex group
of forces having infinite magnitude and canceling each other. ·we shall
not treat these "multipoles" here in detail, since they do not seem to
be of practical interest in the theory of shells.

Fi~:.:!.:!1. ~;d~:e loatl at.

a hemisphel'ical shell

If the shell is not a complete sphere but ends on a parallel circle

cf> = c/>0 , we have for every n ;G 2 one solution (that with Bn) which is
regular at all points: It corresponds to a combined normal and shear
loading of the edge, the ratio of the two parts being fixed by c/>0 and n.
It may be used to find the stress resultants in such cases as the one
illustrated by Fig. 2.21.
This shell is subject to a discontinuous edge load. In four parts of
the circumference it is a compression and on the remainder a tension,
and the intensities of both have been so balanced that the external
forces are in equilibrium. Such forces will occur if the shell rests on
four supports of the angular width 2oc and has to carry the edge load P
Flilgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 4
50 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

between the supports, which, of course, must be tangential to the

sphere.
We develop the edge forces, consisting of the load P and the reaction
-P(n- 4oc)/4oc, in a FoURIER series. Because of the symmetry of the
forces, there will appear only the terms with n = 4, 8, 12, ... ;
2P ""
(N~)edge = ---;_- 1:
11=4, 8, ...
sin n cc
--cosn .
n
()

Now if we drop from (2.32) the part with An and then sum up, we
have
N~ = 28 ~2 cp J; B,. tan": cos nO
n=4,8, ...
and at the edge of the shell this must become equal to the preceding
series. If we assume that, different from Fig. 2.21, this edge is not at
</> = 90°, but at some arbitrary angle </> = </>0 , this will be accomplished
if we choose
B.=_ 4P sinncc sin2 cp0 4 8 12
" cc n tan"c/> 0 /2 n = ' ' '· · ·
We thus arrive at the following solution:
}; ~~ _ N = _ 2P sin2 c/>0 "' sinncc tan"cf>/2 ()
<P 8 cc sin2A. .:;,;
'f' n=-1,8,...
cc t an•A.j?cosn
'f'O-
'
(2.35)

Because of the quotient of the two tangents the series converges better
the farther away we go from the edge. This means that the higher the
order n of a harmonic component, the smaller is the zone in which its
influence is felt. It also means that the discontinuity of the given bound-
ary values of N <P does not involve a discontinuity in the interior of the
shell but that the stress resultants are continuous everywhere except on
the boundary. We shall see on p. 76 that this is not a general rule and
where its limits are.
The solution (2.35) may be combined with that for a distributed
surface load having axial symmetry, for instance with the solution for
the weight of the structure, (2.14). If we then choose P so that on
the edge between the supports the resultant boundaty value of N <P is
zero, we have the stress resultants of a shell dome resting on four sup-
ports of finite width. If there is another number of supports, the only
change in the formulas is that the summation must be extended over
those harmonics which agree with the symmetry of the structure.
Hence, for a shell on six equally spaced supports the harmonics of
orders n = 6, 12, 18, ... have to be considered. A hemispherical dome
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYMMETRY 51
of this kind is shown in Fig. 2.22. The width of the supports is 2a = 12°.
The diagrams give N ~ and N 0 for the meridians through the center
of a support (8 = 0°) and through the center of an opening (8 = 30°).
The high value of N ~ follows simply from the necessity of carrying the

Fig. 2.22. Hemispherical dome on six supports

weight of the shell on a limited part of the edge, and N 0 follows then
from (2.6c). The diagrams show that the edge disturbance caused by
the ~supports goes approximately halfway up the meridian before it
becomes invisibly small. The major part of it comes from the first
harmonic considered, n = 6.
The application of (2.35) to this problem involves the assumption
that the reaction is uniformly distributed over the width of each sup-
port. If one wants to have a more exact force distribution, it is necessary
to solve a statically indeterminate problem, but since this would essen-
tially affect only the higher harmonics which are not of much importance
anyway, this scarcely seems worthwhile.
The complete solution includes, of course, shearing forces N~ 8 • They
are zero on the meridians through the middle of each support and of
each span but not elsewhere. In particular they are different from zero
along the edge. A ring must be provided there to which this shear can
be transmitted. It will be subjected to axial forces and to bending in its
own plane, but it does not need to have bending stiffness in the vertical
direction. Its weight may be supported by the shell, which then receives
additional stresses according to (2.35).
In Fig. 2.23 the stress trajectories are shown for a slightly different
shell. It has only four supports, and their width is zero. Since such
point supports do not occur in a real structure, it is worthwhile to
consider them only if this simplifies the computation. This is not the
case if (2.35) are used, since the FoURIER series converge more slowly
the smaller IX is chosen. But in this case one may use to advantage the
complex-variable approach explained on the following pages.
4*
52 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

The stress trajectories are, of course, lines on the middle surface of

the shell. Fig. 2.23 is a stereographic projection of these lines. This
particular projection was chosen because it preserves the right angles
between the curves. It be may seen in the figure how part of the trajec-

Fig. 2.:!3. Hemisphere on

four point supports;
stress trajectories

tories emanate from the supports, while others leave the free edge at
angles of 45°. At each point of the edge one of these trajectories carries
tension and one compression, since there the shell is in a state of pure
shear.
The trajectories may convey some idea of the stress pattern, but
they may also be misleading. In this particular case they overemphasize
the deviation from perfect axial symmetry in the upper part of the
shell. Since the forces N ~ and N 8 are almost equal there, a rather small
shear N ~ 0 makes the directions of principal stress turn through a large
angle. Therefore one family of trajectories looks like rounded squares
in a region where the stress system is almost exactly that of a con-
tinuously supported dome.
If the vertex of the shell is cut away at the parallel circle </> = </>1 ,
the A,. terms of (2.32) are available to fulfill on this edge an additional
boundary condition, say N ~ = 0. Every pair of constants An, Bn must
then be determined from a pair of linear equations, and this is best
done numerically.
All these solutions yield the desired distribution of the normal
force N ~ at the edge or at the edges: but they yield also shearing forces
N~ 0 , and their distribution is beyond control, since no further free
constants are available. We have to accept them just as they appear
and have to provide a stiffening ring of sufficient strength against
bending in its own plane. This result is not a deficiency of our method
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYl\HHETRY 53

of investigation but corresponds to a real fact. If the ring were missing

and thus absence of shearing forces enforced, no equilibrium of the
internal forces would be possible without bending moments in the shell.
This would mean great stresses and great deformations, the thin-walled
shell itself performing the functions of the stiffening ring.
Stiffening members like this ring are necessary at all free boundaries
of shells. They are the statical equivalent of the geometric fact that
a shell with a free boundary is easily deformable, whereas a closed
surface, e.g. a complete sphere or a shell with fixed edges, has a quite
remarkable rigidity. We shall discuss this in more detail on p. 86.
The preceding treatment of the shell on isolated supports is possible
only if the reactions of these supports are known in advance. This
condition is fulfilled if there are only three supports, which may be
placed arbitrarily, or if the supports are spaced equally and the shell
carries a load which has at least the same degree of symmetry as the
arrangement of the supports. In the first case the distribution of the
load on the supports is statically determinate, in the second it follows
from symmetry. In any other case and also if the width of the individual
support is such that the assumption of uniform distribution of its
reaction over its width is not justified, the problem becomes statically
indeterminate and has to be treated along the lines explained in Sec-
tion 2.5.6.

2.4.2.4 Concentrated Forces and Couples

2.4.2.4.1 Introduction ol Complex Variables. There exists another
way of solving the stress problem for the spherical shell. It avoids the
FoURIER series (2.25) and yields immediate access to a group of singular
solutions describing the effect of a concentrated load at an arbitrary
point of the shell. For this reason we shall explain it here.
We start from (2.21 }, drop the load terms and specialize for the
sphere by putting r 1 = r2 =a:
iJNq, . iJNq,o
~ sm!f> + 2 N q, cos !J> + ----ao
= 0,
iJNq,o . iJNq,
~ Sill 4> + 2 N <I> 8 cos 4> - ----ao = 0 0

After multiplication by sin2!J> these equations may be written m the

following form:

sin!/>· 0~ (Nq, sin 2!/>)+ :o (Nq, sin2!/>)=0,

0

(2.36)
sin!/>·_!_ (Nq, 0 sin2!f>)- _!_ (Nq, sin2!f>) = 0 ·
o<f> ao
 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

This suggests to introduce as unknowns the quantities

NI= N+sin 2</>, N 2 = N+ 6 sin2<f>. (2.37)
In order to remove the factor sin</> before the first term of both equa-
tions (2.36), we introduce also a new independent variable
4>
'TJ= lntan- i} "</> · -
-=sin i}
(2.38)
2 • a11 aq, ·
This transformation may be interpreted as a mapping of the middle
surface of the shell in a 0, 'f} plane (Fig. 2.24). The complete sphere is

(J
0 +.1t

Fig. 2.24. Complex C plane

represented by a strip of horizontal width 2n which in the 'TJ direction

extends both ways to infinity. This mapping is identical with MER·
C.A.TOR's projection and is conformal.
By the transformation (2.37), (2.38) the equations (2.36) become
very simple:
iJNt oNz -0
aq+afJ-'
(2.39)
oN2 _ oNt = O
01J i}(J •

These are the well-known equations of CAUCHY and RIEMANN which

exist between the real and imaginary parts of any analytical function
N =NI+ iN2
of the complex variable
C=O+i'TJ.
We conclude that any such function describes a possible system of
membrane forces in at least a part of the spherical shell. Since our
equations have been established under the assumption that the dis-
= = =
tributed load P+ p 6 p, 0, all these solutions will belong to cases
where loads are applied only to the edge of the shell and, perhaps, as
concentrated forces and couples at singular points of the function N (C).
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SDDIETRY 55
When N (') has the real period 2n, the corresponding membrane
forces have the same period and are single-valued on the whole sphere.
From L:rouviLLE's theorem and the supposed periodicity, it follows
that N has at least one singularity in the strip shaded along its edges
in Fig. 2.24, it may be at infinity. At the corresponding point or points
of the shell a load must be applied which produces the membrane
forces. We shall now consider some solutions of this kind.
2.4.2.4.2 Tangential Point Load. We start with the function

N (') = C cot C ~ Co .

It has singularities at 0 and at '= ' ± ioo. The coiTesponding'=

points on the sphere are the poles cf> = 0, cf> = n and an arbitrary point,
which we may place on the meridian 8 = 0 by putting

' 0 = ir] 0 = i ln tanc/> 0 /2.

The stress resultants follow from N by splitting it into real and
imaginary parts :
N =C sin(} N' __ C Sinh (7] - 7]0 )
1 Cosh (7] - 7] 0 ) - cos 0 ' • 2 - Cosh(7]- 7Jo)- cos(} •

From (2.37), (2.38) and (2.6c) we find then

N' = -N = C sin<f> 0 sin(}
• ~ 0 sin <f> 1 - cos <f>o cos <f> - sin <f>o sin <f> cos (} '
y = _ 0 _1_ cosrp 0 - cos<f>
• ~0 sin2 <f> 1- cos<f> 0 cos<f>- sin<f> 0 sin<f>cos(} ·

At the poles of the sphere the factor sin cf> in the denominators vanishes,
and the second factor does so at the point cf> = cf>o, () = 0. At these three
points the stress resultants assume infinite values, and these singularities
correspond to the application of external forces or couples to the shell.
To determine their magnitude and direction, we use the following
method: By a parallel circle cf> = const. we cut the shell in two parts
(Fig. 2.19) and compute from the forces N ~and N ~ 0 transmitted in this
circle the resultant force and the resultant moment with respect to one
of the poles. Thus we find the loads acting at the poles, and at the third
singular point the load is determined by the overall equilibrium of the
sphere.
From the antimetry of all stress resultants with respect to the me-
ridian 8 = 0 it follows that the resultant force in the section cf> = const.
must be perpendicular to the plane of this meridian. It is
+:l

R= J (N ~cos cf> sin() + N

-:t
</JO cos 8) a sine/> d().
56 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

\Vhen we introduce here the expressions for N4> and N4> 0 , we arrive
after some computation at the following formula
2Ca [ t (coscf>-coscf> )tan8/2JO-+:t
R = 2 :n: 0 aco t '+'o
.J..
+ -.-
smcf>0
arc an
1 - cos(c/> 0 - c/>)
0
0=-:r
.
For 4> < if>o this yields
R = 2 :n:a
O 1 - cos c/> 0
·-~.,
sm't'o
independent of if>, and this is the force which must be applied in the
opposite direction at the pole 4> = 0 of the sphere. When we choose
4> >if>0 , the cosine difference under the arctan changes sign and there-
fore the resultant becomes
1- coscf>
R = -2 :n: 0 a--.-~-0
smc/>0
This is the force which must be applied at the pole 4> = :n: in the direc-
tion shown in Fig. 2.25. The force acting at () = 0, 4> = !f>o must be equal
and opposite in direction to the sum of the two:
2
P = 2 :n: 0 a -.--~.- .
sm't'o

Fig. 2.25. Loads on a spherical

shPII corresponding to solution
(2.40)

This relation allows us to express the constant 0 in terms of the force P.

The stress resultants are then
N = -N = _P_ sin2 c/> 0 sin8 ,
4> 0 4;'fa sine/> 1 - cos cf>o cos cf> - sincp0 sincf> cos 8
(2.40)
N = _P_ sincp0 coscf>- coscf> 0
4>0 4;'f a sin2 cf> 1 - coscf>0 cos cf> - sincp0 sincf> cos 8'

and the corresponding loads are those shown in Fig. 2.25.

 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SDDIETRY 57
The equilibrium of the shell still requires external couples, applied
at the poles and turning about the vertical axis of the sphere. We find
them from the moment of the forces Nq, and Nq,o in Fig. 2.19. It is

M -_ J
+1<

_,
1
• 2..1..de __ -~ · A. [
N q,oa 2 sm 'f' - t· (coscf>- coscf>0 )tan£Jf2J+"
2 :n; Bln'f'o arc ctn 1 - cos ("- "')
'1'0 - 'I' _,

Again this has different values for </> < </>0 and </> > </>0 • In the first case
we have M = + ~ P a sin </> 0 , in the second case M = - ~ P a sin </>0 • This
leads to the external couples shown in Fig. 2.25. It may easily be checked
that there are no external couples about other axes passing through
the poles, and then it follows from the equilibrium of the complete
sphere that the tangential force P is the only load applied at the point
e = 0, </> = <Po.

',v<t>o-j
...... '

-----~+-----
1
'
Fig. 2.26. Loads on a spherical shell I
corresponding to solution (2.~1) ~---•

In a quite similar way the complex function

N(C) = Psincf> 0 icotC- Co

4na 2
may be investigated. It will be found that it belongs to a group of loads
e
situated entirely in the plane of the meridian = 0 and shown in Fig. 2.26.
The corresponding stress resultants are
N = -N = _P_ sincf> 0 coscf> 0 - coscf>
</> 0 4n a sin 2 cf> 1 - cos cf>0 cos cf> - sin c/> 0 sin cf> cos (J '
(2.41)
N = _P_ sin2 cf> 0 sin(}
</> 0 4 n a sin cf> 1 - cos cf>o cos cf> - sin c/>0 sin cf> cos (J

2.4.2.4.3 Normal Point Load. The solution for a load P normal to

the shell (Fig. 2.27) must have a stronger singularity. We might easily
58 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

establish such a function N (C) and then go through all the formalities
just described to find the constant factor C and the reactions at the
poles. But we have an easier approach, using the solution (2.41). Fig.2.28
shows two forces P' acting at adjacent points of the meridian 0 = 0.
If we now write P'N' (C; </>0 ) for the function N (C) corresponding to
Fig. 2.26, the function corresponding to Fig. 2.28 will be

N (C)= P' N' (C; </> 0 ) - P' N' (C; </>o + L1 </>o).

'\
',v.,.o-1' ' ' ' ' <P.i.
---~~+----- --~~-----
1

}'ig. 2.2i. Loads on a spherical shell corre- Fig. 2.28. Concentrated forces applied at two
sponding to solution (2.42) adjacent points of a meridian

If Ll</>0 is small, the stress resultants in most parts of the shell will not
be much different from those produced by the resultant of the two
forces P', a force
p = P' L1 <Po'

applied halfway between them, and this becomes exact for the whole
sphere if we go to the limit Ll</>0 -+ 0 with finite resultant P. In this case
we may write

N(r) = -P'dN'(C; <Po) LJA. = _pdN'(C; ,P 0)

." d<Po '1'0 d<Po •

Introducing the expression for N', we obtain

N (~,)
r P (. 2 . 2C-
= 4na ,~.
1 Co ~cos'l'ocot-2-
· C- Co)
sm-2-
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYl\U!ETRY 59
.and consequently

N = -N = __P_ [ coscp0 (coscp0 - coscp)

~ 8 4 n a sin2 cp (1 - cos c/>0 cos cp - sin c/>0 sin cp cos fJ)
sincp0 (1- coscf>0 coscf>)cosfJ- sincf>0 sincf>]
+ sincf> (1-coscf>0 coscf>-sincf>0 sincf>cosfJ)2 '

(2.42)
N = __P_ sincf>0 sin(J [ coscf> 0
.;o 4na sincf> 1- coscp0 coscf>- sincf>0 sincf>cosfJ
coscf>0 - coscf> ]
+ (1- coscf>0 coscf>- sincf>0 sincf>cosfJ)2 •

The reactions at the poles follow from Fig. 2.26 by differentiating with
respect to </>0 and changing signs. The whole load system is situated in
the plane of the meridian()= 0 and is shown in Fig. 2.27.
2.4.2.4.4 Gas Tank on Point Supports. The formulas given on the
preceding pages have many useful applications. One of them is illus-
trated by Fig. 2.29. This spherical gasholder is supported by six bars,
which are situated in planes tangential to the middle surface of the

~----2o------~

Fig. 2.29. Spherical gas tank

shell. Since the internal pressure of the gas is a self-equilibrating load

system, the bars receive forces only from the weight of the shell and
from the wind load. Since the support is statically determinate, these
forces may, in any case, be found without recourse to shell theory, and
then we may apply the preceding formulas to study their influence on
the stresses in the shell.
We shall show this here in some detail for the weight of the shell.
The forces of two bars meeting at one point may be combined to form
a resultant which, for vertical load, lies in the plane of a meridian.
60 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

Let p be the weight of the shell per unit area of its middle surface, then
each of these forces will be
p = 4:rpa 2
3sincf>0 •
We choose their meridians to be()= 0 and()=± 120°.
We now consider a shell with two fictitious supports at the poles
and apply to it the three forces P and the distributed load p. For the
load P in the meridian()= 0 the stress resultants are given by (2.41).
For the other two loads P we find them from the same formulas by
simply replacing () by ()- 120° or () + 120°, respectively. The corre-
sponding reactions at each pole consist of three horizontal forces can-
celing each other and of three vertical forces which add up to

3· ~ Psinc/>0 = 2npa 2 •

On both poles together they are equal to the weight of the shell. When
we now determine the forces due the load p from the integral (2.10), we
must choose the constant C so that these reactions at the poles are
compensated. This leads to
• coscf> N __ , (1 + sin2 cf>) coscf>
l:V+=pa~, sm.,.. o- pa sin2cf> '
The combination of all these solutions looks for N+ like this:
coscf> , pa
N+ = pa sin2cf> -:- 3sin2cf> (coscf>o- coscf>)

X [1 - cos cf> 0 cos cf> ~ sincf> sincf> cos 8

0
1
+ 1- coscf>0 coscf>- sincf>0 sincf>cos(8- 120°)
+ 1- coscf>0 coscf>- sin1cf>0 sincf>cos(8 + 120°)] ·
As it is, this formula is not fit for numerical evaluation, because each
of its four terms has a strong singularity at each pole, while the sum
is regular. We m~st, therefore, reduce it to a more reasonable appearance.
This is a rather tedious procedure and leads to the following result:

N + = pLia rcos c/>0 (3 + cos 2 c/>0 ) ( 1 + cos 2 cf>) - 2 (1 + 3 cos 2 c/>0 ) cos c/>
- sin3 c/> 0 sin cf> cos cf> cos 3 () j .
N 8 = - pLia rcos c/>0 (3 + cos 2 c/>0 ) (1 - 2 cos 2 c/>- cos 4 c/>)
- (1 + 3 cos2 c/>0 ) (1 - 3 cos2 c/>) cos cf>
- (1 + sin2cf>)sin3 cf>0 sincf>coscf>cos30J.
N +O = pLia sin3 c/>0 sine/> sin3 (),
 2.4 LO.\DS WITHOUT AXIAL SnHIETRY 61
with
J = (1 - coscf> 0 coscf>)[4 (cosc/> 0 - cosc/>) 2 + sin2 cf> 0 sin2 cf>j
- sin3 c/> 0 sin 3 cf> cos 3 (J •
From these formulas some diagrams have been computed which are
shown in Fig. 2.30. They may give an idea of the distribution of internal
forces in this case.

__ r-TI _____ _j-1l

N; N;
(9=60°} (IJ=Ool

JEl 2

0.4 4
N;sfpo N; 8 /po
(•=90°) (•=120°)
0.2 2

IJ IJ
0
20° 40° 60° oo 20° 40° 60°

Fig. 2.30. Diagrams for stress resultnnts in a spherical gas tank

2.4.3 Conical Shell

2.4.3.1 General Solution
For a conical shell (Fig. 2.12) we saw on p. 35, that we have to start
from (2.7) which, with r = 8 cosa, r 1 = oo and r 2 = 8 cota assume the
following form:
d(N,s) 0 (JN, 1
-- -
08 + - - cos-0: - N 0 + p8=0
()(} - s '

o(N, 8 8) a~v 0 1 (2.43a-c)

-"--+;,
u8 u0
--+Nso+
COS 0:
Po8=0,
N 0 = p,8cot x.
62 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

Again introducing the loads and the stress resultants in the form (2.23),
(2.24), we find the n-th harmonic of the hoop force N 0 ,. immediately
from (2.43c):
Non= p,.,.scot:t:,
independent of all boundary conditions, and we can eliminate it at
once from (2.43a, b), which then read
dN,. 1 N n N t
----aB+ 81 ., + scoscc sOn= -p.,. + p,.,.co :t:'
(2,44a, b)
n
= -Pon + p,,. since·
These are two ordinary differential equations for N,n and Nson• which
may be solved one after the other. Equation (2.44b) contains only the
shear, and by applying the general formula mentioned on p. 43, we have

Naon = -exp (- J 2 :~) {f[(Pon- p,., si: cc) exp j 2; 8

] ds -A,}
=- J. {ji(Po
8"
11 - Pru --:'smcc
!----) s 2 l.
ds- A, 1 (2.45a)

Introducing this in (2.44a), we find in quite the same way

N,n
•
= - _.!.
8
[f(-n- Naon + s p.,,- sp,.
coscc ' 11 cot :x) ds- B,]. (2.45b)

As an example of the application of these simple formulas we con-

sider the mushroom-shaped roof of Fig. 2.13 for a kind of wind load
which we assume, not very correctly but conventionally, to be
Ps = Po = 0, p,. = -psin :x cos().
\Ye have to use our formulas with n = 1 and easily find
1V0 = -p8COSCL.cos(),

N,o =- 1
82 (P ~ - A 1 ) sin().
The edge s = lis to be free of external forces. This yields A 1 = ~pP
and therefore the shearing force
1
N 8 e= 3 p~smf}.
za-s3 .

After the second constant B 1 has been determined by the same argument,
the meridional force follows as
p (!3-83 !2-82. )
1Y8 = - - - 3-.,- - - 2- - sm 2 :x cos().
cos cc s- 8
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYMMETRY 63
At 8 = 0 this becomes infinite like 8- 2 • This singularity corresponds to
the action of a couple, exerted by the central column in order to equi-
librate the moment of the loads. The shear N, 6 at the top has not only
to yield a horizontal resultant but also to compensate the resultant of
the N., and, therefore, it too has a singularity of the second order.

2.4.3.2 Homogeneous Problem

When we drop the terms with p.,., p6 ,., Prn in (2.45a, b) we have
the solution for a shell which is subjected only to edge-loads

N =-n- An+..!!!'... Non = 0. (2.46)

"" cosa s2 s '
We see at a glance that there will always be infinite stresses at the
vertex 8 = 0, whatever the values of A,. and B,. are. For the first har-
monic, this singularity describes the action of a horizontal force P and

Fig. 2.31. Loads applied to the

apex of a conical shell

a couple M with a horizontal axis (Fig. 2.31). Putting n = 1 in (2.46),

we find the horizontal resultant of the forces transmitted through an
arbitrary parallel circle:
+n
P= J (N
-n
81 cos11:cos 2 0 -N801 sin 2 0)8cosll:d0 =B1 :n:cos2 1l:

and the moment with respect to an axis through the apex:

+:<
J
M = _, N, 01 sin 2 0 · 8COS·X · 8sin x · d(J = A 1 :n:cos 11: sin ·X.

These equations determine A 1 and B 1 when P and M are given. Together

with the solution for the vertical force, given on p. 37 and one for a
couple with vertical axis, which may easily be established, we have the
complete solution for an arbitrary load applied to the top of the cone.
64 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

For the higher harmonics, n ~ 2, a singularity at the top does not

correspond to an external force or moment. It is open to discussion
whether or not a solution containing such a singularity has any me-
chanical significance. If we do not admit it, we must conclude that a
closed conical shell cannot carry an edge load such as that shown on
a spherical shell in Fig. 2.21.
It is of principal interest in this connection to study some combina-
tions of parts of spherical and conical shells. The shell in Fig. 2.32a

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.32. Shells of revolution, (a) with JlOinte<l aJleX, (b) with rounded apex

has a conical top. From (2.46) we see that in this part the homogeneous
solution must vanish identically if we do not want it to become infinite.
For the spherical part at the base, the homogeneous solution is repre-
sented by (2.32J. On the parallel circle separating cone and sphere, N •
and N• 6 are zero and hence An= B,. = 0 in (2.32), and there is no
homogeneous solution at all. This shell cannot stand any kind of self-
equilibrating edge load without having infinite membrane forces at the
apex.
Quite different is the behavior of the shell in Fig. 2.32b. Here the
apex is spherical and (2.32) yield a regular force system if we only put
A, = 0. Writing 8 instead of <Pin the subscripts, we have
1 tan"cf>/2
J.V.,,. = - .i.Vson = 2 B,. sin2 q, ·
Xow we may choose the constants in (2.46) so that the conical part
of the shell has fors= b tanoc the same forces N,, and N, 0 • This leads
to the formulas
N _ .!_ B tannrz/2 [n +cos a.!!.__~ b2 ]
·'"- 2 " cos2 rz sinrz s cosrz s2 '

N son- ___ .!_ B tan"rz/2 b2 N O

2 "cos2rz 8 z, on== ·
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYM.t"\'IETRY 65
For the spherical base we again use (2.32), this time with both constants:
.
1V _
811 -
tan• a./2
-Non -_ -4b B,. ~ [a - n) ,
- - -b ( 1 -,-, - - tan -a.~9 cot " "</>~
a Sln'l' l£ COSIX

-:-. (a-+
a
a-a-b -cosn-a. )cot" -a.2 t an " -</>2 ]
-b + - '

N B
_
-- -
b B tan• a./2
- - - ---
[a - (t + --
b n ) t an, - IX
cot 11 -</>
8 n 4a " sin2 </> a cos a. 2 2

a +-b + -
- (- a - -b -n- ) co t" -IX t an -</> ] . 11

a a cos IX 2 2

An example of these forces is shown in Fig. 2.33. Starting at the edge

of the shell, they decrease along the circular part of the meridian, be-
coming almost insignificant in the case n = 5. In the conical part they

Fig . 2. 33. Stress resultants produced by edge loads

recover. The diagram n = 2 shows clearly how they decrease again in

the small sphere and end up with finite values at the apex, as may be
expected with the second harmonic . In the case n = 5, the values in
the conical part are too small to show clearly what happens. The shear N, 8
recovers from 0.2% of its boundary value to 3% ; the meridional force N,
has a maximum about halfway up and then decreases again. In the
small sphere both die out very quickly. If we choose a smaller radius b,
the recovery along the straight meridian will be more effective and the
state of stress will approach that of the shell with a conical apex. We
shall see on p. 69 what conclusions we may draw from this result.

2.4.4 Solution for Shells of Arbitrary Shape

In earlier sections we solved (2.26) for the sphere by a trick which
is not generally applicable, and for the cone by making use of simpli-
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 5
66 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

fications arising from the straightness of the meridian. To find a solution

of more general applicability, we must look for other methods.

2.4.4.1 Solution by an Auxiliary Variable

We start from the set of differential equations (2.8) and treat it in
the same way as we did with (2.6) to get the set (2.26), introducing (2.23)
and (2.24) and eliminating NOn. Thus we obtain the following pair of
equations:

ddz (r N~nl sine/>+ r' 12 N~n cos</>+ nN~on = - rp~n + rp,,. cot</>,

When we eliminate N~ 611 , making some use of the geometric rela-

tions (2.1) and (2.4), we find the following second-order differential
equation for N~,.:
d2 (rN~,.) d(rN~,.) ( r )
dz2 r sin</> + 2 dz , 1 + sin</> cot</>

+ N ..!:..( 2 cot 2 </> ___r_ _ __!:.. cotcf> dr1 _ ~)

~n r1 r 1 sin3 cf> ri sin cf> dcf> sin2 cf>

nr { Pon --:--;;::
=-:--;;:: n p,,. ) - (P~n - Prn cot</>) r cot</>
Sln~ Sln~

- !:_ (p.. r2
dz "'n
- p
"'
r 2 cot 'I'
A..)
•

Its left-hand side assumes a very simple form, if we introduce the

auxiliary variable
U" = r 2 N~nsin<f>.
The angle cJ> and the radius r then disappear completely on the left,
and with the help of the relations

we may make </> disappear on the right-hand side also:

- p.
"'
[n 2r + (n 2 - 3)r -
dz
(d·r) 2 dr]
2
- r2 - 2
dz
-
dp~·
- - r2
dz
+ dp dr
~r 2 -.
dz dz
(2.47)

This is now the differential equation of our problem. We shall restrict

its discussion here to the action of edge loads on some typical shapes
of shells.
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYMMETRY 67
In a paraboloid of revolution,

r = Vaz.
Introducing this into (2.47) and putting p"' == p8 == p,."""' 0, we have

The complete solution of this equation is

U" =A z<l +nJ/2 + Bz<l-nJ/2,
as one may easily check by substitution. The second term becomes
infinite for z = 0 and is therefore not applicable to shells closed at
the top.
From U, we find the n-th harmonic of the meridional force
)\'
1¥<j,n=~,
u.
r· sm 'Y

of the shear

and of the hoop force

If only the A term of the solution is used, this yields

N</Jn =A i- Vz"-
~a
2 lfa + 4z,
- 1/z•-2
~<j,8n =- A2V~'

Vz•-•
Non=- A----====
2Va + 4z
If n = 1, the stress resultants approach oo for z ~ 0, corresponding to
a horizontal concentrated load as shown in Fig. 2.20 for a sphere. Fot·
n = 2, the stress resultants approach finite limits, and for n > 2 they
vanish at the top of the shell.
The results given here for a parabolic shell show the same general
features as those found on p. 47 for the sphere. In the vicinity of the
apex they may be used as an approximation for the stress resultants
in any other shell which there has a finite curvature equal to that of
the paraboloid. This proves that for all such shells, for every harmonic.
5*
 68 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIO~

only one of the solutions of (2.26) is regular at the apex and that, there-
fore, only one boundary condition can be prescribed at the edge.
As a second example we consider a pointed shell. The formulas
become particularly simple if the meridian has the equation
• :lZ
r=asm 2 h

(Fig. 2.34). In this case, (2.47) assumes the form

d2U n { 2 1 :l2 U 0
dz2 - n - ) 4 h2 " =

and is solved by exponential functions:

'u,. =A e-J.z + Be-J.<2h-z)'

Both terms are regular at z = 0, but the corresponding stress resultants
are not. They are

>; [Vn 2 -l (Ae-J.z- Be-J.('.!.Ii-z)) + (Ae-J.z + Be-J.(2h-zl) cot;:],

and they assume, for any choice of A and B, infinite values at z = 0
and at z = 2h. Nevertheless, there is a considerable difference in the

.---

h N.p

lL...-.--.t-----.J
'----o---->1
z
(a) (b) (c)
}"ig. 2.34. Pointed shell, (a) meridional section, (b, c) meridional force .V 4>, A term and B term,
for n ~ 3
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYMMETRY 69
way these two solutions tend toward infinity. If we start at the edge
of the shell, say at z = h, and follow the meridian toward the apex,
the factor e-lz of the A solution produces an accelerated increase of the
stress resultants, which at last is reinforced by the vanishing of the
factor sin 2 (nz/2h) in the denominators (for the shear, the second sine
factor is hidden in the cotangent). Quite differently, the factor e+.l.z
of the B solution makes it decrease rapidly, and it. may become in-
significant before the vanishing of the denominators becomes felt and
finally makes it veer to infinity. In Fig. 2.34 the meridional forces for
both solutions are represented separately, showing this difference in
appearance.
On p. 65 we saw that in a shell with a conical top one of the solutions
becomes regular when the shape of the middle surface is but slightly
changed. The same will be true in the present case, and it may be pre-
sumed that this regular solution approaches the B solution asymptot-
ically as the spherical top is made smaller and smaller. Just as does
this rounding of the top, the bending rigidity of any real shell must
also have the effect of quelling the weak singularity of the B solution,
and we may therefore simply disregard it in all those cases where, in
an intermediate zone between the edge and the top, the stress resultants
become negligibly small. If this does not happen, the membrane theory
is inadequate to solve the stress problem.

2.4.4.2 Solution by Numerical Integration

The use of the function U n is appropriate if it is possible to solve the
differential equation (2.47) by analytical means. When a numerical
integration becomes necessary, it will usually be preferable to avoid an
auxiliary variable and to start directly from (2.26). For the edge load
case, these equations may be written in the form

(2.48)

As we have seen in several examples, we cannot expect to prescribe

initial values for both unknowns at the edge of the shell. Starting from
the known N</Jn and a trial value of N</>On• the integration must be per-
formed and repeated trials will show how N</>On must be chosen to obtain
a solution which is regular at the apex or which satisfies a second bound-
ary condition at an upper edge.
Figs. 2.35 and 2.36 show the results of such work. A pointed shell
dome, whose meridian is a parabola, carries a uniform dead load
70 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

p = 58lbjft2 and rests on eight supports of an angular width of 10°.

The work proceeds along the same lines as for the hemispherical shell
of Fig. 2.21. Results are shown in Fig. 2.36. The curves marked N~ 0
and N 00 represent the axisymmetric stress system of a shell with a con-
tinuous support. It is seen that the influence of the higher harmonics
caused by the column support reaches about halfway up the meridian.

"Fig. 2.35. Pointed shell on eight supports

-6 -4 -2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 X 10 3 lb/ft

Fig. 2.36. Stress resultants in the shell shown in Fig. 2.35

The higher the order of the harmonic, the more the solution takes
on the character of a local disturbance along the edge of the shell. The
engineer's interest is always limited to the zone in which the forces
have appreciable magnitude; this zone may be so small that we can
safely neglect the variability of the coefficients in the differential equa-
tions (2.26) and replace them by average values, say those at the center
of the interesting domain, </> = </>'. Thus we arrive at equations with
constant coefficients, which may solved by exponential functions

N~on = Berx~.
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYMMETRY 71

Introducing these into (2.26), we get two homogeneous linear equations

for A and B:

A . n..l.'
sin
'f'
+ B [?: + 2.!:.!.
r2
cot</>'] = 0.

These have only the trivial solution A = B = 0, unless the determinant

of the coefficients vanishes. This yields an equation for IX:

In the example just treated we have at</>'= 80°:

r1 = 11.78 ft, r2 = 30.30 ft,
and hence the equation
IX 2 + 0.38201X - 25.60 = 0'

of which only the positive root IX = 4.87 is of interest. Either of the

linear equations then gives

B = -1.621A,

as compared with 1.622 determined as the result of the numerical

integration. The approximation, of course, is not always as good and
depends on the choice of the representative angle cf>'. In the present
case the extreme choice</>'= 90° leads to BJA = - 1.632.
In such shells where it seems more advantageous, the method of
numerical integration and the analytic approximation may also be
applied to (2.7) which use s instead of 1> as a coordinate.
It will be seen in the next section that the special problem of deter-
mining the matching boundary value of N,pon does not exist for shells
of negative curvature. The numerical integration then becomes an ex-
tremely simple procedure.

2.-!.5 Shell Formed as a Onr-sheet Hyperboloid

The general properties of all stress systems, which we have found
in all previous examples, are bound to one essential supposition: The
GAussian curvature 1/r1 r 2 must be positive. Shells of negative curvature,
as, for example, the one-sheet hyperboloid of Fig. 2.37, behave quite
differently. We shall discuss the reason for this.
72 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

We start with (2.7). First of all, we use (2.7c) to eliminate N 8 • With

(2.3a) the other two equations are

aN,
r as + N. cos cp + N. T;r cot cp + aN,o
ao = - p.p r + p, r cot cp,
(2.49a, b)
aN,o aN, ap,
r-,- + 2N88 coscp---
Tz
d8 ao rl
=-
ao r2 •
p8 r - -

From these two equations we may, if we wish, eliminate N, 8 • If we differ-

entiate (2.49b) with respect to(), it contains aN. 8fa() and a2N, 0fas ao.
The first derivative may be eliminated by using (2.49a). The second
derivative may be eliminated with the help of the same equation, if
we first differentiate it with respect to s. We thus find a partial differ-
ential equation for N., which is of the second order. We shall not es-
tablish it in detail, because its coefficients are anything but simple and
the equation is not of much use, since we cannot find easy boundary
conditions for its solution. But it is important for our purpose that in
this equation the second derivatives of the unknown appear in the
combination

In the theory of partial differential equations of the second order it

is shown that the sign of the coefficients of the second derivatives
determines the essential features of the solution. If both coefficients
have the same sign, the equation is called elliptic, and then disconti-
nuities of the given boundary values do not propagate into the interior
of the shell, but their influence becomes feebler, the farther away we
are from the edge. That is exactly the situation which we found in
spherical and other shells, and we see here that we can anticipate it in
all shells of positive curvature. But if the shell is one of negative curva-
ture, the coefficient of o2N 8(ofJ 2 is negative and hence the differential
equation is of the hyperbolic type. Such equations have real character-
istics. These are curves along which discontinuities of the given boundary
values are propagated into the interior. This is the cause of quite sur-
prising phenomena, which may seriously influence the general layout
of a shell structure. On the other hand, the characteristics supply an
excellent means of finding the solution of the differential equations for
shells with negative curvature. All this we shall study here for the sim-
plest of such shells, one which has the shape of a one-sheet hyperboloid.
Later we shall meet similar problems and methods when treating an-
other kind of shell with negative curvature in Chapter 4.
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYlVIl\'IETRY 73

Fig. 2.37 shows a one-sheet hyperboloid. It has the equation

x2 + y2 z2
- -a·. , - - b"- =1.

Let us intersect this surface with the vertical plane y = a. When we

introduce this value of y in the preceding equation, we get
x2 z2
a2 = b2'

and this means that the curve of intersection consists of a pair of straight
lines having the equations x = ± za/b and hence the slope tanoc = bja.
Since the hyperboloid is a surface of revolution, the tangent plane to
any other point of the waist circle will yield a similar pair of straight
z

E
Fig. ~.37. One-sheet hyperboloid Fig. 2.38. Tangent plane ADE at point A of a
hyperboloid

lines on the hyperboloid, so that there exist two families of straight

lines, each of which covers the surface completely. They are called
generators, because the hyperboloid may be generated by any one of
them, if we rotate it around the z axis. They are, of course, not meridians,
since they do not lie in the same plane as the axis.
Before we discuss the equilibrium of a shell element, we need some
geometric properties of the generators. Fig. 2.38 shows the two genera-
tors AD and AE which pass through an arbitrary point A of the surface.
74 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

'Ve want to know the angle {3 between them. Let the section AC on the
tangent to the meridian have the length 1. Then its projection on a
vertical has the length AB= sin4>. From the triangle ABD we find
AD = sin 4>/sina. and hence from the triangle ADC:
{J 1 sina
cos 2 =AD= sincfJ"
We shall also need the angle w between the two meridians which meet
the same generator at the waist circle and at the point A, not neces-
sarily on the edge. From Fig. 2.37 it follows that
a
COSW=-.
r
For the radii of curvature we have to use the same formulas as for the
ellipsoid (see p. 28) except that we must replace b2 by - b2 :
a2b2
r -
1 -- (a2sin2 cfl- b2 cos 2 c/l) 312 '

a2
r2 = - - - - - - - - - : - : -
(a2sin2c/l- b2 cos 2cfl)''•
Since r = r 2 sin4>, we can now write

cosw =
(a 2 sin2cfl - b2 cos2cfJ)'i•
.
asmcfl = V b2
1 - a 2 cot 2 4> .
After these geometric preparations we can begin the investigation
of the membrane forces in the shell whose middle surface is a one-sheet
hyperboloid. In Fig. 2.39 two adjacent generators are drawn which
enclose between them a narrow strip of the shell. This strip is straight but
slightly twisted and therefore of variable width, narrowest where it
meets the waist circle. Now let us apply to both ends of this strip and
in its direction two external forces dP, as shown in Fig. 2.39. We may
easily guess that they produce a uniaxial state of tensile stress in the
strip, variable in intensity and inversely proportional to the width,
while all the rest of the shell is completely unstressed. Since in such
a state of stress every element of the shell will be in perfect equilibrium,
it must be a solution of the general equations (2.6), however strange it
appears. 'Ve shall see now that it is the only possible solution for the
given boundary conditions.
To show this, we cut out a particular shell element, which is limited
by two pairs of adjacent generators, each pair belonging to one of the
two families of such lines (Fig. 2.40). The forces transmitted by its edges
are resolved into oblique components, the skew fiber forces NE, N 11
and the skew shearing forces NE 11 = N '1 E. The two forces NE on opposite
sides of the element lie exactly on the same straight line, one of the
 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYMMETRY 75
generators, and therefore their resultant must do the same. They cannot
make any contribution to the equilibrium in the direction normal to
the shell, and neither can the forces N 11 • To resist a normal load p,
<not shown in Fig. 2.40), only the shearing forces N 011 , N 11 e are available.

N\;\{
N~ ~~
~.(
N I\ Nq

dP
:Fig. 2.39. Shell shapetl after a Fig. :!.40. Shell element shatled
one-sheet hypcrboloitl in Fig. 2.31l

These forces on two opposite sides of the element are not strictly parallel,
because they have the directions of two different generators which
eross each other under an angle of differential magnitude. We shall
spare the reader the trouble of finding the exact amount of this angle
and of establishing the condition of equilibrium in detail. It is enough
to know that it must have the form: N 0 q times a geometric coefficient
equals p,. This means that in sections along the generators the shear
must be zero, if there is no surface load. Therefore the load dP which
is introduced into a strip between two generators at one edge has no
~hance to leave this strip sideways and must appear on the opposite
etlge at the end of the strip.
This remarkable fact provides the basis for the construction of the
general solution. We cut the shell in the waist circle (Fig. 2.41) and load
it there with a harmonic edge load
N• = SncosnfJ.

The vertieal force S 11 a cosnfJ d(), which acts on the line element ad() of
the waist circle, may be resolved into two components
s.a cosn(}d(}
2sina
76 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

which have the direction of the two generators passing through the center·
of this element, as shown in Fig. 2.41 at the point with the coordinate·
0 +w.
Now let us consider an arbitrary point cf>, 0 of the shell. Its two.
generators meet the waist circle at the meridians 0 ±wand bring from

Fig. 2.42. Triangular shell element

shaded In Fig, 2.41

Fig. 2.41. Hyperboiold shell loaded

at the waist circle

there the corresponding forces. These act on two sides of the triangular-
element, Fig. 2.42, which is the half of the one shown in Fig. 2.40. On,
its right side we have the force

and on its left side

 2.4 LOADS WITHOUT AXIAL SYMMETRY 77
The force on the horizontal side rd() of the triangle is equal to the re-
sultant of the other two and has therefore the meridional component

N ~ rd()
S.adO
= -.. - . - [ cosn ({)
P
+ w) + cosn (() - w)] cos-=
ZS!ll:X ~

and the shear component

::V~ 8 rd() = 8 ·~dO [cosn(()

2 Sill :X
+ w)- cosn(()- w)]sin {1.
2

If we make appropriate use of the previously established geometric

l
relations and of (2.6c), we find from this the following formulas for the
stress resultants:

I
N _ S. a cosnOcosnw sin a _ S cosw cosnw , ()
~ ~- -r- sin a sincp - " sincp cosn '
N S. a 2
cu
... v 8 = - ~ r;
r2
= ~
. A.
cos 3 (JJ sm 'I' cos n w cos n ,
()
(2.50)

N S. a sin n 0 sin n w . fJ S. a 2 • • ()
1 ~8 = - -r- sin a sin 2 = - -b- cos w sin n w sm n .

By a quite similar reasoning we find for a tangential edge load

N~o = Tnsinn()

the two strip forces

dP = T,.asinn(O + w) d() dP = _ T.asinn(O- w) d(),
1 2cosa ' 2 2cos a

acting on the triangular element, and on its horizontal side the com-
ponent forces

N ~ r d() = T2 " a dO [sin n (() + w) - sin n (() - w) Jcos 2

p ,
COS :X

N ~ 8 r d() = a dO [sin n (() + w) + sin n (()

~:.. •COS:% - w) J sin 2
{1 •

In terms of <J>, () and w we have finally

aT. b cos
l
N w . ()
~ ~ = sin cp sm n w cos n '

N0 = Tba sin</> cos w sinn wcosn (),

3 (2.51)

N~ 8 = T,.cos 2 wcosnwsinn (). J

The two sets of formulas (2.50), (2.51) are analogous to the solu-
tion (2.32) for the spherical shell. Both give one term of a FouRIER
series which is the general solution for the shell under edge loads. But
here the reasoning which led to the formulas (2.50), (2.51) opens a second
78 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

approach to a general solution. We need not submit the given edge

load to a harmonic analysis, use our formulas and then sum up again.
\Ve resolve the given edge load, not into normal force and shear, but
into two components in the directions of the generators, and find from
them the forces at any point of the shell from the equilibrium of a tri-
angular element, as we have just done.
But the formulas (2.50), (2.51) give still more than that. They show
immediately the striking difference in the static behavior of such a
shell and one with positive curvature. ·when a spherical shell has two
edges, we can prescribe N ~ at both of them and then have to accept
the shear N ~ 8 which results. \Ve can also try to determine A,., B .. so
that, for example, at the outer edge both forces N~ and N~ 8 assume
given values. But usually such a solution will lead to unduly high
forces in the other boundary zone, because only one of the two homo-
geneous solutions decreases with increasing distance from the loaded
edge and the other increases. This increase is very pronounced if the
order n of the harmonic is high or if the two edges are far from each
other. If the shell is closed at the vertex, this increase leads to infinite
forces at this point, as we have seen. This indicates that such a set of
boundary conditions is not appropriate and that, in any case where
it really occurs, bending moments will appear.
Quite .to the contrary, (2.50) and (2.51) suggest that we choose N~
and N ~ 8 freely at the waist circle and then accept both forces as they

Fig. 2.43. l\Ieridional section

of a bellshaped shell

result at the other edge. The engineer would certainly prefer to do the
same as in the case of the sphere : prescribe N ~ at both edges and provide
a stiffening ring at each edge to take care of the ensuing shear. Here
this procedure is, so to speak, against the nature of"the shell. Our for-
mulas show this quite clearly. If nw at the lower edge is an integer mul-
tiple of n, then a normal force at the waist circle produces only a normal
force at the lower edge, and we cannot assume both independently. A
shear at one edge produces a pure shear at the other, and we must
prescribe one of them to make the problem determinate. Such a result,
of course, also appears if we do not choose the waist circle as one of the
 2.5 DEFORM.ATIOX 79
edges but consider a part of the hyperboloid between any two parallel
circles.
If a shell has positive curvature in one part and negative in another,
the phenomena described persist. For instance, let the hyperboloid end
at the waist circle and be connected there to a hemisphere, as shown
in Fig. 2.43. From the solution (2.32) for the sphere, it follows that at
the circle A-A where</>= 90°, we have N.p 11 = -N.p 8 ,.. The upper edge
of the hyperboloid is, therefore, subjected to normal form~s S,. = N.pn
and shearing forces T n = N .p on = - s... Equations (2.50) and (2.51) yield,
then, for all points of the hyperboloid

N .p = s.. ( cos n w - .
-ab sm n w )cosw
---:---:i: cos n () .
sm.,
For a certain hyperboloid bfa is given, and one may find angles w, fot·
which the factor in parentheses vanishes. If the lower edge of the shell
is chosen at a level, where w assumes one of these special values, then
there is always N.pn = 0. For the particular n this shell can resist only
a shear load, not a load in the direction of the meridians, and no addi-
tional shear and no stiffening ring will help.
The practical meaning of these observations is this: Even if w at
the edge is chosen so that for no integer n does the angle nw belong to the
series of dangerous values, there will always exist certain harmonics n
for which it will very nearly do so. For these harmonics a small load
of the dangerous type will produce unduly high stress resultants. Ko
such shell, therefore, can really resist with membrane forces an arbitrary
edge load of this kind.
The stresses of other shells of negative curvature may be expected
to show the same general features, but the computation of the stress
resultants is less simple. Instead of the straight generators of the hyper-
boloid we have two systems of curvilinear characteristics, and an isolated
boundary load P influences not only points of the characteristics, which
pass through its point of application, but all the shell between these
two lines.

2.5 Deformation
2.5.1 Strains and Displacements
No stress problem is completely solved unless one has also deter-
mined the corresponding deformation. In many cases this part of the
problem is of no practical interest, but sometimes it is, and in Section 2.4
we met with statically indeterminate problems which require for their
solution the analysis of the deformations of the shell.
80 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

The deformation of a shell element consists of the elongations of

line elements ds• = r 1 dq> (Fig. 2.44) on the meridian and ds8 = rd() on
the parallel circle by L1ds+ and L1ds 8 and of the change of the right angle
between these two line elements. We define a meridional strain

a hoop strain
LJ ds8

•
€·=~,

and a shear strain 'Y+B• which is the decrease of the angle BAG in
Fig. 2.44c.
Between these strains and the stress resultants exists an empirical
relation, the elastic law. It depends on the material of the shell. In the
mathematical treatment of structural problems, only the linearized

A
{ v cos • + w sin •

A~w
V
'I A r

(b)

(a)

Fig. 2.44. Line elements before and after deformation,

(a) meridian, (b) parallel circle, (c) both line elements, showing angle between them
 2.5 DEFOR~IATION 81

form, HooKE's law, is of importance. Some structural materials, espe-

cially steel, follow this law quite perfectly within the limits of the usual
stresses; for others, such as concrete, it is a linear approximation which,
in general, leads to satisfactory results.
Let a4>, a6 , a. be the normal stresses acting on sections <f>, (), z = const.,
respectively (z measured as in Fig. 1.2}, and let T be the temperature,
measured from an arbitrary ambient level. Then HooKE's law for the
strains is

(2.52a, b)
E Eo= <To- v <14>- v <Tz + E tX T.
The elastic modulus E, PorssoN's ratio v, and the coefficient of thermal
expansion IX are constants depending on the material. The shear strain Y•o
depends only on the shear stress
(2.52c)

where the shear modulus G is connected with the other elastic constants
by the relation

The stress a: is of the same order of magnitude as the surface load p,.
and, with the exception of the immediate vicinity of concentrated forces,
is small compared with a• and a0 • As in the theory of bars and of plates,
its influence in HooKE's law may be neglected. Solving for the stresses,
we have then

(2.53)
E
a0 = 1 _ v2 [Eo+ V€4>- (1 + v) :z TJ.
If we introduce in (2.52) and (2.53) the normal and shear forces instead
of the stresses, we have the elastic law of the shell:
1 1
£4> =Et (N•- vNo) +IX T, Eo= Et (N 0 - vN4o) --i- tX T,
_ 2(1 + '')N (2.54)
Y4>o- Et 4>0
and
N•=D[E•+vE 0 - (1 +v)a:Tj, N 0 =D[E0 +vE4>- (1 +v)a:T],
1- V
N4oo=D-2--y4>o. (2.55)
where

Flilgge, Stresses In Shells, 2nd Ed. 6

82 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOS

is the extensional rigidity of the shell. It is analogous to the product

of elastic modulus and cross-sectional area, which gives the extensional
rigidity of a bar. Since D contains the wall thickness t, it may be a
function of <{>.
In general, it is not enough to know the strains E+, E0 , Y+o for every
point of the shell. The quantity which really matters is the displace-
ment of each point of the middle surface. Such displacements are pre-
scribed at the edges where the shell is supported, and if more displace-
menta are prescribed than would be necessary to fix the position of the
shell, the stress problem is statically indeterminate.
The displacement is a vector and may be described by its three
components. We choose them in the direction of the tangents to the
parallel circle (u) and th~ meridian (v) and normal to the shell (w). \Ye
shall call these components u, v, w the displacements of the point.
The displacements u and v are taken positive in the direction of
increasing coordinates () and <{>, respectively, and w is considered positive
when it points away from the center of curvature of the meridian.
Since u, v, w represent the same geometrical facts as the strains
E+, Eo, y +0 , the displacements and the strains must be connected by
a system of equations which is of purely geometric origin. It is our
next purpose to establish these equations.
The strains may be expressed in terms of the displacements and
their derivatives. It will facilitate the writing of the formulas if we
introduce a simple notation for these derivatives. We shall indicate a
derivative with respect to () by a prime and one with respect to <{> by
a dot, for example,
au ' a~, .
-ao=U, ~=U.

We begin with the meridional strainE+. Fig. 2.4-!a shows a meridional

element AC = ds+. Its ends undergo the tangential displacements v and
v + v' d<(>, respectively. Their difference v' d<{> is the corresponding elon-
gation of the line element. If there is an additional normal displace-
ment w of the points A and C, it has slightly different directions at the
two points and therefore produces an additional elongation of AC.
Since the distance r 1 from the center of curvature increases to r 1 + u·,
the length of the arc is increased proportionally to

An additional radial displacement w' d<{> of the point C' produces an

elongation which is small of the second order and therefore without
interest. For the same reason we have to drop all products of two dis-
 2.5 DEFORl\'IATION 83
placements, when we compute the elongation

Ll ds+ = (ds+ + v· dcf>) (1 + ~)- ds+ = v· dcf> + w ds• •

rl rl
Dividing by ds+ = r 1 dcf>, we find the meridional strain
v· +w (2.56a]
€·=--.
rl
By similar reasoning we find an expression for the hoop strain €8-
from Fig. 2.44 b, where an element ds8 of a parallel circle is shown. On
account of the difference u' dO of the tangential displacements of the
two ends, the length ds 8 is increased to ds 8 + u' dO, and the radial dis-
placement v coscf> + w sincf> in the plane of the parallel circle (see als()
Fig. 2.44a) yields a further increase to
(dsa + u' dO),.+ vcos<f> + wsin<f>.
r
The elongation of the line element is therefore

Ll ds 8 = (ds 0 + u' dO) ( 1 + +cos cf> + ~ sincf>) - ds._

ds8
= u' dO+ (vcoscf> + wsincf>)-,
r
and hence the hoop strain is
Ll ds 8 u' + vcos<f> + wsin<f>
€o = -ds- = r
(2.56&/
8

To find the corresponding relation for the shear strain we have to.
consider the whole shell element (Fig. 2.44c). Its points A, B, C move·
to A', B', C', and the angle B' A'C' is smaller than a right angle by
y 1 + y 2 = Y+a· From the figure we read easily
v'd(J v'
Y1 = rd8 + u'd8 ~ r.
To calculate y 2 we trace the meridian A'D. It cuts the arc CD
= u(r + dr)fr from the lower parallel circle, where r + dr is the radius
of this circle. Subtracting CD from the horizontal displacement u + u· dcf>,
we find the horizontal projection of DC' and, after division by r 1 dcf?.
+ v· dcf> ~ r 1 dcf>, the angle
u+u"d<t>-u(1+~) u· u dr
Y2 = r 1 d<f> = r;- r;; d<f> •

Making use of (2.4) and then adding y1 and y 2 , we find the expression
for the shear strain
u· v v'
Y+o =r-
1 r coscf>
- - + -.
r
(2.56c)

6*
84 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

The relations (2.56a-c) enable us to find the strains when the displace-
ments are known functions of the coordinates. Usually we have to deal
with the inverse problem, in which the stress resultants of the shell
have already been determined and we want to know the displacements.
Then HooKE's law (2.54) will give us the left-hand sides of (2.56), and
these equations are a set of partial differential equations for the dis-
placements u, v, w. The study of these equations is our next objective.

2.5.2 Inextensional Deformation

2.5.2.1 Differential Equation
We begin with the homogeneous equations
+w =0,
u' + v cos</> + w sin </> = 0 , (2.57a-c)
n· !.!. sin </> - u cos </> + v' =0.
r2

They describe a deformation of the shell in which the strains E~, E0 , y~ 0

and hence the stress resultants are all zero. vVe shall see whether and
under what circumstances such a deformation may occur and how we
have to fix the edge of the shell to make it impossible.
Since the coefficients in (2.57) do not depend on (), we may write
the solution as a FoURIER series in(), and the n-th harmonic will be
u = U 11 (</>) sinn(), v = v,.(</>) cosnO, w = W 11 (</>) cosn(). (2.58)
Introducing this into the partial differential equations (2.57), we arrive
at a system of ordinary differential equations:
+ w" =0,
nu 11 + 'V 11 cos</> + W sin</> = 0,
11 (2.59a-c)
• r2 • A.. A..
U 11 - Sln 'I' - U, COS 'I' - n V 11 =0.
rl
\Ve eliminate first the normal component w between the first two of
these equations. This yields
nu 11 = v~sin</>- V 11 cos</> (2.60)
and, after differentiating,
nu~= v~ sin</>+ V 11 sin</>.
Introducing this into (2.59c), we arrive at an equation in which only
the meridional component V 11 is left:

1}~ r2
~
sin 2 </>- v~cos<f>sin</> + V 11 (2. sin </> + cos2<f>- n 2)
~
2 = 0. (2.61)

This is the differential equation of our problem, which we have to solve.

 2.5 DEFOR~L~TION 85
2.5.2.2 Finite Solution for the Spherical Shell
Before we attack the general problem of solving (2.61) for an arbitrary
meridian, we shall apply it to a spherical shell. In this particular case
we shall be able to find a simple solution which shows what types of
solutions we have to expect in the general case.
For a sphere with r 1 = r2 =a, (2.61) reads
v~ sin 2 cf>- v~ cos cf>sincf> + v, (1 - n 2) = 0.
and this may also be written in the following form:

[(si~<f>r sincf>r sin 2 cf> - n 2 vl/ = 0.

This equation has the solution

v 11 = sin,~..
'f' [A tan" j_2 + Bcot" .i.]2 . (2.62a)

Equations (2.60) and (2.59a) then give

u 11 = sin,~..
'f'
[A tan" j_2 - Bcot" !t]2 '
(2.62b, c)
W 11 = -v~ =-A tan"~ (n + coscp) + Bcot"; (n- coscp).

For n = 1 these formulas yield

u =[A (1 - coscf>) - B (1 + coscf>)] sin(),
v = [A(1- coscf>) + B(1 + coscp}] cosfJ,
w =-(A- B) sine/> cosfJ,

and they represent two rigid-body rotations of the shell. For the A
solution, the axis is the tangent to the meridians f) = ± n/2 at the pole
cf> = 0, and for the B solution it is the tangent to the same circle at
cf> = n.
For n ;;;; 2, the formulas (2.62) describe true deformations. Since the
strains f~, E0 , YH are all zero, they are called inextensional deformations.
vVe see from the formulas that there exists no such deformation which
is finite on the whole sphere. The A solution bec~mes infinite at </> = n,
and the B solution at cf> = 0. A complete sphere is therefore not capable
of inextensional deformations. For a spherical cap which contains the
pole cf> = 0, the A solution is regular, and it describes a deformation to
which the shell does not offer any resistance as long as we disregard
its bending stiffness. We may superpose this solution on any solution
of the inhomogeneous equations (2.66) and so satisfy a boundary con-
dition concerning either u or v, and we must prtlscribe one of these dis-
86 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

placements at the edge in order to make the deformation of the shell

determinate. This situation is the kinematic counterpart to the fact
that the equilibrium of the membrane forces requires a ring along the
edge of the shell (see p. 53). Instead of prescribing one force and one
displacement, say N.; and v, we may also prescribe both displacements
but not both forces, as one may easily verify. It is not possible, within
the realm of the membrane theory, to prescribe all three components
of the displacement. If the edge of the shell is fixed in every direction
by the support, a complete fulfillment of all boundary conditions is
possible only with the help of bending moments. In some cases it is
possible to get reasonable information from the membrane theory by
making a judicious choice among the boundary conditions, but this does
not always work. Then a study of the bending effects is indispensable
in order to determine the membrane forces in the shell.
If the spherical shell is open at the top, both terms in (2.62) are
regular on the entire shell, just as are both term;; in the solution (2.32)
for the membrane forces. We have then twice as many constants for
twice as many edges, and all that has just been said for the edge of a
spherical cap applies now to both edges of a spherical zone.

}"ig. :!.45. Nonconvex shell,

consisting of parts of two
spheres

Equations (2.62) permit an application which leads to a result of

general interest. Each of the two spherical shells shown in Fig. 2.45 has
only one pole and therefore admits one inextensional deformation for
the n-th harmonic. For the upper sphere we must put B = 0 and have

u,, = V 11 =A sin</>1 tann ~~, Wn = -A (n + cos</> 1 ) tan" ~1 •

For the lower sphere we must drop A and have

u, = - V 11 = - · ,1.. 2 cotnc/>z
B sin., 2' 11) 11 = B (n - cos </> 2) cotn ~2 •
 2.5 DEFORl\L\.TIO.N 87
When the two spheres are connected at the waist circle cf>1 = ex, cf>2 = {J,
their displacements must be the same there. This requirement seems
to yield three equations between A and B, but since we have to deal
with inextensional deformations, the line element of the waist circle
cannot change, and therefore only two equations are independent
statements, the third one following from the invariability of the line
element. We formulate our conditions of compatibility for the vertical
component of the displacement vn sin cf> - wn coscf> and for one com-
ponent in the plane of the waist circle, say un. They are

A (1 + ncosa:) tan"; = B(i- ncos{J) cot" ~,

A sin a: tan" ; = - B sin{J cotn ~.

These equations do not admit a solution A, B different from zero unless

the determinant of their coefficients vanishes. This condition,

(1 + n coscx) sin{J + (1- n cos{J) sino: = 0,

may be brought to the form
• IZ + {J
sm--
2
n= .
sin a - {J
2

Since the numerator is always positive, this can never yield a positive n,
if the shell is convex, i.e. if ex< {J. But even for shells with ex > {J, whose
meridian has a re-entrant angle, an inextensional deformation is possible
only if ex and {J are such that the quotient becomes an integer. This
shows that most nonconvex shells of the type under consideration are
just as incapable of inextensional deformations as convex shells, for
which this property can be proved in general. When shells like Fig. 2.45
are built, it will be useful to avoid such dimensions where n, as defined
by the last formula, is equal or very close to an integer.

2.5.2.3 Solution for Arbitrary Shape of the Meridian

In the general case of an arbitrary meridian it is, of course, not
possible to find a simple solution in finite terms for the differential
equation (2.61). We shall establish one in the form of a power series.
The first step toward this is a transformation of the independent
variable, which removes all transcendental functions from the coeffi-
cients. We put
x = 1 - coscf> .
88 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

The equation now assumes the following form

d2v. 1 - x r2 - r1 dv. 2 - n 2 r1) O
-+
dx 2 x (2 - x) -r-
2
-dx+ ( x (2 1- x) + (1x - (2x)-
2 x) 2
- V11=
r2 •
(2.63)

The singularities of the coefficients are at x = 0 and x = 2. The prop-

erties of the solution in the vicinity of these points depend on these
singularities of the coefficients. Here we shall study the singularity at
x = 0, that is, at 1> = 0. The other one may be studied by a series develop-
ment at x = 2, or it may be brought to x = 0 by using the substitution
x = 1 + cosfj>.
In most shells the two meridians () = 0 and () = n will be the two
halves of the same simple curve and will be described by a common
analytic expression. In this case r 1 and r 2 are necessarily even functions
of fj>. A power series for r 2 - r 1 must therefore begin with f/> 2 and hence
with x 1 • This x cancels with the x in the denominator, and the coeffi-
cient of dv,.fdx has no singularity at all; but the coefficient of vn has
a second order singularity. A differential equation of this type belongs
to the FucHs class. Its solution in the vicinity of the apex x = 0 of the
shell may be represented in the form
00

V., =X"""'
4.; bk X k . (2.64)
k~o

The exponent x determines the type of singularity of v,. and need not
be positive or an integer. It is determined along with the coefficients bk
by introducing the series (2.64) in the differential equation. This proce-
dure is best explained by a concrete example.
We choose a paraboloid as shown in Fig. 2.46. Its radii of curvature are
a
rl = cos3cp,

Fig. 2.46.
Paraboloid of revolution

where a is twice the focal distance of the parabola. When we introduce

these radii into the differential equation (2.63), it reads as follows:
d 2v. _ _1_ dv. + (1 + 2 x- x 2 ) (1 - x) 2 - n 2 v =
0
clx2 1- x dx x 2 (1- x) 2 (2- x) 2 n ·
 2.5 DEFOmiATIOX 89
We now introduce V 11 from (2.64) and multiply by the denominator of
the last term:
oc
x 2 (1- x) 2 (2- x) 2 J.: (k + x) (k + x- 1) b ,xk-
k~o
1 2

J.: (k + x) bk x" -
N

- x 2 (1 - x) (2- x) 2 1
k~o

J.: bkx" = 0.
X

+ [(1 + 2x- x 2 ) (1- x) 2 - n 2]

k~o

The factor before each of the sums may be written as a polynomiar

in x. If we multiply every one of its terms separately by the sum, we
get as many sums as the factor has terms. In each of them we change
the notation of the summation index in such a way that xk appears.
everywhere. This yields the equation

J.: [(2 (k + x) - J: (k + x -
~ ~

1 )2 - n 2] b, xk - 4 1) [3 (k + x) - 5] bk_ 1 x 7•
k~o k-1

+ J.: [13 (k + x)
k~2
2 -57 (k + x) + 58] bk-t xk

- J: [6 (k + x)
k~3
2 - 37 (k + x) + 53] bk-a x 1·

J.: (k +
CO

+ X - :3) ( k + X - 5) bk- 4 Xk = 0. (2.6;3)'

k~4

This equation must be satisfied identically in :r, and this requires that
for every integer k the sum of all the coefficients in all the sums must
be zero. vVe thus arrive at an infinite set of linear equations for the b~.:.
For k = 0, only the first sum makes a contribution and leads to the
equation

If we want to get any solution at all, b0 cannot be zero, and so the other
factor must vanish, and that determines x as
1
x = 2- (1 ± n).

The two values lead to two solutions of the differential equation, and
we see here that one of them [with x = i(1 + n)] is regular, whereas
the other one [with x = ~(1 - n)] has for any n > 1 a singularity at
x = 0, that is, at</> = 0.
For k ~ 1, (2.65) yields recurrence formulas for the coefficients b,.,
expressing all the bk in terms of b0 • The first three of these formulas
90 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

are somewhat irregular, because only some of the sums in (2.65) con·
tribute to them:
[(1 + 2i()2- n2] b1 = -4i((2- 3i() b0 ,
[(3 + 2i() 2 - n 2] b2 = 4(1 + x) (1 + 3x) b1
- [13(2 + x) 2 - 57(2 + i() +58] b0 ,
2
[(5 + 2i() - n ] b3 = 4(2 + x) (4 + 3x) b2
2

- [13(3 + x) 2 - 57(3 + x) + 5SJ b1

+ [6(3 + x) 2 - 37(3 + x) +53] b0 •
Fork~ 4 they all have four terms on the right-hand side:
[(2k + 2~- 1) 2 - n 2] bk = 4(k + x- 1) (3k + 3x- 5) bk-I
- [13(k + x) 2 - 57(k + x) +58] bk- 2
+ [6 (k + i() 2 - 37 (k + x) + 53] bk-a
- (k +X- 3) (k +X- 5) bk-4.

Hence all coefficients depend on the first one, b0 , and this one must
necessarily stay undetermined, because each constant multiple of the
solution is again a solution of the homogeneous equation (2.63).
Putting b0 = 1 and introducing either x 1 or x 2 into the recurrence
formulas, we obtain two linearly independent solutions V 111 and vn 2 ,
which may be combined to form the general solution

having two free constants b01 and b02 •

The corresponding displacement wn follows from (2.59a):

W11 = - v~ = - sin</>· ddv.

x
= - sin <J> · x"- 1 f
k~o
(k + x) bk xk.

For the third component, un, no new series need be computed, since (2.60)
yields
1l 11 = - ..!._ (v cos<J> + W sin</>).
11 11
n
Beginning with n = 2, x 2 is negative, and the corresponding solution
becomes infinite at <J> = 0. It therefore cannot appear in a shell which
is closed at its apex. We have then only one constant of integration for
every harmonic n, and the inextensional deformation is completely
determined if one of the displacements u, v, u· is given: at the boundary.
Of course we can use the constant C which appears in the solution for
the stress resultants, to fulfill a second condition for the displacement,
if we refrain from prescribing forces at the boundary; but never can all
three components u, v, w be controlled within the range of the mem-
brane theory. This is the same situation which we encountered in the
case of the spherical shell.
 2.5 DEFORliATION 91

2.5.3 Inhomogeneous Problem

2.5.3.1 General Solution

l
If the stress resultants N,., N 0 , N,. 0 of the shell are known, HooKE's
law (2.54) gives the strains E+, E0 , y,. 0 , and we have to deal with the
inhomogeneous equations

v" -1- W = T1 E+,

·n' +vcos<f>~wsin<f>=r2 Eosin.<f>, (2.66)
A. A,.
Tz
-u • • A,.
sm.,-ncos.,+v I
=r2 y,. 8 sm.,.
rl

If we can find one particular solution of this set, we only need to com-
bine it with the inextensional deformations and we have the complete
.solution.
To find such a particular solution, we proceed in the same way as
we have for the homogeneous system. \Ye subject the strains to a
harmonic analysis and consider the general term of the FoURIER series:
Y+o = Y+on(</>) sin nO.
Introducing these and (2.58) into the differential equations (2.66), we
·obtain a set of ordinary differential equations for the n-th harmonic of
the displacement :
+w,.
nu, + Vn cos cf> + w,. sin c/> = r 2 Eon sin</>,

\Ve can again use two of these equations to eliminate U 11 and wn

and arrive at a second-order equation for v,.(c/>):

By the substitution x = 1 - coscf> the equation assumes the following

:form

dZvK 1 - x r2 - r1 dvK ( 1 (1 - x) 2 - n 2 r1) v = F (x)

dxZ + x (2 - x) r2 dx + x (2 - x) + x 2 (2 - x) 2 r 2 " •
92 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

It may be solved by developing F (x) in a power series:

00

F(x) = x" ~ Bkx". (2.67}1

k=O

The exponent x in this development need not be equal to x 1 or x 2 ,

but because of the symmetry of the shell, it will be half of an odd in-
teger if n is even and an integer if n is odd, just as we found for x 1 • 2 •
If we now assume vn in the form (2.64) but with the same value of x
as appears in F (x), and introduce both into the differential equation,
we may find the coefficients bk for a particular solution by comparing
coefficients in the equation. Adding the homogeneous solution with an
arbitrary constant factor is equivalent to adding an inextensional
deformation. It enables us to fulfill one boundary condition for the dis-
placements.
Such a power series method may be expected to yield fairly good
results in the vicinity of the top of the shell. But for greater values
of x or cJ> the convergence of the series may or may not be satisfactory,
depending on the particular shape of the meridian and on the order n
of the harmonic. In such cases the power series may be useful to start
a numerical integration, which goes right down the meridian. We have
then the advantage of finding at once that solution which is regular
at cJ> = 0. However, if n is great, the regular solution will assume per-
ceptible values only near the edge of the shell, and then it will be pre-
ferable to start the numerical integration there and to continue it only
as far as is needed. In this case the regular solution must be isolated
by the method described on p. 69 for the stress resultants.

2.5.3.2 Axially Symmetric Deformation

If the load and the stresses both have axial symmetry, the deforma-
tion need not have it too, but if it does not it will always be possible to·
split it into a particular solution which has this high degree of symmetry
and an inextensional deformation such as we have already treated in
detail.
For a deformation with axial symmetry, the general equations (2.56)>
assume the simpler form:

Eo=-
V

Tz
cot cJ> +-.
W

Tz

The third of them disappears completely, because it becomes triviaL

Eliminating w, we arrive at a differential equation for v:
 2.5 DEFORl\IATIO~ 93

It has the solution (see p. 43)

v = [f q (</>) exp (- j cot</> d<f>) d<f> + c] exp j cot <P d<f>,

.and when we evaluate the simple integrals, we have

V = ~(cp) d<f> + c] sin</>.

[f smcp (2.68)

With the help of HooKE's law the function q(<f>) may be expressed in
terms of the stress resultants N~ and N 0 :

P = [f ~t [N~(r1 + vr 2)- N 0 (r 2 + vrr)] 8 ~:q, + c] sin<f>. (2.69a)

The constant C means simply a rigid-body displacement of the shell
in the direction of its axis and must be determined by a boundary con-
dition. When v has been found, we can easily find w from Eo:
w = r2 E0 - v cot<f>. (2.69b)

We see that the symmetric deformations of a shell of arbitrary meridian

may be computed by a mere quadrature when the stress resultants are
known.
As an example, we apply (2.69) to the ogival shell of Figs. 2.35 and
2.36, but with the difference that we now assume that the entire length
of the edge is uniformly supported. The membrane forces N4>, N 0 in
the shell are then those which are plotted as N ~ 0 and N 00 in Fig. 2.36.
In (2.69a) we need the radii of the middle surface. They are

When we introduce these expressions into (2.69a) and assume that the
wall thickness t is a constant, we obtain
~
_ h2 sincp~N~- vN 0
v - 2 E bt sin4 d<f> q,
~.

We have to choose C such as to make v = 0 at the springing line</>= nf2.

This amounts to replacing the lower limit <f> 0 of both integrals by n/2
i!nd dropping the term C sin</> at the end. The expressions for N~ and N 0 ,
which are not given here, are rather clumsy, and the integrals are best
evaluated numerically. This has been done for v = 0, and the result is
shown in Fig. 2.47.
94 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

At five points of the meridian the resultant displacement is indicated

by arro·ws. It appears that the major part of the shell moves essentially
vertically downward. The slight inward component is due to the negative
hoop strain Eo. But near the springing line, where the hoop force is
positive, the deflection is outward, and at the springing line it is hori-

1----b---

Fig. 2.47. Dtspiacements for a pointed dome with dead load

zontal. At the apex the components v and w combine, of course, to a

vertical deflection w,.. For p = 58 lbjft 2 it was found that E tw,.
= 96,800 lb. This deflection is comparable in magnitude with the hori-
zontal displacement at the springing line.

2.5.4 Toroidal Shell

\Ve have already encountered some difficulties in treating the stress
resultants in toroidal shells. Here we shall see that the deformation
of these shells also has some peculiarities. On p. 31 we found that a
system of membrane forces is not always possible in such a shell, even
under conditions which would be sufficient in other shells. But we dia
at least find membrane forces in some simple and important cases as
for instance in that of a toroid of circular cross section which is sub-
jected to an internal gas pressure. We shall see now that even in this
case membrane forces are possible only in restricted parts of the shell,
because otherwise impossible consequences for the deformation would
result.
To simplify the mathematical representation, we assume here v = 0.
Then the stress resultants as given on p. 31 produce the strains

pa 2R + asin<f> pa
E.p = 2 Et R + a sin <f> ' Eo= 2 Et'
From these we find

( a+-- R ) pa R2
q(</>) =aE-
4> sin<f>
E0 =---
2Et (R + asin<f>)sin<f> •
 2.5 DE:FORl\L>\.TION 95
Introducing this into (2.68) we get the tangential component of the dis-
placement
v = [- ~~~2 J
(R +as~!</>) sin2</> + c] sin</>.
The integral may be evaluated by elementary means and yields

V= [paR( 2 a2 arctan a+ R tan<f>/2 - !:._In tan±- cot<f>) + o]sin<f>.

2Et RVR 2 -a 2 VR 2 -a 2 R 2
The brackets contain two terms which have singularities: ln tan<f>/2
and cot</> . For </> -.. 0 the logarithm tends toward - oo, the cotangent
toward + oo, and the opposite is true for </> -.. n. However, the singu-
larity of the cotangent is stronger, and therefore the two do not cancel.
In the formula for v both are multiplied by sin</>, and this factor vanishes
strongly enough to keep v finite. But when we now use (2.69b) to find
the normal displacement w, the factor sin</> is replaced by cos</>, and
no finite value of the constant C will help to keep w from becoming
infinite at </> = 0 and at </> = n. This indicates that even under this load
bending must occur in the shell, although the membrane-force system
would be sufficient for equilibrium.
This surprising and remarkable result may be explained by the
particular geometrical properties of the two circles </> = 0 and </> = ;r.
For all points of such a circle the tangential plane of the toroid is the
same. To the same degree of approximation to which, usually, adjacent
points of the middle surface lie in one plane, here adjacent parallel
circles lie in this tangential plane. The state of stress here must there-
fore be much more akin to a plane state of stress than in other parts
of the shell. Indeed, here the difference of the hoop strains in adjacent
circles determines the meridional strain, and through HooKE's law this
gives an additional relation between N~ and N 0 , which may, and in
general will, be incompatible with the forces following from the con-
ditions of equilibrium. If wc change N ~ and N 0 so that they comply
with the new relation, the equilibrium of the shell element will be dis-
turbed, and it can be restored only by admitting transverse forces Q~
and consequently bending moments.

2.5.5 Strain Encrf:'.r

The equations of equilibrium (2.6) are linear relations between the

loads p~, p 0 , p,. and the stress resultants N ~, N 0 , N ~ 0 which they pro-
duce. Therefore, if A is a constant factor, the load Ap~, Ap0 , Ap,. will
produce the forces AN~, AN0 , AN~o· HooKE's law (2.54) is a set of
linear equations between the forces N ~, N 0 , N ~ 0 and the strains E~, Eo,
Y~o· The load Ap~, Ap0 , AP,. will therefore produce strains AEq,, AE 0 , A.y~ 0 .
96 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

Applying the load Pt• p 6 , p, to the shell means, in our notation,

that the factor ). is increased continuously from 0 to 1. During this
procedure the forces acting on a shell element (Fig. 2.2) will do some work,
because their different points of application are displaced. We shall now
calculate this work.
Since the forces on the element are in equilibrium, their work during
a rigid-body movement will be zero. The position of the element in
space may therefore be fixed arbitrarily, and we have only to ask for
the work which is done during the relative displacement of the different
sides of the element due to its deformation.
If we assume that the center of the element does not move, the
external forces will do no work. When the length of the element r 1 d4> of
the meridian is increased from r 1 tLf>(1 +A£_.) to r 1 tL/>(1 + A£• + dA.£,.),
the two forces ).N,. · rdO do the work
A.N,. r d() · r 1 d<f> dA.£,.,
and in the same way we find the work of the forces ).N6 • r 1 d4> by
multiplying them by the relative displacement r d() · d). lo of their
points of application. To find the work done by the shearing forces,
let us eliminate an unessential rigid-body movement by assuming that
the sides r d() of the shell element stay horizontal and that the merid-
ional sides r 1 d<f> turn by an angle d). Yto· Then only one of the forces
}.. N • 6 • r d() does work of amount

).N• 6 r dO· d). Ytll r 1 d<f>.

If we sum up, we see that the whole work is proportional to the area
dA = r1 d4> · r d() of the shell element and is

(N+£t + N 0 £ 0 + Nto y,. 0 )). d). dA.

This is the work for an increase of). by a differential d).. The total work
done when ). increases from 0 to 1 is the integral over the variable )..
Since

this work is

(2.70)

When the shell is unloaded, ). decreases from 1 to 0. The forces on

the shell element will do the work - dV, and the energy which was
stored during loading, is set free. It was stored in the deformed shell
as potential energy and is called strain energy. The total strain energy V
 2.5 DEFOR~'lATIO~ 97
of the shell is the integral of d V, extended over the middle surface:

V= ! f (N.; E.;+ No Eo+ N.;oY.;o)dA. (2.71 a)

When the shell is deformed, the points of application of the external

forces move, and these forces do some work. Two kinds of external
forces must be considered separately, the distributed loads P.;• p6 , p,.
and the forces applied to the edges of the shell (loads or reactions). The
latter are identical with the values N.; and N.; 8 which the stress re-
sultants assume at the edge.
When the distributed loads are Ap.;, Ap6 , Ap, the displacements
of their points of application are J..u, ).v, AW. If A again increases from
0 to 1, these forces do the work
1
2 (p 0 u + p.;v + p,.w)dA.
When the expression is integrated over the middle surface of the shell,
it yields the work done by the distributed loads.
The forces at the edge do work on the edge displacements:

! J(N.;v + N.; 0 il)d8,

where ds is the line element of the edge and the integral is to be extended
over all edges where the integrand is not zero. When we add this integral.
to the work of the distributed load, we have the total work of the ex-
ternal forces:

T = ~ J(p 6 u + p.;v + p,.w)dA + ! j (N.;v + N.; u)ds.

0 (2.71 b)

This work must be equal to the strain energy of the shell:

V= T.
X ow let us consider two different load systems p0 , P.;, p,. and P6,
p:, p~. The stress resultants, strains and displacements produced by the
combined load Ap0 + p,pt, ... are given by AN.;+ p,N:, AE.; + p,E:,
J..u + p,u* etc.
At first we keep p, = 0 and let A increase from 0 to 1. During this
part of the loading procedure the strain energy

V1 =! j(N.;E.;+NtJEo+N.;oY.;o)dA
is stored. If we now keep A = 1 and let p, increase from 0 to 1, the force
N.; + p,N: does work as the strain increases from E.; + p,E: to
E.; + (p, + dp,)E:, and this work is
(N.; + p, N:) r d() · dp, E: ·r1d</> .
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 7
98 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIO~

This and two corresponding terms for N 0 and N ~ 0 must be integrated

from p. = 0 to p. = 1 and give, together with the preceding integral, the
total strain energy for the full load p0 + p:, ... :

V=~ f + (N,pE,p NoEo-+- N,poy,po)dA + f (N,pE: +Nod+ N,poY:e)dA

+2 f ("'* * " * *
1 7 ''* * )dA .
lv,pE,p+.LVoEo+.LV~oY,po (2 .I'"2 a )

The first and the third integral are the strain energies V 1 and V 2 , re-
spectively, which are obtained when only one or the other of the two
load systems is applied to the shell. The second integral represents
the work vl2 done by the stress resultants due to the first load system,
during the deformation which is produced by the second. The final
state of stress and deformation is the same, if the second load system
is applied first, and the same total strain energy results. But in this
case the second integral in (2.72a) looks different: the asterisks are
attached to the forces instead of to the strains. It follows that both
forms of this integral must be equal to each other, which may also
be proved by eliminating all stress resultants with the help of HooKE's
law (2.54).
During the loading procedure which leads to (2.72a) for the strain
energy, the external forces do the work

T = ~ j(pou + p~v + PrW)dA + j(pozt* + p,pv* + p,.w*)dA

+ ! J(ptu* + p;v* + p~w*)dA.
+! j(N~v + N,p 0 ii)d8 + j(N,pv* + N,p 0 ii*)ds
+! Jov:v* +N:eu*)ds. (2.72b)

Here, again, the final result must be the same if we transfer all the
·asterisks in the second and fifth integrals from the displacements to
the forces, and therefore
J (pozt* + p~v* + p,w*)dA. + J (N~v* + N,poii*)ds
= J (ptu + p:v + p~w)dA + j (N:v + N: 0 u)ds. (2.73)
Both sides of this equation must be equal to the second integral in
(2.72a). When we write this equation, it is advisable to use HooKE's
law (2.54) to express the strains in terms of the stress resultants:

J (p6n + p:v + p~w)dA + J (N~v + N: 0 u)ds

=~ t! [N,pN: + N 0 Nt- vN,pNt- 1•N0 N: + 2(1 + v) N,poN:o]dA..

(2.74)
 2.5 DEFOR::\-IATION 99

Equation (2.73) contains MAXWELL's theorem of reciprocity. To

derive it from this equation, we need consider only two very special load
systems. Let the system p6 , P+• p,. consist of nothing but a concentrated
force P acting normal to the shell at some point 1. At some other point 2
this load may produce a displacement w 21 • The load system p:, p~ PZ,
we shall take as a concentrated force P* acting on the shell at point 2,
normal to the middle surface. The deflection w* which it produces at
point 1 will be called w12 • In this case (2.73) reduces to the simple-
statement

and if the two forces are of equal magnitude, we have w 12 = w 21 , which

is exactly MAXWELL's theorem.
Equation (2.74) may be used to find the displacement of a point of
the shell without solving the complete deformation problem as explained
in Sections 2.5.2 through 2.5.4.
As an example we calculate the vertical displacement for the top·
of the shell dome of Fig. 2.35, but under the assumption that the shelB
is supported continuously along the springing line. The load is the same-
as before.
The stress resultants N +, N 6 are the same which on p. 93 were-
called N+O• N 60 and which are plotted in Fig. 2.36. In addition we now
need the membrane forces N:, N:
for a vertical unit load applied at
the top of the shell. These forces may be found easily from (2.10) and
(2.9b). They are
N* _ _ 2b N* _ bsincp
+- :n:(4b2 -h2 cot 2 cp)sincp' 0- :n:h2 .

In (2.74) the first integral reduces to Wv and the second integral is zerO'
since the edge is supported and does not move. On the right-hand side
the shear is zero, and if we assume v = 0, two more terms drop out.
and the integral becomes
4bf( -N+ N 6 sincp)
Et (4 b2 - h2 cot2 cp) sincp + ~ r r1 d<P ·
When the expressions for the radii are introduced, this yields finally
h2 (( 2N+ N 6 (4b 2 - h2 \)Ot 2 cf>))
Etwu = 4b. - sin4 cp + h2 sin2 cp d<P ·

This integral must be evaluated by SIMPSON's rule. The result is Etw,.

= 98,700 lb, which differs by only 2% from the figure obtained on
p. 94 from, a complete analysis of the deformation of this shell.
If the shell is supported on columns as in Fig. 2.35, the fictitious unit
load at the top will give rise to membrane forces N:, N:, Nt 6 con-
7*
100 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

taining harmonic constituents of orders n = 8, 16, ... , and each of these

harmonics will contribute to the integral on the right-hand side of (2.74)
if multiplied by the harmonic of the same order of the actual stress
system. On the left-hand side the first integral is still equal to w,., and
in the second integral the total contribution must be zero, since every-
where on the edge either the resultant force or the resultant displace-
ment is zero.

2.5.6 Statically Indeterminate Structures

The shell structures which we studied in the preceding sections were
all statically determinate. Indeed, for determining the three unknown
functions N•, N 6 , N• 6 , we always had at hand the three equations (2.6),
which are the conditions of equilibrium for an arbitrary shell element.
Occasionally we determined a free constant from a condition of regularity
of the stress system, but this too can be interpreted as a condition of
equilibrium of a particular shell element.
However, cases exist in which equilibrium conditions are not suffi-
cient to determine the stress resultants in a shell. vVe see this best by
an example.
Let a hemispherical shell be subjected to a load

P• = Po = 0, Pr = Prn (</>)COS n 0 with n :;;:; 2.

The general solution for the stress resultant:; is given by (2.29) in con-
nection with (2.27). It contains two constants of integration, one of
which, An, is determined by a condition of regularity. If either N.pn
or N•on is given at the boundary</>= n/2, this fact supplies an equation
for Bn, as we have seen in the slightly different case of the shell on iso-
lated supports. These problems are statically determinate.
The situation is different if the shell rests with the whole circum-
ference of its boundary circle on an unyielding foundation. The bound-
ary condition which will help us to find B,. is then a condition of zero
displacement, and this makes the problem statically indeterminate.
To solve it, we follow the usual method of treating statically in-
determinate structures. vVe can imagine that the edge support consists
of two separate structural elements. The first one is a circular stiffening
ring, not deformable in its own plane but unresisting to forces normal
to this plane. This ring absorbs the shearing forces N• 6 = N</>Bn sin nO
of the shell. The second element consists of an infinite number of vertical
bars connecting the edge of the shell with the rigid foundation and trans-
mitting the forces N</>n cosnO.
If we cut through these bars, the forces N.pn cosnO become a system
of external forces, which we can choose as we like, and the shell be-
 2.5 DEFORMATION 101

comes statically determinate. In this modified structure we compute two

systems of stress resultants. The first one is produced by the given
load p, and boundary forces N 4> such that B, = 0. From (2.29) we
find
f
4>

["(O) = + a c;~2</>: 2 p, 11 ( cp) (n + COS cp) Sin</> tan" : d</> ,

0

f
4>

y<o> = -a t:~~2~2 p,, (cp) (n- cos cp) sin cp cot" : dcp,
0

and from (2.27):

N~~ = !( u<o> + y<o>) ,

N(O)
oj>On = __!___ ( u<ol - y<o>) ·
2

For the second system of stress resultants we remove the load p,. from
the shell and apply only an edge load N4> = N4>n cosn(J of such magnitude
that B,. = 1. From (2.32) we find
N(l) = - N(l) = - Nm = tann</>/2
4>n On 4>0n 2 sin2<f> •

The real forces, which we want to find, are a linear combination of the
two, for example

and here B, is the redundant quantity, which must be determined from

the condition that the displacements

are zero at the edge cp = n/2 of the shell.

To find such edge displacements, we have (2.74). For the forces N4> ...
of this formula we substitute our forces N~> ... , and for the Nt ... our
N~> .... With the simplifying assumption v = 0 (which, of course, is not
essential for the method) we get:

I (N~~ V~) cos 2n e + N~~n u~) sin 2n 0) a d(J

J
0

=Et
1 J 'li/2

(N<o>
4>n N<t> <o> m <o> m . A.. A..
4>n+N0,Non+2N4> 0nN4>0n)asrn'Yd 'Y·
2:t
cos2 n ead.
sin 211
(J (J
0 0

·The integrations over (J may be performed at once, but the cp integra-

tion on the right which still depends on the function Prn (cp), will usually
102 CHAP. 2: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

have to be done numerically. The boundary forces on the left-hand side

of the equation are N~~ = ~, N~~n = - ~, and therefore the formula
gives the difference of the two displacements:

j
:t/2

-<o>
V
"
- ii<o> - 2 a
n -Et
(N<o> Nm
•n •n
+ N<o> Nm -l- 2 N<o>
on on '
Nlll ) si·n "- d"-
•on •on 'f' 'f'•
0

If we again apply (2.74) but this time introduce N~> ... for both N • ...
and N: ... ,
we obtain an analogous result for v~> - u~>:

f ((N~~) 2 + (Nh1~) 2 +
n/2

v~:> - ii\:> = ~~ 2 (N~1Jn)2) sin</> d</>

0

;r/2
_ ~-~tan2 "cjJ/2
- 2 Et sin 3 cjJ d</> ·
0

These formulas do not give information about u,, or v,., and they cannot
even be expected to do so, because the displacements are not completely
determined by the stress resultants in the shell. Any one of them may
be changed at will at the expense of the other one by adding an in-
extensional deformation of suitable size. As we see from (2.62a, b) with
B = 0, in an inextensional deformation we always have un = vn at the
edge of the hemisphere. Therefore the difference u11 - v,. is not affected
by inextensional deformations, and so is dependent upon the stress
resultants only.
In our problem of a shell resting on an unyielding foundation, both
v. + u,. and v,.- u,. must be zero. The first of these conditions deter-
mines an inextensional deformation, and the second one serves to deter-
mine B •. We write it in the form

and find from this

as the quotient of two deformations which we have just determined as

energy integrals. When we have found B,., our problem is solved.
 Chapter 3

DIRECT STRESSES IN CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

3.1 Statically Determinate Problems

3.1.1 General Theory

:3.1.1.1 Differential Equations
A cylinder is generated by moving a straight line along a curve
while maintaining it parallel to its original direction. It follows from
t.his definition that through every point of the cylinder one may pass
a straight line which lies entirely on this surface. These lines are called
the generators. For convenience of language we shall assume here that
the generators are horizontal. All planes which are normal to the genera-
tors intersect the cylinder in identical curves which are called profiles.
The cylinder is named after the shape of the profile, e.g. a circular or
a parabolic cylinder.
Generators and profiles suggest themselves as a natural net of
coordinate lines. We choose an arbitrary profile as the datum line and
from this measure the coordinate x along the generators, positive in
one direction and negative in the other. The second coordinate must
vary from generator to generator. In analogy to the angle </> t;sed on
surfaces of revolution, we introduce here the angle </> which a tangent
to the profile (or a tangential plane to the cylinder) makes with a hori-
zontal plane (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1. Coordinates on a cylinder

104 CHAP. 3: CYLIXDRICAL SHELLS

Now let us consider a shell whose middle surface is a cylinder. lVe

cut from it an element bounded by two adjacent generators cf> and
cf> + dcf> and by two adjacent profiles x and x + dx (Fig. 3.2). The mem-
brane forces which act on the four edges must all lie in tangential planes

l!'lg. 3.2. Element of a cylindrical shell

to the middle surface and may be resolved into normal and shear com-
ponents as shown. The forces per unit length of section are N,., lV4>
(normal forces) and N,, =N.; .• (shearing forces). The load per unit area
of the shell element has the components Px, P.;, in the directions of
increasing x and cf>, respectively, and a radial (normal) component p,,
positive outward.
The stress resultants N x, N.;, N x,P are of the same kind as those
appearing in shells of revolution, and, again, three conditions of equi-
librium of the shell element will help us to find them as functions of .r
and cf>.
These conditions may easily be read from Fig. 3.2. The equilibrium
in the x direction yields the equation
aN. . aN.;.
-iJX dx · r dcf> + -Qcp- dcf> · dx + p · dx · r dcf> = 0
X • '

and for the forces parallel to a tangent to the profile we have

aN.; aN• .;
aq; dcf> · dx + ----a;- dx • rdcf> + P,; • dx • r dcf> = 0.

At right angles to the middle surface we have, besides the external

force p,. • dx · r dcf>, only the resultant of the two forces N.; dx, pointing
 3.1 STATICALLY DETERMINATE PROBLE~IS 105

inward:
N +dx • dcf> - Pr · dx · r dcf> = 0 .
After division by the two differentials, these three conditions of equi-
librium are already the differential equations for the membrane forces
of the shell:
N+ = p,.r,
aN.+ 1 aN+
ax = - P+ - -r &f. (3.1 a-c)
aN. _ _ _ ~ aN.+
ax - Px r iJcp •

They correspond to (2.6a-c). ·we see at a glance that these equations

are of a much simpler structure; they may be solved one by one. We
shall see later how we have to pay for this mathematical advantage
with a mechanical disadvantage.

3.1.1.2 General Solution

From (3.1 a) we obtain N +. This "hoop force" depends only on the
local intensity of the normal load p, and cannot be influenced by bound-
ary conditions. This is not of great importance for shells whose profiles
are closed curves and which have only two profiles as boundaries. But
for shells like the one in Fig. 3.11, the impossibility of prescribing
arbitrary values of N + at the straight edges leads to the crucial point
in the membrane theory of cylindrical shells. We shall see this in detail
on p. 118.
The other two equations (3.1 b, c) may be solved by simple inte-
grations in the x direction. Each yields a "constant of integration",
which, of course, must be independent of x but may be an arbitrary
ftmction of <./>:

(3.2a, b)

Nx = - f (Px + ~ a:;•) dx + l 2 (c/>).

The fnnctions / 1 and / 2 must be determined from two boundary con-
ditions. Each must be of the kind that on a proDle x = const. (one end
of the shell or a plane pf symmetry) one of the forces Nr+ or N"' is given
as an arbitrary function of cf>.
In some simple and important cases of such boundary conditions it
is possible to introduce them into (3.2) and to determine the functions 11
and 12 before making any decision regarding the shape of the profile of
the cylinder or the particular kind of loading.
 106 CHAP. 3: CYLIXDRICAL SHELLS

All these cases have in common that Px = 0 and that the other
two load components, p~ and Pn are independent of x. "Ve may then
perform the simple integrations in (3.2) and obtain the following set:

(3.3a, b)

Here F (</>} is an abbreviation, defined by (3.3a), which will be helpful

in writing subsequent formulas.
The different boundary conditions which we now shall consider will
all deal with the support which the shell receives along an edge x = const.
This support is usually supplied by connecting this edge with a ring
or an arch. "Vhen we apply loads in the direction of the generators to
this reinforced edge, the ring cannot substantially participate in carrying
them, since it could only do so with rather large deflections, which the
much stiffer shell will not permit. We conclude that, if no such load is
applied, there must be N x = 0 along the edge, and this must be used as
a boundary condition.
On the other hand, when the ring deflects in its own plane, a thin
shell will follow such deformation, unless it requires a change of the
hoop strain E~. This latter will not be possible, since N~ is fixed by
(3.1a) and Nx = 0 beeause of the boundary condition. We conclude that
the ring can and will receive shearing forces N,~ from the shell in any
amount which (3.2a) or (3.3a) may require and that any discrepancies
between the plane deformation of the ring and that of the shell can be
settled only by the bending theory, since the membrane theory is
-evidently unable to deal with them.

IFig. 3.3. Cylindrical shell supported by diaphragms at both ends. Spanwlse distribution of N.~
and N.
 3.1 STATICALLY DETERMINATE PROBLEMS 107
Depending on the different applications of the theory, the stiffening
member may be a ring, an arch, a rib, a truss, or a thin solid wall. In
order to cover all these cases with a common expression, we shall hence-
forth speak of a diaphragm and shall use this word to mean any plane
stiffening member which is capable of accepting from the shell any
force lying in its plane but which offers no resistance to forces normal
to its plane.
The simplest and most important case of boundary conditions is
that of a shell of length l which is stiffened and supported by a dia-
phragm at each end (Fig. 3.3). If we count the coordinate x from the
profile halfway between the ends of the cylinder, we have as boundary
conditions:
N"""" 0 at x = ± lf2.
When we introduce here Nx from (3.3b), we find that
I (cp) = - £_ dF(cf>)
2 8r rlcf>
and hence
.Y,.p = -xF(cp),
(3.4)

From these formulas we see that the lengthwise distribution of the

shearing force Nx+ is the same as that of the transverse shearing force

I
------+-- -
I
1-4-1•--X---i
1-4---------!------~

Fig. 3.4. Cantilever shell. Spanwise distribution of N z .p and .V•

·of a simple beam of span l carrying a uniformly distributed load. Corre-

. spondingly, the forces N x are distributed in the x direction as the bending
moments of such a beam. This indicates that a cylindrical shell with
108 CHAP. 3: CYLIXDRICAL SHELLS

these boundary conditions really act:s like such a beam, transmitting

all its load to the two diaphragms at the ends of the span l. Of course,
the distribution of the forces Nx~ and Nx over the cross section cannot
be derived from the beam formulas but is governed by the equations (3.1 )·
for the equilibrium of the shell element.
Another case of boundary conditions is represented by Fig. 3.4. Here
one end, x = l, of the shell is completely built in, i.e., the support at
this side can resist not only shearing forces N x~ but also normal for-
ces N x. The other end, x = 0, may then be left without any support
at all, and we have the boundary conditions

X=O: Nx~=O and Nx=O.

A glance at the set (3.3) shows that in this case / 1 and / 2 must be iden-
tically zero, and hence we have
Nx~=-XF,
(3.5)·
x 2 rlF
N.r = 2r d<f>
This shell is supported like a cantilever beam, and, again, the spanwise
distributions of Nx~ and Nx are those of the shear and the bending
moment of the beam analogue.
The three-dimensional support of such a cantilever shell will scarcely
be accomplished by a solid wall, as shown in Fig. 3.4, but rather by
an adjoining span of the same shell (Fig. 3.5). In such a construction we
have again two diaphragms of the usual type, which resist only shearing
forces but do not accept forces Nx from the shell. The forces Nx coming.

Fig. 3.5. Cylindrical shell with overhanging end. Span wise distribution of N z ~ and S"
 3.1 ST.-\TICALLY DETER~IINATE PROBLEMS 109

from the cantilever section must therefore be transmitted across the

diaphragm to the adjoining bay of the shell, which therefore has the
boundary conditions
P dF
X =0: N ~~ ___!_-
.r 2r dcp '
Nx=O.
·when we determine / 1 and / 2 from these conditions, we arrive at the
formulas:

(3.6)
N = _!_ ( 2
.o. x 2T X
_
X
li +
l
l~ + z2 )
1
dF
dcp .
2

Again Nx~ and N.r: have the same spanwise distribution as the shearing
force and the bending moment of the beam analogue. This coincidence
will also be found if another cantilever shell is added at the other end
of the main span, but the analogy cannot be extended to statically
indeterminate cases as, for example, that of a cylindrical shell spanning
two bays between three diaphragms. Here the result will be influenced
by the deformation of the shell, and this is different from that of a
simple beam, as we shall see on p. 127.
In all the preceding cases, N<b is found from equation (3.1a), which
is not affected by the choice of the boundary conditions.

3.1.1.3 Homogeneous Solution

If we put p"" = P<b = p,. = 0, we obtain the membrane forces in a
shell which is subjected to loads only at its boundaries. From (3.1 a) we
see that, in this case, N<b ""'0, and (3.3) yields
Ne~= /1 (</>)'
(3.7)
1
N
X = - --;:- aq, + I 2 ( '~')
X dfl A.
•

Let us apply these formulas to a shell supported as shown in Fig. 3.6.

Then (3. 7) describe the stress resultants produced by given edge loads
at x = 0 and x = l. We choose Nx = 0 at x = l and an arbitrary dis·
tribution Nx = Nx(</>) at x = 0. We have then

+i;=f2=Nx.
The shear follows by an integration:

Nx<b = /1 = +J 0
<b
rj2d</> +G.
110 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

The constant C is still to be determined from a suitable condition, but,

in any case, the formula must yield the same value Nx~ for</> = 0 and
</> = 2n. Therefore, we must have
'2:r
frf 2 d</>=0.
0

and this is a restriction to which the choice of the forces Nx is subjected.

Since r d</> is the line element of the edge, the restriction simply means

-r-- -----0--

Fig. 3.6. Cylindrical shell supported by two rings ·n dil\phragms

that the forces applied to the edge must have the resultant zero. This
is a very plausible limitation. If we had admitted similar forces at the
other end of the cylinder, it would only be necessary that both loads
have equal resultants opposite in direction.

3.1.2 Tubes and Pipes

3.1.2.1 Circular Cylinder
We have not yet discussed what happens if the cylinder has edges
</> = const., but we are already sufficiently prepared to find the stress
rcsultants in tubelike shells. The simplest case is that of a circular
cylinder. Then the radius of curvature r = a is a constant. If such a
pipe is filled with water of specific weight y, the external forces (the
water pressure) are
Px = P~ = 0, p,. = Po -yacos</>.
Here p 0 is the pressure at the level of the axis of the tube and may
be anything ~ ya, but not less.
If we choose the boundary conditions of Fig. 3.i, we find at once
from (3.1a) and (3.4) the stress resultants:
N4> = p0 a -ya2 coscf>,
Nx</> = -yaxsin cf>, (3.8a-c)
1
Nx =- 8 y(l 2 - 4x 2)coscf>.
 3.1 STATICALLY DETER~IINATE PROBLE~IS 111
The average pressure p0 produces only hoop stresses. The load term
with y represents the weight of the content and produces a kind of
over-all bending of the pipe, which acts as a beam carrying this weight
between the supports at x = + lf2 and x = -1(2. We have already seen
that therefore the shear Nx~ and the normal force Nx have the same

~~--

.,j- --+----;(t'\-'i.
~ r-t=--~-_-:_-_-~+..-_-x_____,_Lw--~
.Fig. 3.7. Circnial' <:yiimi<•r fliieli with water

spanwise distribution as the shear and the bending moment of a beam.

The distribution of Nx over the profile is shown in the N.r: diagram in
Fig. 3.7. Incidentally, this is the same linear distribution as that of
bending stresses in common beam theory. This result is a peculiarity of
the circular cylinder and, even there, is restricted to certain simple
loads.
The boundary conditions which we have chosen are not easy to
realize. They will prevail in a free-spanning section of a pipeline if
there are expansion joints at both ends beyond the stiffening rings.
which here replace the diaphragms.
If our shell is the wall of a horizontal cylindrical tank, the bulk-
heads will also be subjected to the water pressure and will transmit
it to the cylinder, where it creates additional forces Nx. If the bulk-
heads are plane elastic plates, these forces will be distributed over the
circumference according to a law, A + B cos<f>, and from the equilibrium
of the bulkhead we find A and B such that we have
P a o,a2
N .r = - 02- - - '-
4 cos 'I'
A..

as the boundary condition at both ends of the cylinder. This will not
change N~ and Nx~• but we have to go back to (3.2) to find / 2 • If there
we put / 1 = 0, corresponding to the symmetry of the shell with respect.
to the plane x = 0, we have
112 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

and to satisfy the new boundary condition, we have to put

1 1
f2 = 2 Po a - 8 y (2 a 2 + l 2) cos cp .
This yields

The distribution of Nx in this case varies along the span. It is t.he same
as that of a beam which carries an eccentric axial load corresponding
to the pressure on the bulkheads, in addition to the weight of the water
in the tank.
When we put y = 0 in the last formula, we have the well-known
pressure vessel formula with N ~ = p 0 a and Ne = p 0 af2 for a cylindrical
vessel with uniform internal pressure p 0 • Our complete formula shows
that the cylindrical shell may also resist a variable pressure by a simple
system of direct stresses. From the next examples we shall see that this
is no peculiarity of the circular cylinder.

3.1.2.2 Elliptic Cylinder

Fig. 3.8 shows a cylindrical tank of elliptic cross section. It may be
subjected to the same hydrostatic pressure as the circular cylinder.
Here this pressure is, of course, not proportional to coscp, but must
be written as
Pr = P.p = 0, p, ~~ Po- yz,

A
/I
/I

·i~~ ·--+----
c4 J(_j
J<'ig. 3.8. Elliptic cylinder fllle<l with water

where z is the vertical coordinate in the cross sectional plane. From the
equation of the ellipse the following relation may easily be derived:
b2 cos cp
z= (a 2 sin 2 cp + b2 cos 2 cp) 112
which connects z with our coordinate cp. For the radius of curvature r
the same formula holds which we used already for r 1 in Chapter 2, p. 28:
 3.1 STATICALLY D.ETERJUNATE PROBL.E~IS 113
Upon introducing all this into (3.1 a) we find the hoop force
y a 2 b' cos cp

and assuming again the somewhat academic boundary conditions of

Fig. 3.7, we find from (3.4)
y _ 3 ( 2 b2) cos cp sin cp b2 3 (a 2 - b2) cos q, + a2 . ,~..
~ x4>- Po a - X a2sin2cp + b2 cos2cp- Y X (a2sin2cp + b2cos2cp)a:2 sm'f''

, 3 a 2 - b2 a 2 sin2cp - b2 cos 2 cp
lV = - - p - - (l 2 - 4 x 2 ) (a
:-;;-~:-:-'---~;--~~
2 sin 2 cp + b2 cos 2 cp) 112
.L 8 0 a 2 b2

+ __!_ L (l 2 _ 4 x 2 ) 8 a4 sin 2 cp - a 2 b2 {4 + 5 sin2 cp) + 3 b cos 2 cp coscp

4

8 a2 a 2 sin 2cp + b2 cos 2 q, ·

Here again the lengthwise distribution of Nr and Nx4> is the same
as that of the bending moment and shearing force of a simple beam
of span l, and N4> does not depend on x. But now the constant pressure p 0
produces also forces Nx4> and N~.. These forces enable the shell to with-
stand the load without bending stresses, and the bulkheads or stiffening
rings at the ends are needed here to receive the shear N x 4>, which results
from this stress system.

Fh;. :1.\l. Stress resultants in an elliptic cylinder. Left half: gas pressure p only. Right half: water
prrssnre, zero pressure at highest point

In Fig. 3.9 numerical results are plotted for two different conditions.
The diagrams at the right belong to the case p 0 = yb, where the pipe
is just filled to the top without additional pressure. At the left, the
forces produced by a simple gas pressure p 0 are given. They result from
our formulas when we put y = 0, and they may. therefore also be con-
sidered as the limiting case of a water content with so high a pressure p 0
that they terms become insignificant. The diagrams show that the stress
systems are far from simple; however, they exist, and the shell can
carry the load.
If we close the ends of the cylinder by plane bulkheads, they will
transmit additional forces N x to the edges of the shell. Their magnitude
Flligge, Stresses in Shells, 2nrl Ed. 8
114 CIL<\.P. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

and distribution follows from the solution of a plate problem, with

which we are not concerned here. The other two stress resultants, N 4>
and N x 4> , are not changed. The case of curved bulkheads presents an
additional shell problem and may be treated by the method explained
in Section 4.4.2.2.

3.1.2.3 Inclined Cylinder

In all examples which we have studied thus far, the external forces
were independent of x. 'Ve shall add here one case of a more general
nature, which may show the possibilities of stress systems in cylindrical
shells.

}'ig. 3.10. Inclined cyllnllrical tank

Fig. 3.10 shows a circular cylinder whose axis is inclined at an angle~

from the vertical. The cylinder is partially filled with water. The water
pressure is, of course, normal to the wall, so that we again have Px "" P.p
=o 0. The normal load is

p,. = y(x cosa- a sina coscf>) for x >a tana coscf>

and
p,. = 0 for x < a tan a coscf>.
In the part of the shell which lies above the water level, the stress
resultants are given by the homogeneous solution (3.7). If we assume as
boundary conditions that the upper edge is completely free, we have for
this domain / 1 =/ =
2 0, and the shell is here absolutely free of stress.
For the lower part of the shell we have to use the general equations
(3.1 a) and (3.2a, b), where, of course, / 1 and / 2 are not the same functions
 3.1 STATICALLY DETERMINATE PROBLE:\IS 115

as before but have to be determined from the condition that the stress
resultants are continuous at the water level.
Equation (3.1 a) yields immediately
N</J = ya(x cosx- a sinx cos</>),

and this fortunately is zero at the level x = a tana cos</>.

The partial derivative is
aN
a/= y a sin
2 X sin</>

and therefore, according to (3.2a):

Nx</J = -yax ~ina sin</>+ /d</>).
This vanishes at the water level if we put
/ 1 (</>) = ya 2 tan:x sina cos</> sin</>,
and this yields the shearing force as
N.x</J = ya(a tana cos</>- x) sina sincf>.

Differentiating again with respect to </> and applying (3.2b) yieids an

expression for the normal force:

Nx = ~ [ x 2 cos</> - 2 a x tan a (cos 2 cf> - sin 2 cf>)J sin x + f 2 (</>) •

The function / 2 (</>) has to be determined in such a way that Nx vanishes

at the water level, and this leads to the result

Nx= ~ [x 2 coscf>- 2axtanx(cos 2 cf>- sin 2 </>)

+ a 2 tan 2 :x (cos 2 cf>- 2sin 2 </>) coscf>Jsina.
Quite different from all preceding and following examples, the stress
resultants here do not appear as products of a function of <f> and a func-
tion of x, and it is therefore not possible to represent them by graphs
giving their distribution over the profile and along the span, respectively.
In Fig. 3.10 some diagrams for Nx are given, which show how differently
this force is distributed over different cross sections.
If a = 0, the formulas degenerate into the trivial results for a vertical
cylindrical tank. The other limiting case, a = n/2, does not exist for a
cylinder of finite length.

3.1.2.4 Fourier Series Solutions for the Circular Cylinder

Since (3.1) can easily be solved by quadratures, it seems unnecessary
to employ FouRIER series in so simple a problem. However, such solutions
8*
116 CHAP. 3: CYLI~DRICAL SHELLS

are useful on certain occasions, such as the connection of a cylinder

with a shell of revolution or the combined use of membrane and bending
theories.
In shells with a closed circumference all quantities must be periodic
functions of the coordinate </> with the period 2n. We may therefore
write the stress resultants as FouRIER series with this period. This is
particularly useful for the homogeneous solution for the circular cylinder.
In this case, N.;= 0, and the other two forces are given by (3.7) when
we put r =a.
vVe assume Nx.; and N,. of the form

Nx.; = 2"' Nx.;,,.sinm<f>,

1
Nx = 2 Nx Cosm<f>.
0
111 (3.9)

Upon comparing this with (3.7) we see that the coefficients Nx.Pm must
be constants, say

.~..Vx.;"' =-A,,,, (3.10a)

while Nxm must depend linearly on x in the form

mx
NX/11 =Alii-+
a Bill. (3.10b)

For every harmonic, except m = 0, there are available two free con-
stants Am, Bm, and for the zero-order harmonic there is one constant,
B 0 , which describes a uniform tension or compression.
It follows that we may prescribe N:ro at one end of the cylinder and
that for each of the other harmonics two boundary conditions are
admitted. These may prescribe N .r m at both ends, or there may be one
condition for N.rm and one for N:r.;m·
vVhen we write N:r.; as a cosine series and Nx as a sine series, we get
another pair of constants for each harmonic m > 0. They lead to similar
stress systems as before. For m = 0 there results a constant shear N.,q.o
which corresponds to BREDT's theory of torsion of a thin-walled tube.
There is another way of using FoURIER series for cylindrical shells.
In a cylinder of length l the loads and the stresses are defined only
within this length and may be extrapolated to form· periodic functions
of x with any period ~ l. In the bending theory of barrel vaults it is
necessary to choose 2l as the period, and we shall, therefore, write now
the loads in the form

00 00
""' . nnx ""' . n::1:x
p,. = ..t_, Prll S1n -~-'
1 .
P.; =.:..,. P.;nsm -.-, (3.11)
1 t
 3.1 STATICALLY DETERMINATE PROBLEMS 117

where the FouRIER coefficients p,.,, P~n are independent of x but may
and usually do depend on rj>. The stress resultants must then be assumed
as
N~ = J: N~,sm nn
eo

1
x
-l-,
•
N,~ = J:"' N,.~,cos nnx
1
-l-,
(3.12)
N '"
~ . nnx
N x Sln-l-'
lx=.:;_. 11
1

where the n-th harmonics N~,, Nx~n• Nxn of the stress resultants are
again functions of rJ> alone.
If we measure x from one end of the cylinder, then Nx == 0 at both
ends, while the shear N,,~ does not vanish. The FoURIER series represent,
therefore, the solution for a cylinder which is supported at the ends
x = 0 and X = l (Fig. 3.6).
When we introduce the::;e FoURIER series into the differential equa-
tions (3.1 ), we obtain the following results:
1V~,. = Pr"r'
nn 1 dN~.
TNx~,, = p~, +--;:- ~, (3.13a-c)

nn 1 dN·~·
TNX/1 =---;:- ~
As an example of the application of these formulas we consider a
circular cylinder (r =a) of length l which has to carry its own weight.
This is the shell shown in Fig. 3.7 but with the coordinate x as shown
in Fig. 3.6. If pis the weight per unit of surface, the load components are
p~ = p sinrj>, Pr = - p cosrj>. (3.14)

They do not depend on x. To bring them into the form (3.11), we must
expand a constant into a Fourier series. The well-known formula

4 ~ 1 . nnx
1 =- .:;_. -sm--
n 1, 3, 5, .•• n l
yields in our case
4p . ,!,. 4p
p~ ,, = nn s1n'l', p,." = - -
nn cos rJ> '

valid for odd n, while all the even-order coefficients are zero.
When we introduce these load coefficients in (3.13), we find (for
odd n)
4pa 8pl . ,!,.
N x</>ll = 22
N ~" = - - - cos rJ> , nn Sin 'I''
n n
(3.15a-c)
8pl 2
Nx, = - - 3- 3 cosrj>.
ann
118 CHAP. 3: CYLL~DRICAL SHELLS

This result is, of course, identical with (3.16) below. For the simple
purposes of a membrane stress analysis the closed form (3.16) is pre-
ferable, hut we shall need the series form (3.12) on p. 265 when we
discuss bending stresses in the shell.

:U.3 Barrel Vaults

3.1.3.1 Circular Cylinder
As an introduction to the theory of barrel vaults we consider the
case just treated, a tube of circular profile, supported as in Fig. 3.7, and
subjected to the load described by (3.14). Using the coordinate x as
shown in Fig. 3.7, we find from (3.1 a) and (3.4):
N~ = -pacoscf>, Nx~ = - 2pxsincf>,
(3.16)

The most remarkable feature of this force system is that on the gener-
ators cf> = ±::rj2 we haveN~""" 0. If we cut away the lower half of the
shell, the upper half ne~d not be supported at the straight edges and
may carry its weight freely between the diaphragms, just as the tubular
shells do. Such barrel vaults have been used as roof structures.

Fig. 3.11. Barrel vault shell

However, the straight edges of a barrel vault are not completely

free of external forces. There is a shear N x ~ = ± 2 px, and a structural
element must be provided to which it can be transmitted. This so-called
edge member is a straight bar, and if properly placed, it is stressed only
in tension (Fig. 3.11). Its axial force N is, of course, variable along the
span. It can easily be found by integrating the shear Nx~, beginning at
 3.1 STATICALLY DETERMINATE PROBLE}IS 119

the end x = -l/2 where N = 0. For the edge </> = +n/2 the integration
is like this :
X X

N= jNx~dx=-2p Jxdx= !p(l2-4x2),

-l/2 -1/2

and at the other side the same result appears.

The statical necessity of this force may be understood from a look
at the N x diagram in Fig. 3.12. It has only compressive forces, and if we

Fig. 3.12. Stress resultants in a barrel vault with semicircular protlle

cut the shell apart in a plane x = const., the horizontal equilibrium of

each half requires that tensile forces of the same amount also appear.
Now the integral of the forces N .c in the cross section is
+:t/2 +:t/2

j Nxad</>=- !p(l 2 -4x 2 ) j cos</>d</>=- ~p(l2-Jx2).

-:r/2 -:rt/2

This is exactly the same compressive force as the two tensile forces N
in the edge members so that they just maintain the horizontal equi-
librium.
The resultant of the compressive forces lies somewhere in the semi-
circular profile and therefore higher than the tensile force 2 N, and both
combine to form a couple. When we consider the barrel vault as a beam
of span l, this couple is the bending moment. Since the load of the
"beam" per unit length is nap, its bending moment is
l2 - 4 x2
.il1=nap 8

To find the moment of the stress resultants N x and N in the cross section
of the shell, the axis of reference may be chosen arbitrarily. We choose
the horizontal diameter. Then N makes no contribution, and N.c gives

-J
+n/2

N x ·a cos</> ·ad</> = ~ n p a (l2 - 4 x2) ,

-:rt/2
120 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

which is exactly equal to 1ll. In the same way we may check that the
vertical resultant of the shearing forces Nr.; in the cross section is equal
to the transverse shearing force -napx of th~ beam analogue.
This comparison between the barrel vault and its beam analogue
gives a good general idea of the stress system in the shell and yields
a useful check for computations. It cannot disclose details of the mem-
brane stress distribution, since this depends essentially on the shape
of the cylinder. We shall study this now in several examples of technical
interest.

3.1.3.2 Elliptic Cylinder

To make a shell suitable for the construction of free spanning barrel
vaults, the force N.; must be zero at the straight edges. From (3.1 a)
we conclude that this always happens when the normal load component
p, = 0 there. Now, the essential load of such a structure is its own
weight and we see from (3.14) that in this case p, vanishes for</>= ± nf2.
The profile of a free spanning barrel vault must, therefore, terminate
with a vertical tangent.
Two simple curves which satisfy this condition are the ellips~ and
the cycloid, and they have, therefore, been suggested and used as profiles
of barrel vaults.
For the ellipse we have already seen how the radius r depends on
the coordinate cf>. Introducing tltis and the dead load, (3.14), into (3.1 a),
(3.4) we find

The distribution of these forces over the profile is shown in Fig. 3.13.
We see that N.; really vanishes at the edge, and that at the edge the
shear N x.; has a finite value ± 2 pax, which incidentally is the same as
for the circular cylinder of radius a. The force in the edge member there-
fore is again

The normal force Nx in the direction of the generators is, of course,

a. compression for the major part of the profile, but if bfa is small enough,
there is a zone with tensile stress near the edges, as shown in Fig. 3.13.
 3.2 DEFOR:'IIATION 121

3.1.3.3 Critical Remarks

Barrel vault shell roofs are usually built of reinforced concrete. In
the edge member of a single-span shell there is always a tensile force of
considerable magnitude, for which a steel reinforcement must be pro-
vided. Its cross section will, of course, be so chosen that the positive

-----Tj-11)
strain in it is as high as the strength of the material permits. On the

b - + +

--0--~~~--a--- -N-;- Nx~ --N;

Fig. 3.13. Stress resultants In a barrel vault with elliptic profile

other hand, we see from Figs. 3.12 and 3.13 that the cylindrical shell
has along its edge zero stress and hence zero strain. Such a discrepancy
of strains in adjacent fibers cannot exist in reality and to remedy it,
an additional stress system appears, consisting primarily of an additional
shear Nx~ but accompanied by bending moments j}[~ and transverse
shear forces Q~ of considerable magnitude.
There is still another source of bending stresses in the shell. Each
edge member has to carry a tensile force equal to the integral of the
compressive stresses across half the profile of the cylinder and, there-
fore, has a substantial weight needing support. If the edge member is a
slender bar, it will be suspended from the shell. If it is a deep beam,
its deflection is unlikely to agree with that of the shell, calculated from
its membrane stresses; and if the edge member rests on a wall, the de-
flection of the shell is completely impeded. In all these cases tensile or
compressive forces N~ act along the edge, which are incompatible ·with
the formulas of the membrane theory and thus require the presence of
a system of bending stresses.

3.2 Deformation
3.2.1 Differential Eftuations
In studying the deformations of a cylindrical shell, we may begin
in the same way as we did for shells of revolution. The strains are again
two normal strains, E, and €~, and a shear strain Yx~· HooKE's law is
the same as given by (2.54) or (2.55); we just have to replace the sub-
122 CHAP. 3: CYLI~DRICAL SHELLS

script() by x. Dropping the temperature terms, we have

(3.17)
2 (1 + v)
Yx~ = Et Nx~·

The next step is to find the relations between the strains E,, €~, Yx~
and the displacements. These are (Fig. 3.14): the axial displacement u,
parallel to the axis of the shell and positive in the direction of increas-
ing x, the circumferential displacement 'V in the direction of the profile
of the middle surface and positive in the direction of increasing </>, and
the radial displacement w, normal to the middle surface and positive
when outward.

Fig. 3.14. Fig. 3.15.

Displacements u, v, w, for a cylindrical shell Shear deformation of a shell element

The strain E,. represents the stretching of the straight line element dJ:,
<!a used by the difference between the displacements u and u + :: dx
<>f both its ends:
au (3.18a)
Ex= ax.
To find the hoop strain E~, we have to proceed in the same way as we
did for the meridional strain of a shell of revolution, and we again
find (2.56a) in a slightly different notation:

E~ = ! (:; + W) . (3.18b)

The shear is the sum of the rotations of the two line elements dx and r d</>
(Fig. 3.15):
av 1 au
Yx~ = ax + r aq, . (3.18c)
 3.2 DEFORl\lATION 123

When we eliminate the strains from HoOKE's law (3.17) and the
kinematic relations (3.18), we obtain the following equations:
au 1
ax= Et(Nx-11N.),
av 1 au _ 2 (1 + v) N (3.19a-c)
ax+racp- Et x••
w 1 av 1
r + r aq, =Et (N • - v Nx).

'These are the differential equations of the deformation of a cylindrical

.shell under the influence of direct stresses.
These equations may be solved one after the other by simple inte-
_grations. For t = const. the solution is

J (N,r.- 11N•)dx + /
Etu =
l
(cf>),

f
3

Etv=2(1 +11) Nx•dx-Et--;:

1
j ·aa;dx+fdcf>), (3.20)
av
Etw = r(N•- vNx)- Et aq,. J
'The generalization for variable wall thickness is obvious. In any case,
the solution yields as "constants of integration" two more arbitrary
functions of cf>, which may be used to fulfill two boundary conditions
at the edges x = const. of the shell.
Equations (3.20) may be used to find the deformation in such general
·cases as the one shown in Fig. 3.10. Usually we shall have to deal with
=
problems where Px 0 and P• and p, are independent of x. Then we may
introduce N• from (3.1a) and Nx•• N" from (3.3) and perform the
integrations:
x3 dF x2 d/1
Etu= 6 rdcp -vxN.- 2rdq, +x/2 +/3 ,
x' d ( 1 dF) q vx2 dN•
Etv=-24rdcp rdcp -(1+v)x~F+2T d<P

+::a,~{! ~~1 )-;:~~2 +x[2(1+v)/ 1 - ~ :~]+/4 , ~ (3.21}

E tw = x' !.._ [__!__ !.._ (__!__ dF)] -'- x2
24 dq, r dcp r d</J ' 2
[<2 + 11) dF - v _:!_ (__!__
d<fl
~N ~)]
d<fl r d<fl
x2 d ( 1 d/2 )
x3 d [ 1 d ( 1 d/1 )]
+ r N • - 6 dcp r d<P r dcp + 2 dq, r dq,
_ x [< 2 + 1l) d/1
d4>
_ !.._ (__!__
d4> r d4>
d/3)] _11 rfz _ df4dq, ·
.Just as we have done with the solution (3.3) of the stress problem, we
may specialize (3.21) by introducing certain boundary conditions. We
124 CHAP. 3: CYLI~DRICAL SHELLS

shall do so for the simple case represented by Fig. :t6. From the con-
dition that NJ = 0 at both ends x = ± l/2 we determined the functions / 1
and / 2 which are given on p. 107. We still have fa and / 4 which may
be used to satisfy two conditions for the displacements. Since we assume
that the diaphragms are perfectly flexible in the x direction (hence
Nx = 0), we have nothing to say about u, but we should, of course,
like to have v = 0 and w = 0 at both ends of the shell because of its
connection with the diaphragms. But this is too much for only two free
ftmctions, and we have to make a choice. Now there are forces Nx~ at
the edge which may enforce a displacement v, but there is no force in
the direction of w. It therefore seems most reasonable to determine fa
and / 4 so as to have v = 0 at x = ± l/2 and to leave it to additional
bending stresses to fulfill a similar condition for w. In this way wc arrive
at the following set of formulas:

Et n = -=.... (4 x 2 -
24r
:3 l2 ) dF - v x N ~
d<J> '
1
E t V = - 384 r (5 l 2 - 4 x 2) (l2 - 4 x 2 ) d<J> r
d ( 1 dF)
d</>

+ _.!__ (12- ..tx2) [2(1 + P)F- ~ ~N_.p_]

8 r d<J> '
Et w = __!._. (5l 2 - 4 x2) (l2 - 4 x2) .!..._ [_.!__ .!..._ (_.!__ dF)J
384 d<J> r d<J> r d<J>
d ( 1 dN ~)] . . ,
- S1 2
(l - 4 X
.. 2
)
[
(2
dF
+ 'V) d<J> - 'V d<J> r -d<J> -:- 1 J.V ~.

Upon introduction of r(<J>), N~, and F(</>) for a special case they yield
immediately the displacements for the assumed boundary conditions.

3.2.2 Circular Pipe

As a first application of these formulas we shall now calculate the
deflection of a pipe of circular cross section (r = a), filled with liquid
of specific weighty and supported by two rings as shown in Fig. 3.7.
The stress resultants are given by (3.8). Comparison of (3.8b) and (3.3a)
yields F(</>) = ya sin</>. Using this and N~ from (3.8a), we find from
(3.22):

Etu=-'Vp 0 nx+yx(~2 _l~ --Lpa 2 )cos<J>,

Et v ~ ,'.;. (51' - 4x') (I' - 4 x') 'in</> + 12 +; 1ya (I' - 4x') •in </>, ~
I
(3.23)
Et w = p0 a 2 ·- -
38-~-a (5l 2 - 4x 2) (l 2 - 4 x cos 4>
2)

- y4a (l 2 - 4 x 2 ) cos 4> - y a 3 cos 4> . J

 3.2 DEFOK\L\TIO.N 125

The uniform pressure p 0 produces only a uniform increase of the

diameter and a shrinkage of the length of the shell, represented by the
first term of w and of u, respectively. The y terms may be interpreted
in a similar way as it will be done in the following example. We shall
need (3.23) on p. 262 when discussing the stresses in a partially filled
pipe.
As a second application of (3.22) we consider the influence of the
weight of the pipe itself on the deflections. The stress resultants for
this case are given by (3.16). From them and (3.22) we find

+ va 2 ) cos</>,
l
Etu =-a-
p x (x23 - 412
Etv= 81 p(l 2 -4x 2) (5l 24- a42 x -c-4+3v) sin<f>,
2 2
(3.24)

1 4x 2) (5l 24- a42 x -:-4

2 2
+ v ) cos</>- ptt 2 cos<f>.
Etw = - --gP(l 2 -
J
Since in this particular case the distribution of N. over the cross
section is incidentally the same as that assumed by the elementary
beam theory, it is interesting to compare the deflection of the shell with
that of a beam of span Z, carrying the load q = 2npa per unit length
and having I= na3 t as moment of inertia of its cross section. The
well-known formula yields

Wbeam = 38:El (5l 2 - 4x 2) (l2- 4 x 2) = 192 ~ta 2 (5l2 - 4x 2) (l2- 4x 2).

This might be expected to be equal to v for </> = n/2 or to - w for </> = 0,

but evidently it is not. For v, the difference lies in the term 4 + 3v and
is due to the fact that in the shell formulas the influence of Nx.; on
the deformation is taken into account, which is not done in the common
beam formula. For w, an additional source of discrepancy will be found
in the deformation of the cross sections, which prohibits having zero
displacement on the whole circumference of the circles x = ::!: lf2. \Ve
had to choose the points where we wanted to fulfill this condition exactly,
and although our choice of the points </> = ±n/2 is certainly reasonable,
it is nevertheless arbitrary. The discrepancy does not depend on the
thickness t, but it disappears in the limit lfa ___,. oo, i.e. if the pipe is so
slender that the contribution of the shearing forces to the total deflection
and the relative clisplacements within each cross section become negli-
gible.

3.2.3 Fourier Srries Solutions for the Circular Cylinder

Just as we did on p. 116 for the stress problem of the circular cylinder,
we may also write solutions of the deformation problem as FouRIER
series.
126 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

For a circular cylinder of any length which carries only edge loads,
the membrane forces are given by (3.9) and (3.10). We now put
CO CO 00

u = 1; u 111 cosm<f>, ·v = '1; V sinm<f>,

111 w = '1; W cosm<f>
111 (3.25)
0 1 u
and find from (3.20)
mx2
Etu .., =Am 2 a -i- Bmx + 0""
m2 x3 ] mx 2mx
EtV 111 =A 111 [ 6 a 2 -2(1+11)X +B 1112 a +0 111 --a-+D,.,

- B [n;
(3.26)
Etwm = -A"' [~3a~- (2 + 11) mx] 111
2
; + 11a]
m2 x
-0m--D111 m.
a
The constants A 11. , Bm are the same as in (3.10) and describe a particular
solution of (3.19) corresponding to membrane forces which are caused
by the edge loads. The constants Cm and Dm represent solutions of the
homogeneous equations (3.19) and describe an inextensional deformation
of the shell.
If the edge loads are prescribed, the constants A"' and B"' are already
known, and two conditions for the edge displacements are needed to
determine Cm and D,, for every m. It is also possible not to prescribe
any edge loads at all and to prescribe four conditions for edge displace-
ments, two at each edge. Then all constants are determined by the edge
constraints, and the forces which produce the deformation may be
found by introducing A 111 and B 111 in (3.10). One may, of course, also
consider the intermediate case that one condition refers to an edge
load and three to displacements, but it is not possible to have more
than two conditions for the forces.
For a cylinder of length l we may write the displacements as a
FoURIER series in x:
nnx "" v,. !'!In 00

u = '1: u,. cos - l - '

00

v ""
= .c., . - nnx
l- , W
"" W Sln
=.c., . nnx
-l-.
11
1 1 1

When we introduce this and the corresponding expressions (3.12) for

the stress resultants into (3.20), we find
l
Etu,. (Nxn- vN.,.),
=- --
nn

Etv,. =
2(1 + v)l
nn
l2
Nx•" + n2n2a ~-V~· '
dS•,.) (dNzn
2(1 + v)l dNz•"
(3.27)
•
Etw 11 = a(lV•"- vN.r:n)- n:n: ~
l2 ( d2N,,. d2N•n)
- n2:n:2a dcp2 - v dcp2
 3.3 STATICALLY INDETERl\UNATE STRUCTURES 127

There is no room for the arbitrary functions / 3 (cp) and / 4 (cp) in these
formulas, but the series for v satisfies automatically the condition v = 0
at x = 0 and x = l, while ·u is not restricted in these cross sections of
the cylinder. At first glance one might expect that even the condition
w = 0 is satisfied at the ends. This, however, is not so. The formula
for w contains a term with N~,., and we see in (3.15a) that N~n is derived
from Prn without a factor n- 1 appearing anywhere. Therefore, the c>on-
vergence of the Fourier series for p, 11 , N~"' w, is of the same quality.
Since the load usually does not tend toward zero as x = 0 or x = l is
approached, the corresponding series is non-uniformly convergent, and
so are the series for N~n and wn.
This may readily be seen in an example. vVe introduce into the
general equations (3.27) the expressions (3.15) for the stress resultants
in a cylinder subjected to its own weight. We find the following ex-
pressions for the displacemcnts:

4pl ( 2!2 )
Et u,. = n 2 7t 2 an 2 .-72 - v a cos<{>,

Et v, = n4- 3p:r• a-n·;-t· sm cp ,

l .• ( -1 + 3v
2
7
' 2 l2 ) •
---;;--:,--.; (:3.28)

4p(• (4+v)F U1

n n a-+ n-•:r-• + a-
..........--. )
Etw,. =--
n• :r• cos<{>.

The terms in un have at least n 2 in the denominator and those for V 11

not less than n 3 , but the first term in w 11 has only n, just like the formulas
for P~n and p,,. on p. 117.

3.3 Statically Indeterminate Structures

As we saw on p. 107 the membrane forces of pipes and barrel vaults
have the same spanwise distribution as those of simple beams, provided
that there are not more than two diaphragms to which the loads are
transmitted. If a cylindrical shell is supported by three diaphragms,
the stress problem is statieally indeterminate. The theory of deforma-
tions presented in the preceding section furnishes the means to solve
it if bending stresses are absent from the shell, which is true for all pipes,
but usually not for barrel vaults.
As an example of this kind we consider a pipe of circular profile,
having two equal spans between three diaphragms (Fig. 3.16). We con-
sider the dead load described by (3.14). For the hoop force we may
use (3.16):
N~ = - p a cos cp ,
128 CHAP. 3: CYLI.KDRICAL SHELLS

but for Nx~ and Nx we have to go back to the set (3.3), where the func-
tions 11 and 12 have not yet been determined. In our special case we
find from them
N.r~ = -2pxsin<f> + 11 ,

N =px2 cos"'-~ dft + 12·

x a 'f' ad<jJ

Introducing N~ into (3.21), we find for the displacements the expressions

~ x2
E tu =
px2
3a cos q, + V p a X cos q, - d<jJ 2 a + I2 X + I3 '
p x' . ,~.. p x2 . ,1.. d 2/1 XI d/2 x2
Etv ~ 12a2sm'f'- (4 + 3v) 2sm'f' ..J._ d</Ja 6a2- dcp 2a

+ [2(1+v)lt-! :~]x+l4·
Xow we have to find four boundary conditions from which to find
11 , 12 , 13 , 14 • Symmetry with respect to the plane x
= 0 of the middle

-·-li------· ·[$-+-
r - - - - - - - - ' 1 - '---------1~ -
11
11
!
I•
!!
O
'
L----
I

,t-
4 - - -~-x_-+--r-_x__j_ 1_ ____:
Fil(. 3.1 0. Cylindrical shell supported by three diaphragms

diaphragm demands that there be u == 0. At the other end of each

bay, at x = l, we must, of course, have N, == 0. The third and fourth
conditions follow from the fact that the shell is connected to the dia-
phragms at x = 0 and x = l. To ask that both displacements v and w
be zero at both diaphragms would evidently be too much. As previously.
we must be content with making v = 0 at x = 0 and at x = l.
The two conditions for the end x = 0 yield immediately 13 == 14 ""'0.
From the other two we get two linear equations for 11 and 12 , which
may easily be solved. Thus we get finally:
. [ l 5l 2 + 6 (4 + 3 v) a2 ]
Nx<P = -psm<f> 2x- 4 [2 + 6(1 + v)a2 '

_ p . [ 2 l 5l 2 + 6 (4 + 3 v) a 2 l2 12 - 6 v a2 ]
Nx--acos<f> x -4 [2+6(1 +v)a2 x+4 l2+6(1 +v)a2 .

\Ve see at a glance that the bracketed expressions depend on PoiSSON's

ratio v and on the ratio lfa. They cannot, therefore, be expected to
 3.4 POLYGONAL DOl\'IES 129

represent the spanwise distribution of shear and bending moment of

the beam analogue. The difference is caused by the shear deformation
which is neglected in the common beam formulas but is of importance
in a pipe whose diameter is not small compared with its span. In our
formulas the shear deformation enters automatically through (3.19b).
To get a numerical idea of the influence of the shear deformation,
we may look at the maximum of N x at the middle support. When we
put x = 0 and assume furthermore v = 0, we have
pl 2 cos"'
Nx = 4a 1 + 6a2 /l2 •

The beam analogue would yield instead

plz
Nx = 4a cos</>,

and the factor (1 + 6a2Jl2)- 1 represents the influence of the shear de-
formation on the stress distribution in the shell. In Fig. 3.17 this factor

~0.6
..0
1.0
0.8

V
./
....... - ~

+ 0.4
0.2 I
0 L
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
I la
Fig. 3.17.
Inlluence of the shear deformation on the stress distribution in a statically indeterminate shell

has been plotted as a function of lfa, and one may recognize that for
lfa = 5 the beam formula is still 20% in error but that for lfa = 10 the
deviation is already rather small. This result may be used as a starting
point for a simplified analysis of long cylindrical shells.

3.4 Polygonal Domes

The cylindrical shells treated thus far have all been limited by two
cross-sectional planes. Besides these tubes and barrel vaults, there exists
a type of structure in which cylindrical shells are combined to form a
polygonal dome. Fig. 3.18 shows an example. The sectors are cylinders
having horizontal generators. Their lines of intersection lie in vertical
planes, and we shall see that along these lines the dome must be rein-
Flilgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 9
130 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

forced by ribs, called hips. Along the polygonal springing line we need
a ring which shows features of both the circular foot ring of domes and
the edge member of barrel vaults. If the dome is open at the apex, as
shown in Fig. 3.18, another polygonal ring must be provided along the
upper edge.

Ill :0S~-· '-Footring

~'ig. 3.!8.
Rc!(nlar polygonal dome

Polygonal domes have been built at several places; but beyond their
occurrence in practical engineering, their theory is of interest because
it illustrates in a striking example the role of ribs provided along edges
of a shell.

3.4.1 Regular Dome under Regular Load

We shall call a polygonal dome regular if every horizontal section
through its middle surface is a regular polygon. Then all segments are
equal and meet at equal angles. ·we shall call the load regular when
it has the same symmetry as the structure (e.g. dead load). The stress
pattern will then be the same in all sectors, and we need investigate
only one of them.
Since every sector is a cylindrical shell, we use the same notations
as before, measuring the coordinate x from the center line of the sector
(Fig. 3.18).
The stress resultants N~, Nx~' N.r are given by (3.1a), (3.3). From
the symmetry of structure and load with respect to the vertical plane
x = 0 we conclude that along this line the shearing force must be zero
 3.4 POLYGONAL DaliES 131

and hence fi (c/>) == 0, so that we have

(3.29a, b)
Nx~ = - (p~ +: a~~)x.
The function / 2 (c/>) is closely connected with the force Fin the hips.
To find it, we cut the dome along a horizontal plane cJ> = const. and
consider the equilibrium of the cap situated above this plane. The
resultant load applied to it is a vertical force R = R (cJ>), acting along
the axis of the dome. The shearing forces N x +transmitted in the section
have no resultant and are not shown in Fig. 3.19, and the forces N.;.

Fig. 3.19.
Top part of a polygonal dome

depend only on the local load p,. and, therefore, cannot be expected t()
be in equilibrium with the resultant load R. Tire difference must be
carried by the hips, and since the forces in all hips are equal, we might
find their magnitude if we knew their direction.
The idea suggests itself that it might be possible to establish equi-
librium among the internal forces without making use of the bending
stiffness of the hips. Then there will be only an axial force F, acting
along the axis of the hip. The angle 1p between F and the horizontal
9*
132 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

plane is a function of cf>, determined by the relation

n
tan 'ljJ =cos- tancf>, (3.30)
n
where n is the number of sectors or hips of the dome.
The forces F acting at the base of the cap shown in Fig. 3.19 have the
vertical resultant nF sin tp, and the force N ~ transmitted in n generators
each of length 2xh contributes 2nxhN~ sine/>. The equation of equilibrium
of vertical forces is therefore
n(Fsin'ljJ + 2x 11 N~sincf>) + R = 0
and yields the hip force
F __ R_+_2_n--:-xh_N___:_~_si_n_rf>
_
- nsin tp • (3.31)
vVe may now find Nx for x = 0 by considering the element shown
in Fig. 3.20. It is limited by two horizontal planes cf> and cf> + d<f> and by
elements r dcf> of the center lines x = 0 of two adjacent shell sectors.

Fig. 3.20. Hip element

and adjacent shell strips

The forces are indicated in the figure with their true values. When we
project them on a horizontal plane and exclude the presence of horizontal
loads, we find the following condition of equilibrium:

2 Nx rdcf>sin : = d~ (F cos 'ljJ) de/> + 2 :<P (N ~x1, coscf>) dcf> cos :

iJ ( aN•.,) dcf>sin-.
n
arp x£--
+- ax n
Since Nx at x = 0 is identical with / 2 (cf>), this equation yields

/2 (c/>)
1
. In dA..
= 2• rsmn
d cotn/n
(F cos'ljJ) + --"A..
a
'I' r u'l'
(N~x11 coscf>)

1 a ( aN.~)
+ 2rarp x~az- ·
 3.4 POLYGONAL DmiES 133

Making use of (3.30) and (3.31) and of the geometric relation

dxh
dcp =
,~.
r cos 'I' tan nn '
one may bring f2 into the following form which is more convenient for
numerical work:
1 n a aN,</> n
f.- (cp) = - -tan-
r
"" (x,.N <I> cos cp) + x,. -a-
n u'i' x
tan_:__
n
c;os cf>

XX a2 N,</> 1 d
+ 2r acpar - nrsin(2nfn) dcp (Rcotcp) ·
(3.32)

When we have / 2 , the force N x at an arbitrary point is given by

(3.33)

Interpreting this result, we observe that, along each generator, N:r:

varies exactly in the same way as if the sector were part of a barrel
vault. But the distribution in the cf> direction is thoroughly different.
It is dominated by / 2 (cp). In the barrel vault, this function was deter-
mined so as to make N x vanish at the ends of the span l. In the polygonal
dome we determined it so that N x acts as a kind of hoop force, keeping

Fig. 3.21. Part of foot ring of a

polygonal dome

the hip forces F centered in the axes of the hips. However, it is not
possible to declare the two terms of (3.33) as due to a "barrel vault
action" and a "dome action", since neither of them makes sense without
the other. We only may understand the complete stress system as serving
two purposes, establishing equilibrium locally in each sector and uniting
all sectors-in a dome.
At the springing line cf> = c/>0 , the forces N<l> and Nx<t> of the shell and
the hip forces F must be transmitted to supports. The horizontal corn
134 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

ponents may be gathered in a foot ring. Because of the shear Nx+• its
normal force N will depend on x. For x = 0, N may be found from
Fig. 3.21 as we found N x from Fig. 3.20:

Here the subscript 0 indicates that the values of all variables have to
be taken for cf> = cf>o •
For x =F 0, the term with Nx+ is different, and we have

(3.34)

The horizontal thrust N+o cosc/>0 on the foot ring produces bending
moments in its plane. In the general case they may be computed from
this load by well-known methods of structural theory. If the ring has
a constant cross section, the maximum occurs at the corners and is

If the shell ends with cf>0 = 90°, there will be no thrust and hence no
hOI'izontal bending moments in the foot ring.
The vertical load on the ring must be carried to supports which
may be arranged arbitrarily. If cf>o = 90° and if the local load near the
springing line has no horizontal component, we have N+o = 0, and the
dome transmits its total load to the n corner points. In this case it
may be supported by n columns which are the prolongations of the
hips, and the foot ring has nothing to carry in bending but its own
weight.
When the dome has an opening at the top, as shown in Fig. 3.18, a
polygonal ring must also be provided at the upper edge. The forces in
this ring will be found in the following way: Equation (3.29a) yields
the thrust N+ of the shell. We resolve it into a vertical and a horizontal
component. The former combines with the weight of the ring to form
its vertical load which is transmitted by bending and torsion to the
corners. There it is in equilibrium with the vertical component of the
hip force F, which is determined by this condition. The ensuing hori-
zontal component of F and that of N + constitute a plane force system
producing axial forces and plane bending moments in the ring. They
may be handled in the same way as has just been explained for the foot
ring.
The stress resultants which we have determined here fulfil! the
conditions of equilibrium for any possible element which may be cut
out of the structure. For the shell sectors and the hips they constitute
 3.4 POLYGONAL DD:\IES 135

a kind of generalized membrane force system. Since there is no bending

in the hips, there is scarcely a reason for giving them more bending
stiffness than that which is connected anyway with a cross section
capable of resisting the force F. From the same reasons which justify
the application of membrane theory in other cases, we may then expect
that also in polygonal domes the internal forces come close to a mem-
brane force system. However, there may be a discrepancy between the
deformations of the hip and the shell which leads to bending stresses
in both. Little is known at present about them, but it may be assumed
that they are of a local character.
It cannot come as a surprise that the polygonal rings at the edges
of the shell structure are not free of bending. We saw on p. 53 that the
free edge of a shell of revolution needs such a ring when it is to be a
stiff structure capable of resisting arbitrary loads.

Fig. 3.:!2. Polygonal dome with

circular sectors

As an example of the theory presented on the preceding pages, we

consider the polygonal dome shown in Fig. 3.22. Its sectors are parts
of circular cylinders of radius a. For their number n we shall not fix
a definite value. We ask for the stress resultants clue to dead load,
assuming that both the shell and the hips are of uniform thickness.
It is useful to treat the weight of the sectors and that of the hips
separately. If p is the weight per unit area of the middle surface, the
 136 CH.A.P. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

components are
P+ = p sincf>, p,. = -p coscf>.

Introducing these into (3.29a, b) we find

N,; =- pa coscf>, Nx,; = -2pxsincf>,

exactly as on p. 118. To find / 2 , we need the resultant
tP
R = 2n pa Jx
0
1, dcf> .

·with x 11 = a sincf> tannfn we have

R = 2npa2 tan :t • (1 - coscf>)

n
and then from (3.32):
:t • pa sin2 <f>- cos<f>
f 2 (cf>) = patan 2 -n coscf> · (1 - 6srn 2 cf>) + - . -1-n
cos-n 1 + cos <I> •

Equation (3.33) now yields the hoop force

x! n 1 sin2 <f>-cos<f>]
a· coscf> + tan -n coscf> · (1- 6sin cf>) + --
Nx = pa [-.
cos 2 n- 1-n
2 2
1 + cos <I>

and (3.31) the hip force

F = -2pa 2 ta~n/n (1- coscf>) (sin2 cf>- coscf>).

smtp

The results are plotted in Fig. 3.23a: the hoop force at x = 0, the shear
for x = x,., the force N +, which is independent of x, and the hip force F.
The last diagram shows the resultant load R and how it is carried by
the resultant 2nx~aN+ sincf> of the forces in the shell sectors and the
resultant nF sin1p of the hip forces.

~l~~-~]~, (-1
-pa Load carried -1.333 Pa

Section through canter of sectors l.333pa 1.155po -1.155po 2 +1.957Po -l.693Po

N, N.. N• F N. F
(x=O) (x~xh)

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.23. Stress resultants In a polygonal dome with circular sectors, n - 6

 3.4 POLYGONAL DOMES 137
The force N x is very similar to the hoop force N 0 in a hemispherical
dome [see (2.14)], with compression in the upper and tension in the
lower part of the shell. At the springing line N.; = 0 and the total load R
is carried by the six hips, but toward the apex N.; is so large that the
shell carries more load than there is. Therefore the hip force F is positive
there.
When the number of sectors, n, is increased, the first two terms
of N x tend toward zero, the first one because x ;;;;; xh __,. 0 and the second
one because of the explicit factor tan2 nfn. In the third term, cos nfn __., 1,
and we have
I. N 1m
sin 2 cf>- coscf>
x = pa .
,._"" 1 + coscf>
This is identical with the formula (2.14) for the hoop force N 0 of a
spherical shell dome.
The shear Nx.; becomes insignificant with increasing n because of
the factor x ~ xh, also in agreement with the stresses in a sphere, but N.,.
is definitely different. If we want to compare meridional forces, we must
average N.; and F. This average is
R 1-coscf>
2nxAsincf> = -pn sin2 cf>
and this really equals N.; as given for the sphere by (2.14).
For a complete solution of the dead load problem we must still
consider the weight of the hips. For this simple example we may assume·
that they have a constant cross section and therefore a constant weight
per unit length, P.
Since the cylindrical sectors now have no load, we have N.;== N:&,;
== 0 and Nx == /2 (cf>). To find / 2 and F, we need the load resultant R.
The element of the hip situated between the generators cf> and cf> + dcf>·
of the shell sectors has the same vertical projection a dcf> sine/> as the
corresponding meridional element of the cylinders, but the horizontal
projection
d coscf>
a cf> cos nfn ·
Its length is therefore

ds = V -
cos 2 <f>
cos 2 :t1n
- - + sin 2 cf> a dcf>.•

Integrating this from 0 to cf> and multiplying the integral by nP, we·
obtain the resultant load
.p .p

R = (ds = cos:tn
nP}' nPa! 1111- sin ~sin2 cf>d</>.
0
2
n
0
138 CHAP. 3: CYLI~DRICAL SHELLS

The integral in this formula may not be expressed in terms of elementary

functions but itself represents a special transcendental function, the
elliptic integral of the second kind:

E (a, cp) = j•V"1---s-:-in-=-2-a--:-sin-:2:-;:{J d{J .

0

Its numerical values have been tabulated as functions of the upper

limit cp and the parameter a. We may, therefore, write as the final ex-
pression
R-- cosnfn
nPa E(~ cJ>)
n' '
From (3.31) we now find

F = -
R
nsin~p = -
Pa
cosnfnsin'P E
(nn' cp)
and from (3.32) and (3.33):
1 d
Xx = - nasin(2nfn) dcp (Rcotcp)

= - p (cotcp .1/1 - sin2 .!!._ sin 2 cp- E (:r/n,cp))

2 cos 2 :r/n sin nJn V n sin2 cJ> '

Fig. 3.24. Polygonal domes to which the theory for regular domes may be applied
 3.4 POLYGONAL DOl\IES 139

These results are plotted in Fig. 3.23b. The hip force is, of course, a
·compression throughout and is fairly constant while Nx is positive. When
these forces are superposed on those resulting from the weight of the
·cylindrical sectors, the positive hip force of Fig. 3.23a will disappear.
The formulas developed on the preceding pages and illustrated here
by a simple example are immediately applicable to every dome of
arbitrary meridian which is erected over a regular polygon as a basis.
But the underlying ideas may be used for a more general type of polyg-
·onal domes, if we make the necessary changes in some details of the
formulas. When we determined / 1 (4>), we had to assume only that there
exists in every sector a plane x = 0 which is a plane of symmetry for
the dome; and when we derived (3.31) for the hip force, the essential
.assumption was such a degree of symmetry that we are sure that all
hip forces are equal. These two conditions are fulfilled by all the domes
.shown in Fig. 3.24. It appears that the sectors need not all be equal,
·but that two different types may alternate. Even a less regular looking
:structure, the vaulted hip roof shown in Fig. 3.25, fulfills the same

/1
Iflg. 3.25. Vaulted hip roof ~>------<<]
"J

·conditions and may be treated by the same method. Here the ridge
beam does not belong to the hip system but is a degenerated polygonal
ring and ~herefore not free from bending. Of course, one may try to
give the structure such dimensions that the weight of this beam is just
in equilibrium with the thrust N,. transmitted to it from the two longer
.shell sectors.

3.4.2 Regular Dome under Arbitr;uy Load

Polygonal domes are particularly suited to large-span roofs. In such
structures the wind load is important, and it becomes necessary to
·consider the general stress problem of a regular dome under arbitrary
load.
We must now distinguish between the forces in different hips or
:in different shell sectors. For this purpose we number the hips and the
140 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

sectors from 1 to n as shown in Fig. 3.22 and indicate forces referring:

to the m-th hip or sector by the superscript (m).
In order to keep the formulas from becoming unwieldy, we shall
not only assume that the dome is regular but also restrict the discussion
to the case that p, == 0 and that P+ and p, are independent of x within
each individual sector. Their variation from sector to sector may be
described by specifying the loads in the m-th sector, p~m>, p~m>, as func-
tions of cf> for every m from 1 to n. Equivalent to this, but better adapted
to our purposes, is the description by FouRIER sums:
<n/ 2 2nkm :i,n/ 2 2nkm
p<"'>(cp) = ~ P.;dcf>)cos--+ ~ P+dcf>)sin--,
+ k=O n k-1 n
(3.35)·
<n/ 2 2nkm :;>;n/ 2 _ • 2nkm
p~m>(cf>) = ~ p,.dcf>)cos-- + ~ p,.k(cf>)sm--.
k=O n k-1 n
The notations < n/2 and ~ nf2 for the upper limits of the sums indicate-
that, for n odd, all sums must be extended to k = (n- 1)/2, and for n
even, the cosine sums to nf2 - 1 and the sine sums to nf2. The two·
sums together always haven terms.
In order to find the FouRIER coefficient P+dcf>) (the k-th harmonic)·
of the load from given sector loads p~m> (cf>), we write in the first of (3.35)·
x for k, then multiply both sides by cos 2 :n; km and make a summation
n
over m:
n · 2nkm <n/ 2 11 2nxm 2nkm
~ p<ml(cf>)cos-- = ~ P+x(cf>) ~cos--cos--
m-1 + n x~o m=1 n n
;;>n/" n
"""~ _ (A.) """ . 2 n JC m 2 k
:n; m
+ ~ P+x..,.. ~ sm--cos--.
x-1 m =1 n n
All but one of the sums of cos products and all the sin-cos products are·
zero. Only for " = k we have
n 2nkm n
~ cos 2 - - = - ,
m=l n 2
and hence
n 2nkm n
~ p~m>(cf>)cos-- =2P+k(cp),
m=1 n
Fork = 0 (or for k = n/2) we must write n instead of n/2 in the last two-
formulas. However, the harmonic of order 0 is identical with the regular·
load treated in Section 3.4.1. We shall therefore drop it here and assume
that all sums in (3.35) begin with k = 1. The formulas to be developed
here are then not all-comprehensive, but together with those for regular·
loads they cover the whole field.
 3.4 POLYGONAL Dm.IES 141
Formulas for P~k> p,.k, Prk may be found in a similar way. The
-coefficient functions P~k and Prk represent a load which is symmetric
with respect to the plane of symmetry of the sector n, whereas P~k
.and Prk represent the antimetric part of the load.
We now consider a load
2nkm 2nkm
p~m) =PH cos - n - ' p<m>
r
= p,.kcos--,
n

where P~k and Prk are arbitrary functions of cp. The stress resultants

I
in the sectors follow from (3.1 a) and (3.3):

N~m> = rp,.kcos-- 2nkm

2nkm = N~kcos--,

j
., n n
1 dN~k) '>nkm
N<ml
x~
=- ( P~k --
+ -rdcp X COS----
n + l(m)
t '
(cp) (3.36)

1 d ( 1 dN~k) x 2 •J:tkm x dfh"l + j<m>

N<m> =-- PH+--- -cos--·---- _t_ (cp).
x r dcJ> r dcp 2 n r dcJ> 2

It may be expected that the functions l~'"l and 1~'11 > will also depend
on m in a simple way, and we shall see soon that they must be assumed
in the form
2nkm
1~11 > (</>) = 12k (c/>) cos - n - . (3.37)

In order to simplify the appearance of the formulas on the next pages,

we introduce two abbreviations:

They represent two functions of cf> depending on the load and on the
parameter k. If we wished, we might compute them numerically at the
present stage of the development of the theory, before we have started
to determine the free functions Ilk and l 2 k·
The determination of these two functions is the principal problem
we have to solve. We combine it with that of finding the forces in the
hips. From our experience with regular loads we may hope that also
in the general case the hips will be free of bending moments and shearing
forces. If we admit this, we can formulate three differential equations
with Ilk, l 2 k and the hip force as unknowns. If, for a given shell, these
equations have a unique solution, this is proof that a stress system of
the assumed kind is possible. For the reasons already explained on
p. 135, this stress system will then be a fair representation of what really
happens in the shell structure.
142 CH.AP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Fig. 3.26 shows an element of the hip m (situated between the sec-
tors m- 1 and m) and two adjacent shell elements. If the hip is to be
free from bending, a first condition is that the sum of all forces per-
pendicular to the plane of the hip must vanish:

(N<ml - N< 111 - lJ) rdA. cos</> tan..=_ cos A.. sin!!_
+ + '+' n '+' n

.;- (N<ml - N< 111 -ll) rdA. cos n

X X 'f' n

+ (N<m> + N<m- 1l) (r d<f> cos</> tan ~ co:,; :r + rd<f> cos '+'
A. sin-=-) = 0.
:~:.; x+ n n n

When we introduce the expressions (3.36) here, we have to put x = + x"

in the sector m - 1 and x = - xh in the sector m. "When we also introduce

Fig. 3.26. Hip element and

adjacent shell elements

(:~.37), we may drop a common factor 2sin[1tk(2m- 1)/n] and arrive at

an equation which is independent of m and hence valid for every hip
of the dome:
df.~,.-
u x. 11 1c
cot -:rn + 211 k cos ..,..
,~..
-n1c -
cot 11 I2 k cot -:r
d..,.. -r cot-
n n

This is the first of the three differential equations which we have to

find. The other two express the fact that the hip element is in equi-
librium in its plane with an axial force F ml only and without the help
of a shearing force. This fact may be cast in equations by simply writing
 3.4 POLYGONAL DmiES 143

the conditions of equilibrium for vertical and horizontal components in

the plane of the hip:
The vertical forces are

(N<m> + N<m- 1)) r d<f> cos</> tan :z sin</>

~ ~ n

and the horizontal forces are:

(N<m> + N<m- 11) r d<f> cos</> tan!!.... cos</> cos i!_

~ ~ n n

- (N<m) + N<m - 1 >)rd</> sin :zn

x x

+ (N<m> - N<m- 1l) (r d<f> cos</> cos :z -rd<f> cos</> tan :z sin :z)
x~ x~ n n n
d
+ d<fl (F<"'>cos1p) d<f> = 0.

When we introduce the expressions (3.36) and (3.3i) here, we find it

necessary to put

F<ml _ F kcos :zk(2m- 1) (3.:39)

- n .

It is again possible to drop the factor depending on m, and we obtain

the following equations:

. ,~,. . :zk +
I tksm.,.sm- 1 d (F .
9-r d"- ksrn1p
)
n 'I'

,~,..,~,. :zkt :z G.,~,. :zk

= -1N ~kcos.,.sin.,.cos- an-+ ~;x1,sin.,.cos-, (3.38 b)
n n n
dfu xh . n k . n
- -sm-sm-
I
+ tkcos.,.sm- --.,.:--
A.. • :z k cos 2 njn
d</1 r n n n cos:zjn

+ I•~kcos-sm---
:zk. :z 1 d(F
- ~;cos•")
n n 2r d<fl r

,~,. :zk . :z G A.. :zk cos2njn

= .J.N ~ k COS 2 'I" COS ---
n
Sill -
n
- k X11 COS 'I" COS -
n
f
cosn n

--
1HkXiiCOS-
q nk. :z
Sln-. (3.38c)
2 n n

When we study the left-hand side of (3.38a-c), we see that l 2 k may

easily be eliminated from the first and the last one. This yields the
144 CHAP. 3: CYLIXDRICAL SHELLS

following equation:
dfu
--s X4 • 2 n I A.. (. 2 :r k 2 n)
dcp r i n -n + tkcos.,.. cos ---cos-
n n

1 cl (F
-- - kcos"P ) sm-
. nk cos-
:r
r ~ n n

-~.. • 2nk G A.. • 2nk

= 1N ~ k cos 2 .,.. :r
sm - - tan - - k xh cos.,..
n
sm - - .
n n
From it we may eliminate Ilk with the help of (3.38b) and thus arrive
at a differential equation for F k sin 1p :

c:; 2 (Fk sin 1p) + [!~tan : cos cp - rsi~ cp :cp (r sin cp)] :cp (Fk sin 1p)
:.. r
"
sm2 :r kfn
0
(F . )
- x 4 sin (2 :rfn) sin cp k sm 1P

= 9
~
nk tan-
rcos- . A..[.
:r sm.,.. A..
sm.,.. 2r n cos 2 .,..
--tan- -~..]N~k
n n ~ n

(3.40)

When we have solved this equation, we may easily find Ilk from (3.38b)
and then l 2 k from (3.38a) or (3.38c). Equations (3.36) then yield the
stress resultants in the shell sectors.
Of course, we cannot expect to solve the differential equation (3.40)
in general terms. In most cases, it will be necessary to resort to numerical
integration. To get an idea of the kind of solutions to be expected, it
will be useful to consider a simple example. We choose the dome shown
in Fig. 3.22, and we suppose that there is no distributed load on the
sectors or the hips, i.e. we ask for the homogeneous solutions. We have
then
PH~ Prk = Gk Hk 0, = =
and the right-hand side of (3.40) vanishes. With the special data of the
dome under consideration, the left-hand side assumes the following
simple form:

d~2 (Fksin1p) + cotcp ~~ (Fksin1p)- si~:cp (Fksin1p) = 0

with
A_ sinnkfn
- sinn/k ·

This equation has the general solution

Fksin 1p =A cot"~ + Btan" ~ . (3.41)

 3.4 POLYGONAL DmiES 145
Introducing it into (3.39), we find the individual hip forces

cp + B tan"-
F<ml = - .1 - ( A cot"- </>)
cos :rk(2m-1) .
Sill 'P 2 2 n

We may now go backwards through our equations and find from (3.38b)

I 1k ('¥)
A-
-- -21a Sill
. n In1 s1n
. 2 </> (A cot;. ";; - Btan;. "z
</> </> )
,

and from (3.38a) or (3.38c):

1 cos n kin ( . ;. </> ;. </> )
/H(</>) =-- .
a Sill (2 n I).
n Sill 2 </> A cot"+;; Btan -2 .

The stress resultants of the shell sectors are then given by (3.36) and
(3.37):
-.r(m) == 0
~v ~ '
l
(A cot;.j_ _ B tan
. ;..f_) ,·
H(m) _
J.v .. - 9
x't'
.
1
I _1_
. 2 "'
... as1nn n sin 'f'
9
....
9
:...
s1n
2:rkm
n
,
I
} (3.42)

l
N< 111 l
x
= - - - -1.- --,-!_ (A
2a Slllnjn slll 2</> \
cot" .f_2 + B tan.! .f_)
2
eos;rkjn 2nkm il- 2coscf> x . 2nkm)
( ---,'-COS--+ . -Slll--.
cosnjn n Sill</> a n

The formulas (3.41) and (3.42) reveal the following facts: The first term
of (3.41) has a singularity at the top</> = 0 of the dome; the second term
is regular everywhere unless we extend the shell to the point </> = n.
For k = 1 (first harmonic) we have A= 1, independent of n. In this
case the B solution corresponds to a loading of the dome by a horizontal
force P, the A solution to the application of such a force and an external
couple M1 as shown in Fig. 2.24 for a spherical shell. These loads may
easily be determined by examining the equilibrium of a cap cut from
the dome by an arbitrary plane </> = const. For the B solution one
obtains in this way the load
1
P =2B --.
COB :r:jn

For the higher harmonics, k = 2, 3, .... nf2, the forces F\m) at the top
are in equilibrium with each other, and so are the forces N~m~ in a hori-
zontal section through the shell. Then no external force or couple is
required at this point.
So far the situation is analogous to that which we found on p. 48
for a spherical shell, but important differences appear when we look
at the forces N~"'j and N~m> in the cylindrical sectors. Because of the
Flilgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 10
146 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

factor sin2 </> in the denominator, these forces become infinite at the top
even in the B solution, unless A. ~ 2. For a square dome (n = 4), A. is
never as great as 2. For a hexagonal dome (n = 6) only the highest
harmonic k = 3 yields A. as large as 2. For domes with more than six
edges, there are always some harmonics with finite forces and some
with infinite forces. In the case of an octagonal dome (n = 8), for ex-
ample, the harmonics k = 1 and k = 2 have infinite forces, while k = 3
(A. = 2.613) and k = 4 (A. = 2.414) yield finite values.
For the A solution, of course, everything tends strongly toward
infinity when cf> approaches zero.
We may avoid these singularities either by restricting our attention
to the B solution and to those values k for which no singularity occurs
or by cutting away the top of the dome. In both cases, the formulas (3.41)
and (3.42) describe the effect of certain load configurations, applied to
the edge (or the edges) <P = const. of the shell. Each one of these con-
figurations consists of n external forces F<m>, applied at the ends of the
hips and distributed according to a cosine law (3.39), and of shearing
forces N<;+) which will appear automatically, if we provide along the
edge a polygonal ring capable of taking care of these forces by bending
moments in its plane. By an appropriate superposition of all harmonics
from k = 2 up to k = nf2 [or k = (n- 1)/2, if n should be odd], any
symmetric self-equilibrating group of forces F'"'l may be represented.
For antimetric groups we must start from the sine terms in (3.35).
The possibility of these self-equilibrating force systems in the sup-
ports of the dome indicates that a polygonal dome which is supported
at the foot of every hip is a redundant structure with n - 3 redundant
forces. The solution which we gave in Section 1 for regular loads is
therefore true only, if not only the load is the same in all sectors but
also the elastic deformability of the dome inclusive of the foundations
has then-fold symmetry of the structure.
The redundancy becomes apparent when a solution for an arbitrary
load, say for an overloading of one shell sector, is sought. It then is
not possible to find reasonable boundary conditions for the differential
equation (3.40) without studying the deformations of the dome.
It may be expected that qualitatively similar results will be ob-
tained for regular domes with other profiles when the hips have a hori-
zontal tangent at the apex, and it will be easy to find out how these
results are modified in the case of a pointed apex.

3.4.3 Non-regular Domes

When the basic polygon of the dome is not regular, the analysis
becomes very involved. The FouRIER sum representation (3.35) and
 3.5 FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 147
(3.36) for the loads and the stress resultants is no longer possible, and
there is no regular load which might be dealt with more easily than
with the general case. Instead of having only one set (3.38a-c) at a
time, we must formulate such equations separately for every hip and
then deal with a set of 3n simultaneous differential equations.
In simple cases, where symmetry reduces the number of unknowns,
it may still be possible to solve the stress problem. For instance, this
is the case with the dead load problems of the two structures shown
in Fig. 3.27. The first shell, Fig. 3.27a, has one plane of symmetry and

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.2i. Nonregular polygonal domes

therefore only 3 different hip forces F(ml. In the sectors which are inter-
sected by the plane of symmetry, / 1 ~ 0, and there are only 2 func-
tions fim> and 4 functions f~m) to be determined. This makes a total of
9 unknown functions. In the other case, Fig. 3.27 b, we have 2 different
hip forces, 1 function flm) (in the small sectors) and 2 functions /~"', i.e.,
5 unknowns altogether. Simultaneous systems of this size may still be
handled numerically in a reasonable time, once their coefficients have
been determined.

3.5 Folded Plate Structures

3.5.1 Uniform Load
Two examples of folded plate structures are shown in Fig. 3.28,
a roof and a bridge. They consist of a number of plane plates forming
a prismatic surface. Each of the plates is much longer than wide. These
structures have some similarity with cylindrical shells, although an
essential feature, the curved surface, is absent. Their theory is best
understood against the background of shell theory and this justifies
its inclusion in this book. Moreover, a folded structure with a large num-
10*
 148 CHAP. 3: CYLI~DRICAL SHELLS

ber of plate strips (Fig. 3.29) may be used as a finite-element approxima-

tion to an actual shell. We shall see the merits and the limits of this
idea as we proceed.

(a)

Fig. 3.28. Examples of foldetl structures

The similarity between folded plate structures and cylindrical shells

suggests establishing a kind of membrane theory, neglecting all bending
and twisting moments in the plates and admitting only direct stresses
which may be represented by the stress resultants NJ', Ny, Ncy shown
Dn the plate element dx · dy 111 in Fig. 3.29. These membrane forces, as

Fig. 3.29. Foltled structure; notations

we may call them, cannot be in equilibrium with the loads unless these
also lie in the plane of the plate strip. Within the limits of the membrane
theory, therefore, loads which do not fulfill this condition may not be
applied. Only at the edges are loads of arbitrary direction permitted,
since these may be resolved into two components in the planes of the
adjacent strips. This restriction on the permissible loads is comparable
to the one in trusses where loads are admitted only at the joints. How-
 3.5 FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 149
ever, in the latter case the requirement is easy to fulfill, while in folded
structures the important loads are more or less evenly distributed over
the whole surface of each plate strip. Nevertheless, the membrane theory
is a useful instrument of analysis, since it describes an essential part of
the whole stress system, although it does not tell the entire story.
The structure for which we now shall develop the theory consists
of le narrow plate strips (Fig. 3.29) and two diaphragms which we assume
to be in the terminal cross sections. The spanwise coordinate x is com-
mon to all strips, but there is a special coordinate Ym for each strip.
The angle <f>m between a horizontal plane and that of the m-th strip
corresponds to the angle </> of the cylindrical shell, but it cannot be used
as a coordinate. In Fig. 3.29 the angles <f>m are positive in the right half
of the prism.
For simplicity, we shall assume the edge loads vertical and uni-
formly distributed in the x direction, but the load at every edge may
be chosen independently. The force Pm acting on an element of unit
length of the m-th edge, may be resolved into two components in tht"
directions Ym and Ym+l:
S'
m
= -P coscfJ.,.u
m siny,. '
S"1n= + p ~~~-.--,
coscp,.
smy..
(3.43}

and these loads can be carried by the strips m and m+ 1, respectively

(Fig. 3.30).

Fig. 3.30. Cross section through part of a foldetl structure

The plate strip m is bounded by the edges m-

1 and m and there
receives the loads s::.-1 and s;,. which, if positive, are both pointing in
the same direction. They add up to the resultant load of the strip
(3.44)
If we could separate the strip from its neighbors, it would be a simple
beam of span l, depth hm and width tm (Fig. 3.31}, supported at the dia-
150 CHAP. 3: CYLI~DRICAL SHELLS

phragms and subjected to the uniform load 8 111 • Such a beam has the
bending moment

(3.45a)
and the shear force
(3.45b)

If the plate strip is slender (h,. ~ l), and this we shall assume, the bend-
ing stress a.c and the shear stress i may be found from formulas of
elementary beam theory, and so may their products with the thick-
ness t 111 , the stress resultants

N<o> _6_ 1 _ y,.

•_• ( _
Q(O) 2)
.... .ry- h," 4 h~ •

At the lower edge (y 111 = +h 111 (2) of the strip the normal force N~0 >
produces the strain
N<O) 6 M< 0l
t<_:> = ---~- = + --'"-
Et,., Et., h;,'

while the strain at the upper edge (Ym+l = - hm+tf2) of the adjacent
strip is

Since the strips are connected with each other, these strains ought to
be equal, but they are by no means so; in general, they are even of

m-1

Fig. 3.31. Beam action on an isolated •trip

opposite sign. On the other hand, the two strips will, of course, exert
forces upon each other which we have not yet taken into account.
Since such additional forces must lie in the planes of both strips, they
can only be shearing forces T,. as shown in Fig. 3.31. Their magnitude
and distribution are not known; Fig. 3.31 indicates the direction in
which they will be considered positive in agreement with the sign con-
vention for N,!l (Fig. 3.29).
 3.5 FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 151

From a strip element (Fig. 3.32) one may see that the edge shears
will add a contribution M:!1 to the beam moment of the strip and that
they will also produce an axial force N;!1 • The equilibrium of the strip
element yields the relations
dM~P
----;rx- : :-.:.: - h,. (T
2 111-1 +T )
Ill ' (3.46)

which, of course, cannot be integrated until the shears are known as

functions of x.
The force N:!1 and the moment M:!1 produce beam bending stresses
from which the normal force

and the edge strain

may be derived. Now, the shearing forces T m (m= 1 ... k- 1) must

be so chosen that the discrepa~cy of the deformation at the edges

Fig. 3.32. Strip element

disappears. This means that the sum E~ 1 + E~ 1 must be the same, whether
it is calculated for the lower edge of the strip m or for the upper edge
of the strip m + 1 :

In order to derive from this relation an equation for the unknown

shearing forces, we must first differentiate it with respect to x. Then it
is possible, with the help of (3.46), to express N< 1 l and M< 1 l on both sides
by T m- I, T"', T m+ I, while (3.45) may be used to express W0 l in terms
of the load:

th
1 (2T
m-1 + 4 T)
m + t
1
h
(4 T
m+
2 T m+l ) = -
6Smx
fmV
6Sm+ 1 x
- t m+I'"m+t
~2 •
m m m+l m+l m
152 CHAP. 3: CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Such an equation may be written for every edge where two strips meet,
k- 1 equations altogether for k- 1 unknown functions T m(x). Since
all the right-hand sides are proportional to x, the shearing forces must
be too, say
T 111 = T:nx,
and when we simply differentiate the equations, we obtain a set of
ordinary linear equations for the unknown constants T;,.:

(3.48)

They have the structure of CLAPEYRON's equations for the continuous

beam, and all the methods developed for the solution of these equations
may be applied here.
When (3.48) have been solved, the total stress resultants in a cross
section through a plate strip may be obtained from (3.45) and (3.46):

Qm= -S 111 X,

Nm = - (T'm - 1 -
T' l2 - 4 x2
,,) S ·

From these the stress resultants Nx and N.ru may be calculated using
the formulas for rectangular cross sections:

l] Z2 Sh,.
lt
N = [12S,.y,,.
h;l.
+ (T'm-1 + T') ~y,.- (T'
1n h,.
- T' -,4z2
x m-1 m •

N xy-
- [38"'(4
2h;;; 2
Ym- m ..L• -T~-1(2
h2)
4-
z. )(6 Ym+lbz.)
Ym-r•,, 111 (3.49)

+ 4T~ (2 Y m + h,.) (6 Ym - hm) ] h~

x •
J
The normal force NY in the direction of the Ym axis is rather small and
need not be computed.
The foregoing formulas have been derived under the assumption
that each edge is uniformly loaded (if at all). One may easily treat the
more general case that the load intensity Pm depends on x but that
the law of distribution is the same at all loaded edges. It will then be
found that M,., Nm, and N.r depend on x as the bending moment in
a beam carrying a similar load and that Qm, T m• and N, 11 have the
same spanwise distribution as the shearing force in that beam. The
 3.5 FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 153.

derivative T;,. of the shearing force is no longer a constant, but one may
easily define a parameter (e.g. the maximum ofT ml which characterizes
the intensity of the shear whose relative distribution is already known,
and a system of equations may be set up which takes the place of (3.48).

3.5.2 Fourier Series Form of Solution

The solution given on the preceding pages is the simple,;t one when
the loads are uniformly distributed in the x direction. The ·bending
theory explained later (pp. 311-316) makes it desirable to have an
alternative form, assuming that the loads Pm are given as FouRIER
series in x. For this purpose we measure the coordinate x from one end
of the structure (Fig. 3.6) and write

n:t x
L P
x .
P, 1 = 111 ,,.Sln-l-' (3.50)·
n-1

For greater ease in writing we shall consider only a single term of this
series and assume that.
. nnx
P m= P m,aSln-l- • (:3.51)>

We have then

S N I = S ll/ . nnx
1 !t8lll - [ - I

S =p c~scp,._ 1 _ p co~cf>m+l. (3.52),

m,)l m-l,nSllli'm-1 lil,ll SlllJ'm

The stress resultants for the beam are

. nnx
M m= Mm,nsrn-l-, nnx . nnx
Q 111 = Q 111 ,nCOS - l - , NI/I= Nlll,llsln-1-,

and for the parts with the superscript (0) we have

M(O)
m,n
_!!__ s m,n'
= n2n2 Q(O)
m,n=nn
l s m,n· (3.53a, b)•

The edge shear also has a cosine distribution:

nnx
T,. = T,., 11 cos-l-,

and (3.46) assume the form

·n +
m l T h,.l
<1> n = - - (T 111-1 T Ill n ) • (3 .D-4 a, b'•I
Nm,n=nn( m-1,n-Tm,n), M~
... , -
2nn •
154 CHAP. 3: CYLI~DRICAL SHELLS

Following the same line of thought, one easily arrives at the following
form of the three-shear equation (3.48):

(3.55)

:J.5.3 Examples
It is interesting to apply the preceding formulas to some more or
less fictitious examples and to compare the results with those obtained
for analogous cylindrical shells.
Fig. 3.33 shows a pipelike structure of octagonal cross section. The
best approximation to its own weight which can be made within the
framework of the present theory is to assume equal loads P 1 , P 2 •.. P 8
at all edges,
P"' = 2pa tan 22.5° = 0.828pa,

FiA'. 3.33. Tuhular folded structure

where p is the weight per unit area of the plates. Equations (3.43) and
(3.45) yield
-S1 = S 5 = 1.656pa, -S2 = S 4 = S 6 = -S8 = 1.171pa, S 3 = S 7 = 0,
and since the stresses in each cross section will be distributed sym-
metrically with respect to a vertical axis and antimetrically with respect
to a horizontal axis, it will suffice to consider only one quarter of the
structure and to write (3.48) for the edges 3 and 4 only. They are
T~ + 4T~ + T~ = - 4.24p,

T~ + 4T~ + T~ = -10.24p,
 3.5 FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 155

and when we still putT~= -T~, T~ = T~ we have two linear equations

for T~ and T~. It is not necessary to give more details of the numerical
work here. The result is shown in Fig. 3.34. The normal force Nx is

Fig. 3.34. Stress resultants in the octagonal tube of Fig. 3.33

·constant across the strips 3 (compression) and 7 (tension), and plotted

<>ver the vertical diameter it is practically linear and the same as in a
cylindrical shell of radius a. The shearing force in a circular cylinder has
an elliptic distribution and almost exactly the same maximum as that
·of the octagonal prism. One may easily believe that the similarity will
be still greater if the number of plate strips is increased.
Results are thoroughly different if one studies structures which look
like a prismatic counterpart to barrel vault roofs. A structure of this
kind may be obtained from the octagonal tube by cutting away its
lower half (Fig. 3.35). The loads P 1 ••• P 4 are the same as before, and

as~--~~~ Nx Nxy

Fig. 3.35. Prismatic barrel vnult

;So is the equation for edge 3. The second equation, however, is different.
Strip 5 has only one-half the width of the other ones so that the coeffi-
cient of T~ is now 2 (1 + 2) = 6 and the load term is - 16.24 p. Edges 0
and 5 are free of any force, hence T~ = 0.
·when one again goes through the numerical work, the results
plotted in Fig. 3.35 are obtained. They differ widely from those for the
·cylindrical shell, indicated by dotted lines. In the shell, the shear N,q,
has a maximum at the "free" edge, and we saw that there an edge
member must be provided to which this shear may be transmitted.
'The prismatic structure does not need such an edge member, and
'strips 1 and 5 seem to take its duties, carrying tensile stresses of con-
;siderable magnitude.
156 CHAP. 3: CYLIXDRICAL SHELLS

It is evident that increasing the number of plate strips will not

make the stress system approach that of the cylindrical shell. What
does occur can be seen from Fig. 3.36. Here the number of edges has

Fig. 3.36. Prismatic barrel vault with many edl(es

been doubled. The stress diagrams are rather irrregular, and it is clear
that the membrane theory of folded structures cannot be used as an
approximation to the membrane theory of cylindrical shells.

3.5.4 Limitations of the Theory

We saw on p. 121 that the membrane theory of the barrel vault
roof is subject to severe limitations, resulting from the need of an edge
member and the impossibility of incorporating its deformation and its
weight in the theory.
In the prismatic roof no edge member is needed, but the limitations
of its theory are not less severe. The zigzagging Nx diagra!ll in Fig. 3.36
certainly does not represent a physical reality. The real structure will
level the peaks, and it will achieve this the help of a system of bending
moments and transverse shearing forces similar to those in cylindrical
shells (see Chapter 5). The bending stresses are caused by incompatibil-
ities in the deformations pertinent to the membrane force system and
will be discussed in some detail on p. 311.
Additionally, there is another source of bending stresses. The loads
acting on a real folded structure are almost always distributed over the
whole surface, not concentrated at the edges. Such loads must necessarily
produce plate bending moments 1Jt1,1 which will carry them to the edges.
The bending stresses a!! connected with these moments may be con-
siderable; the thinner the plates are, the greater the stresses, and this
stress system has no counterpart in cylindrical shells. One may deter-
mine the plate moments lJtiY by cutting a strip of unit width across
the prism and treating it as a continuous beam supported at the edges.
The forces which it exerts on these fictitious supports are the loads P 111
considered in the membrane theory. Since the structure will yield
elastically under these loads, the strip is a beam on elastic supports
of a peculiar kind, the deflection of each support depending on the
reactions on all supports.
 Chapter 4

DIRECT STRESSES IN SHELLS

OF ARBITRARY SHAPE
4.1 Conditions of Equilibrium
In the two preceding chapters the membrane theory of shells has
been developed for two important types: shells of revolution and cyl-
inders. In both cases the theory made use of every advantage which
the particular shape of the middle surface offered, thus arriving at the
simplest possible solution of many important problems but lacking

Fig. 4.1. Shell of arbitrary shape in rectilinear coordinates

generality. It is the purpose of this chapter to develop a general mem-

brane theory for shells of arbitrary shape and th{m to apply it to some
shells which do not fall in one of the special groups considered before.
We describe the middle surface of the shell by a system of rectangular
coordinates (Fig. 4.1), assuming that z is given as a function of x and y.
Since the latter two coordinates are sufficient to distinguish between the
points of the middle surface, they may be used as a pair of curvilinear
coordinates on the shell. The coordinate lines x = const. and y = const.
158 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

on the middle surface are obtained by intersecting this surface with

planes normal to the x or y axis. These lines meet at an angle w, for
which
cosw = sinz sinO, (4.1)

and the shell element shown in Fig. 4.2 is not a rectangle. Therefore,
we describe the membrane stresses by a system of skew forces N"',
N.cy = N 11 x, NY as explained in Section 1.2.3 and shown in Fig. 4.2.
Two of them, N., and Nu,·• are parallel to the x, z plane, while the other
two, NY and Nr 11 , have no component parallel to the x axis.

_.-,---"""""'=""~'----.,..-----
: y
~~-_ ... I
Nyl
I

dx"
/~I
I
I
I
N, I
I
I

Fig.~.:!. Sh~ll elenwnt and its projection on the r,y plane

The skew forces N.r, N,, N, 11 = N 11 "' are forces per unit length of
the line elements through which they are transmitted. The actual forces
are obtained by multiplying them by the length of this element, i.e.
by dyjcos6 or dxjcosz, as the case may be. When we multiply by still an-
other cosO or cosz, we obtain the horizontal components of these forces,
the x components

N dy
·--·COS'V=
N dy
x cos6 "' "' '
and the y components
dx ll -
N,, · - - . cosv = N,,dx,
·' cosx ·'
 4.1 CO~DITIOXS OF EQUILIBRIUl\1 150
The new quantities
-
Nx=Nx--o,
cosx fV _ .L~' ,, cos
L !I -
cos()
X
'))
(4 .~.
cos

which we have introduced are the plan projections of the stress resultants,
referred to the unit length of the projected line element dx or dy. \Ve
shall use them when we write the conditions of equilibrium of the shell
element. Along with them it is useful to refer the distributed load to
the unit area of the projected shell element dx . dy and to write P:r dx dy,
Py dx dy, p, dx dy for the rectangular components of the external force
acting on the element. The relation between Px, p,1 , P: and the forces
Px, Pu, Pz per unit area of the middle surface is given by the ratio of
the areas of a shell element dA and of its projection dx dy. Fmm Fig. 4.2
we read that
.
d rt1 = -dx- - dy-- Sill d d (1 - sin 2 X sin2 0)' 1•
Ct! = X y -'-----'-'---;:-'--
cos X cos 0 cos X cos 0 '

and consequently we have

Pv = p, = dA (1- sin2 xsin2 0)' 1•

(4.3}
p, p, dxdy cosxcos 0

After these preparations it is easy to write the conditions of equi-

librium for the shell element shown in Fig. 4.2. There are three such con-
ditions, one for the forces parallel to each coordinate axis. In the x
direction we have the increments of N.r dy and N1,.r d;r and the load
Pr dx dy:
aN.
ax
-- - - d y· d X-'-p- .r • d X d !JI = o.
aX• ay +aN_.
ay
In the y direction we find a similar equation, and when we drop from
both the factor dx dy common to all terms, we have

aNx + aN,. -'- _ _ O

ax ay ' P.r- ,
(4.4a, b)
aN", + aN. + _ = 0.
ax ay p!l

In the condition for the z components all four stress resultants appear.
The force N,. · dy(cos(} has the vertical component"

N X · __!jj_
COS()
· sinx = N tanx dy = N .!!..
X iJX dy X

and the shear Nx 11 on the same side of the shell element gives

Nx,,· dy() ·sin(}= Nx,, tanO dy = Nx,,aaz dy .

.I cos ·' ·' y
!60 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

Similar expressions are obtained for N 11 and N 1,x- The equilibrium

equation involves their differential increments:

Differentiating the products, we find

az
2 iJ2z az
2
N:z ar- + 2N:z" axay + N" ay2
= ___ ( aN. + aN•• ) !.._z_ _ (aN•• + aN.)~
p; ax ay fJx ax. ay fJy '
and making use of (4.4a, b):
"' !2_ '>N a~z N _a 2z _ _ _ _ .!=__ _ ~
1vxax2 +- xuaxay+ !Jay2- P;+Pxay +P!iay · (4.4c)

Equations (4.4a-c) are the basic equations of the theory. As in the

preceding chapters, they are two differential equations of the first order
and one ordinary linear equation. Only the last one has variable co-
efficients: the second derivatives of z.
Sometimes a direct solution of these equations may be tried. In
most cases it will be advantageous to introduce an auxiliary variable,
which reduces the system to one second-order equation. As a. matter
of fact, the set (4.4a, b) is identical with the conditions of equilibrium
of a plane stress system, and the method of the stress function which
has proved to be a powerful tool for the treatment of that problem,
may be applied here a.s well.
When we put

Nx= : ; -jfJ.,&r, N 11 = ~; -jfJ!1 dy, N:::u=-a:~y' (4.5)

we find that two of the conditions of equilibrium, (4.4a, b), are iden-
tically satisfied. The third one, (4.4c), yields a. differential equation
for <P:
L (m.) _ _ az _ az a2z ( _ d a2z ~- d
'V = -pz + P.rifi + p" ay + ar J Px x+ ay2 Py y, (4.6)

where the "shell operator" L is defined as

(4.7)

In the plane stress problem, where the same stress function is used,
an equation of the fourth order is obtained. From comparison with
(4.6) one may understand the essential differences between the two
 4.2 ELLIPTIC PROBLE:\IS 161

problems. In the plane stress problem the differential equation is derived

from a condition of compatibility between the three strain components
f..r, f. 11 , y,!l; here it stems from the equilibrium of forces in the z direction.
In plane stress this third condition of equilibrium is trivial since all
forces lie in the x, y plane, and in the case of the shell the compatibility
of strains is always assured since there is a third component of the
displacement and u, v, w can always be chosen so that a given set of
strains will be produced.
A partial differential equation of the form
f)2(JI fj2cf> ()2cf>
a..,....- ~+c..,....-= f (x, y)
+ 2 b uXuy
uX" uy·

is called elliptic if ac- b2 > 0 and hyperbolic if ac - b2 < 0. In the

limiting case that ac- b2 = 0, the equation is called parabolic. The
boundary conditions which must be prescribed to make the solution
unique, depend highly upon the type of the equation and, therefore,
will be discussed separately for these cases.

4.2 Elliptic ProbJems

4.2.1 Paraboloid of Revolution, 'friangular Shell
A paraboloid of revolution has the equation
r + y2 (4.8)
Z ~c --h-

\Vhen we calculate from it the derivatives of z and introduce them

into the shell operator L, we see that the second term vanishes and that
the coefficients of the other two become constant. Restricting our
attention to vertical loads (Px """p!l 0), we have then =
()2(/1 fj2cf> 1
ax2 + ayz = - 2 hp:. (4.9)

This is the plane-harmonic equation which is well known in mathematical

literature.
For the first approach, we use the simplest type of vertical loading,
assuming P: = p = const. If we interpret this load as the weight of the
shell, the wall thickness t would have to be greatest at the top and to
decrease as the slope increases. This does not make much sense, but if
the slope is not great, t will not be far from constant, and the results
will give a reasonable first orientation. \Ve shall see later what to do
in more realistic cases.
Under the assumption Pz = p we have to deal with the equation
()2cf> ()2cf> 1
axz + ayz = - 2 ph. (4.10)

Flilgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 11

162 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

There exists one simple solution of this equation, which shows some
features of general interest. It is:

if> = - ~ ph [x 2 + y 2 --:- ~ ( 3 x y2 - x3 )] •

Here a is an arbitrary length.

One may easily check that if> assumes a constant value along all
three sides of the triangle shown in the x, y plane of Fig. 4.3, i.e.

for and for

For that side which is parallel to they axis this implies that i) 2 if>joy 2 0 =
and hence from (4.5) that N x = 0. This means that this edge of the
shell must be supported by a thin vertical wall (a diaphragm) which
will accept only a shear N.ry but not a thrust. For the other two edges

~·~
f-a/31 I

Fig. 4.3. Triangular shell

the situation is similar. All partial derivatives of if> in the direction of

the edge are zero and hence there is no thrust normal to the edge. There-
fore the formula describes the membrane forces in the triangular shell
shown in Fig. 4.3 when its edges are supported by vertical arches or
walls which can resist only tangential forces transmitted to them.
The complete formulas for the stress resultants may easily be found,
applying (4.2) and (4.5):

rv
T
X= -
X) 11h,h,22 +
4ph ( 1 + 3 a + 4y2,
4r

ph (
a X ) l/h2 + 4 y2
N!l = - 4 1- 3 ~ hz + 4xz'
3 y
N:ry=4pha.
 4.2 ELLIPTIC PROBLEMS 163

Some numerical results for a shell with a = h are shown in Fig. 4.4. At
the top x = y = 0, we have Nx = N!1 and N:r!l = 0. Here the normal
force is the same in every direction and would also be the same if the
shell were limited by a circular springing line. At x = - af3, y = 0,
the shear NJ'!f = 0 from symmetry and Nx = 0 from the boundary
condition. Here N!! alone carries the load as in an arch. At the corners,
a rhomboidal element with edges parallel to those of the shell is in a

I
I !
I

,-1.250

Values~

Fig. 4.4. Stress resultants in a triangular shell

state of pure shear. The shearing forces are really able to carry the
local load, since they have different slopes at opposite sides of the
element and therefore different vertical components. 'Ye shall see later
that this is not always so and that then a disagreeable phenomenon
may appear.
It may be mentioned that the use of cylindrical coordinates r, 1p, z
permits finding solutions for similar shells limited in plan view by any
regular polygon. The solution then is not obtained in finite form but
as a FouRIER series in "P·
11*
 164 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

4.2.2 Elliptic Paraboloid

For roof construction, those shells are of the greatest interest which
permit covering rectangular areas. If the rectangle is not too different
from a square, we may cut a convenient piece out of the paraboloid (4.8),
but for more elongated rectangles it is better to use an elliptic paraboloid
x= !I
Z=~~;+~~;· (4.11)

Its intersections with planes x = const. or y = const. are again parabolas

but of two different sizes.

r
I .I
b! r-·----+-1 ·---· :-! ~'ig. 4.5. Elliptic pambolohl

~~------~----~
;..------a-----~

"\Ve now consider a shell which is cut out of such a surface by two
planes ;r = ± af2 and two planes y = ± b/2 (Fig. 4.5). If we choose the
same load as before, Px == p!l == 0, p, = p, the differential equation is
1 a2t/J 1 a2t/J P
h; ax= + 711- ay2 = - 2 . (4.12)
Let the edges of the shell be stiffened and supported by four thin
vertical walls or arches, which can resist tangential forces (Nx" or Nil,.),
but offer no resistance to a thrust (N.x or N:) exerted by the shell. Then
the boundary conditions are
a i)'l(p
for X=±2: Nx=O, hence --.
ay- =0,
(4.13)
b ()2(/1
for y=±2: Ny=O, hence iJx2 =0.
From this we conclude that on each side of the rectangular boundary,
(/)must be a linear function of one of the coordinates, x or y. Since the
load is distributed symmetrically with respect to both coordinate axes,
we may expect that(/) is a constant along the whole boundary, and since
 4.2 ELLIPTIC PROBLEMS 165
we are interested only in second derivatives ofl.P, the constant boundary
value may arbitrarily be assumed to be zero.
We start from the particular solution

lP = l.Po = P:~ ( ~ - y2)

which not only satisfies the differential equation but assumes the value
= 0 on the two longer edges y = ± bf2. To fulfill the same condition
rJj
on the other two edges we add another stress function
nnx nny
1;
00

rp""" lP1 = G,. Cosh - 0- cos-b-. (4.14)

n-1, s, ...
This series satisfies term by term the homogeneous differential equation
if we put c = b (h1 Jh 2 ) 1' 2 • Furthermore, each of its terms vanishes for
y = ± b/2, and if we choose the coefficients en so that rpo + rpl = 0
for x = ± af2, this sum of the two stress functions will represent the
solution of our problem.
Now, the boundary values for x = ± af2 are

rp = lP0 + lP1 = ~ 4 - y:a) +

ph,_ (b 2 ~
£.J Gn Cosh
, nna
""""2C nny
cos-b-.
1, 3, 5, ...

The first term of this expression may be expanded into a FoURIER series
ph,_ (~-
4 4
y2) =phi4n3
Sb2 (cos ny- __!.
b 3 3
cos 3ny +_!_cos 5ny -
b 53 b
+ ···)
and we see that the condition rJj = 0 will be fulfilled if we choose

With this expression for the general coefficient the complete solution
assumes the following form

lP=ph1 [~- 12 _8b 2 ~ (-i)n; 1-._!_ Coshnnxfo cosnny]. (4 . 15)

4 4 y n3 1, 3 -;1, ... n3 Coshnnaf2o b

Differentiation according to (4.5) and application of (4.2) yields the

formulas for the stress resultants:

N
x
= _ ph 2 vhi +
2 h~+4y-
4x: [t + ~ . f (-t)n;
:-c 1 • 3 , 5 ,...
1
_ _!. "Coshnnxfo cos n:-cy].
n Coshnnaf2o b ·

2 oo n+l S"nh /
N =J!.. 1 fhh ~ (-1)2 . ..£. 1 nnxo sinnny (4.16)
"'!I n V '•t'•z t, 3,£.J
5, •••
n Coshnnaf2o b '

N,, = 2 ph1
· n
hi+ 4~
11~+4
j; (-i)n;t. _!_n Coshnna2o
l,s,5,...
Coshnnj/o cos n:-cy.
b
166 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

The convergence of these series shows an interesting peculiarity.

Since the terms have alternating signs, the factor 1/n is sufficient to
assure at least a feeble convergence. But there is still the quotient of
the two hyperbolic functions. For a fixed value of x, 0 < x < af2, and
large values of n it is approximately equal to exp[nn(2x- a)f2c] and
decreases exponentially. This gives an excellent convergence, if we do
not go all too close to the corner x = af2, y = b/2. The forces Nx and N!J
there are zero, but in the series for the shear Nxif the factor sinnnyfb
is alternately + 1 and - 1 and thus cancels the alternating sign coming
from the factor (-l)(n+ll/ 2 , and we have there exactly the sum of the
odd terms of the harmonic series, which is divergent. This is not a failure
of the applied method but indicates a real singularity of the stress
system, which we can easily explain by mechanical considerations.
The equation (4.11) of the elliptic paraboloid has the form

z = j(x) + g(y).
When a surface is uescribed by an equation of this kind, all its cross
sections x = const. are congruent to each other, and so are the curves
y = const. The surface may therefore be generated by subjecting one
of these curves to a transverse translation. Such surfaces are called
surfaces of translation, and the curves from which they may be gener-
ated are their generators.
When a shell is formed as a surface of translation, a shell element
bounded by two pairs of generators is an exact parallelogram. There-
fore the shearing forces N.,!f at opposite edges are exactly parallel, and
they cannot contribute to the vertical equilibrium as do the longitudinal
forces N x and N!l. For this reason the second term of the operator L
is missing in (4.12). Now, at the corners, the boundary condition re-
quires that N and N 11 both be zero, and nothing is left to carry the
f

vertical load. This is the reason that the shear tends toward infinity
when one approaches this point.
The physical interpretation of this singularity is, of course, this:
In the vicinity of the rectangular corner, where the membrane forces
eannot carry the load, transverse shearing forces of substantial magni-
tude will appear which, in turn, will produce bending and twisting
moments in the shell.
On p. 164 we used the double symmetry of the problem to replace
the actual boundary condition (4.13) by the condition(]>= 0, valid on
the entire boundary. In cases where there is less symmetry, we may
still take advantage of the fact that the stress resultants are not changed
when a linear function of x and y is added to if>. One may, therefore,
always assume if> = 0 at three corners and, hence, along two adjacent
 4.2 ELLIPTIC PROBLEMS 167
sides of the rectangle. Then symmetry with respect to one axis is enough
to make <P = 0 along the entire boundary.
If even that symmetry is lacking, we are faced with the possibility
of combining the solution for zero boundary values with the solution

F T

___ J_ ___ T

r+ i x
'--=-=-::::.=i=--==-...J'
T
(b)

(a)

:Fig. 4.6. Uniform edge shear, (a} stress ftmct!on, (b) shell

of the homogeneom; differential equation for the boundary values shown

in Fig. 4.6a.
The latter solution is
40
<P=- abxy=- Txy.
It yields the stress resultants Nx = N!1 = 0, Nxy = T and represents the
stress system produced by edge shears T as shown in Fig. 4.6b. Whether
such a shear load is present depends on the kind of support provided for
the edge members at the four corners of the structure.

4.2.:J Solution by Relaxation Method

It is not always possible to solve the stress problem by such simple
formulas as we used in the preceding sections. As an example, we may
think of the shell shown in Fig. 4.5, but with constant wall thickness.
Then the load P:, produced by its weight, is a constant, but Pz increases
toward the edges and still more toward the corners, and (4.3), which
describes this increase, is in no way tempting for analytical work.
In this and other cases a numerical method is needed, and it is the
special merit of the stress function that it opens the way for the applica-
tion of the relaxation method. Its use is limited to differential equations
of the elliptic type and this requires that the middle surface of the shell
have positive GAussian curvature.
Like all finite-difference methods, relaxation cannot handle sin-
gularities of the solution. We have seen that and why in rectangular
168 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

shells the stresses are singular at the corners. To avoid these singularities,
we need a load distribution with p = 0 at these points. vVe obtain it
by subtracting from the actual load a load Pz = const. of the proper
magnitude, for which (4.16) is the analytic solution. Applying relaxation
to the difference between this constant load and the actual load and then
superposing the result and (4.16), we can easily obtain the solution for
any problem involving a symmetric, vertical load.

4.3 Hyperbolic Problems

4.3.1 Hyperbolic Paraboloid, Edges Parallel to Generators
The surface which spans in the simplest way a twisted quadrangle
(Fig. 4.7) has the equation

(4.17)

and is called a hyperbolic paraboloid. Its intersections with vertical

planes x = const. or y = const. are straight lines, the generators. The

,.-
....y
)(

Ffg. 4.7. Hyperbolic

paraboloid

quantity 1/c, the reciprocal of a length, is the twist (J2z(ox oy of the

surface, i.e. the difference of slope of two generators, which are a unit
length apart.
The hyperbolic paraboloid yields a type of shells which has often
been used for roof structures. Its stress problem is best treated with
the help of the differential equation (4.6). Introducing there the rela-
tion (4.17) we find
2a2(J) _ -Y _x
-C-axay
-- - -p: +p x -C + p -
!! C •
(4.18)
 4.3 HYPERBOLIC PROBLEllS 169
When we have only vertical loads Pz = p, constant per unit of hori-
zontal projection of shell surface, the equation is simply
a'lfl> 1
iJxiJy=2cp,

which, with (4.5), yields

(4.19a}

and has the general solution

1
fll= 2 cpxy+fdx)+/2 (y)

with two arbitrary functions / 1 and / 2 • Introducing this into (4.5) and
(4.2), we find the fiber forces

(4.19b, c)

This is a very simple stress system. The shear is constant throughout

the shell, and the projections Nx, Ny of the fiber forces Nr, N!l are each
constant along those generators which have the direction of that force
and may vary only from one such generator to the other. From this
situation it follows for the force N r that we can arbitrarily prescr·ibe-

-...
y

Fig. 4.8. Shell roof consisting of four hyperbolic parnholoids

its values on one of the edges x = const. of the shell but that we have
no means of influencing the ensuing values on the opposite edge; the
same is true for Ny with respect to the edges y = const.
Fig. 4.8 shows a roof constructed by a combination of four shells
of the type just studied. This structure has two vertical planes of sym-
metry. At the gables there must be edge members to take care of the-
liO CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

shear Nx 11 according to (4.19a). Their axial force FE must be zero at

the top and therefore is
F -N ~=_ab px
F.- 2h COS<%
X!/COSI%

in the domain AB in Fig. 4.8 and similar in the other parts. At the
corner x = a the horizontal component of this force is balanced by
means of a tie against a. similar component appearing at the next corner.
The vertical components of the F r; in two adjoining gables combine to
a resultant
ab pa . pb .
R = 2--,-sma:
tl COS<%
+ 2abh COS
-{Jsm{J = pab,

which must be carried by a support. It is, of course, equal to one quarter

of the total load carried by the structure.
Since the edge member will not be stiff enough to resist a horizontal
thrust of the shell, there should be NY = 0 on the edge y =band Nx = 0
on x =a. From (4.19b, c) it follows that Nr = N 11 = 0 for the whole
shell.
Along the ridges there must be another system of ribs. These receive
shearing forces Nry from both sides, which produce a rib force FR. In
the ridge CD it is
F 1l = 2(a- x) Nxy = -c(a- x)p,
beginning with F R = 0 at the gable. Beyond the point D, F R decreases
symmetrically.
The stress system described here seems to be extremely simple. But
as soon as we look for further details, many difficulties appear. One of
them comes from the weight of the ridges. Since these bars are placed
along lines where two shells meet at an angle, one might think that the
weight should be carried by those shells. This is not possible, because
the forces Nr or Ny needed for this purpose cannot exist without giving
new trouble at the opposite edges. Therefore, it is necessary that the
ridge beaml:! take care of themselves and sustain their own weight as
beams supported at the gables.
The situation becomes worse when we try to apply a load to only
a part of the roof. Consider, for example, the case that one of the four
panels, say ABCD, has a uniform load of snow, p, ahd that the other
three are bare. Then the stress resultants in the first panel will be exactly
the same as before,

and the other three panels must be completely free of stress. The ridge CD
would then have exactly one half of the force F R which we found before,
 4.3 HYPERBOLIC PROBLE::\IS 171
but beyond the point D there is now no shear from the shell to make
this force decrease to zero at the far end of the ridge. It is therefore
impossible to find any kind of equilibrium in the structure without
resorting to considerable lateral bending of the ribs.

~(a)

Fig. 4.9. Examples of shell

roofs built up from hyper-
holic paraboloids

(c)

~
Figure 4.9 shows some other roof structures built up of the same
element, Fig. 4.7. They all present the same simple stress problem, if
the loau is perfectly symmetric, and they all have the same short-
comings under less favorable loading conditions.

4.3.2 Hyperbolic Paraboloid, Edges Bisecting the Directions

of the Generators
If we rotate the coordinate system x, y by 45°, the equation of the
hyperbolic paraboloid assumes the form
x2- y2
Z=~
172 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

If we stretch this surface in the a; direction, we arrive at a more general

type having the equation

(4.20)

A rectangular part of such a shell is shown in Fig. 4.10. It.s stress result-
ants will be studied in this section.

Fig. 4.10. Hyperbolic paraboloid

Introducing (4.20) into the general equation (4.6), we find the dif-
ferential equation of our particular problem:
2a2([> 2a2tP _ 2x_ 2y_ 2/_d 2j-d (421 )
h2 ax2 - hl ay2 = Pz - h; P:z: + h; p!l - hl P:z: X + h2p!l y. .
It looks very much like (4.12) for the elliptic paraboloid, but the second
term at the left has a minus sign here, indicating that this equation
belongs to the hyperbolic type. This has important consequences for
the methods to be used in its solution and for the properties of the
stress systems which will be found.
We may easily find a particular solution of (4.21). For the simplest
type of vertical loading, p, = p!1 = 0, P: = p = const., we may choose
among
1 1 1
W= 4 ph 2 x 2 or W=- 4 ph1 y 2 or W=sp(h 2 x 2 -h 1 y'~-).(4.22)

These solutions permit a simple mechanical interpretation. We find it

by introducing them into (4.5) for the stress resultants. For the second
solution, only the forces N" are ,p 0 and represent a state of stress in
which the shell carries its load like a series of arches parallel to the x, z
plane, bringing the load to abutments at the edges x = ± af2. In the
case of the first solution there are similar arches parallel to they, z plane,
but they have tensile forces N 11 ; and in the third solution both arch
systems act jointly in carrying the load. Similar solutions exist for the
elliptic paraboloid, but there both arch systems are in compression.
 4.3 HYPERBOLIC PROBLE:\18 173
There is, however, a. difference of much greater importance between
these two types of shells. In the elliptic problem we added a homo-
geneous solution which eliminated the thrust on all four edges and
replaced it by tangential forces which could be transmitted to simple
diaphragms. Here, in the hyperbolic case, a similar stress system is
not generally possible. To make this clear, we must first discuss some
more geometric properties of the hyperbolic paraboloid (Fig. 4.10).
We consider a vertical plane
JJ=A+Bx.
Eliminating y from this equation and from (4.20), we find a. relation
valid for all points of the intersection of the plane and the paraboloid:
x2 A 2 +2ABx+B2 x2
z= - - ---'-----;----' ----
hl hz

If.we choose B 2 = h2Jh1 , the terms with x2 will cancel, and then the
two surfaces will intersect in a straight line. There are two families of
such straight lines on the paraboloid, corresponding to B = ± Vh 2Jh1"
They are the generators of the surface. Their projections on the x, y
plane meet the x axis at an angle ± y, where

tany = V hz
h1 •

When h1 = h2 , the projections meet each other at right angles and the
generators are identical with those which were used as coordinate lines
in Section 4.3.1. Those shells were bounded by four generators, but
here two of them pass through every point on the edges, with the ex-
ception of the four corners. From each corner only one generator emana-
tes. It may happen that it traverses the shell diagonally and ends at
the opposite corner, but, in general, the generators from the corners
will meet one pair of opposite sides of the shell. These sides will be
called the principal sides and the other two, the secondary sides. With
the notations of Fig. 4.10, the sides a are the principal sides, if the
parameter A., defined by
;.z = a2h2fb2ht'
is greater than unity, and it is this parameter which determines essen-
tially the features of the stress system set up in the shell.
Now let us consider the shell in Fig. 4.11 and suppose that, for a
given load system fJ.,., p11 , p,, we have found a particular solution of the
differential equation (4.21). It will yield certain forces on the edges,
which must be applied there as external forces. Some of them may be
undesirable for practical applications, and we are, therefore, interested
 174 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

in finding solutions of the homogeneous equation which, when added,

cancel those edge forces and adapt the stresses to suitable boundary
conditions, allowing a simple support of the shell.

Fig. 4.! I. Plan projection of a hyperbolic pamboloid, showing the generators

We start at the secondary edge AB. In a line element ds situated

at an arbitrary point P of this side we have forces N r. ds and Nx~ds
which we may combine to form a resultant, lying in the tangential
plane of the shell. To rid the shell of this external force, we apply a
force of the same size and in the opposite direction as an additional
load. We may resolve it into components in the directions of the two
generators PQ 1 and PR1 passing through P. In the same way, as we
saw for the hyperboloid of revolution on p. 76, these forces will produce
stresses only in two straight strips along the generators and will need
for equilibrium external forces of the same size at the opposite ends Q1
and R 1 of the strips.
If we do the same at all points of the edge AB, we can rid it com-
pletely of all external forces, so that it does not need any support at
all. In exchange we get additional forces on the sections AB1 and BA 1
of the principal edges AD and BC. They combine with the forces already
present from the inhomogeneous solution.
We may now try to enforce some boundary condition on the lines AB 1
and BA 1 by applying there new external forces. But there we are no
longer completely free in our choice. Consider for instance the point Q1 .
The new force to be applied there should have the direction of the
generator Q1 Q2 • Otherwise one component would run back to P and
there disturb the order we have just created. Hence only the magni-
tude, not the direction of the new force is free, and we may choose it
so that either its y component cancels the already existing thrust N!1
or that its x component cancels the shear N,nr In either case, a certain
force is introduced into a. strip along Q1 Q2 and reappears at its far end Q2
as an external force. In the same way, we proceed at all points on AB1
and BA 1 and get additional forces on B 1 A 2 and A 1 B 2 • This may be
continued until we arrive on the secondary edge CD. Then we are
 4.3 HYPERBOLIC PROBLEMS 175
through because any additional force applied there would run back to
other edges of the shell, where it would not be welcome. The edge CD
must, therefore, have a complete support which can resist a thrust N,
as well as a shear N.r: 11 •
By the procedure described here we have found a set of boundary
conditions which can always be realized on this kind of a shell, ir-
respective of its length: one secondary edge AB completely free of
external forces, the other one completely supported, and the principal
edges either resting on plane diaphragms resisting only shear, or, if
we should prefer, supported by abutments which can resist only a
thrust N 11 , but not a shearing force N:ry·
The method which we applied to throw boundary forces from one
edge to another may be applied again to modify these boundary con-
ditions. It is, for instance, possible to make the edge CD free of forces,
if we admit an edge thrust N 11 in addition to the shear on certain parts
of the principal edges AD and BC. Fig. 4.12 shows some possibilities

Fig. ~.1:!. Plan view of a hyperbolic shell, showing different examples of boundary conditions that
may be imposed; I = free edge, s = shear edge (no thrust), s +t = shear and thrust ndmitt•d

of this kind. Most of them look rather queer. Whether or not we find
among them one which is readily applicable to a practical problem
depends on the chain of generators A A 1 A 2 ••• , starting at one of the
corners. We see this at once when we raise the question whether it
would be possible to exchange the thrust on CD against a shear on AB,
arriving thus at a set of boundary conditions corresponding to a sup-
port of the shell by four diaphragms along its four edges.
Let us study this question on the two shells shown in Fig. 4.13a, b.
In Fig. 4.13a the chain of generators starting at A ends at another cor-
ner C. In this case the two chains starting at any point E on the left-
hand side meet at one point F on the right-hand side. To cancel the
thrust at point E, we must there apply an additional thrust, as shown
in the figure. If we transfer it through the shell,.admitting only addi-
tional shear on the principal edges, we see that the forces resulting
at F combine exactly to a thrust of the same magnitude. It is hence
impossible to exchange the thrust at the left for a shear at the right.
Quite different is the behavior of the shell in Fig. 4.13b. Here the two
chains of generators emanating from the point E 1 end at two different
points F 1 and F 2 , having equal distances from the corners C and D,
176 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

respectively. But there is another point E 2 , which sends its chains of

generators to the same two points F 1 , F 2 . If the load on this shell is
symmetric with respect to its horizontal center line, equal thrusts will
have to be applied at E 1 and E 2 , and when we transfer them across
the shell, the forces resulting at F 1 and F 2 combine exactly to two
shearing forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction. It follows

'
''
'' /
/

'' /
/
'
' X/
/

B
(a)

(b)

Fi~. 4.13. Transfer of edge loads In hyperbolic shells, depending on the relation of the edges to
the generators

that this shell may, for a load of a certain symmetry, be supported by

four diaphragms. A roof constructed in this way may easily carry its
own weight. But it cannot carry unsymmetric loads without transverse
bending of the arch ribs on its edges. If we are willing to admit the
ensuing stresses, then the simple and intuitive method of solving the
stress problem which this kind of shell permits is certainly in their
favor.
We shall now illustrate this method by some examples. We begin
with the shell shown in plan projection in Fig. 4.14, assuming that there
is a vertical load such that Pz = p = const. Then the inhomogeneous
solutions (4.22) are applicable, and we choose the second one. It yields
the stress resultants
- 1
Nx =- 2 p hl, (4.23)

Since we do not want the thrust on the edges AB and CD, we apply
here tensile forces of the same magnitude and resolve them in corn-
 4.3 HYPERBOLIC PROBLEMS 177

ponents parallel to the generators. Projected on the x, y plane, and

per unit length of line element dy, these components are
phl
4 cosy.

They reappear on the longer sides a, as indicated in the figure. There

they are distributed over line elements ds = dy coty and hence have
the intensity
phl ph2
4 cos y · cot y = 4 sin y ·

To keep these edges free of thrust, we add a compressive force of equal

intensity in the direction of the second generator. It happens that these

}(

Fi~. 4.14. Transfer of etlge loads in a special Fig. 4.15. Calculation of the stress resultants
hyperbolic shell in the shell of Fig. 4.14

forces equilibrate each other on each generator, and we have found a

solution which leaves the sides b free of all external forces and yields
only shear on the sides a, certainly an ideal result for practical applica-
tion.
Until now, we know the stress resultants only for sections parallel
to the generators. It will, of course, be useful to know the corresponding
forces N :r, N 11 , N x !I. To find them, we divide the shell into seven zones
as shown in Fig. 4.15a. In the zones marked I, we have tensile forces
along both generators, as indicated on the triangular shell elements,
Fig. 4.15b, c. The equilibrium of these elements yields equations from
which we may find the projected forces
- 1
N!, = + 2ph2.
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 12
178 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

In zone III all forces have the opposite sign:

In the zones marked II, one of the generators has tension, the other
one compression, and the equilibrium of triangular elements yields

the positive sign referring to the zones II in the upper left and the
lower right of the shell. To all these forces the particular solution (4.23)
must still be added.
The resulting stress system which is represented by the diagrams in
Fig. 4.16 has severe discontinuities. ·when we cross one of the four
generators shown in Fig. 4.15a, the fiber force parallel to this line changes
its magnitude abruptly, and the corresponding strain does the same.

- 2 - 2
N•-
• ph, N Y ·ph,
-

Fig. 4.16. Distribution of the stress resultants In the shefl of Fig. 4.14

In shells of positive curvature we found such discontinuities only along

the edges, but when treating the hyperboloid of revolution (p. 75) we
encountered the same phenomenon which we see here: A discontinuity
on the edge (there a discontinuous load, here a corner) produces a dis-
continuity in the stress resultants which is propagated along certain
lines right across the shell. This is a general feature of all stress problems
governed by differential equations of the hyperbolic type, and we see
from (4.6) that the membrane stress problem is exactly of this type
if the shell has negative curvature. This indicates that for all such shells
the results of the membrane theory are to be applied with much cau-
tion.
As we may already expect from the discussion of Fig. 4.13, the stress
resultants will be quite different if we shorten the shell in Fig. 4.14 by
one quarter of its length. Starting from the same particular solution
as before and applying at the left edge the same additional forces, we
find that they will not cancel the thrust at the right edge but lead
there to additional shearing forces, and vice versa, elimination of the
 4.4 l\!EllBRANE FORCES IN AFFINE SHELLS 179

thrust at the right yields additional shear at the left. When we work
out the details we get the stress resultants shown in Fig. 4.17. Along the
edges there is no thrust, only shear, just as there was in the case of the
elliptic paraboloid. But what a difference in the details! On one half

- 2 - 2 - 2
N.·~ -
N y ·ph2 N,y' p
(h h )'12
I 1

Fig. 4.1i. Stress-distribution patterns similm· to those of Flg. 4.16 but in a shorter shell

of a short side the shear is positive and at the center it suddenly changes
to a negative value of the same magnitude, and there are eight lines
of discontinuity of stress crossing the interior of the shell.
For any other value of the parameter )., as defined on p. 173, the
stress .system in the hyperbolic paraboloid shows more or less different
features, which the reader may easily find out by himself.

4.4 lUembrane Forces in Affine Shells

4.4.1 General Theory
The left-hand side of the differential equation (4.6) is not only linear
in </> but also in z. Therefore, if we multiply the stress function </> by
a constant factor and the ordinates z by its reciprocal, the equation
will still be satisfied. This hints at a close relationship between the
stress resultants in certain families of shells. We shall see how this
relationship may be used to solve stress problems.
We start from an arbitrary shellS*. When we multiply the rectan-
gular coordinates x*, y*, z* of every point of its middle surface by con-
stant factors ).1 , ).2 , ).3 , the new coordinates
(4.24)

describe the middle surface of another shell S. The two shells are said
to be affine to each other, and the set (4.24) is called an affine trans-
formation.
Now let </>* be the stress function which satisfied (4.6) with the
coordinates x*, y*, z* and a certain system of loads p:, -p;, Pi. We
consider the corresponding equation for the shell S, choosing the stress
12*
180 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

function
if> = ;.1 }.2if>*. (4.25)
The first term of the equation will be
a'41> a2z -13 a'41>* (J2z*
ax2 ay2 = i.1 ..12 ax* 2 ay* 2 •

The same constant .?. 3 /.?.1 .?. 2 is also the ratio of the other terms on the
left-hand sides of both equations and therefore should also be the ratio
of the right-hand sides. This condition will be fulfilled if the loads
satisfy the relations

(4.26)

The quantities p:, p~ , p~ were defined as loads per unit of the projected
area dx* · dy* of a shell element. The total force acting on an element
of S* has therefore the components
p~dx*dy*, fitdx*dy*, p:dx*dy*,

and it follows from (4.24) and (4.26) that the load components on the
corresponding element of Shave the magnitude

'fi.rdxdy = .?. 1 p~dx*dy*,

fizdxdy = A3 p:dx*dy*,

that is, they are obtained by applying the same factors which also
apply to the coordinates to which these forces are parallel. The loads
per unit of the areas dA * and dA of the real shell elements are then
connected by the relations
dA*
Pz = AaP: dA-. (4.27)

We now turn to the stress resultants. They are connected with the
stress function by (4.5). When we introduce there the relations (4.24),
(4.25), and (4.26) we find the corresponding relations for the projected
forces:
Nxy = Nty, (4.28)

According to our former definition, the force N:

cls~ acting on the
line element clsZ of the shellS* has the x component N:
dy*. From (4.24)
and (4.28) we find its relation to the corresponding force N x dy in the
shellS:
 4.4 MEMBRANE FORCES IN AFFINE SHELLS 181

For the vertical component the relation is

- d . oz -
N ;r y ox -
1
Jl.t
N-* d
X y
*. ls
Al
oz* -·
ox* -
1
Jl.a
N-* d
X
* oz*
y ox* .

When we examine all forces in this way, we find that the corresponding
components of every internal or external force, applied to corresponding
elements of both shells, are always in the same ratio as the coordinates
to which they are parallel. And when we put the components of a force
together, we see that every pair of corresponding forces, acting on or
in the shells S* and S, has the same ratio as has a pair of (real or hypo-
thetic) line elements of the two shells which would be parallel to these
forces. We have, therefore, the following relations for the forces Nx,
Nxy• Ny of the two shells:

(4.29)

It is easily seen that the last statement and the formulas (4.29) are not
restricted to the forces transmitted in the particular sections along lines
x = const. or y = const. When we want to apply (4.29) to the stress
resultants for another reference system, we only need to introduce the
line element parallel to the force under consideration and that one in
.which this force is transmitted.
Together with all other forces in the two shells, the forces transmitted
to edge members also are subject to the law of affine transformation.
If an edge member is statically determinate, the same is true for the
axial and shearing forces therein. To find the rule for the bending
moment, let us consider a horizontal ring, e.g. the foot ring of a dome.
Its bending moments are the sum of moments of x forces at y lever
arms and of y forces at. x lever arms. In both cases the factor A.1 A.2 applies:
(4.30)
However, it should be borne in mind that most edge members are
statically indeterminate by themselves, and since redundant quantities
are not derived from conditions of equilibrium, they are not subject
to affine transformation but must be computed for each case according
to its own merits.

4.4.2 Applications
4.4.2.1 Vertical Stretching of a Shell of Revolution
We consider two shells of revolution (Fig. 4.18) whose rectangular
coordinates are connected by the simple affine transformation
x = x*, y= y*, z = A.z*, (4.31)
182 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

which transforms one shell into the other simply by stretching it in

the direction of its axis.
When we use angular coordinates </>*, ()* and </>, () on both shells,
they are connected by the relations
() = ()*' tan</> =A. tan</>*. (4.32)

Corresponding parallel circles on both shells have the same radius

and therefore equal line elements
ds 8 = dst.
The meridional element as:
of the shell S* has the components ds: cos</>*
(horizontal) and as;
sin</>* (vertical). The latter one is increased by the

}'ig. 4.18. Vertical stretching of

a shell of revolution

transformation in the ratio 1 :A., and the corresponding element on S is

therefore
d84> = ds:Vcos 2 </>* + A. 2sin2<J>*.

With this information about the line elements, we may use (4.29)
to establish relations between the stress resultants in the shells. They
are:
N<l> = N:(cos 2 </>* + ).2sin2</>*)''•,
(4.33)
No= Nt (cos 2 </>* + A. 2sin 2</>*)-''•.
The area of the shell elements limited by meridians and parallel
circles is, dA = as <I> • as 8 and dA * = ds: · as:, respectively. When their
ratio is introduced in (4.27), the following relations between the loads
on the shells are obtained:
Px = p~(cos2</>* + ).2sin2</>*)-'''•
p!l = Pt (cos 2</>* + A.2 sin2</>*)-''• ,
P: = p: A. (cos 2 </>* + ).2 sin2</>*)-'''.
 4.4 :\IE}IBRA.l.~E FORCES IN A~'FIXE SHELLS 183
We have now all necessary formulas for this particular type of affine
transformation and may discuss them and apply them to special prob-
lems.
When the shell S is a tank or a pressure vessel, there is little merit
in applying an affine transformation. The horizontal and vertical com-
ponents of the pressure p would be multiplied by different factors, and
the resulting load on the shell S* would not be perpendicular to the
wall. The advantage gained from substituting, say a sphere S* for an
ellipsoid S is lost through the more complicated load distribution.
When the shell S is a dome, the situation is slightly more in favor
of the affine transformation, because the important loads (dead load
and snow) are all vertical. But still there is not much advantage in
using this detour to the solution of the stress problem, since the straight-
forward method developed in Section 2.1 is easily applicable to shells
of any meridian.
The real importance of the affine transformation (4.31) lies in its
application to the solutions given in Section 2.4.2. There we had some
simple and important formulas for spherical shells, and we may now
adapt them with little more than a stroke of the pen to ellipsoids of revo-
lution. We shall show this here for the formulas (2.32) which describe the
effect of an edge load applied to a spherical shell at two edges</> = const.
We suppose the shell S* to be part of a sphere, bounded by two
parallel circles </>* = rx and </>* = {3. The formulas (2.32) then read as
follows:

~N*
~n = - N*Bn = sin2c/>* (A ., eot" cl2>*
1 + B ,. t an " cl>*)
2 ,

*
J..N ~Bn =
1
2- B " t an,.cl>*)
sin2c/>* (A ,. eot"cl>* 2 .

The only thing to do is to introduce these expressions on the right-hand

sides of (4.33), and we already have the desired result:

N
.1.. Bn =- 1 , >*
( ~4 "eo t" cl---, + B ,. t an "cl>*)
- , (4.34)
sin2</>* (cos 2</>* + .:t2 sin2</>*) '• :.. 2

·v -
"''~u"-sin2c/>*
1 (A ,.eot" cl2>* - B"an
t cl>*)
2. n

Here the stress resultants of the ellipsoid are given in terms of the
angle</>* measured on the sphere, which is, of course, as good a coordinate
as any. If one prefers to use the angle </>measured on the ellipsoid itself,
he may use (4.32) to introduce it, but this is scarcely worthwhile.
184 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

As an example of the application of (4.34), we consider the water

tank shown in Fig. 4.19. It consists of a cylindrical part closed by two
half ellipsoids as roof and bottom, and it is supported by four columns
which are riveted to the cylinder over the full length h. When the tank
is filled as indicated, the reaction in each column, due to the water
weight, will be

vVe solve the stress problem in two steps. In the first step we try
to find simple stress systems in each of the three parts of the tank,

Fig. 4.1 n. Water tank, supported by four

columns attached to four generators of
the cylindrical wall

disregarding the discrepancies in the shearing forces at the joints. In

the second step we use the formulas (4.34) to make the shearing forces
match.
Since no load is applied directly to the roof shell, we may assume,
for the start, that the stress resultants in this half ellipsoid are zero.
For the bottom, we found a solution on p. 34. This solution would de-
scribe the stress resultants perfectly, if the cylinder could supply the
force

needed at the edge, without requiring more.

In the cylinder we have certainly the hoop force
N0 = yax
 4.4 l\IEl\IBRANE FORCES IN AFFINE SHELLS 185

due to the water pressure on the shell. In addition, there must be for-
ces N x which respond to the force N.; from the bottom, and there are
four forces P from the supports. We assume that the latter are in-
troduced smoothly along the generators by a uniform line load P = Pfh.

ra'9
Nx8 =-6h (3h+2b)

Fig. 4.20. Forces acting on one

quarter of the cylindrical part
of Fig. 4.1!l

N.=ha(3h+2b)

Each quarter of the shell, cut out between two supports, will therefore
be subjected to the vertical loads shown in Fig. 4.20. When we compare
these forces with the formulas (3.3) for the membrane forces in a cylinde1·,
from which, of course, the load terms must be dropped, we find

dfi = - ya2 (3h + 2b)

d(J 6 h.

and hence the stress resultants in the cylinder

7' a2
N:eo =- "ifh (3h ~ 2b)O,

At x = h, the axial force Nx is in equilibrium with the force N.; coming

from the tank bottom. But there are shearing forces NJ' 0 on both edges
of the cylinder which have, so far, no counterpart in the ellipsoids.
Since we do not want to apply them as external forces to the structure,
we apply additional forces to the edges of the cylinder and of the two
half ellipsoids, and we choose them so that the sum of all external
forces is everywhere equal to zero.
When we want to apply edge loads to the half ellipsoids, we must
use (4.34). Since they give the general term of a FoURIER series in 0,
we must first write the unbalanced shear of the cylinder as a FouRIER
i86 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

series. The shear distribution along the developed edge of the cylinder
is shown in Fig. 4.21. This discontinuous function has the following
FouRIER representation:
y a2
+ 2b) 17 - - s i n nO==' 17 T sinn0.
(- 1)""
N,.o = -3 h (3h 11
n n n

The summations in this formula, like all those on the following pages,
.are to be extended over the values n = 4, 8, 12, 16, ... The abbrevia-
tion T,. has been introduced to keep the following formulas compact,
but we shall get rid of it before we write the final result.

Fig. 4.21. Edge shear on the cylinder, resulting from Fig. 4.20

For the roof ellipsoid we must put .d .. = 0 in order to avoid a mean-

ingless singularity at </> = 0, but Bn may still be chosen freely. At the
edge </> = 90° we have then the shear N ~ 0 = - B,. sin nO and the merid-
ional force N~ = BnJ.. cosnO. At the upper edge of the cylinder the
n-th harmonic of the shear is Nxo = T,. sin nO. vVe could easily remove
the discrepancy in the shear by putting Bn = - T n, but this would not
·dispose of the discrepancy in the meridional forces. vVe must therefore
still postpone the final decision on the value of Bn and remove all dis-
-crepancies by applying an additional shear
N,.o =- (Bn +T 11 ) sin nO
and an additional axial force
Nx = B,,J.. cosn ()
to the upper edge of the cylinder.
At the connection of the cylinder with the bottom we have to pro-
ceed in a similar way. We apply the solution (4.34) to the bottom shell,
this time putting B 11 = 0 and leaving A" undetermin.ed until later. The
edge load of the half ellipsoid at </> = 90° will then be a shear
N <1>0 = A 11 sin n() and a meridional force N ~ = A.J.. cos nO. At the edge
.<: = h of the cylinder we must then apply the shear

N,.o =(An- Tn) sin nO

.and the axial force
NX = An'). cos n e.
 ... FORCES IN AFFIXE SHELLS
4.4 )IEl\lBRA'iE 187

As we have already seen in Chapter 3, it is not possible to apply

at both edges of the cylinder arbitrary normal and shearing forces,
but we have only the choice of two among them. The relations which
exist between the four edge loads just specified will be found when we
go with them into (3.10). When we do so, we not only must replace
there m by n, but we must distinguish between the constants in those
equations, which we now shall write as A~ and B~, and our present
constants An and Bn.
·we see from (3.10a) that the shear must be the same at both edges
x = 0 and x = k, namely equal to what is now called -A~. This yields
the equation
~4,, = -B,,
and additionally
=B,. + T,.. A~
From (3.10b), applied to the edge x = 0, we now find
B~ = B A.,
11

and when we apply tlie equation to the other edge x = h, we find

A~ nh + B~ =AnA.
('
whence

'Vhen this is compared with the expression just obtained for A~, there
results
nh ya2 • (- 1)""
B,. = - nh + 2la T,. =- 3 (3 k + 2 b) 2b + nh ·

\Ve have now the complete solution of our problem. Collecting

everything which belongs to the same part of the shell, we find for the
roof shell (0° ::::;;; cf>* ::::;;; 90°) :
, _ ya 2 (cos2</J* + J.2 sin2</1*)' 1• (- 1)"'4 , <P*
N+ - - -3- (3k + 2b) . 2</1*
s1n '1; "b + n h tan
n .- 9... cos nO,

+ l 2 sin2</J*)-''• <P*
r _ ya 2
li 8 - - 3 (3k + 2b)
, (cos2<fJ*
. </1*
sm2
J: 2(-
11
1)"''
b +n h tan
11
-2 cosnO,
. _yaZ ? 1 (-1)"' 4 ,.</1*,· .
NH- - 3 (3h +~b) . u.~ 2 b h tan 9 smn(},
sin"'" +n ~ ..
for the cylinder (0::::;;; x::::;;; h):
ax ab (3k+2b)
• ( 2 x) ~ (- 1)""
y
N,=6h(3k+2b)- 3
y
1-T f.' 2 b+nhcosn (J ,
ya2 1)" • .
+ 2b) 2:'
(-
Nxo = -3 (3h "b h srnnO,
n ~ +n
No=yax;
188 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBlTRARY SHAPE

for the bottom shell (90° ~ rp* ~ 180"):

•
Nq,=lYq, 0 +-
ya 2 (cos2 cf>* + J.2sin2cf>*) 1'' (-1)"14 ,. cf>*
1;
"'
3 (3h+ ""b) . 4>* h hcot 9 cosn0,
sm2 n 2 +n ~

. yaz (cos2cf>* + ;.zsin2cf>*)-''' ( -1)"14 " cf>*

N 0 =N00 - 3 (3h + 2b) sin2cf>* 1; 2 b + nh cot 2
n
cosne,
_yaz . 1 (-1)•14 "cf>* •
Nq,a- T (3h, 2b) sin2cf>* ~2 b + nh cot T smn8.
In Fig. 4.22 some numerical results are shown for bfa = 0.60,
hja = 1.50. The diagrams give the meridional force (Nx for the cylinder,
N <I> for the roof and bottom) and the hoop force N 0 in three meridional
sections. As in many other cases, the hoop force is discontinuous at the

~------­

I'
,------
Fig. 4.22. Stress resultants in the tank shown in Fig. 4.19

transition from the cylinder to the ellipsoids, indicating that at these

joints bending stresses must be expected. The meridional force is, of
course, continuous. The roof shell is not much stressed., and in the bot-
tom, which carries the weight of the water, the stress distribution is
not too far from being axially symmetric. Only in those meridians which
contain the supporting columns are there very localized singularities at
the edges of the ellipsoids. Because of these singularities, the force N,.
of the cylinder is not defined fore= 45°, but the other two diagrams
show almost identical values of N x. On the whole, the plots illustrate
how easily the shell distributes the concentrated reactions of the col-
umns.
4.4.2.2 Horizontal Stretching of a Shell of Revolution
We consider now (Fig. 4.23) a shell of revolution S* and a shell S
which is derived from S* by the affine transformation
x = A.x*, y = y*, z = z*. (4.35)
 4.4 liEl'IBRANE FORCES IN AFFINE SHELLS 189
Through this transformation, every parallel circle of the shell S* be-
comes a horizontal ellipse on S. Every meridian of S* is transformed
into a curve which again lies in a vertical plane and may also be called
a meridian, but these meridians of S do not all have the same shape.
Therefore, the slope is not the same at points which lie on the same
level on different meridians, and it is not suitable as a coordinate.
On the shell S* we may define coordinates cf>*, ()*in the usual way.
On the shellS, we use the elliptic parallels and the meridians as coordi-
nate lines, and we attribute to each parallel the value c/>* of the corre-
sponding parallel of S* and to each meridian the value ()* of the corre-
sponding meridian of S* (see Fig. 4.23).

Fig. 4.23. Horizontal stretching of a shell of revolution

We may easily express the length of a line element ds 8 on a parallel

or ds.p on a meridian of S by the length of the corresponding element ds:
or ds: on the shell of revolution simply by composing it from its three
orthogonal projections on the axes x, y, z:

dso = V
dst A. 2 sin 2 ()* + cos2 ()* ,
ds.p=ds:y.ll.2 cos 2 cf>*cos 2 t9* + cos2 cf>*sin~t9* + sin2 cf>*.
On a shell of revolution, the parallels and the meridians meet at right
angles. On the shell S, the angle between ds 8 and ds.p will no longer
be a right angle. The stress resultants which result from the affine
transformation of the forces in S* will therefore be skew forces as we
defined them on p. 15 and as we have already used them in earlier parts
of this chapter.
190 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

With the help of (4.29) the skew forces may be expressed in terms
of the stress resultants in the shell S* :

N.; =N.;
* v). 2 cos2 <f>* cos2 8* + cos2 <f>* sin28*
l 2 sin2 8* + cos2 8*
+ sin2 cl>*
'
} (4.36)
* 1/ l 2 sin2 8* + cos2 8*
N8 = N8 Vl 2 cos2 <f>*cos2 8* + cos2 cf>*sin2 8* + sin2 cf>*'
N.;o = N:8·
·when we want to compute the maximum stresses in the shell, we
must apply to these forces the formulas developed in Section 1.2.3.
To do so, we need the angle w between the line elements. The simplest
way to find it is to find first the area dA of the shell element which
has ds 8 and ds.; as sides. ·we find it from its projections on the coordinate
planes:

dA = ds:dS: fsin 2 </>*cos 2 8* + A. 2 sin2 </>* sin2 8* + A. 2 cos2 </>*.

Since this area must also be
dA = ds 8 ds.; sin w,
we have·

· V
smw =
sin2 cf>*cos2 8* + l 2sin2cf>*sin2 8* + .A_2cos2<f>*
(l2 cos2 .p*cos2 8* + cos3 cf>*sin2 8* + sin3 cf>*)(cos2 8* + ).2 sin2 8*) •
A glance at a sketch will show whether the angle w is greater or smaller
than a right angle.
With the expression just given for dA, we may find from (4.27) the
transformation of the load components:
p, = p: A. (sin 2 </>* cos 2 8* + A.2 sin2 </>* sin2 8* + A.2 cos2 </>*t''•,}
p11 = Pt(sin 2 </>*cos 2 8* + A.2 sin2 </>*sin2 8* + A.2 cos 2 </>*)-''•, (4.37)
p, = p!(sin 2 </>*cos 2 8* + A. 2 sin2 </>*sin2 8* + A.2 cos 2 </>*)-''•.
The preceding formulas permit many useful applications. Since we
can solve any reasonable stress problem for a shell of revolution, we
can do the same for every shell that may be derived from it by the
affine transformation (4.35). If the shell S is a pressure vessel or a tank
with a vertical z axis, the load p will be perpendicular to the wall and
independent of 8*. The corresponding pressure p* in the shell of revolu-
tion will not have these properties. We may find its components from
(4.37), solve the stress problem for the shell S* and compute the forces
in the tank from (4.36). We shall see on p.192 the best way of doing this.
When the shellS is a dome, the essential load is vertical (P:r = p11 = 0).
It consists of the weight of the shell and all the material attached to
 4.4 MEMBRANE FORCES IN AFFINE SHELLS 191

it for weatherproofing, sound absorption and other purposes. If the

thickness of the shell is constant, the load per unit area, Pz, will also
be a constant, say p. The corresponding load p; on the shell S* is then
a rather involved function of cf>* and ()*:

Pi= Pz VA. 2 + (1- A2)sin 2 cf>*cos 2 8*.

We must resolve it into its components Pt and p~ (Fig. 2.2), determine
their harmonics and then apply the methods of Sections in 2.2 and 2.4.
As we saw there, the harmonic of order zero requires a foot ring which
can resist a tensile force N, due to the thrust of the shell, but no foot
ring at all if the meridian happens to end with a vertical tangent. The
higher harmonics, however, require a foot ring which can resist a bending
load in its plane (p. 51).
When we return to the elliptic dome S, corresponding bending
moments appear in its elliptic foot ring and require a heavy design of
this ring. The details of their distribution along the circumference may
not, of course, be found by affine transformation from the circula1·
dome S*, because they depend on redundant quantities and hence on
deformations.
The elliptic dome may have the same advantage as the dome of
revolution, if we distribute the load in a convenient way. We find this
distribution when we start from an axially symmetric distribution on
the dome S*. If the load on this shell does not depend on the coordi-
nate ()*, the forces transmitted to the foot ring consist only in a radial
thrust which produces a simple hoop force N* in the ring. Since this
hoop force is determined by an equation of equilibrium it obeys the
rules of affine transformation and leads to a hoop force N in the elliptic
foot ring which varies in such a way along the springing line that it is
at every point in equilibrium with the thrust of the dome without the
need of bending moments.
The function p: may in this case be chosen as an arbitrary function
of cf>*. The third equation (4.37) then yields the corresponding p, as a
function of both coordinates cf>* and 8*. From this variable load we
have to subtract the weight of all accessory material, and the remainder
indicates how the wall thickness of the shell must be chosen at each
point. If A. > 1, as in Fig. 4.23, the shell S is thick.est at () = 0 and () = n,
e
thinnest at = ± n(2.

4.4.2.3 The General Ellipsoid

The general ellipsoid with three different half axes a, b, c may be
derived by the transformation
y = A,_y*, z = z*
192 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

from a sphere of radius c, when we put

On the sphere, we define angular coordinates cj>*, {)* as usual (Fig. 4.24),
and we use the same values as coordinates of the corresponding point
on the ellipsoid. The relations between the line elements of the two
shells are

ds 8 = ds: V.?.i sin 2 {)* + .?.i cos 2 ()* ,

(4.38)
dsq, = ds~ V.?.i cos 2 cf>* cos 2 ()* + ).~ cos 2 cf>* sin 2 ()* + sin 2 cf>* •

The element dA * = ds; · ds: of the sphere has the following projections
on the coordinate planes:
on they, z plane: dA* sincf>* cosfJ*,
on the z, x plane: dA * sincf>* sin()*,
on the x, y plane: dA* coscf>*.

The projections of the corresponding element dA of the ellipsoid are

obtained by multiplying these three quantities by A2 , .?.1 , .?. 1 A2 , re-
spectively.

Fig.~.~~.ncneral ellipsoidS and

generating sphere s•

When the ellipsoid is subjected to a constant internal pressure p,

a force p dA acts on the shell element dA. Its components parallel to
the coordinate axes are the products of p with the orthogonal projections
of dA, namely
Px dA = p .?.2 dA* sincf>* cos()*,
Py dA = p .?.1 dA * sincf>* sinfJ*,
Pz dA = - p .?.1 A. 2 dA * coscf>*.
 4.4 :\IE:MBRAXE FORCES I~ AFFIXE SHELLS 193
According to the rule given on p. 180, we find the corresponding forces
on the sphere when we divide by .A.1 , A2, 1, respectively:

p! dA * = p A~ 2 dA *sin</>* cos B* = p .!!_

a
dA *sin</>* cos B* ,
1

Pt dA * = p ;: dA * sin</>* sin B* = p : dA *sin</>* sin B* ,

ab
ptdA* = -p.A.1 .A.2 dA*cos<J>* = -p7dA*cos<J>*.

We have to solve the stress problem of the sphere for this load.
\Ve want to use the formulas of Chapter 2, and so we must express
the load by the components p:, p:, p~ as defined by Fig. 2.2. We find
from simple geometric considerations the following formulas:

p: = -p; sinB* + p~ cos B*,

p: = (p; cos B* + p; sin B*) cos</>* + p: sin</>*,
p~ = (p: cos B* + Pt sin B*) sin</>* - p: cos</>*.

When we introduce here the expressions for p;, p~, p: from the pre-
ceding set, we may write the loads as the sum of two harmonic com-
ponents of orders 0 and 2:

Pu* = T a ab ) sm'f'
p ( b- . A..* sm * · ·' n
. 2 Vn* =_ Pozsm.:;v'

P!"' = .E.
2 b
(~ + .!!_
a
- 2 ~b)
c~ ,
A..* - }!_
A..* sin 'f'
cos 'f' 2 b
!!..)
(~ - a cos 'f' A..* cos 2 B*
A..* sin 'f'
= p: + p: 0 2 cos 2 () '

* = p!:!!..
P' c2
+ _!!...
2b
(~ +!!..-
a
2 ~b) sin2<J>*
c·
_}!_ (~-
2b a
!!..) sin </>* cos2B*
2

""'P~o + p~2 cos20*.

The harmonics of order zero, P:o, p~0 , may be handled with the in-
tegral (2.10) and (2.6c). They yield the following stress resultants:

J.
N* p ab
•o=.,- -c , N*uo
J.
pab
= -- - + -p2(bac
--- bc
+-- . 2 A..*
2 -ab') sm 'f'
- 2c a c '
N!oo = 0.
For the second harmonic, p:2 , p:z, p~2 , we must use (2.29) with n = 2.
They yield the following forces:

N*82 = .1!__::___
2
(~
b
- !!..)
a
cos A..*
2
'f' '

Fliigge, Stresses In Shells, 2nd Ed. 13

 194 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

We are now ready to return to the ellipsoid, using the general for-
mulas (4.29) with the special expressions (4.38) for the line elements. The
result are formulas for the skew forces N ~, N 6 , N ~ 6 in the ellipsoid:

N ..... = 1!.!...
2
[a~
c-
- (.!!_- !!..)
ab
cos20*]

X V+ c2 (b 2 - c2 ) cos 2q,• + (a 2 - b2) cos2 q,• cos2 8*

a2 + (b2 - a2) cos2 8* ,

N6 = 1!.!...
2c-
[a~ + (.!!_b + !!_
a
- 2 a~
c-
sin2 </>* + (.!!_
b
) - !!..)
a
cos ""* cos 2 0*]
2
'I'

·r / a2 + (b2 - a2) cos2 8*

X Vc2 + (b2 - c2) cos2 q,• + (a2 - b2) cos 2 q,• cos 2 8* '

N~ 0 = p2c ( ~ - ! )cos</>*sin20*.
These formulas solve the stress problem for an ellipsoidal shell with
constant internal pressure p. Since there is no denominator which

'

I'
~·-a·----
lb
i
~'ig. 4.25. Stress resultants in an ellipsoidal •hell,
caused by an internal pressure p. Ratio of the axes
a:b:c = 3:2: I

might vanish at some point, the stress resultants cannot become in-
finite, and a membrane stress system is really possible for any choice
of the radii a, b, c. This result demonstrates clearly that pressure vessels
need not necessarily have a circular cross section. This statement, of
 4.4 ME:MBRA.l.~E FORCES IX AFFINE SHELLS 195

course, does not imply that an ellipsoid is better than a sphere, but it
indicates that the ellipsoidal tank is feasible at a comparable expense
if other circumstances should be in its fa vor.
In order to give an idea of the stress distribution, some diagrams.
are shown in Fig. 4.25. They give the forces N ~ and N 8 along the ellipses
which lie in the planes of symmetry of the shell. On these lines N ~
and N 8 are genuine normal forces, and the shear is N~ 8 = 0.

4.4.2.4 Polygonal Domes

A vertical stretching of a polygonal dome according to the trans-
formation (4.31) may occasionally yield some advantages for the numeri-
cal computation. However, most computations on regular domes consist
of numerical integrations, and they are best done on the actual structure
and not on some affine substitute.
A horizontal stretching according to (4.35) transforms a regular
dome into a non-regular structure (Fig. 4.26). If the sectors of this oblong

~~~_!
lz t z•
Shell S Shell s•
4Y

x•

Fig. 4.26. Horizontal stretehing of a polygonal dome

dome S all have the same thickness, the load per unit area will be dif-
ferent in the sectors of the corresponding regular dome S*. With the
theory for arbitrary loads of Section 3.4.2 we are prepared to find
the forces in S* and hence in S. The outcome is similar to that which
we found for the horizontal stretching of a shell 6f revolution: The foot
ring is subject to heavy bending in its plane, and this makes the structure
rather expensive. For large domes it therefore is wise to arrange the
dead load so that it corresponds to a regular load on the affine regular
dome. The wall thickness must then be different in different sectors
and even has a different dependence upon the coordinate 4>* in each
sector.
13*
196 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

4.4.2.5 Cylindrical Shells

If we were to stretch a cylinder in the direction of its generators or
in any direction perpendicular to the generator, nothing of interest
would happen. But when we apply the transformation
.t: = x* + A.y*, y = y*, z = z*, (4.39)

the transformed shellS is askew cylinder (Fig. 4.27). The equations (4.39)
also represent an affine transformation and not even one of a more

QJ·-
general type than (4.24). Indeed, we may find an orthogonal system

x•

.
ShellS Shell s· y•

}'Jg. ~.~i. Affine dlstorsion of a ·cyllnurlcal shell

of three axes for which the geometric relation between the two shells
would assume the form (4.24). Two of these axes are indicated by dash-
dot lines in Fig. 4.27; the third one is the z axis.
Now suppose that the shell S* carries that vertical load for whiCh
its profile is the funicular curve. If the profile is a common parabola
(r = ajeos3 cp*), this load is p: = p coscf>*, if the profile is a catenary
(r = ajcos2 cp*), it is Pi = p = const. In such cases the shell does not
need diaphragms or stiffeners on the curved edges, and the stress re-
sultants are

in both cases.
The area dA * of the shell element is not changed by the transforma-
tion (4.39). The load per unit area is therefore the same on the skew
vault S. On the curved edges and in all sections parallel to them there
is no stress, and in sections along the generators there is only the skew
force N.p as shown in Fig. 4.28. It may be resolved into an ordinary
normal force and an ordinary shear, and from the general rule for the
 4.5 DEFORMATION 197
transformation of stress resultants it follows that the normal force is
equal to the force Nt in S* and that the shear is -). pa.
This result indicates that a skew vault, has the same thrust in the
direction of the shortest span as has a straight vault and that there
is an additional thrust parallel to the springing line and of such magnitude
that the resultant thrust lies in a plane parallel to the faces of the
vault.

Fig. 4.28. Corresponding elements of the cylinders S and s•

It may be kept in mind that this simple reasoning is not applicable

to arches with bending moments, since these are not subject to the
laws of affine transformation. However, since arches are so shaped that
they carry most of their load by direct stresses, the affine transforma-
tion as applied here must show an essential feature of the force system
in a skew arch.

4.5 Deformation
We define the strain E,, as the increase of the length of the line ele-
ment AB in Fig. 4.2, divided by its original length, and E11 is defined
in the same way for the line element AC of the middle surface of the
shell. As shear strain y,, 11 we choose the decrease 6f the angle w between
AB and AC.
In Fig. 4.29 the two line elements are shown as straight lines, a
sufficient approximation for the present purpose. They undergo together
a rigid-body displacement with the components u, v, win the directions
of the coordinate axes x, y, z, and the points B and C undergo additional
displacements as shown in the figure. After deformation, the length of
198 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

the line element AB is

A'B' =V1I( 1 + Tx aw )z clx2 + (Tx

on )2 clx2 + (tanx + Tx av )2 dx2

"" dx V+ 1
au
2 iiX + tan2 X + 2 a;; tan X
aw

= --
dxV' 1 + 2 -a
au cos2 x + 2 -a . x
aw cos xsm
COBJ. X X

"" AB · (1 + Tx
au cos~
~
x + Tx . X) •
aw cos x sm
In this formula the "" signs indicate two successive steps of linearization
in the small displacement quantities u and w. From the result we read
the first of the following relations:

f.x
au cos X + Tx
= (Tx aw.)
sm X cos X ,
(4.40a, b)
av
f.y = ( ay
aw . )
cosO + ay smO cosO.

awdy
iJy

.-- it!.dy
ay
c' .E1!.dy
2.:!-dx
ax 8' ay
Fig. 4.29. Line elements of the shell before and after deformation

To find an equation for y x 11 , we write the dot product of the deformed

line element vectors ds~ and ds~ and, again, linearize in the displace-
ments:
ds~ · ds~ = (1 + f.:r) dsx (1 + f.y) ds!l cos (w- Yx!l)
""(1 + f.x
dx dy
+f.,,)-- - -6 (cosw + y..,,,smw)
.
·' COB X COB ·'
 4.5 DEFORl\L<\TION 199

and

ds~ · ds~ = [ (1 + ::) ~= + ;~ ( 1 + ;;) + (tan X+ :~) (tan 8 + :;) J dxdy

au av
""' [ ay + ax
aw aw
+ tan X tan 8 + ax tan 8 + ay tan X dx dy •
J
Comparison of the zero·order terms confirms (4.1) while comparison of
the linear terms and use of (4.40a, b) yields after some calculations the
desired expression for the shear strain
. w
y X y Sill =
(au ll
ay cos u -
au . u cos X Sill X
ax sm ll • )
cos X

av
+ ( ax av . ll • ll
cos X - ay Sill X cos u Sill u cos u
ll)
aw
+ aw 3 • 3 ll •
ax cos X Sill u + ay cos
ll
u Sill X . (4.40c)

Our next goal is to write HooKE's law in terms of the strains Ex, Ey, y "Y
and the stress resultants Nx, NY, Nxy· Since both sets of quantities refer
to a skew coordinate system, the law connecting them is not as simple

(a)
(b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 4.30. Relation between the strains in the coordinate systems x, y and;, '1
200 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

as (2.54) and (2.55). To find it, we introduce the orthogonal coordi-

nates !; , 1J shown in Fig. 4.30a. In these, HooKE's law has the standard
form
EtE~=N~-vN~;, Ety~;~=2(1 +v)N;,1 •
(4.41)
When we subject a small piece of the shell subsequently to uniform
strains E~;, E~, and Y<'l and, from the motions of the points Band C in
Figs. 4.30b-d, calculate the corresponding values of Ex, E11 , and Yxt" we
find by linear superposition

l
Ex= €,;'
€; cot w cos w €~ sin w Ye 'I cos r•J
Ey = 1/sinw + 1/sinw + 1/sinw
= E~; cos 2 w + E'lsin 2 w + Y<'l cosw sinw, (4.42)
€~; cot w sin w cos w
€'1 y 0'1 sin w
Yx•1 = 1/sinw - 1/sinw + 1/sinw
= (E~; - E'l) cot w sin w + Ye 'I sin 2 w.
On the other hand, we find from (1.9) with o: 0 = 0 and o:'l = 90° - w
that
Ne= Nx-.- 1- + N,, cotwsinw + 2Nx 11 cotw,
smw · (4.43)

Introducing first (4.41) into (4.42) and then (4.48) into the result, we
obtain the desired relations between the strains and the stress resultants
in the skew coordinates x, y:

Et Ex= Nx-.-1- ~lll(IJ

+ N,,(cot
.
2 w- v) sinw + 2Nx,1 cotw,
.

Et E11 = Nx(cot 2 w- v) sinw + N 11 - . 1-- + 2Nx,1 cot w, (4.44a-e)

smw ·
EtyC!f = (1 + v) [(Nx + Ny) COS(l) + 2Nx,,].
The kinematic relations (4.40) and HooKE's law (4.44) are six equa-
tions, from which, for known stress resultants, the strains and the dis-
placements can be calculated. vVe attempt to reduce these equations to
a single one for the deflection w.
As a first step, we solve (4.40a, b) for oufox and ovfoy and introduce
the result in (4.40c), which then reads

. (I) + (Ex+ Ey) cos w

Yxy sm = (~ ~) cos X cos ()
ay+ ox
aw
+ ox cos X SID
'() aw
+ oy cos sm X •
()'
 4.5 DEFORl\'IATION 201

We divide by cosz cosO, then differentiate with respect to x and y, and

use (4.40a, b) to eliminate the third derivatives of u and v. This lead~
to the following differential equation for w:

L (w) = ~ ((€.
ax ay
+ €,) cos w+ y., sin w)
cos X cos 0
__aXJ
a_: (_!.!......) _ !:__ (~).
cos 0
2 2 ay cos· X
(4 .45)

It is remarkable that the left-hand side has the same differential operator
as the differential equation (4.6) for the stress function f/>.
One may now, if he wishes, use (4.44) to express the right-hand
side of {4.45) in terms of the stress resultants and (4.5) to write these
as derivatives of rf>. In each case the expression obtained is rather un-
wieldy and calls for solving the differential equation by numerical
methods.
Before we can solve the differential equation (4.45), we must for-
mulate the boundary conditions to which w is to be subjected. As we
have seen in the stress problem, the operator Lis elliptic or hyperbolic,
depending upon the sign of the GA.ussian curvature of the shell, and this
determines the set of boundary conditions that can be imposed.
In problems of membrane deformation it usually makes little sense
to prescribe the edge value of the normal component of the displace-
ment since this is the one most influenced by local bending of the shell
near the edge. If we want to prescribe u or v or, possibly, a linear com-
bination like the tangential displacement u cosx + w sin X along the edge
Jl = const., we must express these quantities in terms of w.
From (4.40a, b) we find

au aw-az+ -€z- av aw az ' €,

- --
ax -
- ax ax cos2 X ' ay=- ay ay T cosZ(} (4.46a,b)

and when, for example, u is prescribed along an edge y = const., this

amounts to prescribing there owfox and, hence, w.
If u is prescribed along an edge x = const., we need also (4.40c).
which we manipulate in the following way: We write

av = (au
au + ax aw cos x) cos X tanO
ay ax sin X - ax
.
av smO-
+ (-a aw cosO ) cosOtanx + "•• sinw0
-a
y y cosxcos

and use (4.46a, b) to eliminate u and v on the right-hand side. This

yields
au + av = - aw az - aw az + (€. + €,) cos w +"··sin (J) (4.47)
ay ax ax ay · ay ax cosxcosO .
202 CHAP. 4: SHELLS OF ARBITRARY SHAPE

When this equation is differentiated with respect to y, (4.46b) may be

used once more to eliminate v entirely. The result is

{} 2u = - iJ2w az- aw a2z + !!_ ((<. + fy) cosw + y•• sinw)- !!_ (~) (4 48)
.u y 2 ay% dx ax ay2 ay cos X cos (} ax cos 2 (} ' •

and this may now be used as a boundary condition for w on an edge

.r = const.
Once w has been obtained, (4.46a, b) may be used to calculate the
()ther displacement components for all points of the shell. Since this
involves the integration of partial derivatives, it adds to u an undeter-
mined function l(y) and to v a function g(x). However, the results must
also agree with (4.40c) and this restricts the functions I and g so much
that all that is still left for choosing freely is a rigid-body displacement
u=Ay+B1 , v = -Ax + B2 •
The usefulness of the analysis of membrane deformations lies not
so much in producing numerical values of the displacements, but rather
in finding out which deformation patterns are possible in a shell lacking
bending stiffness. This may be illustrated by the following example.
We consider the paraboloid shell described by (4.11 ). For this shell,
w = -Cxy (4.49)
is a solution of the differential equation (4.45) with vanishing right-hand
side; that is, this function represents an inextensional deformation of
the shell. '\Ve proceed to calculate u and v.
From (4.46a, b) we find
au 2Cxy av 2Cxy
ax=~ ay --,;;:-
whence
v =--,;;:
Cxy 2
+ g(x).
\Ve introduce these expressions in (4.47), which is a modified form
()f (4.40c). Dropping again the terms with the strains, we find that
Cx2 Cy 2 2y 2x
h; + f' (y) + 71;." + g' (x) = Cy h2 + Cxh;
whence
Cy2 Cx 2
f' (y) = h; + A ' g' (x) = - - A
hl

and, after integration,

Cy3 c~
I (y) = 3 hz + Ay+ B1 , g (x) = 3 h1 - A x + B2
 4.5 DEFORl\IATION 203
and ultimately
Cry C'!f
u =~ + 3 hz + Ay + Bt, (4.50)

We evaluate the displacements for the edge x = aj2 of the shell shown
in Fig. 4.5. Since the rigid-body part is of no particular interest, we let
A= B 1 = B 2 = 0 and have then
Gay
W= --2-.

If we assume that the edge has a plane edge member as described

on p. 164, the component u is a warping of this edge member out of its
plane, while v and w describe a rigid-body rotation about a. center with
the coordinates y = 0, z = a2f6h 1 , compatible with the idea. that the
edge member is rigid in its own plane. A similar statement can be made
for each of the other three edges and we see that the solution (4.49)
together with (4.50) represents in the x, y plane a kind of shear deforma-
tion accompanied by a. warping of the sides of the rectangular boundary.
This shear deformation, however, is not caused by a shear strain Yx!f
of the shell elements, but is inextensional, made possible by a simul-
taneous displacement w, which requires that two diagonally opposite
·corners move up and the other two move down. If this vertical dis-
placement of the corners is prevented, the inextensiona.l deformation
cannot take place and the shell can take a shear load along its edges as
we have seen on p. 167. On the other hand, if one of the corner supports
yields, the structure consisting of the shell and its four supporting edge
members can respond to this motion by exactly this inextensional
deformation.
 Chapter 5

BENDING OF CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS.

In the preceding chapters dealing with the membrane theory of
shells, we often met questions which this theory could not answer.
This indicates that in certain cases the bending stiffness of the shell,.
although small, cannot be disregarded and that it is necessary to develop
a bending theory. In such a theory all the stress resultants defined by
(1.1a-j) will appear, and, as one may easily imagine, the mathematical·
analysis of such stress systems is far from simple. Therefore, solutions.
have been obtained for only a few of the simplest types of shells. They-
will be presented in this chapter and the next.

5.1 Differential Equations

5.1.1 Equilibrium
vVe use here the same coordinates x and cf> as we did for the membrane·
theory of cylinders (see Fig. 3.1 ), ;r being the distance of the point
under consideration from a datum plane normal to the generators (here
usually coinciding with one edge of the shell) and cf> measuring the
angular distance of the point from a datum generator (here not neces-
sarily the topmost one). The derivatives with respect to the dimen--
sionless coordinates x(a and cf> will here be indicated by primes and dots:·

a~= ( )' ~=(· )'

ax ' a<P .

The shell element as determined by the choice of coordinates is shown•

in Fig. 5.1 a, b. The first of these figures contains all the external and
internal forces acting on this element and the second one contains the
moments, represented in the usual way by arrows.
These forces and moments have to satisfy six conditions of equi-
librium, three of them concerning the force components and the other·
three, the moments.
 5.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 205

The condition for the forces in the x direction is exactly the same
.as (3.1c) in the membrane theory:

N~ + N~.J; + PJJt = 0. (5.1 a)

Equation (3.1 b) deals with the forces in the </> direction. Here a term
must be added which represents the contribution of the transverse
shear Q.p. The two forces Q.p dx make an angle d<f> with each other and
have the tangential resultant Q~ dx · d<f> which points in the direction of
decreasing <f>. The condition of equilibrium is, therefore,

(5.1 b)

The third equation refers to the radial components of forces. In the

membrane theory it is extremely simple; here it contains contributions
of both transverse shears, viz. their increments (iJQ~fo</>) d</> · dx and
(oQ,.(ox) dx. a d<f>. We have, therefore, the equation

Q~ + Q~ + N ~ - Pr n = 0, (5.1 c)

which no longer requires that the hoop force N .p be proportional to the

local load p,.. Thus the restriction that caused most of the trouble we
had in the membrane theory of cylinders is eliminated.

(b)

Fill. 5.1. Shell element

The equations for the equilibrium of moments are easily explained.

For an axis of reference, coinciding with the vector Px in Fig. 5.1 a, we
have the increments of the bending moment 1Vl~ and of the twisting
moment .J.llx~ and the couple for111ecl by the two forces Q~ dx:

(5.1 d)
206 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Quite similar is the condition for the moments having the vector pq.
as an axis:
J.rf~ + M~:z:- aQX = 0. (5.1 e)
The sixth condition of equilibrium contains the moments about a
radius of the cylinder. We find there the two couples formed by the
forces Nx~ a dfj> and N~x dx, respectively, and the resultant of the two
twisting moments M~x dx including the angle dfj>:
aNx~- aN~x + lYI~z = 0. (5.1 f}
\Ve may easily eliminate the transverse shears Qx and Q<l> from
(5.1 b, c) by means of (5.1d, e). In this way we obtain the system:

N~ + N~:x: + Pxa = 0,
aN~+ aN~<~>-:-- M~- M~~+ p~a 2 = 0,
(5.2a-d)
M~+ .!.VI~·<~>+ M~·x +M~+ aN<~>- p,.a 2 = 0,
aN:x:~- aN~x + J.Vf~x = 0.
Since this set of 4 equations still contains 8 unknown stress resultants,
the problem is not statically determinate, and it is necessary to study
the deformation of the shell.

5.1.2 Deformation
5.1.2.1 Exact Relations
The deformation of the cylinder may be described by the three
components of the displacement of an arbitrary point A of the shell
(Fig. 5.2), having the coordinates x, fj> and the distance z from the middle
surface (positive so that a + z is the distance of the point from the
axis of the cylinder). For these components we use the following nota-
tion:
uA =displacement along the generator, positive in direction of
increasing x,
vA = displacement along a circle of radius a + z, positive in direc-
tion of increasing f/>,
wA = radial displacement, positive outward.

Determining uA, vA, wA as functions of the three coordinates x, fj>, z

requires the solution of a three-dimensional stress problem. It becomes
a shell problem when we establish simple kinematic relations between
the displacements uA, vA, wA of an arbitrary point and the corresponding
values u, v, w for that point of the middle surface which has the same
 5.1 DIFFER&~TIAL EQUATIONS 207
coordinates x, <f>. Such relations must be derived from the fact that the
shell is thin.
This may be done in different ways. We may start with the funda-
mental equations of three-dimensional elasticity and investigate which
terms become unimportant when t is made small compared with the
dimensions of the middle surface; or we may try to use the basic assump-
tions made in the theories of straight and curved bars and of flat plates.
Which way we may prefer will depend essentially on our point of view.

(a)
\ (b)

Fig. 5.~. Displacements of the poi11ts A 0 am! A

If we consider shell theory as a part of the general theory of elasticity,

wc shall certainly prefer the first way. If we consider shell theory as
part of the theory of structures, we may be more inclined toward the
second approach, which is nearer the engineer's way of thinking. Of
course, results obtained by one approach must agree with those obtained
by the other, if both approaches are sound.
We choose the second way and assume:
1) that all points lying on one normal to the middle surface before
deformation, do the same after deformation,
2) that for all kinematic relations the distance z of a point from
the middle surface may be considered as unaffected by the deformation
of the shell, but that for all considerations of the stress system, the
stress Clz in the z direction may be considered negligible compared with
the stresses a.r and a~.
Both assumptions would be exact if the shell' were made of a (non-
existent) anisotropic material for which the modulus of elasticity in
the z direction and the shear moduli for the strains y .rz and y~= are
infinite, while two of the PoiSSON constants are zero. In this case all
conclusions drawn from the assumptions would be exact. Applied to
a real shell, the first assumption means that we neglect the deformations
due to the transverse shears Qx and Q,;. The second assumption means
208 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

that whatever happens in the z direction, stress or strain, is without

significance. This is obviously good if the shell is thin.
To the two basic assumptions we must add a third one, which is
needed to keep our equations linear. It is
3) that all displacements are small, i.e. that they are negligible
compared with the radii of curvature of the middle surface and that
their first derivatives, the slopes, are negligible compared with unity.
From these three assumptions we establish the kinematic relations
of the cylindrical shell. Fig. 5.2a shows a section along a generator. The
heavy horizontal line is the middle surface before deformation. After-
wards, it has the slope owfox = w'fa. At the point A 0 the normal A 0 A
is erected having the length z < tf2. From assumption 1 it follows that
this line rotates during deformation by the same angle w'fa. The dis-
placement u A of point A is therefore equal to the displacement u of
point A 0 minus the distance A is shifted back by this rotation of A 0 A

n.l ~~'it- aw
Z I
(5.3a)

To find a similar formula for v. 1 , we use Fig. 5.2 b which shows a trans-
wrse section through the shell. The point A 0 is displaced by v along
the middle surface. Since the normal A 0 A stays normal to this surface,
the point A is displaced by v(a + z)fa. The rotation of the normal,
which is now w"fa, produces an additional displacement - z w"fa. Together
these yield the displacement

(5.3b)

Because of our second assumption, the length A 0 A does not change.

The difference of the normal displacements w and wA is then due only
to the rotations w'fa and w"fa and proportional to 1 - cos of these angles.
Because of the third assumption, this is negligible, and we have
WA=W. (5.3 c)
The next step is to find the strains L,., «:.p, y, .p at the point A. They
describe the deformation of an element on the cylindrical surface passing
through A. We may therefore apply the formulas (3.18), if we replace
the radius r there by a + z, and the displacements u, v, w by uA, vA, wA
respectively:
au.. u~
fx=ax=a'
(5.4a-c)
 5.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 209
Introducing (5.3a-c) here, we obtain the strains at A as functions of
the displacements of A 0 :
u w"
f.
x =a- - za2- '
v· z w w
f..;=a-a a+z + a+z, (5.5a-c)
u: a +z , w'' ( z z )
Yx.;=-,;+Z+~v -a-;;+ a+z ·

The third step is to find the stresses a"', a.;, Tx.; by introducing these
expressions into HoOKE's law. Since the second part of the second
assumption requires that we neglect az, we have the following formulas,
which are equivalent to (3.17) of the membrane theory:
E
ax = i _ 112 (E, + 'JIE.;),
E
a.;= -1---r. (E.;+ V(,:), (5.6a-c)
E
Tz.;=2(1+v)Yx.;·

\Vhen we introduce here the strains from (5.5), we have the stresses
at A as functions of the displacements of the point A 0 on the middle
surface and their derivatives.
The last step is to introduce these expressions in the definitions (1.1)
of the stress resultants Nand M. In the case of a circular cylinder, we
must replace in these equations the subscript y by </> and must put
the radii r.., = oo, r11 =a. We thus obtain the following form of these
definitions:
+1/2 +1/2

N,= j a"'(1+ ;)dz, N.;= j a.;dz,

-l/2 -1/2

J J
+l/2 +t/2

Nx.; = T:r;.; ( 1 + ; ) dz, N.;x = T.;xdz,

-t;2 -t/2
(5.7a-h)
J f
+l/2 +1/2

~lfx = - a, ( 1 + ; ) zdz, . J/•<1> = -. a</>zdz.

-t/2 -t/2

J Tx.;(1+ J
+l/2 +l/2

.il'Ix.;=- ;)zdz, J.lf.;x =- T.;:r:zdz.

-l/2 -t/2

When the stresses from (5.6) expressed by the strains from (5.5) are
introduced in (5.7), the integrations with respect to z can be performed.
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 14
210 CH.-\.P. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

For N~. we find in this way

J
+1/2

Nx = ~ 112 (€., + '11€ ..) a;.: dz

-1/2

= a(i _
E
112 )
[<u 1
+ vv • + vw) t- w 11 t3 ]
12 a 2 •

On the right-hand side every term contains as a factor either the ex-
tensional rigidity
(5.8a)

which we encountered earlier on p. 81, or the flexural rigidity (bending

stiffness)
(5.8 b)

Using these notations, the expression for N., assumes the form (5.9b)
given below. Some of the stress resultants may be treated in exactly
the same way; some need an additional explanation. For the other
normal force we get e.g.

J
+t[o:

N .. = 1 ~ 112 (€ .. -i- vE.,)dz

-1/2

= E I 2 a + I)
[<v. +vu') t-w.. (t-an In 2 a + t]
a(i-r) 2 a-t +aw 2 a-t .
To use here the rigidities D and K, we expand the logarithms in powers
of tfa and drop the fifth and higher powers. Thus we get

N .. =
. a
(i E
-
") [<v·
11·
+ w +vu') t + (w·· + w) 12t a-.l, 3
1

and this may easily be brought into the form (5.9a). Neglecting the
higher powers of tfa evidently means only that the rigidity K appearing
at different places in these formulas is not strictly the same but has
slightly different values, the differences being of the order t2 fa 2 •
Treating all the forces N and the moments J.11 along these lines,
we obtain the following set of relations which represent the elastic law
for the cylindrical shell:

N .. =~ (v'+w+vu')+ :a (w tw..),.
.N. .,=a
D(' •
U +VV -i-VW -(ii"W,
) K,
(5.9a--d)
D 1- 1 - '11 ( •
"-'
1~ .. x = - - - U
a a
'11 ( •
+ V I ) + 3aK - 2- U + W ) ,
I.

1~
0\~
z~
D 1-
... = - - -
a 2
11
(u
•
+ V ') + -aK -
1 - 11 (
2- V 3
I
- W
,.
)
'
 5.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 211

u
.du. = --;;- W
..
K (
a· + W .. + V W ") ,
-'-'-'x
M K ( "
= ·c;- W
a·
+ VW .. - U
I
- VV),
•

(5.9e-h)
, r
J.u.px K l
= a2 ( - v) ( w ,. -r-, 12 n . - 21 V
') ,

Mx ...
"'
= X,
a·
(1- l') (w'·- v').

At first sight these equations appear rather complicated, but it i.>;.

quite possible to give them a detailed mechanical interpretation. To
do this, we first cast them into another form by introducing a set of
quantities describing the deformation of an element of the middle sur-
face. They are:
- u'
the extensions (l:=----;;:, (5.10a, b}

_ u· + x'
the shear strain Yx~=--a-' (5.10c}

the changes of curvature

w"
;.tx=ar, (5.10d. e)

to'· u·- v
the twist i<x.p=-a2 -7-~- (5.10£~

The meaning of i~, i_, and ji.r~ is evident, the formulas being identical
with (3.18) used in the membrane theory. In x~ the term w(a 2 needs an
explanation. If all points of a shell element undergo a radial displace-
ment w, the radius of curvature is increased from a to a + w and there
will be an increase in curvature

_1_ - .!.
a
= .!..a ( 1 - _1!!_)
a
- .!. =
a
- u: ,
a·
a+ w
although there is no rotation of sections or tangents. As formula (5.9e)
shows, the shell really responds to this change of curvature with a
bending moment. It is due to the fact that the same increase of length
of all hoop fibers, 2nw, produces different strains, the fibers on the in-
side of the shell being shorter than those on the outside. This leads to
a slightly non-uniform stress distribution and hence to a bending mo-
ment 1l1~.
The second term of the twist x7 ~ also needs some comment. It re-
presents the effect of the rotation of the shell element about a normal
to the middle surface. It may best be understood by cutting a small
rectangle from a piece of paper and placing it on the outside of a cylin-
drical waterglass. ·when we rotate the element about its normal and
14*
212 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

require that it maintain everywhere its contact with the glass (i.e. w = 0),
two opposite corners will come closer to a tangential plane, while the
other corners are moving away from it. Such a deformation of a rectangle
is a twist, and this is what the second term in ~x<P represents.
When we introduce the deformations defined by (5.10) into the
elastic law (5.9), it assumes the following form:

N.p =D(l.p + vlx) + K

a
~q,,

Nx = D (f.x + vf.q,)- ..!_

a
""',
D(1-v)_ . K(1-v)( Yx<P)
Nq,,.= 2 Yx.p-t- 2a ~x<P+2a '

N _D(1-v)_ K(l-v)(· Yx<P)

J. x<P- 2 Yx<l>- 2a .>!.xq,- 2a , (5.11a-h)
.Mq, = K (~.p + V%,~;)'
€,+v£<P)
J.lfx = K ( %x +V %q,- a ,

fflq,x = K (1 - v) ~.t<P,

_~lfx.p =K(1- v)(~x<P- ;:) .

'Ve are now prepared to give a mechanical interpreta.tion of the
elastic law. If we put K = 0, the moments vanish altogether and for
the forces we obtain the simple formulas of the membrane theory: each
normal force proportional to the sum of the corre8ponding strain and v
times the other one and the shearing forces equal to each other and
proportional to the shear strain in the middle surface.
'Vhen we now consider the complete formulas, we underl:ltand easily
the terms with ~ in the moment. But there is a term with E.r in M.r.
It is due to the fact that the faces x = const. of the shell element are
trapezoids (see Fig. 1.2). Therefore the resultant of a uniform distribu-
tion of stresses a.r across these faces does not lie on the middle surface
but has a slight eccentricity yielding a contribution to the bending
moment .~H x. The term v( .p arises from the fact that v· leads to a uniform
distribution of strains Eq, and through lateral contraction to uniformly
distributed stresses a x to which the same reasoning again applies, while
the deformation w produces just such a nonuniformity of stresses a.r
that the effect of the trapezoidal shape of the section is compensated.
For the terms with K in the normal and shearing forces similar ex-
planations may be found, if we keep in mind that the values of the
stresses at z = 0 are not necessarily the average values of the stresses
across the thickness of the shell.
 5.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 213

5.1.2.2 Approximate Relations

The formulas (5.9) or, what amounts to the same, the combination
of (5.10) and (5.11), are a sure foundation for the bending theory of
circular cylinders, since they are derived from a clear set of assumptions
without losing anything on the way. We shall therefore need them in
all such cases where doubts may occur as to whether or not a term may
be neglected.
However, they contain a number of terms which in many cases are
without importance for the numerical result. It is therefore useful to
consider also a simplified version of these . equations. There are two
sources from which many small terms are derived. One is the trapezoidal
shape of the faces x = const. of the shell element as expressed by the
factor (1 + zja) in half of the equations (5.7). If the shell is thin enough
we may neglect zja compared with 1 and simply drop the factor. On
the other hand, we have at many places in the kinematic relations (5.5)
the denominator (a+ z) which represents the fact that the hoop fibers
at different levels z have different lengths. Here also we should con-
sequently neglect z and so simplify the relations. When this is done,
the following, much simpler elastic law is obtained:

N~ = !!._
a
(v" + w +vu'),

Nx = !!._ (u' + vv· + vw),

a
N N x~ D(i- v) • ,
1 ~x = = 2a (u + v ) ,
(5.12a-f)
~,r
.J.r.t-;= 2
K (w .. +vw") ,
a
~r = -K· (w "
11'1. + vw"") '
x a2
.M _ M _ K (1 - v) ,.
~X- X~- a2 W •

How good or bad this approximation is, we may judge later, when
we have a chance to compare results. But there is one point of funda-
mental interest which may be discussed at once. In the simplified
formulas the difference between the shearing forces N~r and Nx~ has
disappeared. The sixth condition of equilibrium, .(5.1 f), is therefore no
longer satisfied if .M~J' =F 0, which is generally the case. This violation
of one of the fundamental principles of mechanics which is inseparable
from the simplified equations (5.12), is a serious drawback for all theory
founded thereon. In most cases small and otherwise insignificant changes
of N~x and Nx~ will be sufficient to adjust the equilibrium, but during
the mathematical handling of the equations it may happen that the
large terms cancel and just the small ones become decisive.
214 CIL.<\P. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

5.1.2.3 Secondary Stresses in Membrane Theory

When discussing membrane forces in Chapter 3, we simply made the
assumption that all bending and twisting moments were zero. \Ve
found that often at the borders such conditions prevail that this assump-
tion cannot be true, but we could not check how good it might be in
cases where boundary conditions are favorable.
We now have the means to do this and we shall show here by a
simple example the extent to which the membrane forces may represent
the real state of stress in a cylindrical shell.
On p. 118 we found the formulas (3.16) for the membrane forces
4V ~, N x, N .r~ in a cylindrical pipe supported at both ends by diaphragms
and subjected to its own weight. On p. 125 we found the formulas (3.24)
which give the corresponding displacements. They describe the deforma-
tion of a shell of extensional rigidity D = Etf(1 - v2 ) and of bending
rigidity ]( = 0. Now the real shell of thickness t has a. finite rigidity K.
To ask how much the existence of this bending rigidity will change the
deformation would be equivalent to asking for a complete solution of
the bending problem, i.e. of the differential equations (5.13) on p. 215.
\Ve set ourselves the simpler problem of asking for the stress resultants
which would produce the deformations (3.24), assuming that the loads
can be adjusted to satisfy the conditions of equilibrium.
The answer is found by introducing these displacements in the elastic
law (5.9). We simplify this procedure without losing something essential
by assuming v = 0. Then we find that the moments ~lf~ = 1"JII,~ = 0
and
pt•
Mx = 24 a 2 (8a2 + l2 - 4x 2) cos</>,
pt• .
.JI~ .x = - 67i"" x sm </> •
These moments may be introduced into the conditions of equilibrium
(5.1d, e) which yield the transverse forces
pt•
Q~=O, Q.r = - 2 a• xcos</>.

These shearing forces have been neglected in the conditions of equi-

librium used in the membrane theory. That we did well in doing so,
we see best in the following way: The existence of a. bending moment jlfx
besides a normal force N .x indicates that the resultant of the stresses a.,
is eccentric with respect to the middle surface. This eccentricity and
that of the shearing force N~x may be found by dividing the moments
by the respective membrane forces:
M. t 2 8 a2+ l2 - 4 x2
N.= -a 6(l2-4x2)
 5.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 215

They are of the order t · tja, i.e. small l;Ompared with the thickness
of the shell, as this thickness is small compared with the radius a of
the cylinder. This proves the reliability of the results of the membrane
theory if the boundary conditions are such that no bending of greater
order of magnitude is enforced there.

5.1.3 Differential Equations for the Displacemcnts

The conditions of equilibrium in the form (5.2) and the elastic law (5.9)
together are 12 equations for 11 unknowns: 8 stress resultants and
3 displacements. At first sight it seems that we have at last got one
equation too many and that the problem is overdetermined. But the
surplus of one equation is not real. In fact, (5.2d), the "sixth condition
of equilibrium", as we called it, because it is the sixth in the original
set (5.1), is an immediate consequence of the relation <x.; = <.px· It
therefore becomes an identity when we use (5.9) to express the stress
resultants by the displacements. When we do the same with (5.2a-c),
they become three differential equations for u, v, w, the displacements
of the middle surface:
If 1- V •• 1+ V t• 1
u +~u .L~v +vw

, k [1- - V •• 1,
--, 1-
V t•·] p,a~
+ ---y;- O,
-- 2 -u - w ~w =

1 +V 1• •• 1 - V , •
~u +v +~v +w

-r, k r23 (1 - v) v If - 3-
~ V
w ""] -r' P.pU~ =
-y;- 0, (5. t3a-c)

1 • k [1 - V 1 •• ffl 3 - V ,.
vu +v +w+ ~u -u -~v

+w1'"+2w"""+w::+2w""+w]- pDa 2
=0.

Here the dimensionless quantity k stands as an abbreviation for

(5.14)

It is a rather small number.

Equations (5.13) are the differential equations of the bending theory
of a circular cylindrical shell. If we write them in operator notation,
it is rather easy to eliminate u and v and to reduce the set (5.13) to a
single equation for w. \Ve demonstrate this process for the homogeneous
216 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLL.~DRICAL SHELLS

case Pr =: P; = p,. = 0. 'Ve wrjte

L 1 u + L 2 v + L 3 w = 0,
L 2 u + L 4 v + L 5 w = 0, (5.15a-c)
L 3 u + L 5 v + L 6 w = 0,
where, for example,

Ld) = o" + 1 ; , < + k) o··.

Applying the operator L 2 to (5.15a) and L 1 to (5.15b) and then sub-
tracting one equation from the other, we eliminate u between them and
have
(5.16a)
Eliminating v in the same way between the same equations, we have
(5.16b)
When we now apply the operator (L2 L 2 - L 1 L 4 ) to (5.15c), we may
express u and v in terms of w and arrive at the equation
[ -L3 (L2 L 5 - L 3 L 4 ) - L 5 (L2 L 3 - L 1 L 5 ) + L 8 {L2 L 2 - L 1 L 4 }]w = 0. (5.17}
Its operator is nothing else but the determinant of the operators in (5.15).
It is of the eighth order, but since it is rather complicated, we prefer to
use the set (5.13} of three simultaneous equations. Their solution will
be shown in Sections 5.2 through 5.5.
In many cases (5.13) may be replaced by a simpler set, derived from
the approximate elastic law (5.12). Since the last of the conditions of
equilibrium, (5.2d}, does not contribute to (5.13}, the fact that it is
irreconcilable with (5.12} has no immediate consequences. From (5.2a-C')
and (5.12} we find
, v . • 1 + v ,. + , + --n= 0,
tt + -1 -2 -u + - 2 -v vw
p. a 2

1
- 2-
+ v U ,. + V .• + 1
- 2-- v V " + W • - k(
W
w•
+ W .:) + ---n-
P;a2
= 0,
2
vu'+ v· + w + k(w1V + 2w""" + w::) + p,a
D
= 0.

When we compare these equations with the exact set (5.13} we see that
the terms without the factor k (the membrane terms} are exactly the
same but that there are great changes in the k terms (the bending terms).
In the brackets of (5.13c} all the terms with u and v have disappeared,
and of thew terms only those with the highest derivatives have survived.
The k terms have completely disappeared from (5.13a}, and they have
so thoroughly changed in (5.13b} that they cannot be of much import-
 5.2 INHmiOGENEOUS PROBLE:~I 217

ance. We may therefore feel inclined to neglect them altogether. We find

a confirmation of this idea when we check their origin. They stem from
the moments in (5.2b), and these stand for Q.; in (5.1 b). It seems plau-
sible that this term can be neglected, since in a thin shell the transverse
shearing forces must be rather small. This argument, however, may not
be applied in (5.1 c), since Qx and Q.; may and really do change rather
rapidly from one point to another and, therefore, have large derivatives.
As a result of all these considerations we now write the simplified
differential equations of the cylindrical shell in the following final form:
- tl • , 1 + V I• 1 + p, a 2
u
11
+1 -
2 -u + - 2 -v +vw ~~= 0 ,

1+
~u
" ,. +v.. +1-" . P.;a2 0
-2 -v" +w +---r;-= , (5.18a-c)

pDa
2
vu'+v-+w+k(wv +2w"""+w::)- =0.

These equations are so simple that the elimination of u and v leads

to a simple result. We recognize in the w terms of (5.18c) the square
of the LAPLACE operator

V2 () = a 2 ~2:2) + ~~~) = ()" -r ( )"".

Using this notation and interpreting the operators L in (5.15) as those
occurring in (5.18), we find from (5.16). and (5.17) the following equa-
tions:
V4 v + (2- v)w"" + w:. = 0,
(5.19a, b)
V4 u+vw"' +w''"=O,
(5.20)

The last one of these equations is the eighth-order differential equation

for w. When it has been solved, (5.19a, b) may be solved for u and v.
However, since these equations have been obtained by differentiating
the original equations (5.18), not every solution of (5.19a, b) is accept-
able but only those which also satisfy (5.18a, b).
The equations (5.18) are the result of such sweeping simplifications
that they should not be relied upon too much; but since the bending
of shells is a rather complicated subject, it will ~ften be useful to have
them.

5.2 Solution of the Inhomogeneous Problem

We saw on p. 215 that for thin shells the stress resultants and dis-
placements as computed from the membrane theory are a very good
218 C'HAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

approximation of the solution to be expected from the bending theory.

The main objective of the bending theory therefore is not an improve-
ment of these membrane solutions but a study of the stresses produced
by certain edge loads which do not fit into the general pattern of the
membrane theory. This will be done in much detail in Sections 5.3
through 5.5.
There exist, however, occasions where it is desirable to have a
particular solution of (5.13) for a given surface load Px• p<l>, p,.. We
may easily find such a solution if the loads are distributed according
to the following formulas:
A.x
Px = Pxmncosm<f> cos-,
a
. "' . A.x
P<i> = P.;mn s1nm'l'sm-, (5.21)
a
,1.. • AX
Pr = Pr Ill" cos m 'I' Sill - a '

where Prmn• P<i>mn• Prmn are three constants which may be given in-
dependently. When we introduce (5.21) in the differential equations (5.13),
we see that there exists a particular solution in the form

u = U 111 ,.cosm<f>cos-,
AX l
a ~
V =
•
V 111 n Sln
,1..
m 'I' Sln
•
a,
AX
(5.22)

w
,~.. . Ax
=W 111 ,.cosm'l'sln-,
a
j
with three unknown constants u,.,., vm,., wmn. They, of course, have
to be determined from the differential equations. Introducing (5.22)
into (5.13), we may drop the trigonometric factors and arrive at the
following set of three linear equations for umn• vmn• w,.n:

[-"2+ 1; 11
m2(1+k)]umn+ [- 1 ~ 11 A.m]v 111 ,.
1
, [ -VA-
, k 11.
1 - v , 2)]
(,a --r-Am Wmn--yjPxmll'
- a2
[- 1 ; v Am] U ,.+ 111 [m 2 + 1; v A2 (1 + 3k)] V""'
(5.23)
11 2 m ] W
+ [ m+ -3 -2-k.A 111 ,.
a2
= J5P<i>mn•

f-vA.- k(Aa- 1; 11 ,Am2)] u""' +[m+ 3; 11 k,A2m] Vmn

a2
+ f1 + k(.A 4 + 2J.2 m 2 + m 4 - 2m 2 + l)Jwm,. = nPrmn·
 5.2 INHOMOGENEOUS PROBLEM 219

From them the numerical values of umn• v,.,., w,.n may be found in any
concrete case. To obtain the stress resultants we only have to intro-
duce (5.22) into the elastic law (5.9) and the two equations (5.1d, e).
This yields the following set of formulas:

N• =E. [mv,.,. + (1 + k- km 2 )w,.,.- VAU 111 ,.] cosm<f>sin ~,

a
a

Nx =!!..
a
r -A.u/RII + vmvi/1,. + (v + kA.2)w,..,J cosmcJ>sin ~'
a
D(1- v) • A.x
N•:r; = 2a [ -(1 + k)mu""' + A.v,,.- kA.mw 111 ,.]smm<f>cos-,
a
D(1-v) . .A:r:
N:r;. = 2a r -mulll/1 + (1 + k)A.v,/1 + kA.mwi/1/IJ smm<f>cos-'
a

a2 (m-
K . ,2) W ,.cosm'f'sin
2 1 -rv~~o A. • AX
7 ,
u
.J.u•=- 111

~
.~.rlz=- a· r(.A. 2 +vm 2)w""' -J.tt 111 ,+vmv,,,,.Jcosm"'sin~,
'f' a
(5.24}

. K (1 - v) [ Ax
J.mwl/111 + 2 ·mu"'"+ 2 AVm, Slnm<f>cos a'
1 1 ] .
J.ll.:r; = - a2

. K(1-v) . lx
J.llz·=- a2 rJ.mwmn+AVm 11 ]Sinm<f>cosa-,

Q. = + a~ rm(m2 + A. 2 - 1)w""' + (1- v)A.2f.i,... ]sinm<f>sin~'

a
QX- - - aa "'"' +m2) wll,. + -2-'llt
K [,(,3 V (1- +,,
2 -A u,.,. + -2-~~omVmn•2)
] 1
AZ
x cosmcJ>cos-.
a

This, of course, is not the complete solution of the bending problem

since it does not have free constants to adapt it to arbitrary boundary
conditions, but it fulfills a certain set of such conditions which fre-
quently occurs. All stress resultants and displacements which vary as
sinJ.xja vanish at x = 0 and x = l. Among them are v, w, Nx, and ~'Mx,
and they are exactly those which must be zero if the edge of the shell
is supported by a plane diaphragm, i.e. a plane structure which is
indeformable in its own plane but offers no resistance against displace-
ments perpendicular to this plane. In membrane theory, we used the
conditions v = 0 and N"" = 0. We did not need to care for 1'1.,, of course,
but we were bothered by the fact that the membrane solution does
not have constants enough to make w = 0. Here we have a solution
which, for the particular load (5.21), is better than the membrane
solution and not at all complicated. To understand its significance and
the limits of its usefulness, we shall discuss some numerical results.
220 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

We apply our formulas to the cylinder shown in Fig. 5.3. At both

ends of the span l =:rea it is supported by diaphragms. We assume
'JI = 0 and ask for the deformations and stress resultants set up by the
load
• A. • n:n:x A. • n:n:x
Px=O, p~ = p"srn'l's1n-1- , p,. = -pnCOS'I'Sill-l-.

Let us first consider a rather thick-walled shell with tfa = 0.10, and
assume n = 1. From (5.23) we find with m = 1 :
w1, 1 = -6.957 p 1 a2fD.
This comes rather close to the figures which the membrane formulas
(3.28) yield in this case. They are

A similarly good approximation is found for the normal and shearing

forces. They are:
exact membrane theory
N~1,1 = -0.989p1 a, N•t,t = -p1 a,
N. 1, 1 = -1.993p1 a, Nrl,l = -2pla,
N~zt,t= 1.993p1 a,
N •• t,l = 1.990p1 a, N••I,l = 2p1 a.

This surprisingly good agreement in a rather thick shell may give much
confidence in the results of the membrane theory when applied to

}'lg. 5.3. Circular cylinder

shells with smoothly distributed loads and appropriate boundary con-

ditions. Moments and transverse shearing forces are, of course, very
small. Here are the figures:
M.1 1 = 7.44 X to-3 p 1 a 2 ,
M •• t:t = 0.823 X 10-3p1 a2 ,
Qrl,l = 9.93 X 1Q-3 pla.

The influence of the "small" terms in (5.9) is considerable here but is

nevertheless unimportant because of the unimportance of the moments.
When we compute the eccentricities JltlfN as we did on p. 214, we find
them to be a few percent of t.
 5.2 L.~HOliOGENEOUS PROBLEl\1 221

Now let us consider a shell of the same overall dimensions, but much
thinner. We choose k = 10- 4 , corresponding to tfa = 3.46 x 10- 2 • For
n = 1 the normal and shearing forces will equal those given by the
membrane theory with far better accuracy than can be determined by
slide rule, and the moments will be even smaller than in the preceding
example.
But when we put n = 10, we obtain the following displacements:
bending theory membrane theory
UJ,lO = +0.980 X 10""3 Ploa2fD, u1,1o = +2 X 10""3 Ploa2/D,
~"1,10 = +29.85 X 10""3 p 10 a 2/D, r1,1o = +40.2 X to-3 p 10 a 2/D,
!L'J,to = -510 X H13 p 10 a 2/D, U'J,Jo = -1040X 10""3 p 10 a 2/D.

These figures show a pronounced reduction of the deformation due to

the bending stiffness of the shell. The normal and shearing forces are
also reduced:
bending theory membrane theory
N.h.1o = -0.480p10 a, .N•1.1o = -Pioa,
N, 1, 10 = -0.0047Up10 a, N,l,IO = -U.02p10 a,
N•z~.1o = +0.1490p10 a, N•z~.1o = +0.20p10 a.
N •• J,lo = +U.1458p10 a,
These figures may easily be understood, if we keep in mind that for
n = 10 the shell is divided by 9 circles into 10 strips which carry alter-
nately positive and negative loads. The width of such a strip here is
approximately 10t. Under these circumstances it seems reasonable
that the normal load is no longer carried around the shell by hoop
forces N •, but that part of it, here slightly more than one half, is carried
by transverse forces Qx to the adjacent zone with opposite loading.
Correspondingly, the bending moments are of greater importance here.
In fact, they have approximately the same values as in the previous
case, although the shell is much thinner and the direct stresses arP
smaller. The moments are:
Jlf.l,IO = 0, M.1,1o = 5.10 X 10""3 p 10 a 2 ,
M••I,Io = 0.495 X 10""3 p 10 a 2 , 1J'I••I,10= 0.480 X 10""3 p10 a 2 •
Three of the eccentricities are unimportant, but for the longitudinal
force we find
.lJ'I.,fN., = -31.4t.
One may easily imagine that a heavy bending in the hoop direction
will occur if we choose a load pattern having a large m and n = 1 and
that both bending moments and the twisting moment will be important,
if both m and n are large.
This is exactly what limits the usefulness of the solution presented
in this section. Loads such as are described by (5.21) will not often
222 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

occur in practical shell problems, but we may represent any load by a

double series of such terms:
~ 00 AX
Px = 'J; 'J;P.rmn cosmcf>cos-,
m-o n-o a
~ 00 •
~ ~ • ,1... I.X
p~ = k.J k.J p~ 11111 Sill m 'I' Sill - - ,
m-1 n-1 a
A.x
p,. = 'J: 'J:p,.
oc oc
111 ,. cos mcf> stn-.
•

111-0 n-1 a
For every term of this series, (5.22) are a solution, and by superposition
we find
oo oo A.x
tt = 'J: 'J:u 111 ,. cosmcf>cosa,
m-o n-o
00 00 •
~ ~
V = k.i • ,I. •
k.i V 11111 Sill m 'I' S l l l - ,
J\X
m-1 n-1 a
~ ~
k.i w,.,. cos m"' sin-
,j. • A.x
w =.::,.
m=o n-1 "

and analogous expressions for the stress resultants. Since even dis-
continuously distributed loads may be represented by such double
FouRIER series, it appears that we have here a fairly general solution
of the bending problem, at least for a certain useful set of boundary
conditions. From a purely mathematical point of view this is true, but
for technical applications it is not sufficient that a series converges
eventually. It must converge so well that its sum may be obtained
from a reasonable number of terms. The solution treated in this section
fulfills this condition only for thick-walled shells. If tfa is small, only
the series for theN-forces converge quickly, but in those for the M and
the Q the coefficients first increase considerably because of the phenom·
enon just explained in the numerical example, and quite a few terms
must be computed until they decrease enough to become negligible. In
these cases it is more convenient to avoid the FouRIER series by a skillful
combination of membrane solutions with the homogeneous solution
presented in the following section.

5.3 Loads Applied to the Edges :x = const.

5.3.1 General Solution
A circular cylinder may extend from x = - oo to x = + oo, but a shell
must necessarily have an end somewhere. In the simplest case, it will
be limited by two planes x = const. We then have to consider the
possibility that loads are applied to these edges. As we have seen on
 5.3 LOADS AT THE EDGES x = CONST. 223

p. 116, there exist a few systems of edge loads to which the shell may
respond by membrane forces alone, but the general solution of the edge
load problem must be found from (5.13) of the bending theory.
When we follow a circle x = const. around the cylinder, we return
at last to the starting point, but cf> has increased by 2n = 360°. Since
at the same point we must always find the same stresses, strains, and
displacements, they all must be periodic functions of</> with the period
2n and, therefore, may be written as FouRIER series. Since the differ-
ential equations (5.13) have constant coefficients, each term of these
series is in itself a solution, provided that we choose a judicious combi-
nation of sines and cosines. From the symmetry of the shell with
respect to the diametral plane cf> = 0 it may be expected that the follow-
ing choice of sines and cosines fits together:
u = '1;u 111 cos m cf>, v = '1;v 111 sin mcf>, w = '1;wm cos m cf>, 1
N,. = '1; N,. 111 cos m cf> , . Nx : '1; N x"' co_s m</> , 1·
N,.x ='1;N,.x 111 Sin mcf>, Nx,.- '1; Nx~ 111 S1nmcf>, I (5.25)
J.lf~ ='1; M,. 111 cosmcf>, 1l'Ix = '1; ill x cosrncf>,
111

1ll ,.x = 'J: M~xmsin m cf>, 1lfx~:'1; J.lf.r~ sinmcf>,

11,

Q~ ='1;Q~ 111 sinmcf>, Qx -'1;Q.c 111 Cosmcf>.

The coefficients U 111 , v,., w»., ... , Qx,. of these series are, of course, not
constants but functions of x.
We now take the general term of the first three series, putting
u = U 111 (x) cosmcf>, v = v, (x) sin m cf>,
11 w = W 111 (x) cos mcf>,
and introduce this into (5.13). Since we want to treat the edge load
problem, we set P.r = p,. = p,. = 0. All other terms in each equation have a
common factor sin rncf> or cosmcf>, which we may drop. In this way we
arrive at a set of three simultaneous differential equations with only one
independent variable x:
1-v 1+v , ,
11
Um- - 2-m U111
2
+ -.-2-mvm + VWm
-k(1-v m 2 U 111 .L• Wm
2
,,.Ll-v
• 2 m Wm
2 ')-o - ,

1+v, 1-v,
2
- - 2-mu,.- m V 111 + ~vm- mw 111
~ (5.26)
3 1-
+ k( 2( , + -3-v ") 0
v)vm 2-mwm = ,

VUm
1
+ mvm + Wm + k ( -~mUm-
1- V 2 1 Ill 3 - V 11
Um - - 2-mvm

+ WmIV - "+ m 4 W111

2 m 2 Wm - 2 m 2 Wm + Wm.)-o
- .
224 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

These equations have constant coefficients and may be solved by ex-

ponential functions:

v"' = Belx/"' (5.27)

_\fter introducing (5.27) into (5.26), we may drop the exponential factor
and then have three ordinary linear equations for the constants A, B, C:

[A 2 - 1; vm 1 + kl] A + [ 1 ; vAm] B
2(

+ [v A - k (A 3 + 1 ; v Am 2 )] C = 0 ,
1 -!- V
[ --Am ]
A+ [ 1-
-- - A
V 2 3
+m2 --(1-v)kA 2] B
2 2 2
(5.28)
3- V
+ [ m-----;r-kA 2 m ] C=O,

[ VA-k ( A3 1- V
+----;r-Am 3-
2 )] A+ [ m - - -kA
V 2 m] B
2

+f1+k(A4-2,Pm 2 +m 4 -2m2+1)]C=0,

Since these equations are homogeneous, they can have a solution A,

B, C different from zero only if the determinant formed from their nine
coefficients vanishes. This condition yields an equation for A. We obtain
it by expanding the determinant and arranging the terms by descending
powers of A. The coefficients may be simplified by neglecting every-
where the small number kin comparison to 1, and then we have

1- V
A8 -2(2m 2 -v)A6 + [ ----;r-+6m 2(m 2 -1) ] A4

(5.29)
This is a fourth-degree equation for A2 • It may be shown that its four
roots arc all complex and hence two pairs of conjugate complex numbers.
The 8 roots A may therefore be written in the following form with real x
and p,:
A1 = -x 1 + i,u 1 , As= +xi+ ith'
A2 = -XI - i PI , As = +xi - i f.li '
A3 = - x2 + i p, 2 , A1 = +x2 + ip,2,
A4 = - X2 - i f.l2 , As = + x2 - i /l2.
Each of the 8 values Ai yields one solution of (5.26), and the com-
plete solution is the sum of all of them with 8 independent sets of con-
 5.3 LOADS AT THE EDGES x = CONST. 225

u, = e-x,:rfa(AleitttZ/a + A2e-ittt.Cfa)
+ e-><,x/a (A 3 eitt,z/a + A 4 e-itt .rfa) 2

+ e+x,xta (As eitt,zta + As e-itt 1xta)

+ e+x,xta (A 1 eitt,xta + A a e->tt,xla),
v, = e-x,xta (B1 eitt,;xta + B 2 e-itt,.rl")
+ e-x,xtn (B 3 eitt,xta + B 4 e-itt•"''")
+ e+x,.r/a (Bs eip,x/a + Ba e-itt,zla) (5.30)
+ e+x,xta (B 1 eip,xta + B.; e· ;,,,xta),
w, = e-x,xfa (Cl eitt,x/a + C2e-itttXfU)
+ e-><,z/a (03 eitt,x/a + c4 e-ip,zla)
+ e+>< 1 x/a (Cs eil' 1 xta + c6 e-ip 1 xta)
+ e+x,x/a (C1 eiJ.loZ/a + Ca e-ip,x!a).

For every j, the three constants Ai, Bi, Ci are related among each
other by the linear equations (5.28). Since the determinant of these
equations is zero, we may use any two of them to determine Ai and Bi
as multiples of Ci, introducing the corresponding value of A.i into the
coefficients:

The ai, f3i are complex numbers, but we need to solve only two pairs
of equations to find them, since they are so interconnected that we
have all of them when we have the real and imaginary parts of a 1 , {31 ,
a 3 , {33 • Indeed, by inspecting the coefficients of (5.28) one may easily
verify that the following relations must hold:

cc 1 = -cc 6 = iX 1 + iiX 2 , :.<3 = -cca = iX3 + iiX4,

CC2 = - =<s = iX1 - i iX2 , IX4 = -a7 =iX3- ii%4'
f3s = P1 + i P2, f3a = P3 + iP4,
f3s = P1 ·- i P2, fJ1 = P3- iP4.

Since the ai, f3i depend only on the dimensions of the shell, the Ci
are the only free constants of our problem whic.h must be determined
from 8 boundary conditions, 4 at each of the two edges x = const.
Such a problem involving the determination of 8 constants, although
simple in its mathematical structure, is rather tedious in numerical
execution. For practical applications of the theory it is therefore im-
portant that the number of free constants may be reduced in special
cases.
Flilgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 15
226 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

5.3.2 Semi-infinite Cylinder

One half of the eight elementary solutions contained in the formu-
las (5.30) have a factor e-><x/a and therefore decrease more or less rapidly
with increasing x; the other four do exactly the contrary and increase
beyond all limits when x increases.
On a cylinder which begins at x = 0 and which reaches very far
in the direction of positive x, we cannot expect that loads applied to
the edge x = 0 will produce stresses and displacements which, beginning
with moderate values at x = 0, increase exponentially with x. We may,
therefore, entirely disregard the particular solutions j = 5 ... 8, when
fulfilling the boundary conditions at x = 0.
The other four may be written in real form by combining two by
two the exponential functions of the same imaginary argument:

U 111 = e-"1 x/a [ (Al + A2) cos ,u~ x + i (Al - A2) sin ,u~x]

+ e-><ox/a [ (A 3 + A 4 ) cos ,u: x + i (A 3 - A 4 ) sin ,u:x] ,

V 111 = e-><,x/a [ (B1 + B 2) cos ,u~ x + i (B1 - B 2 ) sin ,u~ x]

+ e-><ox/a [(B3 + B4 )cos~~ + i(B3 - B 4 )sin,u:x],

W 111 = e'""1 x/a [ (C1 + C2) cos~~x + i (C1 - C2) sin,u~~]

+ e-><ox/a [(C3 + C4) cos~:x + i(C3 - C4 )sin,u:x].

In these formulas (A 1 + A 2), i(A 1 - A 2) etc. are real quantities, and
when we put

cl+ c2 = ol, Ca + C4 = Oa'

(5.31)
i(C1 - C2) = 02, i(C3 -C4)=04 ,

we have

(5.32)

and four similar relations for the subscripts 3 and 4. Introducing the
expressions for um, vm, wm into the elastic law (5.9) and passing from
there to (5.1 d, e), we may find similar expressions for all the stress
 5.3 LOADS AT THE EDGES x = CONST. 227
resultants listed in (5.25). They may all be written in the general form

(5.33)
+ e-><.x/a ((a3 0 3 + a4 0 4) cos 1'2
a
x + (a 3 04 - a4 0 3) sin~' 2
a
x)] c?s mcf>.
~n

The coefficients a 1 , a 2 are given in Table 5.1 for the various displace-
menta and stress resultants. The other two, a 3 , a 4 , are found by changing
in the formulas of the table the subscript of " and p, from 1 to 2 and
the subscripts of Ci, pfrom 1 and 2 to 3 and 4.
When Table 5.1 is used for numerical work, it will be found that
many terms are negligibly small. They have all been kept in the for-
mulas, because it depends to some extent on the special nature of the
problem whether a term is important or not. Of course, in each indi-
vidual case everything should be dropped which does not make a con-
tribution of reasonable magnitude.
We are now prepared to solve specific problems. At the start of any
such computation we have to decide for which harmonics m we want
to work out the solution. In the FouRIER series (5.25), the order m of
the terms runs from 0 or 1 to oo, but, practically speaking, we need
only a certain choice, as we shall see in an example on p. 231. For a
chosen m, we begin by solving (5.29), which will yield " 1 , " 2 , p, 1 , #?:
as real and imaginary parts of the solutions A.. Then we find from the
first two of (5.28) the complex numbers oc1 , oc3 , {31 , {33 as the values
of A and B for C = 1. The next step is to select from the coefficient
table those displacements or forces which appear in the four boundary
conditions and to write their values at x= 0 as functions of 0 1 , 0 2 , 0 3 , 0 4 •
This will yield 4 linear equations for these 4 unknowns. When they
have been solved, the coefficient table will give numerical expressions
for all the displacements and stress resultants we want to know. When
we have done all this for several m, a FouRIER synthesis of the results
according to (5.25) will conclude the work.
One point in this procedure still needs some explanation, namely
the formulation of the boundary conditions. Let us consider a simply
supported edge, as may be realized by those diaphragms which we used
in the membrane theory to support the edges of cylindrical shells. The
connection of the shell to such a diaphragm indeformable in its own
plane means that the displacements v and w must be zero, and the
normal force N, and the bending moment Mx may be given arbitrarily.
The full set of boundary conditions is therefore :

M,.= given, N.T =given, V= 0, w=O. (5.34)

15*
228 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

The values which the forces and moments N.x.P• Mx.P• Qx assume at the
edge, will be found from the solution of the bending problem of the
shell as we just described it. It is interesting to investigate their in-
fluence on the diaphragm.
Fig. 5.4a is a side view of the edge x = 0, looking in the direction
of increasing x. It shows two adjacent elements of length ds =a d<f>
each. On the left one a twisting moment Mx.P ds is acting, on the right
a moment (Mx.p + M~.p d<f>) ds, and the same moments act in opposite
direction on the supporting diaphragm. In Fig. 5.4 b each moment has

Table 5.1. Semi-infinite Cylinder

I c a,

w 1 1
w' 1 -xl

u 1 lil
V 1 pl

N.; Dfa 1 + k- km 2 + mP1 - v(x1«1 + fl.lliz)

N, Dja v - (x1«1 + fl- 1 « 2 ) + v m P1 - k (x~ - flV

D(1 -v)
N.P• -(I+ k)mti 1 - (x1 P1 + fltP 2 ) + kmx 1
2a

D (1 - v)
N • .p - mti1 - (1 + k) (x1 P1 + fl. 1 Pz) - kmx 1
2a

D (1 - v)
T. 2a
- mti 1 - (1 + 3k)(x1P1 + fl 1 P2 ) - 3kmxl

M.; Kfa 2 1 - m 2 + v (x~ - flil

M. Kfaz (x~- llD + (xllil + fllliz)- vm(m + pl)

K (1 - v)
1~.,. m (2 x 1 - «1) + (xl P1 + /l1 Pz)
2a2
--
K(1 -v)
M • .p az m "1 + (xl P1 + fl-1 Pz)
--
Q., Kja 3 m (m2 - 1)- m (xi- fliJ- (1 -v) [(xi- flilP1 + 2x1fl1PzJ

K 2xt(m 2 - "I+ 3flV- [(1- v)m 2 + 2(xi- fl-VJ«1

Q. 2a3 - 4 x 1fl- 1 «2 + (1 + v) m (x1 P1 + fl-1 Pzl
--
K 2x1 [(2- v)m2 - "~ + 3fliJ- [(1 -v)m 2 + 2(xi- flVJiil
s. 2~aa~
- 4 x 1fl- 1 ti 2 + (3 - v) m (x1 P1 + fl-1 Pz)
 5.3 LOADS AT '!'HE EDGES x = CONST. 229

been replaced by an equivalent group of three forces. The two forces F,.
on the left element are almost parallel to each other and must have
a moment equal to M:r,. ds, hence
F,.ds = Mx+ds.
But since they are slightly divergent, they have a horizontal result-
ant F n dcp, pointing to the left, which is compensated by the third
force F 1 = Fn dcp, so that the three forces Fn, Fn, F 1 are statically
equivalent to the distributed shearing stresses which yield the twisting

'!'able 5.1. (Continued)

llz +factor

0 cos

P.t cos

«a cos

Pa sin

mPa- v(,;tlia- P.t«tl cos

- (,;t«a- P.t«t) + vmPa + 2k"tflt cos

- (1 + k)ma2 - (,; 1 P2 - p. 1 P1 l - kmp. 1 sin

- m lia - ( 1 + k) (,;t Pa - P.t Ptl + km flt sin

- ma2 - (1 + 3k)(,;1 P2 - p. 1 Ptl + 3kmp. 1 sin

- 2 V '<!tflt cos

- 2 "tflt + (,;1 «a - P.t «tl - vm Pa cos

- m (2 P.1 + «a) + (,;1 Pa - P.a Ptl sin

- m P.x + (,;x Pa - P.x Ptl sin

2 m "t fl1 - (1 - v)[ (,;~ - p.i) Pa - 2 "1 P.t Ptl sin

- 2p.t(m2 - 3,;i + p.f)- [(1- v)m 2 + 2(,;~- p.i)]a 2

cos
+ 4,;tP.t«t + (1 + v)m(,;tPa- P.tPtl
- 2p.1 [(2- v)m 2 - 3,;~ + p.IJ- [(1- v)m2 + 2(,;i- p.nJa2
cos
+ 4"tfltlit + (3- v)m (,;tPa- P.tPtl
230 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

moment M x ~. Therefore their effect on the shell and on the support

cannot be much different from that of .1l(,~, appreciable differences
appearing only in a zone of the shell whose width is of the same order
as the thickness t. If we disregard them, we can no longer discriminate
between F 1 and a genuine shearing force and may combine both into a
resultant force per unit length, the effective shear
F, T M.~
Tx=N,.;--ds =J:Iix~---. (5.35a)
a
A similar reasoning may be applied to the forces F n. At the right
end of the left element in Fig. 5.4 b we have a force F n pointing inward,
and adjacent to it at the left end of the right element the force

(M.<I>+M;~d.;)ds
M• .pds
(a)

Fig. 5.4. Two adjacent elements

of the edge of a shell

F + F;, dcp pointing outward. Their difference, F;, dcp =

11 1l'l:.p dcp, may
be combined with the transverse shearing force Qx ds. This leads to the
effective transverse force
M"
Sx = Q.r + ____:__!. (5.35b)
a
It is the same force which appears under similar circumstances in the
theory of plane plates and is known there under the name of KIRCH-
HOFF's force.
As we have seen here, the static effect of the three stress result-
ants Nx.;, 1l'Ix~' Q.r may be expressed by two quantities, Sx and T:r.
This is essential when we have to formulate the boundary conditions
 5.3 LOADS AT THE EDGES x = CONST. 231
for a completely unsupported edge. We might expect at first that all
the edge forces and moments may be arbitrarily given. But they are
five, Nr, Nx<i>' Mx, 1l'Ix<1>' Qx, whereas we have only four constants of
integration, G1 , G2 , G3 , G4 • Here the forces Sx and Tx will help us.
Since they are equivalent to the corn bined action of three of the original
stress resultants, they may replace them in the boundary conditions,
and then we have only four essential external forces and moments, which
may be arbitrarily prescribed: Nx, T,., Mx, S.o and they will lead to
four boundary conditions, determining the four constants Gi.
It becomes evident that the introduction of the effective edge for-
ces S r and T x is an essential feature of the bending theory as it is re-
presented in this book. It is beyond the scope of this theory to study
local stress problems in a boundary zone of the order t. They may be
of interest when a small hole is drilled in the shell. For this problem,
we have to abandon our basic assumptions and to replace them by
something better. In all other cases boundary conditions on structures
and machine parts are not defined exactly enough to make such local
border problems a possible object of investigation. When the edge of
the shell is riveted, welded, or glued to an edge member, or if there
is a smooth transition between them, as it frequently happens in con-
crete, cast iron, and plastics, we often cannot even tell exactly where
the shell ends and something else begins.

5.3.3 Cooling Tower

The theory developed here may be applied to structures like the
cooling tower shown in Fig. 5.5. If the shell were put directly on a con-
tinuous foundation, there would be no problem at all. The weight of
the shell would cause compressive forces N x, increasing from zero at the
top to, say, N.= - P at the base and distributed uniformly over any
horizontal cross section of the tower. Now, in order to allow the cool
air to enter, the shell stands on a number of columns, and in the space
between them no force Nx is allowed to act on the edge. Therefore, an
edge load must be superimposed on the simple stress system just de-
scribed, and this edge load must be self-equilibrating and must cancel
the edge load N x = - P along the free parts of the edge. A part of this
load is shown in Fig. 5.6. It may be expanded in ·a FouRIER series (5.25)
in which only the terms m = 8, 16, 24, ... appear. This series represents
the values which N x must assume for x = 0. Besides N x, three other
quantities must be known along the edge to make the problem deter-
minate. Since there is certainly not much that might restrict the rotation
of a vertical tangent to the cylinder, at least not between the supports,
it is reasonable to choose Mx = 0 as a second boundary condition. The
232 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

other two depend on the size of the stiffening ring which will be provided
at the edge. For a numerical example wc consider the extreme case
that the ring is very stiff in its plane, and prescribe v = w = 0. When

Fig. 5.5.
Cylindrical cooling tower

Section A-B

the shell is high enough, the solution (5.33) for the semi-infinite cylinder
may be applied, and then it is not necessary to have another set of
four boundary conditions for the upper end.

(b)
,;,=8
I
I
I I I

~[\~/\!:
V VV Vm=l
(c)
6

Fig. 5.6. Edge load applied to the cooling-tower shell, (a) total edge load, (b, c) first and second
harmonics of this load
 5.3 LOADS AT THE EDGES x = CONST. 233
The first thing to be done on the way toward a numerical solution
is to solve (5.29) and to determine x1 , x 2 , p.1 , p. 2 from its solutions. This
must be done for every m. Under the assumption aft = 150 the following
figures have been obtained:

m 8 16 24 32 40

"1 18.22 24.55 32.24 40.17 48.17

"2 2.14
14.42
8.39
12.00
16.05
10.76
23.95
10.12
31.89
9.74
P1
P2 1.69 4.12 5.39 6.08 6.51

The next step is to find the ratios a.i and {Ji for i = 1 and i = 3.
using two of the three equations (5.28). This must also be done separately
for every m.
Thus far, the computation does not depend on the particular set
of boundary conditions, but now it is time to introduce them. According

Fig. 5. i. Distribution of N z nntl

N .p at different levels of the
cooling tower In ~'lg. 5.5

to (5.33), every quantity needed at the edge x = 0 has there the amplitude-
c(a1C1 + a 2 C2 + a 3 C3 + a 4 0 4 ), the quantities c; a 1, ... , a 4 in this ex-
pression to be taken from the appropriate line of Table 5.1. This may
now be done for Nx.,., Mxm' vm, wm, and for every m a set of four equa-
tions with real coefficients may be set up whose unknowns are the real
quantities 0 1 , 0 2 , 0 3 , 0 4 introduced by (5.31). When these equations
have been solved, Table 5.1 together with (5.33) will provide any re-
quired information.
234 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLL.~DRICAL SHELLS

Some of the results are shown in Figs. 5. 7 and 5.8. At the edge x = 0
the longitudinal force is given (Fig. 5.6). When we proceed to higher
()fOSS sections (Fig. 5.7), the peaks at cp = 0°, 45°, ... become less and
less pronounced, and at xfa = 0.4 the distribution is practically sinus-
oidal. This development is due to the fact that "s, the smaller one of
the two damping exponents, increases substantially from m = 8 to
m= 16 and 24 and that, therefore, at some distance from the edge only
the lowest harmonic survives. In Fig. 5.8 the vertical distribution of N"'

t~ --Shell f;;
---Plane
1.0 1.0 wall 1.0

N•/P I
(.;=22.5i 1
N•/P I
0.5 0.5 (<~~=0")
0.4 0.4 \ I
0.3 0.3 ' ' ' ...... I I

--- ...... ''

0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1 _)
.......
0 0
-3 -2 -1 0 0 0 0.2 0.4 -0.2 0
Fig. 5.8. Distribution of .Vz and .v.; along two generators of the cooling tower In Fig. 5.5

is shown for the generators cp = 0° (centerline of a column) and cp = 22.5°

{midspan section). It can be seen that the stresses decay with increas-
ing x and diminish most rapidly where they are highest at the edge.
A cylindrical shell put on columns may be compared with a plane
wall supported and loaded in the same way. The horizontal forces in
such a wall, which would correspond to the hoop forces N.; in the shell,
may readily be understood as the bending stresses in a continuous
beam of unusual height. Since our boundary conditions v = w = 0
imply the presence of a sturdy edge member, it may be expected that
this edge member has compressive stresses at the supports and tensile
stresses at midspan and that the lower part of the wall has stresses of
·Opposite sign which higher up decrease to zero, with or without change
-of sign. In the plane wall this is really what happens, but in the shell
the hoop forces are differently distributed. In Fig. 5.8 both are shown
for cp = 0° and 22.5°, and one may recognize that the stresses in the
shell are much lower and- surprisingly - do not even have the expected
sign at midspan. We may understand this result when we consider the
typical difference between a plane and a cylindrical wall.
 5.3 LOADS AT THE EDGES x = CONST. 235
In the shell the presence of a. hoop force requires either a. radial
load p, or transverse forces, preferably Q+ [see (5.1 c)]. Since in our
=
example we assumed p, 0, we face the alternatives of either having
hoop forces N +and shearing forces Q+ and then necessarily also bending
moments M+ [see (5.1 d)] or having neither shear nor hoop force and
hence a stress pattern which comes very close to that of the membrane
theory. For the lower harmonics, a certain amount of Q+ leads to a
much larger bending moment than for the higher harmonics, and in
the same way bending moments produce large deflections w for the
lower harmonics and small wrinkles for higher m. Since large deflections
are not compatible with our boundary condition w = 0, we find that
for m= 8 our solution has membrane character and that m= 16 makes
.a. much larger contribution to the hoop force N +. This is clearly visible
in Fig. 5.7, which shows the distribution of N+ along two typical cross
.sections.

5.3.4 Simplified Theory

When m is not large, the coefficient of .A. 4 in (5.29) is much greater
than all the other coefficients because of the term (1 - 112 )jk, the param-
eter k being a small number. The solution must then be either very
large or very small. In the first case, the terms with .A.2 and .A.0 are negli-
_gible, in the second case those with .A.6 and.A. 8 • This simplifies the equation.
For the larger roots, say those expressed in x 1 , p. 1 , we use the equation
1 .•
.A_4- 2(2m2 -11).A. 2 + ( ~ v- + 6m2 (m2 - 1) ) = 0 (5.36a)

.and for the smaller roots, those expressed in terms of x 2 , p. 2:

(!._ ~ v2 + 6m2(m2 -1)).A.4

-2m2 [2m 4 - (4- 11) m 2 + (2- 11)] .A. 2 + m4 (m 2 - 1) 2 = 0. (5.36b)
This splitting of the A. equation leads to a complete splitting of the
problem. From (5.36) it is seen that the large roots A. are of the order k- 1/ 4,
the small ones of the order k1' 4 • Assuming 11 = 0 and then solving
(5.28a, b) for a.i = Aj/Ci and {Ji = BifCi shows that a.i is of orders k114
and k- 114 for the large and the small roots, respectively, and {Ji of or-
P P
·ders k1 ' 2 and 1. We therefore have IX3 , ... , 4 >> IX1 , ... , 2, but X 1 , fl1
» x 2, p. 2 • Let us now have a look in Table 5.1 for the values of the func-
-tions at x = 0. We find
wm(O) = C1 + C3 , w:,.(O) = (-x1C1 + P.1C2) + (-x2Ca + tt2C4).
Um(O) = (al cl+ a2C2) + (aaCa + a4C4)'
VIII (0) =(PI cl+ p2 C2) + (Pa Ca + p4 C4).
236 CHAP. 5: C£RCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

If the constants cl'". (J4 are all of the same order of magnitude, the
first term of w;,. will be much larger than the second, while the opposite
is true for u,. and vm. What this difference means, becomes clear when
we have a look at the stress resultants. vVe find that the terms with
" 1 , f1- 1 are markedly preponderant in M x, Qx, S,., but that the terms with
" 2 , f1- 2 dominate in N x and, if 0 3 , C4 are large enough, also in T x. The

second half of the solution (5.33) is therefore especially fit to satisfy a

pair of boundary conditions concerning N., or u and T x or v, and those
are exactly the conditions we already were able to impose on the mem-
brane solution. This part of the bending solution is not more than an
improved form of the membrane solution, and since the gain is but
slight, the extra effort needed to obtain it is hardly justified, if we use
membrane forces as an approximation for the inhomogeneous solution.
The first half of the solution (5.33), to the contrary, is suitable for
satisfying a pair of boundary conditions concerning Mx or w' and Sx
or w. If we replace w here by the hoop strain w + v', these are exactly
the conditions which the membrane theory cannot fulfill, and this part of
the solution is therefore the essential complement to the membrane theory_
The situation changes for higher values of m. There the splitting
of (5.29) into the pair (5.36a, b) is no longer possible and the values " 1 , "2'
and f1- 1 , f1- 2 come closer together. In those cases both parts of the solution
work together in fulfilling all four boundary conditions, and it is not
possible to anticipate part of these conditions when writing the mem-
brane solution for the given loads.

5.4 Loads Applied to the Edges cJ> = const.

5.4.1 Exact Solution
5.4.1.1 General Theory
Only in the case of tubular shells is the solution developed in Sec-
tion 5.3 a complete solution of the bending problem of the circular
cylinder. If the perimeter of the shell covers less than 360°, as it does
in the case of barrel vaults, this solution is not applicable, because it
does not permit prescribing arbitrary boundary conditions along edges
cJ> = const. It has so far not been possible, and probably never will
be with simple mathematical means, to find a solution which can satisfy
any desired set of boundary conditions along all four edges o.f a rec-
tangular panel cut from a cylindrical shell. However, we may exchange
the roles of the coordinates x and cJ> and find a solution which does the
same services at two edges cJ> = const. that (5.25) did at two edges
x = const.
 1).4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cp = CONST. 237

We assume that the shell has a finite length l, or at least that all
forces are periodic in x with the period 2l. Then we may write

2ex; u,cos-l-,
CO CO
nnx "" . nnx ,_, . nnx
u = v = .:::;.. v,,s1n - l - , w = .:::;.. w,s1n - l - , (5.37)
n=O n=l n=l

where un, V 11 , W 11 are functions of </> only. \Vhen we introduce this in

the differential equations (5.13) and again drop the load terms, we find
a set of three ordinary differential equations for the n-th harmonics
un, V 11 , W 11 of the displacements. With the abbreviation
A= nna
l '
they are:

12 1 - 11 .. 1 + 11 1 • ' 1
-11. u,. +-run+ --rii.Vn -r V11.W,,
1 - V •• 1 - V 1 .. ] _
+ k [- 2 -un + 11.13 W., + 2-JI.Wn -0,

1+
- --r V 1
11.
•
u,. + v,.•• -
1
-~
- V 12
11. v,. + w,.•
(5.38)
+ 3-v
k [ - -32 (1 - 11) A2 V tt -t- -2- 11. w n = 0
1 2 ·]
,

- 1111.U,
1
+ Vn• + w, + k [ - 1 -11 1 ..
--rii.Un -11.
13
·u,

+ 3 ; v A2v~ + (}.4 + 1)w,- 2(A2 - 1)w~· + w~] =0.

They may be solved by putting
v,. = Be"'.P, w,. =Ce"'.P, (5.39)
where m is not an integer but a still unknown quantity which will play
the same role here as A did in Section 5.3. Introducing (5.39) into (5.38),
we arrive at three linear equations for the constants A, B, C:

[A 2 - 1; v m 1+ k)] A + [- 1 ; v Am] B
2(

+ [-d-k(.l. + 1 ; 11 Am )]c=O, 3 2

[- 1 ; v Am] A+ [m2- 1 ; 11
).2- ! (1- v) kAi] B
(5.40)
+[m+ 3 ;vk.l. 2 m]C=0,

[ -vA- k(A + 1 ; 3 v ,l.m2)] A+ [m+~; 11 kA2m] B

+ [1 + k (A4 - 2 ).2m 2 + m 4 + 2m2 + 1)] C = 0.
238 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

The only formal difference between this set and (5.28) lies in the sign
of some of the terms, but we must keep in mind that here A. is known
and m is not. Therefore, the condition that the determinant of the nine
coefficients vanishes now yields an equation for m:

ms- 2 (2A.2- 1)m6 + [6A.4 - 2(4- v) A. 2 + 1]m4

- 2A. 2 [2A.4 - 3 A. 2 + (2- v)] m 2 + [ 1 ~ vz A.4 + ),6 (A.2- 2v)] = 0. (5.41)

The eight solutions of this equation are all complex and may be written
as follows:
mx = - "x + i P x • ms =+;ex+ i~tx •
ma =-;ex- i~tx' ms = +;ex- iflx' 1 (5.42)
ma = -"a + i #2 • m1 = + "2 + i #2 '
m4 =-;ea- iJl-2• ms = + "2 -
i P-2 · J
Each of the 8 values mi yields one particular solution of the differential
equations (5.38):

where the three constants A i, B i, Gi of each set are related by the

linear equations (5.40), in which the corresponding value mi has to be
used when computing the coefficients. Since the determinant is zero,
we may use any pair out of the three equations to determine Ai, Bi
for a given Gi. The result may be written as

where ai, {Ji are complex constants derived from the coefficients of (5.40).
From closer inspection of these equations one may recognize that for ai
and {Ji the following relations must hold:

ax = as = <fx + i<X2, a 3 = a 8 = <2 3 + i <24 ,

a2 = as =<fx- i<X2, a4 = IX7 =<fa- ii%4,
f3x = -f3e = Px + ip2, Pa = -Ps = Pa + iP4,
fJ2 = - f3s = Px - i P2 , p.. = -/31 = Pa.- iP4,
in which the quantities marked with a bar represent real numbers.
The complete solution for any one of the displacements is the sum
of the eight particular solutions, e. g.:

Wn = e-"·•(Gxeip,. + G2e-i/Jt•) + e-"·•(Gae'~'·· + c.. e-il'••)

+ e+"••(G5 eiP•• + G6 e-i~'••) + e+"••(G1 eil'•• + G8 e-il'••),
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES </> = CONST. 23~

which may as well be written in the following form:

Wn = e-><,<P[(Gx + 02)cOSfl 1 </> + i(G1 - 0 2)sinp 1 </>J

+ e-,.,,p [(03 + 0 4 ) cos f1 2</> + i (03 - 0 4 ) sintt 2</>J
+ e+><,<P[(05 + 0 6 )cosp1 </> + i(G5 :.. 0 6 )sinrt1 </>J
+ e+><,,p [(07 +Os) cosp 2</> + i (0 7 - Os) sinrt 2</>J.

Since all formulas, though simple in structure, become very clumsy in

appearance, we shall not continue the general treatment but shall
specialize on two important particular cases.
From general experience in the bending theory of shells, one may
expect that for thin cylinders the forces and moments applied to one
boundary <P = const. will produce a localized disturbance but will not
influence very much the situation at the opposite edge. It may easily
be checked how far this is true in the present case, just by solving (5.41)

K
p.

>.-
Fig. 5.0. Real and imaginary parts of m = " + ip from (5.41) for k/(1 - •') ~ 2 x tO-•

numerically. The result of such computations has been plotted in Fig. 5.9.
They were made for an assumed value k/(1 - v2) = 2 x 10- 6 , corres-
ponding to tfa = 4.76 x 10- 3 for v = 0.3 and to tfa = 4.88 x 10-3 for
v = 0, ratios which may easily be encountered in shell design.
Now let us consider two reinforced concrete roofs, Fig. 5.10a, b. The
first one consists of three shells between stiff ribs, and lfa may be, say, 0.6.
For n = 1, this yields }. = 5.24. Th~ smaller one of the two damping
exponents is then ?<1 = 5.1, and a disturbance which begins with the
value 1 at the edge <P = 0 will have decayed to exp (- 5.1 x 2.094)
= 0.23 x 10- 4 at <P = 120°. For higher harmonics, n > 1, the decay will
be even greater. If one requires a decay to only 0.01, one may allow lfa
to be as great as 2.6.
240 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Quite to the contrary, the barrel vault, Fig. 5.10b, may have lja= 2.5,
hence A = 1.26 for the first harmonic. Fig. 5.9 yields x 1 = 2.23, and
over an angle of 60° = 1.047 an edge disturbance will decay from 1 to
exp (- 2.23 x 1.047) = 0.097 ~ 10%. This, of course, is still very much

Fig. 5.10. Two typical shell roofs, (a) short cylinder, (b) long cylinder

and will have to be considered when the boundary conditions at the

other edge are formulated. There will be even less decay if the shell is
thicker, but, still, for the higher harmonics, n = 4, 5, ... , the values of A
and hence of x 1 are high enough to make the corresponding edge dis-
turbances more or less local.

5.4.1.2 One Boundary Only

In those cases where the disturbance is localized at one edge, the
general solution may be considerably simplified. ·If we measure the
angular coordinate from the edge under consideration, then the terms
j = 5, 6, 7, 8 in the preceding formulas evidently are unsuitable, since
they describe just the contrary of a local disturbance: stresses and
displacements that increase exponentially the farther away we go from
the edge cJ> = 0. Therefore, these terms must be dropped, and we are
left with the following formulas:
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cf> = CONST. 241
u,. = e-,.,4> [(A 1 + A 2 ) cosp 1 cf> + i (A 1 - A 2 ) sinp1 cf>J
+ e-"•4>[(A 3 + A 4)cosp 2 cp + i(A 3 - A 4)sinp2 cpj,
v,. = e-... 4> [(B1 + B 2) cos p 1 cf> + i (B1 - B 2 ) sinp1 cf> j
+ e-,.,4> [(B3 + B 4) cosp 2 c/> + i (B3 - B 4) sinp 2 c/>],
w,. = e-..,4>[(01 + 0 2) cosp 1 c/> + i (G\- 0 2} sinp 1 c/>]
+ e-><o4>[(03 + 0 4) cosp 2 c/> + i(03 - 0 4) sinp 2 c/>J.
Obviously, the coefficients appearing in these formulas must all have
real values, and they may be expressed by (5.31}, (5.32) on p. 226,
substituting, of course, for the a's and P's the quantities defined on
p. 238.
When we introduce the expressions for un, vn, w,. into the formu-
las (5.37) (omitting the summation) and then go back to the elastic
law (5.9) and the equations (5.1d, e) we see that the n-th harmonics of
all displacements and stress resultants assume the form:

I = c {e-"•4> [(al cl + az Oz) COSfll cf> + (al 02- a2 Cl) sinpl cf> J
+ e-,.,4> [(aa Ca + a4 C4) cosp 2 cf> + (a3 C4 - a4 C3) sinp 2 cf>J} sm
c?s .l x.
a
(5.43)

The factor c and the coefficients a 1 , a2 are given in Table 5.2. To find a 3
and a4 , we use the same formulas, only changing the subscript 1 to 2
for x and p, and the subscripts 1, 2 to 3, 4 for a, {J.
To solve a specific problem, we have to proceed in the following
way: We choose the order n of the harmonic which we want to in-
vestigate and compute from the dimensions of the shell (a, t, l) the
parameters le and .A.. We then find " 1 , p 1 , "z• p 2 from {5.41) and rx;, fJ;
(j = 1 ... 4) by solving the first two of (5.40) for Ai, B; with 0; = 1.
We are then prepared to establish the boundary conditions. Frvm the
table we find the boundary values of those forces and displacements
which appear in the boundary conditions, and using the numerical values
of the a;, pi, we obtain four linear equations for 0 17 0 2 , 0 3 , 0 4. When
these equations have been solved, the table will yield numerical values
for all the stress resultants which we may want to know.
Along the edges cf> = const. we find forces N 4>, N <t>x, Q4> and moments
~vi<~>, M<t>x· To them considerations may be applied similar to those
which lead to (5.35). Since the edge is straight, there is no force F 1
(Fig. 5.4b), and the effective shear T<t> is identical with the shear N<t>x·
But there is an effective transverse force

(5.44)

Its coefficients may also be found in Table 5.2.

Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 16
242 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
Table 5.2. Cylinder Loaded along a Generator

f
I c a,

u 1 <%1

V 1 p1

w 1 1

w 1 - "1

N<t> D/a 1 + k- (x1P1 + 111Pzl- vJ.<%1 + k(xf- pi)

N. D/a - A<%1 + v- v(x1P1 + 111Pzl + kJ. 2

D(1-v)
Nq,. - ( 1 + k) (x1 <%1 + !11 <iz) + J. P1 - k;. x1
2a

D(1- v)
N,q, 2a
- (xl <i1 + !11 liz) + ( 1 + k) J. P1 + kJ. x1

.M<t> Kfa2 1 +(xi- pi)- vJ. 2

.il'fz Kfa 2 - A2 + J. <%1 + v (xi - pi) + V (xl P1 + !11 Pzl

--
K (1 -- v)
.Mq,. - 2J.xl- (x1<i1 + fl1<i2)- J.P1
2a 2
--
K (1 - v)
.M.q, a•
- A (x1 + P1l
--
Q<l> K/a 3 x1W- 1- xi+ 3piJ + (1- v)J.2 P1
--
K - 2 ;.a + 2;. (xf - .uV + 2 .1. 2 a1
Q. 2a3 + (1- v)f(xi- ,ui)<%1 + 2x1fl1<Z2J + (1- v)J.(x 1P1 +111Pzl

K 2 x 1[- 1 + (2 - v) A2 - xi + 3 pfj + ( 1 - v) J. (x1 <%1 + 111 <iz)

s<t> 2a3 +3(1-v)J. 2 P1

5.4.1.3 Symmetric Stress System

The second special case of practical importance is that of a shell
having boundaries at cJ> = ± cf>o and having there such conditions that
the stress system will be symmetric with respect to the generator cJ> = 0.
In this case we cannot discard the solutions j = I? ... 8, but we may
combine the real exponential functions to hyperbolic sines and cosines,
writing
Wn = (cl + 02 + cs + Os) Cosh "1 cJ> cos I-ll cf>
+ i(-01 + 0 2 +Os- Os) Sinhx1 cf>sinf-t 1 cf>
+ ( -C1 - 0 2 + Os + Os) Sinh "1 cf> cos f-l 1 cf>
+ i (01 - 0 2 + 0 5 - Os) Cosh x 1 cf> sin ,u1 cf>. (5.45)
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cl> = CONST. 243
Table 5.2. (Continued)

a, I symmetry I x factor

<Xa sym. cos

Pa anti. sin

0 sym. sin

fl-1 anti. sin

- (x1Pa- P.tPtl- vi.aa- 2kxtf.lt sym. sin

- A<iz- v(x1P2- P.tPtl sym. sin

- (1 + k)(x 1 <Xa- f.lt<Xl) + J.Pa + kJ.p.1 anti. cos

- (x1<i2- f.lt<Xtl + (1 + k)J.Pa- kJ.1t1 anti. cos

- 2Xlfl-l sym. Sill

i.aa- 2vx1p.t + v(x1P2- P.tPtl sym. sin

2 J. fl-1 - (xi <Xz - fl-1 <%1) - J. Pa anti. cos

J. (P.l -Pal anti. cos

p.d1- .'. 2 + 3xi- p.i) + (1- v)J. 2 P2 anti. sin

- 4J.x1p. 1 + 2J.2 a 2 + (1- v) [(xi- p.i)a2 - 2x1p.1a 1]
sym. cos
+ (1 + v)J.(x1Pa- P.1Ptl
2p.1 [1- (2- v)i. 2 + 3xi- P.il
anti.
+ (1 - v) J. (x1 a2 - p. 1 a 1) + 3 ( 1 - v) J. 2 Pa Sill

From symmetry we now conclude that the coefficients of the antimetric

solutions Cosh"1 1> sin,u1 1> and Sinh"1 1> cos,u 1 1> must be zero. This leads
to the relations C1 = C 6 and C2 = C5 • Dropping everywhere a common
factor 2, we may write the solution in the following form:

w,. = (C1+ C2 ) Cosh " 1 1> cosp 1 1> - i (C1 - C2 ) Sinh " 1 1> sin p 1 1>
+ (C3 + C4 ) Cosh"2 1>cosp2 1>- i (C3 - C4 ) Sinh"2 1>sinp 2 1>
or, with the notation (5.31) from p. 226:

Wn = Gl Cosh" 1 </> cosp 1 </>- G2 Sinh"1 </>sinp 1 </>

+ G3 Cosh "z </> cos p 2 1> - G4 Sinh " 2 1> sin p 2 1> .
16*
244 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

To find U 11 and V 11 , we have to replace Ci in (5.45) by Ai or Bi, respec-

tively. Again dropping the factor 2 and using the notation (5.32), we
find these expressions:
u,. = (a! cl + a2 C2) Cosh XI <I> cos Ill <I> - (al c2
- a2 Cl) Sinh xl <I> sinp,l <I>
+ (a3 C3 + a 4C4) Cosh x 2<I> cos p, 2<I> - (a3 C4
- a 4 C3 ) Sinh x 2<I> sin p, 2<I>,

VII = -(Pl cl+ P2C2) Sinhxl <J>cosp,l <I>+ (Pl c2- P2Cl) Coshxl <I> sinp,l <I>
- (Pa Ca + P4 C4) Sinhx2<J> cosp,2<J> + (PaC4- P4 C3 ) Coshx 2cp sinp, 2cp.
When we go back to (5.9) and (5.1 d, e) we find that some of the stress
resultants (the symmetric group) are expressed by formulas similar
to those for u and w, i.e.
I = c [(al cl + a2 C2) Cosh xl <I> cos Ill <I> - (al c2- a2 Cl) Sinh XI <I> sin Ill <I>
+ (a3 C 3 + a4 C4 ) Coshx 2cp cosp, 2cp
- (a 3 C4 - a 4 C3 )Sinhx 2cpsinp, 2cp] c~s A.x, (5.46a)
sm a
while the rest (the antimetric group) looks like v:
1= -c [(al cl+ a2 C2) Sinh xl <I> cos Ill <I>- (al c2- a2 Cl) Cosh xl <I> sin Ill <I>
+ (a3C3+ a 4C4) Sinh x 2<J> cos p, 2<I>
r1 r1 • COS A X
-(a3 v 4 -a4 v 3 )Coshx2cpsmp, 2cp]. - . (5.46 b)
sm a
The coefficients c, a 1 , a 2 are those already presented in Table 5.2, and
the column marked "symmetry" in this Table indicates whether the
quantity belongs to the symmetric or to the antimetric group. The
.coefficients a 3 , a 4 are again found by simply changing subscripts.

5.4.2 Barrel Vaults

5.4.2.1 The Differential Equation and its Solution
The theory explained on the preceding pages may be simplified con-
siderably in the case of barrel vaults, in which l is much greater than
the radius a of the shell. In Chapter 3 we saw that an edge load applied
to the straight edges cp = const. of such a shell cannot be carried by
membrane forces N.p. Bending moments M.p and transverse forces Q.p
are needed to carry the load away from the edge, and forces Nx and Nx<l>
are needed to transmit the load to the ends of the span. However, the
deformation produced, in particular the lengthwise curvature o2wfox 2 ,
will not be sufficient to allow for bending moments Mx of any impor-
tance.
We may, therefore, simplify the theory by dropping most of the
moments and keeping, besides the membrane forces, only the momentM.p
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cp = CONST. 245

and the force Q~. One of the conditions of equilibrium, (5.1 e), then
becomes trivial, and another one, (5.1f), yields Nx~ = N~:r· In the
remaining 4 equations, (5.1 a-d), there are only 5 unknowns left and we
may eliminate all but one of them. We choose to retain M~.
Equation (5.1 d) yields

(5.47a)

and with P.c = p~ = Pr = 0 we find from (5.1 c, b, a):

. 1 u··
N ~=- Q~=-a:1Y.L~,

N~~ = Q~ - N~ = _!_
a
(ilf~ + M~·) , (5.47b-d)

1
N "x = - N'"x.p = - - (M""
a
1 .p + ~·-'~·).
,,...

To obtain a differential equation for M~, we have to consider the

deformation of the shell. The formulas (5.9f-h) concern the neglected
moments and are of no interest here. In (5.9a--d) we drop, of course,
the terms with K, which are of no numerical importance. Equations (5.9c)
and (5.9d) are then identical, and we have 4 equations left, just enough
for the 4 unknowns M~, u, v, w.
We next eliminate the displacements. From (5.9a, b) we find

(5.48a)

After differentiating this with respect to <J> and (5.9c) with respect to xfa,
we find from both

v" = D(l ~ 112 ) [2(1 + 11)N~.p- N~ + 11N~j. (5.48 b)

Lastly, we get from (5.9a, b) an expression for v· + w, and combining

this with the preceding formula for v", we obtain

w" = D(l ~ 112 ) [N~- 11N~· + N;;- 11N~- 2(1 + 11)N~·~]. (5.48c)

All this may now be introduced into (5.9e) wliich, for this purpose,
must be differentiated twice with respect to xfa:

•K"
~Y.L.p = Da(lK_ 112 ) [N"
1 ~- 11 N""~ + (1 - 11 2) N""" :i + 11 N 1.pv
~ - 11 N""

+ N~·- 11 N~ + N~' - 11 2 N~v- 2 (1 + 11) (N~·~ + N~·;·)

- 211(1 + 11)N~'{J.
246 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

This equation yields the final equation for M <I> when we eliminate the
forces on its right-hand side with the help of the conditions of equi-
librium (5.47). Again using the abbreviation k = KfDa 2 , we obtain
~ll~::: + (2 + v)Mr:: + 21l1T + (1 + 2v)M~v:: + 2(2 + v)1l:1T
(5.49)
+M~:+ vM:r-· + (1 + v) 2 M~v .. + (2 + v)M~" + ~ 1 112
M~v = 0.

This is a partial differential equation of the 8th order, and it replaces

the set (5.13) or (5.20). We may solve it by the same means as applied
in Section 5.4.1, putting
,,.
.ltt.4> = C em.,... ).x
Sin- with 1 =
Jl.
nna
l .
a

Introducing this into (5.49}, we find an equation of the 8th degree

for m:
m8 + [- (2 + v)A. 2 + 2Jm6 + f(1 + 2 v)A. 4 - 2(2 + v)A. 2 + 1Jm4
1
+ [ _ v A,6 + (1 + v)z A,4 _ (2 + v) A,2] m2 + ~ 11 A_4 = 0.
2

When we compare this equation with (5.41), we see that the coeffi-
cients of certain terms differ considerably. If our approximation shall

--
5

~
~
/'I
3 V
K
Jt
2
l'r I

::::-- K2
;
~ I

-:f?
I
0 I I
0 100 200 300 400 500

Fig. 5.11. Real and imaginary parts of 111 = "+ i!-' from (5.50)

be admissible, these terms must be unimportant and we had best drop

them completely. What remains, is very simple:
- v
+ 2m6 + m4 + -1 k
2
ms - A,4 = 0.
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES rp = CONST. 247

The eight solutions of this equation are

m=± 1 v1
·v -2± .
4::t:~.A.z l/1
V-k-- p2 (5.50)

Since they depend on only one parameter,

their real and imaginary parts as defined by (5.42) may be tabulated

as its functions. The result is shown in Fig. 5.11. We may now proceed
in the same way as in the exact theory and treat in full detail the two
cases that either the conditions at opposite boundaries do not interfere
(isolated boundary) or that the stress system is symmetrical.

5.4.2.2 Isolated Boundary

We assume one boundary to be located at cf> = 0 and the other one
to be so far away that it.s influence is negligible for the displacements
and stress resultants in the vicinity of cf> = 0. For the study of this
boundary zone we may then drop all those solutions where m has a
positive real part. The remaining four may be grouped in pairs and
written in real form, using A and B for the linear combinations of
the C:
11'1+ = a fe-><•+ (A 1 cos ,U 1cf> + B1 sin,u1 </>)
+ e-x,+ (A 2 cos ,u 2 </> + B 2 sin,u 2 c/>)J sin;,: . (5.51)

We do not have to bother here with complex constants ai, {3i, because
we have only one differential equation (5.49) instead of the set (5.13)
and therefore no such thing as the three linear equations (5.40). This
simplifies considerably the formulas for the stress resultants and dis-
placements. To find them from (5.47) and (5.48), we need the deriv-
atives of lJ!I+. We have:

.iYI. = a {e-"•+ f( -x1A1 + ,u 1 B 1) cos,1t 1</> + (-,u 1A 1 - x 1 B 1 ) sin,u 2 </> j

+ e-"• +I(- x 2 A 2 + p 2 B 2) cos l'z cf>
+ (-,ttzAz-XzB 2 )sinft 2 </>])sinA.~v,
which may be written

~ri. = + Bi1 >sin,u1</>)

afe-"•+(Ai1 >cos,u 1 </>
+ e-"•+(A~1 >cosp 2 </> + B~llsinft 2 </>)]sin Ax.
a
248 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

The same linear relations which lead from the A, B to the A( 1 l, Bftl will
lead from these to the coefficients A (2 >, B(2 J of M~ and so on. Writing A <oJ
and Bfo> for A and B, we compute the "iterated coefficients" from the
following recurrence formulas:
Ai' +I) = - Xt Ai•) + flt B;•>' BY+ l) = - flt Ai•) - Xt Bi•). (5.52)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

In numerical work it frequently happens that only the iterated coeffi-

cients for even t or only those for odd t are needed. The work will then
be speeded up by using the following double-step formulas:
A~·+ 2>= (xi - pi) A~·> - 2 xt ,ut Bi•>,
2 2 2 2 222
(5.52')
Bi'
2
+2 >= 2 x1 flt A~> + (xi -
22 2 2
flV2 Bi•>
2
·
In (5.47) all those stress resultants which are not of negligible mag-
nitude have been expressed in terms of the derivatives of M <I>. When
the solution (5.51) is introduced here, they all assume the form

t = c re-"·"' (a 1 cos fl 1 cJ> + bl sin Pt cJ>)

(5.53)

and the coefficients a 1 , b1 , a2 , b2 may be expressed by the iterated

coefficients. The factor c and these expressions for a 1 , b1 have been

Table 5.3. Barrel Vault

I c a,

M<I> a At

Q<l> 1 A<ll
1

N<l> -1 AW
1

N•<l> -1/). A\3> + A\ll

N. 1 ,').' A\•> + Aj_•>

a
u - Ai•> + (1 + v).2)Ai2>
D (1 - v2)}. 3
--
a
V A\.5 >- [(2 + v)). 2 - 1JAi.1 >- 2(1 + v)). 2 A\_1>
+D(1-v2 )). 4
--
a
w - Aj_•> - (2 ). 2 - 1) A\.4 >+ ). 2 (). 2 - 2 - v) A\_2 )
D (1- v2)A4
--
a
w - A\'> - (2 ).2 - 1) A\_5) + ).2 (). 2 - 2 - v) A\3>
D(1- v2) ).4
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES tjl = CONST. 249
collected in Table 5.3; a 2 and b2 are obtained simply by using A 2 and B2:
instead of A 1 and B 1 • As soon as these coefficients have been established,
(5.48) may be used to obtain similar formulas for the displacements.
They can also be found in Table 5.3.
With the help of this table we may easily solve any boundary
problem which lies within reach of this theory. For an example, let us
consider an unsupported boundary 4> = 0, where the external forces and
moments are prescribed as
- . n:nx Q .p -
Q . n:n x
M.p= M.pnSm-1-, = .p" Sin - 1- ,
- . n:nx - n:nx
N.p= N.p,.sm-1-, N.r.p = Nx<t>" cos - 1-.

Formula (5.53) yields for 4> = 0:

and from the table of coefficients we read easily the following equations:

I
A~u + A~u = Q<t>,.' (5.54)
Ai2> + A~2> = -N<t>,.,
A •a>
1
+ 4.'3>
2 -
_ -11., N rt/ln- Q-4Jn ·
.~..

Table 5.3. (Continued)

b, x factor

B1 sin

sm
1
sin

B<2>
1 sin

Bia> + IJ<l> cos

Bi•' + B\2' sin

Bi•' + (1 + VIP)Bi2) cos

Bi5>- [(2 + v).P- 1]Bi3' - 2{1 + v).1. 2 Bp> sin

B\s> - (2 .1.2 - 1) Bi•> + .1.2 (.1.2 - 2 - v) J3<12> sin

Bin - (2 .1.2 - 1) B\•' + .1.2 (J.2 - 2 - v) J3<ta> sin

250 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

When we have found the numerical values of x 1 , x2 , p.1 , p. 2 from (5.50)

we may use the recurrence (5.52) to express all the A c,> in terms of
A 1 , Bp A 2 , B 2 and have then four linear equations for these constants.
After they have been solved, the recurrence formula (5.52) and the
table will yield the coefficients for all stress resultants and displace-
ments and hence the complete solution of the problem.

5.4.2.3 Symmetric Case

When we have two edges arranged symmetrically about cJ> = 0 and
not far enough apart to make their mutual influence negligible, we
write our solution in the following form:

1.ll.; = a [A 1 Cosh x1 cf> cos p,1 cf> + B 1 Sinh x 1 cf> sin p 1 cf>

+ A 2 Cosh x 2 cf> cos,u 2 cf> + B 2 Sinh x 2 cJ> sinp, 2 cJ>] sin Ax

a
• (5.55)

The derivatives with respect to cJ> have the same form, if they are of
even order:

a~~4> = a[A~•lCoshx 1 cf>cosp 1 cf> +B~·lSinhx 1 cf>sinp 1 cf>

+ A~•l Cosh x2 cJ> cos p, 2 cJ> + B~•l Sinh x 2 cJ> sin p, 2 </>] sin A: ,
but the form

a~:, 4> = a [ A~•l Sinh x 1 cJ> cos ,u1 cJ> + B~·l Cosh x 1 cf> sin ,u 1 cJ>
+ A~•l Sinh x 2 cJ> cos p 2 cJ> + B~•l Cosh x 2 cJ> sin ,u 2 cJ>Jsin A:
if their order t is an odd number. For all coefficients the recurrence
formulas are
A~·+ tl =
2
"1 A~·l + ft1 B~•l'
2 2 2 2

·when these expressions for the derivatives of .J.l.f.; are introduced

into (5.47) and (5.48), stress resultants and displacements will assume
Qne of the two following forms:

I = c [a 1 Cosh x 1 cJ> cos ft 1 cJ> + b1 Sinh x 1 cJ> sin p 1 cJ>

+ a2 0~8 ). x
Cosh "z cJ> cos ft 2 cJ> + b2 Sinh x 2 cJ> sin ,u 2 cJ>] s1n ,
a
(5.57 a, b)
I = c [a 1 Sinh " 1 cJ> cos ,u1 cJ> + b1 Cosh x 1 </> sin ,u 1 cf>
+ az Sinh x 2 cf> cos p 2 cJ> + b2 Cosh x 2 cJ> sin p 2 cJ>] 0 ~ 8 Ax ,
sm a
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cp = CONST. 251
and the coefficients c, a1 , b1 , a 2 , b2 will be the same as in the preceding
case, listed in Table 5.3. Equation (5.57 a) applies if the superscripts are
all even, while (5.57b) applies if they are all odd.

5.4.3 Simplified Barrel Vault Theory

5.4.3.1 Isolated Boundary
When doing the numerical work which leads to Fig. 5.11, one finds
that the term ~ under the second radical in (5.50) is without impor-
tance in the range of values ( 2 n which is of practical interest. The term ~
under the first radical, however, is responsible for the differences within
each pair of curves shown in the figure. This indicates that we may
safely neglect 1 compared with ( 4 n 2 , but not compared with (2n. But
if we do even that and drop the term ~in (5.50}, our formulas become
extremely simple, though not all too accurate. We have then

(5.58)

and when we introduce this into the recurrence formulas (5.52) and in
the two-step formulas (5.52'), they assume the following form:

A~•+1)=! cv;;:(-A~·lv2 + V2 + B~·)V2=V2J,

B~•+J)=! cv;;:(-A~·)V2-V2 -B~·)V2+V2),
(5.59)
A~+ 1) = ! cv;;: (-A~·lv2- V2 + B~lv2 + V2)' r
B~· + 1) = ! cv;;: (-A~·)V2 + V2 - B~·lv2- (2), J
and

4<•+ 2l = _1_
~1 v2 " n (A<•l- B<•l)
1-2
1 1'
B<•1 + 2l = V2
1
~~ 1-2 n
~
(A 1<•l + B<•l)
1 ,
(5.59')
A<• + 2l _ 1
_ (Al•l + B<•l) B<• _._ 2l --~- (2 n (A <•l _ B<•l) .
V2
2
=
-V2" 1-2n
2 2' 2
=
2 2

The simplicity of these expressions makes it possible to proceed

very far in general terms. We see from (5.59') that the ratio of the
coefficients _4(•+ 2l, Bl<+ 2 l to Al•l, Bl•l is of the order ( 2 n and that con-
sequently in any line of Table 5.3 the coefficients of lower order may now
 252 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

be neglected compared with the highest one. Furthermore, (5.59), (5.59'),

may be used to express all the iterated coefficients still left in this table
in terms of the original constants A 1 , B 1 , A 2 , B 2 • In this way Table 5.4
has been obtained, which must be used together with (5.53).
As an application of Table 5.4 we may write the equations which, on
the level of this simplified theory, replace the set (5.54). We need only
to read the boundary values of M+n• Q+n• N+n• N 7 .; 11 from the co-
lumns c, a 1 , a 2 of the Table. This yields:

(5.60)

Table 5.4. Barrel Vault, Isolated Boundary

c b, z factor

M+ a Al Bl A: B: sin

Q+ Cy;-e -A~+ 1J!Bl -tpA 1 - B 1 -tpA 2 + B 2 -A 2 - tp B 2 sin

N.; -C2 n/V2 A~- Bl A1 + B1 -A 2 - B2 A2 - B2 sin

cana12
N.+ --;.-e -tpAl + Bl -A~- tpBl A2 - tpB2 tpA 2 + B 2 cos

N. c•n2j).2 -B1 Al Bz -A: sin

--
laa
'U
- K C'n 2 -B~ Al B: -A: cos
--
aa
V
KCana12 e tpA1+B1 -A~+ 1J!B1 -A 2 - tp B 2 tpA 2 - B2 sin

aa
w At+ Bt -At+ Bt -A 2 + B 2 . -A 2 B2 sin
y2 K C2n -

-- aa
w Al + 1J!B1 -tpA1 + Bt tpA 2 + B 2 -A 2 + tpB2 sin
-Key;- e

Abbreviations: (.1 =2
1
v2 + V2 = 0.925.
--

"" = V2 - t = o.414 .
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cJ> = CONST. 253

When only one of the right-hand members of these equations is different

from zero, we may obtain handy formulas for the solution which will
now be given. In these formulas, of course, we systematically neglect 1
<:ompared with C2 n and A.2 compared with 1.
When, at a free edge </> = 0, moments
- . nnx
J.ll.p = J.ll.p.sm-t-

are applied, the bending moment in the shell is

..il'l .p = ~" [( 1 + V2) e-,.,.p (cos x 2 </> + sin x 2 </>)

- e-"• .P (cos x 1 </> - sin x 1 </>)] sin n 7 x. (5.61)

By comparison with (5.51) we may read from this formula that

-A = B = M.p. _1 _
2 2 a V2 '
and then we may find all the stress resultants and all the displacements
from (5.53) and Table 5.4. In particular we may find the displacements
u, v, w, w· at the edge </> = 0:
_ M.p. Ctnz
u,. = D (1 - v2 } 7'
- M.p. c•ns'2lr<iV lr<i
v,. = D(1- v2) ~ V2 2 + V2 '

- Jl.p. cen 3 (
+ V2
-)

-v
w,. = D (1 - v2) 7 2 '

c'n"2 2
-·
Wn = - D (1
-xr.p.
- v2) -v- V 2+ V2 ·
These values are needed when the moment load is used as a redundant
force system in a statically indeterminate shell structure.
When the free edge </> = 0 is loaded by normal forces
- . n:nx
N.p = N.p.sm - l - ,

we find in the same way the following formula for the bending moment

(5.62)
254 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

and consequently the following expressions for the edge displacements:

-
u,. = -
N+.a
D ( 1 - r) .1,3
?;2
n
(2 + V2) ,

- - - N +"a !"3 3/2 (2 1/2)3'2

v"- D(1-v2)A'" n +V""' '
N a
w,. = - D(1 ~· v2).1.' ?;4n2(3 + 2 lf2),
-· _ _
Wn-
N...,..n a rs 51212
D(i-v2)A.'"n
;-v + 12I .
2·

"When the free edge cf> = 0 is loaded by tangential shearing forces

the bending moment in the shell is given by

ll-I+ =-: 3 2 V2
;•: ~ + V2 {e-x•+ [cosx2 c/> + (112 + 1) sinx 2 cf>)

- e-"•+[cosx1 c/> + (V2- 1)sinx1 cf>]lsin n;x, (5.63)

and the displacements at the edge are

-
w,.-
- - N:• ..... • a !"3 3/2
D(l -v2).1,3 '> n
v-v + V2 '
2 2 2

-· -
N••• a !"4 2
Wn - D ( 1 - v2) .1,3 "' n .

The fourth kind of an edge load which we have to investigate, con-

sists of a transverse shearing force
- . n:n:x
Q+ = Q+,.sm-l-.

The bending moment is then

(5.64)
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES 4> = CONST. 255

and the displacements at the edge are

-· -
W.n--
iJ.;.a r8
D(1- r)l 4 ;, n
3(2 + v2-) .
In all the preceding cases the displacements at the edge were supposed
not to be restricted. We may, of course, also consider cases where one
or more of the displacement components are given, either because the
edge is supported or as a condition of symmetry or antimetry. We shall
here mention three such cases which will be useful in practical applica-
tions.
Suppose a radial line load
P = P , S. l n
n:n:x
1-
-

to be applied along the generator cf> = 0 of the shell (Fig. 5.12). When
the edges of the shell are far enough away to have no influence or when
their influence is to be evaluated and added later, we may assume that

Fig. 5.12. Radial line load applied

to the generator .; = 0

stresses and deformations are distributed symmetrically to both sides of

the loaded generator. We have then at cf> = 0 the boundary conditions
V= 0, w· =0,
and for the right half of the shell (cf> ~ 0) we have the fourth condition
that
256 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

From these four boundary conditions we may derive four linear equa-
tions similar to (5.60), and they yield the following expressions for the
four constants:
Vz + v2
scvn (5.65)
Vz- Vz
scvn
In a quite similar way a tangential line load (Fig. 5.13)

P -P . nnx
- ,.sin-
1-

may be treated. This is an antimetric case, and we have therefore at

= 0:
</>
u = 0, W=O,

Fig. 5.13. l'ircumferentinl line load applied Fig. 5.!4. Line load applied to the generator
to the generator ~ = 0 ~ = 0 in the direction of this generator

The result is this:

A I = -A 2 = -B 1 = -B2 = 4-~
V2c• n. (5.66)

As the third case in this group we consider a shear load

nnx
T = T .. cos-l-

applied along the generator </> = 0 as shown in Fig. 5.14. The resulting
stress system is symmetrical to both sides of the loaded line, and at
</> = 0 the boundary conditions

1
Q~ = 0, V= 0, w' = 0, Nx~n=!fT,.

hold for the side cp ~ 0. They lead to the following expressions for the
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cp = COXST. 257

constants in (5.51):

(5.67)

5.4.3.2 Symmetric Case

When we want to apply the simplified theory to the symmetric case,
we have to introduce (5.58) into (5.56). This yields the following set of
recurrence formulas:

A~•+tl = ! cvn-[A~·l v2 + V2 + B~·l v2- V2],

B~·+t) = ~ q/n- l-A~·l v2 _v2 + B~·l v2 + v2J.
! cvn- [A~·l V~+ B~·l v2 + V2],
(5.68)
A~·+ 1) =

B~·+ 1) =! , v; [-A~·l v2 + v2 + B~·) 1/2 __ "},2J.

Table il.5. Barrel Vault, Symmetric Case

! c "• I "· I "• I

b, I
srm·j x
metry factor

Jll,. ll AI BI A2 B2 sym. sin

--
C/.p :;vn!? A1 + rpB 1 -tpAt + Bt tpA2 + B2 - A2 + tpB2 anti.
--
sin

.v,. --.;2 nif2 A 1 + BI -At+ BI -A2 + B2 -Az- B2 sym. sin

--
:v.,. .;3n3'2
---()
;. . !JI.dt + Bt -At+ !J!Bt -A 2 - rpB2 tpA2- B2 anti. ('0>'!

--
N. .;'n21).2 Bt -At -B2 A2 sym. sin
--
J.n3
u BI -AI -B2 Az sym. cos
- K''n'S
--
a3
-tpAt + Bt -AI- rpBI A 2 - rpB 2 rp.-12 + B2 anti. sin
V
K ;3 n312 e
--
lt3
lC - -At+ BI -.d1 - B1 A2 + B2. - A2 + B2 sym. sin
V2K,n 2
--
aa -
lC
x,vn--
---() At- tp BI !J!At + Bt !JIA2- B2 A2 + tpB2 anti. sin

For quantities marked "sym."

use (5.57a), Abbreviations: e = 21 ,r;;--=-
V2 + y2 = 0.925,
for quantities marked "anti."
use (5.57b). lJI =V2- 1 = o.414.
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 17
 258 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

When they are introduced into Table 5.3 and when again 1 is neglected
compared with C2 n, Table 5.5 results. This table must be used in con-
nection with (5.57), and there is again a column "Symmetry" which
indicates whether a quantity belongs to the symmetric group and hence
to (5.57a) or to the antimetric group and hence to (5.57b).
In the symmetrical shell the boundary conditions must be written
for some finite value <f> = </> 0 and are less simple than those for an isolated
boundary at <f> = 0. It is, therefore, not advisable to ask for ready-to-u~e
formulas similar to (5.61) through (5.64).

5.4.4 Examples
5.4.4.1 Half-filled Pipe
Mter these preparations, we may treat some examples which will
illustrate the practical application of the formulas and the results which
may be obtained with their help.
Fig. 5.15a shows a pipe which is only half filled with water. In order
to make the problem as simple as possible, we assume that both ends
of the pipe are supported by rings and that there are expansion joints
so that we have Nx = 0 as a boundary condition for x = 0 and for
X= l.
The upper half of the shell does not carry any load and therefore
all membrane forces in it are zero. In the lower half we have

Pr = P+ = 0, p,. = - ya cos<f>,
using the notation of Chapter 3. The corresponding membrane forces
are given by (3.8) with p 0 = 0. However, in these formulas x was mea-
sured from the midspan section of the pipe, while we are now counting
it from one end. ·we have, therefore, in the present notation

N•= -ya 2 cos<f>, N.,.;=ra(! -x)sin<f>,

1
Nx= - 2 yx(l-x)cos<f>.

At the limits of validity of this formula, <f> = 90° and cp = 270', both
normal forces are zero, but there is a shear which does not find its
counterpart among the stress resultants in the upper half of the shell.
It must therefore be applied as an external load as shown in Fig. 5.15a.
The real pipe has, of course, no such load, and we must compensate
it by adding the load shown in Fig. 5.15b. It consists of tangential forces

T=-ra(!-x)
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cp = CONST. 259

similar to those shown in Fig. 5.14 and applied along two generators.
This load produces bending stresses, and we may use (5.67) to find
them and all the stress resultants connected with them, if only we
expand the load T in a FouRIER series:
4yal( :n:x 1 3:n:x 1 5:n:x )
T = - -----;:(! cosT+ 9 cos - l - + 25 cos - l - + ··· .

The general term of this series,

4yal
Tu=--.-.,' n =odd,
n· n·

may be introduced into (5.67), and then Table 5.4 and (5.53) may be
applied.

Fig. 5.!5. Pipe hall filled with water

There are four equal stress systems in the shell which are all de-
scribed by these equations, but with a different meaning of the variable cf>
appearing there. The first of these stress systems emanates from the
load at our edge cJ> = 90° and extends in damped oscillations around
17*
 260 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

the lower half of the shell. We find its stress resultants when we replace cf>
in (5.51) and (5.53) by </> - 90°, e. g.:
_j}f ~" = a {e-><J\~- 90 o> jA 1 cos x 2 (</> - 90°) + B 1 sin x 2 (</> - 90°)J

+ e-><,(~- 900 > fA 2 cos x1 (</>- 90°) + B 2 sinxd</>- 90°)j} sin ..1.x.
a

This formula is valid for </> ~ 90°, without an upper limit for cf>. In such
shells to which the simplified barrel vault theory is applicable, it cannot
be expP-cted that at a short distance from the loaded generator the
stresses will already have dropped to insignificant magnitude. They
may die out somewhere on the lower half of the circumference, but
they may as well spread much farther, and there is no reason why it
should not happen that they are perceptible for more than :360° and
even several times around the whole circumference.
There is a second stress system which emanates from the same load,
but which spreads first over the upper half of the shell:

.1lf ~" = a {e-"ll 90 o - ~> !A 1 cos x 2 (90° - </>) + ···!}sin ..tax for </> ;;,;; 90°,

and in a similar way the load at </> = - 90° (or + 270°) yields two more
stress systems:

J.lf~Jl' =a {e-"d~+ uoo> fA 1 cosx 2 (</> + 90°) + ···J} sin ..tax for </> ~ -90°,

.ill.,.... ,. = n {e-"ll 270 o -~>!A 1 cos x 2 (270° - </>) + ... -!} sin ..1.ax for </> ;;,;; :270° .

All four stress systems must be superposed to obtain the complete result.
Some figures have been computed from these formulas for the fol-
lowing data:
l = 40.0 ft, a= 4.0ft, t = 0.5 in, V= 0.3, y = 62.4 lbjft:J.
For the first harmonic, n = 1, one has then
x1 = 2.185, x2 = 0.904,
and each of the four parts of _M~ 1 extends over a little more than half
the circumference of the cylinder until it becomes negligibly small.
The next harmonic, n = 3, dies out much faster, ·and it contributes
only 5% to the total, so that it does not seem worthwhile to compute
higher harmonics.
Some results have been plotted in Fig. 5.16 for the cross section at
x = lj2. The bending moments are by no means localized, and their
magnitude is such that the maximum circumferential fiber .stress
a,p= 1632 lbjin 2 comes close to the maximum axial stress ax = 2080lbjin 2
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cp = CONST. 261

in the completely filled pipe. The distribution of the longitudinal force N.,
is quite different from that in a full pipe. A compression zone develops
in the middle third of the cross section, and the top part is almost.
unstressed. In the lower half of the shell the hoop force N.; shows almost
the same distribution as the water pressure, but it extends upward
beyond the water level.

60
40
'-20
:f!
~ or-----r-~~,------r----~~~~------~
-20
-40
(a)

-10,410 lb/ft N•

980 lb/ft

Fill. 5.16. Stress resnltants in a half-filled pipe, (a) hoop moment M.; at midspan, (b) normal
forces .Vz and X.; at mldspan. The broken lines llh'e the membrane forces correspon<linll to
Fig. 5.15n

These diagrams give a good qualitative idea of the magnitude and

distribution of the stresses in the shell, but they are far from being
quantitatively reliable. There are two causes of errors involved in the
;;olution given. One lies in the basic assumptions of what we call the
simplified barrel vault theory, and the other one in the fact that we
removed only the worst discrepancy of the membrane solution, the
unbalanced shear, but did not bother about the discontinuity of the
membrane deformations of the upper and lower halves of the pipe. ·we
shall now eliminate these two deficiencies one after the other, restricting
our attention to the first harmonic n == 1.
262 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

When we cut the shell in two parts along the water level, the upper
half, having no membrane forces, will not be deformed. The deformation
of the lower half is described by (3.23) if we put p 0 = 0 there. On the
boundaries cf> = ± 90° they yield u = w = 0, and there are discrepancies
only in v and w·. We are interested in their first harmonic. When we
remember that, in (3.23), x is measured from a midspan point, we find
for cf> = 90°

These displacements represent a gap between the upper and lower

halves of the shell. We may remove it by applying bending moments
11t1• 1 sin nxjl and hoop forces N • 1 sin nxjl along the edges cf> = ± 90° of
the half cylinders. Their magnitudes must be so chosen that each shell
comes half the way, and this condition yields two equations for M• 1
and N. 1 •
To obtain these equations, we may either start from the formulas
for the symmetric case (p. 250), or we may apply twice the formulas
for an isolated boundary (p. 247). In the latter case, which we shall
adopt here, only one edge of each half cylinder is loaded at a time,
and the resulting stress resultants not only are considered in the upper
or lower shell but, disregarding the opposite gap, are followed all around
the shell and even farther, if their magnitude requires it.
The edge displacements produced by the redundant forces and
moments N• 1 and .1lf• 1 are given by (5.61) and (5.62). Their sum must
be equal to one half of the membrane displacements just given, and
in those formulas we may, within the limits of correctness of the sim-
plified theory, neglect all but the first term. Thus we arrive at the fol-
lowing equations:

(2 + y2)aN·~- C2 YfM•l = ~~:V2V2- y2.

aN• 1 - C 2 .1.l1•~ = - ~~: V2- Vf ·
When the edge cf> = + 90° of both half shells is loaded with the
redundant forces and moments following from these equations and
when the corresponding stress resultants at the opposite edge (cf> = 270°
or cf> = - 90°) are transferred from the upper to the lower half and vice
versa and so on as often as need be, then a stress system will be obtained
which closes the gap at cf> = 90° without changing the situation at
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES </> = CONST. 263
<J> = -90°. We have then simply to apply an identical load at the edges
<J> =-90° which will close the gap there. The sum of the two stress
systems thus found must be added as a correction to the stresses which
we determined previously and which are represented in Fig. 5.16.

80
M•
/.....,
I I
I , I
60 I /
I / I
40 I / I
I ,' I
I / I
~20 /, ,' I
,/ I
~
0
o· 30" 90"
·-20

-40
{a)

-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 4 16
X 10 3 lb/ft
(b)
Fig. 5.17. Stress resultants in a half-filled pipe, (a) hoop moment at midspan, plotted over one
quarter of the circumference, (b) .V• plotted over the vertical diameter

In Fig. 5.17 the first harmonic of M.; and of N, is compared for the
two computations. The solid lines give the results of the simplest ap-
proach; the broken lines take care of the corrections just explained.
264 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

For the bending moment, the difference is considerable, although the

order of magnitude and the general distribution are well represented
by the simplest computation. The longitudinal force N x is not much
changed by the correction, except that the break in the middle of the
curve has been rounded.
We shall now compare these results with those of the next better
theory, which uses (5.50) as it stands for the determination of x 1 , x 2 ,
p 1 , p 2 • The procedure is essentially the same as before, except that the
ready-to-use formula (5.67) is not available and one must at once set
up a system of four linear equations for the constants A 1 , B 1 , A 2 , B 2 ,
expressing the conditions that at cp = 90° we have Q</> = 0 and v, w·, Nx</>
equal to certain values following from the discrepancies of the membrane
solution. This has been done for the first harmonic, n = 1, and the
results have been entered as dotted lines in Fig. 5.17. The force Nr, is
again almost the same, and the bending moment is very different, but
this time the correction goes toward the other side, yielding lower peak
values. This outcome suggests the following general policy for treating
similar problems: One may use the simplified barrel vault theory to
remove the worst discrepancies of the membrane theory (i.e. unbalanced
forces). If the stresses found in this way are of such importance that it
is necessary to have correct values, then the complete theory described
in Section 5.4.2 must be applied, and it is then not worthwhile to do
anything less than satisfy all reasonable conditions at once.

5.4.4.2 Barrel Vault Roof

Fig. 5.18 shows a barrel vault roof such as is frequently used to
cover a large rectangular area without intermediate supports. The roof
is a continuous structure consisting of a number of cylindrical shells

-Fig. 5.18. Barrel vault roof

and edge beams. There is always one beam more than there are shells.
For greater clarity, only these shells and beams are shown in the figure.
There are, of course, diaphragms at the ends of the shells and columns
at the ends of the beams.
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES cfJ = CONST. 265
The stress analysis of this structure is rather tedious and it is avoided
by considering two limiting cases: (a) a single barrel vault with two edge
beams, (b) a structure consisting of an infinite number of shells and
edge beams. Case (a) comes close to the situation in the outer half of
the outer shells, while case (b) approaches the stresses in the inner part
of the shell roof. Since usually the stresses in the two cases are not all
too different, they yield a sufficient basis from which to judge the
adequacy of the construction and the dimensions of the necessary rein-
forcement rods.
We use case (a) here as an example and consider the shell structure
whose cross section is shown in Figs. 5.19a and 5.20. The span in the x
direction is 75ft. The load on the shell is assumed to be p = 55 lbjft 2 •
The analysis starts from the membrane forces and displacements.
There are two kinds of formulas available; the explicit formulas (3.16)
and (3.24}, and the FoURIER series representations (3.15) and (3.28).
We choose the latter, because they fit the formulas of the bending
theory which we intend to use. We have then only to deal with the
amplitudes N.;n etc. which still depend on</> but not on x. Each number
which we write then stands for a sine or cosine distribution in the span-
wise direction. The computations must be made for each n separately;
it will be enough to explain them for n = 1.
According to (3.15) the first harmonic of the hoop force is
N.; 1 = -2310 [lbjft] cos<J>. At the edges <J> = ± </>0 = ± 35.15° it assumes
the value of - 1889lbfft. The vertical component of this edge force
may be transmitted to the edge beam and is an addition to the first
harmonic of its weight of 155 lb/ft. The horizontal component of
1542 lb/ft, however, must be applied as an external thrust to the shell
(Fig. 5.19b),if a membrane stress system is to be at all possible. Since
this thrust does not act on the real shell, we must at once superpose an
outward pull of the same magnitude (Fig. 5.19c). This is the first of
several edge loads which produce bending stresses in the shell. Other
such edge loads are acting between the shell and the beam. They are
a vertical force (having sine distribution) and a shear (with cosine
distribution like the first harmonic of the membrane shear Nx.;t from
(3.15}, but additional to it). For the shell, all these forces may be ex-
pressed as boundary values of the hoop force, the transverse force, and
the shearing force. We shall denote them by N.; 1 ·, Q.; 1 , N.,.; 1 . They must
be so chosen that for the complete stress system there is no discrepancy
between the vertical deflections of shell and beam nor between the
strains E,. of both along the edge where they are connected and no need
for the external thrust shown in Fig. 5.19b.
Additionally, there may be a clamping moment M.; 1 at the edge of
the shell, whose counterpart produces torsion in the beam. It is often
266 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

.assumed to be zero on the ground that the torsional rigidity of the edge
beam is rather small. This reason is not always convincing, and the
.assumption should be used with caution. If one decides to take the

RDl
\ a=33'! I 1

\\\ u-.~.0=35.15°
(a) \~
I p=SS lb/ft2

~ • .
1
t 1,542 lb/ft Fig. 5.!0. Cross section of an iso-
lated barrel vault, (a) dimensions,
(b) load and corresponding edge
I (b). I forces in a membrane-stress sys-
tem, (c) additional edge forces
~421b/ft needed for continuity of defor-
mation
• I +1 • N+l
I (cl. I

moment Jl'l<P 1 as another redundant quantity in the computation, it

becomes a logical necessity to consider also the lateral deflection of the
-edge beam. This makes the stress analysis a good deal lengthier, and
.only for this reason shall we here drop the clamping moment from our
-considerations.
We begin the computation of the redundant quantities by applying
to the edge </> = 35.15° of the shell, one after the other, the unit loads
N<P 1 = 1lbjft, Qcp 1 = 1lbjft, Nx<Pl = 1lbjft. In each case Mcp 1 = 0. The
corresponding stress resultants and displacements may be computed
with any of the three theories explained on the preceding twenty pages.
We choose the simplest one, the Simplified Barrel Vault Theory. Since
the shell is symmetric with respect to the vertical plane </> = 0, all
unit loads are also applied symmetrically at the edge </> = -35.15°,
and we have to use Table 5.5 with (5.57). This requires the computation
.of A= nafl = 1.382 and of C= 5.71. Equations (5.58),yield then

x 2 = p 1 = 2.185,

and we are now ready to find all the trigonometric and hyperbolic
functions occurring in (5.57).
With the help of Table 5.5 we may now write for each unit load case
.a set of four equations, similar to the set (5.60), but slightly more corn-
 5.4 LOADS AT THE EDGES </J = CONST. 267

plicated, and from it we find the values of t.he constants A 1 , B 1 , A 2 , B 2

which belong to this case. Entering Table 5.5 with these values, we find
-the deflections v1 , w 1 ·of the edge and the force N x 1 • From the latter
we calculate CT.r 1 = N, 1 /t or, if we prefer, Ex~= a, 1 fE. When we assume
v = 0, continuity of E.c is identical with continuity of ax, and we may
save the division by E.
In this way the following numerical results have been obtained:
for N4> 1 = 1lb/ft:
Etv1 = 1.036 x 104 lb, Etw1 = -3.433 x 105 lb, CTx 1 = 252.5lb/ft2 ;

for Q4> 1 = 1lb/ft:

Etv 1 = 6.02 x 104 lb, Etw1 = -2.295 x 106 lb, a.r 1 = 1155lb/ft2 ;

for N,,4> 1 = 1lb/ft:

Etv1 = - 1.191 x 1()3lb, Etw1 = 3.295 x 104 lb, a.£1 = - 47.4lb/ft2 •

Of the deflections only the combination v1 sincf> 0 - w 1 coscf> 0 , i.e. the

vertical deflection, is of interest.
We must now apply the same unit loads in the opposite direction
to the upper edge of the beams, keeping in mind that the figures always
represent the amplitudes of loads whose spanwise distribution follows
a sine or cosine law. There is no need for reproducing here the details
of the elementary calculations which yield the first harmonic of the
vertical deflection ~ 1 of the beam and of the stress a1 in its top fiber.
We may now write the final set of three equations which state the
foil owing facts:
1) There is no horizontal thrust applied from outside to the springing
line of the vault, i.e. the sum of N4> 1 coscp 0 - Q4> 1 sincf> 0 and of the
membrane contribution of 1542 lb/ft must vanish.
2) The vertical deflection v1 sincf> 0 - w 1 coscf> 0 of the edge of the shell
equals the deflection !5 1 of the beam. For the shell it consists of the
membrane deflection from (3.28), i.e.
Et(v1 sincf> 0 - w1 coscf> 0 ) = 1.457 x 105 lb,

.and of the contributions of the redundant forces:

Et(v 1 sincf> 0 - w 1 coscp 0 ) = 2.867 x 105 [ft] N4> 1
+ 1.912 X 106 [ft] Q4>1- 2.762 X 104 [ft] N.c4>1•

For the beam the deflection is similarly composed of four terms.

3) The stress ax 1 (i.e. EEx 1 ) along the edge of the shell must equal
the stress a:r in the top fiber of the beam. This equation has the same
kinds of terms as the preceding one.
268 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLIXDRICAL SHELLS

Two of these equations are exactly the type which is used in the
theory of statically indeterminate systems. The first one seems to be
different. It is, however, the degenerated form of the equation ex-
pressing continuity of the horizontal deflection, degenerated by the-
assumption that the bending rigidity of the beam is zero.
When these equations are formulated and solved, the following
results are found:

N .p1 = 1736lbjft, Q.pl = - 214.5lbjft, Nx.pl = 3013lbjft.

The final values of the constants of integration may now be calculated
by superposition, and then Table 5.5 may be used a last time to write
numerical expressions for all the quantities that may be of interest.
Some of them have been plotted in Fig. 5.20.
From this figure the following conclusions of general validity may
be drawn: The a,/' diagram shows that the shell and the edge beams

Fig. 5.20. Stress resultants in the barrel vault of Fig. 5.19

cooperate in such a way that the shell is essentially the compression

zone and the edge beams are the tension zone of a huge composite
beam. The dimensions of the shell and the edge beams determine whether
the zero of stress "lies in the one or in the other. The bending moments
are not restricted to a small zone near the edge but are spread over the
entire area. Since we assumed with more or less justification that
..1Vl.p 1 = 0 at the edge, the moment diagram is shaped accordingly. A
more realistic assumption would lead to a finite clamping morn~mt.
 ;}.5 TA.1.~KS AND RELATED PROBLE:VIS 269

The hoop force N ~ 1 drops to almost zero at the edge. The small value
there is needed to compensate the horizontal component of QH. The
longitudinal force Nx 1 is on the whole considerably larger than it.s mem-
brane value.
The computation just described is simplified if the constants A 1 , B 1 ,
.4 2 , B 2 are used as redundant quantities. In this case the condition
.J.l'J~ 1 = 0 must be added as a fourth equation to the final set of three,
but the investigation of the unit loads becomes superfluous. It depends
much on personal preferences whether one chooses this way or the
other. The use of the constants A, B as key unknowns is rather ab-
stract and more subject to the danger of undiscovered errors. On the
other hand, the gain in numerical simplicity is not as large as might
appear at the first glance, mainly because all the unit load cases use
the same equations, only with different right-hand sides, so that the
elimination may be done in common.
Since the Simplified Barrel Vault Theory is based upon rather far-
reaching approximations, its results are not very reliable. If more exact
figures are needed, the theory of Section 5.4.2 must be used. The com-
putation runs along the same lines but is lengthier because i~ .is based
on Table 5.3 and requires the use of the recurrence formulas (5.56).
The first harmonic, n = 1, of course, does not represent the complete
solution of the problem. Since the membrane forces, (3.15), contain
only odd harmonics, n = 1, 3, 5, ... , there will be no bending stresses
of even order. It may be left to the reader to work out the figures for
n = 3 and n = 5 and to see how much they add to the stresses in the
shell. He will find that the general conclusions drawn from Fig. 5.20
remain unaltered.

5.5 Cylindrical Tanks and Related Problems

5.5.1 Differential E(tnation
A cylindrical water tank with a vertical axis and filled to its rim
(Fig. 5.21) is subjected to a load
p,. = y(h- x). (5.69)
Its membrane forces are only hoop forces
N~ = ya(h- x}, (5.70)
increasing linearly with the depth below the water level. They lead to
a hoop strain f.~ and hence to a radial displacement, independent of
the coordinate <f>,
I' a2
w = D(t- v2) (h- x)' (5.71)
270 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

which may be derived from the formulas (3.20) or found immediately

from elementary considerations.
If the wall thickness t is a constant, w increases linearly with the
depth below the water level. But at the lower edge the tank wall is
connected to a flat or curved bottom, and there the displacement w
cannot develop freely. The restraint requires a transverse force Q.x and
a bending moment M_, transmitted from the bottom to the cylindrical
shell and leads to the particular problem we have to consider here.

Fig. 5.21. Cylindrical wa!Pr tank Fi~. 5.22. Shell element

For a shell of constant thickness t the solution is a special case of

the one described in Section 5.3. Because of the axial symmetry of the
stress system, it is considerably simpler than the general solution, and
therefore we shall not derive it from that by specialization but shall
give the reader an independent approach. In doing so, we take advantage
of the opportunity to extend the theory to those shells where t is a
function of x, a case often met in tank design.
Fig.5.22 shows the shell element. Of all the forces shown inFig.5.1 a, b,
only N.;, Q.r, Mx, and M.; appear. Most of the rest are zero because of
symmetry, and Nx has been omitted since the vertical stresses due to
the weight of the shell may be found easily without using shell theory.
There are only two conditions of equilibrium which are not trivial:
those for the forces in a radial direction and those for the moments
with respect to a horizontal tangent to the cylinder. They are

Q~+ N.;= Pra,

(5.72a, b)
M~- aQ:c = 0.
The elastic law may be found from (5.9) by dropping v and all deriv-
atives with respect to cf>. We may also safely neglect the small terms
with the factor Kin the normal force and the term u' in M x. The resulting
 5.5 TANKS A.~D RELATED PROBLEMS 271

relations are so simple that they are immediately evident:

Nq,=!!.·(w i-vu'),
a

Nx=!!_(u'+vw),
a

1YIx = !i_
a2
w" (5.73a}

Since, in our particular problem, Nx = 0, we may use the second equa-

tion to eliminate u from the first one. We get:

N <I> = D (1 - v2) w . (5.73b)

a

We now have 4 equations, (5.72) and (5.73), for the 4 unknows Nq,,
Qn lYix, w. The elimination follows the same lines as in the general
case. \Ve first eliminate Qx from the two conditions of equilibrium.
This yields :

Then we use the elastic law (5.73) to express the remaining stress result-
ants in terms of the displacement w, and here we shall not forget that t
and hence D and ]( may depend on x. Thus we arrive at the differential
equation
(Kw")"+ Da 2 (1 - v2 ) w = Pr a 4 • (5.74)

It is of the fourth order, allowing for two boundary conditions at each

edge of the shell. This is half of the number we had for the higher har-
monics. The reduction is due to the fact that two conditions, referring
to u or NT, have become trivial, and that two more, concerning v or N_,.q,,
do not fit into the particular kind of axial symmetry to which we have
confined our theory.

5.5.2 Solution for Constant Thickness

5.5.2.1 Homogeneous Problem
When the wall thickness t does not vary with x, (5.74) reads simply
(5.75)

We shall first consider the homogeneous equation, putting p, ~ 0. It

has constant coefficients, and its solution must, therefore, consist of
four terms of the type
w = CeAxf".
272 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Introducing this into (5.75) and putting

x4 = D ( 1--= v2) a2 = 3 (1 (5. 76)
4K
we find for A the equation
A4 + 4x4 = 0.
It has four solutions, A= ± (1 ± i)x, each yielding one independent
solution w. These are two pairs of conjugate complex functions. Sum
and difference of the functions of each pair are purely real or purely
imaginary and constitute another set of four independent homogeneous
solutions. Using them as elements, we may write the general solution
in the form:

W = e-><J/a r·cl COS X

a
XT ('2 Sin X XJ + e+><X/a fc3 COS X X f-
a • a
04 Sin X Xl· (5. 77a)
a
For boundary conditions we need the slope w'fa. We have

w' = - xe-x.c/a [(01 - C2 ) cos~x + (C\ + C2 ) sin xx]

a n
+ xe+><x!a [(C 3 + C4 ) cos xx-
a
(C 3 - C4) sin xx). (5.77 b)
n
Introducing w into (5.73a), we find the bending moment and then
from (5.72b) the transverse shear:
1{
~'L.r= ~
2Kx2 [-
e" xfa (c .
., 1 ~;mn-
XX XX)
C' 2 cosa;-

- e+><rIa -'3. -
(G Sll1- XX
a,
0
'-'4 cos XX)]
-
a '
(5.77 c, d)
(~xl =---;;,a-
2 K x3 [e- " x/a ((c 1 + c2) cos a-
XX (G., 1 - . :;(X)
(~_., 2 ) stn--;;-

C4 ) cos a+ (C3 + 04) sin a j·

( (C 3 xx xx)1
- e+><x/a -

In these formulas the terms with C1 and C2 are oscillating functions

of x which decrease exponentially when x increases. The other two
terms show the opposite tendency; they are also damped oscillations,
but they decrease with decreasing x. In many applications the cylinder
is long enough to make e-><l/a a rather small quantity, negligible com-
pared with unity. Then the values of w and of the stress resultants at
one end, say x = 0, depend almost exclusively on· the constants C 1
and C2 ; their values at the other end, x = l, depend on C3 and C4 • In
such cases it is useful to write the solution in the following form:

w= e-><r/a ( A 1 cos a+ . XX)

XX A 2 sm--;;-

+ e-><(l-x)/a ( B 1 cos x (l a- x)
+ B 2 sin %· (l a- x)'
) (5.78)
 5.5 TA..."KS AND RELATED PROBLE~IS 273

and to determine, independent of each other, A 1 , A 2 from two boundary

conditions at x = 0 and B 1 and B 2 from two conditions at the end x = l
of the cylinder.

5.5.2.2 Water Tanks

We may now resume the tank problem explained on p. 270. If a
cylindrical water tank is filled to the rim (Fig. 5.21 ), the membrane
deflection w as given by (5.71) happens to be an exact solution of the
differential equation (5.75) of the bending theory. Furthermore, it fulfills
at the upper edge x = h the conditions w = 0, w" = 0, w'" = 0 and hence
all boundary conditions if the edge is either free or simply supported.
On the lower edge, however, the membrane deflection is considerable
and incompatible with the presence of a tank bottom. Therefore, it is
necessary to apply there external forces H = Qx and moments M = .LVI.r•
which will produce bending stresses, but we may drop the B terms from
the solution (5.78) unless the tank is rather shallow.

6,750 lb/ft -1,340 ft-lb/ft

(membrane
force)

Fig. :;.~3. Stress re•nlt>lnts in a eylindri<'al tank wall with clarr.ped base. The straight line in
the S • dla!p'am repret!<'nts the memhraue force, anti the shntletl diagram the total hoop fnrce

Under these circumstances, the complete expression for the deflec-

tion is

w = D(t?' a_ v2) (h- x) + e-><xfa ( A 1 cos a+

2 X X X X)
A 2 sin7 ,

and its first derivative is

w' = - D( i~ v2) - ~ e-"x/a [(AI - Az) cos "ax + (Al + Az) sin xax] .
In the simplest case the bottom plate is so thick that it may be
assumed to be rigid. The boundary conditions at x = 0 are then w = 0,
w' = 0. They yield two equations for A 1 , A 2 • Solving them and intro-
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 18
274 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

ducing the result into w, we find

W = ya2
Et
[h- X- he-x.r:{a COS~+
a
(!!_-h)
:v.
e-xxfa sin ~1.
a
Equations (5.73b, a) and (5.72b) yield now the stress resultants as
follows:

N.;= y(£ [h- X- he-":J:/a cos a -i- (a--;- h) e-><x/a sin-;;:

:v.x :v.x] '

1J.f.,=- Y at [(. - :V. X . :V. X]

a - h ) e-xxacos-+he-><xfasm--,
I
lf12(1- v2 ) x a a

Qx = jl
]112(1- v~)
t :V. [(!!_ -- 2h) e-xx{a
"
COS :V.
a
X + !!_ e-xx{a sin :V. X] .
" a

The results are presented in Fig. 5.23. The ordinates of the N.; diagram
may a!so be interpreted as representing the deflection w. One may
recognize in these diagrams the clamping of the lower edge, the ensuing
moments, and the dying out of the disturbance well below the upper
edge.
When the shell is connected to other structural elements which are
not rigid enough to be considered as undeformable, we use the concepts
of the theory of statically indeterminate structures. As an example of
this let us consider the connection of shell and ceiling in th~ tank shown
in Fig. 5.24.
When we use the com·dinate x as indicated in this figure, (5. i l)
reads:
w = D ( 1 - v2) x .
Additionally we have the deflections produced by the transverse forces Q,
and by the clamping moments lllx transmitted from the ceiling slab.

1 Ps

1 • ·-~n
~~$~~~-J
(a} {b)
Fig. 5.24. C"rlindrkal tank with elastic roof and bottom, (a) meridional section, (b) roof slab
and shell cut apart to show the redundant moment X 1
 5.5 TAi~KS A..l'iD RELATED PROBLE:\IS 275
In this slab, the forces Q. . of the shell produce a plane stress system,
which does not lead to an appreciable deformation. We therefore have
at x = 0 the boundary conditions w = 0 and M,.= X 1 . Using (5.77a, c)
and dropping the constants 0 3 and 0 4 , we find 0 1 and 0 2 • The rotation
of a line element dx of the shell, situated at the edge x = 0, is then
w'
a
the first term being due to the water pressure on the tank wall, the
second to the redundant moment.
On the other hand, the slab of thickness t,, carrying a load p, and
subjected to the action of the redundant moment X 1 coming from the
shell (positive as indicated in Fig. 5.24), has at its edge the slope1
'P,a 3 a
w = 8K,(1 + l') + K,(1 + v) X1.
Here,
K Et~
"= 12 (1 - v2 )

is the bending rigidity of the slab, and the two terms show the influence
of the load p, and of the redundant xl.
Using the notations of the theory of statically indeterminate struc-
tures, we denote the relative rotation between shell and slab, w - U' 1 fa,
by ,10 if produced by the external loads (y and p.)' and by all if pro-
duced by X 1 = 1. From the preceding formulas we read:
y r~2 p, a a
c5 10 = - D(1- v2) + 8K,(1 + v)'
a a
c5n = 2KY- + K,(1 + v) •
The condition of continuity of deformation is then
anxl + alo = o.
From it we find X 1 and then w, N+, 1JIL,., Qx.
When we separate the two external loads, the solution may easily
be written in general terms. If there is only the water pressure and no
load p, on the slab, we have
i'a3 x K,(1 + v) 1 -•u/a .
a- 2Kx + K,(l + l') xe.
[ Y.X]
w = D(l- v2) sma '
2yaKK,Y- -><x/a Y.X
cos a·
H'
.1•.1.x = D(1- v)[2Kx + K,(1 + v)] e
-----
1 The formulas for circular plates needed here may be found in Handbook of
Engineering ~Iechanics, W. FLUGGE ed., New York 1962, eqs. (39.99) and (39.96).
See also TmosHENKO, S., WorNOWSKY-KRIEGER, S.: Theory of Plates and Shells,
2nd ed., New York 1959, pp. 51-69, MARGUERRE. K., WoERNLE, H. T.: Elastie
Plates, Waltham, Mass., 1969, pp. 125-126.
18*
276 CH..-\P. 5: CIRCULAR CYLL.~DRICAL SHELLS

If there is a uniform load p, on the ceiling, but no water pressure in the

tank, the deflection and the bending moment in the shell are

w p, n 4 . xx
c- ".l/a sin~
+ K,(1 + v)]
=-:c---c-::-=~
8x[2Kx n '

JJ __ p,a 2 Kx _,.z/a XX
~ x- 4 -·)K x+ K , (l +v ) e cos~
a
The results for both cases are illustrated by the diagrams, Fig. 5.25.

-1000
M, M, ~
0 0

in-lb/in 100
0 50 100
50
w t
+1000
+2000
0
in-lb/in
-500 -1000

j"
M"

Fig. 5.~5. Bending moments in the roof slab and the eylindrical wall of the tank in Fig. 5.24.
J.dt side: water pressure, right side: weight of the slab

" I
- ~ _.:-1 :. - _--::

I
.\]7.
Fig. 5.26. Cylindrical tank with
concentric partition wall
I

In a quite similar way many other problems may be treated, e.g.

the tank with a non-rigid bottom plate resting on the ground and the
tank with a concentric partition wall (Fig. 5.26). This latter structure,
which is often used in water towers, has two redundant quantities, the
damping moments of the two concentric shells. In many cases a conical
 5.5 TA.l'l"KS A..'l"D RELATED PROBLE.:VIS 277

or spherical tank bottom is preferred to a flat plate. In this case also a

bending problem arises. It will be explained in connection with the
bending theory of such shells in the next chapter (pp. 346-380).

5.5.2.3 Other Cylinder Problems

Let us consider a semi-infinite shell, beginning at x = 0 and extending
toward positive x. Writing (5.77) for x = 0 and setting on the left-hand
sides w = w 0 , w' = w~, JIT = 1l'I" 0 , Qx = Qx 0 , we may solve for the con-
stants C and find

(5.79)

We may now write (5.77) in matrix form. We define a row matrix

and its transpose, the column matrix k. Equations (5.77) are then ex-
pressed by the matrix equation
l~(x) = T(x) k(O) (5.80)
where

T (x) = e-'"* (C1 cos-;-+

~X ~X)
C 2 sin-;-

+ e+><x/a ( c3 cos a+
~X c4 sin-;-
~X) (5.81)
and
:;: V:2
±;'V2"] ,
0

''
cl3- -~[~~
4 0 ~r9
T
2
I~
::;:1/2
2 .=t=

±V2 0 =t= V2 2
(5.82)
112 =t=2

c,.
'
~~[-~2
4 ±2
-112
0 112
0
V]
=t=2
112"
-112 ±2 -112 0
The matrix T is called the transfer matrix. It may be used in the numer-
ical solution of many problems. Fig. 5.27 shows an example. Both ends
278 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

of the cylinder are free (1ll:r = Qx = 0) and part of the surface carries
a uniform radial load of the intensity p. If we cut the shell along the
circles X= ll and X= ll + [2, the loaded part Will have a uniform, negative

I ~
I a
I I
-----r--·------t·------
__i
1
I
I
Fig. 5.27. Partially
loaded cylinder

radial displacement wP = - pa2jEt, while the other parts are undeformed.

To restore continuity, shear forces Qx and bending moments .1.11"' must
be applied along the cuts.
At the left end of the shell we have

I~ T (0) = [ w' (0) 0, 0 ]

w (0) , ----;{.'f,
xv2
with unknown w(O) and w'(O). At x = l1 there is k(l1 ) = T(l1 ) k(O).
\Vhen we want to write a similar equation for the second section of the
shell, we realize that (5.80) applies only to the part of w (x) which is
not caused by the local load, i.e. to w (x) - wP. We define a matrix

I~PT = [pEta , 0,
2
0, 0 ]

and have then

I~(l 1 + 12 ) + I~P = T(l2) fi~(l 1 ) + l~p].
For the third segment we simply have

and hence

where, as usual, I is a unit matrix. \Ve know that the edge x = lis free,
whence

kT(l)=[w(l), w'(l),0,0]
xlf2
with unknown, but uninteresting w(l) and w'(Z). The fact that the other
two elements of k (l) must vanish, however, yields two linear ~quations
 5.5 TANKS AND RELATED PROBLE}IS 279
for w(O) and w'(O). Once these have been solved, k(x) may be calculated
for any point of the shell.
This procedure works well if none of the dimensions l1 , l2 , l3 is too
large compared with the radius a. Otherwise, the exponentials in (5.81)
ea use an un balance in the order of magnitude of the elements of the
transfer matrix, which may be rather annoying. Instead of fighting
this inconvenience, it is wiser to turn it into an advantage, as we shall
see on p. 286.
When writing the solution of the cylinder problem in the form (5.78),
we interpreted the stresses in the shell as the consequence of edge dis-
turbances acting at the ends. If the cylinder is long enough, the conditions
at the far end x = l have no perceptible influence upon the vicinity of
the end x = 0, and for the stresses in the vicinity of x = 0 it does not
matter how far away x = l is and what load is applied there. It then
makes sense to let l - oo and to speak of a semi-infinite cylinder.

:~------±x (a)
H

Fig. 5.28. Et.lgo loatl on a semi-

inllnlte cylint.ler --·------------r-x
H
(b)

Such a cylinder is shown in Fig. 5.28. It is loaded at its edge by

moments ~l'/ = J.ll.ro and shear forces H = Qx 0 , and we may use (5.78)
with B 1 = B 2 = 0 or (5.77) and its matrix equivalent (5.80) with 0 3 = 0 4
= 0. We use this latter condition and two of equations (5.79) to express w 0
and w~ in terms of the edge loads:

and find then from the other two that

whence

'W = -a- .
2Ku·
2
e- "~~J a [( Ju
u· + -a;eH) cos -·
;ex - J~
a
• u X] .
~vf' Sln-
a
(5.83)
280 CHAP. 5: CIRCGLAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

There is another way to derive this result. We again drop the second
half of (5.77a) and combine the cosine and the sine into a sine with a
phase angle tp:
w =A e-><x/u sin ("ax + tp). (5.8-! a)
The derivative is

w' = - ~ V2 A e-><crfa sin ("ax + tp - ~), (5.84 b)

and the stress resultants are

2 K " 2 e-><z/a COS ( -

M =---.-A "+x m)
x a.. a ' '
(5.84c, d)

These formulas contain two free constants, A and tp, needed to satisfy
two boundary conditions at x = 0. Since one of the constants appears
in the argument of a transcendental function, this form of the solution
is not suitable when a pair of linear equations for the constants is desired.
But (5.84) are particularly useful formulas for solving simple problems,
in which "P can be determined at a glance from a homogeneous boundary
condition. How this may be done, we shall see in some examples.
vVe consider the semi-infinite cylinder shown in Fig. 5.28a. At X= 0
we have the two boundary conditions 1}fx =M and Qr = 0. Since A
cannot be zero, (5.84d) shows that we must choose tp = -n/4. The
constant A then follows from (5.84c):

- A cos ( - -:n:) = lti

2K"2
- -
a2 4 '
and when we introduce the result into (5.84), we find

J.ll. r = Jli 112 ("X :n:)

r- e-><.r/a cos - - -
a 4 '

Q -_ 2 J'}f" _ ><X/a . "X

-- - e sm-- 1
I
x a a ' (5.85)

When these results are used for the solution of statically indeterminate
structures, the deflection w and the slope w'fa at the end x = 0 are
needed. They are
(5.85')
 5.5 TA:.~KS AND RELATED PROBLEMS 281
When the end of the cylinder is acted upon by radial forces H
(Fig. 5.28b), we have the boundary conditions fflx = 0, Q"' = H, and
we see at once from (5.84c) that in this case tp = ±n/2. We arbitrarily
choose the plus sign and find then from (5.84d) and the second boundary
condition that
Ha 3
A =2K~.
The stress resultants are then

(5.86)

'ii:X
N .,.. = 2H ~<e-xx/a COS-
a'
and at the edge x = 0 we have
Ha 3 w' Ha 2
W = 2Kx3 ' a - 2Kx2 " (5.86')

When we put H = - Jll ~<fa and add the formulas for the two cases,.
we obtain the stress resultants for a shell loaded by moments as in
Fig. 5.28a, but with a rigid bulkhead at the end, so that there w = 0.
The slope at the end is then
w' ltl a
a:=-2Kx' (5.87')

and the stress resultants are

I
I
Mx =M e-xxta cos--,
a
KX

J'2MK XX :n;
(5.87)
Qx = - -e-xxtasin
a (a- + -)
4 '

-
N 4>- 21tfx2 -xx/a . XX
-- -e sm-.
a a

If we replace H by - H/2 in (5.86) and add a multiple of (5.85) such

that w' = 0 at the end, then we have the stress resultants for the right
half of the cylinder shown in Fig. 5.29. They are

1
I
~![' Ha I • (X X :n; )
~"x=-2xJ'2e-xxasm\-;--4'

H KX
(5.88)
Qx = - -e-xx/a
2 cos-
a '

N 4> = -
HK • KX
112 e- xxta sm (---;- + '4) .
:n;
282 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

The deflection is

w = - H n3 eT" x/a Sill

• ( n+ -xx)
- for x ~ 0. (5.89)
V2
T

4K" 3 4 - a
Under the load it is
Ha 3
w=-8Kx3 •

\Vhen we move the load from the circle x = 0 to x = ~' we simply

have to replace x in (5.89) by x- ~:

w = - H n3 e'~'><(x-<>la sin ( n ..L "(x- ~)) for x ~ ~. (5.90)

4 K " 3 1'2 4 - n

H~
I
I
I

t t------ --t ----- __,

I

1-'ig. 5.29. Infinite cylinuer carrying a uniform line loau H

Kow let H = p d~, interpreting the line load H as a surface load of

intensity p acting upon a small band of width d~. Such infinitesimal
loads may be combined to form a continuous load p on a band of finite
width 2b as shown in Fig. 5.30. For any fixed value x > b, we have to
use the upper signs in (5.90) and find by linear superposition

w = - p a3
4Kx 3 lf2
f +b
. (
e-><(x-~)/a sin -n + "(x- ~))
4 a
d~

-b
P n- e-><x/a
2 (
cos x(x-b) - cos "(x+b)) ,
= -
2Et
e"b/a e-><b/a x >b. (5.91 a)
a a

1
!
:

'
'
J__ ______ I
]
1

I
~x
II
I = ! +a
j___t--+-----1
+- ' 1
-~
1

I : I : I I
I ' ' I Fig. 5.30. Partially loaded
11111111 !ID I
infinite cylinder
~b+b~
 5.5 TANKS AND RELATED PROBLEMS 283
For points inside the loaded region, part of the load lies to the left
and part to the right and we have to use both sign combinations in
(5.90), each in its proper place:

(5.91 b)

The reader may check that at x = b the solutions (5.91 a, b) agree up

to the third derivative; also that they satisfy the differential equa-
tion (5.75) with p, = 0 and p, = p, respectively. He will realize that the
first term in the brackets of (5.91 b) is a particular solution of (5.75)
with p, = p = const., while the remainder is an alternative to the solu-
tion (5.77a) of the homogeneous equation. It is an even function of .c,
reflecting the fact that x = 0 is a plane of symmetry of our problem.
It is a special case of a general solution, which we obtain from (5.77)
by recombining the real exponentials into hyperbolic functions:

"X
w = A 1 Cosh- cos-
a
XX
a
-r A 2 Smh-
, "X • "X
a
sm-
a

+ B 1 Cosh-sm--+-
"X • XX
a a
, "X XX
B 2 Smh-cos-.
a a
(5.92)

The meaning of the constants A and B here and in (5.78) is, of course,
not the same. A characteristic of the present solution is that the A terms
describe a deflection which is symmetric with respect to the plane x = 0,
while the B terms describe an antimetric distribution of w.
As an example for the use of (5.92) we consider the infinite cylinder
shown in Fig. 5.31. It has stiffening rings at regular intervals and is
typical for such objects as penstock lines, submarines, and airplane
fuselages. vVe assume a uniform internal pressure p and write the solution
for one of the bays of length l, bounded by two rings. It consists of a
particular solution for the pressure and the symmetric part of (5.92):

2 - V p a2 >< X • X X
w = -~- -E
:: t
+ A 1 Cosh-
" X
a
" X
a
•
cos-+ A 2 Smh- sm-.
a a
(5.93)

For the free constants we have two boundary conditions at x = l/2.

The first one follows from the fact that also this plane is a plane of
284 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

symmetry of the deformation, whence w' = 0. The second one states.

that the radial displacement w of the shell is the same as that of the
ring. The latter is loaded by shear forces Qx coming from both adjacent
bays, producing in it a tensile force F = 2Q~.a and, hence, a displacement
2Q.,a 2JEA, where A is the cross section of the ring. Hence,
l
for x = 2 : w' = 0, (5.94)

Since we discarded the B terms in (5.92), two identical boundary con--

ditions are automatically satisfied at x = -l/2.
Introducing (5.93) into (5.94) and solving for A 1 and A 2 , we find
the deflection in terms of the data of the problem. To write it in a con-·
cise form, we define two dimensionless parameters:

8Kx3 2tVat
"1 = E-A-a = A-:-li-;:13~(::;:1=-=v:;:
2) '

·with these abbreviations we have

{ 1 - [<Cosh Csin C+ Sinh Ccos C) Cosh~ cos" x

w = 2 -:; v p"'at2
~ 1!1 a a

+ (Cosh Csin C- Sinh Ccos C) Sinh "x

a
sin" x]
a

X rcosh' (Sinh' + "1 Cosh Cl + cos' (sin c- "1 cos ~W 1 } •.

Now we may find the bending moment 1l(c from (5.73a), but we cannot
indiscriminately use (5.73b) for N.;, because that equation has been
derived under the assumption N, = 0. This is true for the homogeneous.

Fig. 5.31. Cylindrical shell with many equidistant rings

part of the solution, but not for the membrane forces, and the term 1
in the braces represents the combined influence of the membrane part.
of N.; and of the force N:r due to the pressure on the closing bulkheads.
at the ends of the shell. For this part of the solution the corresponding:
hoop force is simply pa. We have therefore
2-
N.;=pa {1 - - V
f ]-1 }
2-[] X ,
 5.5 TA.~.~KS AND RELATED PROBLE:IIIS 285

the brackets being the same as in the expression for w, and

.LVIx - v) P_!!_!__ [ (Cosh '

= E__V sin C+ Sinh Ccos C) Sinh " x sin " x
4 3 (1 - v2 ) a a

- (Cosh Csin C- Sinh Ccos C) Cosh " x cos "ax]

a

>< [Cosh C(Sinh C + 1J Cosh C) + cos C(sin C- 'I] cos C)J-1 •

The force F in the ring is best found from the deflection at x = lf2:

F = EA!!!_ = (2 - v) P a Vat Cosh2 I; - cos2 I;----,--,,----,---...,..,

n V 3 ( 1 _ v2 ) Cosh I; (Sinh I;+ 1J Cosh/;) + cos I; (sin I; - 1J cos I;)·

p= 420 lb/in~

I I
.j 24''~
(a)
20,000
.s
.......
:a
Nq, ~---,
a
10,000

0
I ./I X

-12 -6 0 6 12 in.
3,000
.:
.:.::: 2,000
:a
.s 1,000
0

0
-1,000
(b)
Fig. 5.32. Cylinder with many rings, (a} dimensions, (u) stress resultants in a 24-in. length between
two rings

·when the rings are far enough apart, these formulas must be used
to find F and N4>, Mx for different points along the shell. The maximum
of w and N 4> may be found at x = 0, as illustrated by Fig. 5.32, but it
may also happen that it is found elsewhere.
It is of interest to see what happens when the rings are rather closely
spaced. Let us first consider the limiting case l -+- 0. In order to arrive
286 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

at a reasonable result, we must assume that with increasing number

of rings, the individual ring becomes weaker so that the ratio A fl re-
mains a constant. Then C- 0, the product 'f}i: = const., and N~ and Ffl
a pproach finite limits :
. t + vA/21 . F 2- v A/l
hm N ~ = p a t + Afl ' hmy = pa~ t + A(l"
This corresponds to an anisotropic shell which we shall study in detail
in Section 5.6. If l is small, but finite, Ffl is smaller than the limiting
value, the shell taking a larger share of the total load. The ratio
F/l t + A(l 1 Cosh2 ~- cos2 ~
limF(l- -Ajl T
Cosh~(SinhC + 17CoshC) + cosC(sin~ -1jCosC)

may then give an idea about how far away we are from the ideal case,
if we treat the shell as a homogeneous, but anisotropic structure.

I
I .cx---l
~------2------~~~+--------2------~
I

Fig. 5.33. Finite cylinder carrying a uniform line lond

The problem shown in Fig. 5.33 may be approached in different

ways. One of them is to cut the shell in the plane x = 0 and to make
use of the symmetry with respect to this plane. For the part x > 0 of
the cylinder, one writes the solution (5.77) and finds the free constants
from the conditions that at the free edge x = l/2 there is w" = w'" = 0
and that at x = 0 the deflection line has a zero slope, w' = 0, and the
transverse shear is in equilibrium with one half of the applied load:
Qx = Hj2.
If the load H is not applied in the middle of the length l of the
cylinder, this approach is rather tedious and the following procedure
is preferable. It is more general and may also be used to advantage in
cases like Fig. 5.27.
We start from the solution for a cylinder of infinite length. In the
case of Fig. 5.27, this is (5.91a, b) and for Fig. 5.33 it is (5.89) after
changing the sign of H. We use any one of these as a particular solution
representing the presence of a certain load, and add to it the comple-
 5.5 TA..'iKS A..'iD RELATED PROBLEMS 287

mentary solution (5.92), using its free constants to satisfy at both ends
the boundary conditions .1Vlx = 0, Qx = 0 or, equivalently, w" = w"' = 0.
In the special case of Fig. 5.33, the symmetry of the system with
respect to the plane x = 0 requires B 1 = B 2 = 0 and the other two
constants are readily found to be
A = ± Ha 3 1 + e- 2 • - 2cosl(sin,\ =F cos,\)
1• 2 8 K x3 Sinh 2). + sin 2 ).

with the abbreviation A= "lf2a.

Introducing this in (5.92), adding (5.89), and then letting ;l: = 0, we
find the displacement w0 under the load (the largest one occurring):
H a3 H a 3 Cosh2 ). + cos2 ). (5.95)
Wo = 8Kx 3 + Ar = 8K"3 Sinh2). + sin2,\ ·
The largest hoop force is found on the same circle. It is
1V _Et _ }{ Cosh2 ). + cos 2 J.
</>O - a Wo - "Sinh 2). + sin 2 i. ·
With increasing x the hoop force 1V4> is distributed in the form of damped
waves which we may find from (5.77), and for negative values of .1:
the distribution is symmetric. Cutting the shell in half lengthwise we
may see easily that the integral of the hoop force over the total length
of the cylinder must equal ll a.
In cases like this one, where only the peak value of distributed forces
is of interest, the result may be represented in terms of an effective
width. This is the length b of a fictitious shell in which a uniform dis-
tribution of the force ll a would yield the correct peak value N 4> of the
hoop force. From this definition it follows that
b = Ha = .!!_ Sinh 2). + sin 2 i.
N <f>o x Cosh2 J. + cos 2 i. ·

In the limiting case of a very short cylinder, l _,. 0, both sines may be
replaced by their argument, and both cosines replaced by 1, and then
we have b _,. l. When l is finite, b is always smaller, and for l _,. oo the
effective width has a limiting value

bmax=---;:;::::::
2a --le
1 .DJ yal.

It appears that this is always much smaller than the radius of the
cylinder. If the cylinder is made for the sole purpose of carrying the
load ll, it is scarcely worthwhile to make it longer than 4af", the effective
width then being 92.5% of bmax.
We shall now apply our results to two problems. ThP, first one con-
cerns a plane plate of thickness t 1, which is subjected to a uniform biaxial
288 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

stress. In this plate a hole of radius a is drilled and its edge reinforced
by a cylinder as shown in Fig. 5.34. The reinforcement is perfect, if
there is no stress concentration in the plate. This happens, if a radial
load H applied to the cylinder according to Fig. 5.33 produces there
the same radial displacement w 0 as it would do when applied to the edge
of the missing piece of plate of radius a. Now, this latter displacement
is
Ha (1- v)
w = Et,. '
and equating this to w 0 as we just found it, we get a relation for the
thickness tP:
!?._ 1- v 1{T Sinh21 + sin21
t t3(1- v2) Va Cosh2 A. + cos2 1 .

' -;f'
l}P 111 1--l

~2a-J

Fig. 5.34. Hole in a flat plate rein-

forced by a short eylindrleul shell

It is evident that the plate must be much thinner than the cylinder.
Of course, this relation is valid only when the stress in the plate is the
same in all directions. In any other case we have to apply the theory
for the higher harmonics in the shell, as it has been developed in Sec-
tion 5.3 of this chapter.

Fig. 5.35. Cylindrical gas tank

with one stiffening ring

The second problem to which we shall apply our results is that of

a cylinder under constant internal pressure p and stiffened by a ring
in the plane x = 0 {Fig. 5.35). If there were no ring, the pressure would
simply produce a constant hoop force N + = pa, and from the pressure
acting on the bulkheads an axial force Nx = paj2 will result. For all
 5.5 TANKS AND RELATED PROBLEMS 289
points sufficiently far away from the bulkheads the hoop strain is then
according to (3.17):
pa 2- v
f.4> = 75 2 (1 - v2 )

and hence the radial displacement

pa2 2- v
W= Et -2-.

Now this displacement is not possible in the plane x = 0 beca.use of

the ring. Between the ring and the shell radial forces H will be trans-
mitted, just as shown in Fig. 5.33 but of opposite direction. We call them
P =-H. In the ring they produce a hoop force F = Pa and hence
a radial displacement w, = Pa 2 fEA, when A is the cross-sectional area
of the ring. The displacement of the shell, which is additional to the
value w due to p, is found from (5.95). If the cylinder is long enough,
we may replace the transcendental factor by The total displacement i·
of the cylinder opposite the ring is then

From the fact that the ring is connected to the cylinder, we conclude
that w, = w, and thus find P and the force F in the ring:

F _ p a2 .A (2 - v)
- 2at+Ax ·

The ring participates with this force in carrying the load p and thus
relieves the shell of some of its hoop stresses. We may say that the ring
carries the total load acting on a strip of the shell of width

b* = P = a A (2 - v)
p 2at+.Ax"

This width depends on the cross section of the ring and tends toward
a maximum (2 - v) af", when A - oo.

5.5.3 Shell of Variable Thickness

As shown in Fig. 5.23, the hoop force N"' in a cylindrical tank in-
creases from zero at the water level to rather considerable values at
greater depths. This suggests making the wall thickness increase from
top to bottom. In concrete tanks it is the rule to choose a linear variation,
say
t = OCX,

Flilgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nu Eel. 19

290 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

where x is measured downward from that level where t would be zero if

extrapolated beyond the upper edge of the tank (Fig. 5.36). The water
pressure is then p = y (x - h0 ), and the rigidities are functions of x:
Ea Ea 3
D=1-v2x, K=12(1-v2)x3.

Introducing all this into (5.74), we arrive at the differential equation of

the bending problem presented by Fig. 5.36:
2
+ 12(1- v )a 12(1- v2)ya4 h)
")" 2 _ (
3
(
X W 1%2 xw- Eaa X- o . (5.96)

Fig. 5.36. Cylindrical water tank

with variable wall thickness

A particular solution may easily be found:

ya 2 x- h0
W=Ea_x_· (5.97)

It corresponds to the membrane forces N.;= ya(x- h0 ), but since the

deflection is no longer a linear function of x, we have a curvature of the
generators and hence a bending moment
ya2a2
.Mx = - 6 (1 _ v2 ) ho · (5.98)
It is constant and very small.
To satisfy the boundary conditions, we still need the complete
solution of the homogeneous equation. When we introduce
4 _12(1-v2 )
(! - 1%2 '

this equation may be written in the following form:

xa (xaa w" + (!4 w =

3
)" 0.

As one may easily verify, this is identical with the following equation:

xa [ra2 (xa [xa2 w' 2

)')']' + (!4 w = 0 .
 5.5 TANKS A...~D RELATED PROBLEMS 291

Here we see that the first term is the result of the repeated application
to w of the operator
L ( ) = !:. [X:
x a·
( )']'.
Through the use of this symbol, the differential equation becomes
simpler in appearance and easier to handle:
LL(w) + e4w = 0. (5.99)
It may be written in the following alternative forms:
L[L(w) + ie 2w]- ie 2(L(w) + ie 2w] = o,
L[L(w)- ie 2 w] + ie2[L(w)- ie 2 w] = o.
From these we recognize that the solutions of the second order equations
L(w) ± ie 2 w = 0 (5.100a, b}
must be solutions of (5.99). Since the new equations have an imaginary
coefficient, their solutions are complex-valued functions of x, and those
of (5.100b) are conjugate complex to those of (5.100a). From this fact
it follows that they are linearly independent of each other, and hence
that two independent solutions of either equation (5.100) together will
form a complete system of four independent solutions of (5.99). And
furthermore, it follows that their real and imaginary parts, being each
a linear combination of two such solutions, will also satisfy (5.99), al-
though they are not solutions to (5.100a) or (5.100b).
To find these functions, it is enough to solve (5.100a). When the
differential operator is written in full, this equation reads:

=-a w" + 2 w' + i e w = 0 .

2

It may be transformed into a BESSEL equation by introducing a complex

variable, putting
1] = y lH = 2 Q Viax ' ~
-
Va'
X
c.=w
Performing the transformation, we find
1]2 d2€ + 7J dl; + (7}2- 1) c= 0.
drr d1J
The solutions of this equation are the BESSEL functions of the first
order of the complex argument 1J:
C= AJ1 (1J) + BHi11 (1J).
They have complex values. They are connected with the functions of
zero order by the relations

Jl (1J) = - dJd~TJ) ' Hill ('f}) = - dH~~ (TJ).

19*
292 CHAP. 5: CIRCULA.R CYLI~DRICAL SHELLS

The real and imaginary parts of J 0 and H~1 > may be considered as real
functions of the real variable y. The functions so defined are the THoM-
soN functions. They are introduced by the following formulas:

Jo(1J) = J 0 (y-y'i) = bery- ibeiy,

H~1 > (1J) = H~l> (y 1/i)
V
= - :~:2 (kei y + i ker y) .

Differentiating with respect to 1J and then separating real and imaginary

parts, we find a corresponding set of relations for the first order func-
tions:
1
J1 (1J) = f2 [(bei 1 y- ber 1 y) + i(bei. y + ber'y)J,
1

Hi1> {1J) = ---

v;;- f(ker'y + kei'y) + i (ker 1
y- kei 1 y)J,
:J:

where the prime indicates the derivatives of these functions with respect
to their argument y. Since real and imaginary parts of J 1 (rJ) and Hi1 >(1J)
and any constant multiples and linear combinations thereof are solu-
tions of (5.99), we may choose the derivatives of the THOMSON functions
as elementary solutions and write

C= C1 her 'y + C2 bei y + C3 ker y + C4 kei 'y.

1 1
(5.101)

Before we proceed in the discussion of the shell problem, some

remarks must be made on the subject of the THOMSON functions. They
are useful in various problems (for another one see p. 351) and have
been tabulated by many authors under almost as many different nota-
tions. Any one of these tables will help in handling the numerical side
of the problem as easily as if we had to deal with trigonometric or
hyperbolic functions. But in order to find from (5.101) formulas for the
slope and the stress resultants, we still need some simple formulas con-
cerning the higher derivatives of the THOMSON functions. They may
be derived from the fact that J 0 ('Y}) and H~1 > (1J) satisfy a differential
equation of the BESSEL type. We give them here without proof:

d2• b er y
-d
y-
= - b e1. y - -y1 b er ' y , )

d2 b .
dy2 e1 y =
b
er y - Y1 b.,
e1 y ,
(5.102)
d2 1\:er y = - k·e1. y - -1 k er ' y ,
-dy2 y

d2 k·et. y
-d2 = k·er y - -y1 k·et y .•I

y J
 5.5 TANKS AND RELATED PROBLEMS 293

With the help of these formulas we find from (.S.101):

w = 1__ 101 her'y + 0 2hei 'y + C3 ker'y + C4 kei'yl,

lx1
ddw =- ~ rcd2her'y + yheiy) + 02(2hei'y- yhery)
x 2x"jtx
+ 0 3 (2ker'y + ykeiy) + 0 4 (2kei'y- yker y)J,

N.p = Eaa l';- [0 her'y + 0 2hei'y + 0 ker'y + 0 kei'yJ,

1 3 4

il-I :c = 48 (~: v y;- red- y hei 'y + 4 y hei y + 8 her' y)

2) 2 (5.103)

+ c2 (y 2 her' y - 4 y her y + 8 hei 'y)

+ C3 (-y 2kei'y + 4ykeiy + 8ker'y)
+ C4 (y 2 ker'y- 4ykery + 8kei'y)],

Qx= V Erx 2
4 3 (1 - v-) n
0 v;[Cl(-yhery+2hei'y)-02(yheiy+2her'y)

+ 0 3 ( -yker y + 2kei 'y)- Cdykeiy + 2 ker'y)j.

In Fig. 5.37 the derivatives of the four THOMSON functions arc
shown. From these graphs one may see that the solutions 0 1 and 0 2
are such that the deflection and all stress resultants decrease in damped

ber'y ker'y
80 bei'y 0.40 kei'y

60 0.30

40 0.20

20 0.10

y y
0 0
2 6 8

-20 -0.10

·40 ber'y -0.20

-60 -0.30

-80 '-0.40

Fig. 5.37. Derivatives of the THOliSOl! functions

294 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

oscillations when y (and hence x) decreases. They describe disturbances

originating from the lower edge of the cylinder. In the sa.me way the
solutions C3 and C, belong to a disturbance at the upper edge. In many
practical cases the decrease of the elementary solutions from one end
of the generator to the other is strong enough to make the boundary
conditions at both ends independent of each other, as we have seen
on p. 272 for constant wall thickness.
Most tables of the THoMSON functions go up only to y = 10. It is
useful therefore to know that for large arguments these functions may
be approximated by asymptotic series. For our purposes it is enough
to use the first term of each of these series :

her y ::.:: (2 n y)- 112 exp !!__ cos ( !!__ - ;;r,8 ) ,

y2 y2
1/
her I y::.:: (2ny)- 112, exp--;=cos l-
I Y 7T,) ,
+-
V2 'V2 s
bei y ::.:: (2 n y}-112 exp V~ sin (V~ - ; ),
bei 'y ::.:: (2n y)- 1 ' 2 exp k sin (V~ + ~ ) ,

k)
(5.104)
kery::.:: ({y Y' 2
exp (- cos (V~ + ~),

ker I y ::.:: - ( 7l
2Y
)112 exp ( - V2"
Y ) cos ( V:2
Y - S7T, ) ,

keiy::.::- (~) 112 expf- !!._)sin(!!__

zy \ vz V2 +2),
s
kei 'y""" (;:Y exp (- V~) sin (V~ - ; ).
2

For y = 10 the error made in using these formulas is still several percent,
sometimes more, and slowly decreases with increasing y.
The application of the formulas (5.103) to a reinforced concrete tank
is shown in Fig. 5.38. From the particular solution (5.97) we find for the
lower edge the deflection and the slope
ya~ h dw ya 2 h0
E rx (h 0 + h) 2
W=---
Erxho+h' d-:i = •

In order to fulfill the boundary conditions of a clamped edge, w = 0,

dwfdx = 0, we must superpose the first two terms of the homogeneous
solution (5.101). From the dimensions of the tank we find with v = 0:
IX= 0.0556, Q= 7.90
 5.6 ANISOTROPIC SHELL'3 295

and for Xmax = 16.5 ft we have Ymax = 21.40. We may easily calculate
the corresponding values of the THOMSON functions and their first
derivatives from the asymptotic expressions (5.104), and then we may
\Hite two linear equations for 0 1 and 0 2 , expressing that the deflection
and the slope following from (5.103) with y = Ymax are equal and opposite
to those following from (5.97). Having determined 0 1 and 0 2 we easily
find w, N~, .1l'I,. The results are shown in Fig. 5.38. The diagrams are
J - --------:
4'16"
.-
1

i
-
-9'~---
-
- - - - -
- . -
- -:::- ~ 3"
.
-------
N

[i r
4,180

M,

6,750 lb/ft 1,470 ft-lb/ft

(membrane
force}
}"ig. 5.38. Stress resultant& in a cyliudrical tank with variable wall thickness

rather similar to those shown in Fig. 5.23, the two tanks being the same
but for the wall thickness. Upon closer inspection one recognizes that
in Fig. 5.38 the clamping moment is higher, while the negative maximum
of J'l., in the thinner part of the wall is considerably lower than in the
tank with t = const. The maximum of the hoop force is 1.5% higher
in the thinner wall.
At the upper edge, x = 4.5 ft, the inhomogeneous solution satisfies
the conditions w = 0, M,= 0, Q, = 0, if we neglect the small mo-
ment (5.98), and the contribution of the terms with 0 1 and 0 2 is negli-
gibly small. It is therefore not necessary to use terms with 0 3 and 0 4
if the edge is free or simply supported.

5.6 Anisotropic Shells

5.6.1 Elastic Law
5.6.1.1 Plywood Shell
So far, we have based our formulas, in particular the elastic law (5.9),
(5.12), on the assumption that the shell is a wall of thickness t, made
of an isotropic and homogeneous material. We shall now consider some
typical cases of anisotropic shells.
296 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

The simplest among them is the plywood shell. We shall still simplify
the problem by restricting our attention to the most commonly used
type of plywood, the symmetric, three-layer material (Fig. 5.39). The
grain of the two outer layers runs at right angles to that of the middle
layer.
Before we can write the elastic law of the shell element, we must
know HooKE's law for the individual layer. Since wood displays much
more rigidity in the direction of the grain than across, this law is not
symmetric with respect to x and cf>. For the inner layer we assume it
in the following form:
a"' = E 1 Ex + E. E.;, f
a.;= E.E"' + E 2 E.;, (5.105)
T.,.; = Gy.,.;.

Here the strains €"'' E.;, Yx.; are defined as usual, and the four moduli E 1 ,
E 2 , E., G are all independent of each other. In particular, there is no
relation connecting the shear modulus G with the other moduli, since
the well-known relation between E, v, G holding for isotropic bodies
is derived from the fact of their isotropy.
If the outer layers are made of the same kind of wood - and this
we shall assume - then their elastic law is the same, except that the
moduli E 1 and E 2 change places.

Fig. a.31J. Element of a plywoo<l shell

In Fig. 5.39 it has been assumed that the grain of the inner layer is
running in the x direction. If this is true, E 1 is the common modulus
of elasticity of the wood, i.e. the one for stresses in the direction of the
grain, while E 2 is the much smaller cross-grain modulus. When in a
shell the grain runs circumferentially in the middle layer and lengthwise
in the other two, we must identify E 2 with the common modulus and E 1
with the cross-grain modulus.
 5.6 ANISOTROPIC SHELLS 29i
When we want to establish the relations which are to take the place
of (5.9), we may use without change the kinematic relations (5.5) and
the definitions (5.7) of the stress resultants. But when we introduce
HooKE's law, we must use it in the form (5.105) for the middle layer
only and exchange E 1 and E 2 while integrating over the outer layers.
This leads to the definition of the following rigidities:
extensional rigidities :
Dx = E 1 t1 + 2E2 t2 , D+ = E 2 t 1 + 2E1 t 2 , Dv = E.t; (5.106a-c}
shear rigidity :
Dx+ = Gt; (5.106d)
bending rigidities :

Kx = /2 [E2(t 3 - t~) + E 1 t~],

K+ = 1~ [E1 (t 3 - tV + E 2 t~J, (5.106e-g}

K V -..!.E
-
a.
12 • t >

twisting rigidity :

(5.106h)

The elastic law of the plywood shell appears then in the following form:

N•=-(v +w)+-u +-
D+
-(w+w ),
• DV , x. ..
a a a3
D. , D. ( . ) K. ,
N =-u
:z: a +--
a v +w - -a 3w
D.. . x.. . ,.
'

I
N+x=-(u
a
+v)+-
a3
(u +w ),

N:z:+ =a- (u
D.. .+ , + x.. , v) 3a - (v -
I·
w ),
(5.107a-h}
K+ •. K. ,
M ... =.....,..
~ a• (w + w ) + ......
a- w ,

J.l'I
"'
= K: (w" -
a-
U1) + K:
a-
(w"" - v") ,

x..
.Jiti+:z: = - a2 (2w + u - v),
I• • ,

2K.. I• I
M:z:+=-
a2
-(w -v).
298 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

These formulas contain as a special case (5.9) for the isotropic shell.
We need only replace in (5.105) the moduli E 1 and E 2 by E/(1 - v2 ),
E. by Ev/(1 - r) and G by E/2(1 + v) and make the necessary changes
in the definitions (5.106) of the rigidities.
Another special case is obtained when we put t2 = 0, t 1 = tin (5.106).
We have then the rigidities and the elastic law of a shell which is made
of one solid board of wood or of such crystalline materials which have
the elastic anisotropy described by (5.105).
When Nx+• N+z• and 1U+x from (5.107) are introduced in the sixth
-condition of equilibrium, (5.1f), it is identically satisfied. We may
~Iiminate Q+ and Q, from the other five equilibrium conditions as we
did before, and thus arrive again at (5.2). The introduction of the new
elastic law into these equations is postponed until p. 310.

5.6.1.2 Double-walled Shell

Occasionally it is desired to build a shell of exceptionally high bend-
ing stiffness. This may be necessary to increase its buckling strength
()r to make it capable of carrying very concentrated local loads. A sub-

~b2~
\ (b)

Fig. 5.40. Sections += const. and :z: = const. through a double·walled shell

:stantial increase of stiffness without an uneconomic increase of dead

weight can be achieved by making the wall hollow, i.e. by composing
it of two concentric cylindrical slabs and a connecting gridwork of thin
ribs. Sections cf> = const. and x = const. of such a shell are shown in
 5.6 .Al~ISOTROPIC SHELLS 299

Fig. 5.40. The rib system consists of a set of circumferential ribs, the
rings, and a set of longitudinal ribs, the stringers.
When the ribs are few and far between, we have to deal with a
structure composed of shell panels and of ribs, and we have to analyze
it as such. But when the ribs are closely and evenly spaced, it is worth-
while to consider the limiting case of very closely spaced and corre-
spondingly weak ribs. In this case we have to deal with an anisotropic
shell.
Before we can go into any details of stress and strain, we must
define a middle surface. Contrary to the smooth shells considered thus
far, there is no cylinder which halves the thickness and which would
be equally acceptable for both sections, Fig. 5.40a and b. Now, when
we look back, we may see that also for the smooth shell our choice of
the middle surface as the one which halves the thickness t, was lastly
arbitrary. The faces x = const. of the shell elements were trapezoidal,
and their centroids did not lie on the middle surface. It was exactly
this fact which gave rise to some of the queer terms in (5.9), as dis-
cussed on p. 212. Therefrom we conclude that the word "middle" in
the term "middle surface" must not be taken all too literally and that
any reference surface is welcome which lies somewhere in the middle
of the thickness. In some cases it is convenient to choose it so that one
of the moments s., S,, or S defined by (5.110a.-f) becomes zero, but
there is no need to satisfy this requirement.
We now consider a section cJ> = const. of the shell (Fig. 5.40a). It
consists of a periodic repetition of the shaded part, whose length is
equal to the distance b1 of the rings. The width of the rib may be a
function of z. We denote it by b. For those values of z which belong to
the slab areas, the width of the rib is not defined and will not be needed.
Since there are normal stresses in both the slabs and the ribs, N •
and jl'J• are integrals of these stresses over the cross sections of the slabs
and the rib. We distinguish these two parts of the integrals by attaching
the letters or r to the lower end of the integral sign. We have then

N• = J a•dz +Ja• (~) dz,

S T
(5.108a, b)
1W• J a•zdz +Ja• (~) ~dz.
=
S T

We now turn our attention to the section x = const., Fig. 5.40b.

Let b2 be the distance of adjacent stringers, measured on the middle
surface. The width of the rib may again be denoted by b, although
this is, of course, a different function of z from the one just used in
(5.108a, b). It is also understood that the subscript r at the integral
300 CHAP. 5: CIRCCLAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

signs now denotes the stringer section. We have then

Nx= /(fx(l+ :)dz+j(fx~dz,

8 r
(5.108c,d)
Mz= J (1.,(1 + :)zdz+ /(fx: 2
zdz.
B r

The factor (1 + zfa) in the slab integrals expresses the slightly trape-
zoidal shape of the slab section.
There are, of course, no shearing stresses on the lateral surfaces of
the ribs. Consequently, there is also no shearing stress -rx~ or -r~x in
the cross section of the ribs, and all the tangential shear is carried by
the slabs alone. The shearing forces and twisting moments are therefore

N~x = f T:;xdz,
a
Nx;= f-r~.,(1+ :)dz,
8
(5.108e-h)
JJ;J~.,= J-r~.,zdz, M.,;= /•~.,(1 + :)zdz.
• 8

In order to obtain the elastic law of the shell, we must by means

of HooKE's law express the stresses in terms of the strains and then
use the kinematic relations (5.5) to express the strains by u, v, w. For
the slabs HooKE's law is represented by (5.6), but in the ribs we have
simply

This difference in the elastic laws for the one-dimensional and the two-
dimensional parts of the shell has the remarkable consequence that
a normal stress, e.g. (1.,, along two adjacent fibers of the stringer and
the slab is not the same, although E., is, because one stress is influenced
by E.; while the other is not.
When we go in detail through the procedure described, we find the
following relations:
D.; . S.; .• K.; •. vD 1 vS ,
N.~.=-(v
"' a
+w)--.(w+w
a·
)+-.-(w+w
a~
)+-1'
a
-----.w,
a·
D. S, , (.
u
J.V
x
= -a
1
1' - --.-
a... W + -vD
a V + W ) + -.-
vS( .
a· V - W )
..
'
,.,. (1-v)D(. (1-v)S(. ,
l•.;x = 2a u +V
1)
- 2a 2 u -V + -w
9
+ (1-v)K(.
2 a3 u +W
1 .) 1.)
•

N x.; = (1-v)D(.
2a u +V
')
+ (1-v)S(,
a2 V - W
'")
+ (1-v)K(,
2a3 V - W
'")
'

(5.109a-d)
 5.6 •.\..~ISOTROPIC SHELLS 301
s., . x., .. vS 1 vK ,
.it!...=--
,. a
(v + w) +-.-
a-
(w + w ) - --- -u
a
+ -,,
a·
w
'

K. " -Vs
s. I• +-.w (. ) V- ..
K ( v. -w)
a v +w - ,;a
M -
"' =--u
a a· ,
(5.10!)e-h)
M _ (1- v)S ( . +V 1) , (1- v)K ( .
U - V
1
+ 2 W 1 .) ,
tf> x - - 2a U I 2 aZ

M .
(1 - v) S (u+v-
I) ( 1 - v) K (v
1-w1.)
.
.. = -
"'" 2a 2 a

These formulas, which constitute the elastic law of the double-walled

shell, contain a large number of rigidities. They are defined as follows:

extensional rigidities:

D., = 1 ~v 2 J
8
dz + E J!
r
1 dz,
(5.110a-c)

D.,= 1 ~ v= J( + :)
'
1 dz + E J!
r
2 dz, D = 1~ v2! dz;
8

ridigity moments:

s., = 1 ~ v 2 J
8
zdz + E J:
r
1 zdz,
(5.110d-f)

S., = 1 ~ v= J( + :)
8
1 zdz + E J:
T
2 zdz, S = 1 ~ va J
a
z2dz.

bending rigidities:

K., = 1 ~ v2 Jz2dz + E J:1 z2dz, (5.110g-i)

1 r

-~~ z2dz+ Ejbb2z2dz,

K ,-1-v2
8 r

When we compare (5.109) with the elastic law for the plywood shell,
(5.107), we find a strong similarity. We may formally obtain (5.107)
from (5.109) by dropping the terms with s., and with S and making
the following substitutions which may easily be understood from a com-
parison of the corresponding definitions:

s.,-..K.,, vD-..D., vK-+K.,

302 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

5.6.1.3 Grid work Shell

Before we study the most common type of an anisotropic shell,
the single slab reinforced by ribs, we shall have a look at a shell which
consists of ribs only. There must be ribs in two directions, which we
again call rings and stringers. We assume that these ribs are connected
rigidly at their intersections. If their centroidal axes happen to lie on
the same cylinder, we choose it as the middle surface of the shell. In
general, however, the axes of the rings do not intersect those of the
stringers, and then again the choice of the reference cylinder is arbitrary.
It may or may not be convenient to choose it so that it passes through
the axes of at least one sort of ribs. For the purpose of our analysis
we choose it so that the axes of all ribs are on its outside, those of the
c,.
rings at a distance and those of the stringers at a distance ex.

'·

Fig. 5.41. Element of a grldwork shell

Fig. 5.41 shows an element of the shell. At the centroids of the ring
sections (which we suppose to coincide with their shear centers) we
apply axial forces N 2 , bending moments 1l'J2 , and transverse shearing
forces Q2 • The stress resultants of the shell are the forces per unit length
of a section cf> = const., viz.
N,.=~12 , Q,.=~:· (5.111a,b)
The bending moments of the shell must be referred to a generator of
the middle surface as its axis:
M,.=Ma-N2 ~ (5.111c)
bl
Similarly we define for a section x = const. the stress resultants

N .• =~~' Qx=~> (5.111d-f)

 5.6 A..'l"ISOTROPIC SHELLS 303
A particular problem arises when it comes to shearing forces and
twisting moments. We may apply torques M 12 of any magnitude at
the ends of the stringers without an immediate obligation of applying
anything simultaneously to the rings. Speaking in terms of a shell
element. these torques correspond to a twisting moment

lJ;Jx,P = ~2. (5.111g)

2

When we try to apply to similar torques M 21 to the rings, we see that

these moments at opposite sides of the shell element have slightly
divergent axes and, therefore, are not in equilibrium with each other.
There is only one way to apply a self-equilibrating system of torques:
We attach to each end of each ring a rigid lever ending on the axis of
the cylinder and there we apply forces M 21 fa as shown in Fig. 5.42 for
one ring. This is equivalent to applying simultaneously at the center
of each cross section a twisting moment 1l'l21 and a shearing force M 21 (a.
Under the combined action of these forces and moments the ring ele-
ment has the same stresses as an element of a helical spring of zero
pitch, i.e., shear and torsion but no bending.

Fig. 5.42. Torsion of a ring

element

Considering Fig. 5.41 again as a shell element, we find the torques M 21

equivalent to a twisting moment
.M = .lf2t (5.111h)
op;r bl ,

and the simultaneous forces M 21 fa make a contribution M 21 fab 1 to the

shear N.pr-
In addition to this shear M 21 (a we may still apply forces N 12 and N 21
as shown in Fig. 5.41. For the shell element they yield a shearing force

(5.111i)
304: CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLL.~DRICAL SHELLS

and a contribution N 21 jb1 to N<J>z· The moment equilibrium for a radial

axis requires that these forces per unit length be equal, hence
~Vu ~Vu
b;"=b;.
The total shearing force in the section cf> = const. is then
Yu Mu M<J>z
Y<J>x =-b-+ -b- = Nx<J>
I a 1
+ --.
a
(5.111j)

This equation is identical with (5.1 f), the sixth condition of equilibrium,
which hence is automatically satisfied.
After having studied the forces and moments acting on the grid
element, we may attempt to write the elastic law. When doing this,
we shall make use of the fact that the rings are thin in order to prevent
the appearance of too many terms of minor importance.
Let the cross section of a ring be A+ {Fig. 5.41). The strain at its
centroid may be found from (5.5b) with z = c<l>, neglecting z compared
with a in the denominator. When we multiply this strain by EA+, we
have the axial force N 2 and hence
E .A+ ( v·
Y+=T u---;T+a-.
c<l> w·· w) {5.112a)

In the same way we find the other .normal force, using (5.5a) with
::: = c,:
(5.112b)

The moment JJ· 2 depends on the elastic change of curvature of the

ring which, for a thin ring, is w""ja 2 • When 14> is the moment of inertia
for the centroidal axis of the section, we have

.Jl<l> =El_+~;_ E .A4>c4> (~ + ~) + E.A<l>c~ w~:. (5.112c)

b1 n- b1 n n b1 a
Similarly we find

(5.112d)

The force~> N 12 and N 21 produce bending deformations in the ribs,

as shown in Fig. 5.43a. Each bar between two joints becomes S-shaped,
and the straight lines connecting adjacent joints are no longer at right
angles to each other. For the analysis of this deformation we isolate
the elementary period of the gridwork, as shown on a larger scale in
Fig. 5.43b. It ends at the cent~r points of four grid bars, and one easily
recognizes that these are inflection points. The right angle between the
 5.6 ANISOTROPIC SHELLS 305

tangents at the joint is conserved, and since a rigid-body rotation does

not matter for the deformation we seek, we assume that the joint does
not rotate at all. Using twice the well-known formula for the end de-
flection of a cantilever beam, we find that

v: b = 2 N21 b~ .!!_ b = 2 .Yu bf

a 2 24EI,' a 1 24EI•.

I
I
~bl--..1
{a)

Fig. 5.43. llen<iing of the ribs in the tangential plane

In these equations I, and I, are the relevant moments of inertia of

rings and stringers, respectively. Using (5.111i) and the unnumbered
relation following it, we find the shear deformation

u· + v' = N . __!_ (ab1 b~ abib2 ) (5.112e)

n .I. x.; 12 a E I, + E I. .

Fig. 5.44. Part of a grid work

~·" c

This result is independent of the initial assumption that the joint does
not rotate. Indeed, when the whole configuration of Fig. 5.43 b is rotated
in its plane, u· gains as much as v' loses or vice versa.
The last deformation we have to consider is a twisting of the shell
element. We consider the element shown in Fig. 5.44. The bars AB
and CD are parts of stringers, AC and BD parts of rings.
Flilgge, Stresses In Shells, 2nd Ed. 20
306 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

When the torque .._tf 12 is applied to the bar AB, this bar is twisted,
and the torsion theory says that the twist (} 1 is

where J.r: depends on the shape of the stringer section. The bars AC
and BD, which originally were parallel, are then rotated with respect
to each other by the angle

(} b _ 1rl 12 b1 _ .,. ?1 b2
1 1- GJz - J.r.Lx<J> GJ '
r

which is also equal to b1 w'"fa 2 ; hence

GJ, ,.
ll[. .c4>=·.,-b-w
a- 2
(5.112f)

When this deformation occurs, the bars AB and CD also rotate with
respect to each other, corresponding to a twisting of the stringers. As
we have seen, this requires the combined action of a torque J.v1 21 and a
shear M 21 fa. In the curved bars they produce the twist

where J 4> is the torsional stiffness factor of the rings. The relative rotation
of the bars AB and CD is then

whence

M GJq, ,.
J.r.L<J>.r = a2b W • (5.112g)
1

When we eliminate w'" from (5.112f, g) we find the relation

(5.113)

which the two twisting moments must satisfy. We see from it that the
two twisting moments may be equal or very different, depending on
the dimensions and the spacing of the ribs.
Last of all, we might still write a relation for the shear N<J>.r• using
(5.111j) and (5.112e, g).
 5.6 ANISOTROPIC SHELLS 307

We may bring all these equations into a form similar to (5.107)

and (5.109), when we introduce the following rigidities

EAzcz
Sx= _b_z_' {5.114)

There are no moments Sxf and Sfx since we neglected the influence of
the eccentricities cf and ex in our equations for twisting and shear where
it is of minor importance.
With the help of the rigidities just defined, (5.112) may be rewritten
in the following, more convenient form:

Df . S+ •• Dz I Sz "
N.~.=-(v
., a +w)--.w,
a- Nx=-U --w
a a2 '

flz+ • 1 Kfz 1•
... =--(u
N .,x a +v)+---w
aa '
{5.115a-h)
K+ •• S+ .
M .,... = -.w
a·
- - a (v + w) '
Kzf I•

a· w .
M:r.~.=-.
.,

These equations constitute the elastic law of the gridwork shell. The
differences from the equations (5.109) for the double-walled shell may
be traced back to two causes. The first one is the absence of all terms
containing PoissoN's ratio. It is clear that the lateral contraction of a
rib does not affect the deformation of the grid element. This is in agree-
ment with the fact, that the v terms in (5.109) all have a factor D, S
or K, i.e. one of those rigidities whose definitions do not contain a rib
integral.
The second cause of differences between (5.109) and (5.115) is the
fact that for the gridwork shell we did not strictly adhere to the assump-
tion of plane cross sections. This decision appears to be reasonable,
since we neglected also the influence of possible local deformations of
20*
308 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLmDRICAL SHELLS

the bars between the joints as well as the influence of the warping
constraint on the torsion terms. Since this latter would increase the
order of the differential equations, it should not be introduced without
evidence of a need to do so.

5.6.1.4 Shell with Rings and Stringers

The last type of anisotropic shell which we discuss here is the most
important one: the shell of uniform thickness reinforced by closely
spaced rings or stringers or both (Fig. 5.45). We may handle this case
in two ways: either we superpose the stress resultants of an isotropic
shell and those of a gridwork, or we use (5.109) and (5.110) with the
understanding that the slab integrals are now to be extended over one
slab only. This second way is to be recommended for concrete shells and
similar structures, for which it well represents the facts. All that is to
be said about it has already been said in Section 5.6.1.2.

Fig. 5.45. Sections q, = const. and x = const. throngh a 8hell with rings and stringers

For the thin shells of airplane fuselages (5.109) have a serious draw-
back which excludes their use. In a double-walled shell the twisting
moments are carried by shearing stresses 'l'x.p or 'l'.px having opposite
directions in the two slabs. The contribution of the ribs is practically
nil and has been neglected in (5.109g, h). It is quite different when the
shell consists of only one very thin wall and a set of sturdy stiffeners,
particularly when these have tubular cross sections. Then the twisting
rigidity of the wall is next to nothing, and almost all the twisting stiff-
 5.6 Al'i"ISOTROPIC SHELLS 309

ness of the shell comes from the torsional rigidity of the ribs. Therefore.
we must introduce this torsional rigidity GJ as we did in Section 5.6.1.3
and must superpose the grid formulas (5.115) and the elastic law ofthe
wall.
Since in (5.115) quantities of the order zfa have been neglected
compared with unity, it would be useless to combine them with (5.9},
but rather we use the simplified relations (5.12). When we choose the
middle surface of the wall as the middle surface of the entire shell, we
arrive at the following elastic law:
Dq, . D. I Sq. ..
Nq,=-(v +w)+-u -----.w,
a-
a n

N. = -
D, U
I
+ D.
--· s, W " ,
( V. + W ) - ---.
x a n a-

D,q, • Kq,x
N..
'1' x a (u + v ) + -a3
= --- -w I I•

'

Dzq, . 1
Nxq,= -a·-(u +v), (5.116)

K · K S
llL
"'
= --4w
a..
.. + -tw"-
a...
-~(v· + w)
a '

[J;J " ..
Kz
+ Kv
·a'!.- w -
S, 1
1 x = a2 w ----;;- u ,

Kq,x I•
Jf .,... x=--.,-w,
a-

\Vhen we eliminate W 1 • from the last two equations, we obtain the

relation which the elasticity of the shell imposes on Jl1 q, x and M x </>.
The rigidity constants in (5.116) are the sums of the corresponding
constants occurring in (5.12) and (5.115). There is, however, one ex-
ception to this simple superposition of the rigidities of the wall and the
ribs. In the gridwork shell shearing forces Nx.P and Nq,.r are transmitted
through bending stresses in the ribs as shown in Fig. 5.43a, and the shear
stiffness Dr.; from (5.114) is usually rather small. When the ribs are
connected with a coherent wall, this bending deformation is not possible,
and all the shear is carried by the wall alone. \Ve must therefore omit
the term with D,q, in (5.115c, d) when we superpose the grid and the
wall. To be precise, the stiffness K</>.r used with Nq,x in (5.116) should
not contain the contribution of the wall, but the error made here is of
the same kind as the errors introduced in the transition from (5.9)
to (5.12) and, therefore, unobjectionable.
When we keep this in mind, we find the following expressions for
the rigidity parameters in (5.116):
:HO CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
Et EA,. Et EA,
n,. = 1- v2 + T' D.x = 1- v2 + b;:-'
Etv Et
D.,=l-v2 ' Dx,.=2(1+v)'
E A,.c,. E A,c,
S,. =-b-' Sx=-b-'
1 2
Et 3 E(I,.+A,.c~)
K,.=12(1-r)+ b1 ' (5.117)
Et 3 E(l,+A,c!)
Kx=12(1-v2 )+ b~
~ Et 3 v
Kv = 12 (1 - v2 ) '
Et 3 GJ,. Et 3 GJ,
K,.x = 12 (1 + v) + T' Kx,. = 12 (1 + v) + b;" ·
Here the notations of Fig. 5.45 and of the preceding section have been used.
The rigidity moments s,., S, are positive when the ribs lie on the
outside of the wall and are negative in the opposite case. Their presence
should not be overlooked when dealing with actual shell problems. In
the rare case that c,.
= ex, they may be eliminated from the formulas
by choosing another middle surface.
A gridwork shell must always have both kinds of ribs: rings and
stringers. Rings alone or stringers alone would not make a coherent
structure. Quite differently, the reinforced shell may have only rings
or only stringers, and in fact these are the shells which occur most
frequently. They have the same elastic law (5.116), if only we drop
from (5.117) the terms with Ar, Ix, Jx or those with A,., I,., J,.. The
two twisting rigidities, Kx,. and K,.r, are then of very different magni-
tude, and so are the twisting moments M.r,. and 111',..£·

5.6.2 Differential Ef{ltations for t.he Shell with Ribs

·we obtain three linear -differential equations similar to (5.13) or
(5.18), when we introduce any one of the preceding elastic laws into
(5.2a-c). It is enough to show the result for (5.116):

+ a 2 Dx,. u·· + a 2 (D., + D,,,.) v'" + a 2 Dv w' - a Sxw"' 1

I
a 2 Dx u"
+ K,.xw'"" = -pxa4'
a 2 (D., + Dx,.)u'" + a(aD,. + S,.)v·· + a 2 Dx,.v"- (K,. + aS.)w ...
- (K. + Kx,.)w"" + a(aD,. + s,.)w" = -p,.a4 ,
}(5.118)
I
-aSxu"' + a 2 D.,u'- aS,.v:. + a 2 D,.v" + KxwiV
+ (2 K., + K,..x + Kx,.)w""" + K,.w==- 2as,.w·· + a 2 D,.w = p,a4 .j
 5.7 FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 311

Comparing these differential equations with (5.13) for the isotropic

cylinder, we see that the theory of the anisotropic shell is not more
involved than that of the isotropic shell. There are only a few new terms,
and many of the old ones are missing; even compared with the simplified
equations (5.18) the difference is not great. The only additional compli-
cation lies in the fact that the coefficients are no longer as simple as
before but depend on many rigidities D, S, K, which are independent
of each other. However, in most practical applications some of them
will be zero or negligibly small.

5. 7 Folded Plate Structures

On p. 156 we have seen how imperfect an instrument the membrane
theory of folded plate structures is. Therefore, a bending theory is ab-
solutely necessary for a realistic stress analysis, and an outline of this
theory will be given on the following pages.
It is natural to start from the membrane solution, to find its imper-
fections, and to amend them. This procedure is identical with the usual
analysis of statically indeterminate structures. The principal s:ystem lli
characterized by the fact that the rigid connections of the plate strips
at the edges have been replaced by piano hinges, which can transmit
the shear T,., but which cannot transmit plate bending moments 1li,1
from one strip to the next. Bending moments of this kind will later
be chosen as the redundant quantities. Because of the edge shears the
principal system itself is statically indeterminate. We shall use here the
superscript (o) to indicate the load action in this piano hinge system
and not in the principal system used for the membrane theory.
We now study the deformation of the hinged system. Fig. 5.46
shows part of a cross section x = const. of the prism with the plate
strips m - 1, m, m + 1. Each of these strips carries in its own plane
a load 8 111 and acts as a beam of large depth. Consequently, there are
deflections vm-l, V 111 etc. as shown in the figure, and these deflections are
subject to the differential equation of beam bending

(5.119)

The beam moment Mm in this equation is the sum of the moments which
were called M~ 1 and M~1 in (3.45) ·and (3.46).
"Ve shall here use the FoURIER series form given in Section 3.5.2
and consequently write
• n:n:x
Vm = V, 11 , 11 Sln-l-.
312 CH...-\.P. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

We have then from (5.119) and (3.53), (3.54):

6 Z3 2l
vm," = Etmh'!. na~a
(
- hmnn Sm,ll + Tm-l,a + Tm,n ) • (5.120)

The corner m in Fig. 5.46 is at the same time a point of two strips.
With the strip m it has to undergo the displacement vm = vm,n sinnnxjl
as shown, while the strip m + 1 requires that there be a dis"(llacement

Fig. 5.46. Partial cross section of a folded structure before and after deformation

v m +I. To reconcile these two requirements, we remember that the plate

strips are thin and long. They do not offer any substantial resistance
to lengthwise bending and twisting, and therefore we are allowed to
add arbitrary displacements normal to each plate strip, as long as we
keep its cross section straight. Making use of this possibility, we add
to vm the normal displacement w;,. at the corner m (but another dis-
placement w::._ 1 at the corner m- 1), and we combine vm+I with a normal
displacement w;:.. By simple trigonometry we find the following relations,
which we may write for the local quantities (vn., .. . ) or for their amplitudes
(vm,n> ... ):

(5.121)

This additional deformation is, of course, accompanied by bending

moments 1vlx and twisting moments 1vlx,1 • Neglecting them, as we do,
is equivalent to neglecting the moments 1vlx and .Mer</> in the barrel vault
theory (see p. 244). However, we are not allowed to neglect bending
moments .M?J, and to find their magnitude is the essential objective of
the theory we are about to develop.
 5.7 FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 313
Because of the displacements w:;__ 1 and w;,. of its ends, the straight
line m- 1, m rotates clockwise by the angle () 111 with the amplitude
(J = I
Um.n - "
U'm-l,n
lll,ll h,,. ' (5.122}

and the line m, m + 1 rotates by a similar angle () 111 +1. The increase
of the angle y,. is their difference and has the amplitude
' ,
w,.+l,n-Wna,n
, "
U'.,,.,.-U',,.-t,n
() ()
1Jlm,u = m+l,JI- m,11 = h - -- h (5.123)
m+l m

We may use (5.121) to express w', w" in terms of v and then (5.120}
to express v in terms of the loads S and the edge shears T that go with
them in the hinged structure. It may be left to the reader to work out
this somewhat lengthy formula.
The preceding equations apply to any vertical edge load brought
upon the hinged structure. We may apply them in particular to the
actual load (more exactly to the n-th term of its FouRIER expansion).
The forces S,,,. in (5.120) are then those computed from (3.52), and the
edge shears T "'·"are those obtained from solving a set of equations (3.55)
with those S,,,. on the right-hand sides. We shall designate the ensuing
deformation in (5.120), (5.122), (5.123) by the superscript (o), i.e. v;::,.,
()~~:n, 'lf'~:n. This is the deformation of the principal system under the·
given load.
In the actual structure the strips are not connected by piano hinges
but are so fixed that a relative rotation "''m cannot take place. It is
prevented by bending moments, which deform the straight cross sec-
tions shown in Fig. 5.46 into gentle curves whose tangents meet at the
same angles Ym as do the strips in the unstressed structure.
The moment M!l transmitted across the edge m = r from th~ strip r
to the strip r + 1 is denoted by 1l'Ir. It depends on x as
. nnx
Mr = M ,., 11 Sin-l-.

We now have to study the internal force system set up by applying·

this moment with J.Vl,.,. = 1 as an external unit load to the hinged
system. We replace the,moment as shown in Fig. 5.47a by the two loads
of Figs. 5.47b, c. The forces and moments sho)Vn in Fig. 5.47b are in
local equilibrium, if we give them a sinusoidal distribution with the
amplitudes
1 1
P., - 1 'n =---
hrCOS </>r' Pr+1 ' 11 = h r+tCOS cp r+l

The forces of Fig. 5.47 c are applied as loads to the entire structure.
They are equivalent to sinusoidal tangential loads in the planes of four
314 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

strips, having the amplitudes

1
Sir) =_ -o---:---
r-1,11 h,siny,_ 1 '

1 __ 1_ (coscf>,_ 1
S ir) _
'·" - .
h,+ 1 smy, + h,coscf>, . 1 + coscf>,+t)
smy,_ .
smy, '
(5.124)
Slrl = ___
1_ _ 1 {coscf>, + coscf>,+ 2)
r+l,,. h,siny, h,+ 1 coscf>,+t \siny, siny,+ 1 '

Sir) = .1 ,
r+2,n h,+tSllljl,+l

"These quantities must be introduced on the right-hand sides of (3.55),

which then will yield the set of edge shears Tm,n = T!:;:,. that goes with
the unit load llf,.. n = 1.

r-1

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 5.47. Partial cross section, showing the redundant bending moment M, at the edge r

The loads S'•·l and the edge shears T<rl must now be introduced
into (5.120) to find the displacements v:!;>,,., and the subsequent use
-of (5.121) and (5.123) yields the angles 'If'!~:,. by which the strips rotate
with respect to each other in the hinges. All these computations must
be made separately for every r from r = 1 to r = k - 1. The results
-of these computations are distinguished by the corresponding super-
scripts.
The angle 'If':;;:,. represents only. the deformation pertaining to the
-external forces shown in Fig. 5.47c. In addition we have still some move-
ment in the hinges due to the forces and moments of Fig. 5.47b. Since
 .5.7 FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURES 315

this load is in local equilibrium it only causes bending of the strips rand
r + 1, leading to the rotations of the end tangents shown in Fig. 5.48.
Instead of first writing the rotations caused by M,. at different hinges
and then adding the effects of different such moments on the rotation
at the hinge m, we may at once write the angle OJ 111 = w:n + w;:. caused

m-1

Im+)

Fig. 5.48. Definition of the angular displacements w;,., w~

by the action of moments 1}! 111 _ 1 , 1}!111 , ,}/ m+l. Since all these quantit.ies
are distributed sinusoidally, we write the relation in terms of their
amplitudes. From a well-known beam formula we find that

(5.125)

where Km is the bending stiffness of the m-th strip, calculated from (5.8 b)
with t = t 111 •
Now it is time to collect all the contributions to the relative rotation
taking place at the hinge m. The given loads yield the value 1p~:n ob-
tained from (5.123) in the way already described. The sinusoidal dis-
tribution of moments M,. at an arbitrary hinge r makes a contribution
of amplitude 1p;{.:n ll'l,._,., and we have to write the sum of all these con-
tributions from r = 1 to r = k- 1 (see Fig. 3.29). Lastly, there is the
contt'ibution OJ 111 , of (5.125). The sum of all these is the relative rotation
of the strips m and m + 1 in the hinge m, and since there is no hinge
in the actual structure, this rotation must equal zero:

k~ 1 (r) hm M 1 ( hm
+ -hmK+1 )
u· ,,r
L.,; 'lf!m,n ~r1r11
r=t
+ I'K
) m
1 m-1,11 + 3 K-
~
m m+l
J.r1"'·"

hm+1 M (o)
(5.126)
+~
m+ I
m+1 "= - 1Pm,ll·

There are k -1 such equations for the edges m= 1, 2, ... , k -1, and these
are just enough linear equations for the k- 1 unknown moments Mr,n·
316 CHAP. 5: CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

·when these equations have been solved, we may easily retrace our·
steps and calculate all the stress resultants and displacements we desire ..
Thus far we have restricted the analysis to the case that all loads
were applied at the edges only, as shown in Fig. 3.30. That these loads
were assumed to be vertical is not a serious restriction of generality ..
When they are inclined or horizontal, only (3.43) have to be rewritten.
But most of the important loads, such as the weight of the structure,.
are distributed over the surface of the strips, and we still have to extend
the theory to cover this case.
The first thing to do is to consider each strip m as a plate strip·
supported along the edges m - 1 and m and carrying its load by bending
moments My and the inevitable shearing forces Q11 • Of course, we again
neglect the plate bending moments 1}1x and the twisting moments 1llx Y ,.
and then each element of width dx in the x direction is a beam of span h 111 •
in y direction carrying its own load. If the load is vertical, the reactions.
at the ends of the span hm may and should also be assumed as verticaL
and the inverse of these reactions are the loads Pm to be used when
applying the theory already described. In addition to the moments lll!l
caused by the redundant edge moments ~li,. there are now the mo-
ments MY caused by the distributed load in these beams. They may be·
of considerable magnitude, especially when the folded structure consists.
of only a few plate strips, and this is the essential economic disadvantage
of folded structures when they have to compete with cylindrical shells ..
The moments .ill!! in the beams h 111 produce, of course, contributions.
to the angles w, which must be added to (5.125) and which will be
carried over into (5.126). Since they do not depend on the redundant
quantities 1ll,.,,., they ultimately are an addition to the right-hand side·
of these equations.
 Chapter 6

BENDING STRESSES IN SHELLS

OF REVOLUTION
6.1 Differential Equations

6.1.1 Conditions of E(tuilibrium

When dealing with the bending stresses of shells of revolution, we
use the same coordinates as in Chapter 2 where the direct stresses in
the same kind of shells were treated: The angle () between the meridian
and an arbitrary datum meridian, and the colatitude cf> (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2).

For the derivatives with respect to these coordinates we shall use the
dash-and-dot notation explained on p. 82.
Fig. 6.1 shows the shell element which is cut out by two pairs of
adjacent coordinate lines. In Fig. 6.1 a the forces which act on this
element are shown. We find there all those which have already been
318 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

used in the membrane theory (Fig. 2.2), but additionally there are the
transverse forces Q~ and Q8 , which are peculiar to the bending theory.
In Fig. 6.1 b the bending and twisting moments are shown, represented
by vectors along the axes of these moments. This system of forces and
moments must satisfy six conditions of equilibrium, three for the force
corn ponents in the direction of the loads p 8 , p~, p, and three for the
moments with respect to the reference axes x, y, z in Fig. 6.1 b, which
are two tangents and the normal to the middle surface.
The first three of these equations are substantially the same as (2.6)
of the membrane theory, but they contain, in addition, the contributions
of the transverse forces.
The two forces Q~ · r dO include the small angle d<P and, therefore,
have the resultant Q~ · rdO·d<P parallel to a tangent to the meridian and
pointing in the direction of decreasing cf>. It must be included in (2.6a).
Similarly, the two forces Q8 • r 1 d<fi have a resultant parallel to a tangent
to a parallel circle. It may be found from the horizontal components of
these forces, since their vertical components are exactly parallel and
therefore cancel each other. The horizontal components make an angle dO
and yield the resultant Q8 • r 1 d<P · sin<fi ·dO which is opposite in direction
to the load p 8 dA and must be included in (2.6b).
If the transverse forces on opposite sides of the shell element do not
have the same magnitude, their difference is a radial force which enters
(2.6c). Both Q~ and Q8 make such contributions, pointing in the direc-
tion of the load p, dA. Their sum is

When we introduce all these new terms in (2.6), we must remember

that a common factor d<P dO has already been dropped when these
equations were derived and that the same factor must also be dropped
from the new terms. Then the following equations will be found:
(rN~)" + r 1 N~~- r 1 N 6 cos<fi- rQ.p = -rr1 p.p,
(rN.p 8 )" + r 1 N 0 + r 1 N 0 .pcos<P- r 1 Q0 sincf> = - r r 1 p8 , (6.1a-c)
r1 Nosin<P + rN.p + r1 Q~ + (rQ.p)" = rr1 p,.
\Ve may now turn to the moment equilibrium and begin with the
moments with respect to the axis x in Fig. 6.1 b. There we have: the
difference between the two bending moments .M<P • r dO on opposite sides
of the shell element, the difference between the twisting moments
.M 8 .p · r 1 d<P on the other two sides, and the couple made by the two
transverse forces Q.p · r dO. But there is still another term: The two
moment vectors .M0 • r 1 d<P are not strictly parallel, and we may apply
to them the same reasoning which we applied on p. 22 to the forces
 6.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 319

N 0 .; • r1 dcf>. We find a resultant moment M 0 • r1 dcf> · coscf> · d() about the

axis x, in the same direction as the couple of the transverse forces. We
have, therefore, the following condition of equilibrium:
(M.;· rdO)" de/>+ (Mo.; · r1 de/>)' d()- Q.; · rd() · r 1 dcf>
-Mo• r1 de/>· cos cf> • d() = 0
which may be simplified to
(rM.;)" + r1 M~.;- r1 M 0 coscf> = rr 1 Q.;. (6.1d}
A similar equation may be found for they axis of Fig. 6.1 b. Besides
the derivatives of the moments M 0 • r 1 dcf> and M.;o · r d() and the couple
formed by the forces Q0 • r1 dcf>, it contains a contribution of the twisting
moments M 0 .; • r1 dcf>. Just as we found for the forces N 0 • r1 dcf> on
p. 21, these moments have a resultant M 0 .; • r 1 dcf> · d() which points in
the direction of a radius of a parallel circle. A component of this resultant
moment enters our equation. When we drop the factor dcf> d() from all
terms, this equation will read as follows:
(6.1 e)

The last of the six equations of equilibrium contains all the moments
about a normal to the middle surface. They are the two couples made
up by the shearing forces N 0 .;· r1 dcf> and N .;o· r d(), the other component
of the resultant of the moments M 0 .; • r 1 dcf>, and the resultant of the
moments M.;o · rdO:
rr1 N 0 . ; - rr1 N.; 0 - r 1 M0 .;sincf> + rJ.III.;o = 0.
Because r = r 2 sincf> this equation may also be written as
M.;o Mo.;
----=N.;o-No .;· (6.1 f)
rl rz
The equations (6.1 a-f) describe the equilibrium of a group of forces
and couples in space. They contain as special cases (2.6a-c) for the
membrane forces in a shell of revolution and (5.1 a-f) of the bending
theory of the circular cylinder.

6.1.2 Deformation
The conditions of equilibrium (6.1 a-f) are 6 equations for 10 stress
resultants. They are therefore not sufficient to determine these un-
knowns. The additional equations needed are, of course, found in the
elastic law of the shell, i.e. in the relations between the stress resultants
and the displacements of the middle surface. These relations are a
counterpart to the elastic law (5.9) of the cylindrical shell.
320 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

To establish these equations, we may proceed in the same way as

we did when deriving (5.9), and thus arrive at one version of the bending
theory of shells of revolution. As we have seen (p. 207), this theory is
exact (except for an occasional dropping of terms with t6 , t7 etc.) for
.a. certain anisotropic material. Some of the elastic moduli of this material
are infinite so that Ez""' Yz+""' Yzo""' 0. Since these strains cannot be of
more than local importance in a thin shell, the theory so obtained cannot
be very wrong when applied to real shells, and since it is exact at least
for the special material, it is free from internal contradictions. On the
following pages we shall derive and use the elastic equations pertaining
to this theory.
Later on (p. 361) we shall develop another, competing set of elastic
relations, which is less consistent in its assumptions but which has the
merit of leading to simple equations for the axisymmetric theory.
We start from (2.56). As they stand, they relate the strains E+, E6 , Y+o
at a point of the middle surface to the displacements u, v, w of this
point and their derivatives. However, we may use them for an arbitrary
point A at a distance z from the middle surface, if we write its dis-
placements uA, v_ 1 , w_.1 instead of u, v, w, and r 1 + z, r 2 + z instead of r 1
.and r 2 :
E8 =
u~ + +
vA cos 4> w A sin </>
_::_:_-,-::-,--';---,--;"'---'-
(rz + z)sin<f> '
(6.2)
u~ u., cos<f> - v~
Y+o = r1 + z- (r 2 + z)sin<f> ·
In these formulas 'UA, v_.1 , wA must now be expressed in terms of the
displacements u, v, w of the corresponding point A 0 on the middle

Fi~. 6.~. Displacements of the

points .4 0 and A, projected on
the plane of a parallel circle

surface. To do this, we use the fundamental assumption that normals

to the middle surface remain normals when the shell is deformed.
Fig. 6.2 shows a section through the shell in the plane of a parallel
circle. The heavy line is part of the parallel circle on the middle surface,
 6.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 321

and the line marked A 0 A is the projection of the real line A 0 A = z

which is normal to the middle surface. When the shell is deformed,
these two lines come into new positions, but the right angle between
them is conserved. ·when the point A 0 undergoes a displacement u
along the parallel circle, the point A will move through a distance u r 2 +z
r2
and this is a contribution to its displacement uA. The radial displace-
ment w and the meridional displacement v of A have no immediate
influence on u_-t. But when w depends on 0, the element r dO of the parallel
circle rotates by the angle w' fr, and the normal A 0 A rotates through the
same angle, thus moving the point A backward by w' zfr. In all, we have
r., + z , z
uA = u-·-r-- w --:;:-· (6.3a)
2

A similar formula for vA may be found from a meridional section of

the shell. As such, we may use Fig. 5.2 which was originally designed
for a circular cylinder, but we must now read r 1 instead of a for the
radius of curvature of the middle surface. 'With the figure we may also
use (5.3b) which was derived from it, applying the same change of
notation:
r1 + z •z
v_.1 = v - - - w - . (6.3b)
rl rl
Lastly, we have again the simple relation
W.4=W (6.3c)
which indicates that the length of the line A 0 A does not change during
deformation, at least not enough to affect the kinematics of the defor-
mation.
Combining (6.2) and (6.3), we find the strains at a distance z from
the middle surface in terms of the displacements u, v, w at the middle
surface and of their derivatives:

u' v r1 + z w" z
Eo=-+ -cote/>·----.----
r r1 r2 +z rsm<J>r 2 +z
w· z w
--cote/>·--·+---
rl r2 + z r2 +z '
~ (6.4)

Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 21

322 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

These expressions may now be entered for the strains in HoOKE's

law (2.53), (2.52c) and the expressions thus obtained may be introduced
in the integrals (1.1 a, b, d, e, g-j), which define the stress resultants
(replacing, of course, the subscripts x, y by cJ>, 0). The result is the elastic
law for a shell of revolution. With the notation (5.8) for the rigidities
of the shell, this law assumes the following form:
- n[v' + w
N .p- K r2 - r, [V - w' ri w··. + U'J
- - + v u' + Vcos cf> + w sin cf>] +-:---
.,.1 r rf r2
-rl- -rl+ - - rl
-

-!E-a~ J'~dz- ~:),.2 Jt';zdz, (1

-t/2 -1/2

N o= D[ u'+vcoscf>+wsincf> v'+w]
+v--
r r1
K r - r [ v r.- 1·1 A. wsincf> w" w'coscf>]
- - -2 - -1 -------cos't'+--+- +---
rr r 1 2 r1 r2 r2 r r1

- 1 E_:_ vJ'~ dz - ( ~ ~2T zdz ' 1 :) r,

- t/2 -1/2

N =D!-v[u' +t·'-ucoscf>]+K_ !-vr2 =-__li[u'r2 -r1

<P 8 2 r1 r rf 2 r2 r1 r2
+ .!!:... .,., - r2 cot cJ> + w'' - w' .!:!. cos 1>] ,
r2 r2 r r r

(6.5a-h)
 6.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 323
The temperature terms appearing in some of these formulas are valid
for any temperature distribution T (z) across the thickness of the shell,
for example uniform heating '1' = const., the linear or almost linear
variation connected with heat flow through the shell, or the temperature
due to heat being generated in the shell material.
The elastic law (6.5) is based on two assumptions - that the dis-
placements are small, and that the normals to the middle surface are
conserved as such during deformation. These assumptions have their
origin in the theory of plane plates, and there they lead to a very simple
and appealing elastic law, stating that the normal and shearing forces
depend on the strains in the middle surface and the bending and twisting
moments depend on the change of curvature and twist of this surface.
In the elastic law for shells of revolution there are many additional
terms. We have already met with some of them in the theory of cylin-
drical shells (p. 210), but in (6.5) there are still more. Through them the
elastic change of curvature influences the normal and shearing forces,
and the strains in the middle surface influence the moments.
As in the case of the cylindrical shell, these terms are of minor-
importance, and it is well worthwhile to consider a simpler elastic law
in which they are missing. We arrive at a set of consistent formulas
when we trace the undesired terms back to their sources and there apply
some reasonable simplifications.
There are two such sources, the factors (r1 + z}, h + z) in (1.1) and
the same quantities in the kinematic relations (6.2) and (6.3). Realizing
that z is very small compared with the radii, we put r 1 + z::::: r 1 and
r 2 + z::::: r 2 in all these equations and then repeat all that we have
done before. This leads to the following elastic law, which takes the-
place of (6.5):
t,.
++
N ;= D [- - w
v u' + 7Jcos</Jr + wsin</J -
(i ) T]
+v~ ,
r1

N o= D [ u' + vcoscfJ + wsin</J + v

r
- - - (l +v) .x T] ,
v· + w
r 1

1-v[u' v'-ucos</J-j
N;o =No;= D~ ·r; + --r-- • (6.6a-f),

[ 1 ( w ·)· +~ ( ~-+w
M;=K- r r
"
rl
· cos</> ) +(1+v)x~,
a,;,
aT]
rl rl
" • )
[ 1 ( '!!:_+'!!!..cos</>+~
Mo=K-:- u·) . iJTJ ,
( . • +(1+v)x-a
r r r 1 r r1 1 z

M;o = M 0 ; = K(1- v) [~':- ~2, cos</>].

In these equations, T is the average temperature, measured on the
middle surface, and 8Tj8z the temperature gradient, assumed to be in--
dependent of z.
21*
324 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIO~

In the simplified version (6.6) of the elastic law there is no difference

between the two shearing forces and none between the two twisting
moments. It is therefore incompatible with (6.1f) unless r 1 = r 2 • The
violation of a condition of equilibrium seems to be a serious matter,
but in this particular case it may easily be justified. Both sides of (6.1 f)
are small differences between quantities which are almost equal. If these
two differences are not exactly equal, as (6.1f) demands, only a slight
adjustment of the values of the shearing forces and of the twisting
moments is needed to satisfy this equation, and since we noted earlier
that we have one equation too many, we may simply disregard the
sixth equation of equilibrium.
We have now the following balance of unknowns and equations:
If we use the exact elastic law, we have 6 equations (6.1) (among them
<>ne identity) and 8 equations (6.5), altogether 13 independent equations
for 13 unknowns (N.p, N 0 , N.p 0 , N 0 .p, 1"Jil.p, ~v/ 0 , 1l'I.p 0 , M 0 .p, Q.p, Q0 , u, v, w).
If we use the simplified form of the elastic law, we have 6 equations (6.1)
(among them one which is unimportant) and 6 equations (6.6), to-
gether 11 useful equations for 11 unknowns (the two shears and the
two twisting moments being equal). In both cases a sufficient number
<>f equations is available, and the general procedure would be to eliminate
all but u, v, w and thus to arrive at a set of three differential equations
for the displacements, as we did for the cylindrical shell. This will be
done in this book for two particular cases, the sphere and the cone.
\Vhen the loads are symmetric, a simpler procedure is possible which
is shown in the next section.

6.1.3 Axisymmctric Case

Frequently we have to deal with stress systems that have the same
axial symmetry as the shell itself. In this case the preceding equations
simplify considerably. First of all, we must drop all derivatives with
respect to (). Second, many of the stress resultants vanish identically:
the shearing forces N 4> 0 , N 0 4>, the twisting moments 1l'I4> 0 , 1vf0 4>, and
the transverse shear Q0 , but not Q.p. Also, the load component p8 is
zero. Then nothing is left in (6.1 b, e, f), and the other three conditions
of equilibrium simplify to
(rN.p)"- r 1 N 8 coscp- rQ.p = -rr1 p.p,
(rQ.p)" + r 1 N 8 sincp + rN.p = rr1 p, (6.7a-c)

In the elastic law (6.5) we drop the displacement u, which vanishes

identically, and again all prime derivatives. If we drop the temperature
 6.2 AXISY:\'Il\IETRIC LOADS 32fl

terms, we are left with the following relations:

V• -L W V ]
N.p=D [ -·-+-(vcotcf>+w)
rl r2

K r. - r 1 [( v-w ") ri
+:;--·-- -+w.. +w,
]
ri r 2 r 1

N8 = D [_!_ (vcot cf> + w) + ~ (v" + w)l

r2 rl
(6.8a-d)

K
j'JIJ.p = -- [(w"
---v)" + (v . + w) -
r - .-r +-
v (w . -
2 - 1
v) cote/> ] ,
rl rl rlr2 r2

The simplified elastic law (6.6), also without its temperature terms.
reduces to the following equations:
v"+w
N .p= D[ - vcoscf>+wsincf>J
-
r1
+v r
'

N o- v"+w]
-D[vcoscf>+wsincf> + v --,
r r1
(6.9a-d)
M .p=- K.

r1
[(w")"
-r coscf>]
w· -
+v r
--'
1

K [w"
M o= - -eoscf>
r1
--+v-.
r
(w")"J
r 1

On this level of accuracy the meridional displacement v no longer in-

fluences the bending moments.

6.2 Axisymmetric Loads

Since the differential equations are so much simpler when the stress
system has axial symmetry, we now assume that such symmetry is
present. Additionally, we shall assume that the wall thickness t is a
constant. In this case the theory has to start from (6.7) and (6.8).
As we saw on p. 214 for a cylinder and as shall see on p. 360 for a
:,;phere, the membrane theory often describes the stresses in a shell
satisfactorily, if we are able to provide those boundary conditions which
the membrane shell requires. But we have also seen (pp. 27, 33, 37)
that the desirable boundary conditions are not always those which the
membrane forces could fulfil!. It then becomes necessary to apply to
the edge of the shell additional forces N .p, Q.p and moments M .p and thus
 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

to bridge the gap between the desired deformation and the membrane
deformation. Since these edge loads are beyond the possibilities of the
membrane theory, they must produce bending stresses, and to deal
with these stress systems is the principal purpose of the bending theory.
Therefore, we now drop the load terms from the conditions of equi-
librium (6.7) and put
P<t>"" p,."" 0.
Later, on p. 359 we shall take up the load terms and shall see that we
did not lose anything essential.

6.2.1 Spherical Shell

6.2.1.1 Differential Equations
After the circular cylinder, the sphere is one of the simplest surfaces
of revolution. Therefore, we shall now develop the bending theory of
a spherical shell.
When the radius of the middle surface is a, we have
r =a sin cp.
The conditions of equilibrium (6.7) are then

(N<f>sin4>)'- N 0 coscp- Q<l>sincf> = 0,

(Q<f> sincf>)' + N 0 sin 4> + N<t> sin 4> = 0, (6.10a-c)
= aQ<I>sincf>,

l
and the elastic law (6.8) simplifies to

.v, ~~(IV+ w) + •I""'~ + w)J,

(6.11 a, b)
Yo=D rtvcotcf>+w)+v(v'+w)J, J
a

JL. = K_, f(w'- v)' + v(w'- v)cotcf>],

"' a-

.:.r/0 = ~
a-
f(w'- v) cotcf> + v (w'- v)'j.

The last two equations suggest the introduction of an auxiliary variable

w' -v
x=--a
(6.12)

which represents the angle by which an element a dcp of the meridian

rotates during deformation. Using X• we obtain the following form for
 6.2 AXISYM.METRIC LOADS 327

the moment relations:

.1l:f.p = Ka. lx· + vxcot4>J,

(6.11c,d)

The conditions of equilibrium (6.10}, the elastic law (6.11), and the
definition (6.12) are together a set of 8 equations for as many unknowns,
viz. the stress resulta.nts N.p, N 0 , Q.p, .1l:f.p, .ll-'10 , and the displa.cements
v, w, X· This set may be reduced to a. pair of equations for Q.p and X·
One of these is easily found. We only have to introduce the bending
moments from (6.11c, d) into (6.10c):

(6.13a)

The second equation necessarily contains (6.10a., b) and (6.11a., b).

From the latter two we have

v· +w = D(ta- v 2 ) (N.p- vNo),

vcot4> + w = D(t n_ v2) (N 0 - vN.p)

and by differentiating the second of these equations, we obtain for a. shell

of constant wall thickness

·v·cot4>- sm
.v2 'I'-~.+w"= D(ta- v-.)(N 0 -vN~).

·when we eliminate v· and w from these three relations, we arrive at an

expression for w"- V which, according to (6.12}, equals ax. It is

(6.14)

We now use the conditions of equilibrium (6.10a., b) to express N </>

and N 0 in terms of Q.p. When we eliminate N 0 we find that

This equation evidently expresses the fact that .the (vertical) resultant
of all forces transmitted through a. parallel circle of radius a sin4> does
not depend on 4>. Since we dropped the surface loads P.p, p,., this is the
condition of equilibrium for a zone of the shell limited by two adjacent
parallel circles. When we integrate the equation, writing

N </> sin 4> + Q.p cos 4> = - 9 P . cl> ,

.::rasm
(6.14')
328 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

the constant of integration P is this vertical resultant which, of course,

must be known. 'Ve have then
p 1
N• = -Q• cot cf>- 2 na sin2 c/> (6.15a)
and from (6.10b) we find
No= -Q: + _P___1_ (6.15b)
"' 2na sin2 c/> •
These expressions may now be introduced on the right-hand side
of (6.14). When we arrange the terms according to the derivatives of Q•,
we arrive at the following differential equation:

(6.13b)
It is remarkable that the terms with P have dropped out.
Equations (6.13a, b) are a pair of second-order differential equations
for the variables z and Q•. Since we dropped the surface loads P•, p,,
they describe the stresses in a spherical shell which is loaded at its edges
and, possibly, by a concentrated force P at the top.
The left-hand sides of (6.13a, b) are very similar to each other.
This similarity suggests defining a linear differential operator
L( ... ) = (... )" + (... )' cotcf>- (... ) cot2 cf>. (6.16)
With this operator they assume the following form:
a2
L(z)- vx = K Q••
(6.17a, b)
L(Q•) + vQ• = -D(l- v2 )X.
We may now easily separate the unknowns by substituting either Q•
from (6.17a) into (6.17b) or X from (6.17b) into (6.17a):
D(1 -v 2 )a2
L L (X) - V2 X = - K X,
(6.18a, b)
LL(Q) "Q D(1- v2)a2Q
• - v· • =- K •.

Either one of these equations may be used to solve the problem. When
we have found, say, Q• from (6.18b), we may find X from (6.17b) by
simple differentiations, and then all other quantities .may be obtained
from preceding formulas.
We rewrite (6.18b) in the form

(6.19)
with
(6.20)
 6.2 AXISYIDIETRIC LOADS 329

Equation (6.19) may be written in either of the following forms:

L[L(Q•) + 2i"2Q•]- 2i"2 [L(Q•) + 2i"2Q•] = 0,
L[L(Q•)- 2i"2Q•] + 2i"2[L(Q•)- 2i"2Q•] = 0,
which show that the solutions of the two second-order equations
(6.21a, b)
satisfy (6.18b). Because of the factor i in the second term these solutions
have complex values, and those of (6.21 b) are conjugate complex to
those of (6.21 a). The two pairs of solutions are therefore linearly in-
dependent and constitute together a set of four solutions of (6.18 b).
Since the real and imaginary parts of these functions are each a linear
combination of two of them, they are also solutions of (6.18b), and
since they have real values (the imaginary parts after dropping the
constant factor i), they are more suitable for practical purposes. To
find them, we need only to solve one second-order differential equation,
say (6.21 a). How this may be done we shall see in the next sections.

6.2.1.2 Solution Using Hypergeometric Series

When we write (6.21 a) in full, we have
Q-; + Q~cotcf>- Q•cot 2cf> + 2i"2 Q• = 0. (6.22)
This is a second-order differential equation with variable coefficients.
By introducing new variables, putting
cos 2cf>=x, Q• = z sincf>, (6.2:3)
we may transform it into a standard type:
az2 1 - 5x dz 1 - 2 i x2
(6.24)
dx 2 + 2 x (1 -x) · dx - 4 x ( 1 - x) · z = O·
This is a hypergeometric equation, and from the general theory of this
type of differential equations we may obtain the following information:
The equation
dz 2 + y - ( 1 + ac + {J) x • dz _ ac p .z = 0
dx 2 x(1-x) dx x(1-x)

has the solutions

ac{J :x(ac + 1): {J({J + 1) •
z,=F(x,{3,y;x)~1+1!yx+ 2 !·y(y+l) x·
+ ac (ac + 1) (ac + 2) • p({J + 1) ({J + 2) x3 + ...
3! ·Y(Y + 1)(y + 2)
and

and the two power series converge for 0 ~ x < 1.

330 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

When we compare the general form of the hypergeometric equation

with (6.24), we find that in our case

The two elementary solutions are then these:

_ 1 1 - 2 i x2 ( 1 - 2 i x 2 ) ( 11 - 2 i x2 )
Z., - + 2! X + 4! X
2

..!.. (1- 2ix 2)(11- 2ix2 )(29- 2ix2 ) ...a

' 6! ;{;~

+ (1- 2ix2 )(11- 2ix 2 )(29- 2ix2 )(55- 2ix2 ) x3 ,· ...

8! '
_ 112 5 - 2 ix 2 x3 12 (5 - 2ix2 ) (19 - 2 ix 2 )
zb- X + 3! + 5! X
512

(5-2 ix 2)(19- 2 ix 2 ) (41 - 2 ix 2 ) 712

+ 7! X

(5 - 2 ix2 ) (19 - 2 ix 2 ) (41 - 2 ix 2 ) (71 - 2 ix 2 )

+ 9! X
912
+ ···,
As explained on p. 329 for the solutions Q• of (6.21), the real and
imaginary parts of za and zb are a set of four independent solutions of
the shell problem. They are:
1
z = z1 = 2 (z, + z.,) = 1 + 21! cos2 cf> + 41! ( 11 - 4 x 4 ) cos 4 cf>
1
+ o! (319 -164"4 )cos 8 cf>
1
+ 81 (17545- 10456"4 + 16"8 ) cos8 cp + ... ,

z = z2 = ~ (z" + z11) = coscf> + :! cos cp +

3
5\ (95- 4x~)cos•cf>
1
+ 7 ! (3895- 260"4) cos7 cf> + ... , (6.25)

z = z3 = 2i (Z 11 - z") = " 2 [ cos2 cf> + cos4 cf> + 360

1 (359 - 4 x4 ) cos 8 cf>

+ 2 ~ 0 (209 - 4 x 4) cos8 cf> + ... ] ,

= 2i = x3 [ cos3 cf> + 56 cos5 cf>

2
z= Z4 (zb - zh)
 6.2 AXISY).ThiETRIC LOADS 331
A linear combination of these four elementary solutions, having four
.arbitrary constants C1 , C2 , C3, C4 , will be the general solution z of our
problem. For the transverse force Q.; it yields the expression
Q.; = z sine/> = (C1 z1 + C2 z2 + C3z3 + C4 z4 ) sincp. (6.26a)
Up to this point we admitted the possibility that the loads applied
to the edge of the shell have a vertical resultant P. In order to keep
our formulas simpler, we now shall restrict ourselves to the most im-
portant case that P = 0. We find then from (6.15):
N.;= -(C1 z1 + C2 z2 + C9 z1 + C4 z4 ) coscp,
N 8 = -Q~ = -(C1 z; + C2 z; + C8 z; + C4 z~)sincp (6.26b,c)
-(C1 z1 + C2 z2 + C3 z8 + C4 z4 )coscp.
Here z; ...
z~ are another four transcendental functions, linearly in-
dependent of z1 ••. z4 • The series from which they are computed, may
easily be found by differentiating those just given for z1 ••• z4 with
respect to cp.
Before we can write formulas for the other stress resultants, we
need L(Q.;)· When we introduce z", z6 into (6.21a), Za, z6 into (6.21 b),
we find
L (za sincp) = - 2i"2 z" sine/>, L(z 6 sincp) = -2i"2 z6 sincp,
L(za sine/>) = + 2i"2 za sincp, L(z6 sincp) = +2i"2 z6 sincp
and when we express here za ••• z6 in terms of z1 ••• z4 , we arrive at
the following relations:
L(z1 sincp) = -2"2 z3 sincp, L(z 2 sincp) = -2"2z4 sincp,
L(z3 sincp) = +2"2 z1 sincp, L(z4 sincp) = +2"2z2 sincp,
and hence
L(Q.;) = 2"~(- C1 z3 - C2 z4 + C3z1 + C4 z2 ) sincp.
Now we may use (6.17b), which yields
D (1 - v2 ) X = [Cl (2"2 Za - 'JIZI) + c2 (2" 2 z4- 'JIZ2)
- C3(2" 2z1 + vz3 ) - C4 (2" 2 z2 + vz4 )] sine/>. (6.26d)
and then (6.11 c, d) which yield the moments

11-1.; = D(l ~ .,2)a [C1 (2" 2 z~- vz;) + C 2 (2" 2 z~- vz;)
- C3 (2" 2 z~ + t•z;)- C4 (2" 2 z; + vz~)]sincp

+ D(l ~ v)a [Ct(2"2z3- 'JIZl) + c2 (2 "2z4- 'JI Zz)

- Ca (2 " 2 zl + 'JIZa) - c4 (2 " 2 Zz + 'JI z4)] coscp, (6.26e)

 332 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

M tJ = D (1K_ vv2) a [01 (9~ ;( 2 Z3• + 0 2 (2 ;( 2 z 4• -

- v Zt• ) •
v z 2)
- 03 (2x 2 z~ + vz;)- C4 (2x 2 z; + vz~)jsincf>
+ D(l ~ v)a [0d2x2 z3 - vz1 ) + 0 2 (2x 2 z4 - vz 2)
- 0 3 (2x2 z1 + vz 3) - 0 4 (2x 2 z2 + vz4 )jcoscf>. (6.26f)
These formulas are the general solution for the bending problem of a
spherical shell, subjected to forces and moments applied to its edges.
The four constants 0 1 ... 0 4 must be determined from four boundary
conditions, two at each edge of a spherical zone. In the simplest cases,
these conditions may refer to the bending moment .1ll.; or the rotation X,
to the transverse force Q.; or the horizontal displacement Ho.

l'ig. 6.3. Axial section through

a spherical shell

Before we enter into a discussion of the limitations to which this.

solution is subject, we shall consider an example. Both edges of a spher-
ical zone (Fig. 6.3) are subjected to uniformly distributed radial loads,
H being the force per unit length of the circumference. This force may
be resolved into a transverse force Q.; = ± H cosoc and a normal force
N.; = - H sinoc, as indicated on the left-hand side of the figure. These
components are, of course, in the relation required by (6.15a), and the·
boundary conditions for our example are these :
at cf> = 90°- oc: Q.; = H cosoc, .M.;= 0,
at cf> = 90° + oc: Q.; = -H cosoc, 11-I.; = 0.
Because of the symmetry of the shell and of the load with respect to·
the parallel circle cf> = 90° we shall need only the functions z2 (cf>) and z4 (cf>),
which have the same symmetry, and it will be enough to determine
their constants 0 2 and 0 4 from the conditions at one edge.
For numerical work we choose t = 1 in, a = 15 in, oc = 10°, and.
v = 0.3. This yields x = 4.98. When we introduce this into the series (6.25)'
for z2 , we find
z2 = coscf> + 0.833 cos3 cf> - 19.67 cos 5 cf>
- 30.93 cos 7 cf>- 27.23 cos 9 cf>::::
 6.2 AXISDDIETRIC LOADS 333

'The derivative z~ looks still worse:

z; = -sin</> (1 + 2.500 cos <J> - 2 98.35 cos 4 </>- 216.5 cos 8 </>
- 245.1 cosB<J> ± ... ) .

These figures suggest that the coefficients of the series increase more,
the farther we go. This, however, is not true. The increase is essentially
due to the powers of " 4 in the numerators of these coefficients, and if
we go far enough, the factorial in the denominator will increase faster
.and will make the coefficients decrease. But the thinner the shell, the
larger "• and the farther we have to go in these series before convergence
becomes apparent and before a numerical result of even moderate
.accuracy can be obtained.
The remaining details of the calculation are not worthwhile record-
ing here. We first determine z2 , z4 and their first derivatives for</>= 80°.
From these we formulate the boundary conditions in terms of 0 2 and 0 4 ,
.and we shall find from them 0 2 = 4.73H, 0 4 = 3.873H. Then the
formulas (6.26) may be used to compute the bending moment M•, the
transverse force Q•, and the hoop force N 0 represented in Fig. 6.4. The
diagrams give an idea of the non-uniformity of the hoop stress in the
-cross section of the ring, and they show how the edge load is distributed
.across the width of the spherical zone by bending and shear.

lb/in. lb/in. in.-lb/in.

0 4 6 8 0 0.5 1.0 0 0.5 1.0

N,

Fig. 6.~. Spheric11l shell as in Fig. 6.3, axi11l section and stress resultants for H = 1 lb/ln

One may easily understand that it is practically impossible to apply

the solution (6.26) to shells whose " is substantially greater than it
is in our example. Even for very moderate values of "• the numerical
work becomes considerable, if we are interested in colatitudes much
different from 90°. ·what can be done in such a case, may be explained
for a shell which extends from, say </> = 50° to </> = 90°. At and near
the lower border the solution (6.26) may be used; with some effort it
334 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

may be feasible to go with the series (6.25) as far up as</> = 70°. For the
upper half of the meridian, the transformation (6.23) is replaced by
another one, which brings the zero of the auxiliary variable x into the
vicinity of </> = 50°. This will again lead to a hypergeometric equation,
but its parameters will be different, and all our formulas have to be
remade. Again, four independent solutions will be found which may be
multiplied by constants, say er ... c:'
but these constants are not
arbitrary. They depend on the set 0 1 ••• 0 4 through the fact that both
solutions must represent the same function of</>. This will be assured,
if somewhere halfways down on the meridian Q•, Q~, Q;, Q;· as com-
puted from both solutions are the same. These are four conditions which
will yield four linear relations between er ...
Gt and 0 1 ••• 0 4 • Together
with the boundary conditions at both edges they suffice to determine
all eight constants.
When the shell is closed at the top, two of the boundary conditions
are lost and must be replaced by the statement that at </> = 0 all stress
resultants and all displacements must be finite. This cannot be checked
on the series (6.25), since </> = 0 is the limit of their domain of conver-
gence, and only the procedure of analytical prolongation just described
can help. ·we then use instead of (6.23) the transformation

sin 2 </> = x, Q• = z sin</>

and we shall be led to a hypergeometric equation which has one regular
solution and one with a singularity at </> = 0.

6.2.1.3 Asymptotic Solution for Thin-walled Shells

When we are particularly interested in large values of the param-
eter u, we may think of expanding the solution of (6.22) into a series
in negative powers of u. For this purpose it is convenient to employ
another transformation, which has the advantage that the first derivative
of the unknown disappears entirely and that the variability of the
remaining coefficient is not all too large. "\Ve put

Q·= y (6.27)
1/sin cp
and obtain from (6.22) the differential equation

y.. + y (2 - 34cot2 cp -A-

1 9) = O• (6.28)
Here

is an imaginary constant of large absolute value.

 6.2 AXISY1\L\IETRIC LOADS 335

If we were to neglect the first term in the parenthesis as being small

compared with ,1,.2, (6.28) would have the simple solution
y= e;.,p.

Since A. is complex, this function describes oscillations with exponentially

increasing or decreasing amplitude. As an approximate solution of (6.28)
it is better, the larger lA. I is, and we may therefore assume the solution
as the product of this approximation and a series of descending powers
of.A.,
cc
Y = e'- <P 'L; A- " Yn (cf>) (6.29)
n=O

with y 0 (cf>) ""' 1. When (6.29) is introduced into the differential equa-
tion (6.28), the following relation results:

e'-<P L; (.A.-" y~· + 2.A_-n+I y~ + ~ ;.-•• (2- 3cot cf>)y,) = 2 0,

and from it we obtain a recurrence formula for the y,.:

Yn+l = -
0 1
2
..
y,.- s1 (?~-.,cot
•) 2 A..
..,.,) y,. (6.30)

It yields Yn+l from Yn by an integration, and therefore a new constant

enters with every step. It is easily seen that we may choose these con-
stants quite arbitrarily. If we add, for instance, such a constant c,
to Yn, then Yn+l will be increased by CnYl, Yn+ 2 by cny 2 etc. The whole
sum in (6.29) will then be increased by a factor (1 + cnJ,.-n) which is
without interest, since at a later stage we shall multiply the solution y
with an appropriate constant to meet the boundary conditions.
When we really perform the integrations indicated by the recurrence
formula (6.30), we obtain the following functions:
Yo(c/>)=1,

Yd cf>) = - ! ( cf> +
5 3 cot cf>),

Y2 (c/>) = 1 ~ 8 (5 c/> 2 + 6 cf> cot cf>- 3 cot 2 c/>).

For practical computation purposes it is often preferable and never
objectionable to tabulate these functions with the complement angle

as the argument and to choose the constants of integration so that the

functions are either even or odd in "P· When this is done, the following
336 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

set is obtained:

Yo (tp) = 1•
1
Ydtp) = S (5 tp - 3 tan tp),

Y2 (tp) = 2
1: 8 (5tp 2 - 6tp tan tp- 3 tan tp),

Ya (tp) = 3 ; 72 ( 120 tp + 25 tp 3 - 216 tan tp - 45 tp2 tan tp

- 45 tp tan 2tp- 63 tan3tp),

y 4 (tp) = 98~ 04 (2400tp 2 + 125tp4 - 5760tptantp- 300tp3tantp

- 6624tan 2tp- 450tp 2tan 2 tp- 1260tptan3 tp- 2835tan'tp).
If need should be, more of them may be found from the recurrence
formula (6.30).
In the formulas for the stress resultants we shall need the derivatives

The first four are these :

y~ = --} (2 - :3 tan 2 tp),

y; = - : 4 (2tp- 6tantp- 3tan2 tp- 3tanatp),

y~ = 1: 24 (32- 10tp + 60tptantp
2 + 150tan2tp + 15tp2tan2tp
+ 30tptan3 tp + 63tan 1 tp),
y~ = 24~ 76 (240tp- 50tp 3 + 4752tantp + 450tp 2 tantp + 2610tptan2tp
-;- 75 tp 3 tan 2tp + 6462 tan 3 tp + 225 tp 2tan 3 tp + 945 tp tan 4 tp + 2835 tan:; tp) .
A short table of these functions is given on p. 338. It may not be suffi-
cient for all practical problems, but it will be useful as initial information
for the general layout of numerical work.
The functions Yn may now be introduced into (6.29). Since A is
double-valued,
A= 2 i " = ± (1 _ i) "v'-
this will yield two linearly independent solutions which may be multi-
plied by arbitrary constants A and B:

y = A e"~ e-i><~ J:
?0
Y~
(1- t)•x•
+ Be-"~ ei"~
n
J:
00

=O
.
(-1)"
y• .
(1- t)•x•
71 =O
 6.2 .AXISYl\-ThiETRIC LO.ADS 337

The first one of these functions decreases exponentially when we proceed

from the base to the top of the shell, the second one does so when we
proceed in the opposite direction. The A solution will therefore describe
a stress system caused by loads applied at the base </> = </>1 (Fig. 6.5),

Fig. 6.5. Spherical shell with

two edges

and the B solution will correspond to loads at an upper edge </> = </> 2 ,
hence will not appear at all in a shell which is closed at the top. Since
in thin shells both stress systems are only of local importance, it is
useful to introduce local coordinates in the border zones, putting
</> = </> 1 - w1 in the A solution and </> = </> 2 + w2 in the B solution. We
may then absorb a constant factor e"<J-i)~, or e"O-il+• in the con-
stants A and B respectively and may write

A e.......• (cos:v.w1
""
""'
. . . 1 ) .t:..-
+ ~sm:v.w
y = (1 _y,.")" ..
n=O l "

. .
+ B e-'"" • (cos:v.w2 + ~sm:v.w ) ~ (-1)"y,.
2 .t:..- ( 1 _ ")" ...
n o 1r " :::a:

After separating real and imaginary parts in these expressions, we may

write y in the following form:

y = Ae-""'•[(Y1 cos:v.w 1 - Y2 sin:v.w 1 ) + i(Y2 cos:v.w1 + Y1 sin:v.w 1 )]

+ Be-""'•[( Y3 cos;ao 2 - Y4 sin:v.w 2 ) + i ( Y 4 cos:v.w 2 + Y3 sin:v.w 2 )],
(6.31)

where Y1 ••• Y4 are four series in descending powers of :v.:

y1 = i + J!l
2x
Ya
- 4" 3 -
y,,
4"'- 8"'
Yr, Y1 7
+ 16" Ys 8 + · · · '
+ 16x 1
y2 = !!_r. + ~ + !!.!..3 - ~ - .Jft_ - _}b_ + ...
2x 2"2 4" sx• 8"" 16"7 '
(6.32)
Y3 =1-J!]_ +J!1.__JA_+~ _...J!.:!._+ ~--··~
2" 4lt
3 8"5 4"' 16"7 16" 8 '

y4 = _ }!]_ + .J!.:!.. _ J!1._ + Ys __ J!..!_ + _.!!:!___ _ ••••

2" 2" 2 4"3 8 "" 8 "' 16 " 7
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 22
338 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

We may then use (6.17b) and (6.21a) to express the second principal
variable, X, in terms of Q<l>:

D(1- "2)X = (2i" 2 - v)Q<t> = (2i" 2 - v) Vs~<(>,

Table 6.1. Functions Yn and y~

tp Yt Y2 Ya y, y; y; y; y~
oo 0 0 0 0 -.2500 0 .1562 0
50 .0217 -.0012 -.0139 -.0039 -.2471 .0277 .1638 .0901
100 .0430 -.0049 -.0291 -.0160 -.2383 .0579 .1871 .1897
15° .0631 -.0115 -.0473 -.0376 -.2231 .0936 .2287 .3097
20° .0817 -.0215 -.0703 -.o711 -.2003 .1382 .2936 .466
25° .0978 -.0360 -.1005 -.1206 -.1685 .1964 .3899 .681
30° .1107 -.0564 -.1413 -.1928 -.1250 .2748 .531 .994
35° .1192 -.0848 -.197fl -.2988 -.0661 .3834 .741 1.472
40° .1217 -.1246 -.2769 -.458 .0140 .538 1.058 2.240
45° .1159 -.1808 -.3916 -.705 .1250 .764 1.5.'56 3.552
50° .0985 -.2614 -.563 -1.109 .2826 1.109 2.380 5.95
55° .0644 -.3804 -.831 -1.812 .515 1.661 3.834 10.75
60° .0050 -.562 -1.278 -3.153 .875 2.602 6.64 21.50
65° -.0952 -.858 -2.092 -6.045 1.475 4.362 12.75 49.6
70° -.2667 -1.380 -:J.78.5 -13.51 2.581 8.119 28.66 140.5

,,
Table 6.2. Coefficients for Spherical Shells
I c

Q<l> 1 yl
1
X D (1 - v2 )
- (2xz Yz + v r~>

N<t> 1 - Y1 cot<(>

No 1 z1 Y cot<(>- [Y . + x(Y
1 1 1 + Y2 )]

1 ~ (2x2 J'2 + vY1 )cot<(>- (2x 2 Y; + vY;)

X D(1 - v2 )
+ 20(Y1 - Y2 ) - vx (Y 1 + Y2 )
--
1
K 2 (1- 2v)(2x2 Y2 + v Y1 )cot<(>- (2x 2 Y; + v Y;)
ffl<l> Da(1- v2 )
+ 2x 3 (Y1 - Y2 ) - vx(Y1 + Y2 )

K - ~ (2- v)(2x2 Y2 + v Y1)cot<(>- v(2x2 Y; + v Y;)

Mo Da(1- v2)
+ 2vx3 (Y1 - Y2) - v2 x(Y1 + Y2 )
 6.2 AXISll\ThiETRIC LOADS 339

and introducing y from (6.31) here, we find.

x= 1.V. {A.e-""'•[(-(2x 2 Y2 +vY1 )cosxw1

D(1- v·) smcp
- (2x 2 Y1 - 11 Y~)sinxw 1 )
+ i ((2 x 2 Y1 - 11 Y2) cosx w1 - (2 x 2 Y2 + v Y1 ) sinx w1)j
+ Be-""'•[(- (2x 2 Y 4 + 11 Y3 )cosxw 2 - (2x 2 Y3 -11 Y4 )sinxw 2J
+ i ((2 x 2 Y 3 - v Y 4 ) cos x w2 - ( 2 x2 Y 4 + 11 Y 3) sin x w2) J} .

Both Q.; and X are complex-valued functions of cJ>. As explained

on p. 329, their real and imaginary parts represent independent solutions
of the fourth-order shell problem, whose general solution with four free-
constants A 1 , A 2 , B 1 , B 2 is therefore:

Q.; =V .1 cp {e-""'' f.A 1 (Y1 cosxw1 -

Rill
Y2 sinxw1 )

+ A 2 (Y 2 cosxw1 + Y1 sinxw 1 )J
+ e-""'•[BdY3 cosxw 2 - Y4 sinxw 2)
+ B 2 (Y4 cosxw 2 + Y3 sinxw2 )j} (6.33)1

Table 6.2. (Continued)

- ~ ( 1 - 2 11) (2 x 2 Y1 - v Y 2) cot <P + (2 x 2 Y~ - v Y;)

+ 2x3(Y1 + Y 2 ) + vx(Y1 - Y2)

22*
340 CK\.P. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIO~

and a similar expression for X· The normal forces N~ and N 8 may be

found from (6.15) and the bending moments .1rl~ and M 8 from (6.11 c, d).
For greater simplicity we shall again assume that P = 0. In this case
the formulas for all the stress resultants and deformations may be written
in the form

f= .c
Vsmcp (C""'' [(A1f1 + Azfz) cos" W1 + (A 2 f1 - A 1 j 2 ) sin x wd

+e-""'•[(B1 g1 +B2g2)cosxw2 + (B 2g1 -B1 g2)sinxw2]}. (6.34)

The values of the constant c and the functions f 1 , f 2 are given in Table 6.2.
Similar expressions for g1 , g 2 are obtained as indicated at the bottom
of the table.
The formulas of this table represent the solution of the problem,
but this solution still needs some discussion. The series employed here
are not truly convergent. One may see this at once in the vicinity of
the point cp = 0. There cotcp--.. oo and the higher n, the more strongly Yn
approaches infinity. The solution has the character of an asymptotic
solution. For a fixed number of terms in each of the series (6.32) our
formulas approach the true solution better, the larger x is; but for a
given x they always keep from it a distance that cannot be decreased
indefinitely by using more terms of the series.

Fig. 6.6. Spherical tank bottom

The use of the method may be illustrated by analyzing the spherical

bottom of a reinforced concrete water tank (Fig. 6.6). This shell has
been investigated by J. E. EKSTROM1 for the edge load H = 1095 lb/in,
JJ, = -9715 in-lb/in. When we assume with EKSTROM v = 0, we find
Y. = 10.42. This value is rather high for the first method and will give
considerable trouble with the power series (6.25). On the other hand, x
is not large enough for the simple solution explained in Section 6.2.1.4,
but it is just right for the asymptotic solution under consideration.
1 Ing. Vetensk. Akad. Stockholm, Hdl. 121 (1933}, p. 126.
 6.2 AXISY.M.METRIC LOADS 3-!1

We pick from Table 6.1 the numerical values Yn and y~ for <J> = -!0
and find from (6.32):
Y1 =0.995, Y2 =0.00340. Y;=0.01289, Y~=0.01919.

These series converge well, e.g.

y; = 0.01355 - 0.00053 - 0.00013.

Using (6.34) and Table 6.2, we may now easily formulate two equations
for the constants A 1 and A 2 , expressing the boundary conditions that
Q.p = - H sin 40° = - 704lbjin and .lV<P = - 9715 in·lbjin. They yield
A 1 = - 581lbjin, A 2 = + 194.0 lbjin. Introducing these figures into (6.34)
and making further use of the table, we may compute all the stress
resultants. Two of them, Q.p and 1lf</>, are shown in Fig. 6.7. As far up

M</>
-10 .10 3 in.-lb/in.
-5
0+-------==~~----~~
20°
5
Q</>
Fig. 6.7. Stress resultnnts in the -400 lb/in.
shell of Fig. 6.6 - 2 00 <I>

OT------=~~==~--~
200 200 400

the meridian as </> = 20° the series (6.32) are easy to handle. Beyond
that the convergence becomes unsatisfactory, but the stress resultants
are already so small that they have no practical interest.

6.2.1.4 Simplified Asymptotic Solution

If one tried to apply the asymptotic theory just presented to a. rein-
forced concrete dome with u = 30, he would find that each of the series
Y1 ... Y 4 is practically reduced to its first term. This simplifies ap-
preciably the numerical work, but there still remains a chance for a
more drastic simplification. All displacements, deformations, and stress
resultants have the form

e±"<Pf(</>)cosu<j> or e±"<i>f(</>)sinu</>,

where /(</>) does not vary much in the interesting range of the coordi-
nate <J>. Every derivative of such a product has the same form but an
additional factor u. When xis sufficiently large, it is possible to neglect
342 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

the lower derivatives of a variable compared with the highest one,

unless a coefficient is extremely large.
When we apply this idea to (6.16), we recognize that the lower
derivatives in the operator L are multiplied by cot<f> and cot2<f>. Now,
for</> > 30° or even :>25°, cot<f> is still of rather moderate size, and then
the operator L simplifies to the second derivative:
L( ... ) = (... )".

E(1uations (6.21a, b) then become differential equations with constant

coefficients:
Q~ ± 2ix 2 Q~ = 0,

and their combined solution is

Q~ = Ct e(l + il><~ + Cz e(1- il><~ + c3 e-(1 + il><~ + c" e-(1- il><~.
There are different ways of writing this in a real form. They all consist
in using as a fundamental system four linear combinations of the com-
plex exponentials, e. g.

or, with another set of constants,

Q~ = 0 1 Coshx<f> co:sx<f> + 0 2 Sinhx<f> sinx<f> + 0 3 Coshx<f> sinx<f>
+ 0 4 Sinhx<f> cosx<f>. (6.36)
The constants A and B or C are detet·mined by the boundary conditions
at the edges </> = </>1 and </> = <f> 2 of the shell. If these edges are not too
close together, the A terms will predominate at the lower and the B
terms at the upper edge and, because of the rapid increase or decrease
of the exponential factors, the predominance of one pair at each edge
is often so strong that for all practical purposes the two pairs of boundary
conditions are independent of each other. In such cases it is useful to
introduce again (see p. 337) the coordinates w 1 = </>1 - </> and w 2 = </> - </>:.
and, with a different meaning of the notation for the constants, to write
Q~ = e-><w, (A 1 cosx w 1 + A 2 sinxw1 ) + e-""'• (B1 cosxw 2 + B 2sinxw2 ).
(6.37a)
Formulas for the normal forces may easily be established by intro-
ducing (6.37 a) into (6.15) from which, of course, the P terms must be
dropped:
N~ = -Q~cot</>,
N 8 = -Q~ = -xe-""'•((A 1 - A 2)cosxw1 + (A 1 + A 2)sinxw1] (6.37b,c)
+ xe-""'• ((B1 - B 2) cosx W:. + (B1 + B 2) sinx w2].
 6.2 AXISYM.METRIC LOADS 343

The rotation X of the shell element is found by introducing (6.37 a)

into (6.17 b), using there the simplified form of the operator L and
neglecting the term with Q41 against L (Q41 ):

D(l- v2)X = -Q"i = 2x 2 e-""'' [A 2 cosxwi- A 1sinxwij

- 2x 2 e-""'• rB 2 cosxw 2 - B 1sinxw 2]. (6.37d)

When we introduce this into the elastic law (6.11 c, d), we do not only
neglect X compared with x·, but we also drop the term v2 /4 in (6.20)
and arrive at the following formulas for the bending moments:

(6.37 e,f}
In many practical cases, in particular in the simpler ones, it is useful
to write the solution (6.37 a) in still another forli. which has as free
constants two amplitudes cl' c2' and two phase angles "Pl' "P2:

Compared with (6.37 a}, this version has the disadvantage that it will
not be possible to obtain linear equations for the constants "PI, 1p2; but
when it is possible to see at a glance which values the phase angles
will have, then (6.38a) has the advantage that only two linear equations
will be needed instead of four. Going through the same procedure as
before, we again find the relations (6.37b, f) for N 41 and 1Jtf8 and for the
other quantities the following formulas:

N6 = xV2 [- C e-""'•sin(xw1 + VJ
1 1 - :)

+ C e-""'•sin (xw +VJ

2 2 2 - :)] ,

D(l- v2)X = 2x 2 [C1 e-""'•cos(xw1 + VJ1)

(6.38c-e)
+ 0 2 e- ""'• cos (x w 2 + tp 2)J ,
.J.l/41 = ~- [c1e-""'• sin (x w1 +"PI + :)
)( lt2
- C 2 e- ""'• sin ( x w2 + 1p2 + : ) ] .

Equations (6.38) represent the form of the solution which is most

frequently used when dealing with practical problems. We may derive
344 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

from it ready-to-use formulas for two important cases, described by

Figs. 6.8a, b.
In both cases we must drop the 0 2 solution and we may then write w
instead of w1 . In the first case, Fig. 6.8a, we have at cf> = cp 1 , w = 0
the conditions Q.p = 0 and M.p = .M, which lead to

"Pl = 0, C1_- 2uM . (6.39)

a

For the application to statically indeterminate structures, it is good to

know for w = 0 the rotation X and the hoop strain. They are
4u 3 M 2 u 2 111
X = b (1 - l'2 ) a' f 8 = D ( 1 - v2 ) a · (6.39')

~
-~+
~
(a)
, ·

-a
M

Fig. 6.8. E<.lge loa<.ls at a

H H spherical cap

In the second case, Fig. 6.8b, the boundary conditions are .iJ!I.p = 0
and Q.p = - H sincp 1 . They yield
n
"Pt= -4, (6.40)
and
" 2H stn'Y
X= ~u . -~. 1
D (1 - v2 ) '

The application of these formulas may be seen in two examples.

When a spherical container (Fig. 6.9) is partially filled with a hot
liquid, not only the weight of the content will lead to stresses in the
wall but also the difference in temperature between· the hot and the
cold parts of the shell. We intend to find these thermal stresses, assuming
that the sphere is just half filled.
When we cut the cold and the hot hemispheres apart along the
equator, there will be no thermal stress, but a gap of width arxT between
the edges, rx being the coefficient of thermal expansion and T the differ-
ence in temperature (Fig. 6.9b). To close this gap, radial forces H must
 6.2 AXISYl\lliETRIC LOADS 345

be applied which will bend the upper shell outward by ~a ex T and the
lower shell inward by the same amount, thus producing hoop strains
Eo = ±~exT. From symmetry it follows that the rotation X will then
be the same at both edges so that the tangent to the meridian will be

H
Fig. 6.!1. Spherical tank half
tilled with a hot liqnid

continuous without the application of moments ll-1. The upper hemisphere

is then exactly in the situation described by Fig. 6.8b and from (6.40')
we find with cf>1 = 90°:
H = D(1- r)~T
4x '

Now all the formulas (6.38) may be used to find anything we want. In
Fig. 6.10 the hoop force N 0 and the meridional bending moment llf+ are
plotted for a rather thin steel shell, having " = 28.73. The diagrams
show that the thermal stresses are limited to a zone of about 6° on
each side of the discontinuity. In such cases the real forces and moments
will be smaller because the local change of temperature is never as
sudden as we assumed it to be. If the shell is thicker, the zone of thermal
stresses will be wider, and then a slight smoothing out of the discon-
tinuity of the temperature will not greatly influence the result of the
stress analysis.
A second example may explain the cooperation of different shells.
Fig. 6.11 shows a cylindrical boiler drum closed by a hemispherical end.
346 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

\Vhen an internal pressure pis applied, the membrane theory will yield
the following normal forces:
in the cylinder:

in the sphere:
1
N~=No= 2 pa.
At the juncture of the two shells (x = 0 and cf> = 90°), the meridional
forces N x and N ~ are in equilibrium with each other, but there is a

I 11
-2010

100 200 lb 1 2 3 4
x10 3 lb/in.
Fig. 6.10. Thermal stresses In the tank of Fig. 6.9a

(b)

Fig. 6.11. Hemispherical boiler end, (a) axial and transverse sections, (b) cylinder and hemisphere
cut apart to show the redundant stress resultants X 1 , X 2
 6.2 AXISDDIETRIC LOADS 347

.discrepancy in the hoop strains. In the cylinder we have

1 pa (2- v)
Eo= Eoc = D(1- v2) (No- vNx) = 2D(1- v2)

.and in the sphere

1 ., p a ( 1 - v)
Eo= Eos = D(1- v2) (No-v.!\~)= 2D(1- v2).
'The membrane forces will therefore only be possible if we separate the
two shells (Fig. 6.11 b), and then the deformation will be such that the
edges do not fit together. We may make them match by applying radial
forces XI and, perhaps, moments X 2 in order to make the taugents of
the deformed meridians also coincide. \Ve consider these two quantities
as redundant in a statically indeterminate structure and have already
introduced the pertinent notation. The deformations corresponding to
the redundant quantities are the radial gaping
D(1- v 2 ) a(E 0, - E0 J = D(1- v 2) (w,- we)= OI
and the angular gaping

'They may be written as

OI = 010 +XI Ou + x2 012•
o2 = o2o + x1 o21 + x2 o22•
thus separating the term due to the membrane forces:

and the terms due to a unit of X 1 or of X 2 , respectively. These latter

deformations are connected with bending stresses in both shells. For
the cylinder, we use the formulas of Section 5.5 2.1, in particular (5.85')
and (5.86'), and for the sphere (6.39') and (6.40').
We assume that both shells have the same wall thickness t. Then
the constants " used for cylinder and sphere are the same, at least if
we decide to neglect the small term v2 /4 in (6.20). From (6.40') and (5.86')
we find
, D(1 - v2 ) a 3
011 = 2 x; a + 2 K x• = 4Xa,
D(1-v2 )a 2
021 = 2 x;2 - 2 K x2 = 0'

and from (6.39') and (5.85')

s - " 2 D ( 1 - v2) a2 - 0
Ut 2 - ~ " - 2 K ')(2 - '

4 'X3 D (1 - v2) a 8 'X3

022=-+
a K 'X =-.
a
348 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION"

The conditions for the compatibility of deformations,

read therefore
pa2 8 x3
- 2 +X1 ·4xa=0,
-
. .Y.·-
(/
= 0
'
and their solution is obviously

\Ve may now find all stress resultants for the sphere from (6.38) with
:r
"Pr= -4

and all those for the cylinder from (5.86) with H = - X 1 , in particular·
the bending moment

in the sphere and

2
M
x
=- --e -><.r/a srn-
pa
8x 2
. xx
a

m the cylinder, as well as the hoop force (including the membrane·

force)
No= pa( ~ +~ e-><wcosxw)

in the sphere and

1 e-><xla cos
N 8 = pet ( 1 - '4 aXX)
in the cylinder. These stress resultants are shown in Fig. 6.12 for·
tja = 0.010 and v = 0.3. In the N 0 diagram one recognizes the con-
tinous transition of the hoop force (shaded diagram) replacing the dis-
continuity of the membrane theory (broken line). In the bending mo-
ment diagram both maxima are equal, ± 0.244 x 10-3 pa 2 , and the zero
between them coincides exactly with the boundary between cylinder·
and sphere. This fact indicates that a welding seam should be placed
right along this line and not at a short distance away from it where
it might easily get into a region of maximum bending stress.
It is interesting to compare Fig. 6.12 with the stresses in a vessel
like Fig. 6.13a. This pressure vessel is closed by a shallow spherical cap.
of radius b = afsincf> 1 . The membrane forces in this cap are
pb pa
N~ =No= 9 = ---;--;:-,
2
- sm"'1
 6.2 AXISHThiETRIC LOADS 349
·whereas the cylinder has the same membrane forces as in the preceding
-example. The particular difficulty of the problem consists in the fact
that these membrane forces cannot be used as the internal forces of
a principal system, because they are not in equilibrium with each other
and the pressure p. We see this at once when we cut the two shells
apart (Fig. 6.13b). The axial component paf2 of the force N+ in the
sphere is transmitted to the cylinder as a force N x, but the radial com-
ponent of N+ has, so far, no counterpart on the left-hand side of the
cut. To procure it, we must still apply a transverse force

Fig. 6.12. Stress resultants (discontinuity stresses) at the juncture of a cylindrical boiler rlrum and
a hemispherical boiler end

x. x.
I I
I I
I I
·-+-I --'j-·--·
I
I I
I I

(a) (c)

Fig. 6.13. Shallow spherical boiler end, (a) axial section, (b) forces in the principal system,
(c) redundant quantities
350 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

at the edge of the cylinder, and the bending stresses which it causes are
a part of the stresses of the principal system.
From this basis we may proceed in the usual way and apply radial
forces X 1 and moments X 2 along the edges of both shells (Fig. 6.13c),
choosing their magnitudes so as to restore the continuity of deformation.
There is no difficulty in formulating the equations which express the
continuity of Eo and x, but the computation soon gets rather bulky and
we leave it to the reader to work out the details.
A result which has been obtained in this way is represented in
Fig. 6.1-1. In this example it has been assumed that the walls of the

Fig. 6.14. Stress resultants nt the juncture of a cylindrical boiler drum and a shallow spherical
boiler end

cylinder and the sphere have the same thickness t with tja = 0.010 and
c/> 1 = 45°. The N 0 diagram shows that a zone with high compressive
stress develops on both sides of the edge, indicating the usefulness of
a reinforcing ring along this line. The distribution of bending moments
is also entirely different from Fig. 6.12. Instead of having a zero at the
joint between the shells, the moment has a sharp peak there, and this
peak is so high (8.92 x 10- 3 pa 2 ) that it was impossible to draw the
ordinates of the moments in Figs. 6.12 and 6.14 to the same scale.
These results indicate clearly that it is not a good practice to have
a sharp edge between the boiler end and the boiler drum, and one may
 6.2 AXISnL"\1ETRIC LOADS 351

easily conclude that an almost sharp edge in the meridian, rounded by

an arc of great curvature, is almost as bad. If for some reason or other
the edge cannot be avoided, one should at least provide a strong stiffening
ring there. The stress analysis will then be still more involved, but it
will pay because of the partial reduction of the bending stresses in the
shell.

6.2.1.5 Bending Stresses in the Vicinity of the Apex

Of the three solutions explained in the preceding sections, only the
first one is applicable, after some modifications, to the top of the shell
and its immediate vicinity. It is, however, subject to the difficulties
resulting from the slow convergence of the power series employed.
In some cases another approach is possible. In the vicinity of cf> = 0,
cotcf> may be expanded into a LAuRENT series:
1 cp q,a
cot cl> = ~ - 3 - 45 - ... '

and if cf> is small enough, we may approximate cotcf> by cf> -t. When this
is done in the coefficients of (6.22), it reads
Qii + cp- 1 Q~- cp- 2 Q• + 2 i x 2 Q• = 0.
This is almost BESSEL's equation. ·when we introduce a new independent
variable
~= "l'2 i cl>'
it will assume the standard form

(6.41)

On p. 291 we met this equation, and we saw that its solutions are the
BESSEL functions of the first order of the complex argument~- It was
explained there, how these functions may be written in terms of the
first derivatives of the THOMSON functions of the real variable

x=xct>f2.
so that we may write
Q• = C1 [(bei 'x- her 'x) + i(bei 'x +her 'x)]
+ C2 [(ker 'x + kei 'x) + i(ker 'x- kei 'x)].
\Ve know that real and imaginary parts of this expression will separately
satisfy (6.19), and so will any linear combination of these four functions.
In this way we finally arrive at the following form of the general solution:
Q• = A 1 ber 'x + A 2 bei 'x + B 1 ker 'x + B 2 kei 'x. (6.42a)
352 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

When we introduce this into (6.17) to find x, we make use of (5.102)

which allow the elimination of all derivatives higher than the first of
the THOMSON functions, and we obtain
D(1- v2 ) X= A 1 (2" 2 bei 'x- v ber 'x)- .4 2 (2" 2 ber 'x + v bei 'x)
+ B 1 (2" 2 kei 'x- v ker 'x)- B 2 (2"2 ker '.-c + v kei 'x). (6.42b)
We may now use (6.15) with P = Oto find the normal forces and (6.11 c, d)
for the bending moments:
x<P =- q,-lQ<P,
Xo = "v2rAdbeix + x-l ber'x)- A2 (ber X - x-1 bei'x)
+ Bdkei x + x-lJmr 'x) - B 2 (ker x - x-1 kei 'x)], (6.42 c-f)

.JI<P = Dr~~~"2v2) {A 1 [ 2 " 2 ( berx- 1 : vbei 'x) + v( bei x + 1 : vber'x) J

+ A 2 [2" 2 (beix + 1 : vber'x)- v(berx- 1 ~ vbei'x)]

+ B 1 [ 2 " 2 ( ker x - 1 ~ v kei 'x) + v ( kei x + 1 ~ vker 'x)]

+ B 2 [2"2 (keix+ 1 : vker'x)- v(kerx- 1 : vkei'x)]}.

Jfo = D:(7V:v 2) {A 1 [2 " 2 (v ber:t: + 1 ~ vbei'x) + v(v beix- 1 : vbcr'x)]

+ .A 2 [2" 2 (vbeix--1 ~vber'x)-v(vberx+ 1 :vbei'x)]

+ B 1 [2" 2 (vkerx+ 1 ~vkei'v)+v(vkeix- 1 ~vker'x)]

+ B 2 [2" 2 (vkeix- 1 ~vker'x)-v(vkerx+ 1 ~vkei'x)]}.

In the preceding section we have seen that the bending stress system
consists of two parts: one which assumes large values near the lower
edge of the shell and decreases in damped oscillations as we go up the
meridian, ami. another one which is in the same way related to the
upper edge. The same is true here. The A terms in (6.42) are regular
functions of x and hence of cJ> which increase as cJ> increases. Consequently,
they are associated with the lower (or outer) edge of the shallow shell.
The B terms show the opposite behavior. The functions ker x and ker 'x
are infinite for x = 0, and they as well as kei x and kei 'x decrease in
damped oscillations as x increases. They describe the stresses caused
by loads acting at the edge of a hole or by a concentrated force applied
at the top of the shell. If there is neither such a force nor a hole, we must
ask that the solution be regular at x = 0, and this requires that
B1 = B 2 = 0.
 6.2 AXISDIMETRIC LOADS 353
We may use the solution (6.42) to study the effect of a light dishing
of a circular plate. When the plate is plane and carries a uniformly
distributed load p (Fig. 6.15a), the radial bending moment is

and tbe tangential moment

On a sphere (Fig. 6.15 b), a vertical load p, constant per unit of projected
area, has the components
p~ = p coscp sine/>, p,. = - P cos2cp
and leads to the membrane forces

N0 = -!-pn(l- 2cos2cp),

as one may easily verify from (2.10) and (2.6c). In order to have only
vertical reactions at the edge of the shell, we have to superpose the
horizontal load H = ipa cosoc indicated in Fig. 6.15b. It may be re-
solved into a transverse force Q~ = - H sinoc and a normal force

Fig. 6.15. Circular plate and

shallow spherical shell

N ~ = H cosoc. With this information, we go into formulas (6.42). Since

there is no hole at the center of the shell, we drop the B terms and
find A 1 , A 2 from the conditions that for cp = oc there is

Q~ 1 .
=- 2 pacoSOCSlna:, M~=O.

Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 23

354 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

In the general case this will lead to rather clumsy formulas for A 1
and A 2 , and it is advisable to introduce in time the particular numerical
data of the shell under consideration. However, if we assume v = 0,
simple expressions are obtained:

pacosasina(x0 berx0 - bei 1 x0 )

A2= +--~-.~~-- .-~~--~~~~~~~
x 0 (ber x0 bei x 0 - bei x 0 ber x0 ) + ber 12x 0 + bei 12X 0
1 I '

x0 = xl/2a.
From these, the Figs. 6.16 and 6.17 have been computed which may
illustrate the behavior of such slightly dished circular plates.

Fig. 6.16. Strees resultants in two

slightly dished circular plates

Fig. 6.16 shows the meridional bending moment .Lli• and the hoop
force N 0 for two shells both having IX= 10°, but bft = 5 and = 25.
In the thicker shell the bending moment has the same distribution as
in a flat plate (broken line) and is only slightly smaller. The hoop forces
are not much compared with the almost constant· membrane value,
and their distribution over the radius is distinctly different from that
of the membrane forces. In the central part of the plate we have com-
pression, and at least a part of the load is carried by vault action, but
in a wide border zone the hoop stress is positive. This zone replaces the
missing foot ring; it resists by its hoop force the radial thrust of the
inner part.
 6.2 AXISl.~ThiETRIC LOADS 355

The thinner shell represents a transitional case between the platelike

thicker shell and a typical thin shell. The bending moments show clearly
the tendency to concentrate in a border zone, although this zone is still
rather wide, and the inner part is by no means free from bending. In
the N 0 diagram the zero has moved outward and in the central part N 0
not only has approached the membrane value but has overshot it con-
siderably. When we make the shell still thinner this will be remedied,
the border zone will become still narrower and the positive peak value-
of N 0 will become still higher.
16

12

Nd
8
Pb

10 b 20
T
Fh;. 6.1 i. Stress resultants (.Y 8 at the edge, Jl.p at the center) for a slightly dished eircular plate·

This tendency becomes clearer from Fig. 6.17. Here ll'I.p for the center
and N 0 for the edge of the shell have been plotted against bjt. One
recognizes the rapid decline of the bending moment which may even
become negative and finally will approach zero in rapidly damped
oscillations. On the other hand, N 0 increases more and more since the
membrane thrust of the shell requires a certain total amount of hoop
stresses which are concentrated in a zone which becomes narrower as.
the shell is made thinner. This indicates clearly the necessity of a strong
reinforcing ring at the edge of a thin shell, while a thick shell (say bjt = 5)·
may well take care of itself, behaving essentially like a plate.
The second and more important application of the formulas is made
when studying the stresses near a small hole at the top of the shell,
such as a manhole in a boiler end or a skylight in a dome. The roof
structure shown in Fig. 2.4 may serve as an example. The shell has two
edges, and each of them must be treated in a different way. Near the
upper edge the solutions of Sections 6.2.1.3 and 6.2.1.4 cannot be used,
and the exact solution of Section 6.2.1.2 is too laborious; but the basic·
assumptions underlying (6.42) are fulfilled. The B terms of these equa-
tions are suitable for describing the bending stresses near this edge, but
the A terms would assume their largest values far down the meridian,
23*
356 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

i.e. in a region where (6.42) are no longer applicable. They cannot be

used to treat the bending problem at the lower edge, but there the
solutions of the preceding sections may be applied, e. g. (6.37), from
which the B terms must then be dropped.

6.2.1.6 Concentrated Load at the Apex

On p. 25 we have seen that a shell of revolution may carry a con-
centrated force at the top but that in this case the membrane forces
must have a singularity of the order cp- 2 • It may be expected that in
the vicinity of the singular point the deformation will be such that
bending moments of appreciable magnitude appear, and they will, of
course, modify but not remove the singularity. The solution based on
the differential equation (6.41) is the instrument for a detailed study of
this problem.
This equation has been derived from (6.17), in which we permitted
the stress resultants acting across any parallel circle to have a vertical
resultant P. This force P may now be identified with the load applied
at the apex of the shell, positive when downward.
Since the force P does not appear in (6.17), the solution (6.42a) is
still valid, but since we are interested only in the stresses in the vicinity
of the apex, we must now drop the A terms. The same is true for (6.42b),
but we must now use (6.15) as they stand and find from them

N~ = - cp- 1 ( B1 ker x + B 2 kei

1 1
x) - ~ cp-2
::.:n:a
,
(6.42 C1 , d 1 )

N0 = x V'2fBt(kei x + x-1 ker 1

X)- B 2 (ker x- x- 1 kei 1 X)j + 2 :a cp- 2 •
These formulas take the place of (6.42c, d), while (6.42e, f) again remain
unchanged except for the dropping of the A terms.
We now have to determine the constants B 1 and B 2 • Obviously,
this cannot be done from a condition of equilibrium as we did for the
membrane forces on p. 25, since (6.14 1 ) already assures the equilibrium
of a shell element at the apex. We may go a step further and ask for
finite displacements or even for· finite deformations. The first thing to
be done in this regard is to make X= 0 for x = 0. Now kei' 0 = 0,
ker 1 0 = oo, and therefore the coefficient of ker 1 x in (6.42 b) must vanish.
This coefficient is - v B 1 - 2 x 2B 2 and hence
V
B2 = - 2 )(• Bt .

Now we look at the normal forces. Using the relation between the
two constants, we may write (6.42c 1 ) as:

N~ = - x 1f2B 1 x-1 ( ker 1 x - 2:. kei 1 x) - '::: x- 2 •

 6.2 AXISDBIETRIC LOADS 35i
To proceed further, we need the series expansions of the THOMSON
functions involved. Each of them consists of a power series and of one
or more singular terms:
ker 1 x = - x- 1 + (-{g x 3 + ···) ln x + power series in x,
kei 1 x = - (~ x + ···) ln x + power series in x ,

and the two power series have no constant term. Since x 2 lnx-+ 0, N <P has
two singular terms, one with x- 2 and another with lnx:

N .p = (" V2B 1 --
p " 2 ) x--
na
_., V Bl 1
----
2V2u
nx + ....
It is not possible to make both of them vanish, but we may rid ourselves
of the stronger one by choosing
P%
BI = V2na .

The meridional force has then a logarithmic singularity

vP
N .p = - 4n a In x + ···
which disappears entirely for v = 0.
When we collect the singular terms in (6.42d1 ), we find that N 0 has
the same singularity as N <P. The strains E.p and ~:: 6 are then of the same
type, and the displacements which are integrals of the strains, will be
finite.
With the particular values for the constants, (6.42) yield the following
formulas:

Q.p = -
1
12 na
_p X [k er I
X - V k Cl. I X
9"2
-"
l ,

Pa k .1
X=
2 V2 7l K"
Cl X'

y
~ <P = - np aU x
2
[ker x - 1
2"2
V k•x + x- J,
·e1
I 1

(6.43)
N6 = Pu
na
2
[keix + x-1 ker 1X + x- 2 + 2 v.
r
(ker x- x-1 kei 1 x)] ,

~V[.p = 2p7l rker X - (1 - V) x-1 kei 1 X J ,

fffo = 2:rvkerx + (1- v)x-1 kei xJ. 1

Numerical results obtained from these formulas are shown in Fig. 6.18
for tfa = 0.01 and v = 0. The transverse forces and the bending moments
 CH...-\P. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

are localized in the vicinity of the singular point. Both normal forces
assume finite values at the apex, and with increasing </> they approach
the values given by the membrane theory.

~~
\
\
\
r~-0.02 I
I
I

-1 + 0.02
I
I
J
·2
I 0 _04 \ ..--Membrane force
I! \
\
''

\
No~> \
\
I -2o
Membrane force----"\
I
Fig. 6.18. Stress rcsultants near a concentratcu force applied to a spherical shell. linits of the
scales: for Q~. N~. No: Pta; for 111~: P

The singularities of Q~ and of 1ll ~ are identical with those which

occur in a flat circular plate. Indeed, when we replace in the preceding
formulas ker 'x and kei 'x by their singular parts and put in the same
degree of approximation
kerx;:::; -lnx,
then we obtain
p" -1 p 1
Q~=---x =---
V2na 2:z:a4>'
p p
1l<I~ = 1l<I0 =- 4 :z: (1 + v) lnx = - 4 :z: (1 + v) (In a</>- const.),

and these are exactly the singularities known from the theory of circular
plates where the plane polar coordinate r takes the place of a<J>.
 6.2 AXISYMMETRIC LOADS 359
6.2.1.7 Surface Loads
When writing the differential equations (6.10), we dropped the
surfare loads. Consequently, all differential equations turned out to be
homogeneous, and we worked out their solution in great detail. When
we now want to keep P+, p, in the equations, we only need to look for
one particular solution of the differential equations.
It may be left to the reader to repeat the process of elimination
described in Section 6.2.1.1. After writing - p+a sine/> and + p,a sincf>
on the right-hand sides of (6.10a, b), respectively, he will find that no
changes occur up to (6.14). The equations (6.15) must be replaced by
the following :
N+ = -Q+ cotcf>- F(cf>),
(6.44a, b)
N 6 = -Q4, + F(cf>) + p,.a,
where

When this is introduced into (6.14), a load term appears on the

right-hand side, and (6.17a, b) become these:
a2
L (X) - v X = K Q+'
(6.45a, b)
L(Q+) + vQ+ = -D(1- v2)X + (1 + v) p+a + p;a.
Elimination of X yields at last the equation

LL(Q+) + 4"4 Q+ = C/>(cf>) = (1 + v) aL(p+) + aL(p~)

- v(1 + v) p+a- vp;a. (6.46)

We want to find a particular solution of this equation for a few im-

portant cases of loading.
6.2.1.7.1 Internal Pressure. We see at once that with P+ = 0, Pr = p
the right-hand side of (6.46) vanishes. We are then back to the homo-
geneous problem with the only difference that with Q+ = 0 (6.44a) is
identical with the membrane equation (2.10) and yields for the particular
solution a non-vanishing value of N +.
6.2.1.7.2 Weight of the Shell. With

P+ = p sincf>, p, = -p coscf>

we find
C/>(cf>) =- (1 + v) (2 + v) pasincf>.
360 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

Since L (sincf>) = - sincf>, there exists a particular solution of (6.46) in the

form
Q• = Csincf>,
and one verifies easily that it is

Q• = - (1 + v) (2 + v) 1 !:" sincf>.
4

6.2.1. 7.3 Hydrostatic Pressure. Any hydrostatic pressure may be

replaced by the sum of a constant pressure and another hydrostatic
pressure with a different position of the zero-pressure level. Since we
have dealt already with the case of constant pressure, we may assume
the variable part in its most convenient form

P• = 0, p, = ya coscf>,
where r is the specific weight of the liquid inside the shell.
For this load we have
<P(cp) = (1 + v)ya2 sincf>,
and consequently
Q• --~ :a,· A..
1 + 4 ~ r a sm 'I' •

6.2.1. 7.4 Centrifugal Force. We denote by /-' the mass of the shell per
unit area of its middle surface. When the shell rotates with the angular
velocity w about its axis, the centrifugal force acting on each element
has the components

P• = l-'aw 2 sincf> coscf>,

\V e find easily that in this case
<P (cp) = - (:3 + v) (5 + v) l-'a 2 w 2 sincf> coscf>
and
Q• =- (3 + v){S + v) 1La2w2sin"'cos"'.
25+4"4 r 'I' 'I'

In all cases except the trivial first one, there appears a denominator
containing " 4 • Since this is a rather large number, for thin shells in
particular, the transverse shear Q• is very small as compared _with the
normal forces N• and N 0 • We conclude that the membrane solution,
which assumes Q• """ 0, is almost identical with a particular solution of
the bending equations. This justifies once more the general use of the
membrane solutions in lieu of particular solutions of the bending theory.
In the case of an exceptionally thick shell, of course, there always
exists the possibility of using one of the preceding particular solutions
or a similar one and thus improving the accuracy of the stress analysis.
 6.2 AXISYl\DIETRIC LOADS 361

6.2.2 Shells Having a lUeridian of Arbitrary Shape

6.2.2.1 Elastic Law
When we adapted the general elastic law (6.8) to the special case of
a spherical shell, we obtained the simple equations (6.11 ). The subsequent
processing of these equations is contingent upon their simplicity. When
we want to proceed in a similar way in a more gener·al case, we first
must simplify the elastic law. But, strangely enough, the simpler law (6.9)
is too simple and does not lend itself to the method used for the sphere.
What we need is an intermediate form, and this we shall now derive.
The terms (v" + w)fa and (v cot<f> + w)fa in (6.11a, b) may easily be
recognized as the strains E~ and Eo of line elements on the middle surface.
Therefore, (6.11a, b) may be written as
(6.47 a, b)

and the simplified equations (6.9) for the general shell of revolution have
the same form with
r" +w vcotcp + w
(6.48a, b)
E~=-r-' Eo= .
1 r2

The general equations (6.8) contain additional terms with the factor f{.
Since KfD = t2 f12a 2 , these terms are rather small, and it is not serious
to sacrifice them, if they stand in the way to the solution of the problem.
The moment equations are less simple. The term x"fa in (6.11c, d)
is the difference of rotation of two tangents to the meridian, x· d<f>,
Jivided by the length a d<f> of the line element, i.e. the elastic change ;(~
of the curvature of this element. vVe may suspect - and we shall soon
see that this is true- that X cot<f>fa is the change u 0 of the other principal
curvature. Equations (6.11 c, d) would then assume the very plausible
form
(6.47 c, d}

These are the same equations which occur in the theory of plane plates,
where u~ and u 6 stand for the second derivatives of the deflection with
respect to a pair of rectangular coordinates. Also the simplified shelt
equations (6.9c, d) agree with this form. if we identify w"fr1 with X· But
this is an over-simplification which would bar the way to the solution
which we seek. What we need is the combination of (6.47 c, d) with
the definition (6.12) for X· To obtain it, we study the elastic change of
curvature of the shell.
Since we are dealing with axisymmetric stress systems, the deformed
middle surface is also a surface of revolution. Fig. 6.20 shows two pic-
tures of a piece of a meridian. In Fig. 6.20a a point A undergoes a dis-
362 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

placement v on the meridian. The normal rotates counterclockwise by

a.n angle vfr1 , and so does the tangent. In Fig. 6.20b a line element
AB= r1 dcp is shown. When both its ends are subjected to the same

Fi~. 6.19. )leriJian of a shell of revolution, showing the rotation of the tangent, (a) due to ''•
(b) Jue to w·

-displacement w there is no rotation of a tangent. But when the point B

has an additional displacement w· dcp, the tangent rotates by w· dcpfr1 dcp
= w'fr1 , but this time in clockwise direction. By linear superposition
we find that the total rotation is
w·- v
'1=-- (6.49)
A rt '

which confirms the interpretation given by (6.12).

The tangents at the ends of an arc element r1 dcp rotate by X and
.7. + x' dcp, respectively, and when we divide the relative rotation x' dcp
by the length r 1 dcp of the element, we have the change of curvature

(6.50a)

It should be noticed that we have divided the angle between the tangents
by the original length r 1 dcp of the line element, not by its actual length
(1 + €4>) r 1 dcp. This is the reason why, with r1 = const., the derivative v'
makes a contribution to u<l>, although the radius of curvature does not
change with v·, whereas a uniform displacement w does not contribute,
although it increases the radius from r 1 to r 1 + w. As (6.11 a, b) show,
this interpretation of "change of curvature" is a good one for the sphere.
The general equations (6.8) do not confirm it, but we may still consider
jt a reasonable approximation also in the general case. ·
To define the second principal curvature we need a line element ds
-on the middle surface, tangent to a parallel circle but situated in a
 6.2 AXISYMl\IETRIC LOADS 363

plane containing the normal. In the undeformed shell its radius of

-curvature is r 2 , its curvature 1fr2 , and the angle between the tangents
.at its ends (1/r2)ds.
When the shell is deformed, the radius is again that part of the
normal which lies between the middle surface and the axis revolution.
Let its length now be r:
and the length of the element ds* = (1 + Ea)ds.
'The true curvature of the element is 1/rf and the angle between the
tangents at its ends is ds* fr:, hence the decrease of this angle, caused
by the deformation, is
ds ds*
fz"- r: ·
'To be consistent, we must divide this decrease by the original length ds
and thus find what we should call the elastic decrease of curvature:
1 1 + eo
Xo
1
= -:--
r2 *r1 -ds*
2 ds = -r - 2
- r.2 - .

We shall now work out separately the c-ontributions to x 6 made by

-the displa.cements v and w (Fig. 6.20).

·-rf>
I
(a) (b) I

Fig. 6.20. ~Ieridian of a shell of revolution, showing the change of r 2 , (a) due to v, (b) due tow.

=
First we assume that w 0. The displacement v shown in Fig. 6.20a
;leads to an increase of radius
ri- r 2 = 3!... (r1 - r 2)cot<J> ~
rl

-while (6.48b) yields E8 = (vfr 2 ) cot<J>. We have therefore

364 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

which, by the usual procedure of expanding the denominator, yields

Now we assume v = 0 and consider the influence of w. A uniform

displacement w does not make a contribution, since it does not lead.
to any rotation of tangents. But when the normal rotates by the angle-
u/ fr 1 , the radius r 2 is increased by

while Eo = 0. The contribution to "o is then simply

1 w·
"o = -
r2
- *r21 = -cot cf> .
rxr2
When all displacements occur together, we have the total change of
curvature

"o = ( -v + w") cot= ~cot cp. (6.50b)

rl r2 r2
Using (6.50a, b) we may rewrite the elastic law (6.47 c, d) for the--
bending moments as

~l(; x cot cf> ) ,

= K ( -x: + v-
rl r2
(6.51a,b).
J.f0 x
r2
x:)
=K (-cotcf>+v-.
rl
This appears to be a reasonable extension of (6.11 c, d) of the sphere ..
But when we compare (6.51) and (6.8), we see that we have dropped
the terms with (r2 - r 1). As (6.48a, b) show, these terms contain E.;
and f.o, respectively. If there is much bending in the shell, these terms
are small compared with the " terms, and if at places the bending
moments are small, we do not care to get them with much accuracy ..
This reasoning justifies the use of (6.51) as the elastic law for the bending
moments.

6.2.2.2 Differential Equations

6.2.2.2.1 General E11uations. The conditions of equilibrium (6.7), the·
elastic law (6.9a, b), (6.51a, b), and the kinematic relation (6.49) are
again a set of 8 equations very similar to those used for the spherical
shell on p. 326, and they may be treated in exactly the same way. To-
obtain all desirable and possible generality, we shall not only allow r 1
and r 2 to be arbitrary functions of cp, but we shalJ &ls0· inelude the
possibility that t depends on cp.
 6.2 AXISY.M~IETRIC LOADS 365

From (6.7c) and (6.51) we obtain the equation

]
+ v - v -K"
r1r2Q.p
r1
- [- cot 2 c/>
~ K
cot c/> x= -- .
K
(6.52 a)

The equation replacing (6.14) reads now

(6.53)

and (6.15) are replaced by

(6.54a, b)

It appears that we should use r 2Q.p rather than Q.p as our second un-
known. When we carry the elimination to its end we obtain the following
equation replacing (6.13b):

(6.52b)

The P term does not drop out in this case. Its coefficient is

'I' _- 2:osm
g (,!..) 1.
2 - --C
[ri r~O t 'I'+
,1..
-r + v-r1-
( r2 )" +-
r1
r2 -
D
D"] . (6.55)
</> r1 r 2 1

Equations (6.52a, b) are now the differential equations of the bending

stress problem. For arbitrary shapes of the meridian and an arbitrary
variation of the wall thickness it may be necessary to solve them as
they stand by numerical integration. There are, however, important
groups of shells which allow further simplification, and these we shall
now discuss in detail.
6.2.2.2.2 Constant Wall Thickness. If t = const., then f = 0 and conse-
quently also D" and K" vanish. In this case the coefficients of the first
derivatives in (6.52a, b) become equal, and we may introduce the
differential operator

L 1 ( • • •) = -Tz - -
( •• .)""
+ [ r2
-eo
r1
t .,-
,~.. + (rz)"]
-r 1 -(...r -)" - r1
r2
.,- · (.- · .) .
-eotU r
(6.56)
r1 r1 1 1
366 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

This is a generalization of the operator L of (6.16). When we put r 1 = r:z:

= a, we obtain L 1 = Lfa.
With the operator L 1 , (6.52) may be written as
v r2Q<1>
L1 (X) - T; X = ] ( '
(6.57a, b)·

and. we may now separate X and r 2 Q.p by the same procedure as that
used for the spherical shell. The term with P is no major obstacle;
however, we shall again drop it to keep our equations simpler, leaving
it to the reader to work it in when needed.
Eliminating x, we obtain for r 2 Q.p the equation

r2Q4>) v v2 D (1 - v2 )
L 1 L 1 (r 2 Q.p)+vL 1 ( - - - L 1 hQ.p)-2r2 Q.p=- K r 2 Q.p.
rl rl rI
(6.58)
It differs substantially from (6.18 b) by the presence of the second and
third terms, which make it impossible to split it into two second-order
equations. In the general case it is necessary to solve the equation as it
stands by numerical integration.
\Ve make further progress toward simpler equations when the two
embarrassing terms cancel each other. Evidently this is the case when
r 1 = const., i.e. for spheres, cones, and toroids. It even happens for any
meridian, if we may assume v = 0, an assumption often considered
legitimate for reinforce<:!. concrete structures.
In all of these cases (6.58) assumes the form

(6.59)
in which

(6.60)

is a constant. This equation has the same form as (6.19) and by the same
method may be split into two second-order equations

(6.61a, b)
Again it is enough to solve one of these equations, because the real
and imaginary parts of its two solutions are four independent solutions
of (6.59), as explained on p. 329. We shall come back to this equation
on p. 377 when treating the conical shell of constant thickness.
6.2.2.2.:3 Variable Wall Thickness. We shall now consider shells whose
wall thickness t depends on the coordinate </> but not on fJ. However,
 6.2 AXISYMMETRIC LOADS 367

we shall assume that the shell is homogeneous, so that (5.8) for the
rigidities apply. We have then

When we introduce these values in (6.52a, b), the coefficients of the

first derivatives are no longer identical. Such identity may be brought
about by the substitution

by which these equations assume the following form:

(6.62)

We may now introduce an operator similar to Land £ 1 • When we make

our choice, we try to make the coefficients of U and V on the right-
hand sides constant to facilitate the following elimination of one of the
,-ariables. We therefore define

(6.63)

Most terms of this operator become identical with those of t L 1 if we

put t = const., but the identity is not perfect. Therefore, (6.61) assume
now the less symmetric form

(6.64a,b)

where g(cp) is given by (6.55) and

(6.65}

As before, we simplify our task by considering only the case P = 0.

Elimination of either U or V from (6.64) leads then to the two indepen-
368 CIUP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIO~

dent equations
L 2 L 2 (V)- 2L 2 (/V) + 12(1- v2 ) V= 0, (6.66a, b)
L 2 L 2 (U)- 2fL 2 (U) + 12(1- v2 )U = 0.
These equations differ from (6.59) by the presence of the second term
with the variable /(c/>) before or under the operator L 2 • In general these
fourth-order equations cannot be split in pairs of second-order equations.
We may find the conditions under which it can be done by simply
assuming that the solution U of (6.66b) satisfies the equation
(6.67)
and by investigating the consequences of this assumption. From (6.67)
we find immediately

and when we introduce this and (6.67) into (6.66 b), we may reduce it to
the simple form
[c 2 + 2cf + 12(1- v2 )] U = 0. (6.68)
This can be fulfilled for all values of cf> only if the bracket vanishes
identically, and this is not possible unless

/(c/>) = f = const.
Tltis is the splitting condition. When the meridian shape is given, the
condition may be interpreted as a differential equation for the wall
thickness t = t(cf>). Since (6.65) contains r·, it is of the second order.
In addition to the two free constants which its solution necessarily
contains, it has a third parameter, the arbitrary choice of the constant f.
There are two cases in which (6.65) has, among others, the trivial
solution t ~ const.: where r 1 = const. with arbitrary v and where v = 0
with any r 1 .
For a given value of the constant f, the vanishing of the bracket
in (6.68) yields for c two values
c1. 2 = -/ ± lf 2 - 12 ( 1 - v 2 ), (6.68')
and with each of them (6.67), being of the second order, will yield a
pair of independent solutions. As soon as they have be.en found, V may
be obtained from (6.64 b) and (6.67) without an additional integration.
Since we assumed P = 0, we have

(6.69)

and here the same value for c (c 1 or c2 ) must be used with which U
satisfies (6.67).
 6.2 AXISHIMETRIC LOADS 369

It may be seen from (6.65) that I is of the order tfr1 , hence a rather
small quantity; therefore c1 and c2 are conjugate complex. As in the
case of a spherical shell, it is enough to solve (6.67) and (6.69) for c = c1
and then to use real and imaginary parts of the solution separately
as a fundamental system of solutions of (6.66).
In the general case of constant I but variable t according to (6.65),
the operator L 2 is rather involved and there is little hope of solving (6.67)
by analytical means. But even if the complex-valued variable U must
be found by numerical integration, it is quite an advantage when this
may be done from the second-order equation (6.67) instead of the
fourth-order equation (6.66b).
When we have U, (6.69) yields V; with U and V we have Q.; and X·
From the latter pair we may find the bending moments from (6.51),
and the normal forces from (6.54), where we must put P = 0.

6.2.2.3 Approximate Theory for Thin Shells

6.2.2.3.1 Differential Equations. In Section 2.1.4 we took advantage
of the fact that in a thin spherical shell subjected to an edge load all
stresses decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the edge and
that, therefore, their higher derivatives are of higher order of magnitude.
The laborious computations required by the theory just described sug-
gest tentatively adopting the same simplifying idea in the general case
of a meridian of arbitrary shape. If the solutions obtained in this way
have the assumed appearance, the procedure is justified; if not, it is
not admissible.
If we admit that the lower derivatives of any variable may be neg-
lected compared with the highest and if we exclude the top of the shell
where cotcf> assumes large values, then the operator L 2 , (6.63), is reduced
to
( ) r.t ( .•. )"" '
L 2···=~2-
rl

and we may at once neglect the second term in (6.66b) and write

!:!!. (r2 t u··)"" + 12 (1- 1-" 2) u =

0.
ri 'I
In the first term of this equation we differentiate the product and then
neglect u·· and U... compared with U", and when we then write r 2 Q.;
for U, we may again neglect lower derivatives of Q.;. In this way we
finally end up with the simple equation
(6.70)
in which
(6.70')

Fhigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 24

370 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

is a given function of q,. We shall now study in detail two cases in which
this equation admits simple solutions.
6.2.2.3.2 Constant"' Shell with Deformity. It may, of course, happen
that ~ is a constant; or " may vary so little that it may be considererl
constant in the narrow border zone where stresses of appreciable mag-
nitude occur. In these cases (6.70) is solved by exponential functions,
and we may almost literally repeat everything that has been said for
the spherical shell on pp. 342-343.
Having so extended the applicability of the formulas (6.35), (6.36),
(6.37), (6.38) to other than spherical i:!hells, we may use them for an
interesting investigation.
Because of the limits of accuracy of all workmanship, the middle
surface of an actual shell always deviates a little from its intended shape.
Although such deviations should be small compared with the over-all
dimensions of the shell, they may easily be of the order of the wall
thickness, and the curvature of the middle surface may locally be rather
different from that used in computing the membrane forces. The prob-
lem is to determine what influence such deviations from the true form
have on the stresses.
We investigate this problem in a model cal:!e, assuming that the
deformity is the same in all meridians, so that the actual shell is also
a shell of revolution. Fig. 6.21 shows the meridian of such an almost
hemispherical dome. Between 4> = 60° and 4> = 75° the circle of radius a

Fig. 6.21. ~Ierldlan of an almost hemispherical dome and membrane forces for uniform dead load
 6.2 AXISYl\UIETRIC LOADS 371

is replaced by circles of the following radii:

60° < cf> < 64,: r 1 = 0.4526a,
64° < cf> < 71°: r 1 = 1.6230a,
71°< cf>< 75°: r 1 = 0.4526a.
Although these radii are rather different from a, the deviation of the-
middle surface is not more than 0.25% of a, much tou small to be visible
in Fig. 6.21. However, with aft= 200 this is 0.5t.
The diagrams in Fig. 6.21 show the membrane forces as calculated
from (2.10) and (2.6c) for a uniform dead load p. The meridional force
is not visibly different from that of an exact sphere, but, because of
the discontinuity of r 1 , the N 6 diagram looks rather wild. Since dis-
continuities in N 6 are equivalent to discontinuities in E6 , they cannot
exist in the shell. To remove them, we cut the shell into five zones
with continuous curvature and apply appropriate forces and moments
at their boundaries. The moments are bending moments 1II~, and the
forces consist of transverse forces Q~ and normal forces N ~ = - Q~ cotcf>,.
which combine to a hm·izontal load. Thus each of these loads is self-
equilibrating.
These edge loads produce bending stresses. Zone 1 and 5 are parts.
of a thin spherical shell, and ~ is a constant:

~1 = ~s = if31i; = il3 ·1;2-oo = 18.61.

We may apply here any of the solutions offered on p. 342 and we choose·
(6.37). In zone 1 we drop the B terms and write w 1 = 60° - cf>; in zone 5·
we drop the A terms and write w2 = cf> - 75°.
The other three zones are not spherical, and ~ must be computed
from (6.70'). At the edges of the zones it has the following values:
zone 2: cf> = 60°: ~2 = 8.42; cf> = 64a: = 8.51;
~2

zone 3: cf> = 64a: ~3 = 30.51; cf> = 71°: = 30.03:

~3

zone4: cf>=71°: ~ 4 = 8.37; cf>=75',: ~ 4 = 8.42.

Evidently, ~ is almost constant in each zone and we may use average·

values, viz. ~2 = 8.46, ~3 = 30.25, ~ 4 = 8.39, and then apply (6.36) as a
solution of (6.70). We write it in a still different form, introducing as.
coordinates

in the three zones and putting for n = 2, 3, 4:

Q~ = C111 Cosh~,.w,. cos~ 11 w,. + C211 Sinh~ 11 w, sin~,w,,
+ C3 ,. Cosh~,.w" sin~,.w" + C4 " Sinh~,.wn cos~,.w". (6.71 a}
24*
372 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

This is indeed a solution of (6.70) if~ = const., but the meaning of the
coefficients ctn··· is different from that of the factors et··· in (6.36).
The following formulas will fit our new solution:

- (C 1 " - C2,)Coshx"w"sinx,w,
+ (C3n + C4,)Cosh~ 11 w,.cosx,.w,.

D X= - r~Q""
72 ~ (6.i1 b-el)
1

+ (C1 " + C2 ,) Cosh x,. w, sin x,. w,

- (C3" - C4n) Cosh x,, w,. cos x,. w,,

\Ve have now 16 unknowns, the constants A 1 , A 2 in zone 1, B 1 , B 2 in

zone 5, and 4 constants C in each of zones 2, 3, 4, and we have 16 con-
ditions from which we can find them, 4 at each of the boundary circles
between the zones. They are these: On each of these circles the value
of Q~, j}f~, and X must be the same for the two adjoining zones, and N 0
must have a discontinuity which is equal but opposite in sign to the
discontinuity of the membrane force N 0 visible in Fig. 6.21. After these
equations have been solved, (6.37) and (6.71) may be used to compute
all stress resultants. The most interesting ones are plotted in Fig. 6.22
over the arc length of the meridian. In the hoop-force diagram. the
deformity of the meridian causes considerable waviness, and in the
middle of the disturbed part N 0 really reaches the membrane value.
But there are no discontinuities left, and the curve makes only a feeble
attempt to follow the two high peaks of the membrane force. Fig. 6.22b
shows the bending moment 1lf.p. It is difficult to understand this curve
unless some scale of comparison is available. It is therefore more in-
structive to consider the eccentricity "vi ~IN 4> of the normal force which
may be compared with the wall thickness t. In Fig. 6.22 c it is represented
in the following way: The abscissa is again the arc length of the meridian.
The ordinates of the heavy line give the deviation z of the actual meridian
from a circle, positive when inward. From this line the eccentricity
 6.2 AXISY.:\DIETRIC LOADS 373
e,p = M ,p/ (- N ,p) has been plotted so that the thin line gives the position
of the resultant force in any cross section. The diagram shows that this
force always keeps close to the actual meridian, but that it has a certain
tendency to level out the bumpiness of the shell. The greatest eccentricity
is about 9 ~;, oft.

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
o~=-------+-~=--=~------~-+----------~

(a)

6
3
0+-----~~-,-,-r----------~~--.-~~------~
s
-3
-6
-9
-12

1
z/1
0.4 e~/1 ~
0.2 ~ s
o~---==---~~~T~----------------,~~~~---=------~·~
I I I I
(c)

Fig. 6.22. Stress resultants for the hemispherical dome of Fig. 6.2l

The deformity of the shell which we have investigated here, is of a

rather special kind, since it has axial symmetry, but it may be assumed
that also in shells with locally restricted deviations the essential features
of the stress disturbance will be similar.
:374 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

6.2.2.3.3 Variable x. When xis not a constant, (6.70) has a variable

coefficient; but if x varies slowly we may write

and therefore

The right-hand side of this equation is zero if

Q~ ± 2 ix 2 Q.p = 0 , (6.72)
and this pair of second-order equations with variable x 2 may replace
(6.70).
There is one case of particular interest in which these equations may
easily be solved. Because of the local bending moments, many shells
are reinforced in a border zone by gradually increasing their thickness
toward the edge. It is often possible to choose the thickness so that x
may be represented by the formula
ex
X=-- (6.73)
f3+rf>
in which a and {3 are constants, a of the same order of magnitude as x,
that in the following formulas we may neglect 1 compared with a 2 ,
~-;o
hut not necessarily compared with a.
With x from (6.73), (6.72) assumes the following form:

and this equation obviously has solutions of the type

Q.p = ({3 + </>)"'.

Indeed, when this expression is introduced, the equation

m(m- 1) ± 2iac 2 = 0

results from which we find

The four combinations of plus and minus signs yield four independent
solutions; when we take them all together we have

Q.p = ({3 + cpy-+' 1• [Cl ({3 + <W" + C2 ({3 + cp)-i"J

+ ({3 + </>)-<"'-''•) rc3 ({3 + <J>li" + c4 ({3 + <J>l-i~J
 6.2 AXISYl\U'iETRIC LOADS 375

as a possible form of the general solution. We may replace it by a handier

expression. First, we bring the brackets into a real form, writing e. g.
for the first one

C1 exp[ ia In (fJ + <f> )] + C 2 exp[- iodn (/J + <f> )]

= (C1 + C 2) cos[cdn (p + </>)] + i (C1 - C 2 ) sin[a In (/J + <f>)].
This is a linear combination of a cosine and a sine, and with other con-
stants it may be written

A 1 cos ( a In f1
fJ+rf>)
+ 1>1 + A 2 sm .' In {1f1+1>)
. ~a + q,1
where </> 1 is the value of <f> at the lower edge of the shell. When we remove
a constant factor (/J + <f>1)-(ac+ 'I•> from the constant, we arrive at the
first line of the following expression:

Q~ = (~: !J"' 'I• [ + A 1 cos (a In~: !J + A sin (a ln ~: !J]

2

+ (~: :J-(ac-'/•l [B 1 cos ( ctln ~: !J + B 2 sin (xln ~: :J]. (6.74a)

This is the form which we finally adopt for the solution. The A terms
decrease in damped oscillations when <f> decreases; the B terms do the
same when <f> increases: if the shell is thin enough (i.e. if a is large enough),
the two lines of (6.74a) represent the two local stress systems at the
lower edge and at the upper edge, respectively.
We may now obtain X from (6.64 b) which, with our simplifying
assumptions including P = 0, reads

Etx =- ~~ Q~;
1

then we may find the normal forces from (6.54) and the bending moments
from (6.51 ). We give here some of the resulting formulas:

X= ~a:~~ L{J: q, 1 ) 2 (~: :J-•t. [A aIn~: :J -A aln~: :J]1 sin( 2 cos(

- ({J +1</> 2 )2 (~: :J-<~+•I.l [B !J -B ~::J]},

1 sin ( xln:: 2 cos ( cdn

N0 =- 1 _,_ ("'p + "')"-' 1'

:zrzl(_{J (6.74b,c)
+ +
:J - !J]
r1 '1'1 rf>1

+ A 2) cos ( xln ~:
[ (A 1 (A 1 - A 2) sin (aln ~ :
1 (fl
+ </> )-(a+'/ 2)

-f1+1>. fl+<P.
[ (B1 - B 2) cos (aln ~: ! 2) + (B1 + B 2) sin (a ln;: :J j},
376 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

As an example of the application of these formulas we consider a

hemispherical concrete dome of a = 26' radius and t = 1.5" wall thick-
ness. This dome carries a dead load p = 35lbjft2 • At the springing line
the shell is assumed to be clamped to an unyielding support (e.g., an
extremely strong foot ring or a thick ceiling slab). Because of the bending
stresses, the thickness in the border zone increases gradually from 1.5"
at cf> = 80° to 2.25" at cf> = 90°.
If one tries to interpolate " and consequently t between these limits
with the help of (6.73), he finds (X= 842°, {J = -35.7°, and the wall
thickness obtained for intermediate locations looks reasonable (Fig. 6.23).
One may now use (6.74) to compute a bending stress system which
produces at the edge the rotation X= 0 and a hoop force N 0 = -910 lbjft

-,---
so·_ll ',. 1.s"

I
I
I
--...,.;:n---
S4°
-1
I
I
I
S6°
--, I
I

Total 1
I
ss• N,
_ _ _j
I

I
?I
Membrane 1
I

910 lb/ft

Fig. 6.23. Reinforced edge of a hemispherical dome; meridional section and stress resnltants
 ti.2 AXISYl\11\IETRIC LOADS 377

which just compensates the membrane force N 6 = + 910 lbfft. The

ensuing stress resultants are shown in Fig. 6.23. They decrease to·
insignificant values within the zone of variable wall thickness, so that
it is not necessary to follow them farther into the shell of constant
thickness.

6.2.3 Conical Shell

6.2.3.1 Constant Wall Thickness
On p. 366 we have seen that the conical shell is among those for·
which the fourth-order equation (6.58) may be split into a pair of second-
order equations, and we may therefore build the theory on (6.61 )..
However, on the cone cf> is constant along the meridian and cannot serve
as a coordinate. Therefore, we first transform the general equations to
a more suitable independent variable. \Ve choose the distance 8 from
the top of the shell, measured along the meridian. It is connected with cf>·
by the relation
d8=r 1 dcf>.

When we introduce it into MEISSNER's operator (6.56) we find the follow-

ing expression which is also useful for other than conical shells:

L( ... ) d2(, .•) t-1.. d( .•. ) 1 t9A., ( )

= ra d82 +eo 'l''d8- r2 eo-.,. .....

In the particular case of a cone, we have

cf>=cx., r2 = 8 cotcx.
and therefore
L( ) = [ d2( ... ) d( ... ) - <~] t
·•· 8 d8 2 + d8 8 eo ~ ·

When this expression for the operator L is introduced in (6.61 a, b)'

and Q., is written for QtJ>, these equations assume the following form:
d2(8Q,)
(I82+8d8+ -
1 d(8Q,) (
82
1
± i,u
2 tana)
8 8
Q
,= 0 . (6.75a,b)

Equations (6.75) are the differential equations of our problem. Their·

solutions are, of course, conjugate complex, and it will be enough to solve·
one of the equations, say (6.75a), and then use the real and imaginary
parts of this solution separately as solutions or' the fourth-order equa
tion (6.58) which we do not need to transform to the coordinate 8.
Equation (6.75a) looks almost like BESSEL's equation, and we can
make the likeness complete by a simple transformation of the independ-
ent variable. We introduce
378 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

and obtain the equatiQn

The solutions of this equation are BESSEL functions of the second

order, e.g. J 2 ('Y}) and H~1 >('Y})- With the help of well-known recurrence
formulas they may be expressed in terms of the corresponding functions
of orders 0 and 1 :

In our case the argument 'YJ is complex,

with

· - ,- 4 1J2tana 1 r;;
y=2p,Vtanz}s=2V3(1-v 2) V-t-ys, (6.76)

and the BESSEL functions have complex values. On p. 292 we saw how
the real and imaginary parts of J 0 , J 1 , H~1 l, H~1 l may be written in
terms of 'IHOMSON's functions of the real variable y. When we use these
formulas, we find the following expressions for the functions of order 2:

•)(').::.ker'y+keiy
H~1 >('Y})=_.:::_
~ y
) -i.::.')(').::.kei'y-kery.)
~ y

These two functions are independent solutions of (6.75a), and their

real and imaginary parts separately will satisfy the fourth-order equa-
tion (6.58) when specialized for a conical shell. We have therefore the
following general solution:

Q,. = .!_
8
rA 1 (bery- 2 y-1 bei 'y) + A 2 (beiy + 2 y-1 ber'y)
+ Bdkery- 2y-1 kei'y) + B 2 (keiy + 2y-1 ker'y)J. (6.77a)

We may now return to (6.57b) for X· (6.15) for N+, N 6 , (6.51a, b) for
J.lJ9 , 11'16 • When we adapt all these formulas to the special situation of
a conical shell and drop the terms with P wherever they appear, we find
 6.2 AXISY:\ThlETRIC LOADS 379

the following expressions:

2V3(1- v2 ) cot a . .
x= Et 2 [AI (bety + 2 y-I ber'y)- A 2 (bery- 2?r1 bet' y)
+ BI (keiy + 2 'fr1 ker'y)- B 2 (kery- 2 ?r1 kei'y)J,
.N, = -Q,cota:,

.N0 = - c;:~ rAdy her y - 2 ber y + 4 y- 1 bei y)

I I

+ A 2 (ybei'y- 2bei y- 4y-1 ber'y)

+ Bt(yker'y- 2kery + 4?r1 kei'y)
+ B 2 (ykei 'y- 2 keiy- 4?r1 ker y)J,1

11{, = 2 y-2 {AI [y bei 'y- 2 (1 - P) (beiy + 2 ?r1 ber 'y)J {6.77b-f)
- A2 ry ber 1y- 2 (1 - P)(bery- 2 y-1 bei 1y)J
+ Btfykei 'y- 2 (1- P) (keiy + 2y- 1 ker'y)J
- B 2 [yker'y- 2 (1 - P) (kery- 2 y-1 kei'y)J},
M 0 = 2 ?r2 {AdPY bei'y + 2 (1 - P) (beiy + 2 y- 1 ber'y)]
- A 2 [Py ber'y + 2 {1 - P) {bery- 2y-1 bei'y)J
+ BI [Pykei'y + 2 {1- P) (keiy + 2?ri ker'y)]
- B 2 [Pyker'y + 2 {1- P) {kery- 2y- 1 kei'y)]}.

In these formulas, the constants AI, A 2 , BI, B 2 must be determined

from the boundary conditions at the two edges of the shell. As one
may easily see from a table of the T:HoMSON functions, they all have
an oscillatory character; those appearing in the A terms of our formulas
increase beyond all bounds when y increases, while those in the B terms
have a singularity at y = 0 and decrease in amplitude with increasing
distance from the top of the cone. It follows that for a cone which is
closed at the top one must put BI = B 2 = 0, and that in a truncated
cone it may easily happen that bending stresses of appreciable magnitude
appear only in two border zones. In such cases the constants AI, A 2 de-
pend only on the conditions at the larger boundary circle, while B 1 , B 2 are
determined by the boundary conditions at the smaller edge of the shell.
If the variable y is large enough {say 15 or more), each THOMSON
function may be replaced by the first term of its asymptotic expansion.
If this is done, it is also consistent to neglect all negative powers of y
compared with 1, and then simple formulas result which contain only ele-
mentary functions. However, they should be used with caution, and if a
table of the THOMSON functions is at hand, {6.77) should be preferred.
380 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

For the vicinity of an outer edge, where the B terms may be dropped,.
the simplified formulas are the:se:

Q., = [AI cos ( V2 - ~ ) + A2 sin ( lf2 - ~ )] ,

e:v~~~}
"_ 2Y3(1-v exp(y/V2} [A . ( y
2)
n) A ( y n)]
X- Et: V2 n Y sm V2 - 8 - : cos Jl2 - 8
I '

N _
~ R- -
2 2nv- ----- .
cota V1/exp(y/V2)[ 41 cos ( -=
s
y :-c) 1 • ( y n)]
y2 + -8 + .l1.9-Sill 2 + -8 , v-
u _ 2exp(y/V2)
J.f.l.s-
]/2 n y
[A s1n. (. -=y +-n) - Acos (-=·y +-n )] ,
1 2
(6.78a-e)•
y ]12 8 y2 8
1l-10 =v1W,.
These formulas are particularly useful for cones which are almost
cylindrical.

6.2.3.2 Example: Sludge Digestion Tank

The bottom of a sludge digestion tank (Fig. 6.24) offers a good ex-
ample to demonstrate the application of (6.77) or (6.78). For the stress.
analysis we assume that the tank is filled with water (y = 62.4lbjft3 )
and that the surrounding soil has been removed as shown. The water·
pr·essure produces a membrane hoop force in the cylinder, which in-

Fig. 6.2~. Sludge digestion t:mk

creases from zero at the water level to the maximum N 8 = yha = 3.745·
x 104 lb(ft at the bottom. The corresponding deformation of the lower·
edge of the cylindrical shell is described by its radial displacement w ·
and by the rotation dwfdx of the generator. If we a~sume v = 0, these
two quantities are not affected by the normal force Nx and may be
computed from (5.71) which yields Ew = 11.23 x 105lbjft, Edwfdx·
= -0.562 X 105lbjft2•
The conical bottom carries two loads: the water pressure and the·
weight of the cylindrical wall and the roof. It may be assumed that.
the water pressure on the tank bottom is transmitted right across the·
 ti.2 AXISYM~IETRIC LOADS 381

wall to the ground and hence does not lead to membrane forces. The
weight of the cylinder, however, is applied to the cone as a vertical
·edge load P = 550 lb/ft (Fig. 6.25). Since the cone cannot carry a ver-
tical edge load with membrane forces alone, we add a horizontal load
P cotcc = 1737 lbjft so that the resultant force Pjsincc has the direction
of the meridian. Since actually the horizontal load does not exist, we
later compensate it by the difference of t.he forces H and H' (Fig. 6.26).

I
i

~
J<'ig. 6.25. Bottom of the p7r;t(;~
sludge digestion tank
-p,

'~H
Fh:. 0.26. Edge loads at hottom
and waJI of the sludgf' di~estion
tank
H'=H+Pcot a

The cone is supported by the reaction of the ground, aml we assume

more or less arbitrarily that the reaction to the edge load consists of a
uniform load - p,. normal to the shell (Fig. 6.25). This load is
- p,. = 36.67 lbjft2 • Then, from (2.17), (2.18) the stress resultants for the
edge of the cone are
N, = -1820 lbjft., N0 = - 3635lbjft.

The horizontal component v, of the displacement due to the mem-

brane forces is directed inward and considered n~gative. From N 6 one
easily finds Ev,. = -1.636 x 10 5 lb/ft. The rotation of the tangent is
negligible (Ex=- 6.10 x 103 lbjft 2 ).
In order to provide continuity of the internal forces and of the
deformation, additional forces and moments must be applied to the
edges of both shells (Fig. 6.26). For the cylinder there is a radial load H
and a moment ~ll. For the cone we have the same moment in the opposite
direction and a radial load H' of such magnitude that H, H', and the
external force P cotcc shown in Fig. 6.25 add up to zero.
382 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

For the cylinder the deformations produced by unit edge loads may
be calculated from (5.85') and (5.86'). They are for H = 1lbjft:
Ew = - 432lbjft,
E dwfdx = + 103.8lbjft2 ,
for M = 1 ft·lbjft:
Ew = + 103.8lbjft,
E dU'fd:r = -49.9 lbjft 2 •
To compute the corresponding figures for the edge of the cone, we
use (6.77). First we obtain from (6.60) fl = 2.280 ft,-l/ 2 and from (6.76)
y = 14.38. A table of the THOMSON functions yields
ber 14.38 = -2597, bei 14.38 = - !)31,
ber' 14.38 = -1086, bei' 14.38 = - 2463.
Xow we may prepare formulas separately for unit loads H' and .M.
For H' = 1 lbjft, ~ll = 0 we have the boundary conditions J.lf. = 0,
Q, = -sin~ = -0.3020, and upon introducing all numerical data in
(6.77e, a) we obtain
Al = 1.765 X 10- 3 lb' .42 = 4.98 X 10- 3 lb.
Xow (6.77b, d) may be used to find
Ex= 224.5lbfft2 , N 0 = 9.49lbjft,
and from N 0 we compute the deflection Ev, = 427lbjft.
The load ffl = 1 ft-lb/ft may be handled similarly, and the following
results will be obtained :
Ev,. = 223.3lbjft, Ex= 245.7 lbfft2 •
According to MAXWELL's law of reciprocity, the figures 224.5 and 223.3
ought to be equal. The difference lies within the permissible margin of
slide-rule errors, and the average 224.0 will be used for both quantities.
We may now formulate the equations which express the continuity
of the deformation and from which H and 1lf may be found as redundant
quantities of a statically indeterminate structure.
The total deflection of the edge of the cylinder is
Ew = 11.23 x 105 - 432H + 103.8ilf·,
and the deflection for the edge of the cone is
Ev, = -1.636 x 105 + 433(H + 1737) + 244.111</.
Both must be equal, and this condition yields the equation
865H + 140.3M = 5.35 X 105 •
 6.2 AXISYl\UIETRIC LOADS 383

The second equation needed expresses the equality of the rotations dw fdx
and X of the tangents to the meridians of both shells. It may be compiled
from the figures already presented and may be brought into the following
form:
140.3H + 313.9 ..1'1 = -4.79 x 105 •
We now have two linear equations for Hand M which may readily be
solved. They yield H = 934lbjft and M= -1940 ft·lbjft. The negative
moment M is due to the heavy load P on the edge of the cone which
tends to bend this shell outward. The clamping moment .M represent8
the reaction of the cylinder to this tendency of deformation.

Fig. 6.27. Bending moments

along the generators of the tank
of ~'ig.ll.2-l

After having determined the redundant quantities one may use (6.7i)
to compute all the stress resultants for the cone and (5.85), (5.86) fot·
the cylinder. The ensuing meridional bending moments {1~-I, for the
cylinder, M, for the cone) are shown in Fig. 6.27. The vector at the edge
indicates the direction of the resultant force transmitted from one shell
to the other. Its magnitude is (5502 + 934 2 ) 1' 2 = 1084lbjft and its
eccentricity is 1.79 ft. In the cone the disturbance reaches approximately
halfways down the generators, and in the cylinder it has practically
died out before it reaches the upper edge. A similar disturbance resulting
from the connection of the cylinder with the spherical roof shell is there-
fore not influenced by it and may be analyzed independently.
6.2.3.3 Wall Thickness Proportional to Distance from Apex
There are not many shells whose wall thickness t is proportional to
the coordinate s, but since bending moments usually occur in a bordet·
zone of limited width, it is sometimes possible to substitute a shell of
the type considered here for the real one without too much error. This
has the slight advantage that the solution may be expressed in terms
of elementary transcendentals. Since sufficient tables of the THOMSON
functions are available, this advantage is not as great as it was when
this solution was first established, but sometimes it may still be welcome.
384 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLuTION

The theory of a shell of variable thickness must start from the

differential equation (6.67) and the splitting condition I = const. with I
from (6.65). All these equations have been written for an arbitrary
meridian and use the angular coordinate <f>. They must be adapted to
the special circumstances of the conical shell by the same limiting
process which has been applied on p. 377 to the operator L. \Vhen this
is done, the splitting condition assumes the simple form
dt
[ (1 - v)-
ds
+ s dds
--t]
2
2
cot a: = I = const.

This equation is, of course, satisfied if t = const., but also if t is a linea1·

function of s. If we put in particular

with constant o, we find that

I= (1 - v) IJ coto:
.and from (6.68') that

c1 , 2 = - (1- v) /) coto: ± i V12 (1- v 2) - (1- v) 2 /J 2 cot 2 .x.

Since the theory assumes that the wall thickness is small compared
o
with s, is a small number, and unless IX is extremely small, the term
o
with 2 under the radical may be neglected:

c1, 2 = -(1- v)r5cot:x ± 2i ~:3(t- v 2 ) = -d 1 ± id 2 (6.79)

with
d 1 = (1 - v) cot IX, o
We may now turn our attention to the differential equation (6.67).
The operator L 2 assumes in the present case the following form:

L 2 ( ... ) = [s2d 2 ~/- (1- v)( ... )] ocota:,

.and when this and c1, 2 are introduced into (6.67), it reads:

s 2 dds2U
2
- 2 (1 - V =t= 6i V,a(1 - v2 ) tan :X ) [), = 0. (6.80a, b)

Both equations of this pair have solutions of the form

U = CsA
with four different values of the exponent A.. These values are all complex
and are best written with the help of some auxiliary quantities. When
we put
 6.2 AXISDUIETRIC LOADS 385

with
4
p
.~~----

~= ~ (9- 8Y), rJ = J (1 - yZ) tan cc,

then the general solution of (6.80a, b) is

and here the first two terms satisfy (6.80a), the other two satisfy (6.80b).
Since U has the dimension of a force, s the dimension of a length,
the coefficients c; ...
c~ have awkward dimensions. It therefore is pref-
erable to choose an arbitrary reference length l aml to introduce a
dimensionless coordinate
y= (
T )l/~
·. 8

and to write

When we introduce this expression into (6.69), we must use c1 with

the first two terms, but c2 with the other two, and thus we get
EV=yfc 1 C\y"-i~-'+c 1 C 2 y-><+i"+c 2 C 3 y"+i"+c 2 C 4 y-><-i 1 'J. (6.81b)

Since U and V represent forces and deformations of the shell, they

must have real values. It follows that the constants C 1 and C3 , C2 and C4
must be pairs of conjugate complex quantities, say

-, 1 A · 'B
(Jl,3=2( 1=~ 1),

On the other hand, we have

y><±i1< = y"exp (± iftlny) = y"fcos(plny) ± isin(,~tlny)].

When we introduce all this and d 1 and d 2 from (6.79) into (6.81 ). they
read as follows
U = Q,8 cotoc = ?I"+ 1 fA 1 cos (pin y) + B 1 sin (f!.lny)J
+ y-"+ 1 fA 2 cos(,alny) + B 2 sin(,ulny)J,
E V= E 02 s2 X= (6.82a, b)
= - y" + 1 f(d 1 A 1 + d 2B 1 ) cos (.aln y) + (d 1B 1 - d 2 A 1 ) sin (pin y)J
- y- "+ 1 f(d 1 A 2 - d 2B 2 ) cos (ftlny) + (d1 B 2 + d 2A 2 ) sin (rdny)J.
Now we may obtain formulas for the normal forces and the bending
moments from (6.15) and (6.51) which, of course, must all be adapted
to the special case of a conical shell of variable wall thickness. \Ve men-
tion the following results:
Fliigge, Str~sses in Shells, 2ntl Et!. 25
386 CHAP. 6: SHELL'S OF REVOLUTIOX

Ne= Y;~ 1 {(d1A 1 + d2B 1 ) f(" + 1)cos(,ulny)- ,usin(,ulny)j

+ (d1B 1 - d 2A 1 ) f(" + 1) sin (,u lny) + fl cos (plny)J)
- y-2xl- 1 { (d 1A 2 - d2B 2 ) f(" - 1) cos (,u lny) + ,u sin (,u lny)J
+ (d 1B 2 + d2A 2 ) [ ( " - 1)sin(plny)- pcos(plny)j), (6.82c,d)

Jl'f, = 24 (f _v
ij X+ 1
2) {(d1A 1 + d 2B 1 ) f(" - 3 + 2 v) cos (pln y) - p sin (pin y)J
+ (d 1B 1 - d2Ai) f(" - 3 + 2 v) sin (,u In y) + p cos (1-dn y)J}
i)y-x+l
- 24 (! _ v2) {(d 1 A 2 - d2B 2 ) [(" + 3 - 2 v) cos (.uln y) + p sin (,uln y)J
+ (d 1B 2 + d 2A 2 )f(" + 3- 2v)sin(plny)- pcos(plny)J}.
With the help of these formulas problems may be solved similar
to the one treated in the preceding section.

6.3 Solution for the Higher Harmonics

For a shell of revolution the coefficients of all equations are inde-
pendent of 8. Therefore, when we assume all the stress resultants and
all the displacements as FouRIER series in 8, (6.1) and (6.5) are reduced
to a set of ordinary differential equations. The solution of this set has
been achieved for spherical and for conical shells, and these solutions
will be explained in this section.

6.:u Spherical Shell

6.3.1.1 Differential Equations
The development of the differential equations starts from the con-
ditions of equilibrium (6.1) and the elastic law (6.5). Since we are inter-
ested only in edge loads, we put P<i> ~ Pe = Pr = 0 in (6.1), and for the
spherical shell we still have
r 1 = r 2 = a, r = a sin</>.
Since (6.1 f) is an identity, we drop it at once. The other moment equa-

I
tions (6._1 d, e) may be used to eliminate Q"', Q6 from (6.1 a-c). In this
way we obtain the following three conditions of equilibrium
a(N~ + N 04>sin</> + 2N 6 q,cos</>)- .1l1~- .M0q,sin</>

I·
- 2 M 6 q,cos</> = 0,
n(N~sin</> + Nq,cos</>- N 6 cos</> + N~q,)- J..Vf~sin</>- .Mq,cos</> (6 83 )
+.i.VI6 coscp-M~4>=0,
a (N</> +_N8 )sin 2_cp + J.Vf~ sin~cp. + 2M~c~.s~sincp- M~sin2 </> +M~
- J.Vfocoscpsmcp + M 8 sm·cp + 2jl18 4>smcp + 2M 6 "'coscp = 0.
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARl\IONICS 387

The elastic law (6.5) simplifies considerably for the spherical shell:
v~D[ ]
N~=- v"+w+~+vvcotcJ>+vw,
a sm.,
N 0 = D [ _u.'.~.. + vcotcj> + w + vv· + vw],
a sin.,
D (1 - v) [ • v' ]
N ~ 6 = N 6~ = 2a u - u cot cJ> + sin .p ' (6.84a-f)
K [ . .. 11 u.' • 11 w"
M~=- -v + w --.- -vvcotcj> + vw cote/>+-.- , J
a2 sm.P sm2 .P
Jl>/ 6 = ~- vcotcj> + w"cotcj> + ~-
K [- vv· + vw··]
sm.P
a2 sm2 tf> '
_ _K(1-11)[ _ ._...3!.__ 9 ,cos.p 2w'"J
M~ 6 --M 6 ~- 2 a·• ucotcj> u sm., . .~,..
. • .~,. + sm.,
. .~,. .. w sin·.,
The two shearing forces are exactly equal, and so are the two twisting
moments.
Equations (6.83) and (6.84) are together a set of 9 equations for just
as many unknowns: 3 forces, 3 moments and 3 displacements. We may
use (6.84) to eliminate all the stress resultants from (6.83). This yields
a set of three equations for u, v, w which corresponds exactly to (5.13}
of the circular cylinder:

(1 + k) [ 1 ; 11
[u·· sine/>+ u· cosc/>- u (cot 2 c/>- 1) sinc/>J + s~'.P
+ -1 + 3- V 1 A..
2 -v + ~v cot.,+ (1 + v)w
11 1 • ']

- k [ w'"" + w'" cot cJ> + 2 w' + s:~~] = 0 ,

(1 + k)[1+11 ,. 3 - v , tA.. ... A.. • A.. cos 2 tf>+vsin2 <Po
- 2 - u - ~ u eo 'f' + v sm 'f' + v cos 'f' - v sin .p
1- v v" . . ]
+ - 2 - sin.p + (1 + v) w smcj>

- k[w:. sine/>+ w·· coscj> + w· (1- cot 2 cj>) sine/>+ sin., c?~J
~"~- 2w" sm·., = 0,

(1 + k) (1 + v) [u' + v"sinc/> + vcoscj> + 2wsincJ>J (6.85a-c)

- k [u'"" - u'" cot cJ> + u' (:3 + cot 2 c/>) + ~~~~.~.. + v:. sin cJ> + 2 v·· cos cl>
sin.,
. cos 2 <P 2 A.. A.. v"" , , cos tf> ]
- v sin</> + v(3 +cot .,) cos.,+ sin</> -r- V sin2 <P

+ k [w'' sine/>+ 2w·: coscJ>- (1 + v + cot 2 cj>)w""sincJ>

+ w"(2- v + cot 2 c/>)coscJ>- 2(1 + v)wsincJ>
2w""" 2 ,. cost/> , 3- v + 4cot2 .p w1v ] _ O
+ sintf> - w sin2 tf> + w sintf> + sin"<P - ·
Here the notation k from (5.14) is used again.
25*
388 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

When we now put

u = 1,; u, (</>)sin n 0, v= 1,; v, (</>)cos n 0, w = 1,; W 11 (</>) cosn 0, (6.86)

each of (6.85) is split into an infinite number of ordinary differential

equations, one for every integer value of n. For an arbitrary n, they
are

1 - V ( •• • ..1.. ( n~ 1- V
(1 + k ) [-.,- • ..1..
u,.sin'l'+u,.cos'l')-u, -:-----;;:-- ..1.. • ..1..)
9 -(1-cot '1')sm'l'
2
~ ffin~ ~

1+v . 3-v
- -;r-nv,.- -;r-nv,.cotcf>- (1 + v)nw,, ]

+ k n [ W 11.. + w 11. cot'P

..1.. n2 )] -_ 0 ,
+ _w, ("~-sin~</>

I + V 3 - J'
(1 + k ) [ -;r-nu •
11 - -;r- ..1.. •• • ..1.. • ..1..
nu, cot'!'+ v,.sm'P + 11,.cos'l'

(6.87a-c)

-
. 'I'
k [ W 11:. stn ..1..
+ w 11.. cos 'I'
..1..
+ w,.• (9
~ - I~+ n~) sm 'I'
sm-~
.
..1..
+ ·) _ 2
~
cos</> ] -_ 0 ,
n w,, ~
sm-~

(1 + k) (1 + v) Jnu, + v;,sin</> + v,coscf> + 2w,sincf>J

- k [ n U 11
..
-
•
nu,. cot</> + n
.
U 11
(9 1-
~ + sin 2 q,
n2) + Vii. Hin
. </> + :..9 ...
v,. cos</>

- ~
sm q,
(n 3 + cos 2 cf>) + v cos</> (2 + 1 .-.n2 )]
" s1n- q,

+ k [w~' sin</> + 2 w;j cos</> - ~0 ~~ (l

sm~
+ 2 n 2 + v sin 2 cP)

+ w,· ( 1- v + 1+2n
2 ) (· •
~- cos</>- w, 2 (1 + v) sm</> + n 2
3-v+4cot 2 </>
·'~",------'-
. sm-~ sm~

- sin'
__!I-.!_)]
q,
= 0
·

These equations look rather involved. However, it is quite feasible

to establish an asymptotic solution in general tenus when they are
brought into a better form. This is a somewhat lengthy procedure, but
it may easily be understood if done step by step.
We begin by introducing a special differential operator:

H (... ) = ( .. .)" + (... )'cot</>+( ... ) ( 2- si::q,), (6.88)

 6.3 SOLUTIOX FOR THE HIGHER HARl\IONICS 389

which is suggested by the second bracket in (6.87 a). From the definition
of H we may easily derive the following relations:

H H( ... ) = (.. .)" + 2( ... )"cot1> + (... )" (3- 1 -:-.::

Sill" 'I'
2
)

1 + 2 n2) 2 n2 n 2 (4 - n 2 ))
+ (... ). ( 4 + ~Sill" 'i'
cot1> + (... ) ( 4- ~-
Sill" 'i'
. •q,
Sill
,
(6.89a, b)
ff' ( ... )'"'a~ H (... ) = ( ... )"' + (... )" cot1>
1 + n 2) ( ) 2 cotcp
+ (... ). ( ~-
9
sin2cp + 2 ... n sin2cp ·

In the last bracket of (6.87b) we discover - kH'(w 11 ) sin4>. Encouraged

by this success, we may further investigate (6.87). This leads us to in-
troduce a new variable vn defined by the relation

which allows to write (6.87 a, b) in the following form:

(L + k) [H(u sin1>)-
11
1 ; v (1lnsin1> +n V,.)''

- 3 ; v (u,sin1> +n V")'cot1>- (1 + v) (u"sin1> + nw,.)]

+ knH(w") = 0, (6.90a, b)

• A..
sm'l'' aq,iJ [(·L + k)(H(V) J/ -
(1 +V )(VI'+ Wn) 1+v u.,sincp+nV.,)
+ -2-n sin2cp

ootcp
- kH(w") ] - (1 + k)(1- v)n(u sin1> + n 11 Vn) ~
sm'i'
= 0.

It is possible to eliminate w" from these equations by differentiat-

ing (6.90a) with respect to 4>, then multiplying it by (sin1>)/n and adding
it to (6.90b). The resulting relation contains the unknowns U 11 and V,
only in the combination (u 11 sin4> + n V 11 ), and when we introduce
(u.,sincp + n V.,)" u;,sincp + u.,coscp + nv ..
w" = sin q, (6.91)
sincp

it assumes the simple form

H(w,)=O. (6.92)

This equation summarizes (6.87a, b). vVe now introduce the new
function OJ 11 into (6.87 c) and try to make out of it a differential equation
for another unknown function. The first step in this program is to
eliminate v, from (6.87c) by means of (6.91). This yields the following
390 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

equation:
(1 + k)(1 + v) [u~sin</> + 3u~cos<f>- (n 2 + 2sin2 </> -1) si:·cp- 2nw"J

+ k [- u'~ sin</>- 6u~ cos</>+ (2n 2 - 5 + 11 sin2 </>) ~~~

sm'l'
~ n 2 + 1 ,' 6sm
..,..., (9 . •..l..)
• 'I' .• cotcp + (n 2 - 1)(1 + cot 2..1..
Un --:--:i.
sm'l'
'I' - u.]
n2) --:----:;:
""""'2A:
sm 'I' sm'l'
- nk .w;·A.'I'
[w~ + 2w;_cot<f>- (vsin2 </> + 1 + 2n2) Sill
, 1 + 2 n2 ) • n4 2 3 - v +. 4cpcot2 cp -2(1+v)w"
) ]
+ sm· 'I'
(
( 1-1'..,.-~Wncot<f>+~-n
sm 'I' sm2
= (1 + k)(1 + v)[w~sin</> + 2w,.cos</>]
- k [ w;;s1n'P
· · ..1... + 5 WnCOS'P
·· w~ (3 - 6 sm·'P-
..1.. + sincp · • ..I.. n·") - 2 n·w,.
'• cot cp] .
sincp

The left-hand side of this relation may be simplified with the help
of the operator H. On the right-hand side we make use of (6.92) to
eliminate w~ and w~. In this way the equation assumes the following,
much simpler form:
(1 + k) (1 + v)[H (u,. sin</>)- 2 (n,. sin</>+ nw.,)]
- k [H H (u 11 sin</>+ nw,.)- 2H (u" sin</>+ nw")- (1 + v) nH (wn)]
= [( 1 + v) + (5 + v) k] (w~ sin</> + 2 w,. cos</>) .

Besides wn, we still have here two unknowns, un and wn, but since they
appear almost exclusively in the combination U 11 sin<f> + nwn, it seems
advisable to use this as a new unknown quantity. In order to rid our
equation of the odd terms in U 11 and w,, we prepare (6.90a) by intro-
ducing there the variable W 11 :
(1 + k) [H(u"sin</>)- (1 + v)(unsin</> + nw 11 )] + knH (wn)
= (1 + k) [ 1 ~ v w~sin</> + 2wncoscJ>]. (6.93)
When we multiply this equation by (1 + v) and then subtract it from
the preceding one, we obtain an equation which contains only wn and
the combination u 11 sin</>+ nw,:
(1 + k) (1 - v2 ) (un sin</>+ nwn)
+ k[HH(u,.sin<f> + nw 2H(tt sin</> + nwn)
11 ) - 11

= - (1 + k) 1 ~ ~~~ w~sin</>- 4k(w~sin</> + 2w cos</>). 11

It is possible to go one step further in processing this equation. One

may easily verify the relations
H(w~sin</>) = - 4wncos<f>,
(6.94a, b)
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARMOKICS 391
by performing the operation indicated on the left-hand side and then
using (6.92). These relations may be used to bring the right-hand side
of the preceding equation into the following form:

- (1 + k) (1- Yl)·! w~ sine/>- k [! H H(w~sincp)- H(w~sincf>)];

and now we see that we should introduce

[)'
11 =U 11
'A.
Sln 'I' + n W,. -!- 21 Wn· ·Sill
A.
'I' (6.95)

as the dependent variable and that U n must satisfy the fourth-order

differential equation
HH(U 11 ) - 2H(U,.) + (1- v2 ) 1 t k U,. = 0. (6.96)

This and (6.92) are the differential equations of our problem. They are
exact in ·the sense that we did not lose anything on the way from the
fundamental equations (6.1) and (6.5).

6.3.1.2 Membrane Forces and Inextensional Bending

There exist two groups of solutions which differ considerably in
appearance. Since the bending theory has been established with no
other restriction than that the surface load is supposed to be zero, we
must expect to find among the solutions some which confirm or correct
the homogeneous membrane solution (2.32) and the inextensional de-
formations (2.62) of the shell; moreover, we may expect solutions which
decay exponentially with increasing distance from a loaded edge.
The first group is by far the simpler one, and we shall examine it
first.
Equation (6.96) certainly has, among others, the solution Tl 11 := 0.
When we want to find the corresponding displacements, we must go
back to (6.93) and must introduce there the variable U11 • This becomes
possible when we apply the relation (6.94a) to the last term on the right.
Then all terms but one may be combined to functions of Un and the
equation yields
nH(w,.) = (1 + k)[H(U 11 ) - (1 + v) U 11 ] . (6.97)
·with U, ~ 0, this is a homogeneous differenti~l equation for W 11 , in
detail:
w;; + w~ cot cf> + w,. ( 2 - si; </>)
2
= 0,

and it has the solution

W 11 = Adn + cos cp) tan" : + A 2 (n- coscp) cot" : . (6.98a)

392 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIO:X

To find U 11 and vn from (6.95) and (6.91), we must first solve (6.92).
For the moment, we consider only the trivial solution w,. == 0 and ob-
tain
nwn
u, = -sin</>' (6.98b, c)

When this result is introduced into the elastic law (6.84), the bending
and twisting moments vanish identically and the normal and shearing
forces are:
N 4>
1. = -
'"8
~· =
D(l-v)n(n.2•-l)(At
a -~.
sm-.,..
,</>
1 an -;:;-
.: + A 2 eo t"<P)
-2 cos nun ,

"-T N D(i - v) n(nz- 1) (A t " </> A eo t" <I>) . ()

..... 4>8 = 1 84> = - a sinzq, 1 an 2 - 2 2 s1nn .
(6.98d, e)
Except for the different notation for the constants, these are exactly
the formulas (2.32) of the membrane theory. We recognize here that
they are not only good approximations but that they happen to be
exact solutions of the bending problem.
·when we established the last formulas, we used the trivial solution
W 11 =
0 of (6.92). Of course, there are still other solutions, and since (6.92)
has the same form as our last differential equation for w,, it has the
same pair of solutions:
W 11 = 2Bdn + coscf>) tan" : + 2B2 (n- coscf>) cot" : .
\Ve might combine this with the trivial solutions U,. == 0 and w, -'-' 0,
but we arrive at a particularly interesting result when we choose

w., = - B 1 (n + coscf>) tan" : + B 2 (n- coscf>) cot" :. (6.99a)

Then (6.95) and (6.91) yield

u n = sin 'I'
A.. (B tan" j_2 - B cot" j_)
1 2 2'
(6.99b, c)
V 11 = sin cf> (B 1 tan"-~ + B 2 cot" :) .
These three formulas are identical with (2.62a-c), i.e., they represent
an inextensional deformation of the shell. It is therefore not surprising
that (6.5a-d) yield N4> = N 8 = N, 8 = N 0 4> = 0. The bending and twist-
ing moments are
,. <I>)
1l14>= -.~.l'Io=- K(l-v)n(n
2 -1)( </> n
a2 -sin2 </> B 1 tan11 2 -B2 cot 2 cosnu,

J.M4>0
u
= .J.Y.L84> = K(1-v)n(n 2 -1)(B t ,</>
a2 sin2 </> 1 an 2 + B 2 cot" 2<I>)· n
smnu
(6.99d,e)
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HAR~IONICS 393

and from (6.1 d, e) we find Q~ = Q0 = 0. Equations (6.99) represent a

second pair of exact solutions in the bending theory of the spherical
shell.
Of course, it must not be concluded from these results that in every
shell of revolution the membrane forces or the inextensional deforma-
tions will satisfy the differential equations of the bending theory. But
it may be expected that they will come very close to exact solutions if
the middle surface is not too different from a sphere.

6.3.1.3 Oscillatory Solutions

Aside from solutions (6.98) and (6.99) there exists another set of
four, and these are of an oscillatory character. Just as in the case of
axial symmetry, these oscillations decay rather rapidly with increasing
distance from the edge, the faster, the thinner the shell is. For such
edge disturbances the method of asymptotic integration of the differential
equations recommends itself. Since this method is based on the fact
that k = t2 f12a 2 is a very small quantity, we shall neglect k compared
with unity wherever an opportunity occurs.
The first step of the procedure is still done in full exactness. In
analogy to the splitting of (6.66b), we split (6.96) in two equations of
the second order of the form
(6.100)
or in more detail:

U~ + U~cot!J> + u.. (2 + ,u 2 - si::cf>) = 0. (6.100')

When (6.100) is introduced into (6.96), a quadratic equation for p 2

results:

whose roots are

fl 2 = - 1± i 11 (1 - v2) 1 ; k- 1 = - 1 ± 2 i r.2.

When we now start to drop small quantities we have

j/1 - v2
tt·= ± (1 ± i)x, (6.101)
r.= V4"k'

where x is identical with the parameter used previously if we neglect

the small term v2f4 in the earlier definition (6.20).
We now subject both the coordinate q, and the dependent variable U n
to transformations with the aim of making out of (6.100') an equation
whose coefficients are almost constant.
394 CHAP; 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

When a new independent variable ; = ;(cp) is introduced, (6.100')

assumes the form

( 1:")2
\0
cl2U"
d~ + (I:"" z:· t"") dU"
\0 + \0 co 'f' (if +
(2 + fl" - q n2 )
sin2 <f>
U
"=
0·
In this equation the first and the third coefficient become constant if
we choose e(cJ>) so that it satisfies the differential equation

(6.102)

and then divide the whole equation by (f) 2 • The equation will lose the
term with the first derivative if a new dependent variable

1J = Un Vf sine/>
is introduced. Through this transformation the last term is slightly
spoiled but still is almost constant. Indeed, the equation assumes the
form
(6.103)
where
sin2 4> (3 sin2 4> - 2) 5 sin4 4> cos 2 4>
oe = 2 (sin2 </>- ~) 2 + 4 (sin2 <f>- ~ ) 3 •
2 + p.- 2 + ,,.
Since fJ- 2 is imaginary, the denominators in this formula can never be
zero, and since I fJ- 2 1 A> 1, their absolute values will not become excessively
small unless cJ> is very small. We may therefore neglect 2 + oe compared
with fJ- 2 in (6.103) and thus we arrive at an extremely simple differential
-equation.
Before we write and discuss its solution, we must still determine ;
as a function of cJ>, i.e., we must solve the differential equation (6.102).
Evidently, this may be done by quadrature, and since we decided earlier
to neglect 2 compared with fJ- 2 , we should do the same here and write

e= -fV1- I' sm-.,

n:·.A.dcJ>.2

The minus sign before the integral is arbitrary (because of the root)
but useful in order to obtain.later positive ; 1 , ; 2 for cJ> < 7&/2. The evalua-
tion of the integral is not an easy task. We give the result here and
leave it to the reader to check it by differentiation:

- -2n arc tan

-2n cos 4>
I'
V sin2 4> - -n
1'2
2

• (6.104)
2 2
I' ( 1 - 1'
n2 ) - ( 1+ n ) cos2 </>
p•
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARMONICS 395

This formula gives ~ as a function of the coordinate cf> and of the param-
eter n 2/p.2 which, because of p.2, is imaginary and double-valued [see
(6.101)]. Therefore, ~is complex, say
~=~,+i~, for p.2 =+2i"2·

\Vhen we choose the other sign for p.2 , the arguments of the inverse
tangents will be changed into their conjugate complex values and so
will~:
~ = ~,.- i~; for p.2 = - 2i"2·
After this preparation we may return to the differential equation (6.103).
When we neglect the small quantity 2 + oc compared with p. 2 and write
for the latter its value from (6.101), the equation reads
a-11
d/;2
--l-2'
-~
2 -0
~ " 'YJ - '

and it has the solution

'YJ =Ex exp[(1- i)"(~,. + i~J] + E 2 exp[-(1- i)"(~,. + i~;)]
+ E 3 exp[(1 + i) x(~,.- i~;)] + E 4 exp[- (1 + i) x(.;,.- i~;)].

This may as well be written in the following form:

'fJ =Ex ex(e,- ie,) + E 2 e-x(e,- ie,> +Ea e"<e, + ;e,> + E, e-x(e, +ie,l (6.105)

with

The numerical evaluation of ~x and ~2 as functions of cf> and of n 2 fp. 2

is a cumbersome task. It has been done by A. HAVERS, and his tables
are reproduced here.
The variable 'YJ which we now have found, is connected with U" by
the relation (see p. 394):
u = __TJ_ _ = 71
" y;;· sin</> Vsin•tf>- n•J.u•
When we introduce here the solution (6.105) we must keep in mind that
its first and second terms belong to p.2 = + 2 i " 2 , the third and fourth
to p. 2 = - 2i"2 • We have therefore
E e"<e, -H,l + E e-x(<,- ie,l E e"«• + iEol + E e-"«• + ie,>
u,. = 1 2 + 3 4

Vsin2 tf> + in 2 f2-x 2 Vsin2 </>- in2 /2-x 2

Now the time has come to leave the complex variables behind us and
to write the solution in a real form. We put
(6.106)
 396 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

Table li.3a. J"alues of ~ 1

n'
-:! x2 ~~
5j
~0'
I i0°
I 60°
I 50°
I 40°
I :Jo' I :!50
I :200
I 15°
I 10°
I
0.00 0.1745 0.:3491 0.5236 O.li981 0.8727 1.04 72 1.134;) 1.223 1.309 l.391i 1.484
0.01 0.1754 0.3509 0.5265 0.7024 0.8787 1.0559 1.1453 1.236 1.328 1.425 1.544
0.02 0.1763 0.3527 0.5294 0.7066 0.8847 l.OM7 1.1563 1.250 1.347 1.455 1.{)04
0.03 0.1772 0.3546 0.5323 0.7109 0.8908 1.0736 1.1674 1.2M 1.3136 1.485 1.6lil
0.04 0.1781 0.3564 0.5353 0.7152 0.8969 l.0821i l.1781i 1.278 1.385 l.5W 1. 7lti
().()5 0.1790 0.3583 0.5382 0.7195 0.9031 1.0916 1.1899 1.293 1.405 1.547 1.770
0.06 0.1799 0.3602 0.5412 0.7238 0.9092 1.1007 1.2012 1.308 1.425 1.578 1.821
0.07 0.1808 0.31i20 0.5442 0.7281 0.9154 1.1099 1.2126 1.323 1.445 1.609 1.871
0.08 0.1817 0.3639 0.5472 0.7:325 0.9217 1.1191 1.2241 1.338 1.465 1.639 1.918
0.09 0.1826 0.3658 0.5502 0.7369 0.9280 1.1283 1.2356 1.353 1.485 1.668 l.9H4
0.10 0.1836 0.3677 0.5532 0.7413 0.9343 1.1375 1.2471 1.31i8 1.505 1.697 2.009·
0.15 0.18S3 0.3773 0.51i85 0.7636 0.9663 1.1847 1.3059 1.443 1.605 1.837 2.21 g.
o.:w 0.1930 0.3871 0.5841 0.7865 0.9990 1.2329 1.31i57 1.519 1.702 1.9li9 2.409-
0.25 0.1978 0.3970 0.5999 0.8098 1.0:321 1.2816 1.4259 1.594 1.797 2.086 2.583
0.30 0.2027 0.4071 0.6159 0.8333 1.<)65(i 1.3303 1.4858 1.667 1.888 2.202 2.741}
0.35 0.2076 0.4173 0.6321 0.8569 1.0992 1.3787 1.5448 1.739 1.977 2.318 2.90:~
0.40 0.2125 0.4270 0.(}484 0.8806 1.1329 1.4267 1.0020 1.810 2.003 2.431 :3.054
0.45 0.2175 0.4:379 0.6(}48 0.904:3 1.1060 1.4742 1.0592 1.874 2.148 2.541 3.201
0.;)0 0.2225 0.4483 O.H81:3 0.9281 1.2002 1.5212 1.71M! 1.94(\ 2.2:30 2.(\49 3.342'
0.5;) 0.2275 0.4586 0.6978 0.9519 1.2330 1.5077 1. 7695 2.012:3 2.:H01 2. 7;)0 :1.479-
O.tiO 0.2325 0.4689 0.714:3 0.9757 1.2titi7 Uil3ti 1.82:34 2.0772 2.:3881 2.848 :3.011
O.ti5 0.2375 0.4791 0.7:307 0.9994 1.2995 1.0589 1.8700 2.1408 2.4M2 2.944 :3.739
0. 70 0.2424 0.4893 0.7470 1.0230 1.3320 1. 7o:Jti 1.9291 2.2032 2.5380 3.037 3.8(\2
0.75 0.247:3 0.4995 0.7ti32 1.04M 1.3H42 1.7477 1.9808 2.2M3 2.0114 3.127 3.982'
0.80 0.2522 0.5097 0.7793 1.0090 1.:J9tH 1.7912 2.0:318 2.3242 2.ti8:W 3.215 4.097
0.85 0.2572 0.5199 0.7953 1.0925 1.4276 1.8341 2.0821 2.3830 2.7523 3.300 4.20!}
0.90 0.21i22 0.5301 0.8112 1.1152 1.4588 1.87H4 2.1317 2.4407 2.820() 3.384 4.318
0.95 0.2672 0.5403 0.8270 1.1376 1.4897 1.9181 2.1805 2.4974 2.8876 3.406 4.423
1.00 0.2722 0.550;) 0.842() 1.1598 1.ii203 1.9592 2.228ti 2.5532 2.95:32 :Ui401 4.52tiS.
1.05 0.2771 0.560ii 0.8581 1.1818 1.5505 1.9997 2.2748 2.1i081 3.0175 3.ti249 4.1i287
1.10 0.2819 O.fi704 0.8735 1.2035 1.5804 2.0396 2.3204 2.0(\21 3.0806 3.7023 4.7291
1.15 0.280ti 0.5801 0.8887 1.2250 1.6099 2.0789 2.3658 2.7152 3.1427 3.7784 4.8281
1.20 0.2913 0.5897 0.9038 1.241i3 1.6390 2.1177 2.4103 2.7674 3.21);39 3.8532 4.9257
1.25 0.2959 0.5992 0.9187 1.2674 1.6677 2.1559 2.4543 2.8198 3.2042 3.9268 5.021 g.
1.30 0.3005 O.fi085 0.9335 1.2883 1.6959 2.1935 2.4978 2.8694 3.:3237 3.9993 5.1167
1.35 0.30ii1 O.t:il79 0.9481 1.3090 1.7237 2.2306 2.5409 2.9192 3.3824 4.0707 5.21 02"
1.40 0.3096 O.fi272 0.9626 1.3295 I. 7511 2.2671 2.5835 2.9683 3.4403 4.1410 5.3023
1.45 0.3141 0.6364 0.9769 1.3498 1.7781 2.:3030 2.6256 :3.0167 3.4975 4.2103 5.3931
1.50 0.3185 0.6455 0.9911 1.3698 1.8047 2.3384 2.fi0i2 3.0644 3.5539 4.2786 5.482i)
1.55 0.3229 0.6545 1.0051 1.389() 1.8310 2.3733 2.7082 3.1115 3.6096 4.3400 5.570()
1.60 0.3272 0.0634 1.0190 1.4092 1.8570 2.4078 2.7486 3.1380 3.6M5 4..!125 5.1i574
1.65 0.3317 0.6723 1.0:328 1.4286 1.8828 2.4419 2.7884 3.2039 3.7186 4.4781 5.7428
1.70 0.3360 0.6811 1.0464 1.4478 1.9084 2.4757 2.8276 3.2493 3.7719 4.5428 5.8268
1.75 0.3403 0.6898 1.0599 1.4668 1.9338 2.5092 2.8663 3.2941 3.8244 4.()066 5.9094
1.80 0.3445 0.6984 1.0733 1.4856 1.9590 2.5424 2.9044 3.3384 3.871i1 4.6695 5.9907
1.85 0.3487 0.7069 1.0865 1.5042 1.9840 2.5753 2.9420 3.3821 3.9271 4.7315 6.0706
1.90 0.3527 0.7153 1.0996 1.5225 2.0088 2.6079 2.9791 3.4253 3.9773 4.7926 fi.1492
1.95 0.3568 0.7237 1.1126 1.5406 2.0334 2.6403 3.0156 3.4680 4.0267 4.8528 6.2264
2.00 0.3609 0.7320 1.1255 1.5585 2.0578 2.6724 3.0516 3.5102 4.0753 4.9121 6.3022
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARJIONICS a97

Table 6.3b. Vnlues of ~ 2

4>=
so' 1 1o' 1 Bo' 1 5o' 1 40' 1 3o' 1 25' 1 2o' 1 t5' 1 w 1 5'

0.00 0.1745 0.3491 0.5236 0.6981 0.8727 1.0472 1.1345 1.222 1.309 1.396 1.484
0.01 0.1736 0.3472 0.5207 0.6939 0.8667 1.039 1.124 1.208 1.292 1.369 1.430
0.02 0.1727 0.3454 0.5178 0.6898 0.8608 1.030 1.113 1.195 1.273 1.343 1.390
0.03 0.1719 0.3436 0.5150 0.6856 0.8550 1.022 1.103 1.182 1.256 1.320 1.357
0.04 0.1710 0.3419 0.5122 0.6815 0.8492 1.013 1.093 1.169 1.240 1.298 1.329
0.05 0.1701 0.3401 0.5094 0.6775 0.8434 1.005 1.083 1.157 1.224 1.277 1.306
0.06 0.1693 0.3383 0.5066 0.6734 0.8377 0.997 1.073 1.145 1.209 1.258 1.285
0.07 0.1684 0.3366 0.5038 0.6694 0.8321 0.989 1.0ti:3 1.133 1.196 1.240 1.266
0.08 0.1676 0.3348 0.5010 0.6654 0.8265 0.981 1.053 1.121 1.181 1.223 1.249
0.09 0.1667 0.3331 0.4983 0.6615 0.8209 0.973 1.044 1.110 1.168 1.208 1.233
0.10 0.1659 0.3314 0.4956 0.6575 0.8154 0.965 1.035 1.098 1.156 1.193 1.218
0.15 0.1618 0.3229 0.4822 0.6384 0.7887 0.928 0.991 1.046 1.096 1.126 1.148
0.20 0.1579 0.3147 0.4694 0.6199 0.7633 0.894 0.951 1.001 1.041 1.071 1.089
0.25 0.1541 0.3068 0.4571 0.6024 0.7393 0.862 0.914 0.959 0.994 1.025 1.039
0.30 0.1504 0.2992 0.4453 0.5857 0.7166 0.832 0.881 0.922 0.953 0.984 0.996
0.35 0.1469 0.2919 0.4339 0.5697 0.6952 0.804 0.850 0.888 0.918 0.946 0.957
0.40 0.1435 0.2849 0.4230 0.5544 0.6750 0.779 0.822 0.858 0.886 0.912 0.922
0.45 0.1402 0.2782 0.4125 0.5398 0.6560 0.755 0.797 0.831 0.858 0.880 0.891
0.:30 0.1370 0.2718 0.4025 0.5260 0.6381 0.733 0.773 0.806 0.832 0.851 0.862
0.55 0.1340 0.2657 0.3929 0.5129 0.6213 0.7133 0.7507 0.783 0.808 0.824 0.83:)
0.60 0.1311 0.2598 0.3837 0.5005 0.6055 0.6945 0.7301 0.762 0.785 0.798 0.810
0.65 0.1283 0.2542 0.3750 0.4887 0.5906 0.6768 0.7108 0.742 0.764 0.775 0.788
0.70 0.1256 0.2488 0.3667 0.4775 0.5766 0.6601 0.6927 0.723 0.744 0.753 0. 76ti
0.75 0.1230 0.243ti 0.3588 0.4669 0.5634 0.6443 0.6757 0.705 0.725 0.734 0.747
0.80 0.1206 0.2387 0.3514 0.4568 0.5509 0.6293 0.6597 0.688 0.707 0.716 0.729
0.8.) 0.1183 0.2340 0.3444 0.4473 0.5390 0.6150 0.6446 0.672 0.691 0.699 0.712
0.90 0.1161 0.2296 0.3378 0.4383 0.5277 0.6014 0.6304 0.656 0.675 0.684 0.697
0.9:) 0.1140 0.2254 0.3316 0.4298 0.5169 0.5885 0.6171 0.642 0.660 0.671 0.682
1. ()0 0.1120 0.2214 0.3257 0.4218 0.5065 0.5762 0.6046 0.628 0.647 0.658 0.668
1.05 0.1100 0.2175 0.3201 0.4141 0.4966 0.5646 0.5928 0.615 0.634 0.646 0.655
1.10 0.1081 0.2138 0.3147 0.4066 0.4872 0.5536 0.5816 0.603 0.621 0.633 0.642
1.1:3 0.1063 0.2102 0.3095 0.3994 0.4783 0.5432 0.5709 0.591 0.601 0.621 0.630
1.20 0.1045 0.2067 0.3044 0.3925 0.4698 0.5334 0.5607 0.581 0.599 0.610 0.619
1.25 0.1028 0.2034 0.2995 0.3859 0.4617 0.5242 0.5510 0.570 0.588 0.599 0.608
t.:3o 0.1012 0.2002 0.2947 0.3796 0.4541 0.5157 0.5417 0.561 0.578 0.589 0.597
1.3:3 0.0996 0.1971 0.2901 0.3736 0.4469 0.5076 0.5328 0.552 0.569 0.580 0.588
1.40 0.0981 0.1942 0.2856 0.3679 0.4401 0.4998 0.5243 0.543 0.560 0.571 0.578
1.415 0.0967 0.1914 0.2812 0.3625 0.4337 0.4923 0.15161 0.535 0.551 0.562 0.569
1.50 0.0954 0.1888 0.2772 0.3575 0.4277 0.4851 0.5083 0.528 0.543 0.554 0.560
1..5.'5 0.0942 0.1863 0.2732 0.3527 0.4220 0.4782 0.5008 0.520 0.535 0.546 0.552
1.60 0.0930 0.1839 0.2694 0.3481 0.4165 0.4716 0.4936· 0.513 0.527 0.538 0.544
1.65 0.0918 0.1815 0.26157 0.3436 0.4112 0.4652 0.4868 0.506 0.520 0.531 0.536
1.70 0.0907 0.1792 0.2622 0.3392 0.4060 0.4590 0.4803 0.499 0.513 0.524 0.529
1.75 0.0896 0.1770 0.2588 0.3349 0.4009 0.4530 0.4739 0.493 0.507 0.517 0.521
1.80 0.0885 0.1748 0.2556 0.3306 0.3958 0.4472 0.4678 0.486 0.500 0.510 0.515
t.:,.J 0.0874 0.1727 0.2525 0.3264 0.3907 0.4416 0.4618 0.480 0.494 0.504 0.508
1.90 0.0864 0.1706 0.2495 0.3223 0.3857 0.4361 0.4561 0.474 0.488 0.497 0.502
1.95 0.0854 0.1685 0.2466 0.3183 0.3807 0.4307 0.4507 0.468 0.481 0.491 0.496
2.00 0.0844 0.1665 0.2439 0.3144 0.3756 0.4254 0.4456 0.462 0.475 0.485 0.490
398 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIOX

n' kn 4 n2
A8 = -4
x·
. + sin 4 1/> = 1---v-. + sin 4 4>, tan 4 "'
r = 9 • . .• cf>
- x- sm-
(6.106')

and have then

- _!_[E1 e"<•-i<><<•+'Pl + E 2 e-"<•+i<><o,-'Pl
U.. -A
+ Es e"<• + i(><i, + 'Pl + E4 e- ""•- i(><$,- 'Plj.
This may easily be written in real terms:

(6.107)
with
1
U1 ,. (I/>)= A e"<• cos(~ .; 2 + 1p), l
U2n (I/>)=* e"<• sin (~.; 2 + 1p),
l (6.107')

l
1
U311 (1/>) =A e-x<•cos(~.; 2 -1p),

Uh(l/>) = ~ e-"<•sin(~.; 2 -1p).

In these formulas only ~ is a constant, and A, .;1 , .;2 , and 1p depend

on 4> according to (6.106') and to Table 6.3. We must therefore know
the derivatives of all these variables with respect to 4> before we can
differentiate un.
From the definition (6.106) we find by differentiating

A'+ iA 1p. = 4 ~ 3 e-4i'l' sin2 4>,

and when we here separate real and imaginary parts we obtain

A'= sin2cf>cos4tp . sin 2 cp sin 4 fJ'
4A 3 '
1fl =- 4A4

When we combine (6.106) and (6.102) (neglecting 2 compared with p?),

we may find the relation
A 2 2 i 'P ~· _ • ~·
- -"'_e_ = .;- = '>t ~""
sin cp 1- i '

and in separating again the real from the imaginary, we obtain formulas
for the derivatives:
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARMONICS 399

After these preparations, we may differentiate U1 ,. ••• U4 ". The

result is this :
•
U111 = --y
e"<• [sin2cf> uA V2 ( 2 n )]
,
4 A' cos(u~ 2 +5'1J')+ sincf> cos x~ 2 -'ljJ+ 4

U2n = - e:• [ s~n~,cf> sin(x~ 2 + 5'1J') + "~~r sin ( "~2-"'' + :) ] ,

. e-"e'[sin2cf> uA 2 f2 . (· n)]
Uan=--y 4 A' cos(u~ 2 -5'1jJ)- sincf> sm x~ 2 +"1'+4 ,

U~n = - e:•· [s:~,cf> sin(x~2 - 5'1J')- u~~r cos ( x~ 2 + "''+ :) ].

(6.107")
Instead of repeating the procedure and thus getting the second
derivatives, we now aim at H(U,.). ·we remember that each one of the
functions uln ... u4n is the sum of two terms which satisfy (6.100) for
different values of p 2 , for instance:
U "' x$1
. tnl = e_ (± e-i(><$o+'P) + ei(,.$o+'Pl)
~uhJ 2A •
and when we apply (6.100) to each term with the correct p 2 , we obtain

1
'HH((UUltl))}
2"
= 2i "2 e"<'
2A
(=f e-i(x<a+'Pl + eH"<•+'Pl) = {- ;~: ~u2" .
- x 1 tn

In this way we arrive at the following relations:

H (U111 ) = - 2x2 U2 .. , H(Usn) =
2x2 Uh,
(6.108)
H (U2n) = 2x 2 U 111 , H(U4n) = - 2x 2 U3n·
With the help of these formulas and of the definition (6.88) of the oper-
ator H it is possible to express the second and all higher derivatives
of U1 n ... by U111 ... and their first derivatives. When this has been
done we retrace our steps and find formulas for the displacements and
for the stress resultants.
We begin with (6.97). Since we have already studied its homo-
geneous solutions, we may now content ourselves with finding one
particular solution. With the help of (6.96) it may easily be verified
that
n
w .. = 1 [ 1 _k 7 H (U.. ) + u . ]'
satisfies (6.97). When we introduce here (6.107), we have

w. = n1 (C 1 Utn + C2 U2n + D 1 Uh + D2 U4.)

1+v
- - •
9~nu- (CtU2 .. -C2Ut .. -D1U4n+D2Usnl·
400 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

Compared with the first line, the second line of this formula is of the
order r.- 2 . When we wrote (6.101) we neglected 1 compared with x2,
and we are now obliged to neglect x- 2 compared with 1. Since it turns
out to be very necessary to keep track carefully of what must be drop-
ped, we shall replace this second line by the symbol + 0 (x- 2 ) indicating
that a contribution of this order has been dropped:

w" = ~ (C1 U1" + Cz Uz" + D1 Ua" + Dz U4,) + O(r.-2 ). (6.109a) 1

\Ve now attempt to find U 11 and V 11 • For u" (6.95) seems to be available,
and since we have studied before the influence of w", we may now put
<•J 11 = 0. \Vhcn we introduce U,. from (6.107) and w" from (6.109a), we
have
n, sine/>= U,- nw,
= (C 1 Ut" 1- ... ) - (C 1 U 1 " + ... ) + O(x- 2 ) = 0 (x- 2 ),

i.e. we get nothing but a statement of the order of magnitude. We have

no better luck when we turn to (6.91) for v". Again putting w,.- 0
we find
nv, = - u;,sincf>- u,.coscf> =- (u,, sine/>)'.
As may be seen from the second term in each bracket of (6.107"),
differentiating U,. raises the order of magnitude by one step. Therefore,

In other cases, when we had found the displacemcnts, we turned to

the elastic law to find expressions for the stress resultants. Here, because
of the failure of finding expressions for u,. and v,., this way is only partially
open.
:First, we introduce the FouRIER series (6.86) into (6.84) and see that
the forces and moments are also FouRIER series:

~V <I> ,~ ~ N "'" co» n (), N0 = ~ N 0 ,.cosn0, N <I> 8 = ~ N <I> 0 ,. sin n () ,

~V <I>=~ J.W<I>n cosn (), J1 0 = ~ 11-Ion cosn(}, 1}[<1> 0 = ~ JVI<t>onsinn (}.

\Vhen we now inspect the elastic law for the moments, (6.84d-f),
we see that we have enough information to derive formulas for J.ll <I>",
JI 011 , 1};[<1> 0 ,.. Introducing all we know in (6.84d), we obtain, for example,

J.v! 4>" = n~ [o (x 0) + w~ + 0 (x-2 ) + 0 (x- 1 ) + v w;, cot cf> ~ .U::']

2
- vstn·., .
Since w~ is of the order x 2 , we may evaluate terms of this and of the
next lower order, before our Jack of knowledge about interferes. When v;,
1 For (6.109b, c) seep. 402.
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARMOXICS 401
going through the details, we find
K
~li... ,. = - - . [2x 2 (C1 U2"- ···)
"" nn·
+ (1- v)(C 1 Ui,. +···)cot</>+ O(x0 )]. (6.110a)
Since the functions U111 , ••• U 411 or their derivatives appear in all for-
mulas only in two different linear combinations we adopt here the ab-
breviations
(Cl Ul>i + .. ·)=Cl Uln + C2 U2n + Dl U3,. + D2 U4n•
(ClU2n- · · ·) = ClUz,.- C2Uln- DlU4n + D2U3n·
By similar procedures (6.84e, f) yield
K
1ll 6 ,.= --.,f2vx
na·
2 (C1 U 2 , . - ···)

- (1- v) (01 Ui .. +···)cot</>+ O(x0 )],

(6.110b,c)
l.r K(1- v) [(C ['"
~•.t.po,.=- ., · q,
lt" Sill
1 ·1,.+ ···)
- (C1 Ut,.+···) cot</>+ O(x- 1)].
When we try to use (6.84a-c) in the same way, we get only order·
of-magnitude statements:
D D
.. = -0("
N .,,, a 0)
' No ,, = -O(x
a 0) ,

and even these are uncertain in that the order of magnitude may be
lower than indicated. To obtain more, we must make use of the equa-
tions of equilibrium (6.83). In these equations the M terms are now
known and are brought to the right-hand side. Upon careful inspection
of these right-hand sides we discover that N .p,. cannot be of the order " 0 ,
but must be of order "- 1 • It is then possible to find from (6.83c) the
term of order " 0 of NOn and then from (6.83 b) the term with "-l of N .p n.
Returning to (6.83c) we then get N 611 complete and by some more steps
between the three equations we get all we want:

Non=
D ( 1 - v2)
2 nn
r2(C 1
cot cf> • 2
Utn+···)---;;_z(C1 Uz,.-···)+0(x),
_ ]

N.;on = ~(~-. v2~ [(C1 U2n-

a Sill
···)- (C1 U.,.-
•
···)cot</>+ 0("-1 )] •
(6.110d-f)
On the way to these formulas several integrals of the type
J (C1 U1 n + ···)cos</> d<f>
Flllgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 26
402 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

must be evaluated. Within the necessary range of accuracy this can be

done by assuming the solution in the form
a(cp) U111 + b(cp) U2 ,. + c(cp) Ui.,. + d(cp) U~,,
expanding the coefficients a(cf>) ... in series of negative powers of 1(,
and collecting like powers of x. Where necessary, (6.108) must be used
to eliminate second derivatives of ul1l u4n. 0 ••

It is now a straightforward procedure to derive formulas for the

transverse shears from (6.1 d, e):

Q.;, =- 2 ~ [x 2 {C1 u;,.- ···) + O(x)j,

na
(6.110g,h)

As may easily be seen, Q.; is a cosine series and Q8 a sine series in().
For an edge cf> = const. of the shell we may define an effective shear 1'.;
and an effective transverse force s., similar to those introduced for the
cylinder by (5.35). However, it so happens that the contributions of M.; 8
are of negligible order and that we simply have 1'.; = N.; 8 and S.; = Q.,.
Last of all, we may now attempt to establish formulas for the tan-
gential displacements ·u11 and v,., using the elastic law (6.84a-c). The
first two of these equations may be solved for (v~ + w,.) and (nu.,,/sincf>
+ V 11 cotcp + w,.). Since w,. is known, we find at once
v,. = - ~:": f(C 1 u;"- ···) + O(x- 1)J. (6.109b)

\Vhen we try also to calculate u,., we again arrive only at a statement

of its order of magnitude, but (6.84c) yields

n,. = 2 1/. 11 4>f(C1 U 2 ,. - .. · ) - ~. (C 1 U~,. + .. -)cote/> -r O(x-2 )J. (6.109c)

" sm ""
This concludes the solution of the problem. The complete stress
system is represented by three sets of formulas: (6.98), (6.99), and the
equations just derived. All together they co~tain 8 free constants of
integration, which allow satisfying 4 boundary conditions at each of
two edges of a shell. These conditions must be formulated in the same
way as for the cylindrical shell (pp. 227-231).

6.3.2 Conical Shell

6.3.2.1 Differential Equations
The conditions of equilibrium (6.1) and the elastic law (6.5) use the
slope angle cf> as a meridional coordinate. Since on a cone cf> = oc is a
 6.3 SOLUTIOX FOR THE HIGHER HARMOXICS 403
constant, we must switch over to the arc length coordinate 8 (Fig. 2.12).
Consequently, we write for the dot-derivatives in (6.1) and (6.5)
( ._o( ... )=.~.:_:_l
.. ·) -- o<P 11 os
and change the subscript 4> into 8 wherever it occurs. Then we put
4>=cx., r2 = 8 cot ex, T=8COSIX.

Since our equations will be a good deal more complicated than those-
of the axisymmetric case, we introduce a new dot symbol

(... ) ·=~
os 0

Different from the dot symbols used elsewhere in this book, this one
represents differentiation with respect to a length and thus changes the
dimension of the quantity to which it is attached. We shall see that
this fact yields the key to the solution of our equations.
The details of the limiting process just described are tiresome but
not difficult. It is sufficient to give the result here.
The elastic law assumes the following form:

N,
'
= [v· + ~ (...:::._
D
cos
8
+ v+ w tan.x)] -Kw" tan x,
Cl 8

N0 = D [..!_ (_:!___ + v+ w tan ex.) + vv·]

8 cos Cl

+ K [s3 tan ex + sa tan-a + cos" a + '] tan

V W 0 W W
8, 2 82 Y. ,

N ·' o=D--
2
u --+--
1 - v [ . u
8
v' ]
8 cos Cl

1 - v [ u·
+K - - -2 - -u- - -2 w'" w' ]
+ - - t3 a n - a• :
2 1 s i s sin~ s sin lX '

1- -
N 0s =D v- . -u- + -
[u v' - ] (6.111 a-h)•
2 8 8 cos Cl

• 1 - v [ v' w'"
+K - - -3 - + - - - - - -3tw'a n] .,
-a
2 s cos a s 2 sin a 8 sin a '

.M,= K [w"- ~tano: + v(~

s cos-
+ w·- u: tan a)]'
cos 8- a s s- a

J.W 0 = K [~
8- cos- a
+ w'
8
+ U: tan 2 o: + s-~: tano: +
8-
vw"],
w'" w' u· . u . ] 1
M, 0 = K(1- v) [ - - - . - - -sma: + -.smcx. - - ,
8 8" 8 s- cos x
w'" w' u· . u . v' -·] 1
M""·0 = K (1 - v) [-
8
- -.-- - ;;--
8 ;;: s
s1n x + -2 s-• sm x + ·2--.-
s-
tan a - cos-x .
Like (6.5), from which they have been derived, these equations are-
valid for constant and for variable wall thickness.
26*
404 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

When the conditions of equilibrium (6.1) are subjected to the same

treatment, the following equations are obtained:
(sNsf + N8ssec;{- No=- p •.~.
(.~N.of + N~seccc +Nos- Q0 tan;{ =- PoS,
N 8 tancc + Q~sec.x + (sQ = p,.s,
8 )" (6.112a-f)
(s.1l-f8 )' + M~ 8 seccc- M 8 =sQ.,
(sM, 0 )' +M~ sec cc+.il-108 = sQo,
s (Nos- N 8 o) = J.'l-fo 8 tan cc.
Since the last of these equations does not contain any derivatives, we
may there introduce the elastic law (6.111) without specifying any assump-
tion regarding the wall thickness. When we do so, we find again that the
equation is an identity and may be dropped as worthless for the analysis.
Two more equations, (6.112d, e), may be used to eliminate the trans-
verse shearing forces from the remaining three. This yields the following
set, in which we have exchanged the first and the second equation to
obtain the order which we later shall find most desirable:
-~(sN, 8 )' + sN~secx + sN0 , - (sM,o)'tancc
- .M 88 tanx- 1l10tanx sec cc= - p 0 s 2 ,
(sN 8 )' + N'o,seccc- N 0 =- p,s, (6.11:3a-c)
-~No tan cc + 8 (8 M,)" + (8 M;or sec cc + (8 ~w~.r sec cc
+ ~vi~ sec 2 :z - 8 J.V/0 = p,. 8 2 .
These equations correspond to equations (5.2a-c) of the cylinder theory
which may be derived from them as a limiting case.
From here on, we restrict our attention to the edge load problem
and put p 0 = p, = p,. = 0. Equations (6.113) then become homogeneous
in the stress resultants, and these homogeneous equations will be meant
when, on the following pages, reference is made to (6.113).
In the elastic law (6.111) as in all similar equations in this book, the
wall thickness t is hidden in the rigidities D and K. When the shell has
a variable thickness, then D and K vary from place to place. We shall
here consider a shell whose thickness is independent of() but proportional
to .s:
t=O·S.
In this case we have
n·-- 1__!!J_
-v 2 '

\Vhen we introduce the stress resultants from (6.111) into the homo-
geneous equations (6.113), every term will have a factor D, n·, K, or K'.
After dividing everything by D we find that the terms are either free
of 0 or have a factor 02
12 = k.
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARMONICS 405

With this abbreviation the resulting equations assume the following

form:

-1 -2- V
82 u•• + n " sec2 a: + (1 - v) 8 u.• - (1 - v) u + -1 +
2- 8 v sec a:
V ,.

+ (2- v) v' sec a:+ w' tana: sec a:+ k [: (1- v) 8 2 u"" tan a:
+ 3 (1- v)8u"tana:- 3(1- v)utana:- 3 ; v 8 2 w'"" sec~

- 3(1- v)8w'"seca: + 3(1- v)w'seca:) tano.: = 0,

1
~8'U
+V 1• 3 ( ) 1
seco.:- 2 1 - v u seca: + 8
2 •• 1 - V 11
v + - 2- v sec-a:
0

+ 28v·- (1- v)v + V8w"tan~- (1- v)wtanr.1:

+ k [-1 -2-V v 11 t an a: sec-0 a - v t an a: - 8 3 w··• + ~ 8 w sec- ·X
1 -V ,. 0

- 3 82 w •• 3
-V
-~w
11 t 2 a ] t ana:= 0 ,
sec 2 oc-8W• -wan (6 .114 a-c )

[ u I sec a+ V8v • + v + w t ana:J1 t ana:+ k [ -3--2-V82 u I•• sec·x

- (3 + v)8u'" sec a+ (:l- 5 v) ~t' sec a:- 83 tf· + 1 ; v 8v"" sec 2 a:

- 682 v·· + (2- v)v" sec 2 a -78v·- v(1- tan2 oc)) tanoc
+ k f8 4 W:: + 28 2 u/'"" sec 2 oc + wiV sec 4 a: + 88 3 w·' + 48'10 11 • scc 2 .x
+ (11 + 3 v) 8 2 w.. + 2w" tan2 a sec 2 a: - (5- 6 v) w" sec 2 a
- 2 (1 - 3 v) 8u'- w (1 - tan 2 a:) tan 2 a:] = 0.
Equations (6.114) are three simultaneous partial differential equa-
tions for the displacements u, v, w and they represent the fundamental
differential equations of our problem. Our next task is to find their
general solution.

6.3.2.2 Solution
Since the coefficients do not depend on 0 we may certainly expect
a product solution of the type
~t = u,. (8) sin nO, v = v,. (8) cos nO, w = w, (8) cos nO, (6.115)
and it is easily shown that this choice of sines and cosines is acceptable.
When we introduce this solution into (6.114), we obtain three ordinary
differential equations for u 11 , vn, wn. Without writing these equations,
we may recognize that they have a peculiar structure. Since the dot
represents the differentiation with respect to 8, it produces a change
of dimension equivalent to division by a length. For dimensional homo-
geneity of the equations this change must be compensated by a factor
which has the dimension of a length. Now, on an unbounded cone,
406 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

there is only one such factor available, the coordinate s. Indeed, we

see that in every term of (6.114) the power of s is equal to the number
of dots attached to u, v, or w, and this property of the equations is
preserved when the expressions (6.115) are introduced. Such equations
are solved by assuming U 11 , v,., wn = const. ·sA. Since the exponent A.
may not be an integer (possibly even a complex number), the constants
have awkward dimensions. We avoid this by introducing now a dimen-
sionless coordinate. After experience gained with the axisymmetric
problem we choose

where l is an arbitrary reference length, and put

u = Af,.(s) sin nO,
v ~
w
Bf.. (s) cosn8,
= Cf,.(s) cosn8 } (6.116)

with
f,, (s) = y'--1. (6.116')
When this is introduced in (6.114) they become three ordinary linear
equations for the constants A, B, C:
d11 A+d12 B+d13 C=O,}
d21 A+d22 B+d23 C=O, (6.117)
d31 A + d 32 B + d33 C = 0
with the following expressions for their coefficients:
1-v
d11 = - 8 - (1 + 3ktan2a:) (9- A. 2) + n 2sec 2 a:,
1
rl 12 = 4 [(7- 5v) + (1 + v) A.J n sec a:,
d 13 = [1 +: [3(9 -11 v) + 8vA.- (3- v)A. 2J] ntana:seca:,

d 22 = ! (1 - A.2) + (1 - v) ( 1 + ! n2 sec2 a:)

+ k tan2a: ( 1 + 1 ; 11
n 2 sec2 x), (6.118)
1
d 23 = 2 tana:[(2- v)- vA.J
-! 7dana:[1- 8tan2a: + 2(7- 3v)n2sec2a:
- (3 + 2(1- v)n 2 sec 2a:)A. + 3,1.2- ,1.3],
daa = tan 2 a: + 1~ k r(13- 12 v) - 16 (1 - tan2a:) tan2 a:
+ 8((11-12v)- 4tan2 a:)n 2 sec2a: + 16n4 sec4 a:
- 2((7- 6v) + 4n2sec 2a:)A2 + A.4j. J
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARMONICS 407

The expressions for d 21 , d31 , d32 are obtained by replacing A with -A

in d12 , ~ 3 , d23 , respectively.
The linear equations (6.117) are homogeneous and cannot have a
nontrivial solution unless their determinant vanishes. Since the coeffi-
cients contain A, the vanishing of the determinant yields an algebraic
equation for this quantity. It turns out to be of the form
A8 - UsA 6 + Y4A4 - U2A2 + Uo = 0, (6.119)
and its coefficients are these :
g6 = 4 (7- 4v) - 8v tan2 oc + 16n2 sec2 .x,
g4 = 16 k-I (1 - v2) tan2 .x + 2 [(127- 136v + 24 v2)
- 4 (8 + 3 v) tan2.x + 8 (4- 3v2) tan4.x]
+ 16 [(17- 12 v) - 6 tan2 .x] n 2 sec2 .x + 96n 4 sec4.x,
g2 = - 160 k- 1 (1 - v2) tan2 oc + 4 [(203- 316v + 120v2)
- 2 (80- 61 v) tan2 oc + 40(4- 3 v2) tan4a;]
+ 16[(71-72v)- 4(13 -10v)tan2oc
+ 8 (2 - v) tan4.x] n 2 sec2.x (6.120)
+ 64[(13- 12v)- 2 (4- v) tan2oc]n4 sec4oc + 256n6 sec6 .x,
g0 = 144 k- 1 (1 - v2) tan 2a + 9 [(13 - 12 v) (5 - 4v)
- 8 (8- 7 v) tan2oc + 16 (4- 3v2) tan4ocj
+ 16 [(215- 412v + 192v2) + 2 (89- 172v + 96v2 ) tan2 .x
+ 40 (2- v) tan4ocj n 2 sec2a;- 32 r(81 - 184v + 96v2)
+ 4 (16 - 13 v) tan2 .x - 8 tan4.x] n 4 sec4a;
+ 256r(3- 4v)- 2tan2oc]n6 secsoc + 256nssecsa;.
Equation (6.119) has 8 roots Ai (j = 1, 2, ... , 8), and to each one of
them there belongs one solution (6.116) with constants A;, B;, Ci.
These three constants depend on each other through the linear equa-
tions (6.117). Since the determinant of these equations vanishes, any
two of them may be used to express Ai and Bias multiples of C(
A;= a:;C;, B; = {3;C;.
The ratios .xi, f3; depend on the coefficients d11 ••• d33 and hence on Ai
and are different for each of the eight solutions.
The roots ).i may be real or complex. "When they are complex they
always occur in groups of four: A = ± x ± ifl, while real roots come in
pairs of opposite sign. We must discuss both cases, and we begin with
the simpler one.
Let~ be a real root. The corresponding solution of (6.114) is

u = C1 oc1 yA•- 1 sinnO, v = C1 {3 1 yA,-I cos nO,

W = Cl yA,-I COS n (;l.
408 CJLAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

Table 6.4. Coefficient.~ for Conical Shells

f c ~ a,

u 1 -1 iil

I' 1 - 1 pl
--
w 1 - 1 1
--
w 1j2l -3 x1 - 1
--
1 1
EfJ
vn a 1 sec a: +2 (x1 - 1 + 2 v) P1 - 2 p 1 P2 + v tan :x
.V, - 1
1 -- v2 1
- 4 kf(x 1 - 1) (x 1 - 3)- piJ tan a:
--

No
EfJ
- 1
nii1seca: + [1 + ~ v(x1 - 1) + ktan2 a:JP1 - ! vtt 1 P2
1- v2
+ tana: + k [tan2 a:- n 2 sec 2 a: + ; (x1 -1)] tana:
-- --
EfJ f(x 1 - 3) a 1 - p 1 a2 j (1 + k tan2 a:) - 2 n P1 sec a:
.v.o - 1
4 (1 + v) + kn (x1 - 3) tan a: sec a:
--
EfJ [(xl- 3)<%1 - ,u 1 a 2 j - 2nP1 seca:(1 + ktan2 a:)
.Yo, - 1
4 (1 + v) - k n (x 1 - 3) tan a: sec a:

El5 1 l
! j(x1 - 1)(x1 - 3)- ttil + ! v(x1 - 1- 2n 2 sec2 :x)
M, 12(1- v2 ) + 1
1
- V n al tan IX sec IX - 2 r(xl - 1) Pt - Ill PzJ tan :X

• ., + 1
-n-sec·a: 1)
Eo•z 2 (x 1 -

Mo 12 (1 - v2 ) + 1
+ tan 2 a: + ! vf(x 1 - 1) (x1 - 3)- ttiJ + Pt tan :x

EfJ"l
M,o + 1 - n (xl - 3) SeC IX - f (Xl - 3) ii1 - fll ii2j tan IX
24(1+v)

1
El5 3 l - n (x 1 - 3) sec a: - 2 [(x1 - 3) ii1 - p 1 ii2 ] tan a:
Mo, 24(1 + v) + 1
- n P1 tan a: sec a:
 6.3 SOLUTIO"N FOR THE HIGHER HAR~IONICS 409
Table 6.4. (Continued)

a• 8 factor

liz sin

Pz cos

0 COil

f-11 cos

1 1 1
vnli2 sec.z + 2 p 1 P1 + 2 (~e1 - 1 + 2v)P2 - 2 k(~e 1 - 2)p 2 tan.z cos

nli2 sec.z + ~ vp1 P1 + [1 + ~ l'(~e 1 - 1) + k tan2 .z JP2

l'OS
1
+ 2 kp1 tan.z

l!t11i1 + (~e 1 - 3) li2 j (1 + k tan2 .z) - 2n P2 sec <Z + k n1t1 tan z secx sin

lP1Ii1 + (~el - 3) «2 ] - 2 nP2 seca (1 + k tan2 a)- k np1 tan a l!cca sin

1 1
2 (~el- 2)pl + 2vp1 - vna2 tan a sec a
cos
- ~ IP1P1 + (~el- 1)Paltana

1 1
2 P1 + 2 v (~el - 2) 111 + P2 tan z l'OS

- np1 seca- l!t 1 a1 + (~e1 - 3)a2 jtana sin

1
- np1seca- 2 l!t 1 a1 + (~e1 - 3)a2 ]tana- nP2 tanaseca sin
410 CJUP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTION
Table 6.4. (Continued)

f c p
"•
~ ("1 - 1) ("i - 13 + 12 v) - ~ (3 "I - 1) ,ui - tan2 1Y

1 2 •
- 2 ("I- 5 + 6v)n sec· a

1
- 4 [(1 + v) "I- 3 (1 - 3v)Jna1 tan a sec a
ElJa
Q, - 1
12(1- VI) 1
+ 4 (1 + v),u 1 na2 tanaseca

1
-4[("I • • p1 tana
)·- .ui + 2( 1 - v)n·sec·aj
+ 1"
1
+ 2 ("1 + 1),uiP2 tana

1
-4["i + 2(2- 3v)x1 - 17 + 1Sv- .uiJnseca

ElJa
+ n 3 sec3 a- ntan2 asec:x
Qo
12(1 - v2)
- 1
-! (1- v)[(" 1 - 3)("1 + 4)- ,ui)a1 tana

1 1
+4(1-v)(2"1 + 1)Jtia2 tana - 2 (3- v)nP1 tanaseca

~("I- 1)(;ei- 13 + 12v)- ~ (3;e1 - 1),ui- tan2 a

8 8
1 • •
- 2 [(2- v)"1 - 8 + 9v]n-sec·a

- ~ f(3 - v) x1 - 3 (3 - 5v)J na1 tan a sec a

ElJ3 4
s, 12(1 - v2 ) - 1
1
+4(3- v)n,u1a 2 tan:xseca

1
- - [(x1 + 1)2 - ,ui + 2(1 - v) n 2 oec 2 aJPI tan a
4
1
+ 2 (;e1 + 1) ,u1 P2 tan a

ElJ [(;ei- 3)a1 - ,uia2 J(1 + 3ktan2 a)- 2nP1 seca

T, -1
4(1 + v) + 3 k n ("1 - 3) tan a sec a

To obtain formulas for real roots, put "I= AI, .UI = 0, i%1 = a 1 , P1 = P1, i%2 = Pz = 0.
Then a 2 = 0, and ai is the coefficient to be used in (6.121).
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARMONICS 411

Table 6.4. (Continued)

a, 11 factor

cos

1
- 2 ("1 + 1) tt1 PI tan a

-![ ("I + 1J2 - Pi + 2 (1 - P) n 2 sec 2 a] P2 tan a

1 1
-<>("I- 2 + 3v)npiseca- -(1- v)(2"I + 1)tt1 1i1 tana
- 4
1 sin
- 4 (1 - v)[("1 - 3)("I + 4) - ttiJ i%2 tan a
1
- 2 (3- v)ntJ 2 tanaseca

cos
1 1
- 4 [(3- v) " 1 - 3 (3- 5 v)] n <%2 tan a sec a- 2 ("I+ 1) Jti P1 tan a

-![("I+ 1) 2 -tti+2(1-v)n2 sec 2 aJP2 tana

[pial+ ("I- 3)<%2 ](1 + 3ktan2 a)- 2nP2 seca

sin
+ 3 k n tt 1 tan a sec a
412 CHAP. 6: SHELLS OF REVOLUTIO.K

These expressions must be introduced into the clastic law (6.111) to

obtain the stress resultants N and 1J!I, and then the transverse forces Q.,
and Q0 may be obtained from (6.112d, e). The resulting formulas may
be obtained from Table 6.4 by applying the substitutions indicated at
the end.
As a rule, we have to expect at least one if not two groups of complex
roots A. Let
A3 = - x1 + i .tt 1 ,
A4=-Xl-i.ttl

be one such group. Since A.1 and A. 2 are conjugate complex, the corre-
sponding coefficients d11 .•• d33 are also conjugate complex, and so are
the values cc 1 , (3 1 and cc 2 , {32 calculated from them. \Ve may therefore
write

and similar expressions for (31• The corresponding part of the solu-
tion (6.116) is

n = [cc 1 C1 y 1• - 1 + cc 2 C 2 y'•- 1 + cc 3 C3 y 1•- 1 + cc 4 C1 y'•- 1Jsin n () ,

V= [(31 cl yl,-1 + (32 c2 yl,-1 + f3a Ca y•· -1 + (34 c4 y•· -1] cos n ()'
w=r Cly•·-1+ C2yl,-l+ Cay•·-1+ C4yl•-ljcosn0.

The displacements are real quantities. The brackets are real when C1 , C2:
and c3' c4 are conjugate complex pairs:

cl= ~ (Cl- i c2l, C3 = ! (C3- iC4),

c 2 = !( (j 1 + i c
2) ' C 4 = ; (Ca + iC4 ).

Following the same procedure as on p. 375, we may now bring the

solution into real form:

n = y- 1 tY"' [(a10 1 + a 2 C2) cos (p 1 ln y) + (<X 1 C2 - <X 2 C1) sin (.£t 1 ln y)J
+ y-", [(aaCa + a4 C4 ) cos (p 1 ln y)
+ (<X a C4 - <X 4 C3 ) sin (p 1 ln y)]} sin n (),
w = y-l {y"• rcl cos (plln y) + c2 sin (plln y)]
+ y-"• [C3 cos (ft 1 lny) + C4 sin(p 1 lny)]} cosn().
 6.3 SOLUTION FOR THE HIGHER HARMONICS 413
When these solutions are introduced in (6.111) and (6.112d, e), it is
found that all stress resultants may be brought into the form:
j = c ye {Y"' r(a 1 C1 + a2 C2 ) cos (ft 1 ln y) + (a1 C2 - a 2 C1 ) sin (fl 1 ln y)J

+ :tF"' [(a 3 C3 + a4 C4 ) cos ([t 1 ln y) + (a3 C4 - a4 C3 ) sin ([t 1 ln y)J} ~: n 0.

(6.121)
The value::! of c, g, and the expressions for a 1 and a2 are given in Table 6.4.
To obtain expressions for a 3 and a 4 , one has to replace a1 , a2 by a3 , a4 ;
Pa,
fJ 1 , /f2 by {3~; and x 1 by - x 1 , while flt remains unaltered. When there
is another set of four complex roots, they are dealt with in the same
way. ·when there are some complex and some real roots, each part of
the solution must be handled in its own way, but when they are all
superposed there are always 8 real constants of integration available,
whether they are real constants cj or the real and imaginary parts cj
of complex constants.
 Chapter 7

SHALLOlV SHELLS
7.1 Differential Equations

7.1.1 Introduction
Equations (6.1 a-e) and (6.5a-h) are 13 equations for as many un-
knowns. Together with suitable boundary conditions they represent the
mathematical formulation of the general stress problem of shells of

Fi!<. 7. I. Shell element

revolution. vVe have seen how, under certain restrictions imposed upon
the load, the shape of the meridian, and the distribution of the wall
thickness, it is possible to develop formal solutions of these equations.
 7.1 DIF~'ERENTIAL EQUATIONS 415

For an arbitrary shell of revolution, however, it will be necessary to

resort to a numerical integration of the differential equations or to a
finite-element approach. Such methods will always produce a numerical
result for a given set of data, but they do not supply the insight into
the mechanics of a shell which can be derived from the discussion of
the features of a formal solution.
The same may be said for cylindrical shells. It is not difficult to
generalize our equations (5.1a-e) and (5.9a-h) to the case of a general
cylinder, but again the solution of such equations will mostly require
numerical methods, and shells which are neither cylinders nor shells of
revolution are almost completely out of reach of formal analysis.
In this chapter we shall approach the shell problem from a different
side, starting from an experience we made on pp. 353-355. There we
saw that in a shell which is not much else but a slightly dished plate,
the stress system may deviate substantially from that in a plane plate.
Particularly if the shell is thin, the ·'vault. action" described by the
equilibrium condition (2.11 c) and the "plate action" represented by the
transverse shear forces cooperate in carrying the normal load. To study
problems of this kind, we may take advantage of the fact that the
middle surface of the shell does not deviate much from a plane.

7.1.2 Eftuilibrinm Conditions

As in Chapter 4, we use cartesian coordinates to describe the middle
surface by its equation
z=z(x,y), (7.1)
but we add now the restrictive requirement that

(8zf8x) 2 « 1 , (8zf8y) 2 « 1 . (7.2)

A shell satisfying this condition is called a shallow shell. From (7.2) there
follows that the shaded shell element shown in Fig. 4.1 can no longer
be distinguished from a rectangle with the sides dx and dy. The stress
resultants Nx and Nxy are then orthogonal components of the force
vector transmitted across one of the sides of the shell element, and the
moments 11!fx and .Ll!lxy are orthogonal components of a. moment vector.
In Fig. 7.1 the element is shown with all the forces and moments
acting upon it. It should be noted that the components of the surface
load do not follow the coordinate axes x, y, z, but are tangents to the
middle surface in planes parallel to the coordinate planes (p1 , p 2 ) and
normal to that surface (p3 ). ·we use these three directions as a reference
frame when we now write the conditions of equilibrium for the forces
acting upon the shell element.
416 CHAP. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

In the direction of the load PI we have the increments of the for-

ces N .r dy and N X!t dx and the contributions of the transverse shear
forces Qx and Q1,. The forces Qx dy on opposite sides of the shell element
are not strictly parallel, but make the small angle (o 2 zfox2 )dx with each
other. Therefore, these two forces have a resultant Qx dy(o 2 zfox2 )dx,
tangent to the middle surface and directed toward the left. Similarly,
the forces QY dx make a contribution to our equilibrium condition because
of the twist o2 zfox dy of the shell. Dropping from all terms a common
tactor dx dy, we arrive at the first of the following two equations:
aN~ + a..v•• _ Q a2z _ Q iJ2z + = O
ax ay X ax2 !I ax ay PI '
(7.3a, b)
aN., +aN. _ Q a2z . _ Q a2z + = O
ax ay dx ay
X y ay2 P2 .
The second equation states the equilibrium in the direction of the
load p 2 •
The third condition of equilibrium, written for the direction of p 3 ,
displays the cooperation of vault action and plate action. The normal
forces N x dy acting on opposite sides of the shell element make the same
.angle (o 2 zfox2 )dx as the transverse shear forces and, hence, have the
resultant N"' dy ((} 2 zfox2 ) dx pointing downward. Similar contributions
come from N 11 dx, N 711 dy, and N.r 11 dx. The sum of these terms represents
the vault action of the shell. ·
The plate action consists in the differences of the transverse shear
forces on opposite sides of the element. The sum of all these terms and
a load term is the left-hand side of the following equation:

(7.3 c)

The moment equilibrium with respect to two tangents to the middle

surface yields the equations
aM,.,+
a x
a~H.- QY =
ay
o' (7 •3d ,e )

which are identical with (5.1d, e) for the cylinder. The sixth condition
of equilibrium is without significance on the level of approximation
applied here.
·when the shell degenerates into a plane plate, the first three terms
of (7.3c) vanish. If the shell sufficiently deviates from a plate to make
.application of shell theory worthwhile, at least one of these terms must
make a substantial contribution to the equilibrium. On the other hand,
if there is any bending worth speaking of, at least one of the Q terms
must be important. For the purpose of the following discussion of
orders of magnitude, let the terms with N x and Qx be such terms.
 7.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 417

Now let l be a length such that l iJQxf'ilx::::::: Q" and l iJNxf'ilx:::::: Nx,
where the sign : : : : indicates equal order of magnitude, not necessarily
approximate numerical equality. If the stress resultants vary gradually
across the shell, l will be of the order of the overall shell dimensions,
while in oscillatory solutions, like those shown in Figs. 5.23 or 6.23, it
is of the order of half the wave length. In either case we have
iPz aQ,
Nxlar- ::::::lax::::::Q,.

From (7.2) there follows that

a· ).
(la~~ -~ t
and hence

and
( Qx l :;: r~ Q! .
The left-hand side of this inequality is by two steps smaller than the
right-hand side of the preceding one. Therefore, between the roots of
these quantities still the relation holds that
a2z aN,
Qxa-.~-a
x- x ·

From this we conclude that in the pair (7.3a, b) at least one of the
N terms is large enough to permit neglecting all the Q terms in com-
parison with it. If we do so, (7.3a, b) are reduced to the following simple
form:
aN. aN'" aN.. aN. _
-+--+pl= ax
0
ay ax + ay + p2 - 0 • (7.4a, b)
'
They are now identical with (4.3a, b) and their solution may again be
expressed in terms of a stress function tf>:

1li .c
T
= -a •-
jj2fP
y-
f Pt dx, Nr!f = -
a~fP
axay . (7.5)

Introduction of these expre!:lsions in (7.3c) yields the following equa-

tion:

Beside the stress function tf>, it contains as unknowns the two trans-
verse shear forces Qx, QY. We use (7 .3d, e) to replace them by the bend-
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ell. 27
418 CHAP. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

(7.6)
Although this increases the number of unknowns in the equation, it
is a step in the right direction, as we soon shall see.

7.1.3 Deformation
We have seen in the bending theory of cylinders and of shells of
revolution that the equilibrium conditions do not provide enough equa-
tions to cover all the unknowns occurring in them. It is necessary to
extend the scope of the investigation and to include the deformation
of the shell. The procedure is the same as on pp. 207-210.
We consider a. point A 0 on the middle surface and a. normal A 0 A = S
to this surface. During deformation the points A 0 and A move to A 0
and A, respectively. We intersect the shell with a plane y = const.
passing through A 0 and project the three other points on it (Fig. 7.2).

L
W;~ /A
I ow
l_il•
z r-r--,;.
1-uA__,
Fig. j .~. Displacement
of a shell element

The normal ?; deviates from the vertical plane by the small angle ozfoy,
but for our purposes the actual distance A 0 A and the length ?; visible
in the figure are the same. The displacement of A 0 is described by com-
ponents u, v, w, which have the same directions as the load compo-
nents p 1 , p 2 , p 3 and, similarly, the generic point A of the shell is dis-
placed by uA, vA, w A. From Fig. 7.2 and a similar section parallel to
the y, z plane we read the following relations:
UA = U -
aw (,~ ,
ax VA = fJ -
aw c,r
ay , WA = W •
(7 7)
•

In a. surface ?; = const. parallel to the middle surface we define

strains Ex and E" expressing the stretching of line elements AB = dx
and AC = dy and shear strains Y.r'l equal to the decrease of the (almost)
 7.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 419

right angle BAG between these line elements. These strains can be
expressed in terms of the displacements u A, vA, w A . The contributions
of the tangential components uA and v_ 1 are the same as in plane strain,
ouAfox, i}vAfoy, and ouAfoy + ovAfox, respectively. In addition, strains
are produced by the fact that the normals at A, B, and C, and hence,
the directions of the normal displacements wA, are not strictly paralleL
The normal displacements at B and C may, each, be resolved into a
vector wA parallel to the displacement at A and small components
parallel to the middle surface, which have the same effect as increments.
of uA and vA. One of them is shown in Fig. 7.3. Because of the curvature

X
I
z I azjax I
Ll ___ ;J_J
I
I
8

Fig. 7.3. Effect of w

on the strains
z

of the line element AB, the normals at its ends (like the tangents) make
an angle (o 2 zfox2 )dx in the x, z plane and produce the component shown,
which points in the negative uA direction. There is another component
in the negative vA direction, wA(o 2zfoy ox)dx, caused by the twist of the
shell, and there are similar components for a point C at the end of the
line element dy. They add to ouAfox a term - w A(o 2zfox2) etc. and lead
to the last term on the right-hand side of each of the following relations:.

(7.8a-c)•
_ auA + j!y~ _ 2 w·. iJ2z
y,y- ay ax .! axay.
Combination of (7.7) and (7.8) allows to express the strains at A in terms.
of the displacement of A 0 and its derivatives:
av azw az
Ey = { ) -7)2!;- war,
2

Y Y Y (7.9 a-c}
au ac aw 2 az 2
- -ay! ; - 2 w
Y:r. !I =ay- +ax- - 2 ax ax-ay- •
These are the kinematic relations of the shallow shell.
27*
420 CHAP. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

The elastic law of the shell is HooKE's law from plane stress. We
may use (5.6) if we replace there the subscript </> by y. On the right-
hand side of these equations we now use (7.9) to express the strains -
and hence the stresses- as functions of u, v, w, and i;. These expressions
for ax, aY, 1: .c !I are then introduced into the definitions (1.1) of the stress
resultants where, of course, z must be replaced by - i;. In keeping with
simplifications already made, we assume that the shell is thin enough to
justify neglecting i;fr as compared to unity and evaluate the integrals
over the shell thickness t. vVe demonstrate this for the normal force N .r::

J
Tt/2 +t/2

Nx= j axdC= 1 ~r[(~;-w;:~+v~;-vw~:~) di;

-t/'.!. --t/2

f t;dt;].
+t/'.!.

- (::~ + v~~n
-t/2

After integration, this yields the first of the following equations:

[au av ( a2z a2z) ]

N .c ax + v ay -
= D ax2 + v ay2. w ,
•
:V,=D [av au
a-+va.,---- (ac--;;+v-a·
z a2z) w, 2
]
" y x dy- x-
' _ 1- [au ') a2
aV ~;;---a z 10 ] '
1\",,-· D -')-
- -ay +a--
)I

X OX y
(7.10a-f)
_[rJ2w a wl ~11!1 = - A_[(J2w
~11.r. = - A ox2 + V iJy
2
,
,j2w]
ay 2 + V (Jx ,
2 2

,. (1 ) iJ2w
l.r
~•.l.xy = - A axay.
-')I

In these equations, D and I\ are, as before, the extensional and bending

stiffnesses of the shell, defined by (5.8a, b). The hypothesis of conserva-
tion of normals denies any influence of the transverse shear stresses •.r:=
and T:y: upon the deformation and, therefore, Qx and Q!1 do not occur in
(7.10). This was the reason for eliminating these unknowns at once
from (7.6).

7.1.4 Differential Ettuations

The equilibrium condition (7 .6), the relations (7 .5) for the stress
function C/J, and the elastic law (7.10) are ten equations for the ten
unknowns Nx, N!'' N"!l' C/J, 111.0 111!1, J.rlxY' u, v, w. It is possible to reduce
this large system to two simple differential equations for (/J and w.
'Ve solve (7.10a, b) for the derivatives of u and v:

(7.11)
 7.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 421

When we differentiate the first of these equations twice with respect

to y and the second one twice with respect to x, we may use them to
eliminate u and v from (7.10c):

Now (7.5) may be used to express the normal and shear forces in terms
of<!>. The result is a differential equation in<!> and w:

where
(7.1:3a)

is a known function, depending on the local load.

The second equation is easier to obtain. We start from (7.6) and
use (7.10d-f) to express the moments in terms of w:

a w+ 2a-w- +a - - (a'l(JJ
K (-
4 4
-
4 w)
az a ([) a z a ([) -
2 a z) 2 2 2 2

ax• ax2 ay 2 ay• ax2-ay-2 2 -ax-ay-ax-ay+ -

ay 2 ax2 =F 2 (x ' y)
(7.12b)
with

F 2 (x, y) = p 3 - ~:~ f P1 dx - ~; f P2 dy · (7.13b)

Equations (7 .12 a, b) are the differential equations of the shallow shell.

Each of them is of ·the fourth order in one of the unknowns and the
system is of the eighth order, as we might have expected from the
differential equations (5.13) and (6.85).
In each of (7.12) we recognize on the left-hand side the same differ-
ential operators. The first one is the square of the LAJ>LACE operator

and the other one is the shell operator L defined by (4.7). Using the oper-
ator notation, we write (7.12) in the following short form:

172172 <1> + EtLw = F1 ,

(7.14a, b)
Kl7 17 w-L<l>=F 2 •
2 2
 CHAP. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

While the pair (7.12) or (7.14) is a suitable basis for solving shallow-
shell problems, it is useful to know that there exists an alternate formula-
tion. To find it, we multiply (7.14b) by a constant factor {3 and then add
it to (7.14a):
V 2 V 2 (f/) + {3Kw) + L(Etw- {Jf/}) = F 1 + {3F 2 •
Except for a constant factor, the two linear combinations off/) and w
are the same if we choose

-(32- "4- ~~- 12(1- y2) (7.15)

- ' - K . t2 •

We then have the differential equation

V2 V2 P- i% 2 LP = F 1 + i%2 F 2 (7.16)
for the complex stress function
P = rp + i x 2 Kw . (7.17a)
If the shell carries only edge loads, p 1 = p 2 = p 3 = 0 and, hence, also
P1 = F 2 = 0 and P must satisfy the homogeneous equation
(7.18)

If P = P' is a solution of this equation, then also

(7.17b)

is one. This shows that any complex solution of (7.18) may be inter-
preted in two different ways in terms off/) and w. Either we identify
its real part with f/) and its imaginary part with x 2K w, or we identify
its real part with - x 2 K u: and the imaginary part with f/).

7.1.5 Paraboloids
We choose as the x, y plane a tangent plane to the middle surfaee
and make the point of tangency the origin of coordinates. The func-
tion z(x, y) of (7.1) may then be written

If there are no higher powers, the middle surface is a paraboloid. If

there are such terms and c1 , c2 , c3 are not all zero, they may be neglected
in a certain neighborhood of the origin, which often coincides with the
domain in which (7.2) is satisfied. Then the actual middle surface may
be replaced by its osculating paraboloid. This shows the importance
of paraboloid shells.
 7.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 423

In paraboloid shells the operator L has constant coefficients. Then,

but only then,

that is, the operators 172 and L commute. This permits to eliminate
one of the unknowns between (7.14a, b).
"\Ve apply L to (7.14a) and 17 2 172 to (7.14b):
L 172 1724> + EtLLw = LF1 ,
(7.20a, b)
K 172 172 172 172 w _ J72 172 L q> = 172 172 F 2.
When we add these equations and make use of (7.19), the terms with 4>
cancel and we are left with an eighth-order differential equation for the
surviving unknown w:
(7 .21)

If the shell is subjected to edge loads only, we have the homogeneous

equation
(7.22)
with u 4 from (7.15). Making again use of (7.19), we may write it in the
alternate form
(7.23)

in which the plus and minus signs may be interchanged. Therefore, the
solutions of the two differential equations
(7.24)

are solutions of (7.23) and, hence, of (7.22). As far as they are complex,
solutions of both equations (7.24) are conjugates and, hence, linearly
independent. The real part and the imaginary part of each complex
solution w(x, y) are then, each, a linear combination of two solutions
of (7.22) and, hence, are by themselves real valued solutions of that
equation.
However, different from other examples of splitting a differential
equation (see pp. 291, 329, 366), the pair of equations (7.24) twice
admits the solution w = const., while some solutions of (7 .22) are not
the real or the imaginary part of a solution of (7 .24). Therefore, (7 .24)
yields the bulk of the solutions of our problem, but not necessarily the
complete set.
As may easily be seen, 4> satisfies an equation similar to (7 .21 ), but
with a different right-hand side. In the homogeneous case, it must
satisfy (7.22), and all the equations derived from it may be used to find
424 CHAP. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

the individual solutions. Pairs of functions w, if> must then be chosen

such that they satisfy together the homogeneous form of one of the
equations (7.20).

7.2 Solutions for Parabolic Shells

7.2.1 Uniform Vertical Load
We consider the shell described by (4.9). When we admit negative h 2 ,
this include;;; hyperbolic paraboloids of the form (4.21). The shell is
supposed to carry a uniform, vertical load p. vVe resolve it into the
components p 1 , p 2 , p 3 defined on p. 415. Since the normal to the shell
is almost vertical, p 3 = p within the approximation of shallow-shell
theory, but there are nonvanishing components
az 2 p :r
Pl = P ax = ---,;;-- '

:Making use of! (7.2) wherever the opportunity arises, we calculate F 1

and F 2 from (7.13):

and insert these into the differential equations (7.14). We attempt at.
finding a particular solution and anticipate that if> and w will be low-
degree polynomials of x and y, such that their bi-Laplacians are zero.
We then have to solve the equations

Et(:" ~2; + !1 ::~) = -2vp Gl + ~J' (7.25a, b)

2 a2(Jj 2 a2<P
h2 ax~ + hl ay 2 = -p.

These equations are independent of each other and are satisfied by the
functions
m.=- ph2 x2
'¥ 4 . '

Introduction of(/> into (7.5) yields

1
N!l =- 2 ph2,

and for N x a value which is negligible compared with N!l. Since (7 .25 b)
is identical with the membrane equation (4.10), it is not surprising that
Nx, N 11 , Nxy are identical with a solution of the membrane theory for
the same shell. However, there are now moments, which we find by
 7.2 SOLl:TIONS FOR PARABOLIC SHELLS 425

introducing win (7.10d-f):

vp
jlifx = .1V!1 = K Et (1 + v),
As done on p. 214, we calculate the eccentricity of the membrane force
Mv vt 2
N.= -6(1-v)h 2

and see that it is only a very small fraction of the shell thickness t. This
confirms again our experience that in many cases the membrane stress
system is a close approximation to a particular solution of the bending
theory of a shell.
The displacements u and v may be found by integrating (7.11) and
checking the result with (7.10c). The outcome i:; a simple in-plane
deformation.

7.2.2 Edge Load

·we consider a rectangular shell as shown in Figs. 4.5 or 4.12 and
attempt to find product solutions of (7.24) and of an identical equation
for ifJ. To begin with, we restrict ourselves to the use of the plus sign
in the second term, bearing in mind that the conjugate complex to any
solution to be found will also be a solution to our shell problem.
For the paraboloid (4.9), the differential equation reads in detail as
follows:
a•w a•w a•w . •( 1 8 w 2 1 82w) (7.26}
ox'' + 2 ox2 oy2 + oy4 + 2 t w h2 ox2 + hl oy2 . = 0.

\Ve assume a solution in the form

w = C e-'x cos n" y (7.27}
n b '

which, for n = 1, 3, 5, ... satisfies the conditions w = 0, 11'IY = 0 at the

edges y = ± ! b. Introducing it into the differential equation yields the
characteristic equation for /.2 :
4 2 (n2n22ix2) n2:;z;2 (n2:;z;2 2ix2)-
.A. -2.A. -rr-h;- +-rr -rr---y;;- -0. (7.28}

It suggests to introduce the parameter

fl = :;z;2hi
b2 x 2
=
V12 (1 - v2 ) b2
n2 ht t . (7.29}

The solutions of (7.28) are then

).2 = n2 ~z [1 - i hht n~ ± 1/2 i '! (1 - hi) - hi flz J. (7.30}

b- 2 V n·
2 h h~ n' 2
426 CHAP. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

They are complex, but not conjugate, and produce four complex values
·of A. Their conjugates belong to the second version of (7 .24). All together,
the eight values of}. may be written in the form

As a 1 s = ± IXz ± i fJ 2 • (7 .31)
Following essentially the procedure explained in Section 5.4.1.3, one
may combine complex-valued solutions (7.27) to form a set of eight
real-valued solutions with as many free constants:

w = [A 1 Cosh IX 1 x cos {11 x + B 1 Sinh IX 1 x sin {1 1 x

+ C1 Cosh~X 1 xsin{J 1 x + D 1 Sinh~X 1 xcos{J 1 x
+ A 2 Cosh~X 2 xcos{J 2 x + B 2 Sinh!X2 xsin{J2 x
+ c2 Cosh!XzXSinfJzx + Dz SinhiX2xcosfJzx] cos n~y. (7.32a)

For the stress function one fimls in the same way

<P =[A{ CoshiX 1 xcos{J1 x + B't Sinh!X 1 xsin{J 1 x
+ Cj Cosh IX 1 x sin {1 1 x + D't Sinh IX 1 x cos {11 x
+ A:
Cosh IX 2 x cos {1 2 x +B: Sinh IX 2 x sin {1 2 x
+ c: Cosh!X xsin{J x + D: Sinh!X x cos,8 x] cos n~y,
2 2 2 2 (7.32b)

but the constants in this expression cannot be chosen freely. They

·depend upon those in (7.32a) through the fact that <P and w must
satisfy the homogeneous form of (7.14a, b). Either of these equations
may be used to express At and Bt as linear functions of A 1 and B 1 and
so on for other pairs of constants. The coefficients of these relations
appear to be quite different when either (7.14a) or (7.14b) is used, but
they are actually the same. To establish the identity, one has to make
use of the fact that IX 1 , ,81 , IX2 , ,8 2 are derived from solutions of the char-
acteristic equation (7.28).
From w and<P one finds all the stress resultants using (7.5), (7.10d-f),
and (7.3). To find the tangential displacements u and v (which may be
needed for boundary conditions), one uses again (7.11). The necessary
integrations generate two free functions, but insertion of the result
tin (7.10c) reduces them to the equivalent of a rigid-body displacement
in the x, y plane.
In (7.32a, b) we may attach an additional subscript n to the free
·constants and then extend a summation over all odd integers n. In this
way we obtain a FouRIER series solution, which satisfies some. simple
boundary conditions on the edges y = ± b/2 and may be adapted to
very general conditions on the edges x = ± af2. To deal with arbitrary
·conditions at the edges y = const., another set of solutions is needed,
in which the roles of x and y are interchanged.
 7.3 THERMAL STRESS SINGULARITIES 427

The detail of this work is comparable to what has been described in

Sections 5.3 and 5.4.

7.3 Thermal Stress Singularities

We have repeatedly met with singular stress systems and could
interpret many of them (pp. 25, 56, 358) as representing the stresses
·caused by an external force or couple applied at one point of the shell.
In all these cases stresses, strains, and sometimes even a displacement
component assume infinite values. This indicates that we are not dealing
with a physical reality and that the concentrated force must be the
limiting case of a more complicated, but more realistic kind of loading.
We may explain it as the limit of a load of high intensity p, applied to
a small area A of the shell, letting A shrink to zero while p increases
so that the total load pA = P remains a constant.
At a reasonable distance from the load its actual distribution is of
minor importance and the singular solution is the simplest answer to
the stress problem, disregarding the irrelevant and often unknown detail
of the load application. On the other hand, stress and strain right under
a distributed load are always finite and the singular solution indicates
that in the vicinity of the load its distribution is of paramount impor-
t;tnce. No theory and no experiment can give us even approximately
correct stress values unless we know in detail how the load is distributed.
In recent times the study of singular solutions has assumed an in-
creased importance. Regular solutions of any differential equation can
be produced by computerized numerical integration, but no finite-
difference approximation of differential quotients is feasible in the
vicinity of a. singularity. Only the mathematical analysis can reveal the
character of a singularity and produce numerical results near a singular
point. At some distance from that point, the computer may then take
over.
Since in the vicinity of any given point almost any shell is shallow
(conical tops are the exception), shallow-shell theory is particularly fit
for the study of singular stress systems ..

7 .3.1 Cylindrical Shell

The parabolic cylinder is a special case of the general paraboloid

(4.9). We write its equation in the form
(7.33)
;and have then
(7.34)
428 CHAP. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

When this is introduced in the differential equation (7.18) for the com-
plex stress function, this equation may be written in the form

(7.35)

which is satisfied by the solutions of the two second-order equations

V2P ± (t + i)" &'P = 0. (7.36 a, b)·

Vh &x
As explained in connection with (7.24), also here the splitting of the
differential equation involves the loss of some solutions of the original
problem, but it still yields many interesting results. We try to find
product solutions in the unorthodox form
P = l(x) g(x, y). (7 .37)
When we introduce this expression in (7.36a, b), each equation of this.
pair becomes an equation for two unknowns:

!
d2 g + 2 df 8'1
dx- dx &x
+ 1V2g. ± 2 (1 + i) ..1. (df
dx'
q +I ay)= 0
ax
(7.38a, b}

with the abbreviation

..1. = 2vh·
It is possible to separate I and (J by requiring that the coefficient of
ag;a X Vanish:
~~ ± (1 + i) ..1.1 = 0.

This pair of equations has the solutions

lt, 2 (x) = e'~'O + i)lx. (7.39)·
The function 11 must be used in (7.38a) and / 2 in (7.38b). In both cases.
there results the same partial differential equation for IJ:
f72g- 2iA 2 (J = o. (7.40)
To solve it, we switch to polar coordinates r, e with
X= rcos8, y = rsinO.
We may then write
g (r, 8) = Yn (r) cos nO
and (J 11 must satisfy the ordinary differential equation

azg.
dr2 +
__!_ dg,. - (nz
r dr r2 +
2.
~11.
,2) (J,
= 0
•
 7.3 THER:\lAL STRESS SINGULARITIES 429

Upon several previous occasions we have met with equations of this

type. The present one is solved by modified BESSEL functions of the
complex argument li2iAr:

g,, =A I,(V2 iA.r) + B K,.(l/2 i Ar). (7.41)

Products of such functions g,.(r), / 1 or / 2 from (7.39), and cosn6 or sinn6

are solutions P of the differential equation (7.35) of the shallow parabolic
cylinder, and so are any linear combinations of such products.
Among the multitude of these solutions we choose one for closer
inspection. Letting A = 0, we drop the regular part of (7.41) and then
choose n = 0. This leads to

where
tt =A V2 = _x_
' 1f2h
and kcr and kei are two of the THOMSO~ functions (see p. 292). The
same function g(r) may be multiplied by / 1 or / 2 • We choose to multiply
it by half the sum of both:

! U1 + /2) = ! (e-he-i.<.e + e-'-"ei-'-")

= CoshAx cos AX + i Sinh AX sin Ax,
whence

tp = ~ (/1 + I 2) g = B r(Cosh AXCOsA Xker fH - Sinh AX sin AXkei .u r)

+ i(CoshAxcosAxkei.ur + SinhAxsinAxker,ur)J. (7.42)
With two different choices of the constant B this solution represents
two thermal stress singularities, which we now shall study.

7.3.2 Plane Hotspot

The definition of the plane hotspot follows the same pattern as that
of a concentrated force. vVe consider a plane, elastic slab of thickness t
and heat it in a small circle of radius c to a temperature T above the
ambient. The heated material undergoes thermal expansion, but is con-
strained by the surrounding cold material. The ensuing stress system
may easily be found. Now let c __. 0 and T __. CXl such that nc 2 T = H
remains constant. In the limit we arrive at a plane stress system with
AIRY's stress function
Et cr.
rJ> = - - H l n r (7 .4~)
2n
430 CHAP. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

where r is the polar coordinate and ex the coefficient of thermal expansion.

We call H the intensity of the plane hotspot which produces this stress
system.
One might think of going through the same procedure to find the
stresses caused by a hotspot in a shell. Because of the lack of polar
symmetry this would be very cumbersome and we prefer to use the semi-
inverse method of inspecting known singular solutions of the problem
to find among them one which fits our requirements. We shall prove
here that (7 .42) with

(7.44)

represents the action of a plane hotspot in a cylindrical shell. In partic-

ular, we shall show that the real part of 'P has the correct singularity
and that the imaginary part is negligible for small values of r.
Assuming B to be real and applying (7.17 a) to 'P from (7.42), we
extract from it
(/) = B(Cosh.?.x cos.A.x ker,ur- Sinh.A.x sinA.x kei,ur),
(7.45a, b)
" 2 Kw= B(Cosh.A.x cos.A.x kei,ur + Sinh.A.x sin.A.x ker,ur).
For small arguments x and r we replace each transcendental function
by the dominant term of its expansion :
Cosh.A.xcos.A.x""' 1, Sinh.A.xsin.A.x""' .A.2 x2,

ker p r ""' - In r , kei ,u r ""' - ! ,u r ln r

2 2

and thus obtain

(/) ""' B (- ln r + .A.2 x2 • _!_ u 2 r 2 ln r) ""' - Et x H In r

4 r 2:n: '

" 2 Kw""' B (- ! ,u r ln r - .A. x ln r) ""' 0 .

2 2 2 2

Evidently, the stress function has the singularity described by (7 .43).

The deflection w resembles that of a plane plate under a concentrated
normal load. A closer inspection shows that there are indeed shear
forces Qr capable of sustaining (and hence requiring) such a load, but
that the normal force Nr is also singular and, through what we have
called vault action (see p. 416) cancels the load-carTying effect of the
shear force.
While the stress system of a hotspot in a plane slab has polar sym-
metry, that of the hotspot in a cylinder is strongly influenced by the
curvature of the shell. This is illustrated by a plot of the radial force N,.
 7.3 THERMAL STRESS SINGULARITIES 431

along the cartesian coordinate axes (Fig. 7.4). Along the x axis, N,. == Nx-
We use (7.5) and (5.102) and find with x = r, y = 0:

N,. = E:a H
~n
~
r
(Cosh.A.rcos ).r ker'.u r- Sinh.A.rsin.A.r kei'p r)-

For they axis, we haveN,.=. Nu, which turns out to be

Nr = ~ r er 1fl r -
EtaH(p,k k")
ei.u r 0

--
0.2 :
/- .....___
0.1
0 I I ~·
-0.1 I i
0
z ' -()~ o·
"::--0.2 - - - ~ I
z / !

f H----+=
'
-0.3 - -
-0.4
/I
-0.5 f - - - ·
-0.6 I I I I
0 2 3 4 5 6
pr
],";g. 7.4. Plane hotspot In a cylindrical shell. distribution of N,

Both have been plotted in Fig. 7.4 in multiples of the reference quantity

N = EtaH 2 = EaH 1 ; 3 (i _ 2)
0 2n: .U 2nh V V •

With increasing distance from the hots pot, N,. decreases exponentially,
but while the decrease is rapid and in oscillations in the circumferential
direction, the influence of the hotspot reaches rather far in the direction
of the generators.

7.:3.3 Bending Hotspot

In the theory of plate bending there exists a similar thermal singu-
larity, the bending hotspot. To define it, we consider a plane plate of
thickness t and in it a circular domain r :::;; c, in which the temperature
deviates from its ambient value. However, this time we heat the upper
side of the plate to + Tf2 while we cool the underside to - Tf2. The
temperature is assumed to vary linearly across the thickness. Again let
c - 0 while T- oo such that nc 2 T jt = H remains constant. Plate theory
432 CH.\.P. 7: SHALLOW SHELLS

shows that in the limit the deflection is

w = ~1 + v)a Hint (7 .46)

2n

where et is again the coefficient of thermal expansion. We call this stress

singularity the bending hotspot and use Has a measure of its intensity.
We shall see that (7 .42) with

B =-t% 2net H-
. 2K1+v (7 .4 7)

represents the stresses and the deformation caused by a bending hotspot

in a cylindrical shell.
When we introduce B from (7.47) in the solution (7.42) of the homo-
geneous shell equation and split lJI in real and imaginary parts according
to (7.17a), we find

if> = %2 K 12+:t vet H (Cosh Ax cos Ax kei fl1' + Sinh Ax sin Ax ker p r) ,
(7.48a, b)
w = - 12+ v etH(CoshAxcosAxkerpr- SinhAxsinAxkeipr).
:t

Repeating the procedure applied to (7.45), we find for small values of r

and x the first-order approximation
,,.
(p=
~ T." 1 -i-- V H- ( -,u·r-
-%"1\.-'>-et
1 ~ .• 1 , ., ~ I )
nr+~~.-x- nr""
0,
~n 4
1 + V H- (I nr- ~~.-x--
w =-'>-cc ,., ., -p
1 2 r·., 1nr ) 1 + V H-1 nr.
""-'>-cc
~n 4 ~:r

The deflection approaches infinity in the same way as in (7 .46) while if>
is negligible.
 Chapter 8

BUCKLING OF SHELLS
S.l Introduction
In many examples in the preceding chapters we have seen that
shells can be very thin-walled and that they very often are subjected
to compressive stresses in extensive areas. The question arises whether
the elastic equilibrium of such shells is stable. To answer this question,
one of the standard methods of the theory of elastic stability must be
applied: the method of adjacent equilibrium or the energy method. We
shall explain here the basic ideas of both methods in the terminology
of shells and then consider an EuLER column to demonstrate their use.

8.1.1 Adjact~nt )~(tllilibrium

We considet• a shell carrying a certain load, which we shall call the

basic load. It produces the basic stresses and the basic displacements.
We disturb the elastic equilibrium by imposing a small additional
deformation, say, some lateral deflection. Every such deformation is
connected with strains and hence with stresses, and we may expect
that certain external forces will be needed to produce it. ·when these
forces <J.re removed, the whole disturbance vanishes. If this situation
prevails, the elastic equilibrium is stable.
When the basic load is increased, it may happen that less force is
needed to produce the same disturbance and that, at last, a certain
disturbance becomes possible without any disturbing forces. In such a
case the elastic equilibrium is neutral with respect to this particular
disturbance. It may be shown quite generally1 that the elastic equi-
librium is always stable when the basic load is small enough. The smallest
value which the load must assume to reach a neutral equilibrium is
called the critical load or buckling load. The disturbance, i.e. a system
of additional stresses and displacements, may then occur spontaneously,
and this phenomenon is the buckling of the shell.
1 v. MisEs, R.: Vber die Sta.bilitatsprobleme der Elastizitatstheorie. Z. angew.

:\lath. Mech. 3 (1923), 406.

Flilgge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 28
434 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

When the basic load is increased beyond its critical limit, the elastic
equilibrium becomes unstable, and any incidental disturbance causes
the shell to leave entirely its initial position of equilibrium. Whether
or not this leads to a collapse is a question still to be discussed (see the
papers on post-buckling behavior mentioned in the bibliography).
To find the bucklin'g load, we proceed in this way: We formulate
the differential equations for the disturbed equilibrium without a dis-
turbing load and ask whether these equations, together with appropriate
boundary conditions, admit a solution. These equations contain, of
course, all the terms which occur in the equations for the undisturbed
equilibrium. They also contain terms with the additional stresses (or
stress resultants). Since the disturbance is supposed to be very small
(infinitesimal, if we wish), these new terms are very small, and since
they are essential for our problem, we must take all terms of the same
order of magnitude. There iR a second group of such terms resulting
from the fact that the basic load is now acting on a slightly deformed
element. As we shall see later in more detail, these terms consist of
products of a basic force or stress resultant with an additional displace-
ment or its derivative.
Both groups of small terms are proportional to the disturbance:
the first to the stress resultants and the others to the displacements
which are added to the basic state. Since the conditions of equilibrium
are satisfied without all these terms (i.e. for the undisturbed case), the
small terms by themselves must add up to zero in every equation. And
since HooKE's law expresses the stress resultants in terms of the dis-
placements, we arrive at last at a set of homogeneous linear differential
equations for these displacements u, v, w.
Now let us look at the boundary conditions to which these buckling
displacements are subjected. Whatever conditions we impose on the
basic state, the same conditions will be imposed on the buckled state.
When we subtract the one from the other, we see that the buckling
displacements have to satisfy homogeneous boundary conditions. The
mathematical problem is, therefore, to solve a set of homogeneous
differential equations with homogeneous boundary conditions. In general,
such a problem has only the trivial solution u ~ v = w """ 0. But the
coefficients of the equations depend on the magnitude of the basic load,
and it is our task to find values of this load for which a non trivial solution
is possible. This is the typical formulation of an eigenvalue problem,
and, mathematically speaking, all buckling theory is eigenvalue theory.
We shall now study the technique of the described procedure on the
simplest example, the EuLER column, Fig. 8.1 a. The force P is the
basic load, and the basic stress system consists only of the axial force
N = -Pin all sections of the bar.
 8.1 INTRODUCTION 435

We disturb the equilibrium by imposing a lateral deflection w

(Fig. 8.1 b). In the case of a shell, the next step will always be to cut
out a differential element. In the present case, it is possible to formulate

r ---
the equilibrium for the finite portion of length x. There are two condi-

,
Fig. 8.1. EuLER column, (a) straight

I
equilibrium, (b) deflected equilibrium,
(c) equilibrium of external un<l internal
forces
1
(a) (b)

tions of equilibrium. The one for the vertical forces is P = P and does
not contain any disturbance term. It is without interest. The condition
for the moments, on the other hand, contains only disturbance terms:
M- Pw= 0. (8.1a}
The two terms of this equa~ion are representative of the two types
which always occur. The first one, M, is a stress resultant which comes
into being through the disturbance. The second term is the product of
the basic force P and the displacement w of the disturbance, and it is.
caused by the fact that the equilibrium is formulated for the disturbed
shape of the elastic body under consideration.
The elastic law, i.e. the equation which corresponds to (5.9) for the
cylindrical shell, is here
d 2w
M= -El d---.. (8.1 b)
X"

We use it to express M in (8.1 a) in terms of the displacement and

obtain
d" .
El d.':+
X"
Pw = 0. (8.2}

This is a homogeneous differential equation for w. The boundary con-

ditions are w = 0 for both ends of the column. They are also homo-
geneous.
The problem may now be solved in the well-known way. It is found
that, in general, no deflection w is possible. Only if
p = n2 E [n2
l2
28*
436 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

with an integer value of n is there a solution

W = "' . nn x
v Sln-l-

with an undetermined amplitude C. Each of these loads Pis a buckling

load, representing a possible form of neutral elastic equilibrium. The
corresponding displacement w is the buckling mode connected with this
critical load. The lowest buckling load (for n = 1) is the EuLER load Per·

8.1.2 Energy Method

When applying the energy method, we start from the same situation:
a shell carrying a basic load and having a basic stress system and a
basic deformation. Again we consider a small deviation from this state
Qf stress and deformation. This time, instead of asking for the conditions
under which a zero load can produce the deviation, we ask for the
energy which must be put into the shell to produce it. This energy con-
sists of two parts: the work which must be done against the external
forces (gain in potential energy of the basic load) and the increase in
.strain energy. We call it the variation of the potential energy.
We choose a certain distribution of the additional displacements u,
v, w and then assume that they all may still be varied by multiplying
them by a common factor A.. We may then write the variation of the
PQtential energy as a power series in A.. For A.= 0 there is no disturbance,
hence no variation of energy, and therefore the power series has no
constant term. The principle of virtual displacements states that the
linear term must also be zero for every conceivable displacement;
Qtherwise the basic loads and stresses would not be in equilibrium. It
follows that the first term is the one with A.2 •
When the basic load is small enough, the quadratic term of the
variation of potential energy is always positive, no matter how the
deviations are chosen. It is then impossible for any deviation to occur
unless additional forces are applied which can do work and supply
the required energy. If, for some critical value of the basic load, there
exists a set of displacements which makes t\le quadratic term vanish,
then such displacements may occur spontaneom!ly, i.e. the elastic
equilibrium is neutral. If the basic load is increased beyond the critical
value, the same set of displacements must be expected to yield a nega-
tive quadratic term in the variation of energy. \Vhen the disturbance
of the specific type is produced accidentally, energy will be set free ;
the larger the displacement, the more energy is released, and this energy
cannot be transformed into anything but kinetic energy of motion.
The shell will move with increasing velocity away from its initial position
Qf equilibrium, which is unstable.
 8.1 INTRODUCTION 43i
These statements are limited to small positive or negative values of
the parameter A which measures the magnitude of the deviation. For
larger deviations the higher powers of A come into play and influence
the behavior of the shell.
The critical load obtained by the energy method is identical with the
value obtained by the equilibrium method.

I
_j_
..---.
u

I
I
I
I I
l I

1
I dw/dx
I
I
I
Fig. ~.2. EULER column, (a) straight I
equilibrium, (b) dctlected equilibrium

(a) (b)

To demonstrate the technique, we again consider the EULER column

(Fig. 8.2). When the column is deflected (Fig. 8.2b) there is some strain
energy stored in it. In the theory of bending of beams it is shown that
this strain energy is

This expression is quadratic in w and therefore of the kind we need.

Besides the strain energy there is the work T which must be done
against the external forces. In our case it is negative, since the dis-
placement u and the force P have the same direction:
T = -Pu.
The displacement u depends on the deflection w, and since we need
energy terms which are quadratic in w, we must have the relation
between ·u and w up to the term with u· 2 .
The elements dx of the bar are originally vertical and together they
form the length
I
l = Jdx.
0

In the deflected state (Fig. 8.2b) the element dx is measured on the cur-
ved axis. It makes the angle dwfdx with the vertical, and its vertical
438 CHAP. 8: BUCKLI~G OF SHELLS

projection is
dx cos dw = dx [1 - _!__2 (dw)
dx dx
2
+ ... lj .
The sum of these projections is the chord length l - u. Up to the second-
order term,

whence
l

U=2 f(dw'2 1
dx) dx.
0

The total energy needed to produce the deflection w is

Elf(ddx2w)2 dx- 2 f( dw)2

l l
2
p
V+T=T dx dx.
0 0
It is zero if
l

Elf (~:~r dx
p = ------o~'-------- (8.3)

/(~:r dx
0

Since the numerator and the denominator are quadratic in deriv-

atives of w, the quotient does not depend on the absolute magnitude
of the deflection but only on its distribution. We ask for that special
distribution w = w (x) which yields the smallest value of P. This is Per.
There are different ways of finding this smallest value. We may
derive the differential equation (8.2) from (8.3) and then solve and
discuss it as in the method of adjacent equilibrium. We may also assume
a very general expression for the unknown function w(x), say a FouRIER
series,
w(x) = f
n=l
C,.sin n7~,
which satisfies the boundary conditions, and then determine the coeffi-
cients so that P from (8.3) becomes a minimum. When this is done,
one finds that en= 0 for n > 1 and that cl is arbitrary, while p becomes
equal to the EuLER load.
It is a special merit of the energy method that it allows finding
approximate values of Per by introducing into (8.3) some plausible
function w(x). Since this is not necessarily the one which makes P a
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 439

minimum, the approximate value of P is always higher than the correct

one. Therefore, the result is not on the safe side, but it usually comes
close to the correct one if the function w(x) is skillfully chosen. However,
the method should be used with some caution, in particular with shells,
since the buckling displacements cannot easily be guessed in advance.

8.2 Cylindrical Shell

8.2.1 Differential E£tuations for Compression and Shear
8.2.1.1 Basic Concepts
We now consider a shell shaped as a circular cylinder of length l
(Fig. 8.3}, and subject it simultaneously to three simple loads:
1) a uniform normal pressure on its wall, p,. = - p,
2) an axial compression applied at the edges, the force per unit of
circumference being P,
3) a shear load applied at the same edges so as to produce a torque
in the cylinder. The shearing force (shear flow) is T.

Fig. 8.3. Cylindrical shell;

coordinates and basic loa<ls

These loads are the basic loads, and the stress resultants which they
produce are the basic stress system. We distinguish them by a sub-
script I from the additional forces appearing when the shell buckles.
The normal pressure p produces the hoop force
NH= -pa
see (3.8a)]. The axial load produces the longitudinal force
NxL=-P,
and the shear load T produces shearing forces
Nx•H = N~xl = -T ·
This is a membrane stress system, and it is uniform all over the shell.
The corresponding deformation is also uniform and may either be
neglected or - in a more rigorous procedure - be eliminated from our
considerations by tracing the coordinate lines on the cylinder after the
basic deformation has taken place.
440 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

We impose now an additional deformation, described by the displace-

ments u, v, w. The additional stress resultants which accompany this
disturbance of the original state are denoted by N~, Nx, ... ~l'I~, ... Q:r.
Except for Q~ and Qx, they are connected with the displacements by
the elastic law of the cylinder, (5.9). The normal and shearing forces are
additional to the basic forces of the same kind. The total forces are

l
K~ = N~ 1 + N~ = -pa + N~,
Nx=Nxl+N:r= -P+Nx,
(8.4)
Nx.P = N.r.PI + Nx.P = -T + N.r.P,
N.p.r = N.p.rL + N.p.r = - T + N.pr· )

These quantities are forces per unit length of certain line elements. Since
we are interested in products of the forces N x 1 , ••• with such quantities
as E.r or E.p, we must raise the question as to which length the stress
resultants should be referred, to the original length of the line element
or to its length after deformation.
To simplify the issue, we shall discuss it for an element dx · dy of
a plane plate, acted upon by the normal forces N .r and N!l and by the
shearing forces N.ry and N!l,. (Fig. 8.4).

E<'i$.£. 8.4. Plane plate cl<'mcnt Fi!£. ~.5. Deformed plane plate clement

Let us consider one of the normal forces as an example. Before

buckling, the force acting on a line element dy is N I dy. If we decide .T

that after buckling it shall be (Nxl + Nx) dy. then the increase is Nx dy,
arid this is the definition of the quantity N x which we shall later connect
by a set of equations like (5.9) with the buckling displacements u, v, w
and the strains t.,., Ey, y,.y· On the other hand, if we decide to write the
force after buckling as (N.rl + Nx) (1 + Ey) dy, then the increase is
NxtEydy + Nx(i + Ey) dy :=:::: (N.x[Ey + Nx)dy,
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 441

and N,. dy is only a part of the total increase. Now only this part would
be related to u, v, w, and this amounts to a different elastic law. It looks
here as if the decision had to be found from an experiment, measuring
the strain connected with a small increase in the normal stress.
This, however, would not settle the issue. vVhat we want is not the
most exact description of the facts but a linear theory which comes as
close to the facts as possible. In this respect, one assumption would
be as good as the other. The first one linearizes the elastic behavior
between zero load and NJ. 1 , while the second assumption is a linear
approximation of the elastic law in the immediate vicinity of the basic
stress.
The decision must therefore be sought in another field. A first part
of it comes from the equilibrium of moments with respect to a normal
to the element. Fig. 8.5 shows the deformed element. If we were to
resolve the force on its right-hand side in orthogonal components, the
normal force would enter the moment equation, as discussed on p. 15.
vVe prefer to use skew components as shown in the figure. The moment
equation then reads either

or

In these equations we put

NXH = NXHI + N.T:I/,

and drop all products of two buckling quantities (Er E!1 , N rtt c.r etc.).
We obtain either
NJ'fll (1 + f.r) + N.ry = Nyrl (1 + E,J + N,1 .r
or
NJ'!IJ{1 + E,. +EH)+ Nx,1 = N!1 xd1 + E,. + Ey) + Nyx·
Now the moment equilibrium of the element before buckling requires
that Nxyl = Ny:r!, and an elastic law similar to (5.9c, d) yields N,.!l= N 11 .,..
When we introduce this into the preceding equations, we see that the
last one is identically satisfied, while the first version yields
N:ry/ (Er- E!1) = 0,

a relation which does not make sense. This indicates that we must
discard the idea of using the stress resultants N with the undeformed
elements.
This decision, however, does not settle the question completely. To
see this, we consider the same element dx · dy, subjected only to normal
forces N.r 1 and N!/ 1 (Fig. 8.6a). We assume now that each stress resul-
442 CHAP. 8: BUCKLL~G OF SHELLS

tant N must be multiplied by the deformed length of the line element

in which it is transmitted. We shall go with the forces N x and N Y through
a cycle of increasing and decreasing loads and follow up the strain energy
which during this cycle is deposited in the element. Since the lateral
·contraction is immaterial for the issue at hand, we shall simplify the
.discussion by putting v = 0.

Fig. 8.0. Successive stages of deformation of a plane plate element

The first step is to increase N!/ 1 to N!/ 1 + NY (Fig. 8.6 b). The work
·done on the element is

Since the length of the sides dy is increased to (1 + Ey) dy, the forces
acting on them must be increased from N:r:l dy to Nx 1 (1 + <y) dy, but
they do no work. Next we increase N.r:t to N:rt + Nx. In this step the
additional work

is done, and the forces on the horizontal sides are increased to

(N 111 + N!l) (1 + Ex) dx. The third step is to decrease these forces to
NY 1 (1 + Ex) dx. The work done in this step is negative:
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 443

In this step the forces on the vertical sides are decreased to (N xi+ N x) dy.
With the concluding step we return to the original state of stress
(Fig. 8.6a), decreasing the latter force to Nxl dy. The work done in this
step is

When we add up all the work, we find that most terms cancel, but
we are left with the energy
(Nxl- Nyi) ExEydxdy

which has been deposited in the element. It ought to be zero, but evi-
·dently it is not.
We see here that we must also reject the idea of multiplying each
stress resultant N or N 1 with the deformed length of the element in
which it is transmitted, since this would allow closed cycles of loading
and unloading in which energy is created or destroyed.
The dilemma can be solved by using the deformed element for the
.shearing forces and the undeformed element for the normal forces. This,
however, would not be a consistent system of notations.

Fig. 8. 7. Undeformed and deformed

element showing the deformation of
Ll 1
the reference vectors

(a) (b)

An acceptable representation can be found in the following way:

After the basic load has been placed on the plate or shell, we engrave
on the element two unit vectors, pointing in the x and y directions
(Fig. 8.7a). When the element is deformed during buckling, these vectors
participate in the deformation. In the deformed state they have lengths
1 + Ex and 1 + Ey, respectively, and make an angle of n/2 - y .ry· These
vectors are chosen as a reference frame for the forces acting on the four
sides of the element. This leads automatically to the use of the skew
components shown in Fig. 8.5, but the magnitudes of the stress resul-
tants N are now such that they must still be multiplied by the magnitude
of the reference vector to give the force per unit length of the undeformed
element dx or dy. Hence, we have on the sides dy the forces N x (1 + Ex) dy
and Nxy(1 + Ey) dy and on the sides dx the forces Ny(1 + (y) dx and
Nyx(1 +Ex) dx. For the shearing forces this amounts exactly to the use
·of the deformed elements (1 + Ex) dx and (1 + E!1) dy but not for the
444 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

normal forces. One may easily check that, with the new definition of
the stresH resultants, the work done during the four steps of the loading
cycle is, respectively:

(N!/ 1 + ~ N!/ 1 £!1 + ~ N!I)E 11 dxdy,

(Nxl + ~ NxtEx + ~ N..,) Exdxdy,

- ( N!/ 1 + ~ N!/ 1 £!! +~ N,,) E!!dxdy,
- ( Nxl + ~ NxJEx + ! Nx) Exdxdy,
and this cycle ends, as it should, with zero energy left.

8.2.1.2 Differential Equations

We are now prepared to write the six conditions fo1· the equilibl"ium
of the shell element shown in Fig. 5.1 and in doing so, we shall use the
prime-and-dot notation for the derivatives explained on p. 204.
In the x direction we have on one side of the element the force
.N,.(1 +E.,) a dcf>, where E.r is the longitudinal strain in the middle surface
and identical with (x in (5.10b). On the opposite side the force is larger
by a differential, and this differential
i)
ax rN_,(l + Ez) adcf>i dx = rN~(1 + E,) + .N.J:£~1 dcf>dx
makes 1.1 contribution to the condition of equilibrium. Since N; 1 o= 0,
we have
N~ (1 + £.,) = .N~ (1 + £.,) .

and for this we may simply write N;, since the term N;, E.r is quadratic
in the disturbance quantities. For the same reason we write N x f.; = - P f.;,
and drop the term N.r f.~. If we now introduce u'fa for£"" from (5.10b)
we finally have
u"J dcf>dx.
[N~- P 71
It may still be observed that this force does not point exactly in the x
direction but makes a small angle with it (Fig. 8.5). To project it into
the x direction, the force must be multiplied by the cosine of this angle,
but the difference of this cosine fmm unity is small of the second order
and therefore negligible.
The shearing forces N f:r on the sides dx of the element may be handled
in exactly the same way. They yield the contribution
a •• (l+Ex)dxJdcf>= [N~.r-Tua,. ] dxdcf>.
iJcfJfN
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 445

These two contributions are modifications of the first two terms

in (5.1 a). In the stability equation we have two more terms, containing N <I>
.and Nr<J>· The force N</>(1 + £4>) dx at one side of the element makes
the small angle u"fa with the</> direction and therefore has a component
N</>(1 + £<1>) dx • u"fa in the x direction. At the opposite side this com-
ponent is larger by the increment
i)
"act> [-
N<~> (1 u"j d<J>,
+ £4>)dxa
and this is a contribution to our equation. Since there is already the
small factor u·, we may neglect £4> compared with 1 and also replace N<l>
by N <I> 1 • All that is then left is - pu·· dx d<J>. In a similar way N .c</> yields
the contribution

oxi) [ Nx</>(1 +£</>)ad</>:"J dx = -T:,. d<J>dx.

Finally, there is a contribution of the external force p · (1 + £x) dx

x (1 + £<1>) a d<J>. Because of the deflection w the shell element is slightly
tilted, and the external force has a component
w'
p(1 + £:x)dx(1 + £<J>)ad<J>·-
n

in the x direction. If we again drop everything that is of higher order

in the disturbance quantities, this simplifies to pw' dx d<J>.
We may now write the first condition of equilibrium. We drop the
-common factor dx d<J> and rearrange the terms:

N~ + N~x - p (u"" - w') - P: - 2 T ~· = 0. (8.5a)

The equilibrium of the forces in the circumferential direction may

be treated in the same way. There is the force N</>(1 + £<1>) dx which is
treated likeN.x:, and the force N .x:</> ( 1 + £4>) a d<J>, which is treated likeN</>x.
They yield
[N~- p (v·· + w") + N~<l>- T v'"! w'j
dxd<J>.

The forces N" ( 1 + £x) a d<J> on either side ·of the element make angles v' fa
and v'fa + (v"fa 2 ) dx, respectively, with the x direction and yield the
contribution

b a similar way the forces N <I>, ( 1 + £.,) dx make angles v' fa and v' fa
+ (v'"fa) d<J>, respectively, and yield the contribution -T(v'"fa) dx d<J>.
But this is not all. When the edges dx are tilted in radial planes by an
angle w'fa, radial components N<l>x(1 + £..,) dx · w'fa are generated at
446 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

opposite sides of the element, inward at one side and outward at the
other. They make an angle dcf> with each other and, therefore, have a
resultant in the cf> direction which belongs in our equation. The total
contribution of the shear N ~xis then
-T v'" + w' dxdcf>.
a
The transverse forces Q~ dx on either side of the element make the same
angle dcf> with each other and, therefore, also have a resultant in the cf>
direction, which is -Q~ dx dcf>. This term has already occurred in (5.1 b)
of the bending theory.
Finally, one might expect a contribution of the load due to the
tilting of the element by the angle w"fa, but this is compensated by the
tilting of the forces N~ 1 which participate in this rotation and remain
in equilibrium with the load. The second condition of equilibrium is,
therefore, this:
N~ + N~~- Q~- p (v·· + w") - P v" - 2 T v'" + w' = 0. (8.5 b)
a a
The third equation contains all forces normal to the axis of the
cylinder. The transverse forces make the same contributions as they
did to (5.1 c):
(Q~ + Q~) dxdcf>.

\Vith the hoop force we have to be more careful. Since N ~ contains the
large part N~ 1 , we must apply the exact value of the reference vector,
( 1 + E~}, and must take into account that the angle between the two
forces N~(1 + E~) dx is not simply dcf>, but [1 + (v"- w"")fa] dcf>. When
we drop quadratic terms, we find the contribution of the hoop force to
be
....
.N~(1+E~)dx ( v" -
1+-a- w"")
dcf>= N~-pa 1+ [ ( 2v" + w-
a w"")) dxdcf>.
The longitudinal forces N.c ( 1 + Ex) a dcf> make a contribution because of
the curvature w" fa 2 of the generators:

The shearing forces make a contribution similar to the shear term in

(4.4c), but careful analysis is needed to get it correctly. The force
N x~ ( 1 + E~) a dcf> is rotated through the angle (v - w")fa and thus gets
a component in the direction of the original radius at the point x, cf>.
At the opposite side of the shell element the corresponding component
is larger by the differential

axa [NX~ 1 + E~) a dcf>. -v -aw"]

( - dx = - T v' -w'"
- a - dcf> dx .
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 447

The forces at the other edges contribute in two ways. First, the force
N~x(1 +Ex) dx is rotated by w'Ja in a plane normal to the shell. This
yields a radial component whose increment

belongs in our equation. Second, the tangential components N ~ x ( 1 +Ex) dx

x (v' fa) whose difference we included in (8.5b), make an angle dcf> with
each other and combine to a radial force
v' v'
N~ .. (1 + Ex)dx-dcf>
a
= -T-dxdcf>.
a

The last term in the equation comes from the load p · ( 1 + E,,) d.~:
x (1 + E~) a dcf>. It is to be introduced in full size since the tilting of the
element and hence of the pressure requires only multiplication by a
cosine of a small angle, i.e. by a factor which may be replaced by unity.
The contribution is, therefore,

p (1 +
u' + v·a + w) ndcf>dx.

We are now ready to collect the terms and to write the equation:
" I J•

. Q'x+ N ~+p {U ' -v· +w·· )+ Pw

Q~+ - - -
- 2T"- - w= 0 . (8.5c)
a a

The conditions for the moment equilibrium are much easier to obtain.
For the axes in the directions x and cf> they are exactly the same as in
Chapter 5,
M~ + M~~ - a Q~ = 0,
(8.5d,e)
M~+ M~x- aQx = 0,

because none of the basic forces has a moment of sufficient magnitude

with respect to these axes. The moment equation about a normal to
the shell (strictly speaking, about the normal to the undeformed middle
surface) contains the shearing forces. Their contributions are now

Nx~(l + + Ex)dx- N~x(l + Ex)dx· (1 + E~)adcp

E~)adcp · (1
= -T(1 + €~ + Ex)adcp dx + Nx~adcf>dx
+T {1 +Ex+ E~) dxadcf>- N~xdxadcf>.

The terms with T cancel, and when we add the contribution of the
twisting moment M~·" we arrive exactly at (5.1f). We already know
that this equation becomes an identity when the stress resultants are
448 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

expressed in terms of the displacements, and we may, therefore, drop

this equation.
In Chapter 5 we used (5.1 d, e) to eliminate the transverse forces
from (5.1 b, c), and we now do the same in (8.5). This yields a set of
three equations:

aN~+ aN~x- pa(u··- w')- Pu"- 2Tu'" = 0,

aN~+ aN~~- M~- M~~- pa(v·· + w")- Pv"- 2T(v'" + w') = 0,
jU~· +M~·~+ M~·x +M~+ aN~+ pa (u'- v· + w"")
+ P w" - 2 T (v' - w'") = 0.

Now we may use the elastic law (5.9) to express all the forces N and
moments M by u, v, w and their derivatives. When we do so, the rigid-
ities D and K defined by (5.8) enter the equations. It is advisable to
divide everything by D and to introduce the dimensionless parameters

K 12 prt
k = Da 2 = 12 n 2 ' 1/1 = D ' (8.6)

The differential equations of the buckling problem then appear in the

following form:

1 - V •• 1 + 11 1. 1 k ('1 - V •• 111
U
n
+ 2- U + -Z V + VW + - 2- U - W + -1 -2 - V W I••)
- q1 (u··- w')- q2 u"- 2q 3 u'" = 0,
1+
-z 11
U
,.
+ V •• + 1- -2 -11 V , + W • + k ( 23 ( 1 - V ) V , -
:3 - v' W "")
--2--
- q1 (v·· + w") - q2 u" - 2q3 ( u'" + w') = 0, (8.7 a-c)

VU
,
+ IJ. + W + k (1- -2 - 11 U 1••
- U
111
- -zV V + W IV + 2 W , ..
3- 11 •

+ w··.. + 2' W .. + W ) + q1 (U ' - V . + W "') + q2 W " - 2 q3 (V ' - W '") = 0 .

They describe the buckling of a cylindrical shell under the most general
homogeneous membrane stress action.
It may be observed that the parameters defined by (8.6) are small
quantities. For k this is obvious, since we are concerned with thin shells
where t « a. The three load parameters q are approximately the elastic
strains caused by the corresponding basic loads, and since all our theory
is based on the assumption that such strains are small compared with
unity, we shall neglect q1 , q2 , q3 compared with 1 wherever the oppor-
tunity occurs.
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 449

8.2.2 Solution for Shells without Sht•ar Load

8.2.2.1 Two-way Compression
When there is no shear load on the shell (T = 0, hence q3 = 0), the
differential equations (8.7) admit a solution of the form
AX )

:: ;::::::l:x: t (8.8)
1
w = C cos m cf> sin ~a:
a
,
where
(8.9)

and n is an integer. The solution (8.8) describes a buckling mode with n

half waves along the length of the cylinder and with 2m half waves
around its circumference. Although this is far from being the most
general solution, it is one which fulfills reasonable boundary conditions.
We assume the edges of the cylinder to be at x = 0 and x = l, and we
see at a glance that there v = w = 0. From the elastic law (5.9b, f) we
see also that Nr = 0, Mx = 0. Thus the solution (8.8) represents the
buckling of a shell whose edges are supported in tangential and radial
directions but are neither restricted in the axial direction nor clamped.
When we introduce the solution (8.8) into the differential equa-
tions (8.7) (with q3 = 0), the trigonometric functions drop out entirely
and we are left with the following equations:

A [A2 + 1; "m2 (1 + k)- q1 rn 2 - q2A2 ] + B [-!.~"Am]

+ C [- v A - k (A 3 - 1; 1
, Arn 2) - q1 A] = 0,

(8.10)
3-, ]
+C' [ m+~kA 2 rn-q1 m =0,

A [- v A - k (A 3 -
1; " A rn 2) - q1 A] + B [m + 3 ; " kA2 m - q1 rn]

+ 0[1 + k(A"' + 2A2m2 + m4 - 2m 2 + 1)- q1 rn2 - q 2 A2 j = 0.

These are three linear equations with the buckling amplitudes A, B, G

as unknowns and with the brackets as coefficients. Since these equations
Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 29
450 CHAP. 8: BUCKLIXG OF SHELLS

are homogeneous, they admit, in general, only the solution A = B = C = 0

indicating that the shell is not in neutral equilibrium. Only if the deter-
minant of the nine coefficients equals zero a nonvanishing solution A,
B, C is possible. Thus the vanishing of this determinant is the buckling
condition of the shell. Whenever the buckling condition is fulfilled,
any two of the three equations (8.10) determine the ratios AfC and BfC
and thus the buckling mode according to (8.8). As in all cases of neutral
equilibrium, the magnitude of the possible deformation remains arbi-
trary.
The buckling condition contains four unknowns: the dimensionless
loads q1 and q2 and the modal parameters m and A. Of m we know that
it must be an integer (0, 1, 2, ... ) ; of A., that it must be an integer multiple
(n = 1, 2, ... ) of :n: afl. We may write the buckling condition separately
for every pair m, A. fulfilling these requirements and consider it as a
relation between q1 and q2 which describes those combinations of the
two loads for which the shell is in neutral equilibrium. When we plot
these equations as curves in a q1 , q2 plane, we obtain a diagram like
Fig. 8.8, which can be interpreted as follows. The origin q1 = q2 = 0

Fig. 8.8. Stable and unstable

q1 regions in the q 1 , q, plane

represents the unloaded shell. When a load is gradually applied, the

corresponding diagram point moves along some path, as shown by the
dotted line. As long as it does not meet any of the curves, the shell is
in stable equilibrium; but as soon as one of the curves is reached, equilib-
rium becomes neutral, with the buckling mode defined by the param-
eters m, A. of this curve. The stable domain in the q1 , q2 plane is, there-
fore, bounded by the envelope of all the curves which is shown in Fig. 8.8
by a heavy line.
The coefficients of (8.10) are linear functions of k, q1 , q2 . The ex-
panded determinant is, therefore, a polynomial of the third degree in
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 451

these parameters. Since they are very small quantities, it is sufficient

to keep only the linear terms and to write the buckling condition as
(8.11)

This equation describes a straight line in the q1 , q2 plane, and the limit
of the stable domain, as shown in Fig. 8.8, is a polygon consisting of
sections of straight lines for different pairs m, .A..
The coefficients c1 ••. c4 of (8.11) may easily be found by really ex-
panding the determinant. Since c1 turns out to be proportional to .A.4 ,

I I I
.1.=15, m=6
6 I

~I'Z k=I0-5
\ ~
~'-..

"" "
~

\5
2
I
!
I
8
0

-2
\1/=~a N:~~a
I

-4
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
\
4 6 8 10 12
~.-
14x 10 •
q,-
J X JO-l

I I
I

>-= 21. m =15 :

9

I\'K
2
k=l0- 6 I

\ \.
~
'-..,.n

\71 " ~a
0

-1

-2
'\J~a
I 1~:
-I 0 q,_I
Fig. 8.9. Buckling diagrams for a cylindrical shell subjected to two-way thrust

29*
452 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

we may drop the term with A4 in all other coefficients, and we obtain

c1 = (1 - v 2 ) A4 ,
c2 = (A 2 + m 2) 4 + 3A4 m 2 + (4- v)A 2m 4 + m&J
2fvA6
1
-

+ 2(2- v)A 2 m 2 + m4 ,

I
(8.12)
c3 = m2(A2 + m2)2- m2(3A2 + m2)'
c4 = A2 (A2 + m2)2 + A2m2.
From these formulas the stability curve may easily be constructed when l
and k are given. Some examples are shown in Fig. 8.9, and the following
conclusions may be drawn from them:
Although the load and the basic stress system have axial symmetry,
the buckling mode does not (m # 0) but develops nodal generators.
Their number increases as q1 increases and is higher for thinner shells.
In the right-hand part of the diagrams the curves for shells of dif-
ferent lengths are so arranged that the shorter shell has higher critical
loads. For this reason nodal circles cannot occur. Somewhere close to
the q2 axis the curves for different A intersect, and from there on toward
the left long shells can buckle at the smaller load of shorter shells by
adopting a mode with nodal circles. As a consequence, an internal
pressure (q1 < 0) does not perceptibly increase the axial load q2 , while
an axial tension (q 2 < 0) increases considerably the resistance offered
to an external pressure.

8.2.2.2 Axial Compression Only

8.2.2.2.1 :Exact Solution. In Fig. 8.9 we used the dimensionless loads q1
and q2 as coordinates and lfa or A as curve parameter, and we had to
draw a special diagram for every k. If only one of the loads is present,
it is possible to plot it as a function of lfa or A and to use k as a parameter,
thus compressing the results of the theory in one single diagram. We
shall do this separately for the two cases of axial and circumferential
loading. It might just as well be done for cases of two-way compression
when q1 and q2 depend on each other, as, for.example, in the case of a
closed vessel subjected to an external pressure, where q2 = q1 f2.
If q1 = 0, we have from (8.11) and (8.12)

q2 = { (1- v2 ) A4 + kf(A2 + m2 ) 4 - 2(vA6 + 3A1 m 2 + (4- v) A2m 4 + m6 )

+ 2(2 _ v) A2m2 + m4]} [A2(A2 + m2)2 + A2m2J-I. (8.13)

This has been plotted in Fig. 8.10 against lfna = n/A as the abscissa. In
order to cover a wide range of values in both variables, logarithmic scales
have been used.
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 453

In this diagram there is one curve for every integer m. For rn = 0

it has a minimum in the left half of the diagram and then rises indefi-
nitely. The curve rn = 1 has a similar minimum but then reaches a
maximum and from there drops to q2 = 0 for lfna __.. oo. The next curves,
rn = 2, 3, ... each have a second minimum. When rn is increased, the
two minima move closer together and finally coincide, as may clearly
be seen for m = 10. For still higher m this minimum moves upward,
and the curves are no longer interesting.
Now let us consider a shell whose k is the one for which Fig. 8.10 or
a similar diagram has been made and which has a certain ratio lfa.
To judge its stability, we have to watch the points with the common
ordinate q2 and with the abscissas lfna with n = 1, 2, 3, etc. As long

200

100
80
70
w ~~ ~

o/- ~q,I ~~
~~J
D<l~
lj I 1/
I

''I!. ..... ...,..--,. I

0 ''I'
'Of I
so
tl.
t...
vv "' V)(
I 1/ I
I IL
./ V
~

I V
~l
<:?/
L

l\/
30
t-il / V' lf /

f. v
,.;a· \ b~ L

~KVI <
5!
20
I':?>,, r_v \

10
0

'>I
lt ~V '11 I
~

8 ..".;::'o ~ V y
_l """"' I'-' /

'
,~
~
/ \?>
3
\$1 \5'
2
0.08 0.1
l
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1 2 3 5 8 10 20 30
~
50
1/na-
~'ig. 8.10. Construction of the bucklin!l diagram for axial compression, k = to-•

as all these points lie well below the area covered by the many curves,
the shell is certainly stable. When the load and hence q2 is increased,
all the points move upward. As soon as the first of them reaches one
of the curves, the shell is in neutral equilibrium and ready to buckle.
A further increase of load is not possible. The buckling mode is deter-
mined by the n connected with the abscissa of the critical point and
by the m found at the curve passing through it.
It is obvious that, in this way, only that part of each curve which
has no other curve between it and the base line of the diagram can be
 454 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

reached. These parts ·combine to the festoon-shaped curve shown by

a heavier line in Fig. 8.10. All other parts of the curves may at once be
discarded as not contributing to the solution of the buckling problem.
This festoon curve is plotted over ljna. For practical use, it would
be more convenient to have lja as the abscissa. If we want this, we must
plot several replicas of this festoon curve, one for n = 1, another one
for n = 2, etc. In the logarithmic plot of Fig. 8.10 all these curves can
be derived from the first one by just shifting it by different amounts
toward the right so that the point with the abscissa 1 gets the abscissas 2,
3, etc. From these overlapping festoon curves we derive a new festoon
curve by again discarding everything which cannot be reached from
the base line of the diagram without first crossing another branch of
50
.oiO
I
30 \ I
\\ I

\
20

\I\
10 J0 6 k 20
I
8
Br- 10
.. 6 ....__... ...._
"'-"
..,rr .s t-
2 ... 6· 4 ~ h...\
3
\ 2 I
~

~ :;::
~
~.
'o I ~V '-..
~~
2
r--
~~ ./I'~·\
7 6 5 4
I m=2
0.8
0.6
0.06 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 .oiO 60 80 100
1/a-
Jo'ig. 8.1 1. Jo'iual form of the buckling diagram for axial compression

the curve. In this way the final festoon curve for k = 10-5 is obtained.
It is shown in Fig. 8.11, and there similar cUrves for other values of k
have been added. This set of curves is the final buckling diagram for
cylindrical shells with simply supported ends, subjected to an axial
thrust.
8.2.2.2.2 Limiting Cases. The various values of lja may be obtained
by keeping the radius a constant and varying the length of the cylinder
or by fixing l and varying a. If the latter is done, the left-hand part
of the diagrams belongs to cylinders of very small curvature (Fig. 8.12).
The distance b of the nodal generators is b = nafm and goes to infinity
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 455

with a. The buckling load of a plane plate strip of length (or better
width) lfn is
K:t2
p = (lfn) 2 '

and when we introduce this in the definition (8.6) of our load param-
eter q2 , we find
(8.14)

In a logarithmic diagram this is represented by a straight line. It has

been entered in Fig. 8.10, and it is readily seen how all the curves
approach it asymptotically. It should, however, be noticed that for
lfna = 0.1 the distance from the asymptote is still rather large, indicating
that even a small curvature can substantially raise the buckling resist-
ance of a plate.

1I
j
Fi!!. 8.12. Rectangular cylin<lricnl
pane I, bounded by pairs of nodal
circles and nodal generators

On the right-hand side of Fig. 8.10 we see that for very long cylinders
buckling takes place with m = 1. If B = - C [see (8.8)], this would
mean that the circular cross sections of the cylinder remain circular
and undergo only rigid-body displacements. The deformation would then
be the same as that of a slender bar of tubular shape, buckling as an
EULER column. Instead of investigating whether really B = - C, we
simply transcribe the EULER formula in our shell notations and compare
it with the line m = 1 of our diagram.
Since P is the load per. unit of circumference, the total axial force
in the shell is P · 2 :n:a, and EuLER's formula for a tube of length lfn
yields
E · nn3 t · :t2
2:n:aP = (ljn)2 .

When we introduce this into the definition (8.6) of q2 , we find

(8.15)
456 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

This is again a straight line, parallel to the one we had before, and it
is also shown in Fig. 8.10. The curve m = 1 comes remarkably close
to it.
8.2.2.2.3 Approximate Formulas. When we compare the different
festoon curves in Fig. 8.11, we see that the arcs m= 2 all look very
much alike, and so do the arcs m= 3, 4, etc., until they become in·
distinguishable. This suggests that it should be possible to make all the
festoon curves coincide by choosing the right quantities for plotting.
Such a change of coordinates would shift the curves toward each other
in the direction of the EuLER line, and it would certainly not make the
left-hand parts of the curves coincide.
On the other hand, these left-hand parts also show a remarkable
similarity, suggesting that there might still be another way of plotting
which would bring them together.
\Ve obtain such plots when we assume that A.2 is either very large
or very small compared with unity.
On the right-hand side of Fig. 8.11, lfna is large, hence A.2 ~ 1. We
may, therefore, in (8.13) neglect A.2 compared with 1 or m 2 , but in the
numerator we must do so separately for the terms with and without
the small factor k. We thus obtain the approximate relation
(1- r)l" + k(rn2 - 1) 2 rn"
q2 = A2(rn2 + 1)rn2
from which we see that

may be plotted as a unique curve over k1' 2 .A.- 2 (1 - v 2 )- 1' 2 as the absci:;:sa.
Because of the parameter m this will be a festoon curve like those in
Fig. 8.11.
From the definitions of k and A. we find

and we may as well use any multiple or any power thereof as the abscissa
of the plot. In Fig. 8.13b the simplest such variable has been chosen,
namely, (lfa) (t/a) 1' 2 (1- v2 )- 1' 4 but we might as well have chosen the
form parameter w defined later by (8.38). A scale in this variable has
been added at the upper edge of the diagram.
The numbers at the major arcs of the curve give values of m. The
smaller arcs in between which have not been numbered, belong to
buckling modes with n > 1. They occur in the diagram because we
dropped the factor n from our abscissa.
 8.2 CYLIXDRICAL SHELL 457
When we deal with a complete cylinder, m in (8.8) must be an
integer. One may, however, apply the solution (8.8) and all formulas
drawn from it to cylindrical segments (Fig. 8.14) covering less than 360°
circumference, if suitable boundary conditions can be established at the

w
0.5 0.7 1.0 I 5
8 (a)
6
(b)
4
!', 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.07 0. I 0.2 0.3 05 07 10 15
p2 3 3

2
I.S
"" 2
7 6 5 f'4 k: -~--1<3 \.
1--

I --~~ V""-.
m=2'
/ '
~
:

'

...
I
0.7 1.0 1.5 2 3 0.I 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 I I.S
f--->
I (la)'" (J-u 2)'14 I /o(l/aJ'" (J-u2j''• 0.7

0.5 " \~,_,

p2
0.3
Fig. tU3. Approximate-buck ling diagratn for axial compre~sion
0.2
\
2 3 5 7 10•

straight edges of the segment. If its width is b, one must choose m so

that nodal generators appear at distances b, that is, m must be equal
to or an integer multiple of nafb.

Fig. 8.!4. Rectangular cylindrical

panel

·with such a choice of values m we arrive again at a festoon curve,.

and when we draw the envelope of all such festoon curves, for all possible·
choices of ajb, we obtain the broken line in Fig. 8.13b. As may readily
be seen, it keeps on the safe side of the true buckling curve.
We now turn our attention to the left-hand side of Fig. 8.11. There
lfna is small and hence .A.2 ~ 1. We may then simplify (8.13) by neglect-
-!58 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

ing 1 compared with ).2 • This yields the approximate formula

(1- v2 ).?. 4 + k( ..P + m 2) 4
q2 = ;.2 (}.2 + m2)2 '
which may be written as
q2
v(l- r)k = (J.2
j.2
+ m2)2
v1--k-
v2
+
(.i.2 + m2)2
).2
v·-k-
1- v2 • (8.17)

On the left-hand side of this equation we have the same quantity e2

as in (8.16), and on the right-hand side one term is the reciprocal of the
-other.
We must now distinguish two cases: In the region 0.2 < lfna < 0.5
the mode parameter m is rather large, and its exact value does not
have much influence on q2 • We may then permit m to vary continuously
and may find the minimum of q2 by differentiating (8.17) with respect
to m [or better with respect to (}.2 + m 2 ) 2 , which is a function of m
when A. is given]. The result is that we must put

(}.2 + m2)2 = ).2 v1 ~ v2' (8.18)

and upon introducing this into (8.17) we find the simple result

o. 2. (8.19a)
~-
=
V(l-qz v2)k =

This corresponds to the horizontal lines which all the festoon curves in
Figs. 8.10 and 8.11 approach toward the left before they start their final
nse.
Equation (8.19a) is acceptable as long as (8.18) yields a reasonable
value of m 2 • Now it may easily be checked that when). is increased, m 2
"finally becomes negative. From there on we must dismiss (8.18) as
inapplicable and must choose that non-negative value of m with which
(8.17) yields the lowest q2 • Since with increasing ). the second term in
this equation becomes dominating, we evidently have to put m = 0 and
thus obtain
0
~2
= q2
V(1 _ v2)k
= __!_
.P
V 1 - v2 +
k
). 2 1j k •.
~ 1- v·
(8.19b)

This may be plotted over such abscissas as

__!_ v· 1- v
1 2 - _l_ i/12 (1- v 2 )a 2
.?. k - n na V t2

-or simply (1 - v2) 1' 4 lflfat, and this latter variable has been used in
Fig. 8.13a. The form parameter w defined by (8.42) is a constant multiple
.of this quantity, and an w scale has been added at the upper edge of
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 459

the diagram. The curve corresponds to the sharp rise towards the left
-end of all the curves in Fig. 8.11. For w = 1 the right-hand side of (8.19b)
.assumes a minimum value, which is g2 = 2. This is the point of tran-
sition between (8.19a) and (8.19b).
The two terms in (8.19b) may be traced back through the analysis.
"The second term represents the influence of the bending stiffness K and
hence of the bending and twisting moments, while the first term rep-
resents the extensional stiffness D and hence the normal and shearing
forces connected with the buckling deformation of the shell. The pre-
-dominance of the second term in extremely short cylinders simply
indicates that we are approaching the situation prevailing in a plane
plate, which derives its buckling strength entirely from its bending
stiffness.
8.2.2.3 External Pressure Only
'Ve consider now the other case of one-parametric loading and
assume that q2 = 0. Equations (8.11) and (8.12) then yield
.q1 = {(1 _ v2).A_4 + k[(A.2 + m2)4 _ 2 (v.A_& + 3A.4m2 + (4 _ v)A.2m4 +m&)
+ 2(2- v)A.2m2 + m 4]) [m2(A.2 + m 2)2 - m2(3A.2 + m2)]-1. (8.20)

·This formula may be treated in the same way as (8.13). With lfna as
abscissa and q1 as ordinate every integer m yields one curve, and from
these a festoon curve is derived by the same reasoning as in the preceding
case. The result is shown in Fig. 8.15. Since the curves rise monotonically
toward the left, there is no doubt as to the choice of n = 1, and the
·abscissa may be written simply as lfa.
The festoon curves of Fig. 8.15 end with the arc m= 2 and on the
right approach a horizontal asymptote giving the buckling load for a
cylinder of infinite length. When in (8.20) we put m= 2 and A.- 0,
we find the asymptotic value to be q1 = 3k. This result may easily be
interpreted in the following way:
The solution (8.8) from which all preceding buckling formulas have
been derived, assumes that at the ends of the cylinder w = 0, i.e. that
there are bulkheads which prevent defl.ection. If the cylinder is very
long, its central part is little influenced by the stiffening effect of these
bulkheads. A circular strip of width dx which we may isolate here,
behaves much like a circular ring of cross section t · dx. The moment
of inertia of this cross section is I= t3 dxf12, and the load per unit
circumference is p dx. When such a ring buckles in its plane, it gets
·ovalized according to (8.8) with m= 2 and B = - C, and the buckling
load is known to be
d _ 3EI _ 3Et dx
3
p X- a3 - 12 a a •
460 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

When we here replace E by E/(1 - v2 ), we may bring this into the form
q1 = 3k in perfect agreement with the asymptotic value for the long shelL
It may easily be seen that m = 0 cannot yield a finite q1 since the
denominat or in (8.20) contains a factor m 2 ; but the case m = 1 yields.

2\.
q,
'\
\.
1'\.

6 t\.
'\.
...... '\..
4 '\. \. '\. '\
'\
3 '\

2 ""'- \.'\ 1\. '.......

1\.
"" "'""'\
""' ""
'\. \.\
......... ...._ i\.

4
"" 1'\. ""'- ,\
\.
1\ '-..\
1\
t'-- k=2X 10"'

" 'h\
3
"-... ..._ 1x1o·>

\ \. ~ I

"
6x1o··

""\ \
f'
......... 4 ~ 10" 6

,_
\ ............. 2x 10-6

4 '\
3
' 1 x1o·•

I
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100
//a
l•'ig. 8.15. Duckling diagram for f'Xt('rnal pres8ttre

a omrprise. ·with rn = 1, (8.20) simplifies considerab ly because many·

terms cancel:
(1- v2)).2 + k).4f).2 + 2(2- v)J (8.21)·
ql = ,(2- 1 .

For A > 1 this yields values of q1 which are larger than those obtained
with m ¥- 1 and therefore there is no arc m = 1 in the festoon curves
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 461

-of Fig. 8.15. But for A.< 1, i.e. for l >na, (8.21) yields a negative q1 ,
~orresponding to an internal pressure in the shell. If A. is small enough
we may neglect A. 2 compared with 1 and have
ql = - (1 - y2)A_2- us""" - (1 - y2)A_2,
i.e.
p = -n-
.Eat
l2 . (8.22)

This buckling of a shell whose basic ~tress system consists of nothing

but a tensile hoop force N~ 1 appears at first sight rather improbable.
It can, however, be easily explained.
Let us assume that the shell is part of a pressure vessel with very
rigid bulkheads. Since we assumed N .r 1 = 0, we must connect the centers
of these bulkheads by a rod with a turnbuckle and adjust it so that
it just transmits the force acting on either bulkhead, keeping the shell
entirely free of axial load (Fig. 8.16). To simplify the following formulas,

l
X

Ll--+--i-
dx
r-r--

Fig. 8.1!1. lluckling of" cyiinuri·

ea.l shell under internal pressure

-'---

we shall denote here by p the internal pressure, in contradiction to the

sign convention underlying (8.22).
We now make some simplifying assumptions for the buckling dis-
pla.cements. Since m = 1, the overall deformation of the cylinder is
that of a tubular bar bent into a sinusoidal shape. We assume that the
deformation pattern is exactly that of elementary beam theory, i.e.,
that the circular sections are not deformed but only shifted laterally
and rotated to such a degree that they remain normal to the deformed
center line of the tube.
The shape of the cross section is preserved when we put B = - C
in (8.8). The conservation of normals yields, as in elementary beam
theory, the relation
-u=-a
aw
ax '
462 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

valid for cf> = 0. Introducing this into (8.8), we find that

A=- ::rla C.

We now cut a ring-shaped element of length d:r from the shelL

During buckling its right half is stretched while its left half gets shorter.
Therefore, the right half picks up more of the pressure p than the left
half does, and a resultant force acts on the ring, pushing it toward the
right. We may easily figure the magnitude of this force.
We consider an arbitrary element dx ·a dcf> on this ring (Fig. 8.17).
Its strain is
au
€ =- =- -cos cf>.lx
A). ::r 2 aC'
s1n- = --· cos cf>.lx
sm-·
"' ax a a r- a '
and the force acting on it is indicated in the figure. We are interested in
its component in the direction of the horizontal diameter, which is

Fig. S.ti. Deformed element of

the tube of ~'lg. 8.16

p a dcf> dx ( 1 + ~:_,) coscf>. \Vhen we integrate this component over the

entire circumference of the ring, we obtain the resultant of the pressure p
on the ring:

f
2:r
p::r3 a 2 dx lx
padx (1+~:.,)coscf>dcf>= l2 Csina.
0

Except for the factor dx, this is the lateral load per unit length of the
deflected tube. We can now compute axial stresses f1x in two different
ways: Either we compute the bending moment M which the lateral load
produces in a bar of span l, and from it the bending stress in a circular
cross section of radius a and thickness t; or we start from the strain fx
and apply HooKE's law. When both results agree, the deflected tube is
in equilibrium, and the shell is ready to buckle.
 8.2 CYLIXDRICAL SHELL 463

Simple beam analysis yields

M= pna2 Csin ).x,

a
and then
pC ,~.. . lx
fix= T cos.,.,sm 7 .

On the other hand, HooKE's law yields

E n:2ac, "' . .l.x

a,= E fx = 12 - cos.,.,sm 7 .

Both results agree if

and this is identical with the buckling condition (8.22), except for the
missing minus sign, caused by the changed sign convention for p.
This analysis explains in one way the strange buckling phenomenon
of a shell with internal pressure. Another explanation may be found
when the tube plus the air in it is considered as a built-up EuLER column
subjected to an axial compressive force p ·na2 , exerted by the tie rod.
The air carries the axial force and is the destabilizing element, while
the tube has the bending rigidity E I and is the stabilizing element.

8.2.3 Solution for Shells with Shear Load

8.2.3.1 Torsion of a Long Tube
The solution (8.8) of the differential equations (8.7) is possible only
because the dash and dot derivatives in (8.7) are distributed according
to a simple pattern. The q3 terms do not fit into this pattern, and as
soon as q3 =F 0, the expressions (8.8) no longer satisfy the differential
equations. However, there exists a solution which is applicable even
in this case :
l
=A sin (lax+ m~),
I
1t

r = B sin (.lax + m cf>) , (8.23)

w = Ccos Cax + mcf>). Jr

It may be used for any combination of loads p, P, and T. The zeros
of u, v, wand of their derivatives are found on lines mcf> + ).xfa = nonst.,
winding around the cylinder (Fig. 8.18). It is, therefore, not possible to
satisfy reasonable boundary conditions on lines x = const., and the
464 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

solution (8.23) cannot be used to deal with cylinders of finite length.

\Ye shall use it here to study the buckling of an infinitely long cylinder
subjected to a shear load 1' only (Fig. 8.18).

~'i~t. 8.1 ~. X mlal lines for w uu a

eylinder lnwkling according to
(8.23)

When we introduce the expressions (8.23) for u, v, w into (S.i), we

again obtain a set of linear equations for A, B, C:

A [A 2 + 1; 11
m2 (1 + k)- 2q 3 Am] + B [ 1 ; v Am]

-j- (_) [V A-j- k (A 3 - 1; VAm2 )] = 0,

A [ 1 ; v Am]+ B [m 2 + 1; v A2 (1 + 3k)- 2q3 Am]

(8.24)
-r-c[m+ 3 ;vkA m-2q A] =0,
2 3

A [vA + k(Aa- 1 ; v Am2)] + B [m+ 3 ;..! kA m- 2q A]

2 3

+ cp + k(A 4 + 2A 2 m2 + m 4 - 2m2 + 1)- 2qaAmj = 0.

These equations are similar to (8.10), but besides the absence of the q1
and q2 terms and the presence of the q3 terms, they differ also in some
minus signs. In the same way as we did there, we conclude here that
the coefficient determinant must vanish, and thus we find the condition
of neutral equilibrium:
(8.25)
which corresponds to (8.11). The quantities c1 and c2 are the same as
given in (8.12), and
c5 = 2Am (A2 + m 2 ) (A2 + rn 2 - 1). (8.26)
 8.2 CYLI~DRICAL SHELL 465
\Ve see at once that neither A nor m can be zero, because in both
cases c5 = 0 and hence q3 = oo. It is also without interest to consider
negative values of A or m. When both are negative, nothing is changed
in (8.25). When either A or m alone is negative, the buckling mode (8.23)
is altered insofar as the nodal lines (Fig. 8.18) become right-handed
screws. One would expect that then the buckling load T must be applied
in the opposite sense, and this is exactly what happens. In (8.25) the
left-hand side remains the same while c5 changes sign and hence q3 •
The discussion of the buckling formulas (8.25) is now restricted to
positive values A and to positive integers m. One might think of solving
for q3 , differentiating the expression with respect to A and m, and putting
the first partial derivatives equal to zero. This would yield two algebraic
equations for A and m, and their solution (or one of them) would lead
to the smallest possible q3 • This procedure, however, is rather tiresome
and may be avoided. By some trial computations one may find out
that any m > 2 yields a higher buckling load than does m = 2 and that A
must be chosen rather small, A« 1, to obtain a low q3 •
With this in mind, we now investigate separately the two cases
m = 1 and m = 2.
For m = 2, (8.25) reads
( 1 - v2 )).4 + k r;.s + 2 (8 - v) .'.8 + 72 A4 + 24 (6 + v) ,p + 1441
q3 = 4;. (,\2 + 4) (.'.2 + 3) '

and when we neglect everywhere A2 compared with 1, we have

_ 1 - v2 , 3 3k
qa-~11 +T.
Now it is easy to find from
aq3 = 1 - v2 A2- 3 k = 0
(}ji. 16 A2
that
,1_4=--~k-
1 - v2

- v1-
yields the lowest possible value of q3 , which is

q3 - ;:,.~ k
4
-- v2 -
- i/1 -
--:=-
v2 (-tn )3/2
. (8.27a)
ak 3 v2
Through t.he last. of (8.6) we may now ret.urn to the real shear load T
and find its critical value
1 E t512
Tcr = 3V2 (1- v2)314 a312 ' (8.27b)
and we may compute the total torque 111 = T · 2na ·a applied to the
tube. Its critical value is
..:rfcr= 3 (1 _
nlf2
v 2) 314 E vt,-5-a. (8.27c)

Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Et!. 30

 466 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

All these results have been derived for an infinitely long cylinder. Since
they do not contain any wavelength, there is the temptation of applying
them to cylinders of finite length. However, such a cylinder usually
has some kind of stiffening at the end, say a bulkhead requiring w = 0.
Any such condition is in contradiction to (8.23), and the additional
constraint imposed by the bulkhead will increase the buckling load
beyond the one given by the preceding formulas. One may expect that
the difference is not much if the cylinder is rather long.
With m = 1, (8.25) reads
(1 - v2)J. + k A [).2 + 2 (2 -
3 v)J
q3= 2(J.2+1) '
and when we now neglect A compared with unity, we may drop the l·
2

term entirely and obtain

(8.28)
If we can choose A arbitrarily, we may choose it as small as we like
and thus make q3 approach zero. This shows that there is no finite
buckling load for the infinite shell unless we prevent the buckling mode
with m = 1. In this mode the axis of the tube is deformed to a steep
helical curve, while the circular cross sections remain circular and nor-
mal to the deformed axis. Since every such cross section rotates about
one of its diameters, this mode may be excluded by preventing such
a rotation of the terminal cross sections of a long cylinder. On the other
hand, one may think up experimental arrangements in which the length
2najA of one turn of the helical axis is related in a definite way to the
length l of the cylinder. If (8.28) with A = 2nafl yields a lower value q3
than (8.27 a), the latter one should not be trusted, but how far these
formulas really can be applied cannot be decided without investigating
the buckling problem of the cylinder of finite length.

8.2.3.2 Shear and Axial Compression in a Cylinder of Finite

Length
8.2.:3.2.1 General Theory. When we want to solve the buckling
problem for a shell of finite length l, we must-resort to a FouRIER series
solution. vVe consider the following expressions for the displacements:
oc
,, A n:tx . V
00
n:rx
+ s1nm't' •'4 2 "cos-l-,
,~,. ,~,.
u = cosm't' . :::.. , 1 "cos-l- . :::..
n=1,3,... n=0,2, ...
. . n:tx "" . n:tx
v=smm4> ~ B 111 sm-l--cosm4> J; B 211 Sm-1-,
n=l,3,... n=~,-l, ...

w = cosm4> 'L:eo

n=1,3,...
n:n:x
• .
ell/ sm -l- + smm4> 'L:
'"
n=2,-l, ...
. n:rx
C2n Sill-l-.

(8.29a-c)
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 467
The restriction of n to odd or to even values appears here to be rather
arbitrary. It will soon be seen that it is reasonable and advisable.
Before we introduce the solution (8.29) into the differential equa-
tions (8.7), we must discuss the boundary conditions which it fulfills at
the edges x = 0 and x = l. Evidently we have there v ""w "'0, and also·
all the derivatives appearing in (5.9f) are zero, so that 1lJ" """ 0. This.
means that the edges are supported in radial and tangential directions.
and that the shell is free to rotate about a tangent to the edge. These
are exactly the boundary conditions one would want to prescribe for a
hinged (simple) support, and they are equally applicable if the shell
under consideration is part of an infinitely long tube stiffened by rigid
diaphragms spaced at regular intervals of length l.
The fourth boundary condition needs closer inspection. From (8.29a).
we see that ·u does not vanish, i.e. that the edge is not supported in
axial direction. The question is whether the displacement u is entirely
unconstrained. When we check Nr from (5.9b) we see that it vanishes.
But there is still the large force N,.~ 1 = - T at the edges, and if a line
element rotates by an angle ·u'fa, then this force develops an axiaL
component N.,·~ I u'fa. This external force depends on the angle u'fa,.
not on the displacement u, and this situation is typical of a nonconser-·
vative system in which a problem of static stability does not make
sensei. It therefore would not be legitimate to postulate N:r = 0 as a
fourth bounda1·y condition on an edge .r = eonst., but the condition
should read

Our solution (8.29) evidently does not satisfy this condition. But when
we consider the cylinder of length l as part of a much longer cylinder
stiffened by diaphragms, then the force Nr~l at the edge x = 0 comes.
from the adjoining part of the shell, and there is no external force at
all. Our boundary condition is then simply that there is no support in
the direction of the displacement u, and this condition is satisfied by
(8.29). It is for this boundary condition that we now shall solve the-
buckling problem.
When we introduce ·u, v, w from (8.29) into the differential equa-
tions (8.7), each of them will consist of two terms, one with cos m<J>.
the other with sin m<J>. Each of them must vanish, and this yields six
equations:

1 ZtEGLER, H.: Stabilitatsprobleme bei geraden Wellen. Z. angew. :\lath. Phys.

2 (1951), 265-289.
30*
468 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

""
2,'
n =1,3, ...
{att,.,At" + a12, ,.Bt" + al3,n 01 ,.} cos n;x

~"" . nnx
-2na
-1-q5 • nmA 2 ,.sin-
1-=0,
n~ ,4, ...

'-"'
~ {al1,,.A2n + a12,,.B2,. + ata,,.C2 ,.} cos n;x
n ... 0,2, ...

2na ~ . nnx
+ - 1-qs £.J nmA 1 " sm - 1- = 0,
n = 1,3, ...

""
+2na
-1-q3 £.J (nmB2 ,.+nC,2 ,.)cos-
nnx
1-=0,
n == :.!, -1, . ••
(8.30)
""
"" {U12,n A 21'
~ + a22,n B 21& l , n } . nnx
(l,23,nV21' 8111-~-
n .=. :!,4, ...

2:ra
- - 1 -q 3
~
£.J, (nmB 1 ,. + nC1 ,.) cos -n:n:x
1- = 0,
"= 1. 3, ...
""
~ {at a, ,.AI,.+ a2a,nB1" + rt33 ," 0 1 ,.} sin n;x
n-1,3, ...

00

~ {ttta,,.A2n + a2 a," B2 ,, + aaa,,, 0 2 ,) sin n;x

n =- :.!, 4, ...
2na :x; nnx
- -1-q3 '2; (nB 1 ,.+nm01 ,.)cos-t-=0.
n= 1,3, ...

The coefficients a 11, n ••• a 33, n in the braces are identical with the brack-
eted coefficients of A, B, C in (8.10).
The sines and cosines of nnxjl which appear in these equations are
shown in Fig. 8.19. If we were to extend them over the double range,
they would (together with cos 0 == 1) be a Complete set of orthogonal
functions. \Ve are, however, interested only in the domain l as shown,
and there the cosines may be expanded in terms of the sines, and vice versa:
nnx 4 "" j . j:n:x
COS-~-=- £.J -.2- - . Sill - 1- ,
:r i J - n-
. nnx 4n~ j jnx
sm-1- =- -.--.• cos -1- , n =even, (8.31 a-c)
;,; i n·- J"
. nnx 2
Sln - - = -
l nn
+ 4n"' 1
-:7t £.Jj -n--
.--
jnx
.• COS --~ ,
r l
n =odd.
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 469

In these formulas the subscript j must run either through all odd in-
tegers or through all even integers, so that for the expansion of a sym-
metric function only symmetric functions are used, i.e.
if n = 2, 4, 6, ... , then j = 1, 3, 5, ... ,
if n = 1, 3, 5, ... , then j = 2, 4, 6, ... .

cos "7)( sin "'["'

!----1---""1 ,_____ l ,------~

~:
n
~:
I~ I I

b:
I I I I
I I I

~·/]
:9: 2
l ~
~
I

[\ 1\:
V :I
3
:~\J i
I

/\ :
:
b
I
[\ A /1
! vl\7: 4
I
I
V \ )I
Fig. 8.1 U. Cosines and sines appearing in (8.30)

We use (8.31) to transform the second sum in each of the preceding

six equations. This may be shown for the first one:
• 1
'J: . n:n:x
-=--n
4m C::.,
'J: n j:rx
00
"'
nmA 211 sm-1 ~ n·A 2 ,._ 2 -j2cos- 1 -
n = 2, -!,... n= 2, ·l,... 1 = 1, 3, ...

4m '2'
:n: i = l,:l, ...

4m f .i='J:
CO
r A'
-;2--
2,4, ••• 1 - n
2
·•

2;
n:rx
cos - 1- .
n n = 1,3, ...

In this way we arrive at a summation over the same functions and over
the same choice of n which occurs in the first term of each equation,
and we may combine them under one summation sign, e. g.

8aq3
- - 1-m . ..::.,.
~ 1-z
n 2 A 2 ;J
l cos-
n:rx
- = 0,
;2 _ 1
1 ~ 2, 4, ... 1
4i0 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

and similarly for the other five equations. Now we may conclude that
such a FouRIER series cannot vanish identically unless each of its
coefficients, i.e. the expression in the braces, vanishes. This yields for
every n six equations, the first two of which are these:

8
2 ~A 1 ; = 0,
00 ~

au n.-:12, + a12 nB2" +a, a "C'211 + alq3 m

, , . i=l,3 .... r-n·

n= 2,4, ....
For n = 0 this last equation is irregular:

Since this is the only equation in the whole set which contains A 20 , it
may be set aside for calculating this unknown, and it is not necesRary
to carry it in the following discussion of the other equations.
It may be seen from (8.29) that the coefficients A 1 .. , B 1 .. , C1 n exist
only for odd values of nand that the coefficients A 2 n, B 2 , , C2 n exist
only for even n. "\Ve may therefore omit the subscripts 1 and 2 and
combine the last two equations in a single one:

at1 ,,
•
A lt + at 2• 11 B it -r· at :~ "
.
C'.1 11 +( -
8 al -
1)" -
1
"" -.•-p-2 A· ;
qs ·Jn .:,_;
r- n = 0 . (8.32a)

This equation may now be written for every integer n = 1, 2, 3, ... ,

and in every such equation the summation index j must run through
either even or odd integers only, so that n + j is always an odd number.
Exactly in the same way the remaining four equations can be con-
tracted to two for every n:
a12,11An + a22,1lB.~ + a23,1l()n
+ (-1)"8~qa 4 j2 :_j n2 (mBi + C;) = 0,
1
(8.32b,c)

Since there arc three equations (8.32) for every integer n, we have
here an infinite set of linear equations for an infinite number of un-
knowns A 11 , B,, C.,. Before we discuss the solution of this set, we reduce
it to one third its size by eliminating all unknowns An and B 11 • This is
done in the following way:
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 471

We pick one pair of equations (8.32 a, b) and solve for A,., B n:

. .4,t =
-1 Jl(a13 na2") n - a.,3 llal., ll)
cn
ar 2, 11
<)

a 11. 1l a:!. 2. n - • -. - • ' -.

a•• "m 2 -.•-j - . r~.1 1·

2
+ (- 1) 11 -8aq
-3 [
1 --. r-n- j

(8.33)

( 1)» -8a1-q3 [ -al2,"mf

+- i A 2
1'2_n2 i
""

·2 n j 2 Bi + a11 "2 ·2 n i 2 ci]fl ·

+ a11 • "m 'J; 1 -n 1 · jJ-n

This does not look much like a success since there are also unknown's A i,
Bi on the right-hand side, though not A,. and Bn, because of j #- n.
However, we can use (8.33) for an iteration which aims at obtaining
A,. and Bn in terms of all the Ci in the form of power series in q3 • \Ve
have already seen on p. 448 that it does not make sense to keep squares
and higher powers of q1 and q2 , and the same applies to q3 . Therefore,
those power series may be stopped after the linear term.
We start the iteration by dropping the q3 terms from (8.33), ob-
taining

and a similar expression for Bn. These are now introduced on the right-
hand side of (8.33):

A,-
- -1 I
r )(a]3na22H-(/,2~11al2n)O,,
a1l,na22,n- a l .
2,n . ' '

These relations are final, because upon their introduction into (8.33)
only a term with q~ will be added, which we decided to neglect. We
4i2 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

may now introduce these expressions into (8.32c), again neglecting

higher than the first powers of q3 • This yields

a11," a12,n. a1s,11

a12,n a22 ... a23,n c.

a1 s," a23,u ass,n

+I au, ..
a12,n
(8.34)

+ ,~1,11
a12,,.

Here, as in all preceding equations, the subscript j in the sums is subject

to the restriction that n + j must be an odd integer.
The coefficient of C,. in (8.34) is exactly the coefficient determinant
of (8.10) and may be written as

(8.35)

with the notation used in (8.11) and (8.12). The factor (1 - v)/2 appearing
here was dropped in (8.12) as a common factor to all terms of (8.11).
but here it must, of course, be carried.
Equations (8.34), one for every integer n = 1, :2, ... , are an infinite
set of linear equations for the unknowns C,.. Under certain conditions,
it may be shown that a non-trivial solution exists, if the infinite deter-
minant of coefficients vanishes1 • If this is the case, C,. # 0 for every n,
but some of the C,. are larger than the other ones and dominate in
(8.29).
The vanishing of the determinant of (8.34) yields a transcendental
equation for the critical value of the load parameter q3 • It has an in-
finite number of solutions, among which only the smallest is of interest.
It still depends on the choice of the wave number m which appears
visibly in (8.34) and is also hidden in the quantities a 11 , ,., ... , a 33 ,,..
As in the case of compressive forces, it is necessary to try different
integers m and to find the one which makes q3 a minimum.
1 A survey of the mathematical problem is found in L. V. KANTOROVICH,
V. I. KRYLOv: Approximate Methods of Higher Analysis, English translation
by C. D. BENSTER. Groningen. Noordhoff, 1958, pp. 20-44.
 8.2 CYLL.''WRICAL SHELL 4i3

In the general case thus far considered it is very difficult to evaluate

the buckling condition numerically. We may expect to simplify the
problem if we assume that the cylinder is either very long or very short.
In the next two sections we shall study these special cases.
8.2.3.2.2 Long Cylinder. We assume now that l »a. If the cylinder
is very long and if the shear load predominates (q3 » q1 , q2 ), we must
expect that the constants en
for low values of n predominate. ·we may
then safely neglect nnajl, that is, A., compared with unity wherever the
opportunity occurs.
When we do so in (8.12) and introduce the simplified expressions
into (8.35), we have

1 ;v[(t-v2 l(n 7ay

+ km4(m2 -1)2- qlm4(m2 -1)- q2m2(m2 + 2) (n7aY]
as the coefficient of 0 11 •
It may be left to the reader to work out the details of the q3 term in
(8.34). He will find that the first term inside the braces is negligible
because of a factor (najl) 2 , that the second and fourth terms cancel, and
that the third and fifth terms combine to

lf I\_(1-v_3-v
- 2
- ) 3( 2-1)~_!!_L,,_
2 ql • q2 m m i' j2- n2 vi.
Since this is to be multiplied by q3 , the terms with q1 and q2 must be
dropped, because they would yield quadratic terms in the small load
parameters. Equation (8.34) may then be written as

[ (1 - v2) (n;ar + km4(m2 -1)2- ql m4(m2- 1)- q2m2(m2 + 2) (n~rJo,

+ (-1)" Salq 3 nm3(m2- 1) X~ 0; = 0. (8.36)

j r- n-

If we use nC 11 , jCi as unknowns and divide each equation by

(1 - v2 )n3 (najl) 4 , the determinant of the coefficients may be written as
1+ (11 (12 (13

(21 1+ (22 (23

(31 (32 1+ (33

and I Eni is absolutely convergent. This is a sufficient condition for

n,j
the convergence of the infinite determinant, and we may set it equal
to zero and use this equation to find the dimensionless buckling load q3 •
-474 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

For actual computations one may, of course, use the coefficients as

they stand in (8.36).
If we were to start our numerical work immediately from (8.36),
we would obtain q3 depending on the form parameters k and ajl, on
PoissoN's ratio v, and on the load parameters q1 and q2 • These are too
many to allow presentation of the result in a graph.
To make the solution more manageable, we first drop one load
parameter, assuming q1 = 0. We are then dealing with a shell which
is subjected only to an axial thrust Panda shear T [see (8.6)). For these
two we define new dimension less parameters:

02
~
= V12 (1 - Pa
v2)Et-2 ' (8.37)

and we introduce
I l' t 2
ru 4 = 12(1- v2) n' 7 (8.38)

.as a form parameter. When we multiply (8.36) by a suitable factor,

it finally assumes the following form:
1 [o)2m2(m2-
mV(i;'
n 2
1)
.
-r
'ii 2 m 2 (m 2
n2
- 1) 2]
m 2 ..)...
- Qzmz _:_ 1 nC,,

~ -.2--2
-;-. ( - 1)" {!3..:,... jCI = 0 . (8.39
' 1 - n
Such an equation may be written for every integer n.
If we denote the coefficient of n C,. by T n, the first four of these
equations are:

- _.!_. 4 c~ ... = 0,
15

·~ C' 3 1
+ -;;-.
I •)
u +21·505 ... =0,

... = 0,

1
--·Cl
15

This is an infinite system of homogeneous linear equations for the

unknowns n Cn, and since its coefficients meet certain requirements,
we conclude that the determinant of these coefficients must vanish.
This determinant may be approximated by segments of increasing size
as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 8.20. In this figure the double
lines indicate the diagonal coefficients g31 T n, the single lines the other
nonvanishing coefficients, and the dots the zero coefficients. If we
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 475

:start with a third-order determinant we obtain a third-degree equation

for ea· Proceeding to determinants of higher order, we obtain algebraic
equations of higher degree, from which we find additional solutions ea
and improved values for those already obtained. This process may be
continued until the smallest ea is stabilized at a certain value, which
then determines the buckling shear of the shell.
There is an easier way of evaluating the lowest eigenvalue ea of this
problem, using matri.x iteration. The details of this method may be found
in the literature on matrices. It is first applied to a segment of moderate
.size, say to the 4 x 4 matrix indicated in Fig. 8.20, and with the modal

I'
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _j
I I
I I
I I
_____________ ...JI I
I
Fig. 8.20. Schematic representa- I
tion of the buckling determinant I
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..JI

column so obtained a larger segment may easily be treated. Practical

computations have shown that the 4 x 4 segment gives good results
t.hat are only slightly improved when a fifth row and column are added
to the matrix.
The diagonal coefficients T 11 depend not only on the shape of the
shell (w) and on the axial tension or compression ((! 2 ) but also on the
choice of the wave number m. It is necessary to repeat the entire com-
putation for several integers m and finally to choose the one for which
the lowest (!a has been obtained.
Results of computations are shown in Fig. 8.21 b. This diagram has
been taken from KROMM's paper mentioned in the bibliography, and
the curve e2 = 0 has been checked by matrix iteration. Because of the
discontinuous variation of the parameter m the curves in this diagram
are festoon curves like those obtained previously (Figs. 8.10, 8.11, 8.13,
8.15) for the shell under compressive loads.
8.2.3.2.3 Short Cylinder. We consider a cylinder as being ::>hort if
lfa « 1. The limit lfa = 0 is reached when the cylinder of length l de-
generates .into a plate strip of width l. When such a strip is subjected
 476 CHAP. 8: BUCKLIXG OF SHELLS

to a shear load applied to its edges, it buckles as indicated in Fig. 8.22 1 •

In the x direction the wavelength is l, and in they direction (correspond-
ing to the circumferential direction of the cylinder) the wavelength is

(a) (b)
~0

60

40 ~ /
~~ V

---
30

~~~ Ill"~ ............ _.....V

-
-
20 6f-5- 4- 1=: 3 /

v t:::
'~ ~ r-- -
2 /
v v
----
93
V
/

--
10 /
8 \\\"\.. 1- 0.5 / /
........
\\.~ V
6
I - - 0.25
__....... /

4
"\ ~ 1--
f.-
0
-0.1
~

-
~ t-- -0.2
3
r-- -0.3 1- "'-...
2 ~ ~4 ~ "\..
r=~~
I
0.4 0.6 0.8 I 2 3 4 6 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 '
0.6 0.8 I 2 3 4 6 lt
w w
Fig. 8.21. Buckling diagram for combined shear and axial compression

roughly the same. It may be assumed that in a short cylindrical Rhell

a similar situation prevails and that in (8.29) the terms with n = 1, 2, :3
predominate while m must be chosen so that l and the circumferentiaL
wavelength nafm are of the same order of magnitude, hence

For low values of n in which we are primarily interested, we have then

Fig. 8.22. Buckling mode of a flat

plate strip subjected to a shear load

1 SOUTHWELL, R. V., SKAN, S. W.: On the stability under shearing forces of a.

fiat elastic strip. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, 105 (1924), 587.
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 477

We may now discuss (8.34). The coefficient of On is again given by

the expression (8.35). When we there substitute the values for c1 ••. c4
from (8.12), we may now neglect all terms but those carrying the highest
power in A. and m together. This yields
cl= (1- v2)}.4, c2 = (A.2 + m2)4'
Ca = m2 (}.2 + m2)2' c4 = ;.2 (}.2 + m2)2,

and the coefficient of Cn reduces to

1 ; v [(1 _ v2) }.4 + k (A.2 + m2)4 _ (q1 m2 + q2 }.2) (}.2 + m2)2]. (8.40)

Again it is left to the reader to work out the determinants in the q3

term of (8.34). He will find that of the five terms in the braces only
the third one contains A.5 and m 5 , while the other four are only of the
order A.3, m 3 and, therefore, may be neglected. Consequently,

1f } = --r- 2)2 ~ n j C'

(A + m m 7' jZ- nz i,
1 - v 12

and (8.34) assumes the simple form

[(1 _ v2) }.4 + k (}.2 + m2)4 _ (q 1 m2 + q2 }.2) (}.2 + m2)2j 0 11

+(-1)"8~q3(}.2+m2)2m~ .• nj .Ci=O. (8.41)

1 r- n-
Since m~ 1, it is of little importance for the buckling load that m
must be an integer. \Ve therefore put
:n:a
m=flT and A= n~
l

and admit for the parameter fl whatever value makes q3 a minimum.

We again use the load parameters g 2 and ea defined by (8.37), but we
need a different form parameter

(8.42)

With all these notations (8.41) may be brought into the following form:
ye;; (
-- (
w2 n 2
2 '')2
+ p?)' _
+ (n wn
2
2 2 0
2]
n c, + (_ ,
1) ea~ 7-n
"2 2
_J_·_
c,-
._
0 (8.43)
n+w -
0

11 1

Again such an equation may be written for every integer n, and these
equations form an infinite set for an infinite number of unknowns j 0 1.
The occurrence of powers of n and j is the same as in (8.39) and so is
the convergence of the infinite determinant. If we now use the symbol T n
for the coefficient of nCn in (8.43), the equations are exactly represented
478 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

by the set shown after (8.39) and may be treated in the same way as
those for the long cylinder.
There is, however, one difference. In (8.39) the coefficient T n de-
pended on the parameter m which must be an integer. The necessity
for choosing in each case that integer which makes ea a minimum led
to the festoon curves of Fig. 8.21 b. Here T n depends on the parameter 1-l
which is allowed to vary continuously. It is out of the question to
differentiate ea formally with respect to f-l and to find the zero of the
derivative. Instead, one has to try several choices of f-l and to find by
trial and error the one which yields the least ea. Since the minimum
happens to be shallow, it is neither necessary nor possible to determine
this 1-l with high accuracy. Since a theory like this one is scarcely ever
used to solve numerically an isolated case, but rather to compute
diagrams, the search for the correct 1-l is still simplified by the fact that
during the computation the computer soon gains much experience as to
where to search the next time.
The result of such a computation is shown in Fig. 8.21 a, which also
has been taken from KRoMM's paper. Since f-l varies continuously, there
are no festoon curves in this diagram. Since both parts of Fig. 8.21 use
the same quantity as ordinates, they match in the same way as do the
parts of Fig. 8.13.

8.2.4 Nonuniform Axial Comprcst-~ion

Thus far we have restricted our attention to the stability of uniform

stress systems. There is, however, no major difficulty involved if the
basic stresses depend on one of the coordinates, either x or <f>. As an
example we consider here the case of a nonuniform axial compression
Nxl = -P = -P0 - P 1 cos</>. (8.44)
"Vhen loads corresponding to this equation are applied to the edges of
the shell (Fig. 8.23), the force N, r has the same distribution at any
cross section x = const. of the shell, while N.; 1 ~ N,.; l ""' 0.

Fig. 8.23. Cylinder under nonuniform axial compression

 8.2 CYUXDRICAL SHELL

In analogy to (8.6) we introduce dimensionless load parameters

(8.45}

and we obtain the differential equations of the problem by replacing q2

in (8.7) by q0 + q1 coscf> while dropl'ing the original terms with q1 and q3 .
This simple procedure is, of course, possible only because we never
needed to differentiate any load with respect to cJ> when deriving (8.7).
The differential equations thus obtained are these:

- V 1 +V
+1 -
11 •• I• 1
n 2 -u +~v +vw
1 - V ••
+ k ( ~u - w
Ill
+ -1 -2-w
V I••)
-q8 n 11 =
11
q1 u cos 'I',
A..

1 +V 1• •• 1- V , •
~n +v +-
2 -v +w
(8.46)
(1 -v ) v 11 3
+ k ( 23 -~w
-V 11•,) -1,.
-q0 v , =q1 v 11 cos'f',

• k(1-v I•• Ill 3-v 11• IY

vu I +v +w+
, ••
- 2- n -n -~v +w +:.::w
n

A..
+w··+:.::w
•• n ••
+w ) +q0 w fl = -q 1 w cos'l'.
11

They are still homogeneous in u, v, w, but they contain terms witlr

variable coefficients. Therefore (8.8) are no longer a solution, but we
ma.y put

1t = cos-
J.x
a
'1:
"'
m.= o
A,. cos nb cJ>,

.lx~B.-~... (8.-!ia-cl
V = Sln - .C.. "' Sill m 'I' ,
rt m= 1

• oc
AX ~ C' ,.cosm'l'.
A..
w = s1n- .:::...
0

a m=O

Upon introducing this into (8.46) we obtain the following set:

~{A m [12 +-
1-v_ 2(1 + k) -q J."2]. B "' [ - 1+v, ]
.C.. 2- m
A 0 T -- A m 2
m =0

+ C,. [- vA.- k(/. 3 - 1 ; v .Am 2 )]} cosmcf>

L
00

= q1 A,2 A 111 co:smcf>cos<f>

m=O

= ! q A i; (A,_
"""'
1 2 [
m=O
1 , A,.+t)cosmcf> + A 0 coscf>], (8.48a)
480 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELL8

00

= q1 ?. 2 L; B 111 sinm<f>cos<f>
111= 1

= ~
-
q1 ?. 2
:m=l
i; (Bm-t + B ,+ 11 1) sin m</>, (8.48b,c)

1; {Am [ -v?.-
11 0
k(?. 3 -
1 ; v }.m2)] + B"' [m+ 3 ; v k}.2m]

+ 0 [1 + k (}.4 + 2 }.2 m 2 + m4 - 2m 2 + 1)- q0 ?.2 cos m</>

11 , j}
00

= 'h}. 2 L; C"'cosm<f>cos<f>
110=0

= ~ q1 ?. 2 [ i;
111=0
(0,_ 1 +0 111 + 1 ) cos m</>+ C0 cos<f>].

In the second version of the right-hand sides of these equations it is

understood that A_ 1 = B 0 = 0_ 1 = 0. When this second version is used,
each of the equations states that two FouRIER series in </> must be
identically equal. This is possible only if their coefficients are the same,
and thus each of the three differential equations yields an infinite
number of linear, algebraic equations for the coefficients Am, Bm, Cm.
There are three equations corresponding to each integer m, and the
general triplet is as follows:

A.,_t [- ! ql}.2] +All, [}.2 + 1; v m2(1 + k)- qo}.2]

+B 11 , [ -
1 ; V}. m] + 0, 11 [ - V}. - k ( }. 3 -
1 ; V}. m 2 )]

+A111+l [- ~ q1A 2 ] =0,

Bm-1[- !qtA 2 ]+A,11 [- 1 ~v}.m]

+ Bm [m2 + 1; v}.2(1 + 3k)- qo}.2] (8.49)
+ell/ [m+ 3 ; V k?. 2 m] +Bill+ I [- ! ql?.2] = 0,

C111-1 [ - ~ q1 ?.2 ] +A 111 [-v?.-k(?. 3 -

1 ;v}.m2)]

+ Bm [m+ 3 ; vk?. 2 m]
+ c/l,r1 + k(?. 4 + 2?. 2 m2 + m 4 - 2m2 + 1)- qo?. 2j
 S.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 481

The first equations (m= 0, m= 1) have some irregularities, but since

we shall see that they are usually of little importance, we leave it to
the reader to work them out if the need should arise.
An infinite set of equations does not make much sense unless its
coefficient determinant satisfies certain convergence requirements. We
may try to satisfy the condition used on p. 4 73. In order to come at
least close to it, we must use mAn., mB,., m 2 C 111 as unknowns and
must divide the equations by m, m, m 2 , respectively. However, this does
not lead to success, since some terms of the order m- 1 will be left outside
the diagonal where they should be of order m- 2 to assure convergence.
To handle this problem, a technique similar to the one used in
Section 8.2.3.2.1 may be employed. We first introduce an abbreviated
notation writing (8.49) in the following form:
,,
alt,m""-'1..111 + a12,111 B m+ a13,111
- 21
C'' Ill- 12
qtll.
(A llt-1 + A m+l)' l

\Ve then use the first two of these equations to express A 111 and Bm in
terms of Cm and of A 111 _ 1 ... Bm+I· This involves certain determinants
of the coefficients a11 .,. etc., and for brevity we shall put the subscript m
only at the end of these determinants and not at all the individual
coefficients:
1 • )
A"'= (all a22- UJz m.
[(n n
12 23 - a 13 a22 )mCm

+ {- ql A2 [a22 (Am-t + Am+tl - a1z (Bm-1 + Bm+1)]],

Bm = (
1
a11a22-a 2m
r) [(a21 a1a - all rtzaL" C"'

+~ q1).2[nu(Bm-1 + B"'+J)- lt2l(A,"_1 + Am+l)l].

These equations are used first to eliminate .4 111 and Bm from the third
equation (8.49'). This introduces there terms with A 111 _ 1 , Am+l• B 111 _ 1 ,
Bm+I· The same two equations may now be used again to eliminate
these terms. This introduces new terms with Am-z, A m, ... , but all
these terms carry a factor qf and may be neglected. \Ve thus arrive at
the following equation:
all a12 ala
az1 azz rt2a ·Cm- ~ ql A2 [ ... Cm-1 + ... C111+1J = 0· (8.50)

Fliigge, Stresses in Shells, 2nd Ed. 31

482 CH.\.P. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

The coefficients of 0 111 _ 1 and 0,.+ 1 , which have been indicated by a row
of dots, are rather lengthy expressions of determinants of a 11 , •.• , a 33 •
If they are worked out in detail, it is fmmd that they increase as m 4 ,
while the coefficient of Cm has the form m 8 + m6 + · · ·. Therefore,
if we divide each equation by m4 and use m 4 0 111 as an unknown, the
determinant will fulfil! the convergence requirement as stated on p. 473.
It follows that the infinite determinant of (8.50) must vanish and that
this condition is fulfilled with increasing degrees of approximation if
finite systems of increasing size of the determinant are set equal to zero.
Since the coefficients of (8.50) contain the load parameters q0 and q1 ,
the vanishing of the determinant is a relation between these two quan-
tities. The situation is similar to the one encountered on p. 450 for the
two-way compression: ·we may assume values of q0 and calculate from
the determinantal equation the corresponding values of q1 or vice versa.
The numerical work may be done in different ways. One may work
out the expressions which in (8.50) were indicated by dots and so obtain
the elements of the determinant in general form; or one may write a
sufficient segment of (8.49), introducing numerical values for everything
but q1 , and then perform numerically the elimination of A,. and B,.
as described; or one may just use (8.49) as they stand. In each case,
one has to solve the eigenvalue problem of a large determinant, and
this again can be done in several ways. One may expand the deter-
minant and solve the ensuing algebraic equation, or one may fix a
value of q0 and find by trial and error the value of q1 which makes the
determinant vanish, or one may use the method of matrix iteration.
After a pair q0 , q1 has been found, (8.50) may be solved for the
constants 0 111 , which, as in all buckling problems, are determined ex-
cept for a common factor. Calculations of this kind have shown that
in the series (8.47c) - and consequently also in (8.47a, b) - there is
somewhere, but usually not at the beginning, a sequence of terms with
large coefficients 0 111 , while all the other 0 111 are small; the farther away
from the big ones, the smaller they are. The biggest terms in the series
describe the essential features of the buckling deformation, and a rea-
sonable approximation of the buckling load _is obtained if the infinite
determinant is approximated by a segment containing just those rows
and columns which are associated with the biggest values 0,.
An example may illustrate this. For a shell with lfa = n, k = 10- 6 ,
v = 1/6 it was found that q0 = 8.0 x 10- 4 and q1 = 1.67 x 10-a represent
a buckling load. Solving (8.50) and introducing the values 0 111 thus
obtained into (8.47 c) yielded the following deflection:

w = sin.=_
(I
(· · · + 0.0320 cos 3 cf> + 0.320 cos 4 cf> + 1.000 cos 5 cf>
+ 1.100 cos 6 <I> + 0.530 cos 7 cl> + 0.1283 cos 8 cl> + ... ) .
 8.2 VYLlNDRICAL SHELL 483

This suggests that it would be sufficient to use only a four by four

determinant made up of the coefficients of C4 , C5 , C6 , C1 in the four
equations (8.50) for which m = 4, 5, 6, 7.
The buckling displacement as computed from the formula just
given is shown in Fig. 8.24. Although the deflection is not exa~tly zero

l!'ig.l:\.24. Buckling mode of a c~·llntler under uonuuiform uxiul compreosiou; cross section and
loatl distribution

in the tensile zone of the shell, it is there exceedingly small, and the-
largest deflection occurs where NJ. 1 has its largest negative value.
For the same shell a number of critical pairs q0 , q1 have been com-
puted, and the result of this computation is shown in Fig. 8.25. When
the cylinder is considered as a tubular bar subjected to an eccentric
axial force, then q0 represents the direct stress and q1 the bending stress.
The ratio of both has been chosen as the abscissa of Fig. 8.25, while-
the ordinate q0 + q1 represents the greatest compressive stress occurring

3
t--

~2
I
+0
2
~9

0
-0.4 0 0.8 1.2

Fig. 8.25. Dimensionless bnrkling loads for a c~·Iimler with Ita = :n, k = 10-•, • = I /6

31*
484 CH.-\P. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

in the cross section of the tube. The diagram shows that the latter does
not very much depend on the former and that it increases as the com-
pressive zone of the cylinder decreases in width. The details of this
result, however, should not be indiscriminately generalized.
The plane cf> = 0, cf> = n is a plane of symmetry for the basic stress
pattern (8.44). From Fig. 8.24 it may be seen that the buckling de-
formation has the same symmetry. This is a necessary consequence of
the form (8.47) which we adopted for the solution of (8.46). There exists,
however, another solution of these equations, which is a.ntimetric with
respect to the same plane. We obtain it from (8.47) by interchanging
there sinmcf> and cosmcf>. In the numerical example underlying Fig. 8.24
the antimetric mode has the same buckling load, but in other cases it
may well happen that it leads to a higher or to a lower buckling load
than does the symmetric mode. It is therefore necessary to keep an eye
on both.

8.2.5 The Beam-Column Problem

A bar is said to be a beam when it carries a. lateral load and thus
is subject to bending, and it is called a column when it carries an axial
compressive load. The column has a stability problem, the beam has
none. When loads of both kinds act at the same time, a new problem
arises. The bending load produces a lateral deflection, and this deflection
provides a lever arm for the axial load which now produces additional
bending. It is well known that in this case stresses and deformations
increase linearly with the lateral load but that they increase faster
than linear when the axial load is raised and that they tend toward
infinity when the axial load approaches the buckling load of the column.
This stress problem is known as the beam-column problem, and we
shall discuss here under the same name analogous problems for cylindri-
cal shells.

8.2.5.1 The Axisymmetric Problem

We consider a cylindrical shell put between the plates of a testing
machine (Fig. 8.26a). When the load P (per unit of circumference) is
applied, a negative stress u.r = - Pjt is produced and the length of the
cylinder decreases. Due to PoiSSON's ratio, the diameter increases, but
this increase is prevented at the edges because of the friction between
the cylinder and the plates of the press (Fig. 8.26b). Evidently, bending
stresses will appear, and wc must find out whether they or a possible
instability will determine the strength of the shell.
The deformation shown in Fig. 8.26 b may be produced in two steps.
First we assume that the ends of the cylinder are so well lubricated
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 485

that the edges can expand without constraint, according to a hoop

strain £4> = vPfEt (Fig. 8.26c). Then we apply a radialload H (Fig. 8.26d)
of sufficient magnitude to bring the edges back to zero deflection.
The first part of this deformation is trivial. In the second part we
have the normal force Nx 1 =-Pas a large basic force and the addi-
tional small load H which produces the small displacements u, v, w.
To this deformation we may apply (8.7) which we established under
similar circumstances. The essential difference is that the solution we
seek now is not an incidental deformation which becomes possible when
P assumes a certain critical value but a deformation which is produced
by the load H.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

27raP 21raP

I I L I
I ~ I
. I : I : I I I
I
I I
! I !
I
I I I

ra1
I

M~
I
. I
I
,! M I I
I
J
I
21raP
lfig. 8.26. Cylindrical shell subjected to a compression test

In our special case, (8.7) simplify greatly. Since there is only tht-
axial load P, we have q1 = q3 = 0. And since the deformation m:~st be
expected to have axial symmetry, we must put v = 0 and must drop
all the dot derivatives. Equation (8.7b) vanishes then altogether, and
the other two simplify to
+ vw'- kw'"- q2 ·u" = 0,
u"
(8.51a, b)
vu' +w + k (- u + wrv + ~ + q2 w" = 0 .
111

There are two boundary conditions at each end of the shell, say
at x = 0 and at x = l. First, the radial displacement w must cancel the
displacement a£4> = vPajEt of Fig. 8.26c, i.e. we must have
vPa v
w = - ]iJ""t = - 1 - v2 q2 a . (8.52a)

Second, we want to have hinged edges, Mx = 0, hence from (5.9f):

w"- u' = 0. (8.52b)
 CH.\P. S: BUCKLDiG OF SHELLS

Then we have the condition that the load H has no component in the
axial direction. In Fig. 8.26c the axial force per unit of undeformed
c·ircumference is - P; after the deformation it is (see p. 443):

-P (1 - '- u'a ) + .N""

where N.c is connected with u, w by (5.9b). ·we have, therefore, the
condition that at each edge there is Nr = Pu' fa, hence
u' + vw- kw"= q2 u'. (8.52c)

From (8.51 a) it is evident that it is enough to enforce the condition(8.52c)

at x = 0 and that it then will be fulfilled everywhere, including the
other edge x = l. Lastly, we may exclude or fix a rigid-body displacement
of the whole shell by prescribing u for one value of the coordinate x.
The differential equations (8.51) have constant coefficients and may
be solved by exponential functions:

lt =A eAx{a' w = CeAxta.

\\'hen these are introduced, we get two linear equations for A and C:

(8.53)

Since these equations arc homogeneous, their determinant must vanish

and this yields an equation for A. When the small quantities k and q2
are neglected compared with 1, it reads

It has the double root

and four nontrivial roots

1 ., :1 4
~'•1
. -. . = .
.C:::
't.I
1 - 'I"
2--k- - . -1
V =:: l
I 2 . 4 (1 -
2 k •q.- - V 2) k • (8.54)

\Vhile these last four roots lead to true exponential solutions, the
fifth and sixth solutions degenerate into linear functions of x, and we
ha\·e
+ As+ As a,
4 X
u = ~ A, eAnxta
n= 1
(S.55)
4 X
W = ~
~ C ll eAnx/a + C5 + C 6 -rt •
n=l
 8.2 CYLI~DRICAL SHELL 487

For n = 1, ... , 4 the constants An and C,. arc connected by (8.53), and
since the determinant of these equations is zero, we may use either
one to formulate the relation. We choose the first one and have

A = -C v- ki.~ (8.56a)
n " ).,. •

The degenerated solutions, n = 5, 6, must be introduced in the differ-

ential equations (8.51) to make sure that they really are solutions and
to determine how their constants are interconnected. We find that

A 6-- -C!) 1 +
'V
k• (8.56b)

This indicates that the term C8 xfa is no solution at all and that u= A 8 xfa
and w = 0 5 together are the fifth independent solution of (8.51). The
sixth solution is u = As, w = 0.
This last solution evidently represents a rigid-body movement of
the cylinder, and we may simply discard it. The remaining free con-
stants 0 1 , ••• ,Os can then be determined from the boundary con-
ditions (8.52a-c). We begin with (8.52c). When we introduce there the
solution (8.55) and make use of (8.56), we find that the exponential
solutions cancel out, and we are left with
Os= 0.
Thus we are entirely rid of the linear terms in (8.55). The boundary
conditions (8.52a, b), written for X= 0 and for X = l; yield four equa-
tions for the remaining four unknown coefficients. They may easily be
brought into the following form:

01 + 02+ C3+ c_, 4 = - -1 -'JI- 2 q2 a ,

J.ifJ1 + ;.;c2 + ;.;c3 + ;.·c

4 4 = -1 -v-
.
- 2 q2
-'JI

a,
-'JI
(8.57a-d)
'JI
eJ.,Itac1 + e"•lla 02 + e"•ltac 3 + eJ.,lfac4 =- 1- v2q2a,

'j/2
J.i eA,l/a c l + J.i eA.l!a 02 + J.i elsl/a Ca + A~ el,l/a 04 = 1- 'j/2 q2 a.

We shall not go into the details of solving these equations, but we

shall discuss the solution as it is obtained when the results are intro-
duced into (8.55).
We see from (8.54) that for small values of q2 all four values A~ are
complex but that they are real and negative if q2 grows beyond 'the
limit
q~ = 4 (1 - v2 ) k. (8.58)
488 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

If q2 is smaller than this limit we may write

with real, positive quantities IX, {3. When q2 is small and the cylinder
long, then e-«ZI•• is a very small quantity. In this case it turns out that
C1 , C2 ;:p C3 , C4 , so that C3 , C4 may be neglected in (8.57 a, b) and C1 , C 2
in (8.57 c, d). The solution then becomes extremely simple. For small
values of xfa only the terms with cl and c2 make appreciable con-
tributions and yield

w 11
= - -- {J X + 11
. q.2 a e·u/a ( cos- + <Z 2 - {12sin-
{J X) (8.59)
1-11" a 2a{J a'
and near x = l only C3 and C4 are essential:

w = - ~ q. a e-rz(l- z)Ja (cos fJ (l - x) + 11 + a2 - f12 sin f!__i!_~) .

1-11"" a 2af1 a
These formulas represent two identical end disturbances, produced by
the constraint imposed upon the circumferential expansion of the shell,
and these disturbances affect only two narrow border zones.
·when q2 is increased, these disturbances penetrate deeper into the
shell. This is shown by the first three diagrams of Fig. 8.27. In the fourth
diagram the two disturbance zones have reached each other, and in the

q2=2XJ0·3
:s..:;----- ---------- ---------- --.2
3 X J0" 3
~---------·---------------~

4x1Q" 3

Sx 10"3

V--'-' ----
~~~~~-------------------------

Fig. 8.27. Deformed generator of a cylinder loaded as shown In Fig. 8.26b. The axis of the cylinder
lies above the generators shown. The broken line Indicates the undeformed position of the gen·
era tor; the dashes at the end give the deformed position for a cylinder without edge disturbance
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 489

last diagram they overlap completely. At this loading stage ex has de-
creased so far that it is no longer possible to neglect anything in (8.57).
The solution is then best written in terms of hyperbolic and trigonometric
functions, but we shall leave it to the reader to work out by himself
the somewhat bulky formula. Very soon the limit (8.58) is reached, in
Fig. 8.27 at q2 = 5.39 x 10- 3 • Beyond this all four values An are purely
imaginary, say

and the solution assumes the following form:

_ v q2 a
w - - -1--., - 2 - - 2
[.u~-v ,u!{l-2x)
2 -
t.tl-v
---~ cos
!t2 (l-2x)l
I'•
--~cos 9 .
- v- .U2 - .Ul a
cos 2 n
f.lz - a
cos a 2
{8.60)
When this is plotted, diagrams similar to the last one of Fig. 8.27 are
obtained. As q2 grows, one of the cosine denominators very rapidly
approaches zero. Consequently, one of the terms in the brackets out-
grows the other one, and the deflection approaches a pure sinusoidal
shape, but at the same time its amplitude increases beyond bounds.
This is in strict analogy to the well-known phenomenon that in an
ordinary beam-column the deflection tends toward infinity as the axial
load approaches the EULER load. Also the mechanical interpretation is
the same m both cases. For the shell, the infinite deflection occurs.
when
fti.·• z = 2q2k + v
1
=r= 2 k
l/qz- 4 {1 -
2 9) k
v- = nna
-~-

where n is an odd integer. When this equation is solved for q2 , one

arrives at {8.13), written for m = 0 and with A = nnafl such that n is.
an odd integer [except that in (8.13) two small terms have been neg-
lected). We conclude that the bending stresses in our shell grow beyond
bounds when the load P approaches a critical value connected with a
buckling mode which is axisymmetric {m = 0) and also symmetric to
the plane x = lf2 (n = odd).
On its way to infinity, the bending &tress will sooner or later pass
the yield limit. As soon as this happens, our theory ceases to be valid,
and the first and largest bulge of the cylinder will be squeezed fiat.
Except for this, the elastic theory is still applicable, and if the test is
continued, the next folds will grow until they also start to yield and
are squeezed fl.at 1 .
The equations {8.51) which govern the bending collapse just described
are a special case of the general buckling equations (8.7). We derived
1 For pictures of such specimens, see the paper by GECKELER, mentioned in
the bibliography.
490 CHAP. 8: BUCKLINU OF ~HELL~

the former ti·om the latter essentially by putting rn = 0. This seems

reasonable but is by no means necessary. Our solutions (8.59) and (8.60)
are just as well solutions of the general equations (8.7) with the special
boundary conditions (8.52). When the load P (or the dimensionless
pammeter q2 ) reaches the buckling load given by Fig. 8.11 or (8.13),
then (8.7) permit a certain deflection of arbitrary amplitude, and since
this deflection satisfies homogeneous boundary conditions it may be
superposed on the solution (8.59) or (8.60), and the sum will still be a
solution of the differential equations (8. 7) with the boundary condi-
tions (8.52) and hence of the beam-column problem. The existence of
such a solution in which an amplitude coefficient can be varied at dis-
cretion, indicates a neutral equilibrium, which always stands at the
threshold to instability. The developing bending collapse may, there-
fore, be interrupted by a true and sudden buckling if the shell reaches
a buckling load, either for a mode with m > 0 or for one with m = 0
and an even value of n. The former may be expected to happen, if the
shell lies toward the right-hand side in Figs. 8.10 and 8.11, but the
antimetric-axisymmetric modes have their critical loads always so close
to the symmetric ones that they are without importance in this respect.

8.2.5.2 Imperfections of Shape

Shells are remarkably stiff, and elastic buckling occurs only in shells
that are rather thin. This is particularly true for axial compression.
The diagram, Fig. 8.11, has been drawn for values k from 2 x 10- 5
to 10- 8 , corresponding to thickness ratios tfa between approximately
0.016 and 0.003. Such thin shells, whether test specimens or parts of
real structures, can hardly be expected to be very perfectly cylindrical.
Deviations from the exact shape may easily be of the order of the wall
thickness or even more. On p. 373 when studying the bending stresses
-of an almost spherical shell, we have seen that such deviations are not
a matter of great concern. This, however, is quite different when it
comes to buckling. When a structure, whether column or shell, ap-
proaches a neutral equilibrium, little causes have grave consequences,
and it is necessary to go into this problem to some extent. As an example,
we again choose the shell under uniform compression, i.e. the case
q2 ¥= 0, q1 = q3 = 0 in the notation of (8.6).
The deviation of the real middle surface from a true cylinder of
radius a may be described by the radial distance TV of each point of
the middle surface from the reference cylinder (Fig. 8.28). This devia-
tion W may be an arbitrary function and, most probably, will not show
any symmetry. However, it is reasonable to assume that W 0 along =
the edges x = 0 and x = l, since there the shell is supported by more
rigid members which will be closer to perfect circular shape. A function
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 491

fulfilling these conditions may be expanded into a double FoURIER series,

containing sine and cosine terms in cp. However, the sine terms would
contribute nothing essential to the conclusions at which we shall arrive
and, therefore, may be omitted. Thus we are led to assume the deviation
in the form
X 00

w = n•=O~
..::..
~ • n:n:x
..::.. w"',.cosmcpsm-1-.
n=l
(8.61)

To get started, we shall be content with a much simpler case and assume
that the deviation is represented by only one term of this series, say

lV = W .,cosmcpsin A.x,
111 (8.62)
n

where it= nnajl, as before, and where m and n are two arbitrary but
definitely chosen integers.

Fig. s.:is. Section through a shell

deviating slightly from a cylin·
drlcal shell

When the compressive edge load 1' is applied to the shell, each point
Qf the middle surface undergoes elastic clisplacements u, v, w, and its
normal distance from the reference cylinder is then W + w. We assume,
Qf course, that W is of the order of an elastic deformation, and then
the element of the shell looks like the deformed elements which we used
to establish the differential equations (8.7} of the buckling problem.
·when we again go through the same procedure we find that the terms
of those equations belong in two groups. In those terms which contain
the factor q2 (or q1 , q3 if we admit such loads), the quantities u, v, w
describe the difference in shape between the deformed element and an
element of a true cylinder. In these terms w must now be replaced by
W + w. On the other hand, all terms which do not have a factor q2 can
be. traced back to terms of the elastic law (5.9) and represent the stress
resultants acting on the shell element. Before the application of the
492 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

load the shell has been free of stress, and the stress resultants depend
only on the elastic displacements u, v, w. Consequently, in all these
terms w is just w and nothing else. Thus we arrive at the following set
of differential equations:
11 1-
u + -2- u
'JI ••
+~v
+
1 'JI I•
+vw
I

+ k (- 1 - 'V !•·) -q.u

1 -- 'Vu•• -w +--w Ill 11
=
0
2 2 ' ~ '
1+V 1• •• 1 - 'V , •
2 -u +v +~v +w
(8.63)·
+ k ('23 (1 )
-"' v - -2-w
11 3- 'V 11-') - q2v = 0 '
11

vu'+ v· + u· + k( 1 ; "'u'""- u'"- 3 ; "'V11 • + w1V + 2w"""

+ w :: + 2 w.. + w) + q2 w = q2 W "'""'12 cosm'l'sma.
A.. • A.x
11

\Ve see here that we again have a problem of the beam-column.

type. The left-hand sides of the differential equations are the same as.
those of the associated buckling problem, but the equations are no·
longer homogeneous. While in the preceding problem the nonvanishing
right-hand sides appeared in some of the boundary conditions, these
conditions are here homogeneous and the same as in the buckling
problem.
We can easily check that
AX
·u = A 111 ., cos m</> cos--,
n
. A.. • .tx
B 11111 Slnm'l'sln-,
V= (8.64)·
a.
A.. • .tx
C 111 .,cosm'l'sm--
w =
a
is a particular solution of (8.63), and when we introduce it there, we
obtain three linear equations for A,.,., Bmn• C.,m· Their left-hand sides.
are identical with those of (8.10) (except for q1 = 0 and for the sub-
scripts which we have now attached to the constants A, B, C), but
their right-hand sides are 0, 0, q2 ).2 W mn• respectively. Let us give these
equations the number (8.10').
We shall not attempt here to solve these equations (which can
easily be done numerically if wmn is given), but we shall review the
situation in the whole and draw some general conclusions.
As long as the coefficient determinant of (8.10'), and that is of"
( 8.10), does not vanish, there is always a unique solution Amn, Bmn, C111 , , .
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 493

.and these constants are proportional to the amplitude W 111 ,. of the

·deviation. But we know that the determinant is equal to zero if q2 has
that critical value which belongs to the buckling mode m, n. In this
·case the alternative theorem for linear equations states that Am,., B,.,.,
.0111 ,. = oo, Mechanically speaking, this means that the deflections and
hence the stresses in the shell grow beyond bounds when q2 approaches
this particular critical value.
We may now come back to the general form (8.62) of the deviations.
For every term of this FouRIER series we have a solution (8.64) and a
set of (8.10') to find from them the amplitudes A 11.,., B 1111, C,.,. of the
displacements. Since these amplitudes depend linearly on the coeffi-
-cients Will I!' we may superpose all the displacements to form three
FouRIER series for -u, v, w, for example,
(8.65)

.and thus obtain the resultant deformation of the shell. As long as the
load on the shell is below any critical value all the coefficients in the
series (8.65) are finite. When q2 approaches the lowest critical value, i.e.,
the buckling load of the shell, then those coefficients A 11111 , B 11111 , C, 11 ,.
which belong to this particular buckling mode tend toward infinity,
and the corresponding terms in the series outgrow all the others. The
deflection then becomes more and more sinusoidal, and the nodal lines
w = 0 approach the rectangular pattern known from the buckling
deformation.
A glance at Fig. 8.10 shows that in many shells there exist several
critical values immediately above the lowest one, belonging to different
modes m, n. If this is the case, several terms in the series (8.65) grow
almost in the same way and, although one of them reaches infinity
first, they may all be large but still of comparable magnitude when
the shell collapses. This detail is different from the otherwise similar
bchavior of an imperfect column for which all the critical loads are far
.apart from each other. Therefore, if one wants to apply to a shell the
method of SoU'L'HWELL and LUNDQUIST1 for the determination of the
~riticalload from a non-destructive test, he has to explore the situation
carefully and to measure a displacement which is large for the lowest
buckling mode but small for all competitive modes. If such care is
taken, the method is well applicable, as A. KROMM in cooperation with
the author has proved in a series of tests which, unfortunately, never
have been published.
1 SOUTHWELL, R. V.: On the analysis of experimental observations in problems

of elastic stability. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, 135 (1932), 601.- LUNDQUIST, E. E.:
Generalized analysis of experimental observations in problems of elastic stability.
~ACA, Techn. Note 658 (1938).
494 CHAP.!!: Ht:C:KLlXG OF t:lH.ELLt:l

8.2.6 Xonliucar 'l'heory of Shell Buckling

The theory of the instability of cylindrical shells presented in Sec-
tions 8.2.1 through 8.2.4 has been built up following the general pattern
of the theory of elastic stability. There is little doubt that it gives the
correct answer to the question: "When does the elastic equilibrium
become neutral'?" However, the load under which this neutral equi-
librium is reached - the classical critical load - is not necessarily the
collapse load of the shell. Ever since the results of the theory have been
compared with those of buckling tests, the large discrepancy has been
puzzling to investigators. The "beam-column theory" of Section 8.2.5
explains to some extent why the actual collapse load should be smaller
than the classical buckling load, but it does not say how much smaller
it is, and it does not explain the details of the actual buckling process.
When a column is carefully made and loaded, it behaves exactly as
the beam-column theory predicts. First there is scarcely any deflection,
and when the critical load is approached, the deflection grows at an
increasing rate until the column is overstressed in bending and collapses.
Quite to the contrary, a cylindrical shell subjected to axial compression
jumps suddenly into a deflected state, and it does so at a load which
may be a quarter of the classical buckling load. Observations of this
kind suggest that a phenomenon of large deformation is at play and
that a nonlinear theory could give a deeper insight into what really il'l
happening.

Fig. !!.2!l. Cylirulrical shell under

P axinl cnmwessiou

We shall give here an outline of such a theory for a cylinder under

axial compression (Fig. 8.29). Since it is mathematically rather involved,
we must simplify the basic equations as much as possible and be content
just to trace the essential features of the buckling process.
There are always three fundamental groups of equations from which
the solution of an elastic problem must be started: ( 1) the conditions
 8.2 CYLIXDRICAL SHELL 495

of equilibrium, connecting the stresses or stress resultants with the

loads, (2) the elastic law (usually HooKE's law), connecting the stresses-
or stress resultants with the strains (the usual strains E, y, or a change
of curvature or of twist), (3) the kinematic relations, connecting thP
strains and the displacements.
In the bending theory of shells we used HoOKE's law for the individual
stresses (5.6), (2.53), and we eliminated the strains between it and a set
of kinematic relations before we integrated the stresses to form the stress
resultants. Ultimately, therefore, we had to deal with only two groups
of equations, the conditions of equilibrium (5.1), (8.5) and an "elastic
law" connecting the stress resultants immediately with the displace-
ments and their derivatives [(5.9), (5.12), (6.5)].
All these equations are linear if the basic forces in (8.5) are considered
as given coefficients. The linearity of the kinematic relations is based
on the assumption that the displacements are so small that their squares
can be neglected. 'When we want to consider large deflections, we must
drop this assumption. The first step in this direction is to admit squares.
of the displacements, and since w is larger than u and v, it may be enough
to admit only the squares of w and its derivatives.
The orthodox way would now be to find the quadratic terms which
must be introduced into (5.5), to find from them the improved form
of (5.9), and then to discuss possible simplifications. We prefer an easier
way starting from (5.12). The right-hand sides of (5.12a-c) may easily
be interpreted as combinations of strains of the middle surface, writing
1 -'V-
N.p=D(l.p+vlx), Nx=D(lx+vl.p), Nx.p=D-y--Yx.P (8.66)
and _ v' +w _ u· + v'
E.p=-a-' Yx.P = --
11 - • ( 8.67)

Equations (8.66) represent HooKE's law and will be used as they are,
and (8.67) are identical with (5.10a-c) and are the linearized kinematic
relations, which we now must supplement by large-deflection terms.
Since we know the linear terms in u and v and are interested only
in quadratic terms in w, it is enough to study only those deformations
for which u = v = 0. Products of u or v ·with w escape in this way,
but they are not in the sphere of our interest.
Fig. 8.30a shows a line element d.r before and after such a deforma-
tion. The deformed length is

dsx = l/Idx -r (w'a dx')2 ""'dx [1 + (w'a) ~] '

2 21
and hence the strain
(8.68 a}
496 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

Fig. 8.30b shows the deformation of a circumferential element a dcf>.

When the angle dcf> is small enough {i.e. when we neglect terms of
higher order in the differential), we may apply PYTHAGORAS' theorem
to the curvilinear triangle and have

·
d8.p = vr(a + w) dcf>j 2 + (w" d</>) 2 = adcf> V
1 + 2 a+
w (a
w )2 + (w"a )2
:==: a dA.
'f' a
ur + -1 ----.-
[ 1 + -w + -1 --;;
2 a·
w" 2 - -1 ( 2 -w + ...
2 a· 8 a
)2]
[ 1 +-
w 1 w" J
a +--.
2 a· .
2
= adA.
'f'

It follows that the hoop strain is

_ ds.; - a d<f> w 1 10·2
f.p = ad<J> =a+ 2 a2 0
(8.68b)

To find the corresponding expression for y.,·.P we consider Fig. 8.30c,

which shows both line elements dx and a dcf> before and after defor-
mation. Again we may disregard the curvature except for the fact that

Fig. 8.30. J,inc elements of t.he middle surfac-e before and after <!~formation, (a) generator clement,
(b) circumferential element, (c) both elements

the triangle to the left has the base length. (a+ w) dcf>. The angle be-
tween the two deformed elements is (n/2) - Y.r</>. The cosine of this
angle is equal to the scalar product of two unit vectors located on the
deformed elements as shown. Hence
:n; w' w'
cos ( -2 -y.,.p ) =sinjix.;=1x0 +0><1+-x--
a a+w
and in sufficient approximation
_ w'w·
y.,.p = a2 • (8.68c)
 S.~ CYLI~DRICAL ~HELL 497

Since we assumed u = v = 0, (8.68a-c) are not the complete ex-

pressions for the strains, but we must. still add the linear terms taken
from (8.67). The final form of the kinematic relations is therefore this:
_ v' +w w' 2
Eq, = - -
n
+ :;--:;
-n·
'
(8.69a-c)

These expressions may now be introduced on the right-hand sides of

(8.66) to obtain the revised form of (5.12a-e):

Nq, = ~ rv· + w + vu'J + ~~ 2 jw' 2 + vw' j, 2

Nx= D
a
fn' + v(v· + w)j +_f.,
-a·
rw' + vw' j, 2 2 (8.70a-c)
D(l-v)[ .. , w'w"J
Nx<P
.J. = ?
-a
U -r V + ---
n
.
Equations (5.12d-f) may be used as they stand, and they represent
together with (8.70), the elastic law for large deformations in the form
which already incorporates the kinematic relations.
We still have to write the conditions of equilibrium. \Ve may start
from (8.5) and there put p = '1' = 0, since we want to study a cylinder
subjected to axial load only. However, on p. 217 we have seen that it
is reasonable to neglect Qq, in (5.1 b), and consequently we neglect the Qq,
term in (8.5b) of the buckling theory. There are two more terms which
we may drop from (8.5). When we introduce N:r from (8.70b) into
(8.5a), a term Du" fa results. Since D"" Et ::yP = (J"t, the term Pu"fa
in this equation is evidently of very little importance and may be
dropped, and the same can be shown for the term Pv" fa in (8.5 b).
The conditions of Cl]Uilibrium then assume the following form:
N~ + N~q, = 0,
(8.71 a-e)
w"
(J~ + Q~ + N q, + Pa- = 0.

The elastic law (8.70), (5.12d-f) and. the conditions of equilibrium

(8.71), (8.5d, e) are 11 equations for the following 11 unknowns: the
stress resultants Nq,, Nx, N".q,' .11Iq,, Jfx, 3IJ'</>' Qq,, Q, and the displace-
ments u, v, w. The first step on the way to a solution is to reduce the
number of unknowns and equations. This may be accomplished in the
following way:
Equations (8.71a, b) are identically satisfied when we introduce
AmY's stress function(/) in analogy to the plane stress problem, writing
(8. 72)
}'liigge, Stresses in Shells, ~nd Ed. 32
498 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

When we use the stress function on the left-hand sides of (8.70) and
eliminate u and v, we obtain a differential equation relating <P and w:

miV
-v + 2'~""
-v .m::
+-v = D(1-v2)["
a
1 ("
w --
a
w w.. -w''2)] . (8.73a)

To obtain a second equation in the same variables, we use (8.5d, e)

to express Q•, Q_, in (8.71c) in terms of the moments. These in turn
may be expressed by derivatives of w, according to (5.12d-f), while N.p
is replaced by <P". Thus we obtain:
P "
wIV + 2 w,.. + w :: + ·-K--w
a- ,
= -
a3 .m"
K -v . (8.73 b)

Since this equation has been derived from (8.71 c), the assumption that
P :;:pN.c, N•, N.p_, has been worked into it. This assumption is certainly
correct for the linearized buckling theory, which considers N.c, ... as
infinitesimal quantities. It may, however, be challenged in the present
case. If a refinement is desired, one must go back to the origin of (8.5c)
and introduce there terms with N"' w" etc.
Equations (8.73a, b) -or whatever may be used instead -are two
partial differential equations for two unknown functions of x and <P.
Since the first of these equations contains some nonlinear terms, it is
difficult to solve them. Solving (8.73) may be avoided by using the
principle of virtual work. The differential equations describe the me-
chanical concept, and it is easy to write expressions for the strain energy
of the direct stresses as an integral of certain derivatives of <P, for the
bending energy as a similar integral of w, and for the work done by the
external forces P as another integral involving w. If a reasonable as-
sumption is now made for w as a function of the coordinates, containing
a number of free constants, (8.73a) becomes a linear differential equa-
tion for <P which, with a suitable set of boundary conditions, yields a
unique solution. This and the assumed w are introduced into the energy
integrals, which then depend entirely on the free constants of w. The
principle of virtual work requires that the derivative of the potential
energy with respect to each of these constants be zero. This leads to a
set of equations for these constants and thus to an approximate solution
of the problem. Since only w is varied, the principle replaces only the
condition of normal equilibrium, (8.71 c), while (8.71 a, b) are taken care
of by solving (8.73a).
The tedious calculations have been made by T. v. KARMAN and
H.-S. TsiEN and have been described in their paper of 1941, mentioned
in the bibliography. The essential result may be seen in Fig. 8.31 which
has been extracted from their paper. The ordinate is a dimensionless
representation of the load P. The quantity E in the abscissa is the over-
 8.2 CYLINDRICAL SHELL 499
all compressive strain of the cylinder, i.e. the amount a unit length of
the cylinder is shorter than before loading.
When the load Pis gradually applied, the relation of P to € is first
represented by the straight line corresponding to the unbuckled com-
pression. At the point A the classical buckling load has been reached ..
Here an adjacent equilibrium exists with infinitesimal lateral deflections
but with the same €. However, for loads smaller than this one, there·
p p

E E

Fig. 8.31. I.on•l·tleformntion curve for a Fil(. 8.3:!. Load-deformation curve for an·
cylinder loaded as in }'ig. 8.29 impNfcct cylinder loaded ns in Fig. 8.2\l

exists an elastic equilibrium, involving finite lateral deflections. It may

even happen that in this deflected state the potential energy of the shell
is less than in the undefiected form. The stability of the undefiected shell
is then as precarious as that of a pencil standing on its fiat end; a very
small disturbance suffices to bring it over the threshold and to make
it drop into a position of lower energy.
One may easily imagine that the diagram for a shell with slight
imperfections looks like one of the curves in Fig. 8.32. We shall discuss
these curves for two typical cases of loading, weight loading and loading
in a rigid testing machine.
When the cylinder is put in an upright. position and then loaded by
packing weights on its upper edge, the load Pis prescribed at any instant,
and the deformation E is not restricted. The loading will proceed without
incident, until the maximum point on the curve has been reached.
When the load is further increased there is no equilibrium available
except on the right branch of the curve, and the diagram point must
jump in the direction of the horizontal arrows. This indicates a sudden
buckling of the shell. It is seen from the figure that this occurs far below
the classical buckling load and that it leads at once to a very large
deflection. It may be so large that the shell locally undergoes plastic
32*
500 CHAP. 8: BUCKLI~G OF SHELLS

deformation. If this should not happen, elastic unloading would be

possible. The diagram point would then descend the right branch until
it reaches the minimum point. Upon further reduction of the load the
point has to jump again, back to the left branch, and the buckling
deflection disappears as suddenly as it came.
The phenomenon is slightly different when the cylinder is loadetl
in a rigid testing machine. Then £ is prescribed by the position of the entl
plates of the machine, and the load P is determined by one of the curves
of Fig. 8.32. If the upper curve is applicable (very small imperfections),
the load reaches a maximum and then drops slightly until the right-
most point of the curve has been reached. When £ is still increased,
the diagram point jumps vertically downward, indicating the sudden
appearance of large deformations connected with a sharp drop in load.
If the imperfections of the shell are larger, the curve looks like the
lower one in Fig. 8.32. In this case there is no rightmost point, no
jumping takes place, and the buckling phenomenon develops gradually.
The diagrams of Figs. 8.31 and 8.:32 are drawn for one certain num-
ber m of circumferential waves forming on the buckling shell. Of course,
similar curves may be drawn for other integer values of m. Each of
them begins at the corresponding classical load of higher ortler; how-
ever, they do not lie inside each other like onion peels but intersect
each other. This brings additional complications into the buckling
process. The shell may (or perhaps may not) jump from one buckling
configuration into another one, if this is possible with the available
energy and if there is some disturbance to help it through transitional
;;tages.

S.3 Spherical SheJI

vVe consider a complete sphere of radius a, subjected to a uniform
external pressure p. This load produces the membrane forces
1
N,H = N 01 =- 2 pa

which form the basic stress system. For the buckling displacements u,
v, w and the corresponding stress resultants N +, N 0 , etc. we use the
notation established in Chapters 2 and 6 (see Figs. 6.1 and 2.44).
The b~sic stress system has a remarkably high degree of symmetry.
It is axially symmetric not only with respect to the polar axis of our
coordinate system, but with respect to every diameter of the sphere.
As we have seen with other shells of revolution, the buckling deforma-
tions may have a lower degree of symmetry. However, in this particular
case it is advantageous to consider first only axially symmetric de-
 8.3 SPHERICAL SHELL 501

formations and to postpone the discussion of less symmetric modes

until later.
The condition of equilibrium of the deformed shell element must
contain all those terms of (6.1) which are not ruled out by the assr(med
axial symmetry of the buckling stresses. This restriction eliminates
completely (6.1 b, e, f), and in the other three we have to drop all the
prime derivatives and to put P.p = 0, p,. = - p.

Fig. 8.33. Meritlinn of a spherical shell before and after buckling

Additionally, the equations must contain terms which express the

action of the load and the basic forces on a deformed shell element. It
is our first task to find these terms.
In an axisymmetric deformation the shell element rotates by an
angle X= (w"- v)fa, and the force N.pr r d() at the upper edge develops
a radial component
w·- v
NHrdO·--
a
pointing inward (Fig. 8.33). The corresponding force at the opposite edge
has a similar component pointing outward, but it is larger by the differ-
ential
502 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

This differential yields a. new term for (6.1 c), and since we there counted
forces positive when pointing inward and since we dropped the factor
d<f> dO, the new term is
-N~ 1 [(w" - v) sin</>f = ! pa [(w·· - v") sin</>+ (w"- v) cos</>].

As we have already seen in the membrane theory (p. 22), the forces NH
on opposite edges of the shell element have a resultant N~ 1 r dO· d<f>
normal to the shell. When the element is rotated, this resultant part-
icipates in this rotation and develops a tangential component

N~ 1 rd0d</> · w·-
a
v = NH (w"- v) sin</>d</>dO.

It points down the meridian, and after stripping it of the factors d<f> dO
we must introduce it without change of sign in (6.1 a).
The hoop forces N 81 do not make a similar contribution. Since the
deformation is axisymmetric, the meridional edges of the element stay
in meridional planes, and the hoop forces never change direction.
The load applied to the shell element is originally p ·a d<f> · rdO. We
a~sume that it is produced by a gas pressure. Such a load is always
normal to the surface and proportional to the actual size of the element.
During the buckling deformation the area dA = a d<f> · r dO of the ele-
ment increases by (f~ + Eo) dA, where
v· +w vcotcfJ +w
f~=-a-, fo = a

are the strains of the middle surface. The radial load on the element
increases correspondingly by
p(E~ +Eo) dA = pa(v" + v cot</>+ 2w) sin</> d<f> dO,
and this yields a positive contribution to (6.1 c). On the other hand,
the rotation X of the element makes the load rotate and thus generates
a tangential component (tangential to the original meridian!):
p ·a d<f> • r dO· X= pa(w"- v) ~in</> d<f> dO.
This component yields a positive contribution·to (6.1 a).

I
Taking all these simplifications and additions together, we arrive at
the following conditions of equilibrium :

(N~sin<f>)"- N 0 cos</>- Q~sin</> + ~ (w"- v)sin</> = 0,

N 8 sin</> + N~sin</> + (Q~sin</>)" + ~ (v"sin</> + vcos</> (8.74)

+ w""sin</> + w"cos</> + 4wsin</>) = 0,
(M~sin</>)"- J.lf6 cos</> = aQ~sin<f>.
 8.3 SPHERICAL SHELL 503

We use the third of these equations to eliminate Q+ from the other

two, and then we use the elastic law (6.11) to express the forces and
moments in terms of v and w. 'When we now introduce the dimensionless
parameters
K pa
k = ---
Da2'q=2D' (8.75)

we obtain at last the following pair of equations:

(1 + k)fv.. + v·cotcp- v(v + cot2 cp)J + (1 + v)w·

- k rw·: + w .. cotcp- w· (v + cot 2 cp)J- q (v- w·) = 0'
(1 + v) rv· + vcotcp + 2wj
+ kr- v:.- 2v .. cotcp + v·(1 + v + cot2cp) (8.76a,b)
- v(2- v + cot2 cp)cotcp + w:: + 2w:. cotcp
- w .. (1 + v + cot 2 cp) + w· (2- v -r cot2 cp) cotcpj
+ qrv· + vcotcp + w.. + w·cotcp + 4wj = 0.
Since k«:. 1, we may drop the factor (1 + k) from (8.76a), and in the
following calculations we shall repeatedly make similar simplifications
without announcing them in each case.
When dealing with the bending theory of spherical shells, we used
the operators L and H defined by (6.16) and (6.88). Since we want to
extend our theory to cover also buckling modes which are not axi-
symmetric, we prefer here the operator H. In the axisymmetric case
(n = 0) it simplifies to

H( )= ( )"" + ( )" cotcp + 2 ( ).

Before we introduce it into (8.76), we realize that the unknown variables
occur in many places in the combination v - w·, due largely to the
angular displacement X· We make good use of this situation by intro-
ducing an auxiliary variable V such that
v= -v·.
With the help of (6.89b) it is then easily seen that (8.76a) may be
brought into the following form:
iJ
iJcf> rH(V) + kH(w)- (1 + v) (V+ w)- q(V + w)] = 0.

·we conclude that the bracket does not depend on cp, and since vis not
affected when we add a. constant to V, we may simply put the bracket
equal to zero :
H(V) + kH(w)- (1 + v) (V+ w)- q(V + w) = 0. (8.77a)
504 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

When we introduce the operator H in (8.76b), we make use of (6.89a)

and find the relation
kHH(V + w)- (1 + v) H(V)- (3 + v) kH(w) + 2(1 + v) (V+ w)
+ q[ -H(V) + H(w) + 2(V + w)] = 0. (8.7ib)
Now, any regular function of cos</> in the interval -1 ~ cos<f> ~ 1
may be expanded in a series of LEGENDRE functions Pn(cos<f>) and,
therefore, the solution V, w of (8.77) may be assumed in the form
00
"""'
V= 1; b,.P,.(cos<f>), w = 1; C11 P,. (cos</>). (8. 78)
n-o n-o
Each one of the spherical harmonics satisfies the differential equation
P;; + P~ cotcp + n (n + 1) P" = 0,
which, with our operator H, may be written as
li (Pu) = -A." P .. , A.,.= n (n, 1) - 2.
When we introduce the series (8.78) into (8.77), we make use of this
relation and obtain:
"" {b .. r.A. .. + 1 + v +
~; qj + c,.[kA.,. + 1 + v +qi}P,,(cos<f>) = 0,
n-o
:0

1; {b,. rkA.i + (1 + v) (A.~~ + 2) + q (A.,.+ 2)]

n :::::aO
+ c,. rH~+ (:3 + v) kA., + 2 (1 + v) - q (A.,- 2)J} P,. (cos</>) = 0.
The LIWENDRE functions form a complete set of functions. Therefore,
the two series cannot Yanish identically in </> unless each coefficient
vanishes. Thus we obtain for every n a pair of homogeneous linear
equations for b, and c,:
b,. r.A.,. -f- 1 -f- V -f- qj -f- C,. [kA,. -f- 1 -f- V -f- qj = 0,
b,. rkA.i + (1 + v) (A,.+ 2) + q (A,.+ 2)J (8.79)
+c.. rH~+ (3 + v)kA. .. + 2(1 + v)- q(A .. - 2)J = o.
In general, these equations have the solution bn = c, = 0. Only when,
for a certain n, the determinant of the four bracketed coefficients
vanishes, a finite solution b,, c, is possible. Equations (8.78) then each
have one nonvanishing term, describing a buckling mode of the shell.
The corresponding critical value of q is found from the determinantal
equations. If k and q are again neglected compared with unity, this
equation has the following form:
 !1.3 SPHERICAL SHELL 505

It is satisfied for any load q, if A" = 0. Th.i;; is a degenerated case. It

leads ton= 1, and (8.79) yield b1 = -c 1 . Since Pdcos<f>) ~eo cos<f>, this
"buckling" mode is the rigid-body displacement
v = -c1 sin<f>,

This case must, of course, be excluded when we wish to investigate the

elastic instability of the shell.
If we now assume that An =P 0, we may solve (8.80) for q and find
1- v 2
q = ~ + k A + 2 +-An- .
[
11
• ( 1+ vf] (8.81)

For every integer n there i;; a certain A11 = n (n + 1) - 2 and a corre-

sponding buckling mode. The shell will buckle with that mode which
yields the lowest value q. To find it, we differentiate (8.81) with respect
to An and :-;et the derivative equal to zero. This yields
., 1- v:! ·)
},;, = -k--- + (1 + v)-. (8.82)

Strictly ;;peaking, this is not the true A11 of the buckling mode, unle:-;s
it corresponds accidentally to an integer n. But since A11 turns out to
be rather large, the requirement of an integer n is not of much impor-
tance, and we may simply introduce An from (8.82) into (8.81) to find a
good approximation for the lowest critical value of q, which then is

qmin = 2 k + 2 1k V1 - v2 + k (1 + V) 2 ""' 2j 'k (1 - v2 ) •

From the definition of q in (8.75) we find the critical pressure
2Et 2Et 2
(8.8:l)
Per= (1- v2)aqmin = V3(1- v2)a2 •

This pressure is proportional to the square of the wall thickness.

As may easily be seen from (8.83), a metal shell must be pretty thin
to buckle within the elastic range.
Having solved the axisymmetric problem, we can easily deal with
the general case. Because of the high symmetry of the sphere and of
the basic stress system the choice of the axis cf> = 0 of the coordinate
system is entirely arbitrary. vVe may pick one of the axisymmetric
modes and then choose a coordinate system whose axis does not coincide
with the axis of symmetry of the mode. With respect to the new coordi-
nate system all three displacement components u, v, w are different
from zero and are periodic functions of (}, which may be written as

w(<f>,(}) = w0 (</>) + Lw, 11 (</>)cosm(} + Liii (</>)sinm(},

111
 CHAP. 8: BUCKLING OF SHELLS

and similarly for u and v. They must be a solution of the differential

equations for the general case of unsymmetric buckling. The coefficients
.of these equations may and really do depend on cf> but certainly not
on 0. Therefore, when we introduce the Fou&IER series for u, v, w, we
find that every single term of these series is a solution for the same
·eigenvalue q. We see here that the buckling modes of the type
.w = w 111 (cp) cosm() do not yield new eigenvalues but again those covered
by (8.81). Hence, this equation gives the complete set of eigenvalues of
the problem.
The situation is, of course, less simple if the shell consists only of
a spherical cap, or if the load is less symmetrical, e. g. the weight of
a spherical dome. In such cases a complete treatment of the general
equations would be necessary.
 Appendix

FORCES AND DEFORl\'IATIONS

IN CIRCULAR RINGS

Shells of revolution are frequently connected with circular rings, to

which they transmit forces and moments. The theory of stresses and
,deformations of such rings is part of the theory of structures. While a.
few formulas are found almost everywhere, it is not easy to find the
complete set in books of this kind. Therefore they have been compiled
here.
In all formulas we assume that the ring is thin, i.e. that the di-
mensions of its cross section are small compared with the radius. The
axis of the ring is supposed to pass through the centroids of all cross
sections. One principal axis of these sections lies in the plane of the
ring.
Besides those explained in the figures, the following notations have
been used:
A = area of cross section,
1 1 = moment of inertia for the centroidal axis in the plane of
the ring,
I 2 = moment of inertia for the centroida.l axis normal to the
plane of the ring,
J T = torsional rigidity factor of the section.
Where moments and angular displacements have been represented
by arrows, the corkscrew rule applies for the interpretation.

1. Radial Load (Fig. A.l)

The load per unit length of the axis is assumed to be
p = Pn cosnO.
Stress resultants:
Pna2
N =- ~·a cos nO M 2 = - - 2- -1 cos nO.
n·- 1 ' n -
Displacements:
508 APPENDIX

These formulas are not valid for n = 0 and n = 1. For n = 0 (axisym-

metric load) they must be replaced by the well-known formulas
pa"
N=pa, V= 0, W=EA.

(a) (b) (c)

J<'i!(. A.!. Radial loud

]'or n = 1 the problem does not exist, since a load of this type is.
not self-equilibrating.

2. 'l'angt•ntial J,oau (Fig. A .2)

The load per unit length of the axis is assumed to be
p = p, sinnO.
Stress resultants:
np.a
N = -.-- O
cos n ,
p.a"
n·- 1 .il1 2 = n (n" _ 1) cos nO.

Fig. A.2. Tangential load

 CIRCULAR Rl~GS 509
Displacements :

Pna'
W=- n(n2-1)2E[2 cosn8.

For n = 0 and n = 1 this problem does not exiHt, because the ex-
ternal forces would not be in equilibrium.

3. Load Normal to the Plane of the Ring (Fig. A.3)

The load per unit length of the axis is assumed to be
p = Pn cosn8.
Stress resultants :
l,r p,. a2 LJ Pnft'1. •
~u 1 = -.--
1
n--
cos n u , 1rfr = - n ( n--
,, i) smn(J,

Displacements: deflection

U= (n;~:) 2 b/1~ + n 2 ~JJ cosn8,

rotation of the cross section in its plane

Pn a 3
tp=(n2-1)2
[ 1 , 1 1
F:"i~'GJr cosne.

Fig. A.3. Loau normal to the plane of the ring

For n = 0 and n = 1 this problem does not exist, since the loads
would not be self-equilibrating.

4. }~xtcrnal IUoments, Turning about the Ring Axis (Fig. AA)

The couple applied per unit length of the axis of the ring is assumed
to be
m= mn cosne.
510 APPENDIX

Stress resultants:
m.a cosn () , ~,r nm,.a . ()
J}f 1 = - - . - -
n·- 1 1r11' = - . - -1
n·-
sm n .

Displacements:

Fig. A.4. )Ioment load

The case n = 1 does not exist, since this special load would not be
in equilibrium. In the case n = 0 the formulas for the moments yield
correctly

i.e. we are dealing with pure bending. Also the formula for 1p is correct
and yields
ma 2
1jJ = E I~ '

but the displacement u, a rigid-body movement normal to the plane of

the ring, may assume any desired value.
In practical problems the loads are usually not applied at the ring
axis but at some other circular fiber. It is then necessary to replace them
by an equivalent set of loads of the kind used in the preceding formulas.
This substitution must be done with some care.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
In their monograph on the stability of circular cylindrical shells (see p. 515),
GRIGOLYUK and KABANOV present a graph of the number of papers that have
appeared per year, on this special subject. Somewhere near 1970, the extrapolated
curve appears to have a vertical asymptote. A similar graph might be drawn for
the entire shell literature. Although in no case will the number of papers ever reach
infinity, it has grown so tremendously that it would be a hopeless attempt to com-
pile a bibliography of even the more important works, the more so as each follow-
ing year is likely to bring another flood. On the other hand, many of the funda-
mental publications of the first decades of this century have appeared at places
which are no longer readily accessible and are fading from view. Therefore, this
Bibliography lists only a few of the older papers, which have been stepping stones
in the development of the theory, and some books and papers of the last decades,
which were considered particularly helpful for further study. No attempt at com-
pleteness has been made and no attempt at outlining the history of shell theory.
For the great mass of modern literature, including that which is still to appear in
future years, the reader is referred to Applied ~lechanics Reviews.

Fundamentals of Shell Theory, Text Books

The first major presentation of shell theory is that of A. E. H. LovE: .\Treatise
on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 4th ed., Cambridge 1927, chapters 2:3-24.
His set of general shell equations has served several generations of authors as the
starting point for their work. The first book devoted exclusively to shell theory
is W. FLUGGE: Statik und Dynamik der Schalen, 3rd ed., Berlin 1962. This book,
like the present one, does not derive general equations and then specialize them,
but considers different classes of shells and develops the basic equations for each
of them separately, but using the same fundamental principles. This has the advan-
tage of simplicity, but does not cover exotic shapes. In the same style the follow-
ing two books are written: S. TIMOSHENKO, S. WorNOWSKY-KRIEGER: Theory of
Plates and Shells, 2nd ed., New York 1959, pp. 429-568; K. GIR!OIANN: Fliichen-
tragwerke, 5th ed., Wien 1959, pp. 352-582. Both books contain other subjects
beside shell theory. GIRK.'r!ANN's book has been written for civil engineers and is
restricted to problems pertaining to this special field of application. The book by
H. KRAus: Thin Elastic Shells, New York 1967, derives general equations referred
to lines of principal curvature and then specializes to the exclusive treatment of
shells of revolution. Books containing general equations similar to those of LovE
have appeared in Russia: V. Z. VLASSOV: General Theory of Shells (in Russian),
Moscow 1949, German translation: Allgemeine Schalentheorie und ihre Anwendung
in der Technik, by A. KROMM, Berlin 1958; V. V. NovozHILOV: The Theory of Thin
Shells, English translation by P. G. LowE and J. R. M. RADOK, Groningen 1959;
A. L. GoL'DENYEIZER: Theory of Elastic Thin Shells, English translation by
G. HERRMANN, New York 1961. ~With the exception of GoL'DENVEIZER, all these
512 BIBLIOGRAPHY

authors use lines of principal curvature as coordinate lines. This impairs the use
of these equations for such simple problems as the paraboloid shells with rectangular
boundary. The use of absolutely general coordinates calls for the methods of tensor
analysis. Work of this kind is found in the book by A. E. GREEN, W. ZERNA:
Theoretical Elasticity, Oxford 1954, chapters 10-14; in papers by P. M. NAGHD!:
Foundations of elastic shell theory, Progress in Solid 11ech. -l (196:1), 1-90; A new
derivation of the equations of elastic shells, Intern. J. Eng. Sci. 1 (1963), 509-522;
and in the book by W. FLtjGGE: Tensor Analysis and Continuum 1Iechanics, Ber-
lin 1971, chapter 9.

Jiembrane Theory of Shells

In recent years not many publications on this subject have appeared. It seems
that the needs of the daily work are covered by the research of earlier decades and
that the fallacies of membrane solutions as explained at many places in this book
have detracted the attention from their basic usefulness in guiding the designer
toward those shell structures which support their load essentially with membrane
forces and, therefore, are stiffer and cheaper than others. It may suffice here to list
a few of the earlier papers, which represent essential steps toward the understand-
ing of the mechanics of membrane stress systems.
Already in the 19th century formulas for pressure vessels and water tanks were
known and widely ttsed. The membrane theory of shells of revolution under an-
symmetric loads begins with a paper by H. REISSNER: Spannungen in Kugelschalen
(Kuppeln), MuLU:R-BRESLAU .Festschrift, Leipzig 1912, pp. 181-19:3. The discussion
of the consequences of negative GAussian curvature was opened by \V. FLfGGE:
Zur 1Iembrantheorie der Drehschalen negativer Kriimmung, Z. angew. :Math. Mech.
~;;;~i (1947), 65-70. A critical presentation of the membrane theory of shells of
revolution was given by C. TRUESDELL: The membrane theory of shells of revo-
lution, Trans. Am. 1\Iath. Soc. ;)S (1945), 96-166. Cylindrical shells under general
load were first studied by D. Tuo~rA: Die Beanspruchung freitragender gefiillter
1-~ohrc durch das Gewicht der Fliissigkeit, Z. ges. Turbinenwesen 17 (1920), 49-52.
The usefulness of AIRY's stress function for the solution of membrane shell problems
was discovered by A. PUCHER: t.Jber den Spannungszustand in gekriimmten Fliichen,
Beton u. Eisen :J:l ( 19:34), 298-:304. Paraboloids of negative GAussian curvature, still
without the benefit of AIRY's stress function, were studied by B. LA~'FAILLE: .:\le-
moire sur !'etude generale des surfaces gauches minces, Intern. Assoc. Bridge
Struct. Engg., Pub!. :l (1935), 295-332; and F. ADIOND: Etude statique des voiles
minces en parabolo!de hyperbolique travaillant sans ftexion, Intern. Assoc. Bridge
~truct. Engg., Pub!. -l (19:l6), 1-112. The concept of the polygonal dome is due to
F. DrsCHINGER: Theorie der Vieleckskuppeln und der Zusammenhang m it den ein-
beschriebenen Rotationsschalen, Beton u. Eisen ~S (1929), 100-107, 119-122, 150
-156, 169-175. The solution for unsymmetric loads \vas given by W. FLUGGE:
Statik und Dynamik der Scha I en, 1st ed., Berlin 19:!4, pp. 85-91. The theory of
affine shells dates back to another paper by F. DISCHTNGER: Der Spannungszustand
in affinen Schalen und Raumfachwerken unter Anwendung des statischen l\Iassen-
ausgleichs, Bauing. lj (1936), 228-231, 260-267, 289-295. He finds the essential
facts without using AIRY's stress function.
The concept of the folded plate structure was introduced by H. CRAE:IIER: All-
gemeine Theorie der Faltwerke, Beton u. Eisen :!9 (1930), 276-281; and G. EnLERS:
Die Spannungsermittlung in Flachentragwerken, Beton u. Eisen :!9 (1930), 281-286,
291-296.
The theory of the inextensional deformation of curved surfaces may be foun
 BIBLIOGltAPHY 513
in every text on differential geometry. For shells of revolution, the harmonic cmn-
ponents of this deformation have been used as approximations to the vibration
modes, see Lord RAYLEIGH: Theory of Sound, vol. 1, 2nd ed., London 1894, p.
402; M. J. 0. STRUTT: Eigenschwingungen einer Kegelschale, Ann. Phys. V, 17
(19:33), 729-735. This use of the inextensional deformations is, of course, only
possible if the shell is so supported that these deformations can develop freely.
The membrane deformation of shells of arbitrary shape has been studied by
F. T. GEYLING in his Stanford thesis (seep. 518), see also W. FLUGGE, F. T. GEY·
LING: A general theory of deformations of membrane shells, Proc. 9th Intern.
Congr. Appl. 11ech., Bruxelles 1956, vol. 6, pp. 250-262 and Intern. Assoc. Bridge
Struct. Engg., Pub!. 17 (1957), 2:!-46. The basic equations have also been developed
by E. BoLCSKEI: DCformation des voiles minces, Acta Techn. Acad. Sci. Hungaricae
;; (1952), 489-506.

Bending 'l'hcory of Shells

The elastic law (5.9) and the differential equations (5.13) of the cylindrical shell
were derived in this form by W. FLUGGE: Die Stabilitat der Kreiszylinderschale,
Ing.-Arch. 3 (1932), 463-506. The underlying idea, namely the strict adherence to
KIRCHHOFF's hypothesis of the conservation of normals, has later been applied
by many authors to other shells, see also (6.5) of this book. It has also been used
as the basis of very general shell equations, see the papers by P . .M. NAGHD! and
the book by W. FLUGGE mentioned on p. 512.
Because of the bulkiness of these equations many efforts have been made at
obtaining a simpler set of shell equations. The most radical attempt of this kind,
underlying (5.12) and (5.18), has been made by L. H. DoNNELL: Stability of thin-
walled tubes under torsion, N ACA, Rep. 4 79 (193:3). Also this line of thought has
been applied to shells of various shapes. Since DoNNELL's equations are not con-
sistent and may, in certain cases, lead to serious errors, while (5.13) carry termR
which, in most cases, are insignificant, many authors have suggested intermediate
formulations. The discussion of this subject is still in progress.
The solution of the inhomogeneous cylinder problem (Section 5.2) was given by
H. ltEISSNER: Formiinderungen und Spannungen einer diinnwandigen, an den Riin-
dern frei aufliegenden Zylinderschale, Z. angew. l\Iath. Mech. 13 (1923), 1:33-1:!8;
and the principal ideas of Section 5.:3 have been taken from K. )l!ESEL: Dber die
Festigkeit von Kreiszylinderschalen mit nicht-achsensymmetrischer Belastung,
Ing-Arch.l (1930), 22-71. This paper also gives an approximate solution omitting
the weakly damped part. The opposite approximation, which drops the strongly
damped part of the solution, has been treated by E. GRUBER: Die Berechnung zy-
lindrischer, biegnngssteifer Schalen unter beliebigem Lastangriff. Intern. Assoc.
Bridge Struct. Engg., Pub!. 2 (1934), 196-204;·H. WAGNER, H. SmoN: Dber die
Krafteinleitung in diinnwandige Zylinderschalen, Luftf.-Forschg. 13 (1936), 293
-:~08. The boundary conditions of a plane plate have been formulated by G.
KIRCHHOFF: Vber das Gleichgewicht und die Bewegungen einer elastis0hen Scheibe,
.J. reine angew. Math. -!0 (1850), 51-88. For the corresponding shell problem see
A. B. BASSETT: On the extension and flexure of cylindrical and spherical thin elastic
shells, Phi!. Trans. ltoy. Soc. London A, 181 (1890), 433-480. The barrel vault
theory goes back to U. FrNSTERWALDER: Die querversteiften zylindrischen Scha-
lengewiilbe mit kreisfiirmigem Querschnitt, Ing.-Arch. 4 (1933), 43-65. The simpli-
fied barrel vault theory of Section 5.4.3 has been created by H. ScHORER: Line load
action in thin cylindrical shells, Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 61 (1935), 281-316. A
completely different approach has been made by H. LuNDGREN: Cylindrical Shells,
Fliigge, i'ltresses in Shell•. 2nd Eu.
514 BIBLIOGRAPHY

vol. 1, Cylindrical Roofs, Copenhagen 1951. Since the actual stresses in a barrel
vault differ so thoroughly from the membrane stresses, the author considers the
shell inclusive the edge members as a simple beam and calculates Oz from the
straight-line law. With the result he goes successively through all the shell equations
and obtains at last a correction to oz. The iteration cycle may be repeated as often
as needed.
The practical importance of the barrel vault problem has led to a number of
books devoted more or less exclusively to this special subject, often with extended
numerical tables. We mention the following: R. S. JENKINS: Theory and Design of
Cylindrical Shell Structures, Modern Building Techniques, Bull. 1, London 1947;
J. E. GtBSON, D. W. COOPER: The Design of Cylindrical Shell Roofs, New York
1954; R. RABICH: Randwerttabellen zur Berechnung von Kreiszylinderschalen,
Dresden 1954; and Manual No. 31 of the American Society of Civil Engineers:
Design of Cylindrical Shell Roofs, 2nd ed., New York 1952. The most valuable part
of this book, its numerical tables, has been reprinted in D. P. BILLINGTON: Thin
Shell Concrete Structures, New York 1965.
In the theory of shells of revolution under axisymmetric load, the decisive step
was the introduction of Q+ and X as unknowns by H. REISSNEB. in his paper in the
}ItiLLE:a-B:&ESLAU Festschrift, see p. 512. The idea has been much extended by
E. ::\IEISSNEB.: Das Elastizitii.tsproblem fiir diinne Schalen von Ringflii.chen-, Kugel-
und Kegelform, Phys. Z. U (1913), 343-349; Uber Elastizitii.t und Festigkeit diin-
ner Schalen, Vj.-Schr. Naturf. Ges. Ziirich t~O (1915), 23--47; Zur Elastizitii.t diin-
ner Schalen, Atti Congr. Intern. Mat., Bologna 1928, vol. 5, pp. 155-158. The idea
of asymptotic integration was introduced by 0. BLU:\IENTH.\L: Uber die asymptoti-
sche Integration von Differentialgleichungen mit Anwendung auf die Berechnung
von Spannungen in Kugelschalen, Z. Math. Phys. 62 (1914), 34:1-358. The highly
simplified (and very popular) solution given in Section 6.2.1.4 is due to J. W. GECKE-
LER: Uber die Festigkeit achsensymmetrischer Schalen, Forschg.-Arb. Ing.-
wes., vol. 276, Berlin 1926. In another paper: Zur Theorie der Elastizitii.t flacher
rotationssymmetrischer Schalen, lng.-Arch. 1 (1930), 255-270, the same author
gave the solution presented in Sections 6.2.1.5 and 6.2.1.6.
The mathematical difficulties of the bending theory of shells may be reduced
substantially by restricting the discussion to shells which are almost plane plates.
Earlier papers on such shallow shells were mainly concerned with a nonlinear buck-
ling phenomenon. A general theory of shallow shells was formulated by K. ::\[AR-
HUERRE: Zur Theorie der gekriimmten Platte groBer Formii.nderung, Proc. 5th
Intern. Congr. Appl. 1\'Ieeh., Cambridge, Mass. 1939, pp. 93-101. The theory ha11
been further developed and applied to many problems in various papers by E. REJSS-
NKR. The thermal stress singularities treated in Section 7.3 were first discussed in
a paper by W. FLUGGE, D. A. CoN:&AD: Thermal singularities for cylindrical shells,
Proc. :kd US Nat. Congr. Appl. 1\'Iech., Providence, R. I. 1958, pp. 321-328.
Shells of revolution under nonaxisymmetric edge"loads have been dealt with in
the following papers: A. HA YEB.S: Asymptotische Biegetheorie der unbelasteten
Kugelschale, Ing.-Arch. 6 (1935), 282-213; H. NoLr.Au: Der Spannungszustand der
biegungssteifen Kegelschale mit linear veriinderlicher Wandstiirke unter beliebigcr
Belastung, Z. angew. Math. Mech. 24 (1944), 10-34; W. H. WITTB.ICK: Edge stresses
in thin shells of revolution, Australian J. Appl. Sci. 8 (1957), 235-260; and in the
Stanford theses of F. A. LECKIE and C. R. STEELE (see p. 518).
In the last two decades the theory of plasticity has been applied to shells. The
state of the art, including references to many papers, has been presented in the book
by P. G. HoDGE: Limit Analysis of Rotationally Symmetric Plates and Shells,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J. 1963. A complete solution for shells of revolution under
axisymmetri<' load, based on T:&ESCA's yield condition, has been attempted in the
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 515
following papers: W. FLUGGE, T. NAKAMURA: Plastic analysis of shells of revolu-
tion under axisymmetric loads, Ing.-Arch. :l! (1965), 238-247; W. FLUGGE, J. C.
GERDEEN: Axisymmetric plastic collapse of shells of revolution according to the
NAKAMURA yield condition, Proc. 12th Intern. Congr. Appl. Mech., Stanford 1068,
pp. 209-220.

Buckling of Shells
The elastic stability of cylindrical shells under axial compression, external pres-
sure, and the combined action of both, has been studied by several authors begin-
ning 1911. The presentation in this book follows the paper by W. FLUGGE: Die Sta-
bilitat der Kreiszylinderschale, Ing.-Arch. 3 (1932), 463-506. The buckling under
shear load has been studied by E. ScHWERIN: Die Torsion des diinnwandigen Roh-
res, Z. angew. Math. l\'Iech. ;) (1925), 235-253; L. H. DONNELL: Stability of thin-
walled tubes under torsion, NACA, Rep. 479 (1933). The combination of shear
with axial and circumferential compression is the subject of the following papers
by A. KROMJ\I: Die Stabilitatsgrenze eines gekriimmten Plattenstreifens bei Be-
anspruchung durch Schub- und Langskrafte, Luftf.-Forschg. liJ ( 1938), 517-526;
Knickfestigkeit gekriimmter Plattenstreifen unter Schub- und Druckkraften, Jb.
deutsch. Luftf.-Forschg. 1940, vol. 1, pp. 8:32-840; Beulfestigkeit von versteiften
Zylinderschalen mit Schub und Innendruck, Jb. deutsch. Luftf.-Forschg. 1942, vol.
1, pp. 596-601; Die Stabilitatsgrenze der Kreiszylinderschale bei Beanspruchung
durch Schub- und Liingskriifte, Jb. deutsch. Luftf.-Forschg. 1942, vol. 1, pp. 60i
-616.
Nonuniform axial compression has been treated by W. FLUGUE: Ing.-Arch. 3
(see above). The cylinder shown in .I!'ig. 3.7, carrying a simulated dead load (with
a sine distribution in the x direction) has been studied in the Stanford thesis of
G. C.-:\I. CHIANG. Also a shell subjected to axisymmetric bending stresses may have
a genuine buckling problem, see the Stanford thesis of H. V. HAHNE.
Beam-column problems have been investigated by L. FoPl'L: .Achsensymmetri-
sches Ausknicken zylindrischer ~chalen, S.-Ber. Bayr. .Akad. Wiss. 1926, 27-40;
J. W. GECKELER: Plastisches Knicken der Wandung von Hohlzylindern und einige
andere Faltungserscheinungen an Schalen und Blechen, Z. angew. Math. l\Iech. S
(1928), 341-352. Both authors restricted the theory to axisymmetric deformation.
The linear theory of general imperfections was given by W. FLUGGE, Ing.-Arch. 3
(see above).
The nonlinear theory of cylinder buckling started with the papers by L. H.
DoNNELL: A new theory for the buckling of thin cylinders under axial compression
and bending, Trans . .Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. ;)6 (1934), 795-806; T.v. KAR)IAN,
H. S. TsrEN: The buckling of thin cylindrical shells under axial compression, J.
Aeron. Sci. 8 (1941), 303-312; H. S. TsrEN: A theory for the buckling of thin shells,
J. Aeron. Sci. 9 (1942), 373-384. In the last decades this problem (mostly restricted
to axial compression) has produced a voluminous literature and is likely to produce
more.
A comprehensive presentation of the field of cylinder buckling including the
experimental evidence may be found in the book by E. I. GRIGOLYUK, V. V. KA-
BANOV: Stability of Circular Cylindrical Shells (in Russian), Moscow 1969. This book
also contains an extensive bibliography.
Another nonlinear problem occurs when a long, thin-walled tube is subjected
to pure bending. The circular section assumes an oval shape and the bending moment
increases less than proportional to the deflection, reaches a maximum, and then
decreases. The maximum defines the collapse load of the shell. This problem was
33*
516 BIBLIOGRAPHY

studied first by L. G. BRAZIER: On the tiexure of thin cylindrical shells and other
thin sections, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, 116 (1927), 104-l14.
Rectangular cylindrical panels surrounded by stiffeners do not collapse as read-
ily as an EuLER column when the buckling load has been reached. As with flat
plates, there exists a problem of post-buckling behavior. The following papers may
be consulted about this nonlinear phenomenon: T. E. ScHUNCK: Der zylindrische
Schalenstreifen oberhalb der Beulgrenze, Ing.-Arch. 16 (1948), 403-432; D. A. M.
LEGGETT, R. P. N. JoNES: The behaviour of a cylindrical shell under axial com-
pression when the buckling load has been exceeded, Aeron. RtJ::s. Comm., Rep .
.i\Iem. 2190 (1942); H. L. LANGHAAR, A. P. BoRESI: Buckling and post-buckling
behavior of a cylindrical shell subjected to external pressure, Univ. of Illinois,
1956; H. F. l\IrcHIELSEN: The behavior of thin cylindrical shells after buckling
under axial compression, J. Aeron. Sci. 1;) (1948), 738-744; J. KEMPNER: Post-
buckling behavior of axially compressed circular cylindrical shells, J. Aeron. Sci.
21 (1954), 329-:J35.
The stability of the spherical shell under external pressure has been studied by
R. ZoELLY: tlber ein Knickungsproblem an der Kugelschale. Diss. Ziirich 1!H;3;
E. ScHWERIN: Zur Stabilitat der diinnwandigen Hohlkugel unter gleichmaBigtJm
AuBendruck, Z. angew. :Math. :Mech. 2 (1922), 81-91. Both authors consider only
axisymmetric deformations. The complete solution of the problem was given by
A. v. D. N~]UT: The elastic stability of the thin-walled sphere (in Dutch), Diss. Delft
19:!2.
A shallow spherical cap with load acting on its convex side presents a nonlinear
,;tability problem - the snap-through problem. Among the earlier papers on the
subject are the following: C. B. BIEZENO: O"ber die Bestimmung der Durchschlags-
kraft einer schwach gekriimmten kreisfOrmigen Platte, Z. 11ngew. :\lath. lHech. l;)
(19:35), 10-22; T.v. K..\&:vrA.N, H. S. TsiEN: The buckling of spherical shells by ex-
ternal pressure, ,J. Aeron. Sci. i (19:!9), 4:!-;30; E. L. ltEISS, H. J. GREENB~:Ru,
H. B. KELr.~:R: Nonlinear deflections of shallow spherical shells, ,J. Aeron. Sci. :!-1
(1957), 53:3-54:1.
The stability of a hyperbolic p•uaboloid (Fig. 4.7) under its own weight ha,;
been studied by A. R.H,STON: On the problem of buckling of a hyperbolic p•traboloi-
dal shell loaded by its own weight, ,J. )[ath. Phys. :3;) (19511), 5:!-59.

Stanfortl Tht•st•s on Sht•ll 'l'ht•ory

The following list contains the Ph. D. theses and a few Engineer's theses whieh
have been written under the author's direction at Stanford University. Extracts
of some of them have appeared in print and hnve be:}n listed on the preceding pages.
A few are still available as research reports, and microfilms of all of them are avail-
able through the usual channels.
The theses have been grouped by subjects and, in each group, are arranged
chronologictlly. The year given is that of the degree award; some of the theses
have been accepted in the second half of the preceding year.
1. Singular Solutions ot Shell Problems
D. A. CONRAD (1957): Singular solutions in the theory of shallow shells (Ther-
mal and force singularities, sphere, cylinder, hyperbolic paraboloid)
K. J. FoR3BER':l (1961): Concentrated load on a shallow elliptic paraboloid
(First solution for a shell of a rather general shape)
W. R. BLYTHE (1962): Singular solutions in the theory of conical shells (Shallow
cone, axisymmetric case of the steep cone)
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 51i
J. W. YouNG (196:3): Singular solutions for nonshallow dome shells (CompletE.'
study of the stress singularities possible at the apex of a shell of revolution, proce-
dure for patching a shallow-shell solution valid at the apex and an asymptotic solu-
tion valid in the steeper part of the shell)
R. 0. FoscHI (1966): Singular solutions in the theory of orthotropic plates (Cir-
cular plates with an elastic anisotropy following the directions of a cartesian co-
ordinate system, research undertaken to clarify the mathematical methods to be
used in the two following theses)
R. E. ELLING (1967): Singular solutions for shallow shells (Concentrated forces
and hotspots in shallow paraboloids of positive or negative GAussian curvature).
R. DORE ( 1969): Singular solutions for shallow shells (Paraboloids and cylinders,
force singularities of the cylinder which are missing in CoNRAD's work)
2. Thermal Stt·esses
D. A. CoNRAD: see above
R. A. ErsENTRAUT (1958): Thermal stresses in cylindrical shells (Regular and
singular solutions for partially heated cylinders, boundary value problem for a cylin·
der with a hotspot, solutions for temperature distribution resulting from heat flow)
G. E. STRICKLAND (1960): Temperature stresses in shells caused by local heat.
ing (Differential equations of thermal stress in tensor form, including heat conduc-
tion, solution for shells of constant GAussian curvature: cylinder, cone, sphere)
3. Paraboloids
~I. H. KASHANI-SAl!ET (1962): Membrane and bending theory of multi-span
elliptic paraboloid shells (Structures consisting of two or more paraboloid shell><
connected by arch ribs)
~I. M. KATLA (Engineer's thesis, 1964): Membrane forces in structures consist-
ing of elliptic and hyperbolic shells (Structure consisting of three shells, alter-
natingly of positive and negative GAussian curvature, study of the admissible
boundary conditions in a case where the field equations are elliptic in some domains
and hyperbolic in others)
R. VYAS (1966): Cut-outs in membrane shells (~Iembrane theory of the paraboloid
of .Fig. 4.5 with a rectangular opening at the top, study of the stress singularity
at the re-entrant corners)
E. I. FmLD (1967): Membrane and bending theory of single and multi-span
hyperbolic paraboloid shells (Shells as in Fig. 4.10, comparison of membrane and
bending solutions, system of two shells with a connecting arch rib)
4. Cross Vaults
E. G. DUARTE (Engineer's thesis, 1958): Membrane analysis of cross vaults
(Tries to establish a theory similar to that of polygonal domes, shows the basie
differences between these two types of composite shell stn1etures, singularities
calling for further study)
0. Gii"REL (1961): Membrane analysis of cross vaults (Shows that slightly
modified versions of DuARTE's cross vault have an acceptable membrane solution)
}f. Toossr (1966): Bending analysis of cross vault shells (Establishes the compli-
cated boundary conditions for the transition from one vault segment to the next,
solution for a shell with a central opening)
5. Shells of Revolution
R. E. PAULSEN (1953): Shells of negative curvature (Approximates shells of
revolution of negative GAussian curvature by a sequence of cones, considers non-
symmetric load, membrane and bending effects)
518 BIBLlOURAPHY

F. A. LEcKn; (W58): Bending theory for shells of revolution subjected to non-

symmetric edge loads (Splits the 8th-order problem, derives one differential equa-
tion for the oscillatory solutions and another one for the smooth solutions. Each
equation is of the 4th order and can be used for digital computation)
0. C. DAVTDSON (1960): Nonsymmetric edge loads on a thin shell of negative
curvature (Compares membrane and bending solutions for a one-sheet hyperboloid,
explores the meaning of discontinuous membrane solutions)
C. R. STEELE (1960): Toroidal shells with nonsymmetrio loading (Bending solu-
tion describing the localized bending stresses at the top circle, far away from edge
disturbances)
R. F. HARTU)!G (1965): The deformation of orthotropic shells of revolution
under nonsymmetrio edge loads (Principal rlirections of anisotropy along meri-
dians and latitude circles, separate treatment of shallow and steep shells)
ll. Various Pt•oblems
F. T. GEYLING (W54): A general theory of deformations of membrane shells
(Establishes the differential equation (4.45) and its boundary conditions, applies
it to several examples)
E. B. PAXSON (1963): Boundary value problems in the theory of shallow cylin-
drical shells (Cylindrical shell with a circular hole)
:\I. B. :\lARLOWE (1968): Some new developments in the foundations of shell
theory (Tensor formulation of the basic equations of shell theory)
T. FuKUSHIM:A (1969): Analysis of corrugated dome shells (Shallow shells of
the form z = r"cosmO, singnlaritics at the apex being very different for m > tl an<l
n> m)

; • Cossera't Theory
ll.. J. R VrNET (Engineer's thesis, 1969): Study of beam gridworks (ApplieH
the couple stress concept to plates actually consisting of a grid work of many beams)
R. J. WrLEY (1970): Plane grid works and the CosSERA'r continuum (Applies
the couple stress concept to gridworks loaclcd in their own plane, similarity with
membrane forces in shells)

s. Very 'l'hin Shells

P. :u. RIPLOG (1!)57): A large-deformation theory of shell membranes (Shells
of revolution under various loads, internal pressure, axial pull, centrifugal force)
B. R. BAKER (1960): A large-deformation bending theory for thin cylindrical
shells (For a thin cylinder loaded as in Fig. 5.28 b, a large-deformation pattern is
possible in which part of the shell is deformed into a plane flange, connected by a
narrow transition zone to the almost undeformed remainder of the shell)
S. C. CHOU (1964): Large deformations of thin elastic toroidal shells (Develops
differential equations and studies the boundary value problem of the toroid shell
under internal pressure. Either the shape of the unloaded shell is known and pressure
applied, or the shape of the inflated shell is presC'rihPrl. In the latter case, upon de-
flation, part of the shell develops wrinkles)
W. C.-L. Hu (1964): A linearized membrane theory for prestressed shells of
revolution (The shell is prestressed by a high internal pressure. Small additional
loads are applied and the equations are linearized in the additional small stresses)
C. L. YEN (1966): A study of inflated thin shells (Continuation of Hu's work in
two directions: unsymmetric additional load, membrane theory, and concentrated
force, influence of the bending stiffness)
J. R. CoLBOURNE (1966): The membrane theory of the toroidal shell - a singular
perturbation problem (For the toroid under internal pressure the linear membrane
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 51H
solution has a singularity at the top circle while the solution of the nonlinear large-
deflection theory has none. The thesis dis10usses the transition)
9. Buckling or Shells
H. V. HAH:l'E ( 1955): A stability problem of a cylindrical shell subject to direct
and bending stresses (When the cylinder has axisymmetric bending stresses caused
by an end disturbance, it still may have a buckling problem with a nonsymmetri()
mode)
L. H. SoBEL (1965): Stability of shells of revolution, general theory and appli-
cation to the torus (Buckling of a toroid shell under external pressure, FouRIER
series expansion of the buckling mode in the cp direction)
G. C.-YL CHIANG (1967): The stability of barrel vault shells (Circular cylinder
carrying a vertical, distributed load varying like sin nx/l in span wise direction, dis-
cussion of the unusual, infinite, buckling determinant)
10. Plasticity
T. NAKA:\IURA (1962): Plastic analysis of shells of revolution under axisymme-
tric loads (Uses the TRESCA yield condition and derives from it a rather simple
yield surface in the four-dimensional stress space of the shell problem. Solution for
conical shell with edge load)
J. C. GERDEEN ( 196ti): Shell plasticity, piecewise smooth trajectories on the
~.\KD!URA yield surface (Shells of revolution of arbitrary shape, machine program
which integrates numerically along the meridian and makes all the necessary deci-
swnH for the transition from one face of the .N".IKU!CR.\ yield surface to another
one)
 INDEX
A sphere 505
Adjacent equilibrium 4:33, 499 Buckling, cylinder
Affine shells 179 axial compression 452
Almost cylindrical shell 490 external pressure 459
Almost plane circular plate :353 internal pressure 461
Almost spherical shell 370 nonuniform axial compression 4 78
Anisotropic shell 286, 295 shear 46:3
Arch 106 two-way compression 449
Asymptotic series 294 Buckling determinant 475
Asymptotic solution 334, 341, 388 Buckling diagram 451, 4ii:l, 4M, 457,
Auxiliary variable 66 460,47U
Axial r.ompression of a cylinder 452 Buckling load 436
see also Buckling, cylinder
n Buckling, sphere
Barrel vault Buckling mode 4:!6, 48:!
bending theory 244, 265 Buckling, sphere 500
membrane theory 118
simplified bending theory 251 c
Basic displacement, load, stress 4:l:l Cantilever shell 107
Beam analogue 119 CAUCHY-RlEMANN equations 54
Beam-column problem 484, 492 Centrifugal force :ltlO
bei Change of curvature 211, :lli2
see THO)ISON functions Characteristics 72
Bellshaped shell 78 Circular cylinder
Bending collapse 489 bending theory 204
BP-nding moment 6 membrane deformation 125
Bending rigidity 210,297,301, :!07, 310 membrane forces 110, 114, 118
Bending stiffness statically indeterminate shell127
see Bending rigidity Circular pipe 124
Bending theory 204 Circular plate 354, 358
ber Circular ring 507
see THO)ISON functions Coefficients for stress resultants
BESSEL equation 291, :351, 377 cone 408
BESSEL function 291, 351, :378 cylinder 228, 242, 248, 252, 257
Boiler end sphere :1:18
ellipsoid 28 Colatitude 20
hemisphere :346 Collapse 434, 490
spherical cap 349 Columns, shell on- 49, 59, 70, 184, 231
Boundary conditions Combination of
cylinder 107, 227, 449, 467 cylinder and cone 37, 380
hyperbolic paraboloid 175 cylinder and ellipsoid 35, 184
Buckling condition cylinder and sphere 37, 346, 349
cylinder 450, 472 sphere and cone 64
 l~DEX 521
sphere and hyperboloid 78 Deflection of a pipe 124
Compatibility 161 Deformation
Complex stress function 422 cylindrical shell 121, 206
Complex variable 54 folded plate structure 311
Compression test 485, 500 shallow shell 418
Concentrated couple 48, 56, 63 shell of arbitrary shape 197
Concentrated force shell of revolution 79, 319
cone 37,63 Deformity, shell with- :no
shell of revolution 25 Deviation from exact shape 490
sphere 48, 53, 55, 356 Diaphragm 107, 124, 149, 162, 264
Conditions of equilibrium Differential equation(s)
see Equilibrium conditions arbitrary shell 160
Conical roof 36 barrel vault 246
Conical shell buckling of cylinder 448, 498
bending theory 377, 38:3, 402 buckling of sphere 503
membrane theory 35, 61 conical shell :35, 61, 377, 405
Conical tank bottom :37, 380 cylindrical shell 105, 215, 217, 223,
Convex shell 86 2:37
Cooling tower 231 cylindrical tank 271, 2\clll
Corrugated pipe 2 elliptic equation Hi!
Critical load hyperbolic equation 161
<~ee Buckling, cylinder membmne deformation 84, 91, 123,
Buckling load 201
Buckling, sphere paraboli<' equation 161
Cross-grain modulus 2\J!i shallow paraboloid 42:1
Curvature shallow shell 421
see Change of curvature shell of revolution 22, 24, 41, 31i:3
Radius of curvature shell with ribs 310
Cut-out (hole) 355 sphere :127, :328, 342, :151, :387
Cycling loading 44:1 tank of variable wall thickness 290
Cylinder thin shell of revolution :169
anisotropic 295 water tank 271, 290
bending theory 204 Discontinuity stresses
on columns 232 boiler end 346
membrane theory 103 hemisphere 345
with ring load 278, 282 Discrepancy of deformations 27, 3:1,
with rings 284 121, 178
skew vault 196 Dished plate :153
stability 439 Displacement
variable thickness 289 buckling 440
Cylindrical tank with cylinder 122, 206
clamped base 27:3 at edge 253
elastic roof 274 folded plate structure 312
elliptic bottom 184 shallow shell 418
elliptic croHs section 112 shell of revolution 82, :320
horizontal axis 112 Disturbed equilibrium 43:3
inclined axis 114 Dome on columns 49, 70, 2:H
stiffening ring 288 Dome of constant strength 38
vertical axis 269 Dot
see Dash
D Double FoURJER series 222
Damped oscillations 294, 842, 393 Double-step formulas 24S
Dash-and-dot notation 82, 204,317,403 Double-walled shell 298
 INDEX

E Flexurnl rigidity
Eccentricity 214, 425 Bee Bending rigidity
Edge disturbance Folded plate structure 147, 311
cylinder 240, 274, 294, 488 Foot ring
shell of revolution 70, 342 elliptic dome 191
Edge load polygonal dome 133
cylinder 116, 222, 236, 279 spherical dome 27, 51
hyperbolic paraboloid 174 FouRrER series
hyperboloid of revolution 75 buckling 438, 466, 479, 491
shallow paraboloid 425 cylinder 115, 125, 222, 236
shell of revolution 46 double 222
sphere 332 folded plate structure 153, 311
Edge member shallow paraboloid 426
barrel vault 118 shell of revolution 42, 84
hyperboloid 169 sphere 388, 400
Edge shear 51, 151, 167, 174, 186 FOURIER sum 140
Effective shear force 230
Effective transverse force 2:30 G
Effective width 287 GAussian curvature 71
Eigenvalue problem 434 Generator
Elastic law cylinder 103
anisotropic shell 295 hyperbolic paraboloid 168, 17:3
cylinder 210, 212, 21:J hyperboloid of revolution 73
large deformation 497 Gridwork :302
shell of revolution 81, :J22, :J25, :361
sphere 326, 387 H
Elastic modulus 81, 2911 Half ellipsoid 184
Ellipsoid of revolution 28, :J4, 183, 184 Half-filled pipe 258
Ellipsoid, triaxial 191 Hemispherical boiler end 346
Ellipsoidal shell 194 Hemispherical dome 49, 370, 376
Elliptic cylinder 112, 120 Hemispherical shell lOO
Elliptic differential equation 161 Hexagonal dome 146
Elliptic dome 191 Hip 130
Elliptic foot ring 191 HooKE's law 122, 209
Elliptic paraboloid 164, 202 anisotropic 296
Elliptic parallels 189 with temperature terms 81
End disturbance 488 Hoop force 21, 105, 133
Energy method 433, 43!i Hoop strain 80, 122
Equilibrium conditions Hotspot
arbitrary shell 1:j9 bending 4:31
cylinder 104, 205, 444 plane 429
shallow shell 416 Hydrostatic pressure 360
shell of revolution 20, 317, 324 Hyperbolic differential equation 161
sphere 326, 502 Hyperbolic paraboloid 168, 171
Eur,ER column 435, 4:37 Hyperboloid of revolution 71
Extensional deformation 91 Hypergeometric series 329
Extensional rigidity 81, 210, 297, 301,
307,:310 I
External pressure 459 Imperfect cylinder 490
Imperfect sphere 370
F Improved membrane solution 236
Festoon curve 4ii3, 457, 460,476 Inclined cylinder 114
Fiber force 74 Incompatible deformation 33
 INDEX 523
lnextensional deformation gridwork shell 302
cylinder 126 homogeneous shell 2
shell of revolution 84, 102 :\louR's circle 12
sphere 85, 392 Multipole 49
Infinite determinant472, 474, 477,481 ~Iushroom-shaped roof 36, 62
Internal pressure
buckling of cylinder 461 N
ellipsoid 192 Negative curvature 71, 168
elliptic cylinder 112 Neutral equilibrium 433,436
sphere 359 Nodal line 452,464
spherical boiler end 346 Nonconvex shell 86
toroid 31 Nonlinear theory of buckling 494
lNTZE tank 37 Nonregular polygonal dome 147
Isolated boundary 240, 247, 251 Nonuniform axial compression 478
Iterated coefficients 24!:1 Normal force 3
Normal point load 57
,J Numerical integration 69
.Juncture of two shells :346
0
1(
Oblique coordinates 14
Octagonal dome 146
KELVIN functions
see THOMSON functions Octagonal tube 154
Ogival dome
Kinematic relations
deformation 93
cylindrical shell 122, 209
membrane forces 29
nonlinear 495
One-sheet hyperboloid 71
shallow shell 419
Oscillatory solutions 393
shell of arbitrary shape 198
shell of revolution 83, 321 p
KmciiHOFF's force 230
Parabolic cylinder 427
Parabolic differential equation 161
[,
Paraboloid of revolution 67, 8!:!, 161
Lantern ring 27, 130 Paraboloid shell 423
LAPLACE operator 217, 421 Particular solution
Large deformation 494 cylindrical shell 218
Latitude circle 19 shell of revolution 359
LgnENDRE functions 504 Phase angle 280, 343
Line load 255, 256, 282, 2f!fi Piano hinge 311
Long cylinder 4 73 Pipe 127
Loss of solutions 42:!, 42!:! half-filled 258
octagonal 154
Jl Plate action 416
~Iatrix 277 Plate strip, buckling of- 455, 476
~!AXWELL's theorem 99, :382 Plywood shell 295
~Iembrane force 8 Point load
~Iembrane theory 8 Bee Concentrated couple
comparison with bending theory Concentrated force
392,425 Point moment
~IERCATOR's projection 54 see Concentrated couple
)leridian 19 Pointed shell 29, 68
)feridional force 21 PmssoN's ratio 81
)!Iiddle surface Polygonal dome 129, 195
.anisotropic shell 299 Polygonal shell 163
524 INDEX
Potential energy 436 Shear force 4
Pressure vessel28, 112, 183, 190, 192, Shear load 256
:346, 349 Shear modulus 81
Prime-and-dot notation 82, 204, 317, Shear rigidity 297
403 Shear strain 81
Principal directions 11 Shell, definition 2
Principal forces 11 Shell operator 160, 421
Principal side 173 Shell of revolution 181
Principle of virtual displacements 436 Shell with ribs 308
Prismatic barrel vault 155 Short cylinder 475
Sign convention, MoHR's circle 13.
R Simplified barrel vault theory 251
Radial line load Simply supported edge 227
on barrel vault 255 Singular solutions
on finite cylinder 286 corre 37
on infinite cylinder 282 elliptic paraboloid 166
Radius of curvature 20 pointed shell 69
of ellipsoid 28 polygonal dome 146
Reciprocity of deformations 99, 382 thermal singularities 427
Reference vectors 44:1 toroid 31, 95
Regular load 130 see also Concentrated couple
Regular polygonal dome 130 Concentrated force
Reinforcing ring 284, 288 Hots pot
Relaxation method 167 Sixth condition of equilibrium 21:1, 324,.
Rib 299 416
Ridge beam 139, 170 Skew fiber force 14, 15, 74, 158
Rigid testing machine 500 Skew shearing force 1(;
Rigid-body displacement 85, 487, 505 Skew vault 196
Rigidity Slightly dished circular plate :lii:3
sfe Bending rigidity Sludge digestion tank 380
Extensional rigidity Sphere
Rigidity moment :301, 307, :Ho axisymmetric stresses 26, 326
Ring 106, 302, 507 buckling 500
see also Foot ring deformation 85
Lantern ring dome 26, 49
Stiffening ring edge load 49, 3:32, 344
Ring of radial forces 278, 282, 286 gas tank 59
Rounded apex 64 tank bottom :33, 340
thermal stresses :344
s unsymmetric stress system 4:3, :186·
Secondary side 1n water tank 31, 344
Secondary stresses 214 Spherical :!:one 332
Self-equilibrating edge load 49 Splitting condition 368, 384
Semi-infinite cylinder 226, 279 Splitting of a differential equation
Shallow cylinder 427 circular cylinder 291
Shallow paraboloid 422 shallow cylinder 428
Shallow shell 414 shallow paraboloid 42:3
Shallow sphere 353 shell of revolution :366, 368
Sharp edge 349 sphere 329, 393
Shear and axial compression 466 Square dome 146
Shear buckling 46:3 Stable equilibrium 433
Shear deformation in a cylinder 129 Statically indeterminate shell
Shear edge 175 cylinder 127, 274
 IXDEX 525
folded plate structure :H 1 Thermal expansion 81
pressure vessel 347 Thermal stress 344, 427
shell of revolution 100 see also Hotspot
water tank 274 Thick shell 220, 3:33, 354
Stiffening ring 284, 288 Thin shell :321, 334, 354, 369
Strain THoMso~ functions 292, 351, 356, :ns,
cylinder 122, 208 429
general shell 198 Toroidal shell :30, 94
shallow shell 419 Torsion of a cylinder 463
shell of revolution 80, :H9 Trajectories 11, 45, 52
Strain energy 95, 437 Transfer of edge loads 176
Stress discontinuity Transfer matrix 277
hyperbolic paraboloid 178 Transverse (shear) force 4
hyperboloid of revolution 75 Triangular shell 161
Stress function Tubular folded structure 154
AIRY'S 160,417 Twist 211
complex 422 Twisting moment 6, :J06
cylinder buckling 497 Twisting rigidity 297, :307, :310
Stress resultant 1, 2, 7, 209 Two-way compression 449
Stress singularities
see Singular solutions u
::;tress trajectories Unit vector 443
see Trajectories Unstable equilibrium 434, 4:36
Stringer 299, :302, :308
Supporting ring :3:3
Surface of translation 166 V
Variable thickness
·r cone 38:3
cylinder 289
Tangential line load 256
Tangential point load 48, 55 shell of revolution 366, :n.t
Variation of potential energy 4:36
Tank
cylindrical 27:3 Vault action 416
on point supports 59 Vaulted hip roof 1:m
spherical 32, 59 Virtual displacements 4:36
of variable thickness 289
Tank bottom w
conical :37, :380 Water tank 31, 184, 269, 21:1, 21'\l
elliptic 35, 184 Weight loading 41!9
spherical :3:3, 37, 340 Wind load 44
7~1/0/71