TELT 2301 Electrical Engineering AU

Chapter 2: Semiconductor diodes and their applications

2.1 Semiconductor Diodes

2.1.1 Regeneration and Recombination of Electron-Hole pair

Free electrons and holes are generated by thermal energy, which causes covalent bonds to break at
a rate depending strongly on temperature. The higher the temperature, the higher will be the rate of
regeneration. On the other hand, for every 'liberated' electron a 'hole' remains in valence band. The
atom with the 'hole' now has bonding 'deficiency' that demands filling. Please note that, for the
deficient silicon atom, a net positive charge has resulted. Also note that in a pure semiconductor, that
is an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of liberated electrons equals the number of holes. The
liberated electrons to the conduction band give up energy and drop into a hole in the valence band.
This does not contribute to the current; rather it is cancellation of charge carriers. And we say that
recombination has occurred.

Thus, in semiconductors, the process of recombination and generation of electron-hole pairs

establishes equilibrium at a particular temperature. Therefore at any particular temperature
there will exist a certain number of electron-hole pairs that will govern the conductivity and
the resistance of the material. Increasing the temperature of silicon will increase its
conductivity and thus decrease its resistance. Thus semiconductors have a Negative
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance.

2.1.2 PN - Junction Theory

We have just seen that a crystal of pure silicon can be turned into a relatively good electrical
conductor by adding an impurity such as arsenic or phosphorus (for an n-type semiconductor)
or aluminium or gallium (for a p-type semiconductor).
By itself, a single type of semiconductor material is not very useful. But, something
interesting happens when a single semiconductor crystal contains both p-type and n-type
regions. Hereafter, we examine the properties of a single silicon crystal which is half n-type
and half p-type. Consider the silicon crystal represented in Fig.2.1.below.

Fig.2.1. Silicon Crystal Representation

Half is n-type while the other half is p-type. The two types are shown slightly separated, as if
they were two separate crystals. In the real world, two such crystals cannot be joined together
usefully. Therefore, a practical pn junction can only be created by inserting different
impurities into different parts of a single crystal.

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When we join the n- and p-type crystals together, an interesting interaction occurs at the
junction. The extra electrons in the n region will seek to lose energy by filling the holes in the
p region. This leaves an empty zone, or depletion region, around the junction.
This action also leaves a small electrical imbalance inside the crystal. The n region is missing
some electrons so it has a positive charge. Those electrons have migrated to fill holes in the p
region, which therefore has a negative charge. This electrical imbalance amounts to about 0.3
volt in a germanium crystal, and about 0.65 to 0.7 volt in a silicon crystal. This will vary
somewhat depending on the concentration of the impurities on either side of the junction.

Suppose now we apply a voltage to the outside ends of our pn crystal.

Assume first that the positive voltage is applied to the n-type material. In such case, the
positive voltage applied to the n-type material attracts free electrons towards the end of the
crystal and away from the junction, while the negative voltage applied to the p-type end
attracts holes away from the junction on this end.

The result is that all available current carriers are attracted away from the junction, and the
depletion region grows correspondingly larger. Therefore, there is no current flow through
the crystal because no current carriers can cross the junction (in practice, some tiny leakage
current can still flow). This is known as reverse bias applied to the semiconductor crystal.
Assume now that the applied voltage polarities are reversed. The negative voltage applied to
the n-type end pushes electrons towards the junction, while the positive voltage at the p-type
end pushes holes towards the junction. This has the effect of shrinking the depletion region.
As the applied voltage exceeds the internal electrical imbalance, current carriers of both types
can cross the junction into the opposite ends of the crystal. Now, electrons in the p-type end
are attracted to the positive applied voltage, while holes in the n-type end are attracted to the
negative applied voltage. This is the condition of forward bias.
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The conclusion is that an electrical current can flow through the junction in the forward
direction, but not in the reverse direction. This is the basic property of a semiconductor diode.
It is important to realize that holes exist only within the crystal. A hole reaching the negative
terminal of the crystal is filled by an electron from the power source and simply disappears.
At the positive terminal, the power supply attracts an electron out of the crystal, leaving a
hole behind to move through the crystal toward the junction again.

2.2 Characteristics of diodes

A semiconductor diode is simply a pn junction that has two terminals: the anode and the
cathode. The circuit symbol for a diode is shown in figure 2.1a and the diode volt-ampere
characteristic is displayed in figure 2.1b. As shown in figure 2.1a, the voltage v D across the
diode is referenced as positive from anode to cathode. Similarly, the diode current iD is
referenced as positive from anode to cathode.
Notice in the characteristics that if the voltage v D across the diode is positive, relatively large
amounts of current flow for small voltages. This condition is called forward bias. Thus,
current flows easily through the diode in the direction of the arrowhead of the circuit symbol.
On the other hand for moderately negative values of v D , the current iD is very small. This is
called the reverse-bias region, as shown on the diode characteristics. If a sufficiently large
reverse-bias voltage is applied to the diode, its operation enters the reverse-breakdown region
of the characteristic, and currents of large magnitude flow. Provided that the power dissipated
in the diode does not raise its temperature too high, reverse-breakdown operation is not
destructive to the device. In fact, we will see that diodes are often deliberately operated in the
reverse-breakdown region.

Figure 2.1 Semiconductor diode

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The I-V characteristic is an exponential function given by:

 ηqvKTD  2.1

id = I ss e − 1
 
 
Where:

I SS : Saturation current of the diode

(
q : Electron charge 1.602 × 10 -19 C )
T : Temperature in degrees Kelvin;
K : Boltzmann's constant (= 1.38 x10 − 23 J / K );
VT : Thermal voltage (= 26 mV at room temperature).
KT T
VT = = = 26mV at room temperature of 300 K
q 11,600
η − material scale factor; η is close to 1 for germanium, and in silicon varies over the range
1 < η < 2 at rated current for the diode - emission coefficient (a function of VD )

Diode approximation

The above diode equation is a bit complicated and difficult to use for circuit analysis.
Electronic engineers deal with this problem by simplifying things and using a model of the
diode that suits them.
The Ideal Diode

In figure 2.1b, the forward current is approximated to zero until the diode voltage reaches the
barrier potential. Somewhere in the vicinity of 0.6 to 0.7V, the diode current increases. When
the diode voltage is greater than 0.8V, the diode voltage is significant and the graph is almost
linear.
Since most of the time we do not need exact solution, we use approximation for diode. And
the simplest of this approximation is the ideal diode, in which it conducts in the forward
direction (zero resistance = conductor) and not in the reverse direction (infinite resistance =
insulator).
This is analogous with an ordinary switch which has zero resistance when it is closed and
infinite resistance when it is open.
b) Ideal diode a) Second approximation

Figure 2.2 Diode approximation curve

Second Approximation

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In figure 2.2b (second approximation), it approximates the diode as if there is no current until
the barrier potential, 0.7V. At this point, the diode turns on and after this point, there will
only be 0.7V what ever the current is.
In this popular model, we assume that the current is zero for any voltage below Vd but rises
when we try to apply a voltage greater than this. In effect, the diode is viewed as a switch
which is open when we apply low or negative voltages but which closes when we apply a
voltage equal to or greater than Vd. It means that it is impossible to get a voltage larger than
this across the diode.

Third Approximation

In this third approximation the diode is approximated as a switch in series with barrier
potential of 0.7V and bulk resistance RB . During conduction the total voltage across the diode
is: VD = 0.7V + I D RB

Figure 2.3 Third Approximation

After silicon diode turns on, the voltage increases linearly with an increase in current. The greater
the current, the larger the diode voltage because of the voltage drop across the bulk resistance.

Diode Resistance and Capacitor

A diode may be forward- biased to some dc operating point on the characteristic curve for the
device. When a diode is forward biased to a particular operating point called quiescent point
V
(Q), then the effective dc resistance of the diode, RQ, is simply: RQ = DQ . The value
I DQ
of RQ will vary depending upon where the Q-point is located on the diode characteristic
curve, since the relation between I DC and VDC essentially linear. If the applied bias varies
with time, such as when a sinusoidal bias voltage is superimposed upon the operating point,
then a dynamic resistance of the device may be defined. The dynamic resistance, rδ of a diode
is found by taking the derivative of Id with respect to VD, as follows.

VD
1 dI I
= D = SS e VT
rδ dVD I DQ
ηVT

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When the diode is fully turned on such that the operation is well out on the V-I characteristic
curve I D = I SS exp D  and the above equation reduced to:
V
ηV 
 T 

1 dI D I DQ
= ≈
rδ dVD I DQ
ηVT

At room temp, considering for silicon η = 1, rδ = 0.026 / I D Ω when I D is expressed in

V
amperes. At Q point specified for a diode, the effective dc resistance is RQ = DQ .
I DQ

On the other hand, the dynamic resistance in response to a small ac superimposed upon the
operating point is:

ηVT 0.026
rδ = = at room temp
I DQ I DQ

From the equation of dynamic resistance of diode, we can see that for large value of I DQ ,
VDQ
rδ becomes very small. In such cases we will only consider the RQ = value.
I DQ
Diode capacitors: there are two types of capacitive effects in PN junction

1. Space charge capacitance

2. Diffusion capacitance

Space charge (transition) capacitor ( CT )

This is a capacitance due to bound donor and acceptor ions in the depletion region.

dQ εA
CT = =
dV d

Its effect is reduced in reverse biased diode. This is because the space charge capacitance is
indirectly proportional to the width of the depletion region and the depletion region gets
wider for the reverse bias.

Diffusion capacitance (CD)

This is due to the accumulation of minority charge carriers at the edges of the depletion
region. Because the accumulation of minority carriers at each side of the depletion region is
very large for forward biased and it is almost zero for reverse biased, diffusion capacitance is
magnified in forward biased.

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dQ
CD = ; Q = iτ
dV
d (iτ ) di
= =τ =τ g where − g = conduc tan ce = 1
dV dV R
I +I
τ g = τ  S 
 ηVT 

From the above expression in the forward bias case the current I is large and hence the
diffusion capacitance become very large. But in the reverse bias condition, since the current I
is very small the diffusion capacitance is very small.

And remember the diffusion capacitance is always greater than the space charge capacitance.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) (Avalanche and Zener Breakdown)

Peak Inverse Voltage is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can sustain without being
driven it to the irreversible breakdown region. It is known that as the reverse- bias voltage is
increased, the internal electric field in the diode also increases. This accelerates minority
carriers (electrons) to collide with the crystal lattice structure. The collision generates
additional hole-electron pair. Thus additional charges are generated in an avalanche manner.
There results a rapidly increase reverse in the diode, which is the cause to heat up and finally
destroys the diode. Thus to keep the diode for safe operation, the reverse voltage must not be
exceeded. Manufacturers always list peak inverse voltage (PIV) ratings for semiconductor
diodes.
There are diodes called avalanche diodes and zener diodes in which the breakdown
phenomenon is reversible, although eventually excessive reverse bias destroys the diode.
With ordinary diodes however, the term avalanche break down implies irreversible damage to
the diode.
In avalanche diodes, avalanche effect is self limiting that is, as the diode heats up, lattice
vibration increases, which reduces the mean- free path distance for the field- accelerated
charges.
Zener breakdown occurs in specially doped diodes, which are characterized by a sudden rise
in current at a particular value of reverse voltage. The underlying process is tunnelling, as
opposed to an avalanche phenomenon. The reverse voltage at which the diode current
suddenly increases is called the zener breakdown voltage. The zener voltage is essentially
constant over a moderate range of current values. Consequently, zener diodes may be used as
voltage regulating devices. In this mode of operation, the voltage across an electric load may
be held essentially constant, although the load current can vary.

2.3 Analysis of Diode Circuits

Diodes as a circuit element

In this section we will investigate current and voltage relationships in circuits that contain
diodes and to analyse the circuit containing diodes by replacing the diode with simple
equivalent circuit element.

The circuit element used to replace the diode depends on the voltage and current levels of the
circuit we are analysing.
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For example consider the following circuits.

Germanium diode rf 0.3V

+ R + R

_ _

Silicon diode rf 0.7V

+ R + R

_ _

ηVT
Where: rf =
I + I SS

Load line analysis

Figure 2.4. a. Circuit for load line analysis. b. load line analysis for the circuit of fig a.

Applying Kirchhof’s voltage law, we can write

Load line 2.2

equation

We assume that the values of Vss and R are known and that we wish to find iD and v D . Thus,
equation 2.2 has two unknowns and another relationship between iD and v D is needed to find
a solution. The needed relationship is available in graphical form in figure 2.4b, which shows
the volt-ampere characteristic of the diode.
We can obtain the solution by plotting equation 2.2 on the same set of axes used for the diode
characteristic. Because this equation is linear, it plots as a straight line that can be drawn if
two points satisfying the equation are located. A simple method for locating these points is to

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assume that iD = 0. Then equation 2.2 yields v D = Vss . This pair of values is shown as point
A in figure 2.2. A second point results if we assume that v D = 0, in which case the equation
V
yields iD = ss . This pair of values is shown as point B in figure 2.4. Then, connecting
R
points A and B results in the plot which is called the load line. The operating point is the
intersection of the load line and the diode characteristic. The operating point represents the
simultaneous solution of equation 2.2 and the diode characteristic.

Piecewise linear model

 VD ηVT 
This model is simply a model that approximates the graph of I = I SS  e − 1 of I-V
 
characteristic in to somewhat linear.

Then by passing the load line equation through each piece, we can determine the variables.

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2.4 Types of diode

Zener diode

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current to flow in the forward direction like a
normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the rated
breakdown voltage or "Zener voltage".

A conventional solid-state diode will not let current flow if reverse-biased below its reverse
breakdown voltage. By exceeding the breakdown voltage, a conventional diode is destroyed
in the breakdown due to excess current which brings about overheating. The process is
however reversible, if the device is operated within limitation. In case of forward bias (in the
direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop of roughly 0.6 volt for a typical
silicon diode. The voltage drop depends on the type of the diode.

A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is especially designed
so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. A Zener
diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence
band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. A reverse biased
Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and let the current flow to keep the voltage
across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example, a 3.2-volt Zener diode will exhibit
a voltage drop of 3.2 volts if reverse biased. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite
accurately in the doping process.

Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche
diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are
present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the zener effect is the
predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts,
the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient.

Figure 2.5 VI Characteristics of a Zener diode

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The VI characteristic of a zener diode is shown in figure 2.5. With the application of
sufficient reverse voltage, a p-n junction will experience a rapid avalanche breakdown and
conduct current in the reverse direction. Valence electrons, which break free under the
influence of the applied electric field, can be accelerated enough that they can knock loose
other electrons and the subsequent collisions quickly become an avalanche. When this
process is taking place, very small changes in voltage can cause very large changes in
current. The breakdown process depends upon the applied electric field, so by changing the
thickness of the layer to which the voltage is applied, zener diodes can be formed which
break down at voltages from about 4 volts to several hundred volts.

Shottky diodes
These are diodes consisting of a junction called metal semiconductor (ms) junction and
formed by bringing metal (Al) in to moderately doped n-type semiconductor. Al acts as a p-
type material (anode), the n-type material is the cathode.

Unlike a normal semiconductor diode it can be turned off very quickly.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When pn-junction is forward biased, free electrons cross the junction and recombines with
holes at p-side. These electrons have been in the conduction band and drop to the valence
band by recombination. Because they are falling to a lower energy level they emit energy.
This released energy may be in the form of heat or light depending on the material used.
For example, silicon and germanium diodes release energy in the form of heat, whereas
gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium phosphate (GaP) release light energy. The colour of
emitted light is controlled by the doping level.

Reading assignment

Tunnel diode
Step-recovery diode
Varactor diode

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2.5 Application of diode circuits

Semiconductor diodes find many applications in electronics circuit designing. A major use is
as a rectifier in power supplies, to convert ac to dc in radio frequency receivers; in some
instrumentation systems they are used in a similar manner to recover (detect) amplitude
modulation super imposed upon a carrier signal. They may be used as polarity sensitive dc
conductive devices (often called steering diodes) as such they pass dc of one polarity while
blocking dc of the opposite polarity. In clipping, limiting and clamping circuits they are used
to shape and alter signal profiles. Zener diodes are used as voltage regulating devices.
Varactor diodes serve as voltage tuned capacitors and find many applications in radio
frequency design. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are used as indicator lights and in displays,
while light sensitive photodiodes are used as optical detectors.

Rectification

Diodes are used as rectifiers in electronic power supplies. Rectification is the process by
which time varying voltages are converted to DC voltages. DC power supplies are typically
produced by rectifying the sinusoidal voltage available from the AC power mains. The initial
rectification process produced sinusoidal voltage pulses, i.e. still the rectified voltage is a
time varying signal. To obtain a DC voltage, the rectified voltage must be processed by a
filter. When a very stable and pure DC voltage is required the rectified and filtered voltage
may be further processed using a voltage regulator. Of course, there are different types of
circuits of each stage. For example there are many configurations of diodes that produce
rectification:
Half wave rectifier: which uses only one diode
Full wave rectifier: which uses two diodes, and
Bridge rectifier: This uses four diodes.

Rectification is a process that involves large signal operation of a diode, and it is therefore a
non-linear process. The diode turns on and off in response to the applied sinusoidal voltage.

Half wave rectifier

Figure 2.6: Half wave rectifier circuits and its corresponding waveforms

The figure 2.6 shows the circuit diagram of half wave rectifier the voltage at point A does the
opposite of that at point B. When A is increasing in a positive direction, B is increasing in a
negative direction. It is rather like the two ends of a seesaw. During the first half cycle of the
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waveform shown on the left, A is positive and B is negative. The diode is forward biased and
current flows around the circuit formed by the diode, the transformer winding and the load.
Since the current through the load and the voltage across the load are in the same proportions,
then the voltage across the load is as shown in the right hand diagram, during the first half
cycle. During the second half cycle, A and the anode is negative, B and the cathode are
positive. The diode is reverse biased and no current flows. This is indicated by the horizontal
line in the right hand diagram. The diode only conducts on every other half cycle. The diode
only conducts during half the cycle. Hence, Half Wave Rectification. The rectified voltage
is DC (it is always positive in value). However, it is not a steady DC but pulsating DC. It
needs to be smoothed before it becomes useful.

Peak Inverse Voltage

When the input voltage reaches its maximum value Vm, during the negative half cycle, the
voltage across the diode is also maximum. This maximum voltage is known as the peak
inverse voltage. Thus for a half wave rectifier
PIV = Vm

Let Vi be the voltage to the primary of the transformer. Vi is given by

Vi = Vm sin ω t , Vm << Vr
Where: Vr is the cut-in voltage of the diode.

Ripple Factor

Ripple factor r is defined as the ratio of rms value of ac component to the dc component in
the output.
RMS value of the AC Component
r=
DC value of the Component

Vrrms
r=
VDC

Vrrms = Vrms
2
− VDC
2

2
V 
r =  rms  − 1
 VDC 

Vav the average or the dc content of the voltage across the load is given by

1  ∏ V sin ωt d (ωt ) + 2∏ 0.d (ωt )

Vav = Vdc =
2∏  ∫0 m ∫∏ 

=
Vm
[− cos ωt ]∏ =
Vm
2∏ ∏
0

Vdc V I
I dc = = m = m
RL ∏ RL ∏
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RMS voltage at the load resistance can be calculated as

1
 1 ∏ 2 2  2

Vrms =
 2∏
∫0 Vm sin ωt d (ωt )

1
 1 ∏  2

= Vm  ∫ (1 − cos 2ωt ) d (ωt ) =

Vm
 4∏  2
0

2
 V 
 m 
r =  2  − 1 = 1 . 21
 Vm 

 ∏ 

Ripple Factor = 1 . 21

Efficiency

Efficiency, η is the ratio of the dc output power to ac input power. Thus

dcoutput power P
η= = dc
ac input power Pac
2
V m 
V dc2  
= 2
RL
=  ∏  = 4
= 0 .406
∏
2 2
V rms V m 
RL  2 
= 40 .6 %

Form factor
rms value
Form Factor =
average value
Vm 
 = ∏ = 1.57
 2
= 
Vm  2
 
 ∏ 

Transformer Utilization Factor

Transformer Utilization Factor, TUF can be used to determine the rating of a transformer
secondary.
Pdc
TUF =
Pac rated

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Vm
In half wave rectifier the rated voltage of the transformer secondary is:
2
Im
Actually, the RMS current flowing through the winding is only:
2
 I m2   Vm2 1 
 R   

∏  =  ∏ L  = 2 2 = 0.287
2 L   2
R
TUF = 
 Vm I m   Vm Vm  ∏ 2
   
 2 2   2 2 R L 

Transfer Characteristics

It is the curve or an equation that relates the output and input wave forms.

In half wave rectification, for ideal diode, the transfer characteristic is mathematically defined as:

Vi , Vi > 0
VO = 
0 , Vi < 0
Graphically it is represented as:
Vo

Slope=1

Vi

Full wave rectifier

Figure 2.7: Circuit diagram of practical full wave rectifier

A practical full-wave rectifier circuit is shown in figure 2.7. It uses two diodes (D1 and D2)
and a centre-tapped transformer (T1). When the centre tap is grounded, the voltages at the
opposite ends of the secondary, windings are 180 degrees out of phase with each other. Thus,
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when the voltage at point A is positive with respect to ground, the voltage at point B is
negative with respect to ground.

Let's examine the operation of the circuit during one complete cycle.

During the first half cycle (indicated by the solid arrows), the anode of D1 is positive with
respect to ground and the anode of D2 is negative. The current flows from the ground up
through the load resistor (RL), through diode D1 to point A. In the transformer, current flows
from point A, through the upper winding, and back to ground (centre tap). When D1
conducts, it acts like a closed switch so that the positive half cycle is felt across the load (RL).

During the second half cycle (indicated by the dotted lines), the polarity of the applied
voltage has reversed. Now the anode of D2 is positive with respect to ground and the anode
of D1 is negative. Now only D2 can conduct. Current now flows, as shown, from ground
(centre tap), up through the load resistor (RL), through diode D2 to point B of T1. In the
transformer, current flows from point B up through the lower windings and back to ground
(centre tap). Notice that the current flows across the load resistor (RL) in the same direction
for both halves of the input cycle.

Ripple Factor

The ripple factor for a Full Wave Rectifier is given by

2
 V 
 rms 
r =  2  −1
 V dc 

 ∏ 


The average voltage or the dc voltage available across the load resistance is

1  ∏ 
Vav = Vdc =  ∫0 Vm sin ωt d (ωt )
∏
=
Vm
[− cos ωt ]∏ =
2Vm
∏ ∏
0

V 2Vm 2I Im
I dc = dc = = m and I rms =
R L ∏ RL ∏ 2

RMS value of the voltage at the load resistance is

1
 1 ∏  2

Vrms = ∫ V sin ωt d (ωt )

2 2

 ∏
m

0

1
 1 ∏  2
Vm
= Vm 
 2∏
∫0 (1 − cos 2ωt ) d (ωt ) =
2

2
 Vm 
  ∏ 
2

r=  2  −1 =   − 1 = 0.482
 2Vm  2 2
 

 ∏  16
Ripple Factor = 0.482
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Efficiency

Efficiency, it is the ratio of the dc output power to ac input power

dcoutput power Pdc

η= =
ac input power Pac
2
2Vm 
Vdc2 
= 2 L =
R ∏  = 8
= 0.812
∏
2 2
Vrms Vm 
RL  2 
= 81.2%

The maximum efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2%.

Form factor

Form factor is defined as the ratio of the rms value of the output voltage to the average value of
the output voltage.
rms value of output voltage
Form Factor =
average value of the ouput voltage
 Vm 
 = ∏ = 1.11
 
= 
2
 2Vm  2 2
 
 ∏ 

Peak inverse voltage

Full Wave Rectifier is 2Vm because the entire secondary voltage appears across the non-
conducting diode.

Transformer Utilization Factor

Transformer Utilization Factor, TUF can be used to determine the rating of a transformer
secondary. It is determined by considering the primary and the secondary winding separately
and it gives a value of 0.693

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Full-wave bridge rectifier

Figure 2.8: The full wave bridge wave rectifier and its waveforms

The voltages at points A and B on the transformer are changing in opposite directions. When
A is increasing in a positive direction, B is increasing negatively. It is like the opposite ends
of a seesaw. During the first half cycle, A is positive and B is negative. D1 has positive on its
anode, D2 has negative on its cathode. Both are forward biased. Current flows around the
circuit formed by these diodes, the load and the transformer winding, as shown in the second
diagram.
The current flowing up through the load produces a pulse of voltage across the load as shown
in the right hand waveform. During the next half cycle, A is negative and B is positive. D4
has positive on its anode, D3 has negative on its cathode. Both are forward biased. Current
flows around the circuit as shown in the bottom diagram, again flowing in the same direction
through the load and producing another pulse of voltage. Since the full cycle is used, this
circuit is called a Full Wave rectifier.

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The following parameters are same as the full wave rectifier they are Idc, Vdc, Irms, Vrms,
Ripple factor, Efficiency, Form factor, peak factor. Its Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is Vm.
Bridge rectifier has a number of advantages: low ripple, High efficiency, TUF is higher than
centre tapped FWR, less bulky and expensive, PIV is only Vm, and since TUF is high it can be
used for high power applications. And its disadvantage is: Uses four diodes, which reduces
voltage by two diode drops for every half cycle.

Filter
The voltage that we get by rectification is pulsating DC. In order to get a smooth DC we need
to filter out the pulsation. There are different types of filter:

Half wave capacitor input filter (C filter)

One method of smoothing the rectified output voltage is by placing a large capacitance across
the output terminals of the rectifier. The circuit and waveform of the output voltage is shown
in figure below.

Figure 2.9 Have wave rectifier with smoothing capacitor.

When the ac source reaches a positive peak, the capacitor is charged to the peak voltage
(assuming ideal diode). Then, when the source voltage drops below the voltage stored on the
capacitor, the diode is reverse biased and no current flows through it. The capacitor continues to
supply the current to the load, slowly discharging until the next positive peak of the ac input. As
shown in the figure, current flows through the diode in pulses that recharge the capacitor.

Because of the charge and discharge cycle, the load voltage contains a small ac component called
ripple. Usually it is desirable to minimize ripple, so we choose the largest capacitance value that
is practical. In this case the capacitor discharges for nearly the entire cycle, and the charge
removed from the capacitor during one discharge cycle is

Q ≅ I LT
Where, I L is the average load current and T is the period of the AC voltage

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Since the charge removed from the capacitor is the product of the change in voltage and the
capacitance, we can also write,
Q = Vr C
Where Vr is the peak to peak ripple voltage and C is the capacitance. Equating the right hand
sides of the above equations allows as to estimate the filter capacitance needed in a half wave
rectifier.
I T
C= L
Vr
Full wave with capacitor filter

During the positive half cycle, the capacitor charges up to the peak vale of the transformer
secondary voltage, Vm and will try to maintain this value as the full wave input drops to zero.
Capacitor will discharge through RL slowly until the transformer secondary voltage again
increases to a value greater than the capacitor voltage. The diode conducts for a period, which
depends on the capacitor voltage. The diode will conduct when the transformer secondary voltage
becomes more than the diode voltage. This is called the cut in voltage. The diode stops
conducting when the transformer voltage becomes less than the diode voltage. This is called cut
out voltage.
Referring to the figure below, with slight approximation the ripple voltage can be assumed as
triangular. From the cut-in point to the cut-out point, whatever charge the capacitor acquires is
equal to the charge the capacitor has lost during the period of non conduction, i.e., from cut-out
point to the next cut-in point.

the ch arg e it has acquired = Vr × C

the ch arg e it has lost = I × T2
dc
Vr × C = I × T2
dc
If the value of the capacitor is fairly large, or the value of the load resistance is very large, then it
can be assumed that the time T2 is equal to half the periodic time of the waveform.

T 1 I
T2 = = , then Vr = dc
2 2f 2 fC

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From the above assumptions, the ripple waveform will be triangular and its rms value is given by

Vr p − p
I dc
Vr rms = =
2 3 4 3 fC
Vdc V
= , Q I dc = dc
4 3 fCRL RL
Vrms 1
∴ ripple, r = =
Vdc 4 3 fCRL

The ripple may be decreased by increasing C or RL (both) with a resulting increase in the dc
output voltage.
The DC voltage can be determined by the following equation:

Vr I VDC
VDC = Vm − = Vm − dc , sin ce I DC =
2 2 fC RL
Vm
∴ VDC =
1+ 1
2 fRL C
2.6 Voltage Regulator

Zener Diode Voltage Regulators

Sometimes a circuit that produces constant output voltage while operating from a variable
supply voltage is needed. Circuits which perform such operation are called voltage regulators.

Zener Voltage Regulator:

Zener diodes are widely used to regulate the voltage across a circuit. When connected in
parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a zener diode conducts
when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. From that point it keeps the
voltage at that value.
In the circuit shown, resistor R provides the voltage drop between input and output.
The value of R must satisfy two conditions:

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• R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse breakdown. If
insufficient current flows through D, then output will be unregulated, and could rise as high.
When calculating R, allowance must be made for any current flowing through the external
load, not shown in this diagram, connected across the output.
• R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy the device. If the
current through D is I D , breakdown voltage VB , its maximum power dissipation Pmax ,
then I DVB < Pmax . A zener diode used in this way is known as a shunt voltage regulator, and
voltage regulator being a class of circuit that produces a stable voltage across any load.

Consider the following circuit for the voltage regulator

The circuit has to maintain constant voltage across a load resistor RL. The circuit holds the
voltage across the load RL almost equal to the voltage across zener Vz even after the input
Vin and load resistor RL undergo changes. If the unregulated dc voltage Vin rises, the current
through R increases. This extra current is directed to the zener diode instead of flowing
through the load. The zener diode voltage is virtually unaffected by the increase in this
current and load voltage which is same as the diode voltage Vz remains constant. If the load
requires more current when RL is decreased, the zener diode can supply the extra current
without affecting the load voltage.

Let I be the current through the resister R, we can write

I = IZ + IL
Vin − VZ
I=
R
The power dessipated in the diode is PZ = I ZVZ
The selection of Rs is very important here. We have
V − VZ
R S = in
I
After substituting the value of I we get,
Vin − VZ
RS =
IZ + IL
VZ
For Line regulation RL is constant. And I = is also constant
RL
And Vin varies between Vin(min) to Vin(max).

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For Load Regulation, Vin is constant and RL varies between RLmin and RLmax and load
current is given by:
V V
I L min = Z and I L max = Z
RL max R L min
When Vin = Vin min , and I L is constant then
Vin min − VZ
I min =
R
I min = I Z min + I L
Vin max − VZ
Similarly when Vin = Vin max we have I max =
R
I max = I Z max + I L

The selected R must be small enough to permit minimum zener current to ensure that the
diode is in its breakdown region. That is R must be small enough to ensure that minimum
current I Z min flows under worst condition. This is when Vin falls to its smallest possible value
Vin min and I L is its largest possible value I L max (Load Regulation).
At the same time R must be selected large enough to ensure that the current through the zener
diode should not exceed the maximum zener current I Z max so that power dissipation in the
diode will not exceed Pz. That is the condition when Vin rises to the value of Vin max and load
current I L to its minimum I L min .
SO we can write

Vin min − VZ Vin max − VZ

R≤ and R≥
I Z min + I L max I Z max + I L min

2.7 Power supply

Most electronic equipment requires DC voltages for its operation. These can be provided by
batteries or by internal power supplies that convert alternating current as available at the
home electric outlet, into regulated DC voltages. The first element in an internal DC power
supply is a transformer, which steps up or steps down the input voltage to a level suitable for
the operation of the equipment. The transformer is then followed by a rectifier.
Fluctuations and ripples superimposed on the rectified DC voltage can be filtered out by a
filter. Finally to get more precise control over voltage levels and ripples can be achieved by a
voltage regulator. This whole process can be shown by the following block diagram.

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Transformer

This block (the transformer) levels the amplitude to the desired amount and it isolates the
whole electronic elements from the line voltage.

We know that the line voltage from the outlet is given by

2
Vrms = Vdc2 + Vac2

Rectifier

The second block is the rectifier which changes AC into pulsating DC. Here the rectification
result is not pure DC. It has got some AC component and some DC components, as it is
shown in the following figure and equation for full wave rectifier:
2
V rms = V dc2 + V ac2
V ac = V rms
2
− V dc2

Filter

The third block reduces the ripple component of the rectified output.

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Vr
Vdc = Vm −
2

Regulator

The last block, the regulator, reduces the ripple component of the output of the filter and
stabilizes the output voltage against the variation of source and load.

2.8. Wave shaping circuits

A wide variety of wave-shaping circuits are useful in electronic systems. These circuits
transform one waveform into another. Wave-shaping circuits are employed in function
generators used to generate electrical test signals. Once an Oscillator generates a square
wave, for instance, by use of integrators it can be converted to triangular waveform. Then,
moreover, the triangular waveform is passed through a carefully designed wave shaping
circuit to produce a sinusoidal waveform. That is, all the important three waveforms are
available for use. Numerous examples of wave-shaping circuits can be found in transmitters
& receivers for TV or radar.

Clipper circuits

Diodes can be used to form clipper circuits, in which a portion of an input signal waveform is
clipped off. For example, the three equivalent circuits in fig 2.10 clip off any part of the input
waveform above 6V or less than -9V. If the input voltage is between -9 & 6V, all of the
diodes in each circuit are off and no current flows. Then there is no drop across the resistor R,
& the output voltage VO is equal to the input voltage Vin. The output waveform resulting
from a 15V peak sinusoidal input is shown in Fig. 2.7 D

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TELT 2301 Electrical Engineering AU

+
2K
8 .4 V
+

V in ( t ) V O (t)
-
5 .4 V

C ) S i m p le r c i r c u it

Figure 2.10 clipper circuits and the output waveform

The resistance value of R is selected to be large enough so that the forward diode current is
with in reasonable bounds, but small enough so that the reverse diode current results in a
negligible voltage drop.

Clamp circuits

Another diode wave shaping circuit is the clamp circuit, which is used to add a dc component
to an ac input waveform that the positive (or negative) peaks are forced to take a specified
value. In other words, the peaks of the waveform are "clamped" to a specified voltage value.
An example of clamp circuits are shown in Fig 2.11 with their wave form output for
Vin(t)=5sin(ωt).

Figure 2.11 clamp circuit

The capacitor is a large value, so it discharges only very slowly, and we can consider the
voltage across the capacitor to be constant. Because the capacitor is large, it has very small
impedance for the ac input signal. Thus, the output voltage of the circuit is given by

Vo(t)= Vin(t)- Vc

Of course, we can change the voltage to which the circuit clamps by changing the battery
voltage. Reversing the direction of the diode causes the negative peak to be clamped instead
of the positive peak. Further more, it is often more convenient to use zener diodes rather than
batteries. A circuit including these features is shown in fig 2.12.

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TELT 2301 Electrical Engineering AU

Figure 2.12 Clamp circuit-batteries replaced by zener diode

Electronic signals often lose their dc levels during signal transmission or storage. For
example, dc levels are lost during radio transmission, and a TV broadcast signal must have its
dc level restored in the radio & TV receivers. It is also impossible to send dc signals through
the recording and play back heads for cassette tape recorders or compact disc players. DC
restoration may be required if these devices are used to store digital data.

2.9. Voltage Multiplier circuits

Voltage-multiplier circuits are employed to maintain a relatively low transformer peak voltage while
stepping up the peak output voltage to two, three, four, or more times the peak rectified voltage.

Voltage Doubler
The network of Figure 2.13 is a half-wave voltage doubler. During the positive voltage half-
cycle across the transformer, secondary diode D1 conducts (and diode D2 is cut off),
charging capacitor C1 up to the peak rectified voltage (Vm). Diode D1 is ideally a short
during this half-cycle, and the input voltage charges capacitor C1 to Vm with the polarity
shown in Fig. 2.14a. During the negative half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diode D1 is cut
off and diode D2 conducts charging capacitor C2. Since diode D2 acts as a short during the
negative half-cycle (and diode D1 is open), we can sum the voltages around the outside loop
(see Fig. 2.14b):
− V m − VC 1 + VC 2 = 0
− Vm − Vm + +VC 2 = 0
from which
VC 2 = 2Vm

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Figure 2.13 Half wave voltage doubler

Figure 2.14 Double operation, showing each half-cycle of operation: (a) positive half-cycle; (b)
negative half cycle.

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