Unit I: Resolution and Composition of

Forces

The study of the behavior of matter under the action of applied forces is
called mechanics
branches of mechanics :
solid mechanics and fluid (liquid or gas) mechanics
solid: rigid or deformable
no body is purely rigid
but if the deformation of the body is very small as compared to the original
dimensions of the body, it can be considered rigid
engineering mechanics divided into statics and dynamics:
statics: the behavior of rigid bodies at rest
dynamics: behaviour of rigid bodies in motion, further divided into
kinematics and kinetics
kinematics: analyzing motion, not interested in the forces
responsible for the motion
kinetics: analyzing motion as well as the forces responsible
during kinematics, mass is also neglected
when mass is considered, the gravitational force is considered also, hence
it's studied under kinetics

Feb 15 :
REVISION :
force is an agency that tends to change the state of rest or motion of the
body.
characteristics of force are: magnitude, direction, point of application, and
sense
different force systems:
concurrent and non, parallel and non, coplanar and non, collinear and non.

MOMENT OF FORCE: the rotational aspect of force.

M = force * perpendicular distance from the point about which
moment is to be taken.
anticlockwise is taken as positive (it is convention).

Senses of forces and moments by convention are taken as :

Right or forward or anticlockwise : positive sense
Left or backward or clockwise: negative sense

These are the senses of the force or moment.

COUPLE:
2 forces, equal in magnitude, opposite in sense, but equal in action.

Characteristics of couple :
1.does not produce translation but tends to rotate the body.
2.resultant force of the couple is zero in any direction.
3. the resultant moment of the couple is not zero; hence there is a tendency
for rotational motion.
4. The moment of the couple on a body is always constant
irrespective of the point about which it is measured or
calculated.
5. two couples are said to be equivalent if they have the same magnitude
and sense, irrespective of the forces constituting the couple.
sense meaning sense of rotation.

16 February :
RESULTANT FORCE SYSTEM:
The resultant of a force system is the net or combined effect of all the forces
acting on a rigid body.
resultant can be resultant force or resultant moment.

EQUILIBRIUM :
if the resultant of the force system acting on a rigid body is zero, then that
body is said to be in equilibrium.
Resultant is 0
static equilibrium - the body is at rest, the net force is zero
dynamic equilibrium - the body is in motion, the net force is zero.
Equilibrant : a single force or couple that will produce the same effect as
the system of forces.

CHAPTER 2 : resolution of forces

principle of transmissibility of forces :
if a force acts at a point on a rigid body, then it is assumed to act at any
other point on the line of action of force within the body.

principle of superposition :
action of a given system of forces on a rigid body is unaltered if another
system of forces in equilibrium is added or subtracted from the given
system.

principle of moments :
when a body is in rotational equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments of
the forces about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments of
the forces about the same point.

varignon's theorem :
The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any point in the plane
is equal to the moment of the resultant of all forces about the same point.

the sum of moments of individual forces is equivalent to the moment of the

resultant force. ( about the same point)

graphical rep of moment of force :

moment of force about any point in a plane =
twice the area of the triangle formed by the force with respect to
that point.
varignon's theorem proved by geometrical method
concurrent force system : the lines of action of all the forces are concurrent
at a single point
parallel force system : the lines of action of all the forces are parallel to each
other ( sense may be same or opposite)

idealisations in engineering mechanics :

particle
rigid body
concentration of force to a single point of application
1d and 2d body

EQUILIBRANT IS A FORCE THAT COMPLETELY RESOLVES THE

CURRENT SYSTEM OF FORCES, SUCH THAT THE RESULTANT FORCE
BECOMES ZERO.
therefore, EQUILIBRANT = -(net force)
24-Feb-21
CHAPTER 3 : force couple systems

A force- couple system can be converted into a single force, and a single
force can be converted into a force couple system, while having the same
effect
if the force is acting at a particular point having some effect, we can replace
the force with another equivalent force couple system
if a force or couple is acting on a body, we should be able to replace the
force and couple with a single force.

principle of parallel transfer of forces OR resolution of force

into a force and a couple

when a force which is acting on a point on a rigid body is transferred

parallely to another point, then the force is accompanied by a couple or
moment whose magnitude is equal to the product of magnitude of force and
the perpendicular distance between the two lines of action of the forces.
(distance between original point of application and final point of
application) {basically you have to move the force to the final point, and
add a couple that provides the same moment that the force was providing
originally about that point}

Solved problems :
25-Feb-21
CHAPTER 4 : composition of forces

resolution of forces is splitting of forces into many parts such that the
resultant system has the same effect ( dividing force into its components)
composition is the opposite of this
Force can be resolved into :
1. Rectangular components : x = Rcos𝚹 , y = Rsin𝚹
2. Oblique components : x = Rsin(𝛃)/sin(𝝰 + 𝛃) , y = Rsin(𝝰)/sin(𝝰 +𝛃)
3. The single force can also be resolved into a force couple system which
was discussed previously.
composition is determination of resultant force of a system of forces.
a resultant can be a force or moment that can replace the given system of
forces without changing the effect.
resultant is calculated for :
1. coplanar concurrent force system :

a. only two forces : resultant by triangle law of forces or parallelogram law

of forces, or by resolving each force into x and y components
b. more than two forces : by using polygon law of forces, or resolving each
force into x and y components.

2. coplanar parallel force system :

Do scalar addition of the forces, while taking the senses into account, and
use varignon’s theorem to find the position of the resultant.

3. coplanar general force system (neither conc nor parallel) :

Parallel shift the forces to create a concurrent force system,(convert force
into force-couple system)
Take the moments into account to find the position of resultant

February 27 :
Solved numericals :

Equilibrant : a single force or moment that interacts with a system of

forces such that the resultant force becomes zero, i.e the the final force
system is in equilibrium.
March 1 :
started parallel force system and general force system :
Parallel force system : system of forces where each force has the same
line of action.
method to find resultant : find resultant force, and find resultant moment
by using varignon’s theorem
General force system : force system where all forces are neither
concurrent nor parallel
Method to find resultant : parallel shift the forces and add suitable moment
accordingly, make the system a concurrent force system and then resolve.
March 2 :
Problems of general force system taken :
Unit 2 : Centroid of plane, Moment
of inertia and Areas :

CHAPTER 5 : centroid of lines and areas :

contents :
important definition
location of centroid of a line
axis of symmetry

important definitions :

1. centre of gravity : the point at which the whole weight of the body is
assumed to be concentrated. i.e the point where gravitational force is
assumed to act
2. centre of mass : the point at which the whole mass of the body is
assumed to be concentrated
3. centre of volume : the point at which the whole volume of the body is
assumed to be concentrated
4. centroid of an area : for laminas or plane figures, the centroid of an area
is the point where the whole area of the figure is assumed to be
concentrated
5. centroid of a line : the centroid of a line is the point on a line where the
entire length of the line is assumed to be concentrated.

MARCH 4 :
IMPORTANT FORMULAE FOR FINDING CENTROID OF LINE :

Questions on centroid of line :

,
March 8 :
When a body is suspended freely from any point, the centre of gravity of
that body will be located on the vertical line passing through the point of
suspension.

Q1

Q2 I’ll figure it out

Q3 First part you can solve by taking

the axis of symmetry through the
hinge and then equating the
moments of AB, BC and CD.
For the second part, you can do
the same, but now ab is horizontal,
so you have to redo the figure, but
keep the angle abc = 36.87
March 9 :

IMPORTANT FORMULAE for centroids of area :

Moment of inertia :
Moment is the tendency of the force to rotate the body.
Pure moment is an agency that tends to rotate the body.
Inertia is the property of a body that allows it to resist the change in state
of rest or motion.
So the moment of inertia is the property of the body by virtue of which it
offers resistance to the rotational motion of the body.
Moment of inertia is calculated by taking the second moment about a
particular axis.
Second moment = moment of moment.
Types of moment of inertia :
Area moment of inertia : it is the second moment of area about a particular
axis
Mass moment of inertia : it is the second moment of mass about an axis.
Area moment of inertia will be studied in detail.
SI unit of area moment of inertia.
Second moment of area = moment of moment of area = (area * distance) *
distance
So the SI unit is metre^4 . in practical purposes, the unit is millimetre^4.

Significance of area moment of inertia :

Axis that passes through the centroid of section is called centroidal axis
The area moment of inertia can signify the orientation of the axis, the
distribution of area about the axis and the total area.
Quantitative relative distribution of area about the axis.
Neutral axis :
The axis passing through the centroid of a particular section is known as
the centroidal axis.
It is also called a neutral axis.
When a load is applied, the area above the axis suffers compression and
the area below the axis suffers expansion but the particles on the neutral
axis remain in neutral state, i.e there is no tension or stress applied on
them.

It is the centroidal axis or the axis passing through the centroid of the given
section.

PARALLEL AXIS THEOREMṣ :

The area moment of inertia about any axis which is parallel to the
centroidal axis is given by : I = IG + A.(H^2)
IG = M.I of the section about the centroidal axis.
A is the total area of cross section,
H is the perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes.

Perpendicular axis theorem :

The moment of inertia about an axis which is perpendicular to the X-Y
plane is equal to the I about X axis + I about Y axis.
AREA MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR STANDARD SHAPES :

Rectangle :
We can also calculate M.I about
base, about Z axis etc. using
parallel or perpendicular axis
theorem.

Hollow rectangle :
We have to subtract the moment of
inertia of the small rectangle from
the big rectangle

Square :
All the sides are the same in square

Circle :M.I about x is the same as M.I

about y

Hollow circular area

Semicircle : The m.i will be half of a

full circle. Ixx = Iyy
The m.i of the quarter circle will be
1/4th of the circle.

We have only calculated the

moment of inertia about the base.
Chapter 7 : Friction :

Friction on planes
Ladder friction :
Take the two normal forces at the two ends where ladder touches the wall and
floor, take fbd’s and resolve
Belt friction :
Very important formula that relates the tensions to the lap angle of the belt
T2 is the tension that will cause impending motion, and t1 is the balancing
tension
 µβ
𝑇2 / 𝑇1 = 𝑒 , where µ is the coefficient of static friction and 𝛽 is the lap angle in
radians
T2 will be the tension on the side of impending motion.
UNIT 3 : EQUILIBRIUM :
Contents of unit 3 :

Equilibrium is important for analysis and design of structure.

Equilibrium is a state when the resultant force and moment on a body is zero, i.e
the resultant of the system of forces acting on a body is zero.
Resultant is a single force or force and moment that can replace all the acting
forces on the body, and have the same effect.
For a body in equilibrium, the resultant force is zero and the resultant moment is
zero.
Resultant force being zero means no translation, resultant moment being zero
means no rotation, so the body is in complete static equilibrium, completely
stationary state.
The algebraic sum of all the x components of all the forces is zero, as well as all
the y components.

Equations of equilibrium :
For coplanar force system : ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0
For coplanar concurrent force system : no moment, because all lines of action
pass through a single point. So for equilibrium, ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0
For non coplanar or 3D or space force system :
We can resolve the forces into three mutually perpendicular components,
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣFz = 0, 𝝨M = 0
For non coplanar concurrent force system: ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣFz = 0

3. Particular cases of equilibrium :

I. only one force is acting :
Then ∑Fx = 0, therefore Fcos𝛳 = 0
Then ΣFy = 0. Therefore Fsin𝛳 = 0
Thus F has to be zero.

2. Two non parallel forces are acting :

We can take the x axis about force F1 say,
Then ΣFx = F1 + F2cos𝛳 = 0
ΣFy = 0 + F2sinΘ = 0
Thus Θ = 90
So F1 + F2 = 0
Thus F1 = -(F2)
3. Three non parallel forces are acting :
Consider forces F1 and F2 have lines of action intersecting at O.
Now, the moment due to force f3 about ) = F3*d.
ΣM = 0 + 0 + F3*d = 0
Thus d has to be zero, and all the three forces have to be concurrent

If three concurrent forces are acting at a point on a rigid body which is in

equilibrium, then magnitude of each force is proportional to the sine of angle
between the other two forces.
It’s like a sine rule for a triangle. By using polygon law on the three forces, the
sum of the three forces is zero, so we get a triangle. The starting point of the first
force and the ending point of the last force are coincident. This theorem is only
applicable for a system of three forces that are in equilibrium.

5. What is support and support reaction :

Support : a structure that tends to maintain equilibrium of the body.
In this process, the support tends to apply a certain force on the body.
Support reaction : force or moment exerted by the support on the body to
maintain equilibrium.
The different supports could provide support reaction in the form of opposing
force or opposing moment.

6. Different types of supports :

1. Simple support : (no connection between the body and surface)
a. Sliding
b. roller
In simple support, we know the direction of the reaction force, but we do not
know the magnitude.
2. Hinge support (fixed connection or rigid connection between the body and
surface)
Hinge support allows rotation of the body
3. Fixed support (fixed connection or rigid connection between the body and
surface)
Fixed support prevents rotation of the body.

Bridges will have a hinge support on one side, and a roller support on the
other side.
This is to permit the free expansion and contraction of the bridge due to
temperature, so the internal stresses on the bridge remain zero.
7. Free body diagram :
A fbd isolates a body in a system and represents the different forces that act on
it.

Free body diagram of a sphere :

We can use lami’s theorem to find R1 and R2 if we know weight W

FBD of L shaped bracket ABC
B is a hinge, which provides horizontal and vertical support,
The pulley is providing tension on points a and c
We have to consider three equations of equilibrium
ΣFx = 0; ΣFy = 0; ΣM about any point is 0
The total support provided by the hinge is
2 2 −1
𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = B, and the angle is 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐵𝑦/𝐵𝑥)

Fbd of new system :

The roller provides support reaction perpendicular to the smooth plane.
Fbd of third system :

When you take fbd of individual spheres, we have to show the normal reaction of
one sphere on the other. But we don’t have to do this if both the spheres are part
of the fbd

SOLVED EXAMPLES :
 Angle = 18.43 degrees

Ta = 178.57 N
Tb = 271.42 N

March 24 :

First you have to find the

angles 1. Θ which is
angle ACB
2. Angle ⍺ which is angle
between AB and
horizontal
Then we have to take
the fbd of A, and use
lami’s theorem to find Tac
and
Rb(N2)
Then we can take the
fbd of B and find N1 by
using lami’s theorem
First we have to find the
directions of lines pq and
qr.
Then use lami’s at p to
find fd, and Fpq
Take fbd of q and take
components to find Fc
and Fqr
Then take fbd of r and
find Fa and Fb
Roller reaction = 1152 N
upwards
Hinge reaction = -552 N
vertically downwards
We have to find the force
P and angle Θ such that
the magnitudes of
support reactions at b
and c are equal.
Analysis of beams :

What is beam
Types of beams
Classification of beams : Statically determinate and statically indeterminate
Types of loads numerical examples

What is a beam? :
Vertical members are called as columns, horizontal members are called beams.
A beam is a member that is subjected to lateral or transverse load/

Support reactions keep the beam in

equilibrium

The load which is acting perpendicular or normal to the longitudinal axis is known
as lateral load. It causes bending in the beam.

Types of beams :
Simply supported :
Hinge on one side, roller on other side.
Roller is to allow thermal contraction
and expansion

Cantilever :
Fixed support on one end, free on
other end.
The fixed support provides support
reaction in horizontal and vertical
direction and also provides support
moment. The max length is 2 metres

Fixed beam has two fixed supports on

either end.the fixed beam can only
bend, it cannot move or rotate in any
direction.

Propped cantilever has fixed support

on one end and roller support(simple
support) on the other end. The simple
support stops the rotation of the
cantilever beam due to tension or due
to its own weight.

Overhanging beam: in overhanging

beam, there is a section of the beam
After the simple support, which has its
own moment

Doubly overhanging beam :

There is overhang on both sides i.e
before the hinge and after the simple
support.
Classification of beams :
Depending on the number of reactions (or unknowns) at the supports, beams are
classified into the following two types:
1. Statically determinate beam : can be analysed using three equations of
equilibrium. Max number of unknowns are three.
2. Statically indeterminate beam : can not be analysed using the three
equations of equilibrium. More than three unknowns are present.
Analysis of beams is nothing but the determinations of support reactions
Usually for 2d support systems , we have three equations of equilibrium :
ΣFx =0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0

Simple support : only one unknown

Hinge support : two unknowns
Fixed support : three unknowns
Types of loads :
Types of externally applied loads :

Static and dynamic load :

Static load : point load and distributed load.
For a very small area of contact, we can consider that the load is acting at a
single point. It is represented by an arrow head.
If the low is distributed over a finite area, the load is called distributed load.
The distributed load can be uniformly distributed load, or varying load.
Varying load is further distributed into uniformly varying and non linear varying
load.

Types of loads :
1. Point load :
2. Uniformly distributed load :

The load is distributed uniformly over a certain length.

3. Uniformly varying load :
a. Triangular load :

The triangular load can be converted into a single point.

This single point lies on the centroid of the triangle

b. Trapezoidal load :
Numerical examples :

We have to
solve for
equilibrium at
bc to find rb
and rc, then
use forces rb
and rc to find
equilibrium at
beam ab and
de to find Ra ,
Rd and Re