Illustration Credits: Rémy Simard

Literacy by Design: Writer’s Handbook

Grades 3-5

ISBN-13: 978-1-4189-4756-9
ISBN-10: 1-4189-4756-3

© 2008 Harcourt Achieve Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright

may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, in whole
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 Table of Contents

Capitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Punctuation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Common Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Contractions and Apostrophes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Parts of Speech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Writing Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Words That Add Spark to Your Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
The Traits of Good Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Basic Rules of Spelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Basic Rules of Writing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Proofreading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Commonly Misused Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2
 Table of Contents and Introduction
Introduction

Questions about writing pop up all the time, and we don’t always
have the answers. When do I capitalize the word mother? What’s the
correct abbreviation for ounce? If you don’t know the answer, you
really need to know where to find it.
The Writer’s Handbook has all kinds of answers to questions about
writing. It covers rules for spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and
grammar. Think of the Writer’s Handbook as a place to find answers.

Noun Pronoun

Verb
Preposition
Adverb

Adjective

Interjectio
n Conjunction

3
 Capitalization Titles Used with Names
Capitalize titles used with names
If you learn the basics of of people.
capitalization, you’ll be more
• Queen Elizabeth
confident as a writer.
• President Kennedy
• Mayor Lopez
Proper Nouns/Proper
Adjectives
Capitalize all proper nouns and
proper adjectives. A proper
noun is the name of a specific Tip
person, place, or thing. When a Do not capitalize titles when used
proper noun is used to describe without a name: the queen, the
president, the mayor.
something, it is called a proper
adjective.
Proper Nouns Tiger Woods,
New York Yankees
Proper Adjectives Chicago
pizza, an English garden

Tip
The first letter of first,
middle, and last names is
always capitalized.

Names of People
Capitalize the first letter of
first, middle, and last names.
Capitalize the initials that stand
for those names.
• Christopher Columbus
• Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
• J. K. Rowling

4
 Capitalization
Words Used as Names Days, Months, and
Capitalize words that are used
as names, such as Mother, Father,
Holidays
Grandma, and Grandpa. Capitalize names of the days of
the week, months of the year,
• When I visit, Grandpa usually
and holidays.
makes me lunch. (In this
case, Grandpa is used as a first Days Monday, Friday
name.) Months January, May
• My grandpa usually gives me Holidays Easter, Passover
a hug when I visit. (In this
case, grandpa is not used as a
first name.) Religions, Nationalities,
Languages
Organizations Capitalize names of religions,
Capitalize names of teams, nationalities, and languages.
organizations, businesses, and Religions Christian, Muslim
political groups. Nationalities Egyptian,
• Arizona Cardinals Australian
• Boy Scouts of America Languages Spanish, Japanese
• Patti’s Pet Palace
• Citizens for Change

Tip
Capitalize the names of companies and
the official names of products. Do not
capitalize a general name for a product,
such as cereal or shampoo.

5
 Titles Abbreviations
Capitalize the first and last word Capitalize abbreviations of titles
of a title. Capitalize every word and organizations.
in between that is not an article M.D. (Doctor of Medicine)
(a, an, the), a short preposition NBA (National Basketball
(in, of, on, etc.), or short Association)
conjunction (and, or, etc.).
NFL (National Football
Book The Lion, the Witch, and League)
the Wardrobe
Movie The Wizard of Oz
First Words
Capitalize the first word of a
Historical Information sentence.
Capitalize the names of: • The movie earned 15
Historical events American million dollars in its opening
Civil War weekend.
Documents Bill of Rights Capitalize the first word of a
direct quotation.
• One critic said, “The movie
will be a great success.”

Tip
Don’t be fooled! Not all short
words are articles, prepositions, or
conjunctions. Be sure to capitalize
short words such as Red, End, and
Not when used in a title.

6
 Capitalization
Bodies of Water
Greetings and Closings Atlantic Ocean, Irish Sea,
of Letters Mississippi River
Capitalize the first letter in the Mountains Rocky Mountains,
greeting. Also capitalize the first Andes, Alps
letter in the closing. Public Areas Yellowstone
Greeting Dear Jane, National Park, Lincoln
Closing Your friend, Memorial
Mario Roads and Highways Frontage
Road, 17th Avenue, Interstate 70
Names of Places Buildings Empire State
Building, John Hancock
and Things Building
Capitalize all of the following:
Planets Earth, Saturn
Continents Europe, Asia CAPS
TechTip
LOCK When you are typing on
Countries Japan, Norway key a computer, use the CAPS
LOCK key or press SHIFT
Sections of the Country and the letter key to
SHIFT +
the South, the Northeast the letter capitalize a letter.
key
States California, Georgia
Provinces Ulster, Quebec
Cities and Counties
New Orleans, Cook County

Tip
Do not capitalize names of the
seasons (winter, spring, summer, fall)
or directions
(north, south, east, west).

7
 Punctuation Period .
Use a period to end a sentence
As you write, do you ever and to mark abbreviations,
wonder where to place a comma initials, and decimal points.
or when to start a new sentence?
You already know many of the At the End of a Sentence
rules of punctuation. After all,
• Joe’s birthday party lasted well
you punctuate your speech
past dark.
whenever you talk to someone.
Read the examples below and
see just how important correct
After Abbreviations
punctuation can be. • Dr., Mrs., Mr., Ph.D., etc., vs.,
ex., a.m., p.m.
Without punctuation:
Use only one period when an
• Keisha was worried about her
abbreviation marks the end of a
test she had a basketball game
sentence.
that afternoon and the team
was counting on her to play • Our teacher uses the title of
well Keisha would have to be Ms.
rested calm and relaxed she
would definitely have to be After Initials
happy with her test score. • C. S. Lewis
With punctuation: • Booker T. Washington
• Keisha was worried about
her test. She had a basketball As a Decimal
game that afternoon, and the • Don’s temperature was a
team was counting on her. feverish 101.1 degrees.
To play well, Keisha would • Isabel was overcharged by
have to be rested, calm, and $1.50 at the store.
relaxed. She would definitely
have to be happy with her test
score.
You can easily learn the basics
of punctuation. Read on
to find out more!

8
 ,

Punctuation
Comma To Set Off Dialogue
Commas help the reader know Use a comma to separate the
where to pause. Use a comma to words of a speaker from the rest
break up words and ideas and to of the sentence.
make sentences clear. Commas • The boxer Muhammad Ali
are essential in the following said, “I am the greatest.”
situations: Do not use a comma when
you are merely reporting what
Items in a Series someone said.
Use a comma to separate words, • Jake said that the test was
phrases, or clauses in a series. easy.
Words My mom picked up eggs,
juice, and bread at the grocery In Direct Address
store. Use a comma to separate a noun
Phrases Sean enjoys playing of direct address (the person to
basketball, hiking in the whom one is speaking) from the
mountains, and riding horses. rest of the sentence.
• Alonso, it’s so nice to meet
In Dates and Addresses you!
Use a comma to separate items
in dates and addresses. In Letter Writing
Date The Declaration of Use a comma after the greeting
Independence was signed on and closing in friendly letters.
July 4, 1776. Greeting Dear Grandpa Leo,
Address Audrey’s new address is Closing With love,
1200 Montview Street, Denver,
Colorado 80207. Tip
In business letters, use a colon (:)
after the greeting.
Dear Sir:

9
 To Separate Adjectives Between Two Independent
Use a comma to separate two or Clauses
more adjectives if: Use a comma between two
you can switch the order of the independent clauses that are joined
adjectives and the sentence still by a coordinating conjunction.
reads clearly. • Ming doesn’t like the color blue,
• I dislike cold, runny eggs. so she bought the purple bike.
• I dislike runny, cold eggs. • I’m tired today, but I have no
you can put and between the time for a nap.
adjectives and still have the
sentence read clearly. To Set Off Interjections
• I dislike cold and runny eggs. Use a comma to separate an
No commas are used when the interjection or short exclamation
order of the adjectives cannot be from the rest of the sentence.
switched. • Whoa, slow down!
• I dislike cold scrambled eggs. • Hey, cut it out!

In Numbers To Set Off Appositives

Use a comma in numbers of An appositive is a word or
four digits or more to keep the phrase that follows a noun or
numbers clear. pronoun and explains more
• Cathy’s car has gone 150,000 about it. It renames the noun or
miles. pronoun before it. Use a comma
to set off the appositive.
To Set Off Interruptions • My aunt, a bowler, takes her
Use a comma to set off a word, bowling ball on vacation.
phrase, or clause that interrupts
the main idea of a sentence. To Set Off Long Phrases and
• Cathy was, however, longing Clauses
to drive a newer car. Use a comma to set off a long
• Cathy, my oldest sister, takes modifying phrase or clause from
me to school every day. a clause that follows it.
• After standing in the lunch
line for so long, I was ready to
eat everything on the menu.
• When Jorge moved to a
different city, he worried
about making new friends.
10
 Punctuation
Semicolon ;
The semicolon works both as a
Colon :
A colon introduces a list
comma and a period. It is used: or prepares the reader for
information that follows. It is
Between Independent Clauses also used between numbers in
Use a semicolon to join two time.
or more independent clauses
that may each stand alone as a To Introduce a List
separate sentence. Use a colon to introduce a list.
• My older brother gets to stay • Dad wanted to buy a number
up later than I do; I can’t wait of things at the store: milk,
to be his age. cheese, toothpaste, and soap.

To Separate Phrases To Introduce a Long or

Use a semicolon to separate a Important Quotation
series of phrases that already Use a colon to introduce a long
have commas. or important quotation.
• People everywhere should • The Declaration of
drive less; recycle cans, glass, Independence states: “We
and paper; and save energy. hold these truths to be self-
evident, that all men are
created equal . . . .”

Between Numbers in Time

Use a colon to separate the
minutes from the hour.
• School starts at 8:10 a.m.

11
 Hyphen -
A hyphen may divide or join
With a Certain Prefix
Use a hyphen with certain
words. It can also be used to prefixes.
create new words. • ex-coach, mid-July, half-
asleep, self-defense
To Divide a Word Prefixes ex, mid, half, self
Use a hyphen to divide a word Use a hyphen to join two or
when you run out of room at more words before a noun to
the end of a line. A word can create an adjective.
be divided only between its • Teddy was an ill-mannered
syllables. One-syllable words terrier.
can’t be divided.
• Spring is my favorite season
because many trees blos-
som at that time of year.
Dash –
Use a dash to show a sudden
break in the sentence or to
show that a speaker has been
Tips interrupted.
• A dictionary shows where
to divide a word into
syllables. Heavy black dots
show where hyphens are
needed. For example, the
dictionary separates blossom
into two parts with a dot
to show its two syllables,
(blos•som).
• When a word contains
a double consonant, the
word is often split
between the consonants.
(but•ter, pud•dle)
• Prefixes and suffixes usually
make a separate syllable.
(pre•view, hope•ful)

12
 Punctuation
In a Sentence Break To Show Omitted Words
Use a dash to show a sudden Use an ellipsis to show that
break in a sentence, such as a one or more words have been
change in thought or direction. omitted from a quotation.
• My dad—in case you hadn’t
noticed—is very funny. Tip
When you type an ellipsis in
In Interrupted Speech the middle of a sentence, leave
a space before, after, and
Use a dash to show that another in between each of
person is interrupting someone’s the three periods.
speech.
• Oh, hi—no, I hadn’t heard—
Complete quote “The only
that’s great news.
thing I can be sure of is that the

Ellipsis …
Use an ellipsis to show that
play begins at 9 o’clock and that
we’ll lose our seats if we don’t
arrive on time.”
words or sentences have been Shortened quote “ . . . the play
omitted or to show a pause in begins at 9 o’clock . . . we’ll lose
dialogue. our seats if we don’t arrive on
time.”

Tip
If the ellipses are at the end
of a sentence, use four periods
and leave a space before,
after, and in between
each period.

Pause in Dialogue
Use an ellipsis to show a
pause in dialogue, or at
the end where dialogue
trails off.
• “I’m . . . shocked!”
• “I was shocked . . . .”

13
 Quotation Marks
Quotation marks go around
“” To Punctuate Titles
Use quotation marks to
punctuate titles of songs, poems,
the exact words of a speaker and
around titles. stories, essays, magazine articles,
and chapters of books.
Direct Quotations Song “America the Beautiful”
Use quotation marks before and Poem “Casey at the Bat”
after spoken words. Story “Second-Hand Man”
• Patrick Henry said, “Give me Essay “Mother Tongue”
liberty or give me death!” Article “The Life of a Killer
Whale”
Placement of Punctuation Chapter of a Book “Miranda’s
Place quotation marks around Charm”
text that contains periods and
commas.
• “Maria, don’t forget to water
the plants,” said Mom.
• Maria replied, “I’ll do it later,
Mom.”
A question mark or exclamation
point is placed inside the
quotation marks when it
punctuates the sentence in the
quotes.
• “Maria, do you want to get
your allowance this week?”
asked Mom.
It is placed outside the quotation
marks when it punctuates the
main sentence.
• Do you ever tell your parents,
“I’ll do it later”?

14
 Punctuation
To Punctuate Words for For Titles
Emphasis Use italics or underlining
Use quotation marks around for titles of plays, books,
words in a sentence that you newspapers, magazines, movies,
want to emphasize for a special or CDs.
reason or call out in order to Play Romeo and Juliet,
make a point to the reader. Romeo and Juliet
• She had a great “excuse” for Book Sounder, Sounder
not coming to the party. Movie Peter Pan, Peter Pan

Question Mark ? For Specific Words

Use italics or underlining to
A question mark shows
curiosity. show emphasis in a sentence.
• That is one big tree!
Direct Question • That is one big tree!
Use a question mark at the end
of a question. Parentheses ()
• How old are you? Parentheses are placed around
certain words in a sentence to
Exclamation Point ! add information or to make an
idea clearer.
An exclamation point expresses
strong emotion. It is placed after
a word, phrase, or sentence. To Add Information
Word Oh! Use parentheses to show
information that should not
Phrase Happy New Year! stand out.
Sentence I’m so excited about • The graph (figure 3) shows
summer vacation! the rise in accidents on
scooters.
Italics and Underlines
Italics and underlines are
used to highlight titles and for
emphasizing. Use italics when
typing on a computer. Underline
when you write by hand.

15
 Common Initialisms
An initialism is different from
Abbreviations an acronym. Initialisms are not
pronounced as words but as
An abbreviation is the separate letters.
shortened form of a word or POW (Prisoner of War)
phrase. Most abbreviations
FBI (Federal Bureau of
begin with a capital letter and
Investigation)
end with a period. Here are
some common abbreviations: TV (television)
• Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., M.D.,
b.c., a.d., a.m., p.m. State Abbreviations
Alabama AL
These are acceptable in all types Alaska AK
of writing. Arizona AZ
Arkansas AR
Tip California CA
In formal writing, do not Colorado CO
abbreviate the names of states,
countries, months, days, or Connecticut CT
units of measure. Delaware DE
District of Columbia DC
Florida FL
Georgia GA
Hawaii HI
Other forms of Idaho ID
abbreviations are: Illinois
Indiana
IL
IN
Acronyms Iowa IA
Kansas KS
An acronym is a word that is
Kentucky KY
formed from the first letter or
Louisiana LA
letters of words in a phrase.
Maine ME
Acronyms do not use periods.
Maryland MD
NASA (National Aeronautics Massachusetts MA
and Space Administration) Michigan MI
RADAR (Radio Detection and Minnesota MN
Ranging) Mississippi MS
SCUBA (Self-Contained Missouri MO
Underwater Breathing Montana MT
Apparatus) Nebraska NE
Nevada NV
16
 Common Abbreviations
New Hampshire NH Square Sq.
New Jersey NJ Station Sta.
New Mexico NM Street St.
New York NY Terrace Ter.
North Carolina NC Turnpike Tnpk.
North Dakota ND West W.
Ohio OH
Oklahoma OK Weights and Measures
Oregon OR teaspoon tsp
Pennsylvania PA tablespoon T
Rhode Island RI ounce oz
South Carolina SC cup c
South Dakota SD pint pt
Tennessee TN milliliter ml
Texas TX liter L
Utah UT quart qt
Vermont VT gallon gal
Virginia VA millimeter mm
Washington WA centimeter cm
West Virginia WV meter m
Wisconsin WI inch in.
Wyoming WY foot ft
yard yd
Address Abbreviations milligram mg
Apartment Apt. gram g
Avenue Ave. kilogram kg
Boulevard Blvd. pound lb
Court Ct. mile mi
Drive Dr. kilometer km
East E. Celsius C
Expressway Expwy. Fahrenheit F
Heights Hts.
Highway Hwy.
Lane Ln.
North N.
Park Pk.
Parkway Pkwy.
Place Pl.
Road Rd.
Rural R.
South S.
17
 Contractions Apostrophes
An apostrophe forms plurals,
and shows that one or more letters
have been omitted from a word,
Apostrophes or shows possession.
Many people use contractions
such as I’m instead of I am, To Form Plurals
or don’t instead of do not. A Do not use an apostrophe to
contraction is the shortened create the plural of a letter or
form of two words. An number.
apostrophe shows where one Letter Bs
or more letters are missing. Number 3s
It is quite common to use
Year 1930s
contractions in both writing and
speaking. Before learning about
contractions, you need to know In Contractions
about apostrophes. Use an apostrophe to show that
one or more letters are missing.
• she’d = she would, she had
• I’m = I am
• you’re = you are
• don’t = do not
• they’ll = they will
• o’clock = of the clock

18
 Contractions and Apostrophes
In Singular Possessives In Plural Possessives
Use an apostrophe and s to form Use an apostrophe to form
the singular possessive. the possessive of a plural noun
• My cousin’s skateboard is ending in s.
missing a wheel. • The boys’ bathroom is off
When the possessive has one limits.
syllable and ends in an s or z Plural nouns not ending in s
sound, add an apostrophe and s. require an apostrophe and s.
• Tess’s favorite movies are • The women’s bathroom is
comedies. open.
When the possessive has two
or more syllables and ends in In Shared Possessives
an s or z sound, just add an When more than one noun
apostrophe. shares possession, add an
• Spyros’ parents are from apostrophe and s to the last
Greece. noun.
• Rosa and Carla’s project fell
into a mud puddle.

19
 Parts of Common and Proper Nouns
A common noun names a
Speech general person, place, thing, or
idea. Common nouns begin with
Our language is like a spider’s lowercase letters.
web. Spiders know exactly • man, dog, singer, river,
how to weave long-lasting and country
beautiful webs. To ensure a
A proper noun names a specific
web’s strength, spiders carefully
person, place, thing, or idea.
link many different threads.
It is always capitalized.
In language, we link different
types of words to create strong • Babe Ruth, Black Labrador,
sentences. Just as webs blow Nile River, Ireland
away without their connecting
threads, language falls apart Concrete and Abstract Nouns
without the correct parts of A concrete noun names
speech. By studying the parts something that may be touched
of speech, you can learn how or seen.
to weave words into strong and • book, bed, car
beautiful sentences. An abstract noun names
something that cannot be
Nouns touched or seen.
A noun names a person, place, • love, pain, joy, imagination
thing, or idea.
Persons Nathan, mother,
Singular and Plural Nouns
plumber A singular noun names only one
person, place, thing, or idea.
Places Idaho, grocery store,
front yard • friend, lake, pencil, fear
Things ball, candy, toolbox A plural noun names more than
one person, place, thing, or idea.
Ideas anger, shyness,
nervousness • friends, lakes, pencils, fears

20
 Parts of Speech
Uses of Nouns Nouns as Objects
Nouns are often used as Nouns may be direct objects,
subjects. They may also be used indirect objects, or the objects of
in predicates and as possessives. a preposition.
A subject noun either does A noun is a direct object when
something or is the thing being it receives the action of the verb.
referred to. • Sophia made Elena dinner.
• Sophia made dinner for Elena. (Dinner is the direct object
(Sophia is the subject because because it is the thing being
she did something: made made.)
dinner.) A noun is an indirect object
• Dinner was prepared on time. when it names the person to or
(Dinner is the subject because for whom something is being
it is the thing being referred done.
to.) • Sophia made Elena dinner.
A predicate noun renames (Elena is the indirect object
the subject. It connects to the because dinner was being
subject with a linking verb. made for her.)
• Dinner was lasagna. (The A noun is an object of a
noun lasagna renames the preposition when it is part of a
subject dinner. It is linked by prepositional phrase.
the verb was.) • Sophia made dinner using
A possessive noun shows the ingredients from a recipe.
possession or ownership. (The noun recipe is the object.
• Sophia made the lasagna The preposition is from. The
using Cynthia’s recipe. (The prepositional phrase is from
’s added to Cynthia shows that Cynthia’s recipe.)
the recipe belongs to her.)

21
 A possessive pronoun shows
Pronouns possession or ownership.
A pronoun replaces a noun. • Owen ate all of his lunch. (His
The most common pronouns are comes before the noun lunch.)
called personal pronouns.
• The food was mine.
• Juan fell off the ladder. (Mine may stand alone.)
• He fell off the ladder. Pronouns that come before a
noun my, your, his, her, its, our,
Uses of Personal Pronouns their
Personal pronouns include Pronouns that stand alone
subject pronouns, object mine, yours, his, hers, ours,
pronouns, and possessive theirs
pronouns.
A subject pronoun is the Tip
subject of a sentence. The form of the pronouns in your
sentences must agree with
Singular He painted beautiful the words they replace.
pictures.
Plural They hang in a museum.
Singular I, you, he, she, it
Plural we, you, they
An object pronoun is used • Eva had a lot of free time after
after an action verb or in a she gave up piano lessons.
prepositional phrase. (The pronoun she and the
• I painted these. (These comes word it replaces, Eva, agree
after the action verb painted.) because they are both
• You can hang your picture singular.)
below them. (Them is the • Eva’s sisters were still very
object in the prepositional busy because they continued
phrase below them.) to take piano lessons. (The
pronoun they and the word it
replaces, sisters, agree because
they are both plural.)

22
 Parts of Speech
First-, Second-, and Third- Verbs
Person Pronouns A verb shows action or connects
A first-person pronoun the subject to another word
replaces the name or names of a in the sentence. Verbs can be
speaker. action, linking, or helping verbs.
• I enjoy watching movies. Verbs take on many different
(I replaces the speaker’s forms. They can be singular or
name.) plural, active or passive, regular
• We enjoy watching movies or irregular.
at the theater. (We replaces In addition to the present, past,
the names of two or more and future tenses of verbs, there
speakers.) are special tenses of verbs called
A second-person pronoun present perfect, past perfect, and
replaces the name of the person future perfect.
or thing being spoken to.
• Jennifer, do you want to see a Action Verbs
movie tonight? (You replaces An action verb shows what the
the name Jennifer, the person subject is doing. It makes the
being spoken to.) writing more clear.
• If you boys are going, you will • Lina jogs a lot.
have to buy the tickets. (You • She watches cross-country
replaces boys.) races on TV.
A third-person pronoun
replaces the name of the person
or thing being discussed.
• Kevin said he would only
watch an action movie. (He
replaces Kevin, the person
being discussed.)
• The boys said they would like
to leave early to buy the
tickets. (They replaces boys,
who are the people
being discussed.)

23
 Linking Verbs Singular and Plural Verbs
A linking verb links a subject to Use a singular verb when the
a noun or an adjective in the subject of a sentence is singular.
predicate part of the sentence. • Harry loves banana nut bread.
• Jane is an athlete. (The verb (The subject Harry and the
is connects the subject Jane to verb loves are both singular.)
the noun athlete.) Use a plural verb when the
• She feels tired after a long subject of the sentence is plural.
run. (The verb feels links the • Nuts make the bread more
subject she to the adjective filling. (The subject nuts and
tired.) the verb make are both plural.)
Verbs for states of being
is, are, was, were, am, been Active and Passive Voice
Other linking verbs feel, look, A verb is in the active voice
seem, smell, taste, etc. when the subject is doing the
action.
Helping Verbs • Rory sang the national
A helping verb comes before anthem. (The verb, sang, is
the main verb in a sentence. It active because the subject,
helps show action and time. Rory, is doing the action.)
• Lina had gone to the dentist. A verb is passive when the
(The verb had shows that subject does not do the action.
the action gone to the dentist • The national anthem was
occurred in the past.) sung by Rory. (The verb, was
• Lina will get braces soon. sung, is passive because the
(The verb will shows a future subject, the national anthem, is
action that will take place.) not doing the action.)
Helping verbs am, is, are, was, Regular Verbs
were, will, shall, could, would, Most verbs are regular. By
should, must, can, may, might, adding -ed to the end of a
have, had, has, do, did regular verb, you show that the
action happened in the past. By
using a helping verb, you state a
past, present, or future action.
Past Present Future
I baked. I bake. I will bake.
I have baked.

24
 Parts of Speech
Irregular Verbs grow grew grown
Some verbs are irregular. An hang hung hung
irregular verb does not end in hide hid hidden, hid
-ed when you state a past action hit hit hit
or when you use a helping verb hurt hurt hurt
with it. know knew known
lay laid laid
Past Present Future lead led led
I ran. I run. I will run.
let let let
I have run.
lie lay lain
lose lost lost
Some irregular verbs are listed make made made
below. The tense used with the put put put
helping verbs has, have, had is ride rode ridden
called the past participle. ring rang rung
Present Past Past run ran run
Tense Tense Participle say said said
am, is was been see saw seen
are were been set set set
begin began begun shake shook shaken
bite bit bitten shine shone shone, shined
blow blew blown shrink shrank shrunk
break broke broken shut shut shut
bring brought brought sing sang sung
catch caught caught sit sat sat
come came come speak spoke spoken
cost cost cost spring sprang sprung
cut cut cut steal stole stolen
dive dove, dived swim swam swum
do did done swing swung swung
draw drew drawn take took taken
drink drank drunk teach taught taught
drive drove driven tear tore torn
eat ate eaten throw threw thrown
fall fell fallen wear wore worn
fight fought fought
fly flew flown
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone

25
 Verb Tense The future perfect tense shows
an action that will begin in the
The time in which the verb
future and end at a certain time
shows action is called tense.
in the future. Use will have or
Tense is shown by endings
shall have to form the future
(walked) and by helping verbs
perfect tense.
(will walk), or by both (will have
walked). • Anna will have juggled the
oranges for two hours.
The present tense shows an
action that is happening now or
that happens often. Adjectives
• Akemi likes the flute. An adjective is a word that
• She plays often. describes a noun or pronoun.
The past tense shows an action The different forms of adjectives
that happened at a certain time are positive, comparative, and
in the past. superlative.
• Akemi liked the flute.
• She played often.
Tip
Articles like a, the, and an
The future tense shows an are adjectives.
action that will happen later.
Use such helping verbs as will or
shall before the main verb. Positive Adjectives
• Akemi will like the concert A positive adjective describes
again next year. a noun without comparing it to
• She shall play the flute often. anything or anyone.
The present perfect tense • An elephant is big.
shows an action that is still Special positive adjectives
happening. Use has or have good, bad, many
before the main verb to form the
present perfect tense.
• Tim has juggled the oranges
for an hour.
The past perfect tense shows
an action that began and was
finished in the past. Use had
before the main verb to form
the past perfect tense.
• Jessica had juggled the
oranges for 10 minutes.
26
 Parts of Speech
Comparative Adjectives Adverbs
A comparative adjective An adverb describes a verb,
compares two people, places, adjective, or another adverb.
things, or ideas. Most adverbs show where, when,
• An elephant is bigger than a or how. As with adjectives,
lion. (The ending -er is added adverbs can be positive,
to one-syllable adjectives.) comparative, or superlative.
• The monkeys are more
playful than the lions. (You Positive Adverbs
usually add more before an A positive adverb does not
adjective with two or more make a comparison.
syllables.)
• Miguel works hard all day
Special comparative adjectives long.
better, worse, more, less
Special positive adverbs
well, badly, poorly
Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective Comparative Adverbs
compares three or more people,
A comparative adverb is
places, things, or ideas.
formed by adding -er to one-
• An elephant is the biggest syllable adverbs, or by adding
animal I’ve seen at the zoo. the word more or less before
(Add the ending -est to one- longer adverbs.
syllable adjectives.)
• Miguel works harder than
• A lion is the most frightening other kids his age.
animal I’ve seen at the zoo.
• Miguel works more often than
(You usually add most or least
many of his friends.
before an adjective with two
or more syllables.) Special comparative adverbs
better, worse, less
Special superlative adjectives
best, worst, most, least

27
 Superlative Adverbs Prepositional Phrases
A superlative adverb is formed A prepositional phrase
by adding -est to one-syllable contains a preposition, the
adverbs, or by using the word object of the preposition, and all
most or least before longer descriptive words in between.
adverbs. • The boa constrictor slithered
• Miguel works hardest in the around the tree.
morning.
• Miguel works most often at Common Prepositions
his desk. about into
Special superlative adverbs above like
best, worst, least across near
after next to
Tip against
along
of
off
Be sure to use good and well correctly.
Good is an adjective and well is most among on
often an adverb. For example: around on top of
I had a good day at onto
because I felt well. before out of
behind outside
below over
Prepositions beneath
beside
past
since
A preposition shows the between through
relation of a noun or pronoun to by to
another word in the sentence. down toward
• The puppy playfully pushed during under
the clock off the table. except underneath
• The rabbit was startled and for until
jumped in its cage. from up
in upon
Object of the Preposition in front of with
The noun or pronoun that inside within
comes after the preposition is instead of without
the object of the preposition.
• The cat hid under the table.
(Table is the object of the
preposition under.)

28
 Parts of Speech
Interjections Correlative Conjunctions
An interjection expresses Use correlative conjunctions
strong emotion or surprise. Use in pairs.
a comma or exclamation point to • Either come or go, but make
separate an interjection from the a decision. (Either and or work
rest of a sentence. as a pair in this sentence.)
• Hey, stop whining! Correlative conjunctions
• Ouch! I stubbed my toe! either/or, neither/nor, both/and,
not only/but also, whether/or

Conjunctions Subordinate Conjunctions

A conjunction joins individual Use a subordinate conjunction
words or groups of words. The to join two clauses to make a
three types of conjunctions complex sentence.
are coordinate, correlative, and • I had to finish my math
subordinate. homework before I was
allowed to go outside and play.
Coordinate Conjunctions • I’m good with numbers, so
A coordinate conjunction I finished my homework
connects equal parts: two or without a problem.
more words, phrases, or clauses.
Subordinate conjunctions
• The snake slithered around after, although, as, because,
the tree branch and down before, if, in order that, since,
the trunk. (The conjunction so, that, though, unless, until,
and joins two prepositional when, where, while
phrases.)
Coordinate conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

29
 Writing
Numbers
There are several rules for Use numerals for numbers in
writing numbers. Here are some the following forms:
tips to follow: • money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $4.50
Usually, numbers from one • decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5
to ten are written as words. • percentages . . . . . . . . . . . . 5%
Numbers greater than ten are
• chapters . . . . . . . . . Chapter 1
usually written as numerals.
• pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 33
• two, five, 12, 699, 10,000
• addresses . . . . 6235 W. Locust
When you compare numbers,
use all numerals or all words. • dates . . . . . . . . . . October 12
• The toys are popular among • times . . . . . . . . . . . . 2:00 P.M.
kids, ages 7 to 13. • statistics . . . . . a ratio of 3 to 1
Use a combination of words
and numerals for very large
numbers.
• 6 trillion, 30 million
Use words to begin a sentence.
• Twenty students tried out for
the play, but only six got
parts.

30
 Writing Numbers ⁄ Words That Add Spark to Your Writing
Words That Synonyms
A synonym is a word with a
Add Spark to similar meaning. Synonyms
enliven your writing and give
Your Writing the reader more than one way to
think about your description.
It’s important that your writing
be interesting to you and your • I was thrilled to learn the
readers. One way to add spark to joyous news that our neighbor
your writing is to use different had just adopted a baby and
types of words. Antonyms, would happily have a party to
synonyms, and homonyms will celebrate.
not only make your writing
come alive but also give you
a better understanding of the
Homonyms
Homonyms are two words
words you use. that sound the same but have
different meanings.
Antonyms Homophones are words
An antonym is a word with an that sound alike but have
opposite meaning. Antonyms different spellings and different
create contrast and conflict in meanings.
writing. The opening of Charles • The witch liked to sail
Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities is through the air on her broom,
famous for its many antonyms. which she had bought at a
The words set the stage for the garage sale for a good price.
conflict to come. Homographs are words that
• “It was the best of times, it have the same spellings but have
was the worst of times, it was different origins and meanings.
the age of wisdom, it was the • My brother needs to learn to
age of foolishness . . .” play fair.
• I have tickets for the fair this
weekend.

31
 The Traits of Voice
Good Writing How Do I Sound?
Voice is how your writing
Knowing the traits of good sounds. When you find your
writing and how to apply them voice, your personality becomes
can help your writing. part of your writing. The reader,
your audience, can “hear” how
Ideas you feel about your subject.
Your voice should fit your topic.
Sending Out a Message For example, you wouldn’t
When you write, you’re trying write cheerfully about people
to get a message across to your crying as they wave goodbye to
reader. To do this, your ideas their friends. You would write
need to be presented clearly. cheerfully, however, if you were
They should be fresh, exciting, describing people celebrating a
and hold the reader’s attention. holiday.
Support your ideas with accurate
information and details, leaving
your reader with new insight
Word Choice
into the topic. Painting with Words
Words are like the colors
Organization painters use to create a picture.
Your words should be colorful,
Where Should I Put Things? rich, and lively. The right words
When you write, you don’t want paint the perfect picture in your
the reader to get lost. How you reader’s mind. This picture helps
structure your writing helps the reader clearly understand
guide your reader through your message.
your story. Begin with a strong
lead, or a sentence that grabs
the reader’s attention. Then
use transitions, or phrases, to
connect one idea to the next,
until you lead the reader to the
conclusion.

32
 Writing Traits
Sentence Fluency Presentation
Writing with Rhythm Pleasing to the Eye
If you had to listen to the same Think of presentation as an
sound over and over again, say invitation to read a piece of
squeaky car brakes or a dripping writing. It’s important how your
faucet, you would get tired of writing looks to the reader.
hearing it. The same is true Sloppy handwriting or too many
about sentences. Using short and pictures can distract the reader.
long sentences creates a rhythm. You want the reader to pay
And, sentences shouldn’t all start attention to your writing and to
the same way. When read aloud, easily understand your message.
your writing should sound That’s why you should either
pleasing to the ear. neatly hand write or type your
final text. Titles, illustrations,
Conventions page numbers, charts, and
Catching Errors bullets also help the reader
understand information.
Make your writing error-free by
following the rules of language:
correct spelling, capitalization,
punctuation, and grammar.
Place periods properly and
capitalize proper nouns so your
readers can enjoy your writing.

33
 Sentences Subjects
A simple subject is the noun that
A sentence begins with a tells what a sentence is about.
capital letter, includes one or
• My neighbor Kyle mowed
more words, and ends with
the lawn. (Kyle is the simple
a period, question mark, or
subject.)
exclamation point. It may ask
a question, make a statement, A complete subject is the
give a command, or show simple subject and all of the
strong emotion, but a sentence words that describe it.
must always express a complete • My neighbor Kyle mowed the
thought. The main parts of a lawn. (My neighbor Kyle is the
sentence are the subject and the complete subject.)
predicate. There are different A compound subject is made
kinds of sentences: simple, up of two or more simple subjects.
compound, and complex, as well • Kyle and his dad enjoyed a big
as declarative, interrogative, breakfast together.
imperative, and exclamatory.
Read on to become familiar
with these kinds of sentences. Predicates
Then learn how to avoid making A simple predicate is the verb
mistakes with the words which, that tells something about the
that, and what. subject.
• Kyle mowed the lawn early
in the morning. (Mowed tells
what the subject did.)
A complete predicate is the
simple predicate and all of the
words that describe it.
• Kyle mowed the lawn early in
the morning. (The complete
predicate is mowed the lawn
early in the morning.)
A compound predicate is
made up of two or more simple
predicates.
• Kyle set the table and poured
the juice.

34
 Sentences
A compound sentence is
Modifiers made up of two or more simple
A modifier is a word or group sentences that are linked by a
of words that adds detail to the comma and a connecting word,
sentence. A modifier can be an or conjunction, such as and, but,
adjective or an adverb. so, or by a semicolon.
• Kyle mowed the lawn quickly • I have read about Africa, but I
and evenly. (Quickly and evenly have never been there.
are adverbs that describe in • I am interested in foreign
detail how Kyle mowed the countries; I hope to travel
lawn.) when I’m older.
A complex sentence has one
Types of Sentences independent clause and one or
A simple sentence expresses more dependent clauses.
one complete thought. It has • Although Africa is thousands
only one independent clause, but of miles away, I’m willing to
it may have a compound subject make the long trip. (Although
or a compound predicate and Africa is thousands of miles away
one or two phrases. is a dependent clause. I’m
• My back hurts. (simple willing to make the long trip can
sentence) stand alone as a sentence.)
• They feel tight and will be A declarative sentence makes a
sore for a while. (This simple statement.
sentence includes a compound • Japan is an island country.
predicate, feel and will be.) An interrogative sentence asks
• My shoulders and back a question.
muscles feel tight and are sore. • Did you know that Tokyo is
(This simple sentence includes the capital of Japan?
both a compound subject,
shoulders and back muscles, and
a compound predicate, feel
and are.)

35
 An imperative sentence gives a
command. Phrases
• Take a passport if you visit A phrase is a group of related
Japan. words that has neither a subject
nor a predicate. Phrases are not
Tip sentences. They do not form a
Imperative sentences don’t complete thought.
always include the word you. • The fourth-grade class (noun
In many cases, you is
already understood phrase)
as the subject. • acted in a play (verb phrase)
• about the signing of the
• Get a passport before Declaration of Independence
visiting Japan. (prepositional phrase)
An exclamatory sentence
shows emotion or surprise.
• I’m so excited about traveling Tip
to Asia! The combination of these three kinds
of phrases creates a complete sentence:
The fourth-grade class acted in a play
Clauses about the signing of the
Declaration of Independence.
A clause is a group of related
words that includes a subject and
a predicate.
An independent clause shows a
complete thought and may stand
alone as a sentence.
• They wear helmets.
A dependent clause does
not show a complete
thought and may not stand
alone as a sentence.
• when they ride their bikes

Tip
When you join a dependent clause with an
independent clause, you form a complete
sentence. For example, They wear
helmets when they ride their bikes.

36
 Sentences
Use that to introduce an
Which vs. That essential clause—information
Writers are often unsure that is essential to the sentence.
when to use the words which No comma is necessary when
and that. Both words add using the word that.
information and detail to • The house that looks like a
sentences. The trick is to gingerbread house was built
figure out if the information is 75 years ago.
essential to the sentence. Follow
these rules to help you use the
words correctly. Which vs. What
Use which to introduce Which is used when something
a nonessential clause— can be counted, and what is
information that is not essential used when something cannot be
to the sentence. Remember to counted.
use a comma to separate the • Francesca couldn’t decide
added information from the which skirt to buy. (In this
main part of the sentence. case, Francesca must choose
• Our neighbor’s house, which between many skirts.)
looks like a gingerbread • Francesca often has difficulty
house, is 75 years old. deciding what to buy. (In
this case, it’s impossible to
determine how many things
Francesca has difficulty
deciding to buy.)

37
 Paragraphs Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is usually
Think of a paragraph as a the first sentence in a paragraph.
human body, in which the brain It tells the reader what the
is in control. In a paragraph, paragraph will be about. A topic
the topic sentence is like the sentence includes a specific topic
brain. It sets the direction and focus.
of the entire paragraph. The
The topic must be simple
rest of the sentences are like
enough for a brief paragraph.
the parts of the body. They
A paragraph on the history of
follow the direction of the topic
the United States, for example,
sentence by adding the details
would be too large a topic. A
and examples that make the
paragraph on the history
paragraph work.
of the Washington Monument,
A paragraph consists of the however, would work.
topic sentence, the body, and the
Too large Rivers
closing sentence.
Just right The Mississippi River

38
 Paragraphs
The focus is the specific
information you want to provide Closing Sentence
about the topic. For example, a The closing sentence ends
paragraph on the history of the the paragraph. It sums up the
Washington Monument might information in the paragraph
focus on the materials used to and explains what it all means.
build the monument. Read the following paragraph
Topic a paragraph on Labrador about eating spaghetti, and see
Retrievers how it is divided into a clear
Focus a paragraph on Labradors beginning, middle, and end.
hunting ducks Eating spaghetti is fun but a
Topic a paragraph on the little dangerous. The dangerous
Mississippi River part is when the food on your
fork falls off. This happens to
Focus a paragraph on how
me all the time—then, plop!
river barges on the Mississippi
The meatball falls into my lap
are used to transport goods to
and the spaghetti goes on my
Illinois
shirt and makes a big red spot
from the sauce. But the fun part
Body of eating spaghetti is the sound
The body is the middle part of a and taste. The slurping sound is
paragraph. It is made up of a little rude, but it reminds me
the sentences between the how much I love spaghetti. The
topic sentence and the closing long, thin noodles taste good,
sentence. These sentences and my grandma’s special red
give the reader additional sauce makes them even better.
information about the topic. For me, spaghetti is the perfect
meal, even if it is messy.

39
 Types of Paragraphs Narrative Paragraphs
The four most common types A narrative paragraph tells
of paragraphs are descriptive, a story about a particular
narrative, persuasive, and experience. The reader should
expository. feel drawn into your story
and interested in what you’ll
tell about next. Be sure to use
Descriptive Paragraphs descriptive words and details
A descriptive paragraph to make the experience seem
describes a person, place, thing, more real.
or idea. Use words that help the
reader see, hear, smell, taste, and Sample
feel what you are writing about.
It’s important to describe color,
Narrative What is the focus of this
size, and sound. The reader Paragraph narrative paragraph ?
Read to find out.
should feel as though he or she I woke
is with you. up early on
Saturday morning
Sample Descriptive Paragraph to the sound of my
The kitchen is the best room in alarm clock buzzing
my house. It’s always warm and in my ear. I had no
inviting. My family and friends time to waste,
gather there to eat and talk about so I hopped out
the day. I especially love the of bed, threw on
kitchen around dinnertime, when some clothes, and
the smells of spices and cooking laced up my soccer
food float through the air. The shoes. I dashed outside in
clanging sounds of plates and time to see the sun rise. I began to
silverware remind me that I’ll soon practice right away. An hour had
fill my stomach with delicious, passed before I felt good about
homemade food. my dribbling and control of the
ball. Another hour went by before
I felt satisfied with my left kick. By
noon, I was drenched in sweat,
sunburned, and sore all over. I
was ready for tomorrow’s game.

40
 Paragraphs
Persuasive Paragraphs Expository Paragraphs
A persuasive paragraph tells An expository paragraph
the writer’s opinion about a gives information about a
topic. It also tries to convince topic. It explains things, gives
the reader of the writer’s directions, or tells how to do
point of view. In a persuasive something. It’s important to use
paragraph, give facts and transition words in an expository
examples to help support your paragraph, such as first, second,
opinion. The more examples you finally, and however. These
give, the more likely you are to words make the paragraph
persuade the reader. flow more smoothly and help
the reader understand the
Sample Persuasive Paragraph explanation.
Two annual holidays in this
country are Mother’s Day and Sample Expository Paragraph
Father’s Day. Twice a year kids The secret to making good
have a chance to treat their pizza is using only the best
parents in a special way. So it’s ingredients. First make your own
only fair that kids get a special pizza dough. That’s easy once you
holiday, too. Kids need to know learn how to knead the dough
how much their parents care and stretch it out. Next get the
about them. There should be cheeses and toppings you want
cards that say, “Happy Kid’s Day!” to put on. Grate one, two or even
Kids should get the day off from three kinds of cheese. Chop the
school to celebrate their special toppings into small pieces. Now,
day, and parents should do pour the sauce over the pizza
whatever their kids want them to dough, sprinkle the cheeses on
do on that day. Kid’s Day would top, and then add the toppings.
definitely be the most popular At last you are ready to bake. Your
holiday of the year! delicious pizza is only 20 minutes
away.

41
 Basic Rules Silent e
If a word ends with a silent e,
of Spelling drop the e before adding a suffix
(ending) that begins with a vowel.
Learning to spell is like learning
to play a new game. Once you • use using usable
learn the basic rules, you’ll • believe believing believable
always remember them. Keep • erase erasing erasable
in mind that there are always
exceptions to the rules, so it’s a
good idea to check a dictionary Tip
if you’re unsure. Here are some Do not drop the e when
the suffix begins with a
tips to help you become a consonant (-ful, -ness).
better speller: For example: hopeful,
shameful, sameness,
bareness
i Before e
For words spelled with an i and e
together, remember the phrase,
Consonant Ending
“i before e, except after c.” If a one-syllable word with a
short vowel needs an ending
• receive, believe
like -ed or -ing, double the final
The last part of that rule is: consonant.
“except for words that sound like
• mat matted
weigh and neigh.”
• set setting
• sleigh, neighbor

Words Ending in y
For plurals of many words that
end in y, change the y to an i
and add -es. If the word ends in
ey, add an s.
• country countries
• monkey monkeys

42
 Basic Spelling Rules
More Spelling Tips Mark Difficult Words
Circle or underline the words that
Make a Dictionary are difficult for you to spell. After
It may be helpful to keep a you write, return to the words you
notebook of the words you have have marked and look them up in
trouble spelling. When you see a dictionary—maybe the one you
an unfamiliar word, look closely created!
at the word, say it, and write
it in your notebook. You can
create your own dictionary by
alphabetizing the words you’ve
Tip
Ask a friend, family member, or teacher
written down. By writing the to read your writing. Someone who
words and organizing them hasn’t read your work yet may catch
alphabetically, you’ll have an mistakes you haven’t noticed.
easier time remembering how
to spell them in the future.

Read from Bottom to Top

After you write, reread your
work from bottom to top. This
will help you focus on each word
you have written and allow you
to catch errors.

Tip
Another helpful strategy is to hold an
index card under each line you are
reading. This will help you focus on each
line without being distracted by the
other lines on the page.

43
 Basic Rules Do Your Research
For some types of writing, it’s a
of Writing good idea to do research before
you begin writing. Facts and
Writing is your chance to let details will make your words
your imagination run free and more believable. Before you
express your feelings. It is a go to the library, write down
fun and rewarding process that everything you already know
allows you to think deeply about about your topic. You’ll see
many topics. As a writer, you can how much more information
always change your style, use you need to make your report
different words, and experiment strong. You might even talk to
with new topics. You never stop someone about your topic.
learning how to write. Here are
a few basic rules to help you
develop your writing: Stick to the Topic
It’s important to think about
Write What You Know ways to keep your writing
centered on your topic. Decide
Write about the what readers need to know. If
things that you’re writing about a pet, focus
interest you. What kinds of
things do you know on what it looks like and give
You’re more a lot about? details about how it acts and why
likely to Try writing about one
you like it.
write well if of these ideas.
you not only
understand but Drafts
also feel strongly Now write a first draft. Write
about your topic. as though you are telling a story
Your reader will to your friends, giving all the
know you’ve written details but not worrying about
from the heart. how you sound. It’s all right to
have mistakes in a first draft.
It’s a good idea to write in the
margins, cross out words, draw
arrows, and move words around.
A draft does not need to look
neat. The important thing is to
put your thoughts on paper. You
can organize them better in later
drafts.
44
 Basic Writing Rules
Editing Do’s
• combine short sentences
• vary your sentence beginnings
• correct sentence errors
• use active verbs
• use specific nouns
• use descriptive modifiers

Combine Short, Choppy

Tip Sentences
When writing a draft, leave a blank When you use a lot of
line in between each written line. That short sentences, your
gives you room to cross out words,
draw arrows, and move writing may sound
words around. choppy and rough. Try
to combine a few short
sentences to balance your
writing and ease the flow of
words. Read the examples below
Reread and Edit and see how smoothly the
You don’t need to be a perfect sentences flow when some of
speller or to have mastered the them are combined.
rules of grammar to be a good
• Lisa walked home from
writer. It is important, however,
school. She walked with
that you correct as many errors
her friend Angela. Lisa and
as possible before finishing a
Angela were great friends.
piece of writing. This may mean
They liked to play together.
that you reread your work many
They never argued.
times until you’re sure you’ve
caught all your mistakes. In Now read the sentences when
doing this, it’s a good idea to some of them are combined.
make a checklist of things to • Lisa and her friend Angela
look for. Then ask a friend or walked home from school.
teacher to check your work for They were great friends. They
errors. liked to play together and
never argued.

45
 Vary Your Sentence Beginnings • Doesn’t know right from
wrong. (The subject is
Make sure your sentences begin
missing.)
in different ways. If you start
each sentence or paragraph in Fix the fragment by adding a
the same way, your writing may subject.
seem dull and boring. • Peter doesn’t know right from
• Willie yawned loudly and wrong.
stretched his arms. Willie A run-on sentence occurs
slowly got out of bed. Willie when two or more sentences are
walked down the hall to the joined without punctuation or
bathroom. Willie splashed the correct linking word.
water on his face, brushed his • Peter doesn’t know right from
teeth, and felt ready to start wrong he is always getting
the day. into trouble.
Begin with the same first sentence. Fix the run-on sentence by
• Willie yawned loudly and making two separate sentences.
stretched his arms. • Peter doesn’t know right from
Use a pronoun and combine the wrong. He is always getting
two short sentences: into trouble.
• He slowly got out of bed and A rambling sentence occurs
walked down the hall to the when too many short sentences
bathroom. are joined with the word and.
Begin the last sentence with a • Peter doesn’t know right
dependent clause. from wrong and he is always
• After splashing water on his face getting into trouble and he
and brushing his teeth, Willie misses school a lot too and
felt ready to start the day. he also refuses to do his
homework and he likes to act
Correct Sentence Errors tougher than everyone else.
Sentence fragments, run- Fix the rambling sentence by
on sentences, and rambling getting rid of some of the and’s
sentences are three of the most and making separate sentences.
common errors people make • Peter doesn’t know right from
in writing. They make your wrong. He is always getting
writing unclear and hard to into trouble, and he misses
read. Learn how to avoid these school a lot. He also refuses
common errors. to do his homework. He likes
to act tougher than everyone
A sentence fragment does not
else.
express a complete thought.
46
 Basic Writing Rules
Use Active Verbs
Verbs are the force behind Tip
sentences. Strong action verbs Don’t overuse modifiers. Too many
adjectives and adverbs can
can make your writing come make your writing sound
alive for the reader. forced and false.
• The ice skater glided across
the ice like a swan. She You might want to
twirled gracefully and leaped use the checklist
high in the air. The audience below to make sure
erupted in applause when she you have looked for
finished. these things as you
reread.
Use Specific Nouns
General nouns like fruit, flowers,
and dogs do not always give a Rereading Checklist
complete picture. Use words
like strawberry, roses, and Golden Did I write about
Retriever to be more specific and something that interests
paint a colorful picture for your me?
reader. Did I write clear and
complete sentences?
Use Descriptive Adjectives Did I write both short and
and Adverbs long sentences?
The right adjectives and adverbs Did I begin my sentences
can add spark to your writing in different ways?
and draw readers into your
work. Read the examples below
and see how the use of adjectives
and adverbs adds color to
otherwise dull sentences.
Poor use of adjectives and adverbs:
• The rain fell hard while the
wind blew loudly.
Better use of adjectives and
adverbs:
• The harsh rain fell on the
soggy ground while the wind
blew fiercely.

47
 Proofreading Proofreading Symbols
In revising your work or that . add a period
of others, it is helpful to use # add a space
proofreading symbols. As cap or capitalization
you make corrections to the
text, you can use standard make a lowercase
l.c. or B
proofreading symbols to show letter
exactly what kinds of changes n.c. not clear
you want to make. Read on omission,
for some of the most common ^ add something
proofreading symbols. ¶ paragraph
? unclear
Sp. spelling
switch the positions
of words
✔ check this out
take something out
w.c. word choice

48
 Proofreading ⁄ Proofreading Checklist
Proofreading Checklist Spelling
Use this checklist to edit and Did I check my spelling,
proofread your final draft: either with a dictionary
or on a computer spell-
Punctuation checker?
Did I end each sentence
with a punctuation mark? Tip
Did I use commas in a Don’t forget that a dictionary
series (My mom, Seth, and computer spell-checker are
and I)? excellent tools to help you correct
spelling errors.
Did I use commas before But beware! Computer spell-checkers
won’t catch the use of the wrong
conjunctions (I sang a song, homophone. For example:
and Jay played piano.)?
I will bee home soon.
Did I punctuate dialogue really should be
correctly? I will be home soon.

Capitalization
Did I begin each sentence
with a capital letter?
Did I capitalize nouns
that name specific people,
places, things, and ideas?

49
 Commonly Misused Words
Below is a list of commonly misused words. These words are often
confused with each other. Read through each set of words. Then read
the examples. If you are ever unsure about which word to use, consult
a dictionary.

accept, except I accept your offer to work here.

I have everything I need except for the green paint.

a lot Mike hopes to make a lot of money in his new job.

already, all ready I already took my weekly spelling test.

I’m all ready to go to dinner.

bare, bear It’s too cold to walk around in bare feet.

A bear sleeps in winter.

blew, blue The wind blew gently.

The sky was blue.

by, buy The plane whizzed by overhead.

Alton wants to buy a new coat for winter.

can, may Can Shane win the pie-eating contest?

May I go to the carnival on Saturday?

cent, scent, sent A penny is worth one cent.

The flower shop had a strong scent.
My dad sent my mom flowers.

chose, choose Antonia chose to walk home from school yesterday.

They often choose to walk home from school.

close, clothes Close the door, please.

Grandpa has worn the same clothes since 1977.

creak, creek Old and worn floors sometimes creak when you walk
on them.
The water in the creek flows quietly.

dear, deer My friends are dear to me.

Deer are shy animals.

50
 Commonly Misused Words
desert, dessert The desert is dry and hot.
Rodrigo always saves room for dessert.

dew, do, due I love the feel of morning dew on my bare feet.
Bart forgot to do his chores last night.
Homework is always due at the beginning of class.

doesn’t, don’t Huang doesn’t like boxing.

I don’t, either.

eye, I She can wink one eye.

I have perfect vision.

fewer, less Hank has fewer baseball cards than Joseph.

Hank has less time to collect baseball cards.

fir, fur Fir trees are evergreen trees.

Many people don’t like the idea of fur coats.

for, four This food is for you.

Jamie’s little brother is four years old.

good, well Have a good day.

Our team played well.

hare, hair A hare looks like a big rabbit.

Dad has black hair.

heal, heel That cut should heal soon.

Sammy injured the heel of his foot.

hear, here It’s hard to hear the TV when the buses go by outside.
Most of the time it’s quiet in here.

hi, high Don’t forget to say hi to the coach for me.

The flag is flying high.

hole, whole A bagel has a hole in the middle.

I always eat the whole bagel for breakfast.

hour, our Mom takes a yoga class for an hour on Wednesday

nights.
Our family believes that exercise is important.

its, it’s The cat licked its paws.

It’s a very cute kitten.

51
 knew, new Kim knew all of the answers on the game show.
She bought a new dress for the occasion.

knight, night Fairy tales often involve a knight in shining armor.

The stars shine brightly at night.

knot, not Sailors know how to make and undo almost any kind
of knot.
I am not very good with my hands.

knows, nose My teacher knows a lot about the planet Mars.

Margo has freckles on her nose.

lay, lie Lay the pillow on the bed.

Lie down and take a nap.

lead, led It’s important to make sure there isn’t any lead in the
water.
The mayor led the city parade.

loose, lose My shoelaces came loose in gym.

I thought for sure that I would lose.

mail, male The mail is delivered six days a week.

A male is a man.

main, Maine, mane My main concern is that I’ll miss my flight.

The state of Maine is famous for its delicious
blueberries.
A horse has a mane of hair on its neck.

meat, meet Vegetarians don’t eat meat.

My friends and I meet every Sunday morning for
breakfast.

oar, or, ore Use an oar to row the boat.

We can take a speedboat or a sailboat.
Ore is a mineral that contains metal.

one, won Liza’s family has one car.

Elizabeth won the race for class president.

pain, pane I was in pain after the book fell on my foot.

The window pane needed to be washed.

pair, pare, pear Ted wore his new pair of cowboy boots.
To pare an apple means to peel it.
I usually eat a juicy pear for dessert.
52
 Commonly Misused Words
passed, past Ramon had already passed several gas stations.
It’s best to think ahead and not dwell on the past.

peace, piece Many politicians speak of working toward world peace.

Joy asked for a small piece of pumpkin pie.

plain, plane Jan wore a plain dress to her wedding.

As a result of bad weather, the plane took off an hour
late.

pore, pour, poor A pore is a tiny opening in the skin.

Would you pour the milk, please?
I felt poor after I spent my allowance.

read, red I read the book in just one sitting.

Damien has bright red hair.

right, write Is this the right place to sign up for the karate class?
Did you write a thank-you letter to Grandpa?

road, rode, rowed The road was dusty and rocky.

We rode horses around the corral.
Sumi rowed the boat to shore.

sea, see Adrian has always liked the salty air by the sea.
Alma can’t see very well without her glasses.

seam, seem The seam in Melvin’s shirt was unraveling.

He didn’t seem to care, though.

sew, so, sow My mom taught me how to sew a hem when I was just
ten years old.
Her car had a flat tire, so she was late.
A gardener must sow seeds to grow plants.

sit, set May I sit down next to you?

Latoya carefully set her tea on the glass table.

some, sum Priya sold some of her old sweaters to earn extra
money.
The sum of 10 and 10 is 20.

son, sun I’d like to have both a son and a daughter.

The sun finally came out from behind the clouds.

stationery, stationary Fiona writes letters on fancy stationery.

My stationary bike doesn’t go anywhere when I pedal.

53
 tail, tale The dog wagged its tail excitedly.
Javier likes to tell tales about his family.

than, then I’m taller than you.

Let’s go shopping and then go to lunch.

their, there, they’re Yvonne and her sister went to visit their grandparents.
Juan likes to go over there because the kids have a lot
of toys.
I think they’re nice people.

threw, through The pitcher threw the ball hard and fast.
The dog jumped through hoops at the circus.

to, too, two Dad dislikes going to the dentist.

I am too tired to cook dinner for the family tonight.
Drake has two younger sisters.

waist, waste Niles puts a belt around his waist.

Pierre doesn’t like to waste too much of his time.

wait, weight Julio is impatient and refuses to wait for anyone.

A backpack full of books has a lot of weight.

wear, where Ruthie likes to wear large hoop earrings every day.
Do you know where the Rocky Mountains are?

which, witch Which dress should I wear to the concert?

Zoe dressed as a witch for the school play.

who’s, whose Who’s going to take me to my swim meet?

Whose goggles are these?

wood, would The burning wood in the fireplace smelled good.

Would you mind turning up the heat?

you’re, your You’re going to get into trouble for being late.
Your dad will be very upset.

54
 Index
Index
Abbreviations, 16 Reread and edit, 45 Proper nouns, 4 adverbs, 27
Acronyms, 16 Combine short, Religions, 5 Positive adverbs, 27
Address choppy sentences, 45 Titles, 6 Superlative
abbreviations, 17 Correct sentence Titles used with adverbs, 28
Initialisms, 16 errors, 46 names, 4 Conjunctions, 29
State abbreviations, 16 Editing do’s, 45 Words used as Coordinate
Weights and Use active verbs, 47 names, 5 conjunctions, 29
measures, 17 Use descriptive Correlative
Commonly conjunctions, 29
adjectives and
Apostrophes, 18 Misused Words,
adverbs, 47 Subordinate
50-54
In contractions, 18 Use specific nouns, conjunctions, 29
In plural possessives, 47 Contractions, 18 Interjections, 29
19 Vary your sentence Nouns, 20
beginnings, 46 Paragraphs, 38
In shared possessives, Abstract nouns, 20
19 Rereading checklist, Closing sentence, 39
47 Common nouns, 20
In singular Body, 39
possessives, 19 Stick to the topic, 44 Concrete nouns, 20
Topic sentence, 38
To form plurals, 18 Write what you Nouns as objects, 21
Types of paragraphs,
know, 44 40 Plural nouns, 20
Basic Rules of
Descriptive Proper nouns, 20
Spelling, 42 Capitalization, 4
paragraphs, 40 Singular nouns, 20
Consonant ending, Abbreviations, 6
Expository Uses of nouns, 21
42 Closings of letters, 7 paragraphs, 41
i before e, 42 Prepositions, 28
Days, Months, 5 Narrative
More spelling tips, 43 Common
First words, 6 paragraphs, 40
prepositions, 28
Make a dictionary, Greetings of letters, Persuasive
43 Object of the
7 paragraphs, 41
preposition, 28
Mark unfamiliar Historical
words, 43 Parts of Speech, 20 Prepositional
information, 6 phrases, 28
Read from bottom Adjectives, 26
Holidays, 5 Pronouns, 22
to top, 43 Comparative
Languages, 5 adjectives, 27 First-person
Silent e, 42
Names of people, 4 Positive adjectives, pronouns, 23
Words ending in
y, 42 Names of places and 26
things, 7 Superlative
Basic Rules of Nationalities, 5 adjectives, 27
Writing, 44
Organizations, 5 Adverbs, 27
Do your research, 44
Proper adjectives, 4 Comparative
Drafts, 44
55
 Second-person In direct address, 9 Parentheses, 15 Types of sentences,
pronouns, 23 In letter writing, 9 To add 35
Third-person In numbers, 10 information, 15 Complex sentences,
pronouns, 23 Period, 8 35
Items in a series, 9
Uses of personal After abbreviations, Compound
pronouns, 22 To separate sentences, 35
adjectives, 10 8
Verbs, 23 After initials, 8 Declarative
To set off sentences, 35
Action verbs, 23 appositives, 10 As a decimal, 8
Active voice, 24 Exclamatory
To set off dialogue, At the end of a sentences, 36
Helping verbs, 24 9 sentence, 8
Imperative
Irregular verbs, 25 To set off Question mark, 15 sentences, 36
Linking verbs, 24 interjections, 10 Direct question, 15 Interrogative
Passive voice, 24 To set off Quotation marks, 14 sentences, 35
interruptions, 10
Plural verbs, 24 Direct quotations, Simple sentences, 35
To set off long 14
Regular verbs, 24 phrases and clauses, Which vs. That, 37
Singular verbs, 24 10 Placement of Which vs. What, 37
punctuation, 14
Verb tense, 26 Dash, 12
To punctuate titles, Traits of Good
In a sentence break, 14 Writing, 32
Proofreading, 48 13
Proofreading To punctuate words Conventions, 33
In interrupted for emphasis, 15
checklist, 49 Ideas, 32
speech, 13
Proofreading Semicolon, 11 Organization, 32
Ellipsis, 13
symbols, 48 Between Presentation, 33
Pause in dialogue, independent clauses,
Punctuation, 8 13 Sentence fluency, 33
11
Colon, 11 To show omitted Voice, 32
To separate phrases,
words, 13 11 Word choice, 32
Between numbers
in time, 11 Exclamation point, Underlines, 15
15 Words That Add
To introduce a list, For specific words, Spark to Your
11 Hyphen, 12 15 Writing, 31
To introduce a To divide a word, For titles, 15 Antonyms, 31
long or important 12
quotation, 11 Homonyms, 31
With a certain Sentences, 34
Comma, 9 prefix, 12 Synonyms, 31
Clauses, 36
Between two Italics, 15 Modifiers, 35 Writing Numbers,
independent clauses, For specific words, 30
Phrases, 36
10 15
Predicates, 34
In addresses, 9 For titles, 15
Subjects, 34
In dates, 9

56
 TM

Grades 3–5
ISBN-13:978-1-4189-4756-9
ISBN-10: 1-4189-4756-3
90000