REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

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REINFORCED CONCRETE
DESIGN

W. H. Mosley
and

J. H. Bungey
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Liverpool

FOURTH EDITION

M
MACMILLAN

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© W. H. Mosley and J. H. Bungey 1976, 1982, 1987, 1990

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission

of this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or
transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with
the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place,
London WClE 7DP.
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to
this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and
civil claims for damages.

First published 1976

Reprinted 1977, 1978, 1980, 1981 (twice)
Second edition 1982
Reprinted 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986
Third edition 1987
Reprinted 1988, 1989
Fourth edition 1990
Reprinted 1991

Published by
MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Mosley, W. H. (William Henry)
Reinforced concrete design. - 4th ed.
1. Reinforced concrete structural components. Design
I. Title II. Bungey, J. H. (John Henry), 1944-
624.18341
ISBN 978-0-333-53718-3 ISBN 978-1-349-20929-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-20929-3

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Contents
Preface to Fourth Edition viii
Notation ix

I Properties of Reinforced Concrete 1

1.1 Composite Action 1
1.2 Stress-Strain Relations 2
1.3 Shrinkage and Thermal Movement 7
1.4 Creep 11
1.5 Durability 12
1.6 Specification of Materials 12

2 Limit State Design 1S

2.1 Limit States 16
2.2 Characteristic Material Strengths and Characteristic Loads 17
2.3 Partial Factors of Safety 18
2.4 Global Factox of Safety 19

3 Analysis of the Structure 24

3.1 Loads 24
3.2 Load Combinations 26
3.3 Analysis of Beams and Frames 28
3.4 Redistribution of Moments 48

4 Analysis of the Section 53

4.1 Stress-Strain Relations 53
4.2 The Distribution of Strains and Stresses across a Section 55
4.3 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block 57
4.4 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending 58
4.5 Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement at the
Ultimate Umit State 63
4.6 Flanged Section in Bending at the Ultimate Limit State 68
4.7 Moment Redistribution and the Design Equations 75

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vi CONTENTS
4.8 Bending Plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State 79
4.9 The Rectangular-Parabolic Stress Block 88
4.10 The Triangular Stress Block 91

s Shear, Bond and Torsion 98

5.1 Shear 98
5.2 Anchorage Bond 103
5.3 Laps in Reinforcement 106
5.4 Analysis of Section Subject to Torsional Moments 107

6 Serviceability, Durability and Stability Requirements 112

6.1 Detailing Requirements 113
6.2 Span-Effective Depth Ratios 117
6.3 Calculation of Deflections 119
6.4 Flexural Cracking 134
6.5 Thermal and Shrinkage Cracking 141
6.6 Other Serviceability Requirements 144
6.7 Stability 147

7 Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 154

7.1 Preliminary Analysis and Member Sizing 156
7.2 Design for Bending 159
7.3 Design for Shear 174
7.4 Bar Spacing 180
7.5 Continuous Beams 180
7.6 Cantilever Beams 187
7.7 Design for Torsion 188

8 Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs 192

8.1 Simplified Analysis 192
8.2 Shear in Slabs 193
8.3 Span-Effective Depth Ratios 198
8.4 Reinforcement Details 200
8.5 Solid Slabs Spanning in One Direction 201
8.6 Solid Slabs Spanning in Two Directions 209
8.7 Flat Slab Floors 214
8.8 Ribbed and Hollow Block Floors 222
8.9 Stair Slabs 226
8.10 Yield Line and Strip Methods 230

9 Column Design 239

9.1 Loading and Moments 239
9.2 Short and Slender Columns 241
9.3 Reinforcement Details 244
9.4 Design of Short Columns 246
9.5 Non-rectangular Sections 261
9.6 Design of Slender Columns 264

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 CONTENTS vii

10 Foundations 270
10.1 Pad Footings 273
10.2 Combined Footings 280
10.3 Strap Footings 284
10.4 Strip Footings 286
10.5 Raft Foundations 289
10.6 Piled Foundations 291

11 Water-retaining Structures and Retaining Walls 296

11.1 Water-retaining Structures 296
11.2 Joints in Water-retaining Structures 298
11.3 Reinforcement Details 302
11.4 Design Methods 304
11.5 Retaining Walls 318

12 Prestressed Concrete 329

12.1 Principles of Prestressing 329
12.2 Methods of Prestressing 332
12.3 Analysis of Concrete Section Under Working Loads 335
12.4 Design for the Serviceability Limit State 341
12.5 Analysis and Design at the Ultimate Limit State 367

Appendix 382
Further Reading 386
Index 388

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Preface to Fourth Edition
The purpose of this book is to provide a straightforward introduction to the
principles and methods of design for concrete structures. It is directed primarily
at students and young designers who require an understanding of the basic theory
and a concise guide to design procedures. Although the detailed design methods
are generally according to British Standards, much of the theory and practice is
of a fundamental nature and should, therefore, be useful to engineers in other
countries. Limit state concepts, as recently introduced in the new Codes of
Practice, are used and the calculations are in SI units throughout.
The subject matter has been arranged so that chapters 1 to 5 deal mostly with
theory and analysis while the subsequent chapters cover the design and detailing
of various types of member and structure. In order to include topics that are
usually in an undergraduate course, there is a chapter on earth-retaining and
water-retaining structures, and also a final chapter on prestressed concrete.
Important equations that have been derived within the text are highlighted by
an asterisk adjacent to the equation number.
In preparing the fourth edition of this book, the principal aim has been to
incorporate new information relating to the design of water-retaining structures,
as proposed by British Standard BS 8007. The remainder of the text, which
relates to BS 8110, remains essentially unchanged with only very minor
amendments.
It should be mentioned that standard Codes of Practice such as BS 8110 are
always liable to be revised, and readers should ensure that they are using the latest
edition of any relevant standard.
Extracts from the British Standards are reproduced by permission of the
British Standards Institution, 2 Park Street, London WlA 2BS, from whom
complete copies can be obtained.
Finally, the authors wish to thank Mrs B. Cotgreave who prepared the diagrams
and Mrs F. Zimmermann who typed most of the draft and final copies of the
manuscript.

viii

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Notation
Notation is generally in accordance with BS 8110, and the principal symbols are
listed below. Other symbols are defined in the text where necessary. The symbols
e for strain and f for stress have been adopted throughout, with the general system
of subscripts such that the first subscript refers· to the material, c -concrete,
s - steel, and the second subscript refers to the type of stress, c - compression,
t- tension.

As Cross-sectional area of tension reinforcement

A~ Cross-sectional area of compression reinforcement
Asb Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement in the form of bent-up bars
Asv Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement in the form of links
a Deflection
acr Distance from surface crack position to point of zero strain
b Width of section
bv Breadth of web or rib of a member
bw Breadth of web or rib of a member
d Effective depth of tension reinforcement
d' Depth to compression reinforcement
Ec Static secant modulus of elasticity of concrete
£5 Modulus of elasticity of steel
e Eccentricity
F Ultimate load
feu Characteristic concrete cube strength
[pu Characteristic strength of prestressing tendons
fs Service stress or steel stress
[y Characteristic strength of reinforcement
[yv Characteristic strength of link reinforcement
Gk Characteristic dead load
gk Characteristic dead load per unit length or area
h Overall depth of section in plane of bending
hr Thickness of flange
I Second moment of area
k1 Average compressive stress in the concrete for a rectangular-parabolic
stress block

ix

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X NOTATION
A factor that relates the depth to the centroid of the rectangular-
parabolic stress block and the depth of the neutral axis
Ia Lever-arm factor= z/d
le Effective height of a column or wall
M Bending moment
Mu Ultimate moment of resistance
N Axial load
n Ultimate load per unit area
Nbat Axial load on a column corresponding to the balanced condition
p Final prestress force (chapter 12)
Qk Characteristic imposed load
Qk Characteristic live load per unit length or area
1/rx Curvature of a beam at point x
rcrit Critical steel ratio to control thermal cracks
s Depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
Smax Maximum likely crack spacing
Sv Spacing of links along the member
T Torsional moment
u Perimeter
v Shear force
v Shear stress
Vc Ultimate shear stress in concrete
wk Characteristic wind load
Wmax Maximum likely surface crack width
Wu Ultimate load per unit length
X Neutral axis depth
z Lever arm
ac Coefficient of thermal expansion of mature concrete
<l!e Modular ratio
'Yr Partial safety factor for load
'Ym Partial.safety factor for strength
esh Shrinkage strain
IJ. Coefficient of friction
<I> Bar size
4> Creep coefficient

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1
Properties of Reinforced
Concrete
Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into
many varied shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender
curved dome or shell. Its utility and verstatility is achieved by combining the best
features of concrete and steel. Consider some of the widely differing properties of
these two materials that are listed below.

Concrete Steel
strength in tension poor good
strength in compression good good, but slender bars
will buckle
strength in shear fair good
durability good corrodes if unprotected
fire resistance good poor - suffers rapid loss of
strength at high temperatures

It can be seen from this list that the materials are more or less complementary.
Thus, when they are combined, the steel is able to provide the tensile strength and
probably some of the shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression,
protects the steel to give durability and fire resistance. This chapter can present
only a brief introduction to the basic properties of concrete and its steel reinforce-
ment. For a more comprehensive study, it is recommended that reference should
be made to the specialised texts listed in Further Reading at the end of the book.

1.1 Composite Action

The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive
strength. Because of this, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed on
the assumption that the concrete does not resist any tensile forces. Reinforcement
is designed to carry these tensile forces, which are transferred by bond between
the interface of the two materials. If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars

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2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
willjust slip within the concrete and there will not be a composite action. Thus
members should be detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around the
reinforcement during construction. In addition, some bars are ribbed or twisted
so that there is an extra mechanical grip.
In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is
assumed that there is perfect bond, so that the strain in ~he reinforcement is
identical to the strain in the adjacent concrete. This ensures that there is what is
known as 'compatibility of strains' across the cross-section of the member.
The coefficients of thermal expansion for steel and for concrete are of the
order of 10 X 10-6 per °C and 7-12 X 10-6 per °C respectively. These values are
sufficiently close that problems with bond seldom arise from differential expan-
sion between the two materials over normal temperature ranges.

Load

l D
Compnzssion

Strain Saction
Distribution A-A
Rain forcamant
Cracking

Figure l.l Composite action

Figure 1.1 illustrates the behaviour of a simply supported beam subjected to

bending and shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces,
while the compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the concrete.
Wherever tension occurs it is likely that cracking of the concrete will take place.
This cracking, however, does not detract from the safety of the structure provided
there is good reinforcement bond to ensure that the cracks are restrained from
opening so that the embedded steel continues to be protected from corrosion.
When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the concrete,
then steel reinforcement must again be provided, but in these cases it is only
required to supplement the load-carrying capacity of the concrete. For example,
compression reinforcement is generally required in a column, where it takes the
form of vertical bars spaced near the perimeter. To prevent these bars buckling,
steel binders are used to assist the restraint provided by the surrounding concrete.

1_2 Stress-Strain Relations

The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and
strains in the concrete and the steel reinforcement. To carry out the analysis and
design of a member it is necessary to have a knowledge of the relationship between
these stresses and strains. This knowledge is particularly important when dealing
with reinforced concrete which is a composite material; for in this case the analysis

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 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 3
of the stresses on a cross-section of a member must consider the equilibrium of
the forces in the concrete and steel, and also the compatibility of the strains across
the cross-section.

1.2.1 Concrete

Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-
strain curves. A typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure 1.2.
As the load is applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is approximately
linear at first and the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually
a full recovery of displacement if the load is removed. Eventually, the curve is no
longer linear and the concrete behaves more and more as a plastic material. If the
load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be com-
plete and a permanent deformation would remain. The ultimate strain for most
structural concretes tends to be a constant value of approximately 0.0035, irres-
pective of the strength of the concrete. The precise shape of the curve is very
dependent on the length of time the load is applied, a factor which will be further
discussed in section 1.4 on creep. Figure 1.2 is typical for a short-term loading.

Strczss

Stram

Figure 1.2 Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression

Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic is illustra-
ted by the graph in figure 1.3 which shows how the increase is rapid at first,
becoming more gradual later. Some codes of practice allow the concrete strength
used in design to be varied according to the age of the concrete when it supports
the design load. A typical variation in strength of an adequately cured Ordinary
Portland cement concrete, as suggested by BS 8110, is

7 days 1 month 2 months 3 months 6 months 1 year

20 30 33 35 36 37 N/mm 2

BS 8110 does not permit the use of strengths greater than the 28-day value in
calculations, but the Modulus of Elasticity may be modified to account for age as
shown overleaf.

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4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

v
40
"'E ~

-
v
E
z
J: 30
/
....
Cl
1:
Ill

.., 20

I
!;
Ill
..,>
..
~ 10
Q. v
~
u
o, 7 28 3 5
day days days months yczar yczars
Agcz of concrcztcz (log scalcz)

Figure 1.3 Increase of concrete strength with age. Typical curve for an Ordinary
Portland cement concrete

Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

It is seen from the stress-strain curve for concrete that although elastic behaviour
may be assumed for stresses below about one-third of the ultimate compressive
strength, this relationship is not truly linear. Consequently it is necessary to defme
precisely what value is to be taken as the modulus of elasticity
E = stress
strain
A number of alternative definitions exist, but the most commonly adopted is
E = Ec where Ec is known as the secant or static modulus. This is measured for a
particular concrete by means of a static test in which a cylinder is loaded to just
above one-third of the corresponding control cube stress and then cycled back to
zero stress. This removes the effect of initial 'bedding in' and minor stress redistri-
butions in the concrete under load. Load is then reapplied and the behaviour will
then be almost linear; the average slope of the line up to the specified stress is
taken as the value for Ec. The test is described in detail in BS 1881 and the result
is generally known as the instantaneous static modulus of elasticity.
The dynamic modulus of elasticity, Ecq• is sometimes referred to since this is
much easier to measure in the laboratory and there is a fairly well-defmed relation-
ship betweenEc andEcq· The standard test is based on determining the resonant
frequency of a laboratory prism specimen and is also described in BS 1881. It is
also possible to obtain a good estimate of Ecq from ultrasonic measuring techni-
ques, which may sometimes be used on site to assess the concrete in an actual
structure. The standard test for Ecq is on an unstressed specimen. It can be seen
from figure 1.4 that the value obtained represents the slope of the tangent at zero
stress and Ecq is therefore higher than Ec. The relationship between the two
moduli is given by
Static modulus Ec =(1.25 Ecq - 19) kN/mm 2

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 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 5
Strczss

Load cycling

Strain
Ec(static)

Figure 1.4 Moduli of elasticity of concrete

This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes.

The actual value of E for a concrete depends on many factors related to the
mix, but a general relationship is considered to exist between the modulus of
elasticity and the compressive cube strength. Ranges of Ec for various concrete
grades which are suitable for design are shown in table 1.1. The magnitude of the
modulus of elasticity is required when investigating the deflection and cracking of
a structure. When considering short-term effects, member stiffnesses will be based
on the static modulusEc, as defined above. If long-term effects are being consider-
ed, it can be shown that the effects of creep can be represented by modifying the
value of Ec and this is discussed in section 6.3.2.

Table 1.1 Short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete

28 day characteristic Static modulus E c 28

cube strength (kN/mm 2 ) '
fcu,28
(N/mm 2 ) Typical range Mean

25 19-31 25
30 20-32 26
40 22-34 28
50 24-36 30
60 26-38 32

The elastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from
Ec,t = Ec,2s(0.4 + 0.6 fcu,tffcu,28)

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6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
0·2 .,. (b) High yiczld stczczl
proof st rczss

/'--t---\~)MIId ""'
St rczss

0002
Strain
Figure 1.5 Stress-strain curves for steel

1.2.2 Steel
Figure 1.5 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) mild steel, and (b) high yield
steel. Mild steel behaves as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the
stress up to the yield, at which point there is a sudden increase in strain with no
change in stress. After the yield point, mild steel becomes a plastic material and the
strain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value. High yield steel on the other
hand, does not have a definite yield point but shows a more gradual change from
an elastic to a plastic behaviour.
The specified strength used in design is based on the yield stress for mild steel,
whereas for high yield steel the strength is based on a specified proof stress. A 0.2
per cent proof stress is defined in figure 1.5 by the broken line drawn parallel to
the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
Removal of the load within the plastic range would result in the stress-strain
diagram following a line approximately parallel to the loading portion -see line
BC in figure 1.6. The steel will be left with a permanent strain AC, which is known
as 'slip'. If the steel is again loaded, the stress-strain diagram will follow the un-
loading curve until it almost reaches the original stress at B and then it will curve
in the direction of the first loading. Thus, the proportional limit for the second
loading is higher than for the initial loading. This action is referred to as 'strain
hardening' or 'work hardening'.

StrClSS

Strain

Figure 1.6 Strain hardening

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 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 7
The deformation of the steel is also dependent on the length of time the load is
applied. Under a constant stress the strains will gradually increase - this pheno-
menon is known as 'creep' or 'relaxation'. The amount of creep that takes place
over a period of time depends on the grade of steel and the magnitude of the stress.
Creep of the steel is of little significance in normal reinforced concrete work, but
it is an important factor in prestressed concrete where the prestressing steel is very
highly stressed.

1.3 Shrinkage and Thermal Movement

As concrete hardens there is a reduction in volume. This shrinkage is liable to cause

cracking of the concrete, but it also has the beneficial effect of strengthening the
bond between the concrete and the steel reinforcement. Shrinkage begins to take
place as soon as the concrete is mixed, and is caused initially by the absorption of
the water by the concrete and the aggregate. Further shrinkage is caused by
evaporation of the water which rises to the concrete surface. During the setting
process the hydration of the cement causes a great deal of heat to be generated,
and as the concrete cools, further shrinkage takes place as a result of thermal
contraction. Even after the concrete has hardened, shrinkage continues as drying
out persists over many months, and any subsequent wetting and drying can also
cause swelling and shrinkage. Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by restricting the
temperature rise during hydration, which may be achieved by the following
procedures.
(1) Use a mix design with a low cement content.
(2) Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground cement if possible.
(3) Keep aggregates and mixing water cool.
(4) Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray.
(5) Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hydration to dissipate.
A low water-cement ratio will help to reduce drying shrinkage by keeping to a
minimum the volume of moisture that can be lost.
If the change in volume of the concrete is allowed to take place freely without
restraint, there will be no stress change within the concrete. Restraint of the
shrinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile strains and stresses. The restraint
may be caused externally by fixity with adjoining members or friction against an
earth surface, and internally by the action of the steel reinforcement. For a long
wall or floor slab, the restraint from adjoining concrete may be reduced by using
a system of constructing successive bays instead of alternate bays. This allows the
free end of every bay to contract before the next bay is cast.
Day-to-day thermal expansion of the concrete can be greater than the move-
ments caused by shrinkage. Thermal stresses and strains may be controlled by the
correct positioning of movement or expansion joints in a structure. For example,
the joints should be placed at an abrupt change in cross-section and they should,
in general, pass completely through the structure in one plane.
When the tensile stresses caused by shrinkage or thermal movement exceed the
strength of the concrete, cracking will occur. To control the crack widths, steel
reinforcement must be provided close to the concrete surface; the codes of

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8 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
practice specify minimum quantities of reinforcement in a member for this
purpose.

Calculation of Stresses Induced by Shrinkage

(a) Shrinkage Restrained by the Reinforcement
The shrinkage stresses caused by reinforcement in an otherwise unrestrained mem-
ber may be calculated quite simply. The member shown in figure 1. 7 has a free
shrinkage strain Esh if made of plain concrete, but this overall movement is

Origina I member-
as cast

-l ~
I Plain concrete-
unrestrained

~t-

__,I ~
Rem forced concrete-
unrestrained

~ I-

I Reinforced concrete -
fully restrained

Figure 1. 7 Shrinkage BtrainB

reduced by the inclusion of reinforcement, giving a compressive strain Esc in the
steel and causing an effective tensile strain Ect in the concrete. Thus
Esh = Ect + Esc
= fct + fsc (1.1)
Ec Es
where fct is the tensile stress in concrete area Ac and fsc is the compressive stress
in steel area A 8 •
Equating forces in the concrete and steel for equilibrium gives
(1.2)
therefore

Substituting for fct in equation 1.1

Esh = fsc (~ + _!__)

AcEc Es

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 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 9
Thus if
E
Q = ___!
e Ec

E'sh _ I' - - + -1 )
-,fll! (cxeAs
AcEs Es

= frv:. {~As + 1)
Es \Ac
Therefore steel stress
I' _ es~~Es
Jrv:.- (1.3)
1 + CXeAs
Ac

Example 1.1 Colculation of Shrinkage Stresses in Concrete that is Restrained

by Reinforcement Only

A member contains 1.0 per cent reinforcement, and the free shrinkage strain esh
of the concrete is 200 x 1o-6 • For steel, Es =200 kN/mm2 and for concrete
Ec =15 kN/mm 2 • Hence from equation 1.3:
~
stress in rein1orcement I' es~~Es
Jrv:. = -:<:!.---"-----
As
1 + CXe-
Ac
200 X 10-6 X 200 X 103
=
1 + 200 X O.Ql
15
= 35.3 N/mm 2 compression

stress in concrete let = ~:·frv:.

=0.01 X 35.3
= 0.35 N/mm2 tension
The stresses produced in members free from external restraint are generally
small as in the above example, and can be easily withstood both by the steel and
the concrete. ·

(b) Shrinkage Fully Restrained

If the member is fully restrained, then the steel cannot be in compression since
= 0 and hence frv:. = 0 (figure 1.7). In this case the tensile strain induced in the
E'rv:.
concrete E'ct must be equal to the free shrinkage strain esh, and the corresponding
stress will probably be high enough to cause cracking in immature concrete.

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10 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
EXtJmple 1.2 Colculation of FuUy Restrained Shrinkage Stresses
If the member in example 1.1 were fully restrained, the stress in the concrete is
given by

where
fct = fsh = 200 X 10-6
then
fct = 200 X 10-6 X 15 X 103
= 3.0N/mm2
When cracking occurs, the uncracked lengths of concrete try to contract so that
the embedded steel between cracks is in compression while the steel across the
cracks is in tension. This feature is accompanied by localised bond breakdown,
adjacent to each crack. The equilibrium of the concrete and reinforcement is
shown in figure 1.8 and calculations may be developed to relate crack widths
and spacings to properties of the cross-section; this is examined in more detail
in chapter 6, which deals with serviceability requirements.

~-------(

I_---~ ~.;.t~,_.-----~=---
1 - ~~
I
1-------

Figure 1.8 Shrinkage forces adjacent to a crack

Thermal Movement
As the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and concrete (a8 and ac) are·
similar, differential movement between the steel and concrete will only be very
small and is unlikely to cause cracking.
The differential thermal strain due to a temperature change T may be calcu-
lated as
T(ac- a 8 )
and should be added to the shrinkage strain fsh if significant.
The overall thermal contraction of concrete is, however, frequently effective
in producing the first crack in a restrained member, since the required temperature
changes could easily occur overnight in a newly cast member, even with good
control of the heat generated during the hydration processes.

Example 1.3 Thermal Shrinkage

Find the fall in temperature required to cause cracking in a restrained member if
ultimate tensile strength of the concrete ft = 2 N/mm 2 , Ec = 16 kN/mm 2 and

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 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 11
O:c =a:8 = 10 x 10-6 per °C. Ultimate tensile strain of concrete

Eutt =Eft = 2 = 125 X 10-6

c 16x103
Minimum temperature drop to cause cracking

= €uJt = 125 = 12.5 oC

O:c 10
It should be noted that full restraint, as assumed in this example, is unlikely to
occur in practice; thus the temperature change required to cause cracking is
increased.

1.4 Creep

Creep is the continuous deformation of a member under sustained load. It is a

phenomenon associated with many materials, but it is particularly evident with
concrete. The precise behaviour of a particular concrete depends on the aggregates
and the mix design, but the general pattern is illustrated by considering a member
subjected to axial compression. For such a member, a typical variation of defor-
mation with time is shown by the curve in figure 1.9.

c
...00
E

-
'-
0

0 2 3 4 5
Tim<Z - y<Zars

Figure 1.9 Typical increare of deformation with time for concrete

The characteristics of creep are

(1) The fmal deformation of the member can be three to four times the
short-term elastic deformation.
(2) The deformation is roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and
to the inverse of the concrete strength.
(3) If the load is removed, only the instantaneous elastic deformation will
recover - the plastic deformation will not.
( 4) There is a redistribution of load between the concrete and any steel
present.

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12 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being
transferred to the reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive stresses in the steel are
increased so that the steel takes a larger proportion of the load.
The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased
deflections may cause the opening of cracks, damage to finishes, and the non-
alignment of mechanical equipment. Redistribution of stress between concrete
and steel occurs primarily in the uncracked compressive areas and has little effect
on the tension reinforcement other than reducing shrinkage stresses in some
instances. The provision of reinforcement in the compressive zone of a flexural
member, however, often helps to restrain the deflections due to creep.

1.5 Durability

Concrete structures, properly designed and constructed, are long lasting and should
require little maintenance. The durability of the concrete is influenced by
(1) the exposure conditions
(2) the concrete quality
(3) the cover to the reinforcement
(4) the width of any cracks.
Concrete can be exposed to a wide range of conditions such as the soil, sea water,
stored chemicals or the atmosphere. The severity of the exposure governs the type
of concrete mix required and the minimum cover to the reinforcing steel. What-
ever the exposure, the concrete mix should be made from impervious and chemi-
cally inert aggregates. A dense, well-compacted concrete with a low water-cement
ratio is all important and for some soil conditions it is advisable to use a sulphate-
resisting cement.
Adequate cover is essential to prevent corrosive agents reaching the reinforce-
ment through cracks and pervious concrete. The thickness of cover required depends
on the severity of the exposure and the quality of the concrete (as shown in table
6.1). The cover is also necessary to protect the reinforcement against a rapid rise
in temperature and subsequent loss of strength during a fire. Information concern-
ing this is given in Part 2 of BS 8110, while durability requirements with related
design calculations to check and control crack widths and depths are described in
chapter 6.

1.6 Specification of Materials

I. 6.1 Concrete
The selection of the type of concrete is frequently governed by the strength
required, which in turn depends on the intensity of loading and the form and size
of the structural members. For example, in the lower columns of a multi-storey
building a higher-strength concrete may be chosen in preference to greatly increas-
ing the size of the column section with a resultant loss in clear floor space.
The concrete strength is assessed by measuring the crushing strength of cubes or
cylinders of concrete made from the mix. These are usually cured, and tested after

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 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 13
twenty-eight days according to standard procedures. Concrete of a given strength
is identified by its 'grade' - a grade 25 concrete has a characteristic cube crushing
strength of 25 N/mm 2 . Table 1.2 shows a list of commonly used grades and also
the lowest grade appropriate for various types of construction.
Exposure conditions and durability can also affect the choice of the mix design
and the grade of concrete. A structure subject to corrosive conditions in a chemical
plant, for example, would require a denser and higher grade of concrete than, say,
the interior members of a school or office block. Although Ordinary Portland
cement would be used in most structures, other cement types can also be used to
advantage. Blast-furnace or sulphate-resisting cement may be used to resist chemi-
cal attack, low-heat cements in massive sections to reduce the heat of hydration,

Table 1.2 Grades of concrete

Grade Lowest grade for use as specified

C7 Plain concrete
ClO
CIS Reinforced concrete with
C20 lightweight aggregate
C25 Reinforced concrete with
dense aggregate
C30 Concrete with post-tensioned
tendons
C40 Concrete with pre-tensioned
tendons
cso
C60

or rapid-hardening cement when a high early strength is required. Generally,

natural aggregates found locally are preferred; however, manufactured lightweight
material may be used when self-weight is important, or a special dense aggregate
when radiation shielding is required.
The concrete mix may either be classified as 'designed' or 'prescribed'. A
'designed mix' is one where the contractor is responsible for selecting the mix
proportions to achieve the required strength and workability, whereas for a
'prescribed mix' the engineer specifies the mix proportions, and the contractor is
responsible only for providing a properly mixed concrete containing the correct
constituents in the prescribed proportions.

1.6.2 Reinforcing Steel

Table 1.3 lists the characteristic design strengths of several of the more common
types of reinforcement. The nominal size of a bar is the diameter of an equivalent
circular area.

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14 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Table 1.3 Strength of reinforcement
Specified
Designation Nominal sizes characteristic
(mm) strength{y
(N/mm2 )

Hot-rolled mild steel (BS 4449) All sizes 250

Hot-rolled high yield (BS 4449) } 460
All sizes
Cold-worked high yield (BS 4461)
Hard-drawn steel wire (BS 4482) Up to and including 12 485

Hot-rolled mild-steel bars usually have a smooth surface so that the bond with
the concrete is by adhesion only. Mild-steel bars can readily be bent, so they are
often used where small radius bends are necessary, such as for links in narrow
beams or columns.
High-yield bars are manufactured either with a ribbed surface or in the form of
a twisted square. Ribbed bars are usually described by the British Standards as
type 2 bars provided specified requirements are satisfied, and these are the bars
most commonly used. Square twisted bars have inferior bond characteristics and
are usually classified as type 1 bars, although these are more or less obsolete. All
deformed bars have an additional mechanical bond with the concrete so that higher
ultimate bond stresses may be specified as described in section 5.2. The bending
of high-yield bars through a small radius is liable to cause tension cracking of the
steel, and to avoid this the radius of the bend should not be less than three times
the nominal bar size (see figure 5.6).
High-yield steel bars are only slightly more expensive than mild-steel bars.
Therefore, because of their significant stress advantage, high-yield bars are the
more economical. Nevertheless, mild-steel bars are sometimes preferred in water-
retaining structures, where the maximum steel stresses are limited in order to
reduce the tensile strains and cracking of the concrete.
Floor slabs, walls, shells and roads may be reinforced with a welded fabric of
reinforcement, supplied in rolls and having a square or rectangular mesh. This can
give large economies in the detailing of the reinforcement and also in site labour
costs of handling and fixing.
The cross-sectional areas and perimeters of various sized bars, and the cross-
sectional area per unit width of slabs are listed in the appendix. Reinforcing bars
in a member should either be straight or bent to standard shapes. These shapes
must be fully dimensioned and listed in a schedule of the reinforcement which is
used on site for the bending and fixing of the bars. Standard bar shapes and a
method of scheduling are specified in BS 4466. The bar types as previously des-
cribed are commonly identified by the following codes: R for mild steel; Y for
high yield deformed steel, type 1; T for high yield deformed steel, type 2; this
notation is generally used throughout this book.

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2
Limit State Design
The design of an engineering structure must ensure that (1) under the worst load-
ings the structure is safe, and (2) during normal working conditions the deformation
of the members does not detract from the appearance, durability or performance
of the structure. Despite the difficulty in assessing the precise loading and variations
in the strength of the concrete and steel, these requirements have to be met. Three
basic methods using factors of safety to achieve safe, workable structures have
been developed; they are
( 1) The permissible stress method in which ultimate strengths of the
materials are divided by a factor of safety to provide design stresses
which are usually within the elastic range.
(2) The load factor method in which the working loads are multiplied by a
factor of safety.
(3) The limit state method which multiplies the working loads by partial
factors of safety and also divides the materials' ultimate strengths by
further partial factors of safety.
The permissible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method but
it does have some serious inconsistencies. Because it is based on an elastic stress
distribution, it is not really applicable to a semi-plastic material such as concrete,
nor is it suitable when the deformations are not proportional to the load, as in
slender columns. It has also been found to be unsafe when dealing with the
stability of structures subject to overturning forces (see example 2.2).
In the load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should be used
in the calculations. As this method does not apply factors of safety to the material
stresses, it cannot directly take account of the variability of the materials, and also
it cannot be used to calculate the deflections or cracking at working loads.
The limit state method of design overcomes many of the disadvantages of the
previous two methods. This is done by applying partial factors of safety, both to
the loads and to the material strengths, and the magnitude of the factors may be
varied so that they may be used either with the plastic conditions in the ultimate
state or with the more elastic stress range at working loads. This flexibility is
particularly important if full benefits are to be obtained from development of
improved concrete and steel properties.

15

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16 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
2.1 Limit States

The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will

not become unfit for its intended use - that is, that it will not reach a limit state.
Thus, any way in which a structure may cease to be fit for use will constitute a
limit state and the design aim is to avoid any such condition being reached during
the expected life of the structure.
The two principal types of limit state are the ultimate limit state and the
serviceability limit state.

(a) Ultimate Limit State

This requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with an adequate factor
of safety against collapse, the loads for which it is designed. The possibility of
buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must the possibility
of accidental damage as caused, for example, by an internal explosion.

(b) Serviceability Limit States

Generally the most important serviceability limit states are
(1) Deflection- the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure
must not be adversely affected by deflections.
(2) Cracking - local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect
the appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure.
(3) Durability - this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of
the structure and its conditions of exposure.
Other limit states that may be reached include
(4) Excessive vibration- which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as
damage.
(5) Fatigue- must be considered if cyclic loading is likely.
(6) Fire resistance -this must be considered in terms of resistance to
collapse, flame penetration and heat transfer.
(7) Special circumstances - any special requirements of the structure
which are not covered by any of the more common limit states, such
as earthquake resistance, must be taken into account.
The relative importance of each limit state will vary according to the nature of
the structure. The usual procedure is to decide which is the crucial limit state for
a particular structure and base the design on this, although durability and fire
resistance requirements may well influence initial member sizing and concrete
grade selection. Checks must also be made to ensure that all other relevant limit
states are satisfied by the results produced. Except in special cases, such as water-
retaining structures, the ultimate limit state is generally critical for reinforced
concrete although subsequent serviceability checks may affect some of the details
of the design. Prestressed concrete design, however, is generally based on service-
ability conditions with checks on the ultimate limit state.
In assessing a particular limit state for a structure it is necessary to consider all
the possible variable parameters such as the loads, material strengths and construc-
tional tolerances.

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 LIMIT STATE DESIGN 17
2.2 Characteristic Material Strengths and Characteristic Loads

2. 2. l Characteristic Material Strengths

The strengths of materials upon which design is based are those strengths below
which results are unlikely to fall. These are called 'characteristic' strengths. It is
assumed that for a given material, the distribution of strength will be approxi·
mately 'normal', so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of sample
results would be of the form shown in figure 2.1. The characteristic strength is
taken as that value below which it is unlikely that more than 5 per cent of the
results will fall. This is given by
fk =fm - 1.64s
where fk =characteristic strength, fm =mean strength, s =standard deviation.
The relationship between characteristic and mean values accounts for variations
in results of test specimens and will, therefore, reflect the method and control of
manufacture, quality of constituents, and nature of the material.

Mczan strczngth Um)

I
Numbczr
I
of tczst
spczcimczn
rczsults

Strczngth

Figure 2.1 Normal frequency distribution of strengths

2. 2. 2 Characteristic Loads
Ideally it should also be possible to assess loads statistically, in which case
characteristic load = mean load ± 1.64 standard deviations
In most cases it is the maximum loading on a structural member that is critical and
the upper, positive value given by this expression is used, but the lower, minimum
value may apply when considering stability or the behaviour of continuous members.
These characteristic values represent the limits within which at least 90 per
cent of values will lie in practice. It is to be expected that not more than 5 per
cent of cases will exceed the upper limit and not more than 5 per cent will fall
below the lower limit. They are design values which take into account the accuracy
with which the loads can be predicted.
Usually, however, there is insufficient statistical data to allow loading to be
treated in this way, and in this case the standard loadings, given in BS 6399 Design
Loads for Buildings, Part 1: Code of Practice for dead and imposed loads, should
be used as representing characteristic values.

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18 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
2.3 Partial Factors of Safety

Other possible variations such as constructional tolerances are allowed for by

partial factors of safety applied to the strength of the materials and to the load-
ings. It should theoretically be possible to derive values for these from a mathe-
matical assessment of the probability of reaching each limit state. Lack of adequate
data, however, makes this unrealistic and in practice the values adopted are based
on experience and simplified calculations.

2.3.1 Partial Factors of Safety for Materials ('Ym)

.
Destgn t th characteristic strength (fk)
s reng =
partial factor of safety ('Ym)
The following factors are considered when selecting a suitable value for 'Ym
(1) The strength of the material in an actual member. This strength will
differ from that measured in a carefully prepared test specimen and it
is particularly true for concrete where placing, compaction and curing
are so important to the strength. Steel, on the other hand, is a relatively
consistent material requiring a small partial factor of safety.
(2) The severity of the limit state being considered. Thus, higher values are
taken for the ultimate limit state than for the serviceability limit state.
Recommended values for 'Ym are given in table 2.1 although it should be noted
that for precast factory conditions it may be possible to reduce the value for
concrete at the ultimate limit state.

Table 2.1 Partial factors of safety applied to materials ( 'Ym)

Material
Limit state
Concrete Steel

Ultimate
Flexure 1.5 1.15
Shear 1.25 1.15
Bond 1.4
Serviceability 1.0 1.0

2.3. 2 Partial Factors of Safety for Loads ('Y f)

Errors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes:
(1) design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation
(2) possible unusual load increases
(3) unforeseen stress redistributions
( 4) constructional inaccuracies.

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 LIMIT STATE DESIGN 19
These cannot be ignored, and are taken into account by applying a partial factor
of safety ( 'Yr) on the loadings, so that
design load = characteristic load x partial factor of safety ( 'Yf)
The value of this factor should also take into account the importance of the limit
state under consideration and reflect to some extent the accuracy with which
different types of loading can be predicted, and the probability of particular load
combinations occurring. Recommended values are given in table 2.2. It should be
noted that design errors and constructional inaccuracies have similar effects and
are thus sensibly grouped together. These factors will account adequately for
normal conditions although gross errors in design or construction obviously can-
not be catered for.
Table 2.2 Partial factors of safety for loadings
Ultimate
Load combination Serviceability
Dead Imposed Earth Wind All
& Water
('Ya) ('YQ) ('YQ) ('Yw) ('Ya, 'YQ, 'Yw)
Dead & Imposed 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.0
(+Earth & Water) (or 1.0) (or 0.0)
Dead& Wind 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.0
(+Earth & Water) (or 1.0)
Dead & Imposed
&Wind 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0
(+Earth & Water)

The lower values in brackets applied to dead or imposed loads at the Ultimate Limit State
should be used when dminimum loading is critical.

2.4 Global Factor of Safety

The use of partial factors of safety on materials and loads offers considerable
flexibility, which may be used to allow for special conditions such as very high
standards of construction and control or, at the other extreme, where structural
failure would be particularly disastrous.
The global factor of safety against a particular type of failure may be obtained
by multiplying the appropriate partial factors of safety. For instance, a beam
failure caused by yielding of tensile reinforcement would have a factor of
'Ym X 'Yr = 1.15 x 1.4 =1.61 for dead loads only
or
1.15 X 1.6 = 1.84 for live loads only
Thus the practical case will have a value between these, depending on the relative
loading proportions, and this can be compared with the value of 1.8 which has
generally been used as the overall factor in the load factor design approach.

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20 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Similarly, failure by crushing of the concrete in the compression zone has a
factor of 1.5 x 1.6 = 2.40 due to live loads only, which reflects the fact that such
failure is generally without warning and may be very serious. Thus the basic values
of partial factors chosen are such that under normal circumstances the global
factor of safety is similar to that used in earlier design methods.

Example 2.1
Determine the cross-sectional area of a mild steel cable which supports a total
dead load of 3.0 kN and a live load of 2.0 kN as shown in figure 2.2.
The characteristic yield stress of the mild steel is 250 N/mm 2 .
Carry out the calculations using
(1) The load factor method with a load factor= 1.8.
(2) A permissible stress design with a factor of safety of 1.8 on the yield
stress.
(3) A limit state design with the following factors of safety.
'YG = 1.4 for the dead load, 'YQ = 1.6 for the live load, 'Ym = 1.15 for the steel
strength.

Mild strzrzl cablrz

Livrz load =2·0kN

Drzad load = 3·0 kN

Figure 2.2

(a) Load Factor Method

Design load = load factor (dead load + live load)
= 1.8 (3.0 + 2.0) = 9.0 kN
design load
Required cross-sectional area = _ _..::::.__ _
yield stress
9.0 x 103 = 36 mm 2
250

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 LIMIT STATE DESIGN 21
(b) Permissible Stress Method
Design load= 3.0 + 2.0 = 5.0 kN
yield stress
Permissible stress
safety factor
250
= - = 139 N/mm 2
1.8
design load
Required cross-sectional area
permissible stress
5.0 x 103 = 36 mm 2
139

(c) Limit State Method

Design load = 'YG x dead load+ 'YQ x live load
= 1.4 X 3.0 + 1.6 X 2.0 = 7.4 kN
characteristic yield stress
Design stress = - - - - - - " - - - - - -

250
= - =217N/mm 2
1.15
design load
Required cross-sectional area = ---"'-----
design stress
7.4 X 103
=
217
= 34.1 mm 2

These different design methods all give similar results for the cross-sectional area.
Fewer calculations are required for the permissible stress and the load factor
methods, so reducing the chances of an arithmetical error. The limit state method
provides much better control over the factors of safety, which are applied to each
of the variables. For convenience, the partial factors of safety in the example are
the same as those recommended in BS 8110. Probably, in a practical design, higher
factors of safety would be preferred for a single supporting cable, in view of the
consequences of a failure.

Example2.2
Figure 2.3 shows a beam supported on foundations at A and B. The loads sup-
ported by the beam are its own uniformly distributed dead weight of 20 kN/m

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22 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
and a 170 kN live load concentrated at end C. Determine the weight of founda-
tion required at A in order to resist uplift
(1) by applying a factor of safety of 2.0 to the reaction calculated for the
working loads
(2) using a limit state approach with partial factors of safety of 'Y G = 1.4
or 1.0 for the dead load and 'Y Q = 1.6 for the live load.
Investigate the effect on these designs of a 7 per cent increase in the live load.

170kN liv<2 load

b<2am

d<2ad
c
foundation foundat1on

I- 6m .I. 2m ..1
(a)

1·6 X I i V<2 load

,----------~, ·4xd<2ad
1·0 x d<2ad load : load
A c

(b) Loading arrang<2m<2nt for uplift at A at th<2

ult1mat<2 limit stat<2.

Figure 2.3

(a) Factor of Safety on Uplift= 2.0

Taking moments about B

UpliftRA= (170x2-20x8x2) = 3 .3 3 kN
6.0
Weight offoundation required = 3.33 x safety factor
=3.33 X 2.0 = 6.7 kN
With a 7 per cent increase in the live load

UpliftRA= (1.07x170x2-20x8x2) = 7 .3kN

6.0
Thus with a slight increase in the live load there is a significant increase in the up-
lift and the structure becomes unsafe.

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 LIMIT STATE DESIGN 23
(b) Limit State Method
The arrangement of the loads for the maximum uplift at A is shown in figure 2.3b.
Design dead load over BC = 'Y G x 20 x 2
= 1.4 X 20 X 2 =56 kN
Design dead load over AB = 'Y G x 20 x 6
= 1.0 X 20 X 6 = 120 kN
Design live load = 'YQ X 170
= 1.6 X 170 = 272 kN
Taking moments about B for the ultimate loads

UpliftRA= (272x2+56xl-120x3) = 4 0kN

6.0
Therefore weight of foundation required= 40 kN.
A 7per cent increase in the live load will not endanger the structure, since the
actual uplift will only be 7.3 kN as calculated previously. In fact in this case it
would require an increase of 65 per cent in the live load before the uplift would
exceed the weight of a 40 kN foundation.

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3
Analysis of the Structure
A reinforced concrete structure is a combination of beams, columns, slabs and
walls, rigidly connected together to form a monolithic frame. Each individual
member must be capable of resisting the forces acting on it, so that the determina-
tion of these forces is an essential part of the design process. The full analysis of a
rigid concrete frame is rarely simple; but simplified calculations of adequate
precision can often be made if the basic action of the structure is understood.
The analysis must begin with an evaluation of all the loads carried by the
structure, including its own weight. Many of the loads are variable in magnitude
and position, and all possible critical arrangements of loads must be considered.
First the structure itself is rationalised into simplified forms that represent the
load-carrying action of the prototype. The forces in each member can then be
determined by one of the following methods.
(I) Applying moment and shear coefficients.
(2) Manual calculations.
(3) Computer methods.
Tabulated coefficients are suitable for use only with simple, regular structures
such as equal-span continuous beams carrying uniform loads. Manual calculations
are possible for the vast majority of structures, but may be tedious for large or
complicated ones. The computer can be an invaluable help in the analysis of even
quite small frames, and for some calculations it is almost indispensable. However,
the amount of output from a computer analysis is sometimes almost overwhelming;
and then the results are most readily interpreted when they are presented diagram-
matically by means of a graph plotter or other visual device.
Since the design of a reinforced concrete member is generally based on the
ultimate limit state, the analysis is usually performed for loadings corresponding
to that state. Prestressed concrete members, however, are normally designed for
serviceability loadings, as discussed in chapter 12.

3.1 Loads

The loads on a structure are divided into two types: 'dead' loads, and 'live' (or
imposed) loads. Dead loads are those which are normally permanent and constant

24

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 25
during the structure's life. Live loads, on the other hand, are transient and are
variable in magnitude, as for example those due to wind or to human occupants.
Recommendations for the loadings on buildings are given in the British Standards,
numbers BS 6399: Part 1. Design loads for Buildings, and CP3: Chapter V: Part 2.
Wind loads. Bridge loadings are specified in BS 5400: Part 2, Specification for
Loads.·
A table of values for some useful dead loads and imposed loads is given in the
appendix.

3.1.1 Dead Loads

Dead loads include the weight of the structure itself, and all architectural com-
ponents such as exterior cladding, partitions and ceilings. Equipment and static
machinery, when permanent fixtures. are also often considered as part of the dead
load. Once the sizes of all the structural members, and the details of the architec-
tural requirements and permanent fixtures have been established, the dead loads
can be calculated quite accurately; but first of all, preliminary design calculations
are generally required to estimate the probable sizes and self-weights of the
structural concrete elements.
For most reinforced concretes, a typical value for the self-weight is 24 kN per
cubic metre, but a higher density should be taken for heavily reinforced or dense
concretes. In the case of a building, the weights of any partitions should be calcu-
lated from the architects' drawings. A minimum partition imposed loading of
1.0 kN per square metre is usually specified, but this is only adequate for light-
weight partitions.
Dead loads are generally calculated on a slightly conservative basis, so that a
member will not need redesigning because of a small change in its dimensions.
Over-estimation, however, should be done with care, since the dead load can often
actually reduce some of the forces in parts of the structure as will be seen in the
case of the hogging moments in the continuous beam of figure 3 .1.

3.1. 2 Imposed Loads

These loads are more difficult to determine accurately. For many of them, it is
only possible to make conservative estimates based on standard codes of practice
or past experience. Examples of imposed loads on buildings are: the weights of its
occupants, furniture, or machinery; the pressures of wind, the weight of snow, and
of retained earth or water; and the forces caused by thermal expansion or shrink-
age of the concrete.
A large building is unlikely to be carrying its full imposed load simultaneously
on all its floors. For this reason the British Standard Code of Practice allows a
reduction in the total imposed floor loads when the columns, walls or foundations
are designed, for a building more than two storeys high. Similarly, the imposed
load may be reduced when designing a beam span which supports a floor area
greater than 40 square metres.
Although the wind load is an imposed load, it is kept in a separate category
when its partial factors of safety are specified, and when the load combinations
on the structure are being considered.

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26 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
3.2 Load Combinations

3. 2.1 Lood Combinations for the Ultimate State

Various combinations of the characteristic values of dead load Gk, imposed load
Qk, wind load Wk and their partial factors of safety must be considered for the
loading of the structure. The partial factors of safety specified by BS 8110 are
discussed in chapter 2, and for the ultimate limit state the loading combinations
to be considered are as follows.
(1) Dead and imposed load
1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
(2) Dead and wind load
l.OGk + 1.4Wk
(3) Dead, imposed and wind load
1.2ck + t.2Qk + 1.2 wk
The imposed load can usually cover all or any part of the structure and, therefore,
should be arranged to cause the most severe stresses. Load combination 1 should
also be associated with a minimum design dead load of 1.0Gk applied to such parts
of the structure as will give the most unfavourable condition.
For load combination 1, a three-span continuous beam would have the loading
arrangement shown in figure 3.1, in order to cause the maximum sagging moment
in the outer spans and the maximum possible hogging moment in the centre span.
A study of the deflected shape of the beam would confirm this to be the case.
Figure 3.2 shows the arrangements of vertical loading on a multi-span contin-
uous beam to cause (i) maximum sagging moments in alternate spans and maximum
possible hogging moments in adjacent spans, and (ii) maximum hogging moments
at support A.
As a simplification, BS 8110 allows the ultimate design moments at the supports
to be calculated from one loading condition with all spans fully covered with the
ultimate load 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk as shown in part (iii) of figure 3.2.
+ 1·6 Qk

I I
1·4 Gk 1-4 Gk + 1·6 Qk

(a)
A I
Loading Arrangamant for Maximum
c !
Sagg1ng Momant at A afld C

r-------:.,r----rr--r
(b) Daflactad Shapa

Figure 3.1 Three-span beam

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 27

1
1·4Gk+ 1·6Qk

t
1·0Gk
1·4Gk+1·6Qk

t I
1·0Gk
1-4Gk+ 1·6Qk

f I 1%F 1-4Gk+

( i) Loading Arrangement for Maximum Moments

in the Spans
1"4Gk+ 1·6Qk

f
(ii) Load Arrangement for Maximum Support
Moment at A

f t f f f
(iii) Loading for Design Moments at the Supports
according to 858110

Figure 3.2 Multi-span beam loading arrangements

Under load combination 2, dead and wind load, it is possible that a critical
stability condition may occur if, on certain parts of a structure, the dead load is
taken as 1.4Gk. An example of this is illustrated in figure 3.3, depicting how the
dead load of the cantilever section increases the overturning moment about
support B.

Figure 3.3 Load combination dead plus wind

3.2.2 Lood Combi1111tions for the SeT'ViceabiUty Limit State

A partial factor of safety of 'Yr = 1.0 is usually applied to all load combinations at
the serviceability limit state.

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28 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
In considering deflections, the imposed load should be arranged to give the
worst effects. The deflections calculated from the load combinations are the
immediate deflections of a structure. Deflection increases due to the creep of the
concrete should be based only on the dead load plus any part of the imposed load
which is permanently on the structure, this being considered fully in chapter 6,
which deals with serviceability requirements.

3.3 Analysis of Beams and Frames

To design a structure it is necessary to know the bending moments, torsional

moments, shearing forces and axial forces in each member. An elastic analysis is
generally used to determine the distribution of these forces within the structure;
but because - to some extent - reinforced concrete is a plastic material, a limited
redistribution of the elastic moments is sometimes allowed. A plastic yield-line
theory may be used to calculate the moments in concrete slabs. The properties of
the materials, such as Young's modulus, which are used in the structural analysis
should be those associated with their characteristic strengths. The stiffnesses of the
members can be calculated on the basis of any one of the following.
(I) The entire concrete cross-section (ignoring the reinforcement).
(2) The concrete cross-section plus the transformed area of reinforcement
based on the modular ratio.
(3) The compression area only of the concrete cross-section, plus the
transformed area of reinforcement based on the modular ratio.
The concrete cross-section described in (I) is the simpler to calculate and would
normally be chosen.
A structure should be analysed for each of the critical loading conditions which
produce the maximum stresses at any particular section. This procedure will be
illustrated in the examples for a continuous beam and a building frame. For these
structures it is conventional to draw the bending-moment diagram on the tension
side of the members.

Sign Conventions
(1) For the moment-distribution analyses anti-clockwise support moments
are positive as, for example, in table 3.1 for the ftxed end moments
(FEM).
(2) For subsequently calculating the moments along the span of a member,
moments causing sagging are positive, while moments causing hogging
are negative, as illustrated in ftgure 3.5.

3.3.1 Non-continuous Beams

One-span, simply supported beams or slabs are statically determinate and the
analysis for bending moments and shearing forces is readily performed manually.
For the ultimate limit state we need only consider the maximum load of 1.4Gk
+ 1.6 Qk on the span.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 29
Example 3.1 Analysis of a Non-continuous Beam
The one-span simply supported beam shown in figure 3.4a carries a distributed
dead load including self-weight of 25 kN/m, a permanent concentrated partition
load of 30 kN at mid-span, and a distributed imposed load of 10 kN/m.
Figure 3.4 shows the values of ultimate load required in the calculations of the
shearing forces and bending moments.
1-4 x30 =42 kN

l
(l4x25+16x10) 4= 204kN

4·0m

(a) Ultimat<2 Load

123kN~1
~123kN
(b) Sh<2aring Forc<2 D1agram

(c) B<2ndmg Mom<2nt Diagram

Figure 3.4 Analysis of one-span beam

Maximum shear force = 42 + 204 = 123 kN

2 2
. . 42 X 4 204 X 4
Max1mum bending moment = - - + - - - = 144 kN m
4 8
The analysis is completed by drawing the shearing-force and bending-moment
diagrams which would later be used in the design and detailing of the shear and
bending reinforcement.

3.3.2 Continuous Beams

The methods of analysis for continuous beams may also be applied to continuous
slabs which span in one direction. A continuous beam is considered to have no
fixity with the supports so that the beam is free to rotate. This assumption is not
strictly true for beams framing into columns and for that type of continuous beam
it is more accurate to analyse them as part of a frame, as described in section 3.3.3.
A simplified method of analysis that can be applied to slabs is described in
chapter 8.
A continuous beam should be analysed for the loading arrangements which give
the maximum stresses at each section, as described in section 3.2.1 and illustrated

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30 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
in figures 3.1 and 3.2. The analysis to calculate the bending moments can be
carried out manually by moment distribution or equivalent methods, but tabulated
shear and moment coefficients may be adequate for continuous beams having
approximately equal spans and uniformly distributed loads.

Continuous Beams - The General Case

Having determined the moments at the supports by, say, moment distribution, it
is necessary to calculate the moments in the spans and also the shear forces on the
beam. For a uniformly distributed load, the equations for the shears and the maxi-
mum span moments can be derived from the following analysis.
Using the sign convention of figure 3.5 and taking moments about support B:
wL 2
VAaL--- +MAB -MaA =0
2
therefore

(3.1)

and
(3.2)
Maximum span momentMmax occurs at zero shear, and distance to zero shear

(3.3)

therefore

VAB2 +M
M max=-- (3.4)
AB
2w
The points of contraflexure occur at M = 0, that is
wx 2
VAax-- +MAa =0
2
where x is the distance from support A. Taking the roots of this equation gives

X = VAB ± .../(VAa2 + 2wMAa)

w
so that

(3.5)
w
and

(3.6)
w

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 31
A similar analysis can be applied to beams that do not support a uniformly dis-
tributed load. In manual calculations it is usually not considered necessary to
calculate the distances a 1 , a2 and a 3 which locate the points of contraflexure and
maximum moment - a sketch of the bending moment is often adequate - but if a
computer is performing the calculations these distances may as well be determined
also.

A Load=w/matra B

c:::=:::J
S.F

BM

Figure 3.5 Shears and moments in a beam

Example 3.2 Analysis of a Continuous Beam

The continuous beam shown in figure 3.6 has a constant cross-section and supports
a uniformly distributed dead load including its self-weight of Gk =25 kN/m and an
imposed load Qk = 10 kN/m.
The critical loading arrangements for the ultimate limit state are shown in
figure 3.6 where the heavy line indicates the region of maximum moments, sagging

A =25kN/m. =10kN/m D

t.
Gk Qk

6·0m j~ 4·0m j; 6·0m j

( l4x 25 + 1·6x10)6

(1) I = 306kN
11·0x25x4
=100kN 306kN

( 1·4 x 25 +1·6 x10)4

l0x25x6 I
(2 ) .1..--....:...c::....:.:,:~.:....=...--1
:150kN .
=204 k N I.
1----:-=::-:--:-.,...----,
150kN

(3)~~---30_6_k_N____~_2_0_4_k_N__~___3_0_6_k_N_~
Figure 3.6 Continuous beam loading arrangementf

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32 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Table 3.1 Moment distribution for the first loading case

A B c D
3 I I 3 I
Stiffness (k) - - - - -
4 L L 4 L
3 1 1
- . - =0.125 =- = 0.25 = 0.125
4 6 4
0.125 0.25
Distr. factors
0.125 + 0.25 0.125 + 0.25
= 1/3 = 2/3 2/3 1/3
Load (kN) 306 100 306
-306 X 6 100 X 4 + 306 X 6 O
F.E.M. 0 ±
8 12 8

X
0 -229.5 +33.3 -33.3 +229.5 0
Balance + 65.4 +130.8 -130.8 - 65.4

Carry over - 65.4 + 65.4

Balance + 21.8 + 43.6 -43.6 - 21.8
Carry over - 21.8 + 21.8
Balance + 7.3 + 14.5 - 14.5 - 7.3
Carry over - 7.3 + 7.3
Balance + 2.4 + 4.9 - 4.9 - 2.4
Carry over - 2.4 + 2.4
Balance + 0.8 + 1.6 - 1.6 - 0.8
M(kNm) 0 -131.8 +131.8 -131.8 +131.8 0
·-

or possible hogging. Table 3.1 is the moment distribution carried out for the first
loading arrangement: similar calculations would be required for each of the remain-
ing load cases. It should be noted that the reduced stiffness of i;I/L has been used
for the end spans.
The shearing forces, the maximum span bending moments, and their positions
along the beam, can be calculated using the formulae previously derived. Thus for
the first loading arrangement and span AB, using the sign convention of figure 3.5:
__ load (MAB- MsA)
Shear VAB
2 L

= 306 - 131.8 = 131.0 kN

2 6.0
VBA =load- VAB = 306- 131.0 = 175.0 kN

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 33

Maximum moment, span AB = VAB

2w
2
+M
AB

where w = 306/6.0 =51 kN/m. Therefore

M = 13 1. 02 = 168.2 kN m
max 2 X 51

Distance from A, a3 = VAB = 131 ·0 = 2.6 m

w 51
132 132

~
( 1) ""-----/

168 168
90 90

(2)
/t'>. ~
72 72
149 149

IL=:1\~
(3)~
161 161
Figure 3. 7 Bending-moment diagrams (kN m)

175
131 ~

(1) ~ 5~ I~
~~~ 175

""J
(2)
-=::::::::::] ~
90 102 60

128 102 178 ~

(3)~ ~I~
~ 178
~ ~
Figure 3.8 Shearing-force diagrams (kN)

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34 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The bending-moment diagrams for each of the loading arrangements are shown in
figure 3.7, and the corresponding shearing-force diagrams are shown in figure 3.8.
The individual bending-moment diagrams are combined in figure 3.9a to give the
bending-moment design envelope. Similarly, figure 3.9b is the shearing-force design
envelope. Such envelope diagrams are used in the detailed design of the beams, as
described in chapter 7.
149 149

(a)

168 168
178

{b)

178
Figure 3.9 Bending-moment and shearing-force envelopes
Continuous Beams with Approximately Equal Spans and Uniform Loading
The ultimate bending moments and shearing forces in continuous beams of three
or more approximately equal spans can be obtained from BS 8110 provided that
the spans differ by no more than 15 per cent of the longest span, that the loading
is uniform. and that the characteristic live load does not exceed the characteristic
dead load. The values from BS 8110 are shown in diagrammatic form in figure 3.10
for beams (equivalent simplified values for slabs are given in chapter 8).
The possibility of hogging moments in any of the spans should not be ignored,
even if it is not indicated by these coefficients. For example, a beam of three equal
spans will have a hogging moment in the centre span if Qk exceeds Gk/16.
End Span lntarior Span
0·11 FL 0·08FL 0·08FL

/1
{a)
B<znding Momants
~
0·09FL
~ 0·07FL

0·45F 0·55F
{b)
Sh <Zaring Fore as
~
.__--"""'=~~----.
~
0·6F
~
0·55F

F = Total ultimata load on span= {1·4Gk+ 1·6Qk)kN

L = Ef f<ZC t I V<Z span
Figure 3.10 Bending-moment and shearing-force coefficients for beams

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 35
3.3.3 Structural Frames
In situ reinforced concrete structures behave as rigid frames, and should be analysed
as such. They can be analysed as a complete space frame or be divided into a series
of plane frames. Bridge-deck types of structures can be analysed as an equivalent
grillage, whilst some form of finite-element analysis can be utilised in solving com-
plicated shear-wall buildings. All these methods lend themselves to solution by the
computer, but many frames can be simplified for solution by hand calculations.
The general procedure for a building frame is to analyse the slabs as continuous
members supported by the beams or structural walls. The slabs can be either one-
way spanning or two-way spanning. The columns and main beams are considered
as a series of rigid plane frames, which can be divided into two types: (1) braced
frames supporting vertical loads only, (2) frames supporting vertical and lateral
loads.
Type 1 frames are in buildings where none of the lateral loads, including wind,
are transmitted to the columns and beams but are carried by shear walls or other
forms of bracing. Type 2 frames are designed to carry the lateral loads, which
cause bending, shearing and axial forces in the beams and columns. For both types
of frame the axial forces due to the vertical loads in the columns can normally be
calculated as if the beams and slabs were simply supported.

Braced Frames Supporting Vertical Loads Only

A building frame can be analysed as a complete frame, or it can be simplified into
a series of substitute frames for analysis. The frame shown in figure 3.11 for
example, can be divided into any of the subframes shown in figure 3.12.
The substitute frame 1 in figure 3.12 consists of one complete floor beam with
its connecting columns (which are assumed rigidly fixed at their remote ends). An
analysis of this frame will give the bending moments and shearing forces in the
beams and columns for the floor level considered.
Substitute frame 2 is a single span combined with its connecting columns and
two adjacent spans, all fixed at their remote ends. This frame may be used to

)'J ... 7) ... 7i 7 ?:7

Figure 3.11 Building frame

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36 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

(1)

Half stiffnass Half stiffnass

(2)

( 3)

H1 , H2 Storay Haights

Figure 3.12 Substitute frames

determine the bending moments and shearing forces in the central beam. Provided
that the central span is greater than the two adjacent spans, the bending moments
in the columns can also be found with this frame.
Substitute frame 3 can be used to find the moments in the columns only. It
consists of a single junction, with the remote ends of the members fixed. This type
of subframe would be used when the beams have been analysed as continuous over
simple supports.
In frames 2 and 3, the assumption of fixed ends to the outer beams over-
estimates their stiffnesses. These values are, therefore, halved to allow for the
flexibility resulting from continuity.
The various critical loading arrangements to produce maximum stresses have to
be considered. In general these loading arrangements for the ultimate limit state
as specified by the code are:
(1) Alternate spans loaded with total ultimate load (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk) and all
other spans loaded with minimum dead load (l.OGk); this loading will
give maximum span moments and maximum column moments.
(2) All spans loaded with the total ultimate load (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk) to pro-
vide the design moments at the supports.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 37
J K L M

6·0m 4·0m 6·0m

E F
350 Bczam

~300
600 X 300

Typ1cal column
sczction

Figure 3.13 Substitute frame

When considering the critical loading arrangements for a column, it is sometimes

necessary to include the case of maximum moment and minimum possible axial
load, in order to investigate the possibility of tension failure caused by the bending.

Example 3.3 Analysis of a Substitute Frame

The substitute frame shown in figure 3.13 is part of the complete frame in figure
3.11. The characteristic loads carried by the beams are dead loads (including self.
weight), Gk =25 kN/m, and imposed load, Qk = 10 kN/m, uniformly distributed
along the beam. The analysis of the beam will be carried out by moment distribu·
tion: thus the member stiffnesses and their relevant distribution factors are first
required.

Stiffnesses, k
Beam

I= 0.3 X 0.63 = 5.4 X w-3 m4

12
Spans AB and CD

k AB 5.4-X -
=kco = - 10-3
- -- 0.9 X 10-3
6.0
Span BC

= 5.4 x w- = 1.35 X 10-3

3
kac
4.0

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38 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Columns

I= 0.3 X 0.353 = 1.07 X 10-3 m4

12
Upper

kv = 1.07 x 10-3 =0.31 x w-3

3.5
Lower

kL = 1.07 X 10-3 =0.27 X 10-3

4.0
ku + kL = (0.31 + 0.27) 10-3 = 0.58 X 10-3

Distribution Factors
Joints A and D
"l:,k =0.9 + 0.58 = 1.48
D.F.AB = D.F. 0 c = 0 ·9 = 0.61
1.48

D.F.cols = 0 "58 =0.39

1.48
Joints B and C
"l:,k = 0.9 + 1.35 + 0.58 = 2.83

D.F.BA = D.F.co = 0 ·9 = 0.32

2.83

D.F.Bc = D.F.cB = 1.35 = 0.48

2.83

D.F.cols = 058 =0.20

2.83
The critical loading arrangements for the ultimate limit state are identical to those
for the continuous beam in example 3.2, and they are illustrated in figure 3.6. The
moment distribution for the frrst loading arrangement is shown in table 3.2. In the
table, the distributions for each upper and lower column have been combined,
since this simplifies the layout for the calculations.
The shearing forces and the maximum span moments can be calculated from
the formulae of section 3.3.2. For the first loading arrangement and span AB:
load (MAB -MBA)
Shear VAB = -
2 L

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 39
= 306 - (-73.4 + 136.0) = 143 kN
2 6.0
VaA =load - VAB = 306 - 143 = 163 kN
v 2
Maximum moment, span AB = ~ +M AB
2w
143 2
= - - - 73.4 = 126 kN m
2 X 51

Distance from A, a3 = VAB = 143 = 2.8 m

w 51

Figure 3.14 shows the bending moments in the beams for each loading arrange-
ment: figure 3.15 shows the shearing forces. These diagrams have been combined
in figure 3.16 to give the design envelopes for bending moments and shearing
forces.
A comparison of the design envelopes of figure 3.16 and figure 3.9 will empha-
sise the advantages of considering the concrete beam as part of a frame, not as a
continuous beam as in example 3.2. Not only is the analysis of a subframe more
precise, but many moments and shears in the beam are smaller in magnitude.

The moment in each column is given by

M col -- ~•lcol
~u kcol
X --
l:kcols
Thus, for the first loading arrangement and taking l:Mcol from table 3.2 gives
0.31
co1umn moment MAJ = 74 x - - = 40 kN m
0.58

MAE = 74 X --
0.27 = 34 kN m
0.58

MBK = 46 X 0.3l = 25 kN m
0.58
0.27 =21 kN m
M sF=46x--
0.58
This loading arrangement gives the maximum column moments, as plotted in
figure 3.17.

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 ~

Table 3.2 Moment distribution for the first loading case

A B c D

Cols. AB BA Cols. BC CB Cols. CD DC Cols.

(~ (~ (~ (~
D.F.s 0.39 0.61 0.32 0.20 0.48 0.48 0.20 0.32 0.61 0.39 z~
"r1
LoadkN 306 100 306 0
+ + + -
F.E.M. 153 153 33.3 33.3 153 153 ~
- + + + - - - + ti1
Bal. 59.7
- 38.3 + 0
93.3 23.9 57.5 57.5 23.9 38.3 93.3 59.7 (1

+ - - + + X ~
(1
C.O. 19.2 X 46.6 28.8 X 28.8 46.6 19.2
- - + + + - - - + + ~
Bal. 7.5 11.7 24.1 15.1 36.2 36.2 15.1 24.1 11.7 7.5 tri
+ - - + + -
C.O. 12.0 5.8 18.1 18.1 5.8 12.0 ~
VI
- - + + + - - + +

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Bal. 4.7 7.3 7.6 4.8 11.5 11.5 4.8 7.6 7.3 4.7
~
+ - - + + -
C.O. 3.8 3.6 5.8 5.8 3.6 3.8
- - + + + - - - + +
Bal 1.5 2.3 3.0 1.9 4.5 4.5 1.9 3.0 2.3 1.5
-- + - + + - - + - +
M(kNm) 73.4 73.4 136.0 45.7 90.3 90.3 45.7 136.0 73.4 73.4
~'--- -----------
 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 41

13 ~ 6
t\74 40 /1
74

( 1)
~
126
""=7126

r(3 8~ ~ 33<1
~ ~ ~
(2)
55 25 55

71 15~ 0 71
~ 10 /1
(3)
""=/ 121
""=7121

Figure 3.14 Beam bending-moment diagrams (kN m)

143 163

(1) ~ 50r--..__ ~
~ ~~
50
163 143

66 102""-- 84

(2)
~
~~
r----__ ~ I "-....

84 102 66

140 ~
(3 ) ~ 102~ I ~
~"J~ 166 140

Figure 3.15 Beam shearing-force diagrams (kN)

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42 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

~
r{4kNm

(a)~~~
40 7~

126 126

(b)~~~
Figure 3.16 Bending-moment and shearing-force envelopes

40 25 25 40
34 34

Figure 3.17 Column bending moment (kN m)

3·5m

A
= 3061<.N

4-0m
6·0m 4·0m

Figure 3.18 Substitute frame

Example 3.4 Analysis of a Substitute Frame for a Column

The substitute frame for this example, shown in figure 3.18, is taken from the
building frame in figure 3 .11. The loading to cause maximum column moments
is shown in the figure for Gk =25 kN/m and Qk = 10 kN/m.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 43
The stiffnesses of these members are identical to those calculated in example
3.3, except that for this type of frame the beam stiffnesses are halved. Thus

kAB = !_ X 0.9 X 10-3 = 0.45 X 10-3

2

kBc = !_ X 1.35 X 10-3 =0.675 X 10-3

2
upper column ku = 0.31 x I o-3
lower column kL = 0.27 x 10-3
'f-k = (0.45 + 0.675 + 0.31 + 0.27) X 10-3
= 1. 705 X 10-3
6
frxed-end moment MBA = 306 x - = 153 kN m
12
4
fixed-end moment MBc = 100 x- =33.3 kN m
12
Column moments are

upper column Mu =(153- 33.3) x 0 ·31 =22 kN m

1.705

lower column ML = (153- 33.3) X 0 ·27 = 19 kN m

1.705
The column moments are illustrated in figure 3.19. They should be compared with
the corresponding moments for the internal column in figure 3.17.

22
19kNm

Figure 3.19 Column moments

In examples 3.3 and 3.4 the second moment of area of the beam was calculated
as bh 3 /12 for a rectangular section for simplicity, but where an in situ slab forms
a flange to the beam, the second moment of area may be calculated for the T-
section or L-section.

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44 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Frames Supporting Vertical and Lateral Loads
Lateral loads on a structure may be caused by wind pressures, by retained earth,
or by seismic forces. An unbraced frame subjected to wind forces, must be analysed
for all the three loading combinations described in section 3.2.1. The vertical-
loading analysis can be carried out by the methods described previously for braced
frames (see page 35). The analysis for the lateral loads should be kept separate and
the forces may be calculated by an elastic analysis or by a simplified approximate
method. For preliminary design calculations, and also for medium-size regular
structures, a simplified analysis may well be adequate.
BS 8110 recommends that any simplified form of analysis should assume
points of contraflexure at the mid-lengths of all the columns and beams. A suit-
able approximate analysis is the cantilever method. It assumes that:
(I) Points of contraflexure are located at the mid-points of all columns
and beams; and
(2) The direct axial loads in the columns are in proportion to their distances
from the centre of gravity of the frame. It is also usual to assume that
all the columns in a storey are of equal cross-sectional area.
Application of this method is probably best illustrated by an example, as follows.

Example 3.5 Simplified Analysis for Lateral Loads - Cantilever Method

Figure 3.20 shows a building frame subjected to a characteristic wind load of
3.0 kN per metre height of the frame. This load is assumed to be transferred to
the frame as a concentrated load at each floor level as indicated in the figure.
By inspection, there is tension in the two columns to the left and compression
in the columns to the right; and by assumption 2 the axial forces in columns are
proportional to their distances from the centre line of the frame. Thus
axial force in exterior column: axial force in interior column = 4.0P : l.OP
The analysis of the frame continues by considering a section through the top-
storey columns: the removal of the frame below this section gives the remainder
shown in figure 3.2la. The forces in this subframe are calculated as follows.

(a) Axial Forces in the Columns

Taking moments about point s, ~s = 0, therefore
5.25 x 1.75 +Px6.0-Px 10.0-4Px 16.0=0
and therefore
P= 0.135 kN
thus
N 1 = -N4 = 4.0P = 0.54 kN
N 2 = -N3 = l.OP= 0.135 kN

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 45
5·25kN

10·5kN 4th
s
ril
E
I()
10·5kN 3rd ril
E
I()
11·25kN 2nd ril
E
0
12·0kN.. 1st .q.
E
0
q.
-7? .,.. 7? r 7? '?- 7,7

Figure 3.20 Frame with lateral load

(b) Vertical Shearing Forces Fin the Beams

For each part of the subframe, 'i:.F = 0, therefore
F 1 =N1 =0.54 kN
F 2 =N1 + N 2 = 0.675 kN

(c) Horizontal Shearing ForcesHin the Columns

Taking moments about the points of contraflexure of each beam, 'i:.M = 0, therefore
H 1 x 1.75 -N1 x3.0=0
H1 = 0.93 kN
and
(H1 +H2)1.75 -N1 x8.0-N2 x2.0=0
H2 = 1.70 kN
The calculations of the equivalent forces for the fourth floor (figure 3.21 b)
follow a similar procedure as follows.

(d) Axial Forces in the Columns

For the frame above section tt', 'i:.Mt = 0, therefore
5.25 (3 X 1.75) + 10.5 X 1.75 + P X 6.0 -P X 10.0- 4P X 16.0 = 0
P= 0.675 kN
therefore
N 1 = 4.0P = 2.70 kN
N 2 = 1.0P = 0.68 kN

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46 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

-
F1 =0·54 Fj :0·54 kN
5·25 t li t
~ 1~ ~

-
I
H, =0·93 ~-70

l
s 'l:.-1-70 s
I

~ ~ t
N1 :4·0P N2 :1·0P N3:1·0P
= 0·54 =0·135 = 0·135
(a) Roof

0·54 0·135 0·135 0·54

0·93 t 1-70 f 1-70 ~ 093 ~
2·16 2·705 2·16 1·75
t t t
10·5~1---"*:---+--+:---11----+:---1
~ ~ ~ 1-75
t 2·78 5·1 5·1 t' 2·78

2·70
+ 068
+
0·68
t 2·70
t
(b) 4th Floor

Figure 3.21 Sub frames at the roof and fourth floor

(e) Beam Shears

F1 =2.70-0.54 =2.16 kN
F 2 = 2.70 + 0.68-0.54-0.135 =2.705 kN
(f) Column Shears
Ht X 1.75 + 0.93 X 1.75- (2.70- 0.54)3.0 = 0
H 1 =2.78kN
H2 =-}(10.5 + 5.25)- 2.78 =5.1 kN
Values calculated for sections taken below the remaining floors are
third floor N 1 = 7.03 kN N 2 = 1.76 kN
F 1 = 4.33 kN F2 = 5.41 kN
H 1 = 4.64 kN H 2 = 8.49 kN
second floor N 1 = 14.14 kN N 2 = 3.53 kN
F 1 = 7.11 kN F 2 = 8.88 kN
H 1 = 6.61 kN H 2 = 12.14 kN

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 47
first floor N 1 = 24.37 kN N 2 = 6.09 kN
F 1 = 10.23 kN F 2 = 12.79 kN
H 1 = 8.74 kN H 2 = 16.01 kN
The bending moments in the beams and columns at their connections can be
calculated from these results by the following formulae
beams t beam span
M8 = F x
columns Me = H x t storey height
so at the roof's external connection
M8 = 0.54 X t X 6.0
= 1.6 kN m
Me = 0:93 X t X 3.5
= 1.6 kN m

1·6 1-4 1·6

1-6 1·6 1·4 3·0
1·6

1·6 3·0
4·9 8·9

49
8·1 14·9

8·1
13-2 24·3

13·2
17·5 32·0

17·5

24·4 6·1 6·1 24·4

Ext~rnal lnt~rnal
B~ams
Column Column

Figure 3.22 Moments (kN m) and reactions (kN)

As a check at each joint, ~B = ~e·

The bending moments due to characteristic wind loads in all the columns and
beams of this structure are shown in figure 3.22.

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48 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
3.4 Redistribution of Moments

Some method of elastic analysis is generally used to calculate the forces in a con-
crete structure, despite the fact that the structure does not behave elastically near
its ultimate load. The assumption of elastic behaviour is reasonably true for low
stress levels; but as a section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plastic
deformation will occur. This is recognised in as 8110, by allowing redistribution
of the elastic moments subject to certain limitations.
Reinforced concrete behaves in a manner midway between that of steel and
concrete. The stress-strain curves for the two materials (figures 1.5 and 1.2) show
the elastoplastic behaviour of steel and the plastic behaviour of concrete. The latter
will fail at a relatively small compressive strain. The exact behaviour of a reinforced
concrete section depends on the relative quantities and the individual properties of
the two materials. However, such a section may be considered virtually elastic
until the steel yields; and then plastic until the concrete fails in compression. Thus
the plastic behaviour is limited by the concrete failure; or more specifically, the
concrete failure limits the rotation that may take place at a section in bending. A
typical moment-curvature diagram for a reinforced concrete member is shown in
figure 3.23.

crushing

Curvatura

Figure 3.23 Typical moment/curvature diagram

Thus, in an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate

moment of resistance M u, it then behaves as a plastic hinge resisting a constant
moment of that value. Further loading must be taken by other parts of the struc-
ture, with the changes in moment elsewhere being just the same as if a real hinge
existed. Provided rotation of a hinge does not cause crushing of the concrete,
further hinges will be formed until a mechanism is produced. This requirement
is considered in more detail in chapter 4.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 49
Example 3.6 Moment Redistribution -Single Span Fixed-end Beam
The beam shown in figure 3.24 is subjected to an increasing uniformly distributed
load.
wL 2
Elastic support moment

Elastic span moment

24
In the case where the ultimate bending strengths are equal at the span and at the
supports; and where adequate rotation is possible, then the additional load wa,
which the member can sustain by plastic behaviour, can be found.

w/umt langth
~~~~~~~~~~t Load
L

~~2~
Elastic BMD
B /] MA =Me= Mu
A~ C
wL 2
24
Additional momcznts diagram
(Hingczs at A and C)

Collapsa Machanism

,,__Elastic B.MD (Collapsa loads)

/ F1nal Collapsa B MD.
/

Figure 3.24 Moment redistribution - one-span beam

At collapse
2
wL-
- +a dd"ttlona
. I m1"d-span moment m 8
24
where m 8 = (waL 2 )/8 as for a simply supported beam with hinges at A and C. Thus
wL
- + -waL-
2 2

12 24 8
Hence
w
w =-
a 3

where w is the load to cause the first plastic hinge; thus the beam may carry a load
of 1.33 w with redistribution.

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50 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
From the design point of view, the elastic bending-moment diagram can be
obtained for the required ultimate loading in the ordinary way. Some of these
moments may then be reduced; but this will necessitate increasing others to main-
tain the static equilibrium of the structure. Usually it is the maximum support
moments which are reduced, so economising in reinforcing steel and also reducing
congestion at the columns. The requirements for applying moment redistribution
are:
(a) Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained,
hence it is necessary to recalculate the span bending moments and the
shear forces for the load case involved.
(b) At sections of largest moment the depth of neutral axis, x, is limited by
X)> ({3b - 0.4)d
where d = the effective depth, and
{3 _ moment at section after redistribution
b - moment at section before redistribution
This rule effectively prevents any reduction of the moments in columns
which are primarily compression members with large values of x, and
this is dealt with more fully in chapter 4.

c e

Elastic moments

-- ·--·- Redistributed moments

-------- 70% of elastic moments

c b a d e Redistributed
design moments

Figure 3.25 Redistribution of hogging moments

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 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 51
(c) The moment of resistance of any section should be at least 70 per cent
of the moment from the elastic analysis, hence allowing up to 30 per
cent redistribution. This requirement ensures that there can be no
movement in the position of the points of contraflexure obtained from
the elastic analysis as shown by figure 3.25. It thus also ensures that a
sufficient length of tension reinforcement is provided to resist cracking
at the serviceability limit state.
For unbraced structures over four storeys the redistribution is limited
to 10 per cent, to prevent lateral instability.

Example 3. 7 Moment Redistribution

In example 3.3, figure 3.14 it is required to reduce the maximum support moment
of MsA = 150 kN mas much as possible, but without increasing the span moment
above the present maximum value of 126 kN m.

15~12~0
t\1 ~ 71/1
A~B C~D
121 121
(a) Original Moments. (kNm)

1
71 ~ 71
L\ ~ /1
""'=7 "C:/'
126 126
(b) Redistributed Moments

~ ~·~
~I"""J
~ 102
""'J 141

(c) Shears. (kN)

Figure 3.26 Moments and shears with redistribution

Figure 3.26a duplicates the original bending-moment diagram (part 3 of figure

3.14) of example 3.3 while figure 3.26b shows the redistributed moments, with the
span moment set at 126 kN m. The moment at support B can be calculated, using
a rearrangement of equations 3.4 and 3.1. Thus
VAB = V[(Mmax -MAs)2w]
and

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52 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
For span AB, w =51 kN/m, therefore
VAs = y[(126 + 70) X 2 X 51] = 141 kN

MsA = (141- 51 ~ 6 ·0 ) 6.0-70

=-142kNm
and
VsA = 306 - 141
= 165 kN
Reduction inM8 A = 150- 142
=8kNm
8 X 100
= =5.3 per cent
150
In order to ensure that the moments in the columns at joint B are not changed by
the distribution, momentM8 c must also be reduced by 8 kN m. Therefore
M 8 c = 112 -8= 104kNm hogging
Figure 3.26c shows the revised shearing-force diagram to accord with the redistri-
buted moments.
This example illustrates how, with redistribution
(1) the moments at a section of beam can be reduced without exceeding
the maximum design moments at other sections
(2) the values of the column moments are not affected; and
(3) the equilibrium between external loads and internal forces is maintained.

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4
Analysis of the Section
A satisfactory and economic design of a concrete structure rarely depends on a
complex theoretical analysis. It is achieved more by deciding on a practical over-
alllayout of the structure, careful attention to detail and sound constructional
practice. Nevertheless the total design of a structure does depend on the analysis
and design of the individual member sections.
Wherever possible the analysis should be kept simple, yet it should be based on
the observed and tested behaviour of reinforced concrete members. The manipula-
tion and juggling with equations should never be allowed to obscure the funda-
mental principles that unite the analysis. The three most important principles are
(1) The stresses and strains are related by the material properties, including
the stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.
(2) The distribution of strains must be compatible with the distorted shape
of the cross-section.
(3) The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied
loads for static equilibrium.
These principles are true irrespective of how the stresses and strains are distributed,
or how the member is loaded, or whatever the shape of the cross-section.
This chapter describes and analyses the action of a member section under load.
It derives the basic equations used in design and also those equations required for
the preparation of design charts. Emphasis ·has been placed mostly on the analysis
associated with the ultimate limit state but the behaviour of the section within the
elastic range and the serviceability limit state has also been considered.
Section 4.7 deals with the redistribution of the moments from an elastic analysis
of the structure, and the effect it has on the equations derived and the design
procedure.

4.1 Stress-Strain Relations

Short-term stress-strain curves are presented in BS 8110. These curves are in an

idealised form which can be used in the analysis of member sections.

53

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54 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
4.1.1 Concrete
The behaviour of structural concrete (figure 4.1) is represented by a parabolic
stress-strain relationship, up to a strain e0 , from which point the strain increases
while the stress remains constant. Strain e0 is specified as a function of the
characteristic strength of the concrete (feu), as is also the tangent modulus at
the origin. The ultimate design stress is given by

0.67 feu = 0.67 feu =0.447 feu~ 0.45 feu

'Ym 1.5
where the factor of 0.67 allows for the difference between the bending strength
and the cube crushing strength of the concrete, and 'Ym, = 1.5 is the usual partial
safety factor for the strength of concrete when designing members cast in situ.
The ultimate strain of 0.0035 is typical for all grades of concrete.

Parabolic

Str<Zss
N/mm 2

kN/mm 2
I
I

E0 =2·4x10-" [f;; 00035

jTr;
Strain

Figure 4.1 Short-term design stress-strain curve for concrete in compres&ion

4.1.2 Reinforcing Steel

The representative short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement is given
in figure 4.2. The behaviour of the steel is identical in tension and compression,
being linear in the elastic range up to the design yield stress of fYirm where fy is
the characteristic yield stress and 'Ym is the partial factor of safety.
Within the elastic range, the relationship between the stress and strain is
stress = elastic modulus x strain
(4.1)
so that the design yield strain is

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 55

Tension and
Stress Compression
N/mm 2

Strain

Figure 4.2 Short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement

At the ultimate limit for [y =460 N/mm2

€y =460/(1.15 X 200 X 103 )
= 0.002
and for [y = 250 N/mm 2
€y =250/(1.15 X 200 X 103 )
= 0.00109

• A1 • Jd' xT
- - -s- -~tcru..J
aXIS
d

• As •
(a) (b) (c)
triangular rectangular· equivalent
parabol~ rectangular

Section Strains Stress Blocks

Figure 4.3 Section with strain diagram and stress blocks

4.2 The Distribution of Strains and Stresses across a Section

The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will
crack in the regions of tensile strains and that, after cracking, all the tension is

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56 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
carried by the reinforcement. It is also assumed that plane sections of a structural
member remain plane after straining, so that across the section there must be a
linear distribution of strains.
Figure 4.3 shows the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and the
resultant strain diagram, together with three different types of stress distribution
in the concrete.
(I) The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very
nearly proportional to the strains, which generally occurs at the loading
levels encountered under working conditions and is, therefore, used at
the serviceability limit state.
(2) The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at
failure when the compressive strains are within the plastic range and it
is associated with the design for the ultimate limit state.
(3) The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the
rectangular-parabolic distribution.
As there is compatibility of strains between the reinforcement and the adjacent
concrete, the steel strains Est in tension and Esc in compression can be determined
from the strain diagram. The relationship between the depth of neutral axis (x)
and the maximum concrete strain (Ecc) and the steel strains is given by

Est= Ecc (d-x)

-X- (4.2)

and

€sc = €cc
X-
( -X-
d') (4.3)

where dis the effective depth of the beam and d' is the depth of the compression
reinforcement.
Having determined the strains, we can evaluate the stresses in the reinforcement
from the stress-strain curve of figure 4.2, together with the equations developed
in section 4.1.2.
For analysis of a section with known steel strains, the depth of the neutral axis
can be determined by rearranging equation 4.2 as

d (4.4)
x= - - -
1+~
€cc

At the ultimate limit state the maximum compressive strain in the concrete is
taken as

Ecc = 0.0035
For steel with [y = 460 N/mm 2 the yield strain is 0.002. Inserting these values
into equation 4.4:

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 57

d
X= - - - - = 0.636 d
1 + 0.002
0.0035
Hence, to ensure yielding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state:
X ::1>0.636 d
At the ultimate limit state it is important that member sections in flexure
should be ductile and that failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the
tension steel and not by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete.
Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that
redistribution of maximum moments can occur, resulting in a safer and more
economical structure. To be very certain of the tension steel yielding, the code of
practice limits the depth of neutral axis so that
X )> (,(3b - 0.4) d
where
,6 _ moment at the section after redistribution
b - moment at the section before redistribution
Thus with moment redistribution not greater than 10 per cent, and .Bb ;;;a. 0.9:
X ::1>0.5 d
This limit will normally be adopted for ultimate limit state design, but larger
degrees of moment redistribution will require a smaller limit to x to ensure that
plastic hinges can form, providing adequate rotation at the critical sections (see
section 4.7 and table 4.1).

4.3 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block

For the design of most reinforced concrete structures it is usual to commence the
design for the conditions at the ultimate limit state, which is then followed by
checks to ensure that the structure is adequate for the serviceability limit state
without excessive deflection or cracking of the concrete. For this reason the
analysis in this chapter will first consider the simplified rectangular stress block
which can be used for the design at the ultimate limit state.
The rectangular stress block as shown in figure 4.4 may be used in preference
to the more rigorous rectangular-parabolic stress block. This simplified stress
distribution will facilitate the analysis and provide more manageable design
equations, in particular when dealing with non-rectangular cross-sections.
It can be seen from the figure that the stress block does not extend to the
neutral axis of the section but has a depths = 0.9 x. This will result in the centroid
of the stress block being s/2 = 0.45 x from the top edge of the section, which is
very nearly the same location as for the more precise rectangular-parabolic stress
block; also the areas of the two types of stress block are approximately equal (see
section 4.9). Thus the moment of resistance of the section will be similar using
calculations based on either of the two stress blocks.

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58 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
b

• As e

Section Strains Stress Block

Figure 4.4 Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block

The design equations derived in sections 4.4 to 4.6 are for redistribution of
moments being not greater than 10 per cent. When a greater moment redistribu-
tion is applied, reference should be made to section 4.7 which describes how to
modify the design equations.

4.4 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending

Bending of the section will induce a resultant tensile force F st in the reinforcing
steel, and a resultant compressive force in the concrete Fcc which acts through
the centroid of the effective area of concrete in compression, as shown in figure
4.4.
For equilibrium, the ultimate design moment, M must be balanced by the
moment of resistance of the section so that
M=Fcc xz=FstZ (4.5)
where z is the lever arm between the resultant forces Fcc and Fst·
Fcc = stress X area of action
= 0.45 feu X bs
and z =d- s/2 (4.6)
So that substituting in equation 4.5
M = 0.45 feu bs X z
and replacing s from equation 4.6
M= 0.9 fcub (d- z)z (4.7)
Rearranging and substituting K = M/bd 2 feu:
(z/di - (zjd) + K/0.9 =0
Solving this quadratic equation:
z = d [0.5 + y'(0.25 - K/0.9)] (4.8)*

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 59
which is the equation in the code of practice BS 8110 for the lever arm, z, of a
singly reinforced section.
In equation 4.5
Fst = ([yf'Ym)As with 'Ym = 1.15
= 0.87 [yAs
Hence
M
As=---- (4.9)*
0.87 [y xz
Equations 4.8 and 4.9 can be used to design the area of tension reinforcement in a
concrete section to resist an ultimate moment, M.

K = fvf/bd 2 feu 0·05 0·06 0·07 0·08 0·09 0·10 0·11 0·12 0·13 0·14 0·15 0·156

~a = z/d 0·941 0·928 0·915 0·901 0·887 0·873 0·857 0·842 0·825 0·807 0·789 0·775

"'
0·95

"~ 0·90 ~
~
~ Compression
reinforcement

\"'")
0·85
I
I
I
I
I
I I
0·80 .

I I \ I
I

0·775
30% 20%
~
0 0·05 0·10 0·15 0·156
K=M/bd 2 fcu
The % values on the K axis mark the limits
for singly reinforced sections with moment
redistribution applied (see Section 4. 7)

Figure 4.5 Lever-arm curve

Equation 4.8 for the lever arm z can be used to set up a table and draw a lever-
arm curve as shown in figure 4.5, and the curve may be used to determine the lever
arm, z, instead of solving equation 4.8.

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60 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The upper limit of the lever-arm curve, z =0.95, is specified by BS 8110. The
lower limit of z = 0. 775 dis when the depth of neutral axis x = d/2, which is the
maximum value allowed by the code for a singly reinforced section in order to
provide a ductile section which will have a gradual tension type failure as already
described. Withz =0.775 d from equation 4.7:
M= 0.9 fcub (d- 0.775 d) X 0.775 d
or
M= 0.156feubd 2 (4.10)*
as marked on the lever-arm diagram. The coefficient 0.156 has actually been
calculated using the concrete stress as more precisely equal to 0.67 feui'Ym =
0.447 feu• instead of0.45 feu·
When

M =K>0.156
bd 2 feu
compression reinforcement is also required to supplement the moment of resist-
ance of the concrete.

Example 4.1 Design of a Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section

The ultimate design moment to be resisted by the section in figure 4.6 is 185 kN m.
Determine the area of tension reinforcement (A 8 ) required given the characteristic
material strengths are fy = 460 N/mm2 and feu= 30 N/mm2 •

b=260
I• o;

d= 440

Figure 4.6 Design example - singly reinforced section

K=-M-
bd2fcu

= 260185 X 10
6
=0.122
X 440
2 X 30

<0.156
therefore compression steel is not required.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 61
Lever arm:

z = d { o.5 + j (o.25 - :.9 ) }

;, 440 { o.5 + j(o.25- 0~1-~ 2 )}

=369 mm
(Or alternatively, the value of z =lad could be obtained from the lever-arm
diagram, figure 4.5.)

A= M
s 0.87 fyz
185 X 106
=------
0.87 X 460 X 369
= 1253 mm2

Analysis Equations for a Singly Reinforced Section

The following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of a
given section with a known area of steel reinforcement.
For equilibrium of the compressive force in the concrete and the tensile force
in the steel in figure 4.4:
Fcc= Fst
or
0.45 feu b XS= 0.87 fyAs
Therefore depth of stress block is
s = 0.87 fyAs (4.11)
0.45 fcub
and
x = s/0.9
Therefore moment of resistance of the section is
M=Fst xz
=0.87 fyAs (d - s/2)

= 0.87 fyAs (d- 0.87 fyAs) (4.12)

0.9 fcub
These equations assume the tension reinforcement has yielded, which will be
the case if x :1> 0.636 d. If this is not the case, the problem would require solving
by trying successive values of x until

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62 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Fcc= Frrt
with the steel strains and hence stresses being determined from equations 4.2 and
4.1, to be used in equation 4.12 instead of0.87 fr·

Example 4. 2 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure
4.7 given that the characteristic strengths are fr = 460 N/mm 2 for the reinforce-
ment and feu = 30 N/mm2 for the concrete.

,.
b:300
.., 0·45fcu
r-----1

d: 520

A5 = 1470sq.mm
•••
Figure 4. 7 Analysis eXIlmple - singly reinforced section

For equilibrium of the compressive and tensile forces on the section

Fcc =Frn
therefore
0.45 feu bs = 0.87 fyAs
0.45 X 30 X 300 X s = 0.87 X 460 X 1470
therefore
s = 145 mm
and x = s/0.9 = 145/0.9
= 161 mm

This value of x is less than the value of 0.636 d derived from section 4.2, and
therefore the steel has yielded and frrt = 0.87 fy as assumed.
Moment of resistance of the section is
M=Fst xz
= 0.87 fyAs (d- s/2)
= 0.87 X 460 X 1470 (520- 145/2) X 10-6
=263kNm

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 63
4.5 Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement at the Ultimate Limit
State

(a) Derivation of Basic Equations

It should be noted that the equations in this section have been derived for the case
where the reduction in moment at a section due to moment redistribution is not
greater than 10 per cent. When this is not the case, reference should be made to
section 4. 7 which deals with the effect of moment redistribution.

0·45fcu

. I.
b
I• 'I

As
no
d r--·--·

As
• •
S<lct ion Strains Str<lss Block

Figure 4.8 Section with compression reinforcement

From the section dealing with the analysis of a singly reinforced section when
M>0.156fcubd 2
the design ultimate moment exceeds the moment of resistance of the concrete and
therefore compression reinforcement is required. For this condition the depth of
neutral axis, x )> 0.5 d, the maximum value allowed by the code in order to ensure
a tension failure with a ductile section.
Therefore
z = d- s/2 = d- 0.9 x/2
= d - 0.9 X 0.5 d/2
= 0.775 d
For equilibrium of the section in figure 4.8
Fst =Fcc+ Fsc
so that with the reinforcement at yield
0.87 fyAs =0.45 fcubs + 0.87 fyA;
or with s =0.9 x d/2 =0.45 d
0.87 fyAs = 0.201 feu bd + 0.87 fyA; (4.13)
and taking moments about the centroid of the tension steel, A 5

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64 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
M =Fcc X z + Fst: (d- d')
= 0.201 feu bd X 0.775 d + 0.87 fyA~ (d- d')
= 0.156fcubd 2 + 0.87 fyA~ (d- d') (4.14)
From equation 4.14
A'= M- 0.156fcubd 2 (4.15)*
s 0.87 fy (d - d')
Multiplying both sides of equation 4.13 by z = 0. 775 d and rearranging gives

A = 0.156fcubd 2 +A' (4.16)*

s 0.87 fy X Z s

withz = 0.775 d
Hence the areas of compression steel, A~, and tension steel, As, can be calculated
from equations 4.15 and 4.16.
Substituting K' =0.156 and K =M/bd 2 feu into these equations would convert
them into the same forms as in the code of practice, BS 8110, which are
A'= (K- K')fcubd 2
(4.17)*
s 0.87 fy(d- d')

As = K' fcubd2 + A's (4.18)*

0.87 fyz
In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yielded so
that the steel stress fsc = 0.87 fy· From the proportions of the strain distribution
diagram:
~ = 0.0035 (4.19)
X -d' X

so that
x-d' =~
X 0.0035
or

d' Esc
-=1---
x 0.0035

At yield with fy = 460 N/mm 2 , the steel strain Esc= Ey = 0.002. Therefore for
yielding of the compression steel

!£ )> 1- 0.002 )> 0.43 (4.20)*

X 0.0035
as specified in the code, or with x = d/2

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 65

E.:_ l> 0.215 (4.21)

d
The ratio of d'/d for the yielding of other grades of steel can be determined by
using their yield strain in equation 4.19, but for values of /y less than 460 N/mm2 ,
the application of equation 4.21 will provide an adequate safe check.
If d'/d > 0.215, then it is necessary to calculate the strain Esc from equation
4.19 and then determine fsc from
fsc =£ 5 X Esc =200 000 Esc
This value of stress for the compressive steel must then be used in the denominator
of equation 4.15 in place of 0.87 /y in order to calculate the area A;
of compres-
sion steel. The area of tension steel is calculated from a modified equation 4.16
such that
2
A s = 0.156fcubd +A's X fsc
0.87 /yZ 0.87 /y

(b) Design Charts

L.·O
12 X/d =0·3 ············ L----L-----1-~..0;.4 2·0
X/ d = O·l. -------- 1·5
N 10 X/ d: 0·5 "tl
E feu= 30. fy = 460. dYd= 0·10 -1------1 1 • 0 ~

z~
_(/)

8 . _j---+---1 0·5 ~
N
0
"tl ~

.Q 6
\
~

0~--~----~-----L----~----~--~----~
0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·5
100 A 5 /bd

Figure 4.9 Typical design chart for doubly reinforced beams

The equations for the design charts are obtained by taking moments about the
neutral axis. Thus
M = 0.45 feu 0.9 x (x- 0.9 x/2) +fscA~ (x- d') + fstAs (d- x)
This equation and 4.13 may be written in the form

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66 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

fst As = 0.201 feu ~ + fsc A~

bd d bd

M = 0.401 fe x 2 (1 - 0.45) +J; A~

bd 2 u d2 sc bd
(!_- !!_'__) +
d d
fst As (1 - ~)
bd d
For specified ratios of A'Jbd, xjd and d'jd, the two non-dimensional equations can
be solved to give values for As/bd and Mjbd 2 so that a set of design charts such as
the one shown in figure 4.9 may be plotted. Before the equations can be solved,
the steel stresses fst and fsc must be calculated for each value of xjd. This is
achieved by first determining the relevant strains from the strain diagram (or by
applying equations 4.2 and 4.3) and then by evaluating the stresses from the stress-
strain curve of figure 4.2. Values of xjd below 0.5 apply when moments are
redistributed.

Example 4.3 Design of a Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement

(Moment Redistribution Factor f3b ;<l: 0. 9)
The section shown in figure 4.10 is to resist an ultimate design moment of
285 kN m. The characteristic material strengths are fy =460 N/mm 2 and
feu = 30 N/mm2 • Determine the areas of reinforcement required.
M
K=--
bd2feu
285 X 106
= = 0.189
260 X 4402 X 30
> 0.156
therefore compression steel is required
d'jd = 50/440 = 0.11 < 0.2
as in equation 4.21 and the compression steel will have yielded.
Compression steel:
A'= (K- K')feubd 2
s 0.87 fy (d- d')
= (0.189- 0.156) 30 260 X 440 2
X
0.87 X 460 (440- 50)
= 319 mm 2
Tension steel:
As= K' feubd 2 +A~
0.87 fyz
= 0.156 X 30 X 260 X 4402 + 319
0.87 X 460 (0. 775 X 440)
= 1726 + 319 =2045 mm2

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 67

• I •
As

d = 1.1.0

Figure 4.10 Design example with compression reinforcement, iJb ;;. 0. 9

Example 4.4 Anolysis of a Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure
4.11 given that the characteristic strengths are [y =460 N/mm 2 for the reinforce-
ment and feu= 30 N/mm 2 for the concrete.

•
A~=628
•
j_
,-
d'= 50 I
s=0·9x

. r--·-. - - · - --·
d= 510

A5 = 2410
••• Fst

S<2ct ion Str<Zss Block

Figure 4.11 Analysis example, doubly reinforced section

For equilibrium of the tensile and compressive forces on the section:

Fst =Fcc+ Fsc
Assuming initially that the steel stresses fst and fsc are the design yield values, then
0.87 [yAs = 0.45 fcubs + 0.87 [yA~
Therefore
s = 0.87 [y (As -A;)
0.45 fcub
= 0.87 X 460 (2410- 628)
0.45 X 30 X 280
= 189mm

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68 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
x = s/0.9 = 210 mm
xjd =210/510 =0.41 < 0.636
so the tension steel will have yielded. Also
d'/x =50/210 =0.24 < 0.43
so the compression steel will also have yielded, as assumed.
Taking moments about the tension steel
M= Fcc (d- s/2) + Fsc (d- d')
= 0.45 feu bs (d- s/2)+ 0.87 [yA~ (d- d')
= 0.45 X 30 X 280 X 189 (51 0 - 189/2) + 0.87 X 460 X 620 (510- 50)
= 412 X 106 N mm
If the depth of neutral axis was such that the compressive or tensile steel had not
yielded, it would have been necessary to try successive values of x until
Fst =Fcc+ Fsc
balances, with the steel strains and stresses being calculated from equations 4.2,
4.3 and 4.1. The steel stresses at balance would then be used to calculate the
moment of resistance.

4.6 Flanged Section in Bending at the Ultimate Limit State

bt 0·45 feu
t---+1

~
Section Stress Block

Figure 4.12 T-section, stress block within the flange, s < hf

T-sections and L-sections which have their flanges in compression can both be
designed or analysed in a similar manner, and the equations which are derived can
be applied to either type of cross-section. As the flanges generally provide a large
compressive area, it is usually unnecessary to consider the case where compression
steel is required; if it should be required, the design would be based on the principles
derived in section 4.6.3.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 69
For the singly reinforced section it is necessary to consider two conditions:
(1) the stress block lies within the compression flange, and
(2) the stress block extends below the flange.

4. 6.1 Flanged Section - the Depth of the Stress Block Lies With " the Flange,
s < hr (figure 4.12)
For this depth of stress block, the beam can be considered as an quivalent
rectangular section of breadth br equal to the flange width. This s because the
non-rectangular section below the neutral axis is in tension and i: , therefore, con-
sidered to be cracked and inactive. Thus K =M/brd 2 feu can be c llculated and the
lever arm determined from the lever-arm curve of figure 4.5 or ec uation 4.8. The
relation between the lever arm; z, and depth, x, of the neutral ax s is given by
z =d- O.Ss
or
s = 2 (d- z)
If s is less than the flange thickness (hr), the stress block does lie within the flange
as assumed and the area of reinforcement is given by

A= M
s 0.87 fyz
The design of aT-section beam is described further in section 7.2.3 with a worked
example.

Example 4.5 Analysis of a Flanged Section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T-section shown in figure
4.13. The characteristic material strengths are fy = 460 N/mm 2 and feu= 30 N/mm 2

bf = 800

. __n<2utral a~.
}~=150
d=420

• • • A 5 =1470mm2

Str<2ss
S<2c t ion Block
Figure 4.13 Analysis example of a T-section, s < ht

Assume initially that the stress block depth lies within the flange and the rein-
forcement is strained to the yield, so that fst = 0.87 fy·

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70 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
For no resultant axial force on the sections
Fcc= Fst
therefore
0.45 fcubrs =0.87 [yAs
and solving for the depth of stress block
0.87 X 460 X 1470
s=
0.45 X 30 X 800
=54mm
x = s/0.9 = 60 mm
Hence the stress block does lie within the flange and with this depth of neutral
axis the steel will have yielded as assumed.
Lever arm:
z =d- s/2
= 420 - 54/2 = 393 mm
Taking moments about the centroid of the reinforcement the moment of
resistance is
M= Fcc XZ

=0.45 feu brsz

=0.45 X 30 X 800 X 54 X 393 X 10-6
=229kN m
If in the analysis it had been found that s > hr, then the procedure would then be
similar to that in example 4. 7.

4. 6.2 Flanged Section - the Depth of the Stress Block Extends Below the Flange,
s>hr
For the design of a flanged section, the procedure described in section 4.6.1 will
check if the depth of the stress block extends below the flange. An alternative
procedure is to calculate the moment of resistance, Mr, of the section with s =hr,
the depth of the flange (see equation 4.22 of example 4.6 following). Hence if the
design moment, M, is such that
M>Mr
then the stress block must extend below the flange, and
s>hr
In this case the design can be carried out by either:
(a) using an exact method to determine the depth of the neutral axis, as in
example 4.6 or

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 71

(b) designing for the conservative condition of x = d/2 as described at the

end of this section.

Example 4. 6 Design of a Flanged Section with the Depth of the Stress Block
Below the Flange
The T-section beam shown in figure 4.14 is required to resist an ultimate design
moment of 180 kN m. The characteristic material strengths are fy = 460 N/mm 2
and feu = 30 N/mm 2 • Calculate the area of reinforcement required.

d:350

bw=200
r-----1
Section Stress Block

Figure 4.14 Design example, T-section with s > ht

In the figure
Fer is the force developed in the flange

F cw is the force developed in the area of web in compression

Moment of resistance, Mr, of the flange is
Mr=FerXz 1
or
Mr = 0.45 feu brhr (d- hr/2) (4.22)*
= 0.45 X 30 X 400 X 100 (350- 100/2) X 10-6
= 162 kN m < 180 kN m, the design moment
Therefore, the stress block must extend below the flange.
It is now necessary to determine the depth, sw, of the web in compression,
where Sw = s- hr.
For equilibrium:
Applied moment
180=FerXz 1 +FewXZ2
= 162 + 0.45 feubwSw XZ2

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72 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

= 162 + 0.45 X 30 X 200 Sw (250- Sw/2) X 10-6

= 162 + 2700 Sw (250 - Sw/2) X 10-6
This equation can be rearranged into
s~- 500sw + 13.33 x 103 =0
Solving this quadratic equation
Sw = 28 mm
So that the depth of neutral axis
x = s/0.9 = (100 + 28)/0.9
= 142 mm

As x < d/2, compression reinforcement is not required.

For the equilibrium of the section
Fst =Fcf + Few
or
0.87 fyAs = 0.45 fcubrhr + 0.45 fcubwSw
0.87 X 460 X A 8 = 0.45 X 30 (400 X 100 + 200 X 28)
Therefore

As= 616 X 103

0.87 X 460
= 1540 mm 2

Example 4. 7 Analysis of a Flanged Section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T-beam section shown in
figure 4.15, given fy = 460 N/mm 2 and feu = 30 N/mm 2 .
The compressive force in the flange is
Fcf = 0.45 feu brhr
= 0.45 X 30 X 450 X 150 X 10-3
= 911.2 kN
Then tensile force in the reinforcing steel, assuming it has yielded, is
Fst = 0.87 fyAs
= 0.87 X 460 X 2410 X 10-3
= 964.5 kN
Therefore Fst > Fcc
so that s > hr

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 73
bt = 450 0·45 feu
~

E· .150 ,. [
0·9x
ne2utral . _ _ . - - ·
Fcf

d=440 axis

• •• A5 = 2410
Fst
bw =300
I· .. 1
Stress
Section Block
Figure 4.15 Analysis example of a T-section, s > ht
and the force in the web is
Few = 0.45 feu bw (s - hr)
= 0.45 X 30 X 300 (s- 150) X 10-3
= 4.05 (s- 150)
For equilibrium
Few= Fst- Fer
or 4.05 (s- 150) = 964.5 - 911.2
Hence
s = 163 mm
x = s/0.9 =181 mm
With this depth of neutral axis the reinforcement has yielded, as assumed, and
Few= 4.05 (163- 150) =53 kN
(If Fer> Fst> then the stress block would not extend beyond the flange and the
section would be analysed as in example 4.2 for a rectangular section of dimensions
br x d.)
Taking moments about the centroid of the reinforcement
M =Fer (d- hr/2) + F cw (d- s/2 - hr/2)
= (911.2 (440- 150/2) +53 (440- 163/2- 150/2)) X 10-3
=348 kNm
Example 4.8 Design of a Flanged Section with Depth of Neutral Axis
X =d/2

A safe but conservative design for a flanged section with s > hr can be achieved by
setting the depth of neutral axis to x = d/2, the maximum depth allowed in the
code. Design equations can be derived for this condition as follows.

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74 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
0·45 feu
t---1

Fst
~
Section Stress Block

Fipre 4.16 Flanged aection with depth of neutral axir x =d/2

Depth of stress block, s =0.9 x =0.45 d

Divide the flanged section within the depth of the stress block into areas I and 2
as shown in figure 4.I6, so that
Area I = bw Xs= 0.45 bw d
Area 2 =(br- bw) x hr
and the compression forces developed by these areas are
Fel =0.45 feu X 0.45 bwd =0.2 feubwd
Fe2 = 0.45 feuhr (br- bw)
Taking moments about Fe 2 at the centroid of the flange
M = Fst (d - hr/2) - Fet (s/2 - hr/2)
= 0.87 fyAs (d- hr/2) - 0.2 feubwd (0.45 d- he)/2
Therefore
As= M + O.I feu bwd (0.45 d- he)
(4.23)*
0.87 fy (d- 0.5 he)
This is the equation given in clause 3.4.4.5 of BS8110. It should not be used when
he> 0.45 d.
Applying this equation to example 4.6:
A = 180 X I06 + 0.1 X 30 X 200 X 350 (0.45 X 350- IOO)
5
0.87 X 460 (350- 100/2)
=1600 mm 2 (compare with 1540 mm 2 of example 4.6)
Before using equation 4.23 for calculatingA 5 , it is necessary to confirm that
compression reinforcement is not required. This is achieved by using equation
4.24 to check that the moment of resistance of the concrete, Me, is greater than
the design moment, M

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 75

4. 6.3 Flanged Section with Compression Reinforcement

With x = d/2 in figure 4.16 and taking moments about As, the maximum resistance
moment of the concrete is
Me =Fe 1 xz 1 +Fe2 xz 2
= 0.156 feubwd 2 + 0.45 feu (br- bw) (d- hr/2) (4.24)
(Note that the value of0.156 was derived previously for the rectangular section.)
Dividing through by feu brd 2

M 2 = 0.156 bw + 0.45 hr (1- bw)

feu brd br d br
(1- hr)
2d
(4.25)*

which is similar to the equation given in BS 8110.

If the applied design moment, M >Me, compression reinforcement is required.
In which case the areas of steel can be calculated from

A'= M-Me (4.26)

s 0.87 fy (d- d')
and considering the equilibrium of forces on the section
Fst.=Fel +Fe2 +Fsc
so that

As= 0.2feubwd+0.45feuhr(br-bw) +A~ (4.27)

0.87 [y
Again, d'jx )> 0.43, otherwise the design compressive steel stress is less than
0.87 [y.
When, because of moment redistribution, f3b < 0.9 the limiting depth of neutral
axis is less than d/2 and these equations will require modification using the
factors given in the table 4.1 of section 4. 7 which deals with moment
redistribution.

4. 7 Moment Redistribution and the Design Equations

The plastic behaviour of reinforced concrete at the ultimate limit state affects the
distribution of moments in a structure. To allow for this, the moments derived
from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the assumption that plastic
hinges have formed at the sections with the largest moments. The formation of
plastic hinges requires relatively large rotations with yielding of the tension rein-
forcement. To ensure large strains in the tension steel, the code of practice restricts
the depth of the neutral axis of a section according to the reduction of the elastic
moment so that
X)> ({3b - 0.4) d (4.28)*
where d is the effective depth

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76 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
moment at section after redistribution
and (3b = E>;; 1.0
moment at section before redistribution

So, for the design of a section with compression reinforcement after moment re-
distribution the depth of neutral axis x will take the maximum value from
equation 4.28.
Therefore the depth of the stress block is
s = 0.9 ((3b - 0.4) d
and the level arm is

z=d-!_
2
= d - 0.9 ((3b - 0.4) d/2 (4.29)
The moment of resistance of the concrete in compression is
Me =Fcc X z = 0.45 feu bs X z
= 0.45 feu b X 0.9 ((3b - 0.4) d X [d- 0.9 ((3b - 0.4) d/2)
Therefore

Me = 0.45 X 0.9 ((3b - 0.4) [1 - 0.45 ((3b - 0.4))

bd2fcu
= 0.402 ((3b - 0.4) - 0.18 ((3b - 0.4) 2
So that rearranging
Me =K'bd 2fcu
where K' = 0.402 ((3b- 0.4)- 0.18 ((3b- 0.4) 2 (4.30)*
This is the equation forK' given in BS 8110.
(It should be noted that in calculating the coefficients 0.402 and 0.18, the more
precise value of concrete stress fcc = 0.67 fcu/1.5 has been used and not the value
0.45 feu.)
When the ultimate design moment is such that
M>K'bd 2fcu
or K >K'
then compression steel is required such that
A'= (K- K')fcubd 2 ( 4.31)*
s 0.87 fy (d- d')
and
A = K'fcubd2 +A' (4.32)*
s s
0.87 fyz

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 77

M
where K=-- (4.33)*
bd2fcu
These equations are identical in form to those derived previously for the design of
a section with compression reinforcement for f3b ~ 0.9.
Table 4.1 shows the various design factors associated with the moment redis-
tribution. If the value of d'/d for the section exceeds that shown in the table, the
compression steel will not have yielded and the compressive stress will be less than
0.8 7 /y. In such cases, the compressive stress fsc will be E 8 Esc where the strain Esc is
obtained from the proportions of the strain diagram. This value of fsc should
replace 0.87 /yin equation 4.31, and equation 4.32 becomes
A
s
= K'fcubd2 +A'
sX
fsc
0.87 /yz 0.87 /y

Table 4.1 Moment redistribution design factors

Redistribution f3b x/d z/d K' d'/d

(per cent)

EO; 10 ~0.9 0.5 0.775 0.156 0.215

15 0.85 0.45 0.797 0.144 0.193
20 0.8 0.4 0.82 0.132 0.172
25 0.75 0.35 0.842 0.199 0.150
30 0.7 0.3 0.865 0.104 0.129

It should be noted that for a singly reinforced section (K <K'), the lever arm z is
calculated from equation 4.8.
For a section requiring compression steel, the lever arm can be calculated from
equation 4.29 or by using the equation
z =d [0.5 + ..j(0.25 - K'/0.9)) (4.34)
as given in BS 8110, and is similar to equation 4.8 but withK' replacing K.

Example 4. 9 Design of a Section with Moment Redistribution Applied and f3b =0.8
The section shown in figure 4.17 is subject to an ultimate design moment of
228 kN m. The characteristic material strengths are /y = 460 N/mm 2 and
feu = 30 N/mm2 . Determine the areas of reinforcement required.
(A) From First Principles
Limiting neutral axis depth, x = ({3b - 0.4) d = (0.8 - 0.4) d
=0.4d= 176mm
Stress block depth, s =0.9x =0.36 d
Lever arm z = d - s/2 = 0.82 d

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78 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
b=260
I• -1
_l
d'= 50
T • A's •
d =L. L.O

As
• •
Figure 4.17 Design example with moment redistribution, iJb =0.8

Moment of resistance of the concrete

Me = Fcc Xz = 0.45 feu bs X z
= 0.45 X 30 X 260 X 0.36 X 0.82 X 4402 X 10-6
= 201 kN m

< 228 kN m, the applied moment

therefore compression steel is required.
d'/x =50/176 =0.28 < 0.43
therefore the compression steel has yielded.
Compression steel:
A'= M-Mc
s 0.87 fy (d- d')
(228- 201) X 106
0.87 X 460 (440- 50)
= 173 mm 2
Tension steel:

A = Me +A~
5
0.87 fyz
201 X 106
= + 173
0.87 X 460 X 0.82 X 440
= 1392 + 173 = 1565 mm 2

(B) Alternative Solution Applying Equations from BS 8110

From equations 4.30 to 4.34:
K' = 0.402 (13b- 0.4)- 0.18 (13b- 0.4) 2
= 0.402 (0.8- 0.4)- 0.18 (0.8- 0.4) 2
= 0.132

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 79

K= M
bd 2 fcu
228 X 106
=------
260 X 4402 X 30
= 0.151 > K'
therefore compression steel is required.
Compression steel:
A'= (K- K')fcubd 2
s 0.87 [y (d- d')
= (0.151 - 0.132) 30 X 260 X 4402
0.87 X 460 (440- 50)
= 184mm2

(The variation with the previous result is due to rounding-off errors in the arith-
metic and the subtraction of two numbers of similar magnitude in the numerator.)
Tension steel:
z = d [0.5 + y'(0.25- K'/0.9))
= d [0.5 + y'(0.25- 0.132/0.9)] = 0.82 d

A s-_ K' f~ubd +A's

2

0.87 [yz
0.32 X 30 X 260 X 440 2
= + 184
0.87 X 460 X 0.82 X 440
= 1381 + 184 = 1565 mm2

4.8 Bending Plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State

The applied axial force may be tensile or compressive. In the analysis that follows,
a compressive force is considered. For a tensile load the same basic principles of
equilibrium, compatibility of strains, and stress-strain relationships, would apply,
but it would be necessary to change the sign of the applied load (N) when we
consider the equilibrium of forces on the cross-section. (The area of concrete in
compression has not been reduced to allow for the concrete displaced by the
compression steel. This could be taken into account by reducing the stress fsc in
the compression steel by an amount equal to 0.45 feu·)
Figure 4.18 represents the cross-section of a member with typical strain and
stress distributions for varying positions of the neutral axis. The cross-section is
subject to a moment M and an axial compressive force N, and in the figure the
direction of the moment is such as to cause compression on the upper part of the
section and tension on the lower part.

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80 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
DESIGN DESIGN

DESIGN

DESIGN

DESIGN
DESIGN

DESIGN DESIGN

DESIGN

DESIGN DESIGN

Figure 4.18 Bending plus axial load with varying positions of the neutral axis

50 .-----.-----.-----.-----.-----~----~~~~----,
d = 0·80
REINFORCED REINFORCED h

DESIGN DESIGN

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 81
Let
Fcc be the compressive force developed in the concrete and acting through
the centroid of the stress block
F fK: be the compressive force in the reinforcement area A~ and acting
through its centroid
Fs be the tensile or compressive force in the reinforcement area A 8 and
acting through its centroid.

(i} Basic Equations and Design Charts

The applied force (N) must be balanced by the forces developed within the cross-
section, therefore
N=Fcc + FfK'. + Fs
In this equation, Fs will be negative whenever the position of the neutral axis is
such that the reinforcement As is in tension, as in figure 4.18a. Substituting into
this equation the terms for the stresses and areas
N = 0.45 feu bs + ffK'.A~ + fsAs ( 4.35)*
where ffK'. is the compressive stress in reinforcement A~ and fs is the tensile or
compressive stress in reinforcement A 8 •
The design moment M must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the
forces developed within the cross-section. Hence, taking moments about the
mid-depth of the section

(!!_ - !.)
M=Fcc2 2
+F (!!_ - d') + Fs('2!__ -d)
fK:2

or

M=0.45fcubs(~ -~)+ffK'.A~(~ -d)

-fsAs (d- ~) (4.36)*

When the depth of neutral axis is such that 0.9 x ~ h as in part (b) of figure 4.18,
then the whole concrete section is subject to a uniform compressive stress of
0.45 feu· In this case, the concrete provides no contribution to the moment of
resistance and the first term on the right side of equation 4.36 disappears.
For a symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement (A~ =As= AfK'./2 and
d' =h - d), equations 4.35 and 4.36 can be rewritten in the following form

!!_ = ~.45 fcuS + I" As + I" As (4.37)

bh h J sc bh J s bh

M
bh 2
= 0.45 fcus
h
(o. 5_ ___!_) + ffK'.As ( !!_ _
2h bh h
o.s)
- f~~s (~ - 0.5) (4.38)

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82 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
In these equations the steel strains, and hence the stresses fFJ:. and [ 8 , vary with the
depth of the neutral axis (x). Thus N/bh and M/bh 2 cllll be calculated for specified
ratios of A 8 /bh and xjh so that column design charts for a symmetrical arrange-
ment of reinforcement such as the one shown in figure 4.19 can be plotted.
The direct solution of equations 4.37 and 4.38 for the design of column rein-
forcement would be very tedious and, therefore, a set of design charts for the
usual case of symmetrical sections have been prepared by the British Standards
Institution. Examples showing the design of column steel are given in chapter 9.

(ii) Modes of Failure

The relative magnitude of the moment (M) and the axial load (N) governs whether
the section will fail in tension or in compression. With large effective eccentricity
(e = M/N) a tensile failure is likely, but with a small eccentricity a compressive
failure is more likely. The magnitude of the eccentricity affects the position of the
neutral axis and hence the strains and stresses in the reinforcement.
Let
Esc be the compressive strain in reinforcement A~
e8 be the tensile or compressive strain in reinforcement As
ey be the tensile yield strain of steel as shown in the stress-strain curve
of figure 4.2.
From the linear strain distribution of figure 4.18
Xx
eFJ:. = 0.0035 ( - d')
- -

and (4.39)*

e8 = 0.0035 -x- (d-x)

The steel stresses and strains are then related according to the stress-strain curve
of figure 4.2.
Consider the following modes of failure of the section as shown on the inter-
action diagram of figure 4.20.

(a) Tension Failure, e8 > ey

This type of failure is associated with large eccentricities (e) and small depths of
neutral axis (x ). Failure begins with yielding of the tensile reinforcement, followed
by crushing of the concrete as the tensile strains rapidly increase.

(b) Balanced Failure, e8 = ey, point bon figure 4.20

When failure occurs with yielding of the tension steel and crushing of the concrete
at the same instant it is described as a 'balanced' failure. With e8 = ey and from
equation 4.39
d
X =xbal =
1+~
0.0035

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 83
For example, substituting the values of Ey = 0.002 for grade 460 steel
Xbal = 0.636 d
Equations 4.35 and 4.36 become
Nbal =Fcc + Fsc - Fs
and = 0.45 feu b X 0.9 Xbal +fscA~ - 0.87 [yAs (4.40)

M
bal
=F
cc
(!!_2 - J
0.9 Xbai\ + F
sc
(!!_2 - d~} + Fs
2

where
fsc ~ 0.87 [y
At point bon the interaction diagram of figure 4.20, N =Nbab M =Mbai and
fs =- 0.87 [y. When the design load N > Nbal the section will fail in compression,
whilst if N < Nbal there will be an initial tensile failure, with yielding of reinforce-
ment As.

compr<2ssion
failur<2

b
t<2nsion
fail ur<2
0
M 'M bal
Figure 4.20 Bending, plus axial load chart with modes of failure

(c) Compression Failure

In this case x > Xbal and N> Nbal·
The change in slope at point r in figure 4.20 occurs when
Esc= €y

and from equation 4.39

Xr = 0.0035 d' /( 0.0035 - €y)

= 2.33 d' for grade 460 steel

Point r will occur in the tension failure zone of the interaction diagram if
Xr <xbal·

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84 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Whenx < d
fs ~ 0.8 7 [y and tensile
Whenx =d

Whenx> d
fs ~ 0.87 [y and compressive
Whenx = 2.33 d, then from equation 4.39
€8 = 0.002 = €y for grade 460 steel
At this stage, both layers of steel will have yielded and there will be zero moment
of resistance with a symmetrical section, so that
No = 0.45 fcubh + 0.87 [y (A~+ As)
Such M-N interaction diagrams can be constructed for any shape of cross-section
which has an axis of symmetry by applying the basic equilibrium and strain com-
patibility equations with the stress-strain relations, as demonstrated in the follow-
ing examples. These diagrams can be very useful for design purposes.

Example 4.10 M-N Interactive Diagram for an Unsymmetrical Section

Construct the interaction diagram for the section shown in figure 4.21 with
feu =30 N/mm 2 and fy =460 N/mm 2 . The bending causes maximum compression

1
on the face adjacent to the steel area A~.

b = 350
I' ·I
A A_l_
•A 1 =1610
• 1
d =60
s
d=
h= 450 390
T_n_<Z_ut_r_a_l . x .
A 5 = 982
axis
-'--
• •
Strain
Section
Diagram

Figure 4.21 Non-symmetrical section M-N interaction example

For a symmetrical cross-section, taking moments about the centre-line of the

concrete section will give M =0 with N =N 0 and both areas of steel at the yield
stress. This is no longer true for unsymmetrical steel areas as F sc F 8 at yield *
therefore, theoretically, moments should be calculated about an axis referred to

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 85

as the 'plastic centroid'. The ultimate axial load N 0 acting through the plastic
centroid causes a uniform strain across the section with compression yielding of
all the reinforcement, and thus there is zero moment of resistance. With uniform
strain the neutral-axis depth, x, is at infinity.
The location of the plastic centroid is determined by taking moments of all the
stress resultants about an arbitrary axis such as AA in figure 4.21 so that
-
X = L (Fcch/2 + F sed' + Fsd)
P L (Fcc + Fsc + Fs)
= 0.45 feu Ace X 450/2+ 0.87 [yA~ X 60 + 0.87 [yAs x 390
0.45 fcuAcc + 0.87 [yA~ + 0.87 [yAs
= 0.45 X 30 X 350 X 4502 /2 + 0.87 X 460 (1610 X 60 + 982 X 390)
0.45 X 30 X 350 X 450 + 0.87 X 460 (1610 + 982)
= 212 mm from AA
The fundamental equation for calculating points on the interaction diagram
with varying depths of neutral axis are
(i) Compatibility of strains (used in table 4.2, columns 2 and 3):

€sc = 0.0035 d')

X-
( -X-.

= 0.0035 ( d -X)
(4.41)
€s -X-

(ii) Stress-strain relations for the steel (table 4.2, columns 4 and 5):

€;;;.. €y = 0.002, f= 0.87 [y

(4.42)
e<ey [=Ex e
(iii) Equilibrium (table 4.2, columns 6 and 7):
N=Fcc +Fsc +Fs
or 0.9 X< h N = 0.45 feu b 0.9 X+ fscA~ + fsAs
0.9 X> h N = 0.45 fcub h + fscA~ + fsAs
Taking moments about the plastic centroid
0.9 x <h M =Fcc (xp - 0.9 x/2) + Fsc (xp - d') - Fs (d - xp)
0.9 x ;;..h M= Fcc (xp- h/2) + Fsc (xp- d')- Fs (d-ip)
Fs is negative when fs is a tensile stress.
These equations have been applied to provide the values in table 4.2 for a range
of key values of x. Then the M-N interaction diagram has been plotted in figure
4.22 from the values in table 4.2 as a series of straight lines. Of course, Nand M
could have been calculated for intermediate values of x to provide a more accurate
curve.

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86 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
N-kNr-----------~---------.r----------,

(0,3164)

0
300
(117,-138)
M- kN.m

Figure4.22 M-N interaction diagram for a non..-symmetrical section

Table 4.2 M-N interaction values for example 4.9

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

X €sc €s f~c fs N M

d'=60 0 >0.002 0 -0.87 [y 138 117

2.33 d' = 140 0.002 >0.002 0.87 [y -0.87 [y 847 257
xbai = 0.636 d
>0.002 0.002 0.87 [y -0.87 [y 1306 274
= 248
d= 390 >0.002 0 0.87 [y 0 2303 158
2.33 d= 909 >0.002 >0.002 0.87 [y 0.87 [y 3164 0

Example 4.11 M-N Interaction Diagram [or a Non-rectangular Section

Construct the interaction diagram for the equilateral triangular column section in
figure 4.23 with feu = 30 N/mm 2 and [y = 460 N/mm 2 • The bending is about an
axis parallel to the side AA and causes maximum compression on the corner
adjacent to the steel area A;.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 87

h=346
5= 0·9.x: I
3T25bars

400
I~
./=2/3s
3

Figure 4.23 Non-rectangular section M-N interaction example

For this triangular section, the plastic centroid is at the same location as the
geometric centroid, since the moment of FSA: equals the moment of F 8 about this
axis when all the bars have yielded in compression.
The fundamental equations for strain compatibility and the steel's stress-strain
relations are as presented in example 4.9 and are used again in this example. The
equilibrium equations for the triangular section become

N= Fcc+ FSA: + F8

or

0.9x<h N=0.45fcusl/2+ fscA~ + fsAs

0.9x>h N = 0.45 feu h X 400/2 + fscA~ + fsAs
0.9x <h M =Fcc 2 (h - 0.9 x)/3 + Fsc (2h/3 - d')- F 8 (d- 2h/3)
0.9x ~h M= Fsc (2h/3- d') -F8 (d- 2h/3)

F 8 is negative when fs is a tensile stress, and from the geometry of figure 4.23

2
1 = - s ...j3
3

Table 4.3 has been calculated using the fundamental equations with the values
of x shown. The interaction diagram is shown constructed in figure 4.24.
With a non-rectangular section, it could be advisable to construct a more
accurate interaction diagram using other intermediate values of x. This would
certainly be the case with, say, a flanged section where there is sudden change in
breadth.

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88 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

N-kN

(0,1523)
1500

1000

500

60 (73·0,-9)
fvl-kNm

Figure 4.24 M-N interaction diagram for a non-rectangular section

Table 4.3 M-N interaction values for example 4.10

fsc fs N M
X Esc Est (N/mm 2 ) (N/mm 2 ) (kN) (kNm)

d' = 100 0 >0.002 0 -0.87 [y 330 36.5

Xbal = 0.636 d
0.0016 0.002 328 -0.87 [y 9 73.0
= 188
2.33 d' = 233 0.002 0.00095 0.87 [y - 189 354 68.9
d= 296 >0.002 0 0.87 [y 0 750 55.1
2.33 d = 690 >0.002 >0.002 0.87 [y 0.87 [y 1523 0

4.9 The Rectangular-Parabolic Stress Block

A rectangular-parabolic stress block may be used to provide a more rigorous

analysis of the reinforced concrete section. The stress block is similar in shape to
the stress-strain curve for concrete in figure 4.1, having a maximum stress of
0.45 f cu at the ultimate strain of 0.0035.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 89
In figure 4.25
the concrete strain at the end of the parabolic section
the distance from the neutral axis to strain Eo
depth of the neutral axis
the mean concrete stress
depth to the centroid of the stress block.
0·0035 0·45/cu
1------1

strass block.

Sact1on Strains Str12ss Block

Figure 4.25 Section in bending with a rectangular-parabolic itress block

(a) To Determine the Mean Concrete Stress, k 1

From the strain diagram
X W

0.0035 Eo

therefore

w=~
0.0035
Substituting for Eo= 2.4 X 10- 4 V(fcuhm) (see figure 4.1)
X Vfcu . h 'Ym
w-_ - -- Wit = 1. 5 {4.43)
17.86
For the stress block
area of stress block
kl =- ------
X

area pqrs - area rst

X

Thus, using the area properties of a parabola as shown in figure 4.26, we have
kl = 0.45 feu X - 0.45 feu. w/3
X

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90 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Substituting for w from equation 4.43 gives

k = (o.45- 0.15 .Jfcu) f. (4.44)*

1 17.86 cu

'

Araas :

Position of cantroids: a=~ w

I 8 '

Figure 4.26 Properties of a parabola

(b) To Determine the Depth of the Centroid k 2 x

k 2 is determined for a rectangular section by taking area moments of the stress
block about the neutral axis -see figures 4.25 and 4.26. Thus
area pqrs x x/2 -area rst x w/4
(x - k 2 x) = ---=-_;._-~-----'--
area of stress block
(0.45 fcux)x/2- (0.45 feu w/3)w/4
k 1x
0.45 feu (x 2 /2 - w2 / 12)
k 1x
Substituting for w from equation 4.43

(x- k 2 x- 0.45 fcuX 2

) _ --~-
k1x
[ 0.5- _&_]
3828
hence
k2 =1 _ 0.45 feu r0.5- ~]
kl L 3828
(4.45)*

Values of k 1 and k 2 for varying characteristic concrete strengths have been

tabulated in table 4.4.
Once we know the properties of the stress block, the magnitude and position of
the resultant compressive force in the concrete can be determined, and hence the
moment of resistance of the section calculated using procedures similar to those
for the rectangular stress block.

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 91

Table 4.4 Values of k 1 and k 2 for different concrete grades

feu kl
(N/mm 2 ) (N/mm 2 ) ktffcu kz ktfkzf"u

20 8.249 0.412 0.460 0.896

25 10.200 0.408 0.456 0.895
30 12.120 0.404 0.452 0.894
40 15.875 0.397 0.445 0.892
50 19.531 0.391 0.439 0.890
60 23.097 0.385 0.434 0.887
Typical values 0.4 0.45 0.89

Using typical values from table 4.4, a comparison of the rectangular-parabolic

and the rectangular stress blocks provides
(i) Stress resultant, Fcc
rectangular-parabolic: k 1 bx Rl 0.4 feu bx
rectangular: 0.45 feu x 0.9 bx Rl 0.4 feu bx
(ii) Lever arm, z
rectangular parabolic: d- k 1 x Rl d- 0.45 x
rectangular: d - t x 0.9 x =d - 0.45 x
So both stress blocks have almost the same moment of resistance, Fcc x z, showing
it is adequate to use the simpler rectangular stress block for design calculations.

4.10 The Triangular Stress Block

The triangular stress block applies to elastic conditions during the serviceability
limit state. In practice it is not generally used in design calculations except for
liquid-retaining structures, or for the calculations of crack widths and deflections
as described in chapter 6. With the triangular stress block, the cross-section can be
considered as
(i) cracked in the tension zone, or
{ii) uncracked with the concrete resisting a small amount of tension.

4.1 0.1 Cracked Section

A cracked section is shown in figure 4.27 with a stress resultant Fst acting through
the centroid of the steel and Fcc acting through the centroid of the triangular
stress block.
For equilibrium of the section
Fcc= Fst.
or 0.5 bxfcc = Asfst. {4.46)*

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92 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
b
I· ·I
.-------. -

..
h f.- - ---1---+-

As
-'--'-.

Saction Strain Strass

Figure 4.27 Triangular stress block - cracked section

and the moment of resistance

M= Fcc XZ = Fst X Z
or M = 0.5 bxfcc (d- x/3) = Asfst (d- x/3) (4.47)*

(i) Analysis of a Specified Section

The depth of the neutral axis, x, can be determined by converting the section into
an 'equivalent' area of concrete as shown in figure 4.28, where O:e = £ 5 /Ec, the
modular ratio. Taking area moments about the upper edge:
_ ~(Ax)
x----
~A

_}
Transformed
d
h Steel Area=
£ 5 .A 5 =CXeAs,
Ec

Figure 4.28 Equivalent transformed section with the concrete cracked

Therefore
X= bx xx/2 +o:eAsd
bx + O:eAs

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 93
or

Solving this quadratic equation gives

X = - G:eAs ± V[(a:eAs)2 + 2b G:eAsd]
(4.48)*
b
Equation 4.48 may be solved using a chart such as the one shown in figure 4.29.
Equations 4.46 to 4.48 can be used to analyse a specified reinforced concrete
section.

-.
'b
.Q

~ 0·2 1-------+------1--1--H'---+----l
tl

0·1

0 0·2 0-4 0·6

X/d

Figure 4.29 Neutral-axis depths for cracked rectangular sections - elastic behaviour

(ii) Design of Steel Area, A 5, with Stresses f. 1 and Fcc Specified

The depth of the neutral axis can also be expressed in terms of the strains and
stresses of the concrete and steel.
From the linear strain distribution of figure 4.27:

~= = fcc/Ec
d fcc/Ec + fst/Es

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94 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Therefore
X
(4.49)*
d 1 + fst
Ol.efcc
Equations 4.4 7 and 4.49 may be used to design the area of tension steel required,
at a specified stress, in order to resist a given moment.

Example 4.12 Analysis of a Cracked Section using a Triangular Stress Block

For the section shown in figure 4.30, determine the concrete and steel stresses
caused by a moment of 120 kN m, assuming a cracked section. Take E 8 /Ec =Ot.e = 15
b = 300
I" '1

d = L.60
h = 520

3T25=
14 70mm 2 • • • _j_

Figure 4.30 Analysis example with triangular stress block

01. As = 15 X 1470 = O.l 6

e bd 300 X 460
Using the chart of figure 4.29 or equation 4.48 gives x = 197 mm.
From equation 4.47

M= ~ bxfcc (a-~)
therefore

120 X 106 = ~ X 3000 X 197 xfcc (460- 1: 7)

therefore
fcc= 10.3 N/mm 2
From equation 4.46
1
fstAs =- bx fcc
2

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 95

therefore
103 1 2
fst=300x 197x- x - =207N/mm
2 1470

4.1 0.2 Triangular Stress Block - Uncracked Section

The concrete may be considered to resist a small amount of tension. In this case a
tensile stress resultant Fct acts through the centroid of the triangular stress block
in the tension zone as shown in figure 4.31.
b

d
h
~·-·

_£(11-r)
3

• •
As

~
Sect ion Strain Stress

Figure 4.31 Triangular stress block - uncracked section

For equilibrium of the section

Fcc= Fct + Fst (4.50)
where Fcc= 0.5 bx fcc
Fct = 0.5 b (h- x)fct
and Fst =As xfst
Taking moments about Fcc• the moment of resistance of the section is given
by

M=Fst X (d -x/3) +Fct X (~x + ~ (h- x)) (4.51)*

The depth of the neutral axis, x, can be determined by taking area moments about
the upper edge AA of the equivalent concrete section shown in figure 4.32, such
that
X= l; (Ax)
l;A

O!e = Es is termed the modular ratio

Ec

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96 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

r-~

d Transformed
Steel Area=
Es-As = !Xe As
Ec

Figure 4.32 Equivalent transformed section with the concrete uncracked

Therefore
bh X h/2 + Oi.eAs X d
X = -----'---"--"---
bh + OteAs
= h+ 20terd
(4.52)*
2 + 20ter
where r = A 8 /bh
From the linear proportions of the strain diagram in figure 4.31:
X
f c c = - - X fct
h-x
(4.53)
d-x
ft=--Xft
S h- X C

Therefore as stress =Ex strain:

fct =Ecfct

X
fcc = -h-- X fct (4.54)*
-X

d-x
fst =- - X Oi.efct
h-x
Hence if the maximum tensile strain or stress is specified, it is possible to calculate
the corresponding concrete compressive and steel tensile stresses from equations
4.54.
The equations derived can be used to analyse a given cross-section in order to
determine the moment of resistance of the uncracked section, as for liquid-
retaining structures. This is illustrated further by examples in chapter 11.

Example 4.12 Analysis of an Uncracked Section

For the section shown in figure 4.30, calculate the serviceability moment of
resistance with no cracking of the concrete, given fct = 3 N/mm 2 , Ec = 30 kN/mm 2
and £ 8 = 200 kN/mm 2 .

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 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 97

r = A8 = 1470 = 0 _0094
bh 300 X 520
eke = £ 8 = 200 = 6 _67
Ec 30
x = h + 2eterd
2 + Oter
= 520 + 2 X 6.67 X 0.0094 X 460 = 272 mm
2 + 2 X 6.67 X 0.0094

fd = (: =: )Otefct
= (460- 272) 6.67 X 3 =15 _2 N/mm2
(520- 272)

M=A fd
s
(d- ~) +
3
!b(h-x)fctX
2
(~x+
3
~(h-x~
3 J
= 1470 X 15.2 ( 460- 2 ~ 2) 10-6 + ~ X 300(520- 272) X 3
X(% X272 + j-(520- 272~ 10-6

= 8.3 + 38.7 = 47 kN m

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5
Shear, Bond and Torsion
This chapter deals with the theory and derivation of the design equations for shear,
bond and torsion. Some of the more practical factors governing the choice and
arrangement of the reinforcement are dealt with in the chapters on member design,
particularly chapter 7, which contains examples of the design and detailing of shear
and torsion reinforcement in beams. Punching shear caused by concentrated loads
on slabs is covered in section 8.2 of the chapter on slab design.

5.1 Shear

Figure 5.1 represents the distribution of principal stresses across the span of a
homogeneous concrete beam. The direction of the principal compressive stresses
takes the form of an arch, while the tensile stresses have the curve of a catenary or
suspended chain. Towards mid-span, where the shear is low and the bending
stresses are dominant, the direction of the stresses tends to be parallel to the beam
axis. Near the supports, where the shearing forces are greater, the principal stresses
are inclined at a steeper angle, so that the tensile stresses are liable to cause
diagonal cracking. If the diagonal tension exceeds the limited tensile strength of
the concrete then shear reinforcement must be provided. This reinforcement is
either in the form of (1) stirrups, or (2) inclined bars (used in conjunction with
stirrups).

t<znsion
cracks

Figure 5.1 Principal stresses in a beam

98

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 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 99
The shear in a reinforced concrete beam without shear reinforcement is carried
by a combination of three main components. These are
(i) concrete in the compression zone
(ii) dowelling action of tensile reinforcement
(iii) aggregate interlock .across flexural cracks.
The actual behaviour is complex, and difficult to analyse theoretically, but by
applying the results from many experimental investigations, reasonable simplified
procedures for analysis and design have been developed.

5.1.1 Stirrups
In order to derive simplified equations the action of a reinforced concrete beam in
shear is represented by an analogous truss in which the longitudinal reinforcement
forms the bottom chord, the stirrups are the vertical members and the concrete
acts as the diagonal and top chord compression members as indicated in figure 5.2.
In the truss shown, the stirrups are spaced at a distance equal to the effective
depth (d) of the beam so that the diagonal concrete compression members are at
an angle of 45°, which more or less agrees with experimental observations of the
cracking of reinforced concrete beams close to their supports.

t-_J>-.o1

i ///
///
//

t<2ns
/
//,

0
S<2Ct 10n

(a)

JI I I I
Figure 5.2 Stirrups and the analogous truss

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100 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
In the analogous truss, let
Asv be the cross-sectional area of the two legs of the stirrup
/yv be the characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement
V be the shear force due to the ultimate loads.
Using the method of sections it can be seen at section XX in the figure that at
the ultimate limit state the force in the vertical stirrup member must equal the
shear force V, that is
0.87 /yvAsv = V
or
0.87 /yvAsv = vbd (5.1)
where v = V/bd is the average shear stress on the section.
When the stirrup spacing is less than the effective depth, a series of super-
imposed equivalent trusses may be considered, so that the force to be resisted by
the stirrup is reduced proportionally. Thus if Sv = the stirrup spacing, equation 5.1
becomes

0.87 /yvAsv = vbd (~)

or
Asv = vb
Sv 0.87 /yv
Since the concrete is also capable of resisting a limited amount of shear this
equation is rewritten as
Asv = b (v - Vc)
(5.2)*
Sy 0.87 /yv
where Vc is the ultimate shear stress that can be resisted by the concrete. Values of
Vc are given in table 5.1. It can be seen from the table that Vc increases for shallow
members and those with larger percentages of tensile reinforcement. The longitu-
dinal tension bars contribute to the shear resistance by their dowelling action and
they also help to prevent shear cracks from commencing at small tension cracks.
To be effective, these tension bars should continue an effective depth, d, beyond
the section, or at a support they should be adequately curtailed and anchored.
Close to supports, sections have an enhanced shear resistance owing in part to
the induced compressive stresses from the concentrated reaction and the steeper
angle of the failure plane, which would normally occur at angle of 30° to the
horizontal for an unreinforced section. Within a distance of 2d from a support or
a concentrated load the design concrete shear stress Vc may be increased to
vc2d/av. The distance avis measured from the support or concentrated load to
the section being designed. This enhancement is useful when designing beams with
concentrated loads near to a support, or with corbels and pile caps.
As a simplified approach for beams carrying mainly uniformly distributed loads,
the critical section for design may be taken at a distance d from the face of the

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 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 101
Table 5.1 Value of ultimate shear stress Ve (N/mm 2 ) for a
concrete strength of feu = 30 N/mm 2

Effective depth (mm)

100A 8
bd 150 175 200 225 250 300 :;;..400

~0.15 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36

0.25 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.46 0.42
0.50 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.59 0.57 0.53
0.75 0.76 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.64 0.61
1.00 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.75 0.72 0.67
1.50 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.83 0.76
2.00 1.08 1.04 1.01 0.97 0.95 0.91 0.85
:;;.:3.00 1.23 1.19 1.15 1.11 1.08 1.04 0.97

For characteristic strengths other than 30 N/mm 2 the values in the table may be multiplied by
(feu/25)''' /1.06. The value of feu should not be greater than 40 N/mm 2 •

support using the value ofve from table 5.1 in equation 5.2. The shear links
required should then continue to the face of the support.
Large shearing fmces are also liable to cause crushing of the concrete along the
directions of the principal compressive stresses, and therefore at the face of a
support the average shear stress should never exceed the lesser of 0.8 v'feu or
5 N/mm 2 .
The areas and spacings of the stirrups can be calculated from equation 5.2.
Rearrangement of the equation gives the shearing resistance for a given stirrup
size and spacing thus:

Shear resistance= v bd = ( ~vsv x 0.87 /yv + bve) d (5 .3)

Further information on the practical details and design examples are given in
section 7.3 (Design for Shear).

5.1.2 Bent-up Bars

To resist the shearing forces, bars may be bent up near the supports as shown in
figure 5.3. The bent-up bars and the concrete in compression are considered to act
as an analogous lattice girder and the shear resistance of the bars is determined by
taking a section XX through the girder.
From the geometry of part (a) of the figure, the spacing of the bent-up bars is
sb = (d- d') (cot Q +cot {3)
and at the section XX the shear resistance of the single bar is
V = 0.87 [yvAsb sin Q (5.4)
where Asb is the cross-sectional area of the bent-up bar.

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102 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Anchorage
I" length •1

XI
Sb= (d-d'!(cot~)

(a) S1ngle System

(b) Multiple System

Figure 5.3 Bent-up bars

For a multiple system of bent-up bars, as in part (b) of the figure, the shear
resistance is increased proportionately to the spacing, sb. Hence

V =OB?f A _ (d-d')(cota+cot{3) (5.5)

. yv sb sm a
sb
The angles a and {3 should both be greater than or equal to 45° and the code
requires that the spacing sb has a maximum value of 1.5d. With a= {3 = 45° and
sb = (d- d'), equation 5.5 becomes
V= 1.23[yvAsb (5.6)
and this arrangement is commonly referred to as a double system.

Example 5.1 Shear Resistance at a Section

Determine the shear resistance of the beam shown in figure 5.4, which carries a
uniformly distributed load. The characteristic strengths are: [yv = 250 N/mm 2 for
the stirrups, [yv = 460 N/mm 2 for the bent-up bars and feu = 30 N/mm 2 for the
concrete.
lOOAs = 100 X 982 = 0.43
bd 350 X 650
Thus, from table 5.1, Vc = 0.5 N/mm 2 by interpolation. Cross-sectional area of a
size 12 bar= 113 mm 2 .

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 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 103
R12 stirrups at 100 spcg.l
I" •

d=
650

Doubi<Z System
T25 b<2nt up bars S<2ct ion
2 - T25 Asb = 491 sq.mm each
As = 982sq.mm

Figure 5.4 Beam with stirrups and bent-up bars

Thus, for the stirrups, Asv/Sv = 2 x 113/100 =2.26.

The shear resistance of the stirrups plus the concrete is given by equation 5.3 as

V8 = Asv X 0.87 [yvd + bvcd

Sv
= 2.26 X 0.87 X 250 X 650 + 350 X 0.5 X 650
= (319 + 114) X 103 N = 433 X 103 N
The bent-up bars are arranged in a double system. Hence the shear resistance of
the bent-up bars is
Vb = 1.23 /yvAsb
= 1.23 X 460 X 491
= 278 X 103 N
Total shear resistance of the stirrups, concrete and bent-up bars is therefore
v= ~ + vb = (433 + 278) 1o3
= 711 X 103 N
It should be noted that the shear resistance of 319 kN provided by the stirrups
is greater than the shear resistance of the bent-up bars, 278 kN, as required by
BS 8110.
It should also be checked that at the face of the support V/bd does not exceed
the lesser of 0.8 .Jfcu or 5 N/mm 2 .

5.2 Anchorage Bond

The reinforcing bar subject to direct tension shown in figure 5.5 must be firmly
anchored if it is not to be pulled out of the concrete. Bars subjected to forces
induced by flexure must similarly be anchored to develop their design stresses. The

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104 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
anchorage depends on the bond between the bar and the concrete, and the area of
contact. Let
L = minimum anchorage length to prevent pull out
~ = bar size or nominal diameter
fbu = ultimate anchorage bond stress
fs = the direct tensile or compressive stress in the bar

. ·~·' : :;t.~~·-~·4: ·.~:;:··::·~·~··::··~·.";::.. ~:,;:::::!==:r--F

.· :- ~~-~- T
.:. ~: ~-~ .• . A . ,. .a • I
•. # • •• , /. • , J, •, : A· .

Figure 5.5 Anchorage bond

Considering the forces on the bar

tensile pull-out force= bar's cross-sectional area x direct stress
1T~2
= -;;:fs
anchorage force = contact area x anchorage bond stress
= (L1T~) X fbu
therefore

hence

L=A~
4fbu
and when fs = 0.87 [y, the ultimate tensile or compressive stress, the anchorage
length is
L = 0.87 [y ~ (5.7)*
4fbu
The design ultimate anchorage bond stress.fbu• is obtained from the equation
fbu = (j Vfcu (5.8)
The coefficient (j depends on the bar type and whether the bar is in tension or
compression. Values of (j are given in table 5.2.
Equation 5. 7 may be rewritten as
anchorage length L = K A~

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 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 105

Table 5.2 Value of bond coefficient {3

Bar type
Bars in Bars in
tension compression

Plain bars 0.28 0.35

Type 1: deformed bars 0.40 0.50
Type 2: deformed bars 0.50 0.63
Fabric 0.65 0.81

Values of KA corresponding to the anchorage of tension and compression bars for

various grades of concrete and reinforcing bars have been tabulated in the appendix.
Anchorage may also be provided by hooks or bends in the reinforcement; their
anchorage values are indicated in figure 5.6. When a bent bar or hook is used, the
bearing stress on the inside of the bend should be checked as described in section
7.3.2 and example 7.8.
Ia) Anchorage value = I. n but not greater than 1241

lb) Anchorage value = 8r: but not greater than 24~

For mild steel bars m1nimum r = 2~

For high yield bars m1nimum r = 3~ or
L.~ for sizes 25mm and above
Figure 5.6 Anchorage values for bends and hooks

Example 5.2 Calculation of Anchorage Length

Determine the length of tension anchorage required for the 25 mm diameter plain
mild steel reinforcing bars in the cantilever of figure 5. 7. The characteristic material
strengths are feu =30 N/mm 2 and /y =250 N/mm 2 •
The ultimate anchorage bond stressJbu = {3 Vfcu = 0.28 y30 = 1.5 N/mm 2 (~ee
table 5.2).

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106 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Anchoraga langth L

R25 bars

FigureS. 7 Anchorage for a cantilever beam

Anchorage length L = 0 ·87 [y 4>

4fbu

= 0 ·87 X 250 X 25 = 36.2 X 25

4 X 1.5
therefore
L = 910 mm

5.3 Laps in Reinforcement

Lapping of reinforcement is often necessary to transfer the forces from one bar to
another. The rules for this are:
(1) The laps should preferably be staggered and be away from sections with
high stresses.
(2) The minimum lap length should be not less than the greater of
154> or 300 mm for bars
250 mm for fabric
(3) Tension laps should be equal to at least the design tension anchorage
length, but in certain conditions this should be increased as shown in
figure 5.8, according to the following rules.
(a) At the top of a section and with minimum cover< 24>
multiply by 1.4
(b) At corners where minimum cover to either face < 24> or clear
spacing between adjacent laps< 75 mm or 64>
multiply by 1.4
(c) Where both (a) and (b) apply
multiply by 2.0

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 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 107

The concrete at the top of a member is generally less compacted and

also tends to have a greater water content, resulting in a lower concrete
strength. Also, at the corners of members there is less confinement of
the reinforcement. For these reasons longer lap lengths are required at
these locations.
(4) Compression laps should be at least 25 per cent greater than the com-
pression anchorage length.
(5) Lap lengths for unequal size bars may be based on the smaller bar.
A table of minimum lap lengths is included in the appendix.

Length of lap

a) Reinforcement lap

X 1·4 X 2·0

lap length ~
anchorage length x 1·0

b) Increased lap lengths

Figure 5.8 Lapping of reinforcing bars

5.4 Analysis of Section Subject to Torsional Moments

Torsional moments produce shear stresses which result in principal tensile stresses
inclined at approximately 45° to the longitudinal axis of the member. Diagonal
cracking occurs when these tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the con-
crete. The cracks will form a spiral around the member as in figure 5.9.
Reinforcement in the form of closed links and longitudinal bars will carry the
forces from increasing torsional moment after cracking, by a truss action with
reinforcement as tension members and concrete as compressive struts between
links. Failure will eventually occur by reinforcement yielding, coupled with crush-
ing of the concrete along line AA as the cracks on the other faces open up.
It is assumed that once the torsional shear stress on a section exceeds the value
to cause cracking, tension reinforcement in the form of closed links must be
provided to resist the full torsional moment.

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108 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Figure 5.9 Torsional cracking

Figure 5.10 Torsional reinforcement

Tension force in link F = Asv x 0.87 [yv

2

moment of force F about centre line = F ~ for vertical leg

2
and

=F h for horizontal leg

2
where Asv = cross-sectional area of the two legs of a link. The total torsional
moment provided by one closed link is, therefore, given by the sum of the moments
due to each leg of the link about the centre line of the section, that is

T=Fx 1 x2+Fy 1 x2
2 2

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 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 109

Where links are provided at a distance Sv apart, the torsional resistance of the
system of links is obtained by multiplying the moments due to each leg in the
above expressions by the number of legs crossing each crack. This number is given
by y 1 /sv for vertical legs and x 1 /sv for horizontal legs if it is assumed that all
cracks are approximately at 45°.
The total torsional resistance then becomes

T= Asv (0.87 {yv) y 1 ~X 2 + Asv (0.87 {yv) x 1 2:'.!._ x 2

2 ~ 2 2 ~ 2

Hence

T= Asv X1Y1 (0.87 [yv) X 0.8

Sv

The efficiency factor of 0.8 is included to allow for errors in assumptions made
about the truss behaviour.
Hence closed links must be provided such that
Asv ;a. T
Sv 0.8 X1Y1 (0.87 {yv)
To ensure the proper action of these links, longitudinal bars evenly distributed
round the inside perimeter of the links must be provided. This reinforcement
which resists the longitudinal component of the diagonal tension forces should be
such that the total quantity is equal to the same volume as the steel in the links,
suitably adjusted to allow for differing strengths. This is given by

As ;a. Asv lr!_ (xl + yt)

Sv [y
where [y is the characteristic yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement.
The calculated amounts of torsional reinforcement must be provided in addition
to the full bending and shear reinforcement requirements for the ultimate load
combination corresponding to the torsional moment considered. Where longitudinal
bending reinforcement is required, the additional torsional steel area may either be
provided by increasing the size of bars provided, or by additional bars. A member
which is designed for torsion plus bending or shear will require to be heavily
reinforced.
The clear distance between longitudinal torsion bars must not exceed 300 mm,
and a minimum of four bars must be used in each link. All torsion steel must also
extend a distance at least equal to the largest member dimension past the point at
which it is not required to resist torsion, to ensure that all possible cracks are
adequately protected.
The torsional shear stress on a section can be determined by a variety of
methods. BS 8110 recommends a plastic analysis such that, for a rectangular
section

2T
Vt = 2
hmin (hmax - hmin/3)

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110 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
where hmin is the smaller dimension of the section, hmax is the larger dimension
of the section, or
T
Vt = -- for a thin hollow section
2Aht
where ht is the wall thickness and A is the area enclosed by the centre-line of the
walls.
If the sum of wall thicknesses of a hollow section exceeds one-quarter of the
overall dimension, this should be treated as solid.
A section having aT-, L-or I-shape should be divided into component rectangles
to maximise the function ~(hmin3 hmax)· The torsion shear stress on each rectangle
should then be calculated by considering the rectangle as carrying a torsional
moment of

T X( hmin 3 :max )
~ (hmin hmaJ
Torsion reinforcement will be required if the torsional shear stress Vt exceeds the
capacity of the concrete section. It has been found experimentally that this value
is related approximately to the square root of the characteristic concrete cube
strength, and the limiting value recommended by BS 8110 is
Vt min = 0.067 .../feu but not more than 0.4 N/mm 2

Torsion Combined with Bending and Shear Stress

Torsion is seldom present alone, and in most practical situations will be combined
with shear and bending stresses.

(a) Shear Stresses

Diagonal cracking starts on the side of a member where torsional and shear stresses
are additive. The shear force has a negligible effect on ultimate torsional strength
when V < ve bd, the shear strength of the concrete section, but once diagonal
cracks form, the torsional stiffness is reduced considerably.
To ensure that crushing of the concrete does not occur (figure 5.9) the sum of
the shear and torsion stresses on a section should not be excessive so that

where
Vtu = 0.8 .../feu or 5 N mm 2
Additionally in the case of small sections where y 1 is less than 550 mm

.....
Vt .rVtu - -
Yt
550
must be satisfied to prevent spalling of the corners.
The recommendations for reinforcement to resist a combination of shear and
torsion are given in table 7.3.

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 SHEAR, BOND AND TORSION 111
(b) Bending Stresses
When a bending moment is present, diagonal cracks will usually develop from the
top of the flexural cracks. The flexural cracks themselves only slightly reduce the
torsional stiffness, provided that the diagonal cracks do not develop. The final mode
of failure will depend on the distribution and quantity of reinforcement present.
Figure 5.11 shows a typical ultimate moment and ultimate torsion interaction
curve for a section. As can be seen, for moments up to approximately 0.8Mu the
section can also resist the full ultimate torsion Tu. Hence no calculations for
torsion are generally necessary for the ultimate limit state of reinforced concrete
unless torsion has been included in the original analysis or is required for
equilibrium.

----- .....
\
\
\
I
I
I
I

Figure 5.11 Combined bending and torsion

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6
Serviceability, Durability and
Stability Requirements
The concept of serviceability limit states has been introduced in chapter 2, and for
reinforced concrete structures these states are often satisfied by observing empirical
rules which affect the detailing only. In some circumstances, however, it may be
desired to estimate the behaviour of a member under working conditions, and
mathematical methods of estimating deformations and cracking must be used. The
design of water-retaining structures, and prestressed concrete, are both based
primarily on the avoidance or limitation of cracking and these are considered
separately in other chapters.
Where the foundations of a structure are in contact with the ground, the pres-
sures developed will influence the amount of settlement that is likely to occur. To
ensure that these movements are limited to acceptable values and are similar
throughout a structure, the sizes of foundations necessary are based on the service
loads for the structure.
Durability is necessary to ensure that a structure remains serviceable through-
out its lifetime. This requirement will involve aspects of design, such as concrete
mix selection and determination of cover to reinforcing bars, as well as selection
of suitable materials for the exposure conditions which are expected. Good con-
struction procedures including adequate curing are also essential if reinforced
concrete is to be durable.
Simplified rules governing the selection of cover, member dimensions, and rein-
forcement detailing are given in section 6.1 and 6.2, while more rigorous procedures
for calculation of actual deflections and crack widths are described in sections 6.3
to 6.5. Durability and fire resistance are discussed in section 6.6.
The stability of a structure under accidental loadings, although an ultimate limit
state analysis, will usually take the form of a check to ensure that empirical rules
designed to give a reasonable minimum resistance against misuse or accident are
satisfied. Like serviceability checks, this will often merely involve detailing of
reinforcement and not affect the total quantity provided. Stability requirements
are described in section 6. 7.

112

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 113

·6.1 Detailing Requirements

These are to ensure that a structure has satisfactory durability and serviceability
performance under normal circumstances. BS 8110 recommends simple rules con-
cerning the concrete mix and cover to reinforcement, minimum member dimen-
sions, and limits to reinforcement quantities and spacings which must be taken
into account at the member sizing and reinforcement detailing stages. Reinforce-
ment detailing may also be affected by stability considerations as described in
section 6.7, as well as rules concerning anchorage and lapping of bars which have
been discussed in sections 5.2 and 5.3.

6.1.1 Minimum Concrete Mix and Cover (Exposure Conditions)

These requirements are interrelated, and BS 8110 specifies minimum combinations
of thickness of cover and mix characteristics for various exposure conditions. The
mixes are expressed in terms of minimum cement content, maximum water/
cement ratio and corresponding minimum strength grade. These basic requirements
are given in table 6.1.
The nominal cover is that to all steel, and allows for a maximum fixing toler-
ance of± 5 mm. Adjustments must be made to cement contents if different
aggregate sizes are used, and details of these and other possible modifications are
given in BS 8110.

6.1.2 Minimum Member Dimensions and Cover (Fire Resistance)

BS 8110 also provides tabulated values of minimum dimensions and nominal
covers for various types of concrete member which are necessary to permit the
member to withstand fire for a specified period of time. These are summarised in
tables 6.2 and 6.3.

6.1.3 Maximum Spacing of Reinforcement

The maximum clear spacings given in table 6.4 apply to bars in tension in beams
when a maximum likely crack width of 0.3 mm is acceptable and the cover to
reinforcement does not exceed 50 mm.
It can be seen that the spacing is restricted according to the amount of moment
redistribution applied. Any bar of diameter less than 0.45 times that of the largest
bar in a section must be ignored when applying these spacings. Bars adjacent to
corners of beams must not be more than one-half of the clear distance given in
table 6.4 from the corner.
Rules for slabs permit greater spacings under specified conditions as follows:
(a) If h ~ 200 mm with high yield steel (fy =460 N/mm 2 )
or (b) If h ~ 250 mm with Mild steel (fy = 250 N/mm 2 )
or (c) If 100 A 5 /bd ~ 0.3 per cent
then the maximum clear spacing between bars should not exceed 750 mm or 3d,
whichever is smaller.

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114 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Table 6.1 Nominal cover and mix requirements for normal weight 20 mm
maximum size aggregate concrete
Environment classification Nominal cover to all reinforcement
(mm)

Mild: for example, protected against

weather or aggressive conditions 25 20 20 20 20
Moderate: for example, sheltered
from severe rain and freezing while
wet; subject to condensation or
continuously under water; in contact
with non-aggressive soil 35 30 25 20
Severe: for example, exposed to
severe rain; alternate wetting and
drying; occasional freezing or
severe condensation 40 30 25
Very Severe: for ex~ple, exposed to
sea water spray, de-icing salts,
corrosive fumes or severe wet freezing 50* 40* 30
Extreme: for example, exposed to
abrasive action (sea water and solids,
flowing acid water, machinery or
vehicles) 60* 50
Maximum free water/cement ratio 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45
Minimum cement content (kg/m 3 ) 275 300 325 350 400
Lowest concrete grade C30 C35 C40 C45 C50

*Entrained air required for wet freezing.

Table 6.2 Nominal cover for fire resistance

Fire Nominal cover to all reinforcement (mm)

resistance
(hours) Beams Floors Ribs
Columns
s.s. cont. s.s. cont. s.s. cont.
0.5 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
1.0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
1.5 20 20 25 20 35 20 20
2.0 40 30 35 25 45* 35 25
3.0 60* 40 45* 35 55* 45* 25
4.0 70* 50* 55* 45* 65* 55* 25
*Additional measures necessary to reduce risk of spalling.

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 115
Table 6.3 Minimum dimensions of RC members for fire resistance
(nominal cover requirements satisfied)

Fire Minimum dimensions (mm)

resistance
(hours) Exposed Wall thicknesses
Beam Rib Floor column
width width thickness width As <0.4% > 1.0%
Ac
0.5 200 125 75 150 150 75
1.0 200 125 95 200 150 75
1.5 200 125 110 250 175 100
2.0 200 125 125 300 100
3.0 240 150 150 400 150
4.0 280 175 170 500 180

Table 6.4 Maximum clear spacings (mm) for tension bars in beams

% Moment redistribution
fy
-30 -20 10 0 +10 +20 +30
250 210 240 270 300 300 300 300
460 115 130 145 160 180 195 210

If none of these apply, the maximum spacing should be taken as that given in
table 6.4, except that if the ratio 100A 5 /bd is less than 1.0, the values from table
6.4 should be divided by that ratio. If the amount of moment redistribution is
unknown when using table 6.4 for slabs, zero should be assumed for span moments
and -15 per cent for support moments.

6.1. 4 Minimum Spacing of Reinforcement

To permit concrete flow around reinforcement during construction the minimum
clear gap between bars, or groups of bars, should exceed (hagg + 5 mm) horizon-
tally and (2hagg/3) vertically, where hagg is the maximum size of the coarse aggre-
gate. The gap must also exceed the bar diameter, or in the case of 'bundled bars'
the diameter of a bar of equivalent total cross-sectional area.

6.1.5 Minimum Areas of Reinforcement

For most purposes, thennal and shrinkage cracking may be controlled within
acceptable limits by the use of minimum reinforcement quantities specified by
BS 8110, although requirements of water-retaining structures will be more strin-
gent (see chapter 11). The principal requirements are summarised in table 6.5,
although other requirements include 0.15 per cent transverse reinforcement in
the top surfaces of flanges in flanged beams and 0.25 per cent (High yield) or
0.30 per cent (Mild steel) anti-crack steel in plain walls (bar diameter <t: 6 mm or

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116 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
one-quarter diameter of vertical compressive bars). Requirements for shear links
and column binders are given in sections 7.3 and 9.3 respectively.

Table 6.5 Minimum reinforcement areas

High yield
Mild steel steel
(fy = 250 (fy =460
N/mm 2 ) N/mm 2 )

Tension reinforcement
(I) Pure tension =0.8% 0.45%
(2) Flexure
(a) rectangular section
~both ways in solid slabs)
lOOAJAc l
=0.24% 0.13%
~
(b) flanged- web in tension
bw/b ~ 0.4 IOOA 5/bwh
bw/b <0.4 100A 5/bwh = 0.32% 0.18%
- flange in tension
T-beam lOOAs/bwh =0.48% 0.26%
L-beam 100A 5/bwh =0.36% 0.20%
Compression reinforcement
(I) General lOOAsc/Acc l
(2) Rect. column or wall lOOAsc/Ac ~ =0.4% 0.4%
(3) Flanged beam
flange in compression 100Asc/bhr
web in compression lOOAsc/bwh}
(4) Rectangular beam lOOAsc/Ac =0.2% 0.2%

6.1. 6 Maximum Areas of Reinforcement

These are determined largely from the practical need to achieve adequate com-
paction of the concrete around reinforcement. The limits specified by BS 8110
are as follows.
(a) For a Slab or Beam, Longitudinal Steel
lOOAs lOOAsc
-- or not greater than 4 per cent each
bh bh
Where bars are lapped, the sum of the bar sizes in a layer must not be
greater than 40 per cent of the section breadth.
(b) For a Column

lOOAs not greater than 6 per cent if cast vertically

bh
not greater than 8 per cent if cast horizontally
not greater than 10 per cent at laps in either case

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 117

6. 1. 7 Side Face Reinforcement in Beams

Where beams exceed 750 mm in depth, longitudinal bars should be provided near
side faces at a spacing :t> 250 mm over a distance 2h/3 from the tension face.
These bars, which may be used in calculating the moMent of resistance, must have
a diameter> y'(sb b/fy) where sb is the bar spacing and b the breadth of the
section (or 500 mm if less), as indicated in figure 6.1.
30

2fJI1

200 400 600

1 bmm
RQqUtrQd
If 11 >750

Figure 6.1 Side face reinforcement in beams

6.2 Span-Effective Depth Ratios

BS 8110 specifies a set of basic span-effective depth ratios to control deflections

which are given in table 6.6 for rectangular sections and for flanged beams with
spans less than I 0 m. Where the web width of a flanged beam bw > 0.3b, linear
interpolation should be used between the values for a flanged beam and a rectan-
gular section. Ratios for spans> 10m are factored as in example 6.1.

Table 6.6 Basic span-effective depth ratios

Rectangular Flanged
section (bw ~ 0.3b)
Cantilever 7 5.6
Simply supported 20 16.0
Continuous 26 20.8

The basic ratios given in table 6.6 are modified in particular cases according to
(a) The service stress in the tension steel and the value of M/bd 2 , as shown
in table 6.7, which is also presented in the form of a chart in figure 8.4.
(b) The area of compression steel as in table 6.8.
The area of tension reinforcement provided is related to the value of M/bd 2 , thus
lower values of service stress and M/bd 2 will result in smaller depths of neutral
axis x. This effect will reduce deflections due to creep, as there will be less of the

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118 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
section subject to compressive stresses. Compression reinforcement restrains creep
deflections in a similar manner and also reduces the effects of shrinkage.
Table 6.7 Tension reinforcement modification factors

Reinforcement M/bd 2
service
stress (N/mm 2 ) 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

100 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.86 1.63 1.36 1.19 1.08 1.01
(/y =250) 156 2.0 2.0 1.96 1.66 1.47 1.24 1.10 1.00 0.94
200 2.0 1.95 1.76 1.51 1.35 1.14 1.02 0.94 0.88
(/y =460) 288 1.68 1.50 1.38 1.21 1.09 0.95 0.87 0.82 0.78

The service stress in the reinforcement fs is usually a function of the yield

stress /y, as indicated in the table. The reinforcement areas As and A~ are measured
at the centre of span, or at the support for a cantilever, and the value of A~ used
with table 6.8 should include all bars located in the compression zone.

Table 6.8 Compression reinforcement

modification factors

100A~.Erov Factor
bd

0.00 1.00
0.15 1.05
0.25 1.08
0.35 1.10
0.50 1.14
0.75 1.20
1.0 1.25
1.5 1.33
2.0 1.40
2.5 1.45
;;;. 3.0 1.50

The use of these factors is illustrated by example 6.1. It should be noted that
the basic ratios given in table 6.6 are for uniformly distributed loadings, and pro-
cedures for making adjustments to the basic ratios to allow for other loading
patterns are given in section 6.3.4 and illustrated by example 6.3.

Example 6.1 Span-Effective Depth Ratio Check

A rectangular continuous beam spans 12 m with a mid-span ultimate moment of
400 kN m. If the breadth is 300 mm, check the acceptability of an effective depth
of 600 mm when high yield reinforcement /y = 460 N/mm 2 is used. Two 16 mm
bars are located within the compressive zone.

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 SERVICEABIUTY, DURABIUTY AND STABIUTY REQUIREMENTS 119

Basic span-effective depth ratio (table 6.6) = 26.

To avoid damage to finishes, modified ratio= 26 x .!.Q = 21.7.

12
Tensile reinforcement modification factor:
M 400 X 106 = 3 _7
bd 2 - 300 X 6002
thus, from table 6.7 for /y = 460 N/mm 2 , modification factor= 0.89.
Compression reinforcement modification factor:

lOOA~ = 100 X 402 = 0.22

bd 300 X 600
thus from table 6.8, modification factor= 1.07.
Hence, modified span-effective depth ratio is equal to
21.7 X 0.89 X 1.07 = 20.7

• dept h
Span-e f 1ect1ve
-c . provt"de d = 12 X 103 = 20
ratiO 600

which is less than the allowable upper limit, thus deflection requirements are
likely to be satisfied.

6.3 Calculation of Deflections

The general requirement is that neither the efficiency nor appearance of a structure
is harmed by the deflections which will occur during its life. Deflections must thus
be considered at various stages. The limitations necessary to satisfy the require-
ments will vary considerably according to the nature of the structure and its
loadings, but for reinforced concrete the following may be regarded as reasonable
guides.
(1) The final deflection of horizontal members below the level of casting
should not exceed span/250.
(2) The deflection taking place after fixing of partitions or application of
finishes should not exceed the lesser of 20 mm or span/500 to avoid
damage.
Lateral deflections must not be ignored, especially on tall slender structures, and
limitations in these cases must be judged by the engineer. It is important to realise
that there are many factors which may have significant effects on deflections, and
are difficult to allow for, thus any calculated value must be regarded as an estimate
only. The most important of these effects are as follows.
(1) Support restraints must be estimated on the basis of simplified assump-
tions, which will have varying degrees of accuracy.

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120 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
(2) The precise loading and duration cannot be predicted and errors in dead
loading may have significant effect.
(3) A cracked member will behave differently to one that is uncracked -
this may be a problem in lightly reinforced members where the working
load may be close to the cracking limits.
( 4) The effects of floor screeds, finishes and partitions are very difficult to
assess. Frequently these are neglected despite their 'stiffening' effect.

It may sometimes be possible to allow for these factors by averaging maximum

and minimum estimated effects, and provided that this is done there are a number
of calculation methods available which will give reasonable results. The method
adopted by BS 8110 is very comprehensive, and is based on the calculation of
curvatures of sections subjected to the appropriate moments, with allowance for
creep and shrinkage effects where necessary. Deflections are then calculated from
these curvatures.
The procedure for estimating deflections is rather lengthy and complex, involv-
ing the following stages which are illustrated in example 6.2.
(I) Calculate the short-term curvature under total load; Cs.tot.
(2) Calculate the short-term deflection from (I), and if the long-term
deflection is required:
(3) Calculate the short-term curvature due to permanent loads, Cs.perm.
( 4) Calculate the long-term curvature due to permanent loads, Ct. perm.
(5) Calculate the curvature due to shrinkage, Cshr·
(6) Estimate the total long-term curvature C1 as
q = Cs.tot - G..perm + Cl.perm + Cshr
(7) Calculate the long-term deflection using the value from (6).
The curvatures in (1), (3) and (4) are taken as the larger value from considering
the section as
(a) cracked
(b) uncracked.
As the concrete may have cracked under the total load, the additional short-term
curvature C s.temp due to the temporary loading is obtained from
Cs.temp = Cs.tot - Cs.perm
in part (6) of the procedure and is not calculated directly.
If deflections are assumed to be small, elastic bending theory is based on the
expression

M =EI d 2 y (6.1)
X dx2

where Mx is the bending moment at a section distance x from the origin as shown
in figure 6.2.
For small deflections the term d2y/dx 2 approximately equals the curvature,
which is the reciprocal of the radius of curvature; thus

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 SERVICEABIUTY, DURABIUTY AND STABIUTY REQUIREMENTS 121

Figure 6.2 Curvature of a beam

1
Mx =EI- (6.2)
rx
where 1/r x is the curvature at x.
Integrating expression 6.1 twice will yield values of displacements y of the
member, thus if curvatures of a member are known, displacements can be deduced.
The analysis of deflections will use the partial factors of safety from tables 2.1
and 2.2, which effectively mean that materials properties are taken as the charac-
teristic values, and that loadings are true working loads.

6.3.1 Calculation of Curvatures -Short Term

The curvature of any section should be taken as the larger value obtained from
considering the section to be either uncracked or cracked.

Strom Str<2ss

Figure 6.3 Uncracked section - strain and stress distribution

Uncracked Section
The assumed elastic strain and stress distributions are shown in figure 6.3, and the
upper limit to concrete stress at the level of tension reinforcement should be noted.

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122 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
From equation 6.2
1 M
curvature - = - -
r Eel
From the theory of bending
Mx
fc=I

hence
_!_ = fc _!_
r Ec X

where M = applied moment at section considered

Ec = instantaneous static modulus of elasticity of concrete (for short-
term deflections)
I = second moment of area of section
fc = maximum compressive stress in the concrete
x = depth of neutral axis.
The above expression gives the instantaneous curvature of the uncracked section.
If this is found to be greater than for a cracked section, the tensile stress ftd of the
concrete at the level of tension reinforcement must be checked.

'td = lON /mm 2 short t12rm

or 0·55N/mm 2 long t12rm

Str12ss

Figure 6.4 Cracked section - strain and stress distribution

Cracked Section
The recommended stress and strain distribution are given in figure 6.4 where the
stiffening effect of the cracked concrete is taken into account by the tensile stress
block shown.

Curvature _!_ = ~ = -~[,..:e_s__

r xEc (d- x)Es

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 123
Hence it is necessary to analyse the section subjected to its applied moment M to
obtain values of x and either fc or fs· This calculation is ideally suited to computer
application, but if required to be solved manually must be performed on a trial
and error basis.
Considering the section equilibrium by taking moments about the centre of
compression

M = Asfs ( d - ~) + 1bhfct (h - x) (6.3)

and from the strain distribution

I' _ X Ec I'
Jc- (d- x)
(6.4)
Es Js

and equating tension and compression forces

} bxfc = fsAs t
+ b (h- x)fct (6.5)
where fct = maximum tensile stress allowed in the concrete

= (h -X)
d-x
ftd

E5 = 200 kN/mm 2
Ec =instantaneous static modulus of elasticity of concrete (for short-term
deflection)
The most convenient method of solving these expressions is to assume a neutral
axis position; for this value of x evaluate fs from equation 6.3 and using this value
obtain two values of fc from equations 6.4 and 6.5. This should be repeated for
two further trial values of x, and a plot of fc from each expression is made against
x. The intersection of the two curves will yield values of x and fc with sufficient
accuracy to permit the curvature to be calculated. This method is demonstrated in
example 6.2.

6.3.2 Calculation of Curvatures - Long Term

In calculating long-term curvatures it is necessary to take into account the effects
of creep and shrinkage in addition to the reduced tensile resistance of the cracked
concrete as indicated in figure 6.4.

Creep
This is allowed for by reducing the effective modulus of elasticity of the concrete
to Eeff = Ec /(1 +¢>)where¢> is a creep coefficient, equal to the ratio of creep
strain to initial elastic strain.
The value of¢>, while being affected by aggregate properties, mix design and
curing conditions, is governed also by the age at first loading, the duration of the
load and the section dimensions. Figure 6.5 gives long-term values of¢>, as suggested
by BS 8110, and it may be assumed that about 40 per cent, 60 per cent and 80 per
cent of this will occur within 1 month, 6 months and 30 months under load

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124 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
respectively for constant relative humidity. The effective section thickness is taken
as twice the cross-sectional area divided by the exposed perimeter, but is tal;<en as
600 mm if drying is prevented by sealing or immersion of the concrete in water.

30 year creep coeff. Indoor Outdoor

!UKI
effective thickness.(mml I
I
150 300 600

4·0
3·0
3·5 .2·5
2·5
3·0
2·0
2·5 2·0

2·0 1·5 1·5

1·5 1·0
1·0
1· 0
0·5 0·5
0·5

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Amb1ent relative humidity, %

Figure 6.5 Creep coefficients

Shrinkage
Curvature due to shrinkage must be estimated and added to that due to applied
moments, such that
_1 = €cs O::e Ss
Yes I
where €cs is the free shrinkage strain, 0::e is the modular ratio £ 5 /Eeff, and Ss is the
first moment of area of the reinforcement about the centroid of the cracked or
gross cross-section as appropriate.
Shrinkage is influenced by many features of the mix and construction pro-
cedures, but for most circumstances where aggregates do not have high shrinkage
chracteristics, values of €cs may be obtained from figure 6.6 which is based on
BS 8110.
The total long-term curvature of a section subjected to a combination of
permanent and non-permanent loads should be compounded as follows.
Total long-term curvature= long-term curvature due to permanent loads
+ short-term curvature due to non-permanent
loads + shrinkage curvature
In this expression the short-term curvature due to the non-permanent loads is
calculated as the curvature due to the total loads minus that due to the permanent
loads. This is because the total loads may cause a cracked section and a larger
curvature.
The net result is that the long-term curvature of a reinforced concrete member
may be considerably greater than the instantaneous value, as illustrated in example
6.2.

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABIUTY REQUIREMENTS 125
30 year 6 month
shrinkage Ix 10' 6 ) shrinkage Ix 10"6 )
etrect1ve thickness Indoor Outdoor effective thickness
lmm) I IUK) lmm)
I
I I
150 300 600 150 300 600

1.00 350
300 tt::hJ
I ,-.,... ) I
I
I
I
200

175
100·0- 45
1.0
I
350 250 I I I I '\_ 87·5
300

300
250
li j
I:
r
I "1\ :I 150
75·0
35
30
\
200 : I I
I 125
250
200
)
i I I :i 62-5
25
150 I I 100
200
:
I 50·0
150
I I I \: I 20

\
150 I I I I
75 37·5
100 I I I 15
100- I
100
:\
I I 50 25·0
I 10
50 50 50 I I I I

I r I I I 25 12·5 5
I
l I I I I
\
0 0 0
'
\
0 0 0
! ! :
I
I
I
I
I I I I
200 200 200
l _l I I
i i
I
I
100. 100 100
20 1.0 60 80 100
Amb1ent relative hum1d1ty. %

Figure 6.6 Drying shrinkage

6.3.3 Calculation of Deflections from Curvatures

Double integration of the expression 6.1
d2y -
EI dx 2 -Mx

will yield an expression for the deflection. This may be illustrated by considering
the case of a pin-ended beam subjected to constant moment M throughout its
length, so that Mx = M.
M

(o

Figure 6.7 Pin-ended beam subjected to constant moment M

EI d2 y =M (6.6)
dx2
therefore

EI dy =Mx+C
dx
but if the slope is zero at mid-span where x = L/2, then

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126 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

C=- ML
2
and
dy ML
El-=Mx--
dx 2
Integrating again gives

Ely= Mx 2 _ MLx +D
2 2
but at support A when x = 0, y = 0. Hence
D=O
thus

y =; ( x; - ~x) at any section (6.7)

The maximum deflection in this case will occur at mid-span, where x = L/2, in
which case
M L2
Ymax =- £[ g (6.8)

but since at any uncracked section

M
El r
the maximum deflection may be expressed as
1 2 1
Ymax = - - L -
8 r
In general, the bending-moment distribution along a member will not be constant,
but will be a function of x. The basic form of the result will however be the same,
and the deflection may be expressed as

maximum deflection a = KL 2 (6.9)*

where

K = a constant, the value of which depends on the distribution of

bending moments in the member
L = the effective span
1
=the mid-span curvature for beams, or the support curvature for
cantilevers

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 127
Typical values of K are given in table 6.9 for various common shapes of bending-
moment diagrams. If the loading is complex, then a value of K must be estimated
for the complete load since summing deflections of simpler components will yield
incorrect results.
Although the derivation has been on the basis of an uncracked section, the
fmal expression is in a form that will deal with a cracked section simply by the
substitution of the appropriate curvature.
Since the expression involves the square of the span, it is important that the
true effective span as defined in chapter 7 is used, particularly in the case of canti-
levers. Deflections of cantilevers may also be increased by rotation of the support-
ing member, and this must be taken into account when the supporting structure is
fairly flexible.

Table 6.9 Typical deflection coefficients

Loading B.M. Diagram K

-M

( ~
W7#& 0·125
M M

~
4a2 -8a + 1
48a
~
WaL (1-a)
~f a = 1/2 then K =0·083]

f l «<2@?
wL 2Ja
0·104

;=l
End Deflection

~ [it
a<3-aJ
-6-
a = 1 then K= 0·33]

,. aL ., ~2
End Deflection
a(4-a)
w -,-2-
~ [it a = 1 then K= 0·25]

Example 6.2 Calculation of a Deflection

Estimate short-term and long-term deflections for the simply supported beam
shown in figure 6.8, which is assumed to be made of normal aggregates and props
removed at twenty-eight days.
Concrete grade: 30
Instantaneous static modulus of elasticity = 26 kN/mm 2
Reinforcement: Hot-rolled high yield /y = 460 N/mm 2
Loading: Dead (permanent) = 10 kN/m u.d.l.
Live (transitory) = 5 kN/m u.d.l.

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128 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
(a) Calculate Design Moments at Mid-span
From table 2.1
'Ym = 1.0 for steel and concrete
From table 2.2
'Yr = 1.0 for dead and live loads
15 X 12 2
Design moments- total= = 270 kN m
8
10 X 12 2
Permanent = = 180 kN m
8

Live = 5 x 122 = 90 kN m
8

2 No 12 mm bars

Span 12m
700

5 No 25mm bars
Figure6.8

(b) Calculate Short-term Curvature - Uncracked Section - Total Load

M

270 X 106
----=-----=-- = 1.2 x 10-6 /mm
26 X 103 X 300 X 7003 /12

(c) Calculate Short-term Curvature- Cracked Section- Total Load

Consider equations 6.3, 6.4 and 6.5. Assume x = 100 and substitute in equation
6.3, that is

with

fct = (h- X) X l.O = 700 - 100

d- X 600- 100
= 1.2 N/mm 2

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 129

and

thus

fs = (2?0 X 106 _ 300 X 700 x 600 X 1.2)

3

x----
567 X 2450
= 158 N/mm2

From equation 6.4

+' +' X Ec [,
Jc=Jcl= (d-x) Es s

= 100 X 26 X 158
500 200
= 4.1 N/mm 2
But fc is also given by equation 6.5 as
+'
Jc
=J+'c2 = fsAs +-}b(h
1
-x)fct
-,;bx
158 X 2450 + 0.5 X 300 X 600 X 1.2
150 x 100
= 33.0N/mm2
These values of fc do not agree, therefore further depths of the neutral axis are
tried giving the following results.
X fcl fc2
100 4.1 33.0
210 12.2 16.5
300 24.7 12.1
These values are plotted in figure 6.9a from which it is seen that fc 1 =fc 2 =fc
= 15 N/mm2 approximately, at x =230 mm. Hence

__!__ = _b__ = 15 = 2.5 x 10-6 /mm

rb xEc 230 X 26 X 103
Since this curvature is greater than the uncracked value, it is not necessary to
check the concrete tensile stress for that case, the cracked value of 2.5 x I o-6/mm
being used to determine the deflection.

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130 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

20·~~~~--~+--

15-
10·~~--:A--t---+--

0 Y.---f-~-1-• 0~+----++---+-~
100 200 I 300 :c 300 350 I 400 :c
230 360
(a) (b)

Figure6.9

(d) Calculate Short-term Deflection - Total Load

a =KL 2 1
rb

where

_!_ =2.5 x 10-6 /mm

rb

L =12m
K =0.104 for u.d.l. from table 6.9
Hence mid-span short-term deflection
a= 0.104 X 122 X 106 X 2.5 X 10-6
=37 mm approximately

(e) Calculate Short-term Curvature due to Permanent Loads

Permanent moment= 180 kN m
Thus, if section uncracked

- - 180 x 106 =0.8 x 10-6 /mm

rb 26 X 103 X 300 X 7003 /12

and if cracked, an approach similar to that used in (c) above gives fc = 9.7 N/mm 2
at x = 245 mm. Hence

= 9· 7 = 1.5 x 10-6 /mm

245 X 26 X 103

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 131
(f) Calculate Long-term Curvature due to Permanent Loads
In this case, analysis is based on a reduced concrete tensile stress of 0.55 N/mm 2
at the level of reinforcement, thus

fct = (hd-x
-X) X 0.55

and a reduced
26
Eerr= - -
l+cp
The effective section thickness equals
twice cross-sectional area = 2 x 700 X 300 =210 mm
perimeter 2 (700 + 300)
thus the value of cp from figure 6.5 for loading at twenty-eight days with indoor
exposure is approximately 2. 75. Hence
26
Eeff = = 6.93 kN/mm 2
1 + 2.75
Thus, using the same approach as previously for the cracked analysis, it is found
that
when x = 300 mm then fct = 4.5 N/mm 2 , fc 2 = 8.1 N/mm 2
x = 350 mm fct = 6.6 N/mm 2 , fc2 =7.1 N/mm 2
x =370mm fct = 7.7 N/mm 2 .fc2 = 6.8 N/mm 2
Thus as can be seen from figure 6.9b, the solution lies at x = 360 rnm when
fc = 7.0 N/mm 2 . Therefore

- - 7·0 = 2.8 x 10-6 /mm

360 X 6.93 X 103
In this instance it is not necessary to evaluate the uncracked case since in part (e)
it has been established that the permanent loads yield the higher instantaneous
curvature when the section is cracked.

(g) Calculate Shrinkage Curvature

_!__ = €cs <le Ss
'cs I

where ae = Es = 200 = 28.9

Eeff 6.93
And for a transformed cracked section (see figure 4.28)

I= bx + bx (~)2 + aeAs (d- x) 2

3
12 2

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132 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
therefore with x = 360 mm from part (f)
1 = (1.17 + 3.50 + 4.08) X 109
= 8.75 x 10 9 mm 4
and Ss =As (d- x)
= 2450 X 240
= 588 x 103 mm 3
From figure 6.6 for indoor exposure, the long-term value
Ecs ~ 390 X 10-6

Thus
390 X 10-6 X 28.9 X 588 X 103
=
8.75 X 109
~ 0.8 x 10-6 /mm

(h) Calculate Total Long-term Deflection

Short-term curvature, non-permanent loads= Short-term curvature, total loads
-Short-term curvature. permanent loads
= 2.5 x w-6 - u x w-6
= 1.0 X 10-6 /mm
Long-term curvature, permanent loads= 2.8 x 10-6 /mm
Shrinkage curvature = 0.8 x 10-6 /mm
Therefore
Total long-term curvature _!_ =4.6 x 10-6 /mm
rb
hence

estimated total ---

long-term deflection
=0.104x 12 2 X 106 X4.6x 10-6
=69mm
6.3.4 Basis of Span-Effective Depth Ratios
The calculation of deflections has been shown to be a tedious operation, however,
for general use rules based on limiting the span-effective depth ratio of a member
are adequate to ensure that the deflections are not excessive. The application of
this method is described in section 6.2.
The relationship between the deflection and the span-effective depth ratio of a
member can be derived from equation 6.9; thus

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 133

Figure 6.10 Curvature and strain distribution

deflection a = K J_ L 2
'b
and for small deflections it can be seen from figure 6.10 that for unit length, s

¢ = J_ = €em + Enn
'b d
where Eem = maximum compressive strain in the concrete
=tensile strain in the reinforcement
Enn

K =a factor which depends on the pattern of loading

Therefore
span _ L _ !!._ _!_
effective depth d L K ( €em + Enn)
The strains in the concrete and tensile reinforcement depend on the areas of rein-
forcement provided and their stresses. Thus for a particular member section and a
pattern of loading, it is possible to determine a span-effective depth ratio to satisfy
a particular a/L or deflection/span limitation.
The modified span-effective depth ratios obtained in section 6.2 are based on
limiting the total deflection to span/250 for a uniformly distributed loading. For
spans of less than 10 m this should also ensure that the limits of span/ 500 or 20 mm
after application of finishes are met but, for spans over 10m where avoidance of
damage to finishes may be important, the basic ratios of table 6.6 should be
factored by 10/span.
For loading patterns other than uniformly distributed a revised ratio is given by
changing the basic ratio in proportion to the relative values of K, as shown in
example 6.3. Similarly, for limiting the deflection to span/~
. d ratiO=
revise . bas1c
. ratiO
. x -250
~

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134 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

In cases where the basic ratio has been modified for spans greater than 10m,
maximum deflections are unlikely to exceed 20 mm after construction of partitions
and finishes.
When another deflection limit is required, the ratios given should be multiplied
by a/20 where a is the proposed maximum deflection.

Example 6.3 Adjustment of Basic Span to Effective Depth Ratio

Determine the appropriate basic ratio for a cantilever beam supporting a uniform
load and a concentrated point load at its tip as shown in figure 6.11.
20kN

~
/1
1.. effective span L ~I

Figure 6.11 Point load on cantilever example

Basic ratio from table 6.6 = 7 for a u.d.l.

From table 6.9:
K for cantilever with u.d.l. over full length = 0.25
K for cantilever with point load at tip = 0.33
Thus, for the point load only, adjusted basic ratio equals

7x 0.25 =5.3
0.33
An adjusted basic ratio to account for both loads can be obtained by factoring the
moment due to the point load by the ratio of the K values as follows
Mudl = 10 x L/2 =5L
Mpoint = 20L

· ratio (Mudl + Mpoint X Kudi/Kpoint)

A d~uste db asic ratio = Bas1c
Mudl + Mpoint
= 7 ( 5 + 20 X 0.25/0.33)
5 +20
=5.6

6.4 Flexural Cracking

Members subjected to bending generally exhibit a series of distributed flexural

cracks, even at working load. These cracks are unobtrusive and harmless unless
the widths become excessive, in which case appearance and durability suffer as
the reinforcement is exposed to corrosion.

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 135
The actual width of cracks in a reinforced concrete structure will vary between
wide limits, and cannot be precisely estimated, thus the limiting requirement to be
satisfied is that the probability of the maximum width exceeding a satisfactory
value is small. The maximum acceptable value suggested by BS 8110 is 0.3 mm at
any position on the surface of the concrete in normal environments, although
some other codes of practice recommend lower values for important members.
Requirements for specialised cases such as water-retaining structures may be more
stringent and these are given in chapter 11.
If calculations to estimate maximum crack widths are performed, they are
based on 'working' loads with 'Yr = 1.0 and material partial factors of safety of
'Ym = 1.0 for steel and concrete. BS 8110 recommends that the effective modulus
of elasticity of the concrete should be taken as half the instantaneous value as
given in table 1.1, to allow for creep effects.
Prestressed concrete members are designed primarily on the basis of satisfying
limitations which are different from those for reinforced concrete.

St ra1n
Figure 6.12 Bending of a length of beam

6.4.1 Mechanism of Flexural Cracking

This can be illustrated by considering the behaviour of a member subjected to a
uniform moment.
A length of beam as shown in figure 6.12 will initially behave elastically through-
out, as the applied uniform moment M is increased. When the limiting tensile strain
for the concrete is reached a crack will form, and the adjacent tensile zone will no
longer be acted upon by direct tension forces. The curvature of the beam, however,
causes further direct tension stresses to develop at some distance from the original
crack to maintain internal equilibrium. This in turn causes further cracks to form,
and the process continues until the distance between cracks does not permit
sufficient tensile stresses to develop to cause further cracking. These initial cracks
are called 'primary cracks', and the average spacing in a region of constant
moment has been shown experimentally to be approximately 1.67 (h - x) and
will be largely independent of reinforcement detailing.
As the applied moment is increased beyond this point, the development of
cracks is governed to a large extent by the reinforcement. Tensile stresses in the
concrete surrounding reinforcing bars are caused by bond as the strain in the rein-
forcement increases. These stresses increase with distance from the primary cracks
and may eventually cause further cracks to form approximately midway between
the primary cracks. This action may continue with increasing moment until the

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136 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
bond between concrete and steel is incapable of developing sufficient tension in
the concrete to cause further cracking in the length between existing cracks. Since
the development of the tensile stresses is caused directly by the presence of the
reinforcing bars, the spacing of cracks will be influenced by the spacings of the re-
inforcement. If bars are sufficiently close for their 'zones of influence' to overlap
then secondary cracks will join up across the member, while otherwise they will
form only adjacent to the individual bars. It has been confirmed experimentally
that the average spacing of cracks along a line parallel to, and at a distance acr
from, a main reinforcing bar depends on the efficiency of bond, and may be taken
as 1.67acr for deformed bars, or 2.0acr for plain round bars.

d
---r-__
Figure 6.13 Bending strains

6.4. 2 Estimation of Crack Widths

If the behaviour of the member in figure 6.13 is examined, it can be seen that the
overall extension per unit length at depth y below the neutral axis is given by

€1 = _Y_ €s
(d -x)
where €s is the average strain in the main reinforcement over the length considered,
and may be assumed to be equal to fs/Es where fs is the steel stress at the cracked
sections. Hence assuming any tensile strain of concrete between cracks as small,
since full bond is never developed

€ 1 = _Y_ fs = ~w
(d-x) Es
where ~w =sum of crack widths per unit length at levely.
The actual width of individual cracks will depend on the number of cracks in
this unit length, the average number being given by length/average spacing where
average spacing, Sav = 1.67acr for deformed bars; also Sav <: 1.67(h- x), the
spacing of primary cracks. Thus
~w
average crack width Wav =
av. number of cracks
The designer is concerned however with the maximum crack width. and it has
been shown experimentally that if this is taken as twice the average value, the
chance of this being exceeded is about 1 in 100, hence for deformed reinforcing

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 137
bars, the maximum likely crack width Wmax at any level defmed by yin a mem-
ber will thus be given ~y
Wmax = €1 2sav

=€ 1 3.33ocr
provided that the limit of w max = € 1 3.33 (h - x) based on the primary cracks is
not exceeded.
The positions on a member where the surface crack widths will be greatest,
depend on the relative values of strain ( € 1 ) and the distance to a point of zero
strain (ocr). Despite the effects of bond slip adjacent to cracks, and the steel strain
across cracks, the crack width at the surface of a reinforcing bar is very small and
may be assumed to be zero. This may therefore be taken as a point of zero strain
for the purposes of measuring Ocr· The neutral axis of the beam will also have zero
strain, and hence Ocr may also relate to this if appropriate.

N12utra_!_
-f---
OX IS

3 3 (Posit 10n 3
<2QU1d1stant from
• • • N -A and r121nforcm12nt)
2 2

Figure 6.14 Critical crack positions

Critical positions for maximum crack width will on a beam generally occur at
the positions indicated in figure 6.14. These occur when the distance to points of
zero strain, that is, reinforcement surface or neutral axis, are as large as possible.
Positions 1 and 2 will have a maximum value of strain, while at position 3, although
the strain is smaller, Ocr is considerably larger. The expression for Wmax at any
point may thus be expressed in the general form
maximum surface crack
width at a point = constant x distance to the surface of the nearest
reinforcing bar or neutral axis x apparent tensile
strain in the concrete at the level considered
The expression for maximum surface crack width given in BS 8110 is basically of
this form, with the constant based on a probability of the calculated value being
exceeded of somewhat greater than 1 in 100. The expression is given as
- 3ocr€m (6.10)*
Wmax - -----=--=-----:-
1 + 2 (Ocr - Cmin)
h-x
where Cmin is the minimum cover to the main reinforcement and Em is the average
concrete strain and is based on € 1 but allows for the stiffening effect of the cracked
concrete in the tension zone € 2 • The value of € 2 is given by an empirical expression

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138 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
_ bt(h - x)(a'- x)
€2 - --'-..o_--'--'------"-- (6.11)*
3 E 5 A 5 (d- x)
and

where bt is the width of section at centroid of tensile steel and a' the distance from
compressive face to the point at which crack is calculated. This expression allows
for variations of steel stress between cracks, and results in correspondingly reduced
maximum crack width estimates. A negative value of Em indicates that the section
is uncracked.

6.4.3 Analysis of Section to Determine Crack Width

Whatever formula is used, it is necessary to consider the apparent concrete strain
at the appropriate position. This must be done by elastic analysis of the cracked
section using half the instantaneous value of Ec to allow for creep effects as
discussed in section 6.4.
The methods discussed in section 4.10.1 should be used to fmd the neutral axis
position x and hence fs the stress in the tensile reinforcement. Then

Et = _Y__ fs
(d-x) Es
hence Em may be obtained.
I· 4oo ·I

1000

• •
3 No 40mm bars
vo I· 13o + 130 .jzo.l
(min covczr=50mm) (b) Ocztail of RczinforCizmqnt
(a) Cross- S!lction Position
Figure 6.15

Example 6.4 Calculation of Flexural Crack Widths

Estimate the maximum flexural crack widths for the beam section shown in figure
6.15a when subjected to a moment of 650 kN m.
Characteristic strengths of concrete feu = 30 N/mm2
of steel /y = 460 N/mm 2
Modulus of elasticity of steel Es = 200kN/mm 2

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 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 139
Calculate Neutral Axis Position and Steel Stress
From table 1.1, instantaneous modulus of elasticity = 26 kN/mm 2 , therefore

Ec = 262 =13 kN/mm2

Then from section 4.10.1 the neutral axis position is given by

t bx 2 + Es A x - Es A d = 0
E s E s
c c

In this case A 5 = area of three no. 40 mm bars = 3 770 mm 2

d = 1000 - (20 + 50) = 930 mm

thus
200 200
tx400xx 2 + -x3170xx- -x3770x930=0
13 13
therefore
290_
X=- _ ±___,____,,_
y'(290_ + 4_
2 _ X 269
__ 700)
____.:._
2
= 394 mm

(Alternatively charts may be used, as in figure 4.29 in which case

As 200 3770
a:-=- = 0.156
e bd 13 400 X 930
taking A~= 0, x/d = 0.42 from charts and hence x = 391 mm.)
The stress in the reinforcement

M 650 x 106
fs = (d -x/3)A 5 = 798 X 3770

= 216 N/mm 2
thus

€1 = _L X 216 =y X 2.04 X 10-6

536 200 X 1oJ
and using equation 6.11
bt (h- x)(a'- x)
3 E5 A 5 (d- x)

The maximum crack width will occur either at position 1 or 2 indicated on figure
6.15; thus

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140 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Position y a' €1 X 10-3
606 y{702 + 70 2 ) - 20 = 79 1000 1.24

2 536 = 268 662 0.55

2
Minimum cover, Cmin =50 mm; thus at position 1
e = {1. 24 _ 400 (looo- 394)(1ooo- 394)) x 10 _ 3
m \ 3 X 200 X 3770 (930- 394)
= 1.12 x 10-3
and equation 6.10 gives

= ~- 79 X 1.12 X 10-3
=0.24mm
1 2( 79-50 )
+ 1000-394
and similarly at position 2
€ = r0.5 5 _ 400 (1000 - 394) (662 - 394}1 X 10 _3
m L 3 X 200 X 3770 (930- 394) J
= o.5o x 10-3
thus
3 X 257 X 0.50 X 10-3
Wmax = =0.23 mm
1+2e57-50)
606
The maximum crack width of 0.24 mm is therefore likely to occur at the bottom
corners of the member, and the cracks are likely to be at an average spacing of
1.67acr = 1.67 x 79 ~ 130 mm at these positions. Cracks of similar width may
occur on side faces at a spacing of approximately 1.67 x 257 ~ 430 mm.

6.4.4 Control of Crack Widths

It is apparent from the expressions derived above that there are two fundamental
ways in which surface crack widths may be reduced.
(1) Reduce the stress in the reinforcement (!5 ).
(2) Reduce the distance to the nearest bar (acr).
The use of steel at reduced stresses is generally uneconomical, and although this
approach is used in the design of water-retaining structures where cracking must
often be avoided altogether, it is generally easier to limit the bar cover and spacing
 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 141

and hence acr· Durability requirements limit the minimum value of cover; however
bars should be as close to the concrete surface as is allowed. Reinforcement spacing
may be reduced by keeping bar diameters as small as is reasonably possible.
Since the side face of a beam is often a critical crack-width position it is good
practice to consider the provision of longitudinal steel in the side faces of beams
of moderate depth. Recommendations regarding this, and spacing of main rein-
forcement, are given by BS 8110 and are discussed in section 6.1. If these recom-
mendations are followed, it is not necessary to calculate crack widths except in
unusual circumstances. Reinforcement detailing however, has been shown to have
a large effect on flexural cracking, and must in practice be a compromise between
the requirements of cracking, durability and constructional ease and costs.

L _____ _
I
I As fst
I_____ -·4fl~------t~- As fsc
I
I
f------

Figure 6.16 Forces adjacent to a crack

6.5 Thermal and Shrinkage Cracking

Thermal and shrinkage effects, and the stresses developed prior to cracking of the
concrete were discussed in chapter 1. After cracking, the equilibrium of concrete
adjacent to a crack is illustrated in figure 6.16.
Equating tension and compression forces
Asfst =Acfct - A sfsc
or

fct = ~s (fst + fsc)

c

if the condition is considered when steel and concrete simultaneously reach their
limiting values in tension, that is, fst = [y and fct = ft =tensile strength of concrete
at appropriate age - usually taken as three days. Then

r = As= ft
Ac [y + fsc
where r is the steel ratio.
The value of fsc can be calculated but is generally very small and may be taken
as zero without introducing undue inaccuracy; hence the critical value of steel ratio

r ·t = -As = -ft .
approxunate ly (6.12)*
Crt Ac [,y
If the steel ratio is less than this value, the steel will yield in tension resulting in a
few wide cracks; however if it is greater then more cracks will be formed when the
142 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
tensile stress caused by bond between the steel and concrete exceeds the concrete
tensile strength, that is
fbs'Lus ~ ftAc
where fb = average bond stress
s = development length along a bar
'Lu 5 = sum of perimeters of reinforcement.
For a round bar
Us 41T<I> 4
= - - =-
A 1T<I>2 <I>
Hence, since
A
'Lu s = _s
A us for similar bars

then

'Lu = 4rAc
s <I>

and thus

s ~ ft<l>
4rfb
The maximum crack spacing is twice this value immediately prior to the formation
of a new crack, when the development length on both sides is Smin• that is

s = ft <I> (6.13)*
max 2rfb
Crack spacing and hence width, therefore, is governed both by the reinforcement
size and quantity for ratios above the critical value, which should be taken as a
minimum requirement for controlled cracking. Empirical values for general use are
given in section 6.1.

6.5.1 Crack Width Calculation

The expressions for crack spacing assume that the total thermal and shrinkage
strains are sufficient to cause cracking, although in practice it is found that pre-
dicted cracks may not always occur. It is possible to estimate however the maxi-
mum crack width likely to occur by considering total concrete contraction in
conjunction with the maximum likely crack spacing. For steel ratios greater than
the critical value, and when the total contraction exceeds the ultimate tensile
strain for the concrete ( euu), the tensile stress in the concrete increases from zero
at a crack to a maximum value at mid-distance between cracks. Hence the mean
tensile strain in the uncracked length is €utt/2 when a new crack is just about to
form. The crack width is thus given by crack width= (total unit movement-
 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 143
concrete strain) x crack spacing with the maximum width corresponding to the
maximum spacing of Smax
Wmax =(esh + Tac - -huu) Smax (6.14)
where esh = shrinkage strain
T = fall in temperature from hydration peak
ac = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete - taken as
O.S x the value for mature concrete, to allow for creep effects
In practice, variations in restraints cause large variations within members and
between otherwise similar members, with 'full' restraint seldom occurring. The
behaviour depends considerably on this and temperatures at the time of casting.
Guidance concerning possible 'restraint factors' is given in Part 2 of BS 8110.

Example 6.5 Colculation of Shrinkage and Thermal Crack Widths

A fully restrained section of reinforced concrete wall is 1SO mm thick, and drying
shrinkage strain of SO microstrain (es~~) is anticipated together with a temperature
drop (1) of 20°C after setting. Determine the minimum horizontal reinforcement
to control cracking and estimate maximum crack widths and average spacing for a
suitable reinforcement arrangement.
Three-day ultimate tensile strength of concrete (It) = ultimate average bond
stress (!b) = l.S N/mm 2
Modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ec) = 10 kN/mm 2
Coefficient of thermal expansion for mature concrete (ac)
= 12 microstraintC
Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement ({y) = 460 N/mm 2
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (E8 ) = 200 kN/mm 2

Critical steel ratio rcrit = ft = ___!_2_ = 0.33 per cent from equation 6.12
[y 460

= 033 x ISO X 1000

100
=49S mm 2 /m
This could be conveniently provided as 10 mm bars at 300 mm centres in each face
of the member (S24 mm 2 /m).
For this reinforcement, the maximum crack spacing is given by equation 6.13 as
ftlf> = l.S X 10
2 S24 X l.S
X
1SOOOO
= 1430mm
144 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Since the minimum spacing is given by one-half of this value, the average spacing
will be Sav = 0.7S X 1430 = 1072 mm.
The maximum crack width corresponds to Smax and is given by

Wmax = Smax &sh + T ~ - }c:ult)

as given in equation 6.14 where ultimate tensile strain for the concrete

c
"ult-
-
Eftc
= - 1-·S--=- = 1SO microstrain
10 X 103
therefore

w
max
= 1430 (so+ 20 2 12- ISO)
X
2
X 10-6

=0.14 mm

6.6 Other Serviceability Requirements

The two principal other serviceability considerations are those of durability and
resistance to fire, although occasionally a situation arises in which some other
factor may be of importance to ensure the proper performance of a structural
member in service. This may include fatigue due to moving loads or machinery, or
specific thermal and sound insulation properties. The methods of dealing with such
requirements may range from the use of reduced working stresses in the materials,
to the use of special concretes, for example lightweight aggregates for good ther-
mal resistance.

6. 6.1 Durability
Deterioration will generally be associated with water permeating the concrete, and
the opportunities for this to occur should be minimised as far as possible by pro-
viding good architectural details with adequate drainage and protection to the
concrete surface.
Permeability is the principal characteristic of the concrete which affects dur-
ability, although in some situations it is necessary to consider also physical and
chemical effects which may cause the concrete to decay.
For reinforced concrete, a further important aspect of durability is the degree
of protection which is given to the reinforcement. Carbonation by the atmosphere
will, in time, destroy the alkalinity of the surface zone concrete, and if this reaches
the level of the.reinforcement will render the steel vulnerable to corrosion in the
presence of moisture and oxygen.
If a concrete is made with a sound inert aggregate, deterioration will not occur
in the absence of an external influence. Since concrete is a highly alkaline material,
 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 145
its resistance to other alkalis is good, but it is however very susceptible to attack
by acids or substances which easily decompose to produce acids. Concrete made
with Portland cement is thus not suitable for use in situations where it comes into
contact with such materials, which include beer, milk and fats. Some neutral salts
may also attack concrete, the two most notable being calcium chloride and soluble
sulphates. These react with a minor constituent of the hydration products in
different ways. The chloride must be in concentrated solution, when it has a sol-
vent effect on the concrete in addition to corroding the reinforcement, while
sulphates need only be present in much smaller quantities to cause internal expan-
sion of the concrete with consequent cracking and strength loss. Sulphates present
the most commonly met chemical-attack problem for concrete since they may
occur in groundwater and sewage. In such cases cements containing reduced pro-
portions of the vulnerable tricalcium aluminate, such as Sulphate Resisting
Portland Cement or Super Sulphated Cement, should be used. The addition of
Pulverised Fuel Ash (Pfa) or ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbfs) may also
be beneficial. Table 6.10 indicates minimum concrete mix requirements for use in
situations where sulphates are present. Both chlorides and sulphates are present in
sea water, and because of this the chemical actions are different, resulting in
reduced sulphate damage, although if the concrete is of poor quality, serious
damage may occur from reactions of soluble magnesium salts with the hydrated
compounds. Well-constructed Ordinary Portland cement structures have neverthe-
less been found to endure for many years in sea water.

Table 6.10 Concrete exposed to sulphate attack

Concentration of sulphates Min.

(S0 3 ) total Max.
Class Cement type cement free
In soil In groundwater content water/
(total S0 3 ) (g/1) (kg/m 3 ) cement

<0.2% <0.3 Any

2 0.2 to 0.5% 0.3 to 1.2 Any 330 0.50
OPC/RHPC+
25-40% Pfa 310 0.55
or 70-90% ggbfs
SRPC or SSC 280 0.55
3 0.5 to 1.0% 1.2 to 2.5 OPC/RHPC+
25-40% Pfa or 380 0.45
70-90% ggbfs
SRPC or SSC 330 0.50
4 1.0 to 2.0% 2.5 to 5.0 SRPC or SSC 370 0.45
5 >2.0% >5.0 SRPC or SSC 370 0.45
+ protection

Note: These values relate to dense concrete with 20 mm max. aggregate size.
146 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Physical attack of the concrete must also be considered. This may come from
abrasion or attrition as may be caused by sand or shingle, and by alternate wetting
and drying. The latter effect is particularly important in the case of marine struc-
tures near the water surface, and causes stresses to develop if the movements
produced are restrained. It is also possible for crystal growth to occur from drying
out of sea water in cracks and pores, and this may cause further internal stresses,
leading to cracking. Alternate freezing and thawing is another major cause of
physical damage, particularly in road and runway slabs and other situations where
water in pores and cracks can freeze and expand thus leading to spalling. It has
been found that the entrainment of a small percentage of air in the concrete in the
form of small discrete bubbles offers the most effective protection against this form
of attack. Although this reduces the strength of the concrete, it is recommended
that 4.5 ± 1.5 per cent by volume of entrained air should be included in concrete
subjected to regular wetting and drying combined with severe frost.
All these forms of attack may be minimised by the production of a dense, well-
compacted concrete with low permeability, thus restricting damage to the surface
zone of the member. Aggregates which are likely to react with the alkali matrix
should be avoided, as must those which exhibit unusually high shrinkage character-
istics. If this is done, then permeability, and hence durability, is affected by

(1) aggregate type and density

(2) water-cement ratio
(3) degree of hydration of cement
(4) degree of compaction.

A low water-cement ratio is necessary to limit the voids due to hydration, which
must be well advanced with the assistance of good curing techniques. Coupled
with this is the need for non-porous aggregates which are hard enough to resist
any attrition, and for thorough compaction. It is essential that the mix is designed
to have adequate workability for the situation in which it is to be used, thus the
cement content of the mix must be reasonably high.
BS 8110 specifies minimum cement contents for various exposure conditions,
as well as minimum strength and maximum water cement ratio, related to mini-
mum cover requirements as described in section 6.1.1.
The consequences of thermal effects on durability must not be overlooked, and
very high cement contents should only be used in conjunction with a detailed
cracking assessment. BS 8110 suggests that 550 kg/m 3 cement content should be
regarded as an upper limit for general use.
Provided that such measures are taken, and that adequate cover of sound concrete
is given to the reinforcement, deterioration of reinforced concrete is unlikely. Thus
although the surface concrete may be affected, the reinforcing steel will remain
protected by an alkaline concrete matrix which has not been carbonated by the
atmosphere. Once this cover breaks down and water and possibly chemicals can
reach the steel, rusting and consequent expansion lead rapidly to cracking and
spalling of the cover concrete and severe damage - visually and sometimes
structurally.
 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 147
6. 6. 2 Fire Resistance
Depending on the type of structure under consideration, it may be necessary to
consider the fire resistance of the individual concrete members. Three conditions
must be examined
(I) effects on structural strength
(2) flame penetration resistance } in the case of dividing members
(3) heat transmission properties such as walls and slabs
Concrete and steel in the form of reinforcement or prestressing tendons exhibit
reduced strength after being subjected to high temperatures. Although concrete
has low thermal conductivity, and thus good resistance to temperature rise, the
strength begins to drop significantly at temperatures above 300°C and it has a
tendency to spall at high temperatures. The extent of this spalling is governed by
the type of aggregate, with siliceous materials being particularly susceptible while
calcareous and light-weight aggregate concretes suffer very little. Reinforcement
will retain about 50 per cent of its normal strength after reaching about 550°C,
while for prestressing tendons the corresponding temperature is only 400°C.
Thus as the temperature rises the heat is transferred to the interior of a con-
crete member, with a thermal gradient established in the concrete. This gradient
will be affected by the area and mass of the member in addition to the thermal
properties of the concrete, and may lead to expansion and loss of strength.
Dependent on the thickness and nature of cover, the steel will rise in temperature
and lose strength, this leading to deflections and eventual structural failure of the
member if the steel temperature becomes excessive. Design must therefore be
aimed at providing and maintaining sound cover of concrete as a protection, thus
delaying the temperature rise in the steel. The presence of plaster, screeds and
other non-combustible finishes assists the cover in protecting the reinforcement
and may thus be allowed for in the design.
BS 8110 gives tabulated values of minimum dimensions and nominal covers for
various types of concrete member which are necessary to permit the member to
withstand fire for a specified period of time. Although these values, which have
been summarised in tables 6.2 and 6.3, do not take into account the influence of
aggregate type, they may be considered adequate for most normal purposes. More
detailed information concerning design for fire resistance is given in Part 2 of
BS 8110 including concrete type, member type and details of finishes. The period
that a member is required to survive, both in respect of strength in relation to
working loads and the containment of fire, will depend upon the type and usage of
the structure - and minimum requirements are generally specified by building
regulations. Prestressed concrete beams must be considered separately in view of
the increased vulnerability of the prestressing steel.

6.7 Stability

While it would be unreasonable to expect a structure to withstand extremes of

accidental loading as may be caused by collision, explosion or similar happening,
it is important that resulting damage should not be disproportionate to the cause.
It follows therefore that a major structural collapse must not be allowed to be
148 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
caused by a relatively minor mishap which may have a reasonably high probability
of happening in the anticipated lifetime of the structure.
The possibilities of a structure buckling or overturning under the 'design' loads
will have been considered as part of the ultimate limit state analysis. However, in
some instances a structure will not have an adequate lateral strength even though
it has been designed to resist the specified combinations of wind load and vertical
load. This could be the case if there is an explosion or a slight earth tremor, since
then the lateral loads are proportional to the mass of the structure. Therefore it is
recommended that a structure should always be capable of resisting a lateral force
not less than 1.5 per cent of the total characteristic load acting through the
centroid of the structure above any level considered.
Damage and possible instability should also be guarded against wherever possible,
for example vulnerable load-bearing members should be protected from collision
by protective features such as banks or barriers.

6.7.1 Ties
In addition to these precautions, the general stability and robustness of a building
structure can be increased by providing reinforcement acting as ties. These ties
should act both vertically between roof and foundations, and horizontally around
and across each floor, and all external vertical load-bearing members should be
anchored to the floors and beams.

Vertical Ties
Vertical ties are not generally necessary in structures of less than five storeys, but
in higher buildings should be provided by reinforcement, effectively continuous
from roof to foundation by means of proper laps, running through all vertical load-
bearing members. This steel should be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to
the maximum design ultimate load carried by the column or wall from any one
storey or the roof. In in situ concrete, this requirement is almost invariably satis-
fied by a normal design, but joint detailing may be affected in precast work.

Horizontal Ties
Horizontal ties should be provided for all buildings, irrespective of height, in three
ways
{1) peripheral ties
(2) internal ties
(3) column and wall ties.
The resistance of these ties when stressed to their characteristic strength is given in
terms of a force Ft, where Ft = 60 kN or (20 + 4 x number of storeys in structure)
kN, whichever is less. This expression takes into account the increased risk of an
accident in a large building and the seriousness of the collapse of a tall structure.

(a) Peripheral Ties

The peripheral tie must be provided, by reinforcement which is effectively con-
tinuous, around the perimeter of the building at each floor and roof level. This
 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 149

Column tills

\
--
VIlrt ical tills

Figure 6.17 Tie forces

reinforcement must lie within 1.2 m from the outer edge and at its characteristic
stress be capable of resisting a force of at least Ft.

(b) Internal Ties

Internal ties should also be provided at each floor in two perpendicular directions
and be anchored at each end either to the peripheral tie or to the continuous
column or wall ties.

These ties must be effectively continuous and they may either be spread evenly
across a floor, or grouped at beams or walls as convenient. Where walls are used,
the tie reinforcement must be concentrated in the bottom 0.5 m.
The resistance required is related to the span and loading. Internal ties must be
capable of resisting a force of Ft kN per metre width or lFt (gk + qk)/7.5] L/5 kN
per metre width, if this is greater. In this expression, L is the greatest horizontal
distance in the direction of the tie between the centres of vertical load-bearing
members, or if smaller, 5 x the clear storey height measured to underside of the
beams. The loading (gk + qk) kN/m 2 is the average characteristic load on unit area
of the floor considered. Internal ties parallel to cross-walls occurring in one direc-
tion only, on plan, need only resist the force Ft kN per metre width.

(c) Column and Wall Ties

Column and wall ties must be able to resist a force of at least 3 per cent of the
total vertical ultimate load for which the member has been designed. Additionally,
the resistance provided must not be less than the smaller of 2Ft or Ftlo/2.5 kN
where 10 is the floor to ceiling height in metres. Wall ties are assessed on the basis
of the above forces acting per metre length of the wall, while column ties are con-
centrated within 1 m either side of the column centre line. Particular care should
be taken with corner columns to ensure they are tied in two perpendicular
directions.
150 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
In considering the structure subjected to accidental loading it is assumed that
no other forces are acting, thus reinforcement provided for other purposes may
also act as ties. Indeed, peripheral and internal ties may also be considered to be
acting as column or wall ties.

Full anchoraga langth

(Uit. onchoraga bond
strass • 15°/o)

• • ••• •••
(a) (b) (c)
Anchoroga Raquiramants for lntarnal Tias

2,6 as (b) or Cc}

Paripharol tia

Anchoraga Raquiramants for Column & Wall Tias

Fipre 6.18 Anchorage of ties

As with vertical ties, the provision of horizontal ties for in situ construction
will seldom affect the amount of reinforcement provided. Detailing of the rein-
forcement may however be affected, and particular attention must be paid to the
manner in which internal ties are anchored to peripheral ties. The requirements for
the full anchorage of ties are illustrated in figure 6.18.1f these are not met, then
the assumed stresses in the ties must be reduced appropriately.
Precast concrete construction however presents a more serious problem since
the requirements of tie forces and simple easily constructed joints are not always
compatible. Unless the required tie forces can be provided with the bars anchored
by hooks and bends in the case of column and wall ties, an analysis of the structure
must be performed to assess the remaining stability after a specified degree of
structural damage.
 SERVICEABIUTY, DURABIUTY AND STABIUTY REQUIREMENTS 151
Example 6.6 Stability Ties
Calculate the stability ties required in an eight-storey building of plan area shown
in figure 6.19
Clear storey height under beams = 2.9 m
Floor to ceiling height (10 ) = 3.4m
Characteristic dead load (gk) = 6 kN/m 2
Characteristic live load (qk) = 3 kN/m 2
Characteristic steel strength (fy) = 460 N/mm 2
Ft = (20 + 4 x number of storeys)
= 20 + 4 X 8 = 52 kN < 60 kN

Precast floor slab Longitudinal beam

Transvc;!rS!;!
beams
11\I \I I lm
4 bays (ci) 6·5m =26m
I·
Figure 6.19

(a) Peripheral ties

Force to be resisted = Ft = 52 kN
52 X 103
Bar area required = 113 mm 2
460
This could be provided by one Tl2 bar.

(b) Internal ties

Force to be resisted = Ft (gk + qk) x !:=_ kN per metre

7.5 5

(I) Transverse direction

Force= 52 (6 + 3) x 7_ = 87.4 kN/m > F

7.5 5 t

Force per bay= 87.4 x 6.5

=568.1 kN
Therefore, bar area required in each transverse interior beam is
152 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

568.1 x 103 = 1235 mm 2

460
This could be provided by 4T20 bars.

(2) Longitudinal direction

52(6 + 3) 6.5
Force= · x - = 81.1 kN/m > Ft
7.5 5
Therefore force along length of building= 81.1 x 7 = 567.7 kN, hence bar area
required in each longitudinal beam is
567.7 x 103 = 617 mm 2
2 X 460
This could be provided by 2T20 bars.

(3) Column ties

Force to be designed for is

( - 10 ) Ft=
2.5
(3.4)
-
2.5
52=70.7kN<2Ft

or 3 per cent of ultimate floor load on a column is

8 [2__
100
(1.4 x 6 + 1.6 x 3) x 6.5 x ?__] = 72 kN at ground level
2
To allow for 3 per cent of column self-weight, take design force to be 75 kN, say,
at each floor level.

Area of ties required= 75 X 103 = 163 mm 2

460
This would be provided by 1T20 and incorporated with the internal ties.

(c) Vertical ties

Maximum column load from one storey is approximately equal to
(1.6 X 3 + 1.4 X 6) X 3.5 X 6.5 = 300.3 kN
Therefore bar area required throughout each column is equal to
300.3 X 10 3 = 653 mm 2
460
This would be provided by 4T16 bars.
 SERVICEABILITY, DURABILITY AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS 153
6. 7.2 Analysis of 'Damaged' Structure
This must be undertaken when a structure has five or more storeys and does not
comply with the vertical-tie requirements, or when every precast floor or roof unit
does not have sufficient anchorage to resist a force equal toFt kN per metre width
acting in the direction of the span. The analysis must show that each key load-
bearing member, its connections, and the horizontal members which provide
lateral support, are able to withstand a specified loading from any direction. If
this cannot be satisfied, then the analysis must demonstrate that the removal of
any single vertical load-bearing element, other than key members, at each storey
in turn will not result in collapse of a significant part of the structure.
The minimum loading that may act from any direction on a key member is
recommended as 34 kN/m 2 in BS 8110. The decision as to what loads should be
considered acting is left to the engineer, but will generally be on the basis of
permanent and realistic live-loading estimates, depending on the building usage.
This method is attempting therefore to assess quantitatively the effects of excep-
tional loading such as explosion. The design 'pressure' must thus be regarded as a
somewhat arbitrary value.
The 'pressure' method will generally be suitable for application to columns in
precast framed structures; however, where precast load-bearing panel construction
is being used an approach incorporating the removal of individual elements may
be more appropriate. In this case, vertical loadings should be assessed as described,
and the structure investigated to determine whether it is able to remain standing
by a different structural action. This action may include parts of the damaged
structure behaving as a cantilever or a catenary, and it may also be necessary to
consider the strength of non-load-bearing partitions or cladding.
Whichever approach is adopted, such analyses are tedious, and the provision of
effective tie forces within the structure should be regarded as the preferred solu-
tion both from the point of view of design and performance.
Continuity reinforcement and good detailing will greatly enhance the overall
fire resistance of a structure with respect to collapse. A fire-damaged structure
with reduced member strength may even be likened to a structure subjected to
accidental overload, and analysed accordingly.
7
Design of Reinforced Concrete
Beams

Reinforced concrete beam design consists primarily of producing member details

which will adequately resist the ultimate bending moments, shear forces and tor-
sional moments. At the same time serviceability requirements must be considered
to ensure that the member will behave satisfactorily under working loads. It is
difficult to separate these two criteria, hence the design procedure consists of a
series of interrelated steps and checks. These steps are shown in detail in the flow
chart in figure 7.1, but may be condensed into three basic design stages
(1) preliminary analysis and member sizing
(2) detailed analysis and design of reinforcement
(3) serviceability calculations.
Much of the material in this chapter depends on the theory and design specifica-
tions from the previous chapters. The loading and calculation of moments and
shear forces should be carried out using the methods described in chapter 3. The
equations used for calculating the areas of reinforcement have been derived in
chapters 4 and 5.
Full details of serviceability requirements and calculations are given in chapter
6, but it is normal practice to make use of simple rules which are specified in the
Code of Practice and are quite adequate for most situations. Typical of these are
the span-effective depth ratios to ensure acceptable deflections, and the rules for
maximum bar spacings and minimum quantities of reinforcement, which are to
limit cracking, as described in chapter 6.
Design and detailing of the bending reinforcement must allow for factors such
as anchorage bond between the steel and concrete. The area of the tensile bending
reinforcement also affects the subsequent design of the shear and torsion reinforce-
ment. Arrangement of reinforcement is constrained both by the requirements of
the codes of practice for concrete structures and by practical considerations such
as construction tolerances, clearance between bars and available bar sizes and
lengths. Many of the requirements for correct detailing are illustrated in the
examples which deal with the design of typical beams.

154
 DESIGN OF REINFORCE D CONCRETE BEAMS 155

BS8110
CLAUSE

2.4 IMPOSED LOADS CONCRETE GRADE

+
ESTIMATE
+ p

•
SELF WEIGHT CONCRETE COVER

DEAD LOADS
+
MINIMUM SECTION
3.3 R

~ +
DURABILITY & FIRE
E
L
3. 2.1 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS RESISTANCE

TRIAL b M

•t
ESTIMATE d FROM

l
N
3.4. 4 Mlbd 2 feu" 0·156 SINGLY REINFORCED A
+
0·156 < M/bd 2 fcu<10/fcu DOUBLY REINFORCED
R
y
3. 4 .5 V lb+d < MAX ALLOWABLE

3. 4.6
t
CHECK BASIC SPAN/EFFECT IVE DEPTH

•
SELECT h

3. 2. 1
3.2.2
•+
DETAILED ANALYSIS

BM & SF ENVELOPES

3.4.2
3.4.4 •+
BENDING REINFORCEME NT DESIGN F
I
3.12.8 ANCHORAGE
N
+

;]
3.12 BENDING REINFORCEME NT DETAILS A

3.4. 6 •
CHECK SPAN/EFFECT IVE DEPTH
L

3.4. 5 •
SHEAR REINFORCEME NT

Pt 2. 3.8
+
CALCULATE CRACK WIDTHS (IF REO'Dl

Pt 2.3 7
+
CALCULATE DEFLECTIONS (IF REO'D)
+
FINISH

Figure 7.1 Beam design flow chart

156 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

All calculations should be based on the effective span of a beam which is given
as follows.
(1) A simply supported beam- the smaller of the distances between the
centres of bearings, or the clear distance between supports plus the
effective depth.
(2) A continuous beam the distance between centres of supports.
(3) A cantilever beam - the length to the face of the support plus half the
effective depth, or the distance to the centre of the support if the beam
is continuous.

7.1 Preliminary Analysis and Member Sizing

The layout and size of members are very often controlled by architectural details,
and clearances for machinery and equipment. The engineer must either check that
the beam sizes are adequate to carry the loading, or alternatively, decide on sizes
that are adequate. The preliminary analysis need only provide the maximum
moments and shears in order to ascertain reasonable dimensions. Beam dimensions
required are
(1) cover to the reinforcement
(2) breadth (b)
(3) effective depth (d)
(4) overalldepth(h).
Adequate concrete cover is required to protect the reinforcement from corro-
sion and damage. The necessary cover depends on the grade of concrete, the
exposure of the beam, and the required fire resistance. Table 6.1 gives the nominal
cover which should be provided to all reinforcement, including links. This cover
should additionally never be less than the bar size, and it may also need to be
increased to meet the fire resistance requirements of the Code of Practice.

~ ~

d
h

m
COV<2r

Figure 7.2 Beam dimensions

 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 157
The strength of a beam is affected considerably more by its depth than its
breadth. A suitable breadth may be a third to half of the depth; but it may be
much less for a deep beam and at other times wide shallow beams are used to con-
serve headroom. The beam should not be too narrow; if it is much less than
200 mm wide there may be difficulty in providing adequate side cover and space
for the reinforcing bars.
Suitable dimensions for b and d can be decided by a few trial calculations as
follows.
(1) For no compression reinforcement
M/bd 1'fcu E;;;0.156
With compression reinforcement it can be shown that
M/bd 2 fcu < 10/fcu
if the area of bending reinforcement is not to be excessive.
(2) Shear stress v = V/bd and v should never exceed 0.8 Vfcu or 5 N/mm2 ,
whichever is the lesser. To avoid congested shear reinforcement, v should prefer-
ably be somewhat closer to half (or less) of the maximum allowed.
(3) The span-effective depth ratio for spans not exceeding 10m should be
within the basic values given below
Cantilever beam 7
Simply supported beam 20
Continuous beam 26
which are modified according to M/bd 2and the service stress in the tension rein-
forcement as described in chapter 6. For spans greater than 10m, the basic ratios
are multiplied by 10/span.
(4) The overall depth of the beam is given by

h =d + Cover + t
where t = estimated distance from the outside of the link to the centre of the
tension bars (see figure 7.2). For example, with nominal sized 12 mm links and
one layer of 32 mm tension bars, t = 28 mm approximately.lt will, in fact, be
slightly larger than this with deformed bars as they have a larger overall dimension
than the nominal bar size.

Example 7.1 Beam Sizing

A concrete lintel with an effective span of 4.0 m supports a 230 mm brick wall as
shown in figure 7.3. The loads on the lintel are Gk = 100 kN and Qk =40 kN.
Determine suitable dimensions for the lintel if grade 30 concrete is used.
The beam breadth b will match the wall thickness so that
b=230mm
158 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

,.,
/ ''
/
/
''
'
"
/
/
/'\. ',
/
,." / ASSUmlld
.
load ' ' ,.,
,. dist r1but ion '

4m 12ff12ct iv12 span

Figure 7.3

Allowing, say, 14 kN for the weight of the beam, gives the ultimate load
F = 1.4 X 114 + 1.6 X 40
= 224 kN
Therefore maximum shear
V= 112 kN
Assuming a triangular load distribution for the preliminary analysis, we have
M= Fx span = 224 x 4.0
6 6
= 149 kNm
For such a relatively minor beam the case with no compression steel should be
considered

M <0.156
bd 2 fcu
therefore

149 X 106 < O.lS 6

230 X d 2 X 30
d>372mm
For mild conditions of exposure the cover= 25 mm (table 6.1). So for 10 mm
links and, say, 32 mm bars
overall depth h = d + 25 + 10 + 32/2
=d+ 51
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 159

Therefore make h = 525 mm as an integer number of brick courses. So that

d=525-51=474mm
_ V _112xl0 3
shear stress v - - - ----
bd 230 X 474
= 1.03 N/mm 2
For grade 30 concrete, maximum v allowed= 0.8 y30 = 4.38 N/mm 2 • Therefore

v < --
4.38
2

Basic span-effective depth= 4000 = 8.4 < 20

474
A beam size of 230 mm by 525 mm deep would be suitable.
Weight of beam= 0.23 x 0.525 x 4.0 x 24
= 11.6 kN
which is sufficiently close to the assumed value.

7.2 Design for Bending

The calculation of main bending reinforcement is performed using the equations

and charts derived in chapter 4. In the case of rectangular sections which require
only tension steel, the lever-arm curve method is probably the simplest. Where
compression steel is required, either design charts or a manual approach with the
simplified design formulae may be used. When design charts are not applicable, as
in the case of non-rectangular sections, the formulae based on the equivalent
rectangular stress block will simplify calculations considerably.
The type of reinforcing steel to be used must be decided initially since this, in
conjunction with the chosen concrete grade, will affect the areas required and also
influence bond calculations. In most circumstances one of the available types of
high-yield bars will be used unless cracking is critical, as for example in water-
retaining structures, when mild steel may be preferred. Areas of reinforcement
are calculated at the sections with maximum moments, and suitable bar sizes
selected. (Tables of bar areas are given in the appendix.) This permits anchorage
calculations to be performed and details of bar arrangement to be produced, taking
into account the guidance given by the codes of practice.
An excessive amount of reinforcement usually indicates that a member is under-
sized and it may also cause difficulty in fixing the bars and pouring the concrete.
Therefore the code stipulates A 8 /bh should not exceed 4.0 per cent. On the other
hand too little reinforcement is also undesirable therefore A 8 /bh should not be
less than 0.24 per cent for mild steel or 0.13 per cent for high-yield steel.
160 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
To avoid excessive deflections it is also necessary to check the span to effective
depth ratio as outlined in chapter 6.

7.2.1 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section

A beam section needs reinforcement only in the tensile zone whenM/bd 2 feu is not
greater than 0.156. This is not true if the moments at a section have been reduced
by more than 10 per cent as a result of a redistribution of the elastic moments, and
in this case reference should be made to equations 7.2 and 7.6 in order to decide
whether or not compression steel is necessary.
The singly reinforced section considered is shown in figure 7.4 and it is subjected
to a sagging moment Mat the ultimate limit state. Using the lever-arm curve, the
design calculations for the longitudinal steel can be summarised as follows.

b 0·0035
I· ·I 1--1

s=O~
d -·--·

• As •

~
Section Strains Stress Block

Figure 7.4 Singly reinforced section

(I) Calculate K = M/bd 2feu

(2) Determine the lever-arm, z, from the curve of figure 7.5 or from the
equation
z = d [0.5 + y(0.25 - K/0.9)] (7.1)
(3) The area of tension steel is given by

A= M
s z0.87/y
(4) Select suitable bar sizes.
(5) Check that the area of steel actually provided is within the limits
required by the code, that is

100 As ~4.0
bh
and

100 As ~ 0.13 for high-yield or 0.24 for mild steel

bh
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 161

K : M/bd 2 feu 0·05 0·06 0·07 0·08 0·09 0·10 0·11 0·12 0·13 0·14 0·15 0·156

.(0 = z/d 0·941 0·928 0·915 0·901 0·887 0·873 0·857 0·842 0·825 0·807 0·789 0·775

"
0·95

'1:)
~ 0·90 ~
"\
~ Compression
reinforcement

\"'")
0·85 ---~

I
I
I
I
I
I I
0·80 --------
I
----r \ I
I I

0·775
30% 20%
~
0 0·05 0·10 0·15 0·156
K= M/bd 2 feu
The % values on the K axis mark the l1mits
for singly reinforced sections with moment
redistribution applied (see Section 4. 7)

Figure 7.5 Lever-arm curve

Example 7.2 Design of Tension Reinforcement for a Rectangular Section

The beam section shown in figure 7.6 has characteristic material strengths of
feu =30 N/mm 2 for the concrete and [y =460 N/mm 2 for the steel. The design
moment at the ultimate limit state is 165 kN m which causes sagging of the beam

b=230

h = 550

A 5 2 ~T25

Figure 7.6
162 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

K= ~ = 165 X 106 =0. 1

bd feu
2 230 X 490 2 X 30
This is less than 0.156 therefore compression steel is not required.
From the lever-arm curve of figure 7.518 = 0.87, therefore
lever arm z = l8 d = 0.87 x 490 = 426 mm
and

M 165 X 106
As=--- = = 968 mm 2
0.87fyz 0.87 X 460 X 426
Provide two T25 bars, area= 982 mm 2 . For the steel provided
100A 8 = 100 X 982 = 0. 78
bh 230 X 550
and

0.1 3 < 100A 8 < 4 .0

bh
therefore the steel percentage is within the limits specified by the code.

7.2.2 Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement

Compression steel is required whenever the concrete in compression is unable, by
itself, to develop the necessary moment of resistance. Design charts such as the one
in figure 4.9 may be used to determine the steel areas but the simplified equations
based on the equivalent rectangular stress block are quick to apply.
The maximum moment of resistance that can be developed by the concrete
occurs with the neutral axis at the maximum depth allowed by the code of practice.
This limiting depth is given as
X= ([jb - 0.4) d :1> 0.5d (7.2)
moment at the section after redistribution
wh ere ,...b =
f.l.

moment at the section before redistribution

This reduction is due to the designer redistributing the moments from an elastic
analysis of the structure, as described in sections 3.4 and 4.7.
With x less than d/2 the stress in the compression steel may be considerably less
than the yield, therefore, the design procedure is somewhat different if {jb is less
than 0.9.
It should also be noted that, in order to maintain the limitation on the depth
of neutral axis as specified in equation 7 .2, the areas of reinforcement required
and provided should meet the following requirement
(A~.prov- A~.req);;;. (As.prov- As.req) (7.3)
This is to ensure a gradual tension type failure with yielding of the tension rein-
forcement as explained in chapter 4.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 163

b
., j•?03·i
dI

T ~ A~ «

d --

~ ~

Equivalent
rectangular
Section Strains stress block

Figure 7. 7 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a sagging moment

Moment Redistribution Factor {3b ~ 0.9 and d'/d :I> 0.2

If d'/d is not greater than 0.2, as is usually the case, the proportions of the strain
diagram will ensure that the compression steel will have yielded.
Compression reinforcement is required if
M> 0.156fcubd 2
and the design equations as given in section 4.5 are
(1) Area of compression steel
A'= (M- 0.156fcubd 2 ) (7.4)
s 0.87 [y(d- d')
(2) Area of tension steel

As=0.156fcubd 2 +A~ (7.5)

0.87 [yz
with lever arm z = 0.775d
If d'/d is greater than 0.2 the stress in the compression steel should be determined
as outlined in part (2) of example 7.4.

Moment Redistribution Factor f3b < 0.9

The limiting depth of the neutral axis can be calculated from equation 7.2 and
compression steel is required if

M>0.45fcubS (d-~) (7.6)

164 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

where s =depth of stress block= 0.9x.

The design procedure is
( 1) Calculate K = M/bd 2 feu.
(2) Calculate K' = 0.402 (t3b - 0.4)- 0.18 (t3b - 0.4) 2 .
If K < K', compression steel is not required so proceed as for a singly
reinforced section as in example 7.2.
If K > K ', compression steel is required.
(3) Calculate x = (t3b - 0.4) d.
If d'/x < 0.43, the compression steel has yielded and fsc = 0.87 fy·
If d'/x > 0.43, calculate the steel compressive strain Esc and hence the
stress f sc as in example 7.4.
(4) Calculate the area of compression steel from
A'= (K -K')fcubd 2 (7.7)
s 0.87 fy (d- d')
(5) Calculate the area of tension steel from

A
s
= K'fcubd 2 +A'~
s (7.8)
0.87 fyz 0.87 fy
where z = d - 0.9x/2.
Links should be provided to give lateral restraint to the outer layer of compres-
sion steeL according to the following rules.
(1) The links should pass round the corner bars and each alternate bar.
(2) The link size should be at least one-quarter the size of the largest
compression bar.
(3) The spacing of the links should not be greater than twelve times the
size of the smallest compression bar.
(4) No compression bar should be more than 150 mm from a restrained bar.

Example 7.3 Design of Tension and Compression Reinforcement, t3b > 0. 9

The beam section shown in figure 7.8 has characteristic material strengths of feu =
30 N/mm 2 and fy = 460 N/mm 2 . The ultimate moment is 165 kN m, causing
hogging of the beam.
165 X 106
230 X 3302 X 30
= 0.22 > 0.156
so that compression steel is required, and
d'/d = 50/330 = 0.15 < 0.2
therefore
fsc = 0.87 fy
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 165

D
-r--- As

h = 390
d=330

1
d 1=50
A's

Figure 7.8 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a hogging moment

From equation 7.4

. ' (M- 0.156f.cubd 2 )
CompressiOn steel A = -'--------=--'=----'-
s 0.87 [y(d- d')
= (165 X 106 - 0.156 X 30 X 230 X 3302 )
0.87 X 460 (330- 50)
=427mm2
And from equation 7.5
= 0.156fcubd 2 +A'
tension steel As
0.87 [yz s
= 0.156 X 30 X 230 X 3302 + 427
0.87 X 460 X 0.775 X 330
= 1572 mm2
Provide two T20 bars for A~, area= 628 mm 2 and two T32 bars for As, area=
1610 mm2 , so that for the areas of steel required and provided in equation 7.3
628-427 > 1610- 1572
Also
100A~ = 100 X 628 = 0.70
bh 230 X 390
100As = 100 X 1610 = 1. 79
bh 230 X 390
therefore the bar areas are within the limits specified by the code.
The minimum link size= 20/4 = 5mm, say 8 mm links, and the maximum link
spacing= 12 x 20 = 240 mm, centres. The link size and spacing may be governed
by the shear calculations. Figure 7.8 shows the arrangement of the reinforcement
to resist a hogging moment.
166 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Example 7.4 Design of Tension and Compression Reinforcement, (3b = 0. 7

The beam section shown in figure 7.9 has characteristic material strengths of feu =
30 N/mm 2 and [y = 460 N/mm 2 . The ultimate moment is 370 kN m, causing
hogging of the beam.

d=540

H
0·0035
Saction Strains

Figure 7.9 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a hogging moment

As the moment reduction factor (3b =0. 7, the limiting depth of the neutral
axis is
X= ((3b - 0.4) d
= (0.7- 0.4) 540 = 162 mm
K =Mjbd 2 feu =370 X 106 /(300 X 5402 X 30)
= 0.141
K' = 0.402 ((3b - 0.4)- 0.18 ((3b - 0.4) 2
= 0.104
K > K' therefore compression steel is required
d'jx = 100/162 =0.62 > 0.43
therefore fse < 0.87 [y
(1)
__ 0.0035 (x - d')
Steel compressive strain €sc
X

= 0.0035 (162- 100) =0.00134

162
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 167
(2) From the relevant equation of section 4.1.2
Steel compressive stress
= 200 000 X 0.00134
= 268 N/mm 2
(3)
_ (K - K') feu bd 2
Compression steel A~
- /sc (d- d')

= (0.141 - 0.104) 30 X 300 X 5402

268 (540- 100)
= 823 mm 2
(4)

Tension steel As = K'f,cu bd +A~ _Js_c_

2 '"

0.87 [yz 0.87 /y

=
0.104 X 30 X 300 X 540 2 + 823 X 268
0.87 X 460 (540- 0.9 X 162/2) 0.87 X 460
= 2011 mm 2
Provide two T25 bars for A~, area= 982 mm 2 and two T32 plus one T25 bars for
As, area= 2101 mm 2 , which also meet the requirements of equation 7.3.
These areas lie within the maximum and minimum limits specified by the code.
To restrain the compression steeL at least 8 mm links at 300 mm centres should be
provided.

7.2.3 T-beams
Figure 7.10 shows sections through a T-beam and an L-beam which may form part
of a concrete beam and slab floor. When the beams are resisting sagging moments,
part of the slab acts as a compression flange and the members may be designed as
T-or L-beams. With hogging moments the slab will be in tension and assumed to
be cracked, therefore the beam must then be designed as a rectangular section of
width bw and overall depth h.
When the slab does act as the flange its effective width is defined by empirical
rules which are specified in BS 8110 as follows.
(1) T -section - the lesser of the actual flange width, or the width of the
web plus one-fifth of the distance between zero moments.
(2) L-section - the lesser of the actual flange width or the width of the
web plus one-tenth of the distance between zero moments.
As a simple rule, the distance between the points of zero moment may be taken as
0. 7 times the effective span for a continuous beam.
Since the slab acts as a large compression area, the stress block for the T- or
L-section usually falls within the slab thickness. For this position of the stress
168 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Figure 7.10 T-beam and L·beam

block, the section may be designed as an equivalent rectangular section of breadth bf.
Transverse reinforcement should be placed across the top of the flange to prevent
cracking. The area of this reinforcement should not be less than 0.15 per cent of the
longitudinal cross-section of the flange.

Design Procedure

(1) Calculate M/bfd 2 feu and determine la from the lever-arm curve of
figure 7.5
Lever arm z = lad or from equation 7.1
(2) If d - z < hr/2 the stress block falls within the flange depth, and the
design may proceed as for a rectangular section, breadth bf.
(3) Provide transverse steel in the top of the flange
Area = 0.15 hf x 1000/100 = 1.5 hf mm 2 per metre length of the bean
On the very few occasions that the neutral axis does fall below the flange,
reference should be made to the methods described in section 4.6.2 for a full
analysis.

Example 7.5 Design of Reinforcement for a T·section

The beam section shown in figure 7.11 has characteristic material strengths of
feu = 30 N/mm 2 and fy = 460 N/mm 2 • The design moment at the ultimate limit
state is 190 kN m, causing sagging.
M 190 X 106 = 0 _038
brd 2 feu 600 X 530 X 30
2

From the lever-arm curve, figure 7.5.la = 0.95, therefore

lever arm z =lad= 0.95 x 530 = 503 mm
d- z = 530 -- 503
=27 mm <hr/2
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 169
600

580 530

A 5 2-T25

I• 250 ,. 1

Figure 7.11 T·beam

Thus the stress block lies within the flange

A= M 190 X 106
=------
s 0.87 [yz 0.87 X 460 X 503
= 943 mm 2
Provide two T25 bars, area= 982 mm 2 • For these bars

100A 8 = 100 x 982 = 0 .68 er cent

bwh 250 X 580 p
Thus the steel percentage is greater than the minimum specified by the code.
Transverse steel in the flange = 1.5 he= 1.5 x 150
=225 mm 2 /m
Provide RIO bars at 300 mm centres= 262 mm 2 /m.

7.2.4 Anchorage Bond

From section 5.2 the anchorage bond stress,/bu• for a reinforcing bar is given by
the following equation:

fibu =1£ip
4L
where fs = the direct tensile or compressive stress in the bar
L = the length of embedment beyond the section considered
fP =the bar size.
This stress should not exceed the ultimate anchorage bond stress given by
fbu = f3Vfcu
170 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
where the coefficient ~ is given in table 5 .2.
The required anchorage length should be measured from the point at which the
bar is assumed to be stressed.
The appendix lists the anchorage lengths appropriate to the ultimate stress,
0.87/v, for various grades of concrete and steel. The effective anchorage lengths
for hooks and bends in reinforcing bars are detailed in figure 5 .6.
The anchorage of a bar is more effective in a compression zone of a member
than in a tension zone and this should be considered when detailing the reinforce-
ment. Anchorage requirements are also important when detailing the curtailment
of bars as described in the following section.

7.2.5 Curtailment of Bars

As the magnitude of the bending moment on a beam decreases along its length, so
may the area of bending reinforcement be reduced by curtailing bars as they are
no longer required. Figure 7.12 illustrates the curtailment of bars in the span and
at an internal support of a continuous beam. The bending-moment envelope
diagram is divided into sections as shown, in proportion to the area and effective
depth of each bar.
Each curtailed bar should extend beyond the point at which it is no longer
needed so that it is well anchored into the concrete. The rules for curtailing such
bars, other than at a simple end support, are as follows.
(1) The curtailment anchorage should not be less than twelve times the bar
size or the effective depth of the beam, whichever is the gi"eater.

1 ~full
onchorog2
langth

Curtoilmant
onchoroga ~--...-~"----i

4---.--~~-~

4 5
Baom

1
1----1
Curto11mant
onchoroga

Figure 7.12 Curtailment of reinforcement

 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 171
(2) A bar should not be stopped in a tension zone unless
(i) the shear capacity is twice the actual shear present
(ii) the continuing bars have twice the area required to resist the
moment at that section, or
(iii) the curtailment anchorage is increased to a full anchorage bond
length based on a stress of 0.87 [y.
Thus in figure 7.12, bar 4 is curtailed in a compression zone and the curtailment
anchorage would be the greater of twelve bar diameters or the effective depth.
Bars 1 and 5, though, are curtailed in a tension zone and a full anchorage bond
length would be required, unless the conditions of rules 2(i) or 2(ii) apply, in
which case the curtailment anchorage would be twelve bar diameters or the
effective depth.

."l. .
Curtailmant

2
I
---r---~--------.,....--2

I
2 2

Figure 7.13 Staggering the curtailment of bars

d
2 +12 ~

(1 ) (2)

Figure 7.14 Alternative anchorage length1 at a simple support

172 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

100 .,.

O·OBL 0·08L
L
Simply Support<2d

C-- 0·25 L
C{45~
C=0·15L
I
II 20.,. 6o•t." 100°/o
_,_
lt3o·,. 100°/o 30°/o

A I I I
iA
v 0·1L
~
0·15 L JV
L _j
Cont muous B<2am I
Figure 7.15 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in beams

It is most important that all bars should have at least a full anchorage bond
length beyond the section of maximum moment. This is relevant to bars such as
no. 7 in figure 7.12 and also to bars in a cantilever or at an end support framing
into a column. The anchorage length should be based on the design stress of a bar
as described in sections 5.2 and 7.2.4.
The curtailment of bars should be staggered wherever possible in order to avoid
sudden changes in cross-section with resulting stress concentrations and possible
cracking. This curtailment can often be achieved whilst using bars of equal length,
as illustrated in figure 7.13.
At a simply supported end of a member, the reinforcing bars should extend
over the supports so that the beam is sure to be reinforced in this region of high
shears and bearing stresses. Therefore, each tension bar should be anchored accord-
ing to one of the two rules shown diagrammatically in figure 7.14. No bend or
hook should begin before the centre of the support for rule 1 nor before d/2 from
the face of the support for rule 2.
Where the loads on a beam are substantially uniformly distributed, simplified
rules for curtailment may be used. These rules only apply to continuous beams if
the characteristic imposed load does not exceed the characteristic dead load and
the spans are equal. Figure 7.15 shows the rules in a diagrammatic form.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 173

7.2.6 Span-Effective Depth Ratios

As already described in section 7.1, it is necessary to check the span-effective
depth ratios to ensure that the deflections are not excessive. This is unlikely to be
a problem with beams except perhaps for cantilevers or long span beams. These
requirements are fully described and explained in chapter 6, dealing with
Serviceability.

7.2. 7 Bending-reinforcement Example

The following example describes the calculations for designing the bending rein-
forcement for a simply supported beam. It brings together many of the items from
the previous sections. The shear reinforcement for this beam is designed later in
example 7.7.

Example 7.6 Design of a Beam -Bending Reinforcement

The beam shown in figure 7.16 supports the following uniformly distributed loads
dead loadgk = 40 kN/m, including self-weight
=
imposed load Qk 12 kN/m
The characteristic material strengths are feu = 30 N/mm 2 and fy = 460 N/mm 2 .
Effective depth, d =550 mm and breadth, b =300 mm.

480

4 T25

6·0m.

Figure 7.16 One-span beam-bending reinforcement

(a) Analysis
Ultimate load Wu = (1.4gk + 1.6qk) kN/metre
=(1.4 x 40 + 1.6 x 12) = 75.2 kN/metre
therefore
.
maxunum . moment M = -
d estgn WuLz
- = 75.2 X 6.02 =338 kN m
8 8

(b) Bending Reinforcement

174 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

K = _!!__ = 338 X 106 = 0.124

bd 2 feu 300 X 550 2 X 30
From the lever-arm curve, figure 7.5, 18 = 0.83. Therefore
effective depth z =l 8 d = 0.83 x 550 =456 mm
338 X 10 6
A= M
0.87 [yz
= ------- =1852 mm2
s 0.87 X 460 X 456

Provide four T25 bars, area = 1960 mm 2

(c) Curtailment at Support
A 90° bend with radius 441 beyond the support centre-line will provide an equiva-
lent anchorage, length 1641 which meets the requirements of the code.

(d) Span-Effective Depth Ratio

Mjbd 2 = 338 X 106 /(300 X 5502 ) = 3.72
Basic ratio = 20. From table 6. 7, modification factor = 0.89 by interpolation.
Therefore

maximum span = 20 x 0.89 = 17.8

d

actual span = 6000 = 10.9

d 550

7.3 Design for Shear

The distribution of shear along a beam is given by the shear-force envelope diagram.
If Vis the shear force at a section, then the shear stress vis given by
v = Vjbd
The shear stress must never exceed the lesser of 0.8 .Jfcu or 5 N/mm 2 •
Shear reinforcement will take the form of vertical stirrups or a combination of
stirrups and bent-up bars.

7.3.1 Vertical Stirrups

The usual form of stirrup is a closed linlc This helps to make a rigid cage of the
beam reinforcement and is essential if there is any compression steel present. An
alternative is the open link as shown in figure 7.17; this may have a closing piece if
lateral support is required, and offers advantages for in situ steel fixing.
All of the tension reinforcement must be enclosed by links, and if compression
steel is not present, hanger bars are required to anchor the links in the compression
zone (see figure 7.18). The minimum spacing of links is determined by the require-
ments of placing and compacting the concrete, and should not normally be less
than about 80 mm. Maximum spacing of links longitudinally along the span should
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 175

Figure 7.17 Open and multiple links

not exceed 0. 75 d. At right angles to the span the spacing of the vertical legs should
not exceed d, and all tension bars should be within 150 mm of a vertical leg.
Because of these requirements (or if there are large shears), it may often be con-
venient to provide multiple links as illustrated in figure 7.17.
The choice of steel type is often governed by the fact that mild steel may be
bent to a smaller radius than high-yield steel. This is particularly important in
narrow members to allow correct positioning of tension reinforcement as shown
in figure 7.18.
The advantages of mild steel links are further increased by the need to provide
anchorage for the vertical leg of a stirrup within the compression zone. Although
high-yield reinforcement has better bond characteristics, anchorage lengths are
greater than for mild steel bars of comparable size if the steel is to act at its full
design stress. This factor is of particular importance if 'open' links are to be used.
The size and spacing of the stirrups, according to the equations derived in
section 5 .1.1 should be such that
Asv ~ b(v- Vc)
Sv 0.87 [yv

Hangczr
bar r =3/
~;==::;;;;;::x' or 41/

,
Mild Stczczl H1gh Y1<2ld Stczczl

Figure 7.18 Bending of links

176 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
where Asv =cross-sectional area of the legs of a stirrup
sv = spacing of the stirrups
b = breadth of the beam
v = Vfbd
Vc =the ultimate shear stress from table 5.1
{yv =characteristic strength of the link reinforcement.
Values of Asvfsv for various stirrup sizes and spacings are tabulated in the appendix.
The calculation for Asvfsv is carried out at the critical section, usually distanced
from the face of the support. Since the shear force diminishes along the beam,
similar calculations can be repeated so that a greater spacing or a smaller stirrup
size may be used.
Ifv is less than Vc nominal links must still be provided unless the beam is a very
minor one and v < vc/2. The nominal links should be provided such that
Asv/Sv = 0.4b/0.87 /yv
Even when shear steel is required, there is a section at which the shear resistance
of the concrete plus the nominal stirrups equals the shear force from the envelope
diagram. At this section the stirrups necessary to resist shear can stop and be replaced
by the nominal stirrups. The shear resistance Vn of the concrete plus the nominal
stirrups is given by
Vn = (0.4. + Vc) bd
or

Vn=( ~: 0.87/yv+bvc) d
for the link spacing provided (see equation 5.3). Once this value of Vn has been
calculated it may be marked on the shear-force envelope to show the limits for the
shear reinforcement, as shown in figure 7..19.

Example 7. 7 Design of Shear Reinforcement for a Beam

Shear reinforcement is to be designed for the one-span beam of example 7.6, as
shown in figures 7.16 and 7.19. The characteristic strength of the mild steel links
is fyv = 250 N/mm 2 •

(a) Check maximum shear stress

Total load on span, F = Wu x span = 75.2 x 6.0
= 451 kN
At face of support
shear V5 = F/2 - Wu X support width/2
= 451/2-75.2 X 0.15 = 214 kN
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 177

750mm
r---1
S.R.concr~ 214kN

~·~ I 159kN

214kN S.F. Diagram

5-R10 at 5-R10at
220 R10 I inks at 280 220 300
H

~:::::::::;t::=:=======~ ~ ~

Figure 7.19 Non-continuous beam-shear reinforcement

V. 214 X 103
shear stress, v = - 8 = - - - -
bd 300 X 550
= 1.3 N/mm 2 < 0.8 Yfcu
(b) Shear links
Distanced from face of support
shear vd = Vs- Wud
=214- 75.2 X 0.55 = 173 kN
173 X 103
Shear stress v = = 1.05 N/mm 2
300 X 550

Only two 25 mm bars extend a distance d past the critical section. Therefore
for determining Vc
100A 8 = 100 X 982 = 059
bd 300 X 550
From table, 5.1, Vc = 0.56 N/mm 2
Asv = b (v - Vc) = 300 (1.05 - 0.56) = 0 _68
Sy 0.87 /yv 0.87 X 250
178 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Provide RIO links at 220 mm centres
Asv = 2 X 78.5 = 0. 71
Sy 220

(c) Nominallinks
For mild steel links
Asv = 0.4 b = 0.4 X 300 = O.SS
Sv 0.87 /yv 0.87 X 250
Provide RIO links at 280 mm centres

Asv = 2 X 78.5 = O.S 6

Sv 280

(d) Extent of shear links

Shear resistance of nominal links + concrete is

Vn = (~vsv 0.87/yv + bvc)d

=(0.56 X 0.87 X 250 + 300 X 0.56) 550
=I 59 kN
Shear reinforcement is required over a distance s given by

Vs- Vn 2I4- I59

s= =- ---
Wu 75.2
= 0. 73 metres from the face of the support

Number of RIO links at 220 mm required at each end of the beam is

I + (s/220) = 1 + (730/220) = 5

7. 3. 2 Bent-up Bars
In regions of high shear forces it may be found that the use of links to carry the
full force will cause steel congestion and lead to constructional problems. In these
situations, consideration should be given to 'bending up' main reinforcement which
is no longer required to resist bending forces. At least 50 per cent of the shear
resistance provided by the steel should be in the form of links.
For a 'double system' of bent-up bars at 45° and spaced (d- d') apart, as
described in section 5.1.2, the shear resistance is
V = 2 X 1.23 [yAsb
where Asb is the cross-sectional area of a bent-up bar.
Bent-up bars must be fully anchored past the point at which they are acting as
tension members, as indicated in figure 5.3. To guard against possible crushing of
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 179

Table 7.1 Shear resistance in kN of bent-up bars, 'double system'

Bar size «<>

{y
(N/mm 2 ) 12 16 20 25 32 40

250 35 62 96 151 247 387

460 64 114 177 278 455 713

the concrete it may also be necessary to check the bearing stress inside the bends
of a bar. This stress is given by

Bearing stress= Fbt

r«P
where Fbt is the tensile force in the bar, r is the internal radius of the bend, and «<>
is the bar size. This stress should not exceed

2fcu
I + 2 «1>/ab
where ab is the centre to centre distance between bars perpendicular to the plane
of the bend, but for a bar adjacent to the face of a member
ab = «<> + side cover

Example 7.8 Bearing Stresses inside a Bend

Determine the inside radius required for the 25 mm bent-up bar shown in figure
7.20, so that the ultimate bending stress is not exceeded. The bar has a side cover
of 50 mm. Assume the bar is at the ultimate tensile stress of 0.87 {y and the
characteristic material strengths are {y = 460 N/mm 2 and feu = 30 N/mm 2 .
ab =«<>+cover= 25 +50= 75 mm
therefore
2fcu 2 X 30
= =36 N/mm 2
1 + 2 X 25/75
Fbt = 0.87 X 460 X As = 0.87 X 460 X 491
r «<> r x 25 25 r
7860
r
thus
7860
~36
r
180 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

or
7860
r ;;;. - - =219 mm or 9 <I>
36

25mm bar

Figure 7.20 Radius of bend for a bent-up bar

7.4 Bar Spacing

There are limitations on the minimum and maximum spacing of the reinforcing
bars. In the case of minimum values this is governed by constructional require-
ments to allow for the access of poker vibrators and the flow of concrete to obtain
a well-compacted and dense concrete. The maximum limitations on spacings are
to prevent excessive cracking caused by shrinkage of the concrete and thermal
expansion and contraction of the member. These serviceability requirements are
dealt with in chapter 6.

7.5 Continuous Beams

Beams, slabs and columns of a cast in situ structure all act together to form a
continuous load-bearing structure. The reinforcement in a continuous beam must
be designed and detailed to maintain this continuity by connecting adjacent spans
and tying together the beam and its supporting columns. There must also be trans-
verse reinforcement to unite the slab and the beam.
The bending-moment envelope is generally a series of sagging moments in the
spans and hogging moments at the supports as in figure 7.21, but occasionally the
hogging moments may extend completely over the span. Where the sagging moments
occur the beam and slab act together, and the beam can be designed as aT-section.
At the supports, the beam must be designed as a rectangular section - this is
because the hogging moments cause tension in the slab.
The moment of resistance of the concrete T-beam section is somewhat greater
than that of the rectangular concrete section at the supports. Hence it is often
advantageous to redistribute the support moments as described in chapter 3. By
this means the design support moments can be reduced and the design span
moments possibly increased.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 181

Design of the beam follows the procedures and rules set out in the previous
sections. Other factors which have to be considered in the detailed design are as
follows.
(I) At an exterior column the beam reinforcing bars which resist the design
moments must have an anchorage bond length within the column.
(2) A minimum area of transverse reinforcement must be placed in the top
of the slab, across the effective flange width as described in section 7.2.3.
(3) Reinforcement in the top of the slab must pass over the beam steel and
still have the necessary cover. This must be considered when detailing
the beam reinforcement and when deciding the effective depth of the
beam at the support sections.
(4) The column and beam reinforcement must be carefully detailed so that
the bars can pass through the junctions without interference.

4·5m 6·0m

2 T25 2T25
2 T20 1T20

2 T20 1T20-1T25

A B c

Figure 7.21 Arrangement of bending reinforcement

Figure 7.21 illustrates a typical arrangement of the bending reinforcement for a

two-span continuous beam. The reinforcement has been arranged with reference to
the bending-moment envelope and in accordance with the rules for anchorage and
curtailment described in sections 7.2.4 and 7.2.5. The bending-moment envelope
has been divided into sectors equivalent to the moment of resistance of each rein-
forcing bar. This establishes the cut-off points beyond which the bars must extend
at least a curtailment anchorage length. It should be noted that at the external
columns the reinforcement has been bent down to give a full anchorage bond
length.
182 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Figure 7.22 Arrangement of shear reinforcement

The shear-force envelope and the arrangement of the shear reinforcement for
the same continuous beam is shown in figure 7 .22. On the shear-force envelope
the resistance of the concrete plus the nominal stirrups has been marked and this
shows the lengths of the beam which need shear reinforcement. When designing
the shear reinforcement, reference should be made to the arrangement of bending
reinforcement to ensure that the longitudinal tension bars used to establish vc
extend at least an effective depth beyond the section being considered.

Example 7. 9 Design of a Continuous Beam

The beam is 300 mm wide by 660 mm deep with three equal5.0 m spans. In the
transverse direction, the beams are at 4.0 m centres with a 180 mm thick slab, as
shown in figure 7.24.
The live load qk on the beam is 50 kN/m and the dead loadgk, including self-
weight, is 85 kN/m.
Characteristic material strengths are feu = 30 N/mm 2 , fy = 460 N/mm 2 for the
longitudinal steel and fyv = 250 N/mm 2 for the links. For a mild exposure the
minimum concrete cover is to be 25 mm.

For each span

ultimate load Wu = (1.4gk + 1.6qk) kN/metre
(1.4 x 85 + 1.6 x 50)= 199 kN/metre
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 183

0 -0·11FL -0·11FL 0
Moment fv1
0·09FL 0·07FL 0·09FL

Shear v 0-45F 0·6F 0·55F 0·55F 0·6F 0·45F

f f f
1.. L = 5·0m + L= 5·0m .j.

Figure 7.23 Continuous beam with ultimate bending moment and shear-force coefficients

Total ultimate load on a span is

F= 199 X 5.0 = 995 kN
As the loading is uniformly distributed, qk ::l> gk, and the spans are equal, the co-
efficients shown in figure 7.23 have been used to calculate the design moment
and shears.

Bending
(a) Mid-span of 1st and 3rd Spans- Design as aT-section
Moment M = 0.09 FL = 0.09 x 995 x 5 =448 kN m
Effective width of flange= bw + 0.7 L/5

= 300 + 0.7 x 5000 = 1000 mm

5
therefore
M 448 X 106
- - - ---......,...--- = 0.041
bd 2 feu 1000 X 600 2 X 30
From the lever-arm curve, /3 = 0.95, therefore
z = 0.95 x 600 = 570 mm
and
d- z = 600 - 570 = 30 < hr/2
so that the stress block must lie within the 180 mm thick flange. Therefore

A = M = 448 X 106 = 1964 mm2

s 0.87 [yz 0.87 X 460 X 570
Provide two T32 plus one T25 bar, area= 2101 mm2 (bottom steel).
184 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
(b) Interior Supports- Design as a Rectangular Section
M = 0.11 FL = 0.11 x 995 x 5 =54 7 kN m hogging

_M_ - 547 X 106 = 0.18 > 0.156

bd 2 fcu 300 X 5802 X 30

Thus. compression steel is required.

A'= M- 0.156fcubd 2
s 0.87 [y (d- d')
547 X 106 -0.156 X 30 X 300 X 5802 = 352 mm2
0.87 X 460 (580- 50)

This area of steel will be provided by extending the span reinforcement beyond the
supports.

As = _0.156fcubd 2
_____,-"'!_____ + A's
0.87 [yz
0.156 X 30 X 300 X 580 2 + 352 = 2977 mm 2
0.87 X 460 X 0.775 X 580

Provide two T32 plus three T25 bars, area= 3080 mm 2 (top steel).

(c) Mid-span of 2nd Span- Design as aT-section

M = 0.07 FL = 0.07 x 995 X 5 = 348 kN m

Using the lever-arm curve, it is found that la = 0.95

A = M 348 X 106 = 1525 mm2

s 0.87 [yz 0.87 X 460 (0.95 X 600)

Provide one T32 plus two T25 bars, area= 1786 mm 2 (bottom steel).

Shear
(a) Check maximum shear stress
Maximum shear at face of support is
V8 = 0.6F- Wu X support width/2
= 0.6 X 995- 199 X 0.15 = 567 kN

v = V8 = 567 X 103
bd 300 X 580

= 3.26 N/mm 2 < 0.8 Vfcu

 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 185

(0 1r
at 110
R10 at 280

2 -T25 2-T32 2-T25

1 -T25

2-T32
1-T25

j. L = 5·0m .,

}so

32 25 32 32 2532
1--------1
bw = 300
Sections midspan near the interior support

Figure 7.24 End-span reinforcement details

(b) Nominallinks
Asv = 0.4b = 0.4 X 300 =0 _55
Sv 0.87/yv 0.87 X 250
Provide RIO links at 280 mm centres, Asvfsv = 0.56

(c) End supports

Shear distance, d from support face is
Vd = 0.45F- Wu (d +support width/2)
= 0.45 X 995- 199 (0.6 + 0.15)
= 299kN
186 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

v = Vd = 299 X 103 = 1.66 N/mm2

bd 300 X 600
100A 8 = 100 X 2101 = 1.1 7
bd 300 x600
Therefore from table 5.1
Vc = 0.70 N/mm 2

Asv = b(v- Vc) = 300(1.66- 0.7) = 1. 32

Sv 0.87 [yv 0.87 X 250
Provide R10 links at 110 mm centres, Asv/sv = 1.41.
Shear resistance of nominal links + concrete is

Vn = ( ~~ 0.87 [yv + bvc) d

=(0.56 X 0.87 X 250 + 300 X 0.7) 600 = 199 kN

Shear reinforcement other than the nominal is required over a distance

s = Vd- Vn +d
Wu

= 299 - 199 + 0. 6 = 1.1 m

199
from the face of the support.

(d) First and third spans interior supports

Distance d from support face
vd =o.6 x 995- 199(0.58 + 0.15)
= 452 kN

v = 452 x 103 = 2.60 N/mm2

300 X 580

100A 8 = 100 X 3080 = 1.n

bd 300 X 580
therefore from table 5.1
Vc =0.81
Asv = 300(2.6- 0.81) = 2.4 7
Sv 0.87 X 250
Provide Rl2links in pairs at 180 mm centres,Asv/sv = 2.51. Using Vn from
part (c) as a conservative value, shear links are required over a distance
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 187

s= Vd- Vn +d= 452-199 +0.58 = 1.85 m

Wu 199
A similar calculation would show that single Rl2 links at 120 mm centres
would be adequate 1.0 m from the support face.

(e) Second span

Distance d from support face
vd = o.55 x 995- 199 (0.58 + 0.15) = 402 kN
Calculations would show that RIO links in pairs at 150 mm centres would be
adequate.

7.6 Cantnever Beams

The moments, shears and deflections for a cantilever beam are substantially greater
than those for an equivalently loaded span that is supported at both its ends. Also
the moments in a cantilever can never be redistributed to other parts of the struc-
ture - the beam must always be capable of resisting the full static moment.
Because of these factors and the problems that often occur with increased deflec-
tions due to creep, the design and detailing of a cantilever beam should be done
with care.
When the loads are uniformly distributed the reinforcement may be arranged as
shown in figure 7.25. The provision of additional steel in the compressive zone of
the beam can help to restrain the increased deflections caused by creep. Horizon-

Main
Effactiva span, L rain forcamant
L/2
or 45 f "I
c

Bars in comprassion
zona rasist craap

Horizontal tias
(a) curtail mant of Bars (b) Short Cantilavar
Baam

Figure 7.25 Cantilever reinforcement details

188 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
tal links should be provided as in figure 7.25b when the cantilever has a short span
or when there is a concentrated load near to the support. These horizontal links
should have a full anchorage length within the support.

7.7 Design for Torsion

The method for designing a beam to resist torsion is described in the Code of
Practice. It consists of calculations to determine an additional area of longitudinal
and link reinforcement required to resist the torsional shear forces. The require-
ments for torsion have also been described in section 5.4. The procedure for a
rectangular section is as follows.
(I) Determine As and Asv to resist the bending moments and shear forces
by the usual procedures.
(2) Calculate the torsional shear stress
2T
Vt = --::2--------
hmin (hmax - hmin/3)
where T = torsional moment due to the ultimate loads
hmin = the smaller dimension of the beam section
hmax = the larger dimension of the beam section
(3) Ifvt > Vtmin in table 7.2, then torsional reinforcement is required.
Refer to table 7.3 for the reinforcement requirements with a combina-
tion of torsion and shear stress v.
(4) v + Vt must not be greater than Vtu in table 7.2 where vis the shear
stress due to the shear force. Also for sections withy 1 < 550 mm

V ::1> VtuYl
t 550
where y 1 is the larger centre-to-centre dimension of a link.
(5) Calculate the additional shear reinforcement required from
Asv = T
Sv 0.8X1Y1 (0.87 [yv)
where x 1 is the smaller centre-to-centre dimension of the link. This
value of Asv/sv is added to the value from step 1, and a suitable link
size and spacing is chosen, but
Sv < 200 mm or x 1
The links should be of the closed type shown in figure 7.26.
( 6) Calculate the additional area oflongitudinal steel

As= Asv
Sv
(&)[y
(x1 +Yd
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 189
where Asv/sv is the value from step 5 and [y is the characteristic strength
of the longitudinal steel. As should be distributed evenly around the
inside perimeter of the links. At least four corner bars should be used
and the clear distance between bars should not exceed 300 mm.

R10 at 125

0
0
T12
0
tO
T25

300
..I

Figure 7.26 Torsion example

Table 7.2 Ultimate torsion shear stresses (N/mm 2 )

Concrete grade

25 30 40
or more

Vt min 0.33 0.37 0.40

Vtu 4.00 4.38 5.00

Table 7.3 Reinforcement for shear and torsion

Vt > Vt. min

V~Vc +0.4 Nominal shear reinforcement, Designed torsion reinforcement
no torsion reinforcement only, but not less than nominal
shear reinforcement
v>vc +0.4 Designed shear reinforcement, Designed shear and torsion
no torsion reinforcement reinforcement
190 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Example 7.10 Design of Torsional Reinforcement
The rectangular section of figure 7.26 resists a bending moment of 170 kN m, a
shear of 160 kN and a torsional moment of 10 kN m. The characteristic material
strengths are feu = 30 N/mm 2, fy = 460 N/mm 2 and /yv = 250 N/mm2 .
(1) Calculations for bending and shear would give
A 8 =1100 mm 2
and

Asv=0.79
Sy

(2) Torsional shear stress

2T
Vt = -2.,..----------
hmin (hmax - hmin/3)
= 2 X 10 X 106 = 0. 56 N/mm 2
3002 (500- 300/3)
(3) 0.56 > 0.37 from table 7.2. Therefore torsional reinforcement is
required.

(4)

v = .!_ = 160 x 103 = 1.19 N/mm2

bd 300 X 450
therefore
= 1.19 + 0.56 = 1.75 N/mm2
v + Vt
Vtu from table 7.2 =4.38 N/mm2 , therefore

VtuYt = 4.38 X 440 = 3 .5

550 550
so that Vt < VtuY 1 /550 as required.
(5)

Additional Asv = T
Sv 0.8X1Y1 (0.87 fyv)
10.0 X 106
= --------------------
0.8 X 240 X 440 X 0.87 X 250
= 0.55
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 191

therefore
A
Total~ = 0. 79 + 0.55 = 1.34
Sv
Provide RIO links at 100 mm centres

Asv =1.57
Sv
The links are of the closed type with their ends fully anchored.
(6) Additional longitudinal steel

As=(~~) (-f) (x1 + y!)

= 0.55 x 250 (240 + 440) = 203 mm 2

460
therefore
total steel area= 1100 + 203 = 1303 mm 2
Provide the longitudinal steel shown in figure 7.26.
(7) The torsional reinforcement should extend at least hmax beyond where
it is required to resist the torsion.
8
Design of Reinforced Concrete
Slabs
Reinforced concrete slabs are used in floors, roofs and walls of buildings and as the
decks of bridges. The flo 'r system of a structure can take many forms such as
in situ solid slabs, ribbed slabs or precast units. Slabs may span in one direction or
in two directions and they may be supported on monolithic concrete beams, steel
beams, walls or directly by the structure's columns.
Continuous slabs should in principle be designed to withstand the most un-
favourable arrangements of loads, in the same manner as beams. Because there are
greater opportunities for redistribution of loads in slabs, analysis may however
often be simplified by the use of a single load case, provided that certain con-
ditions are met as described in section 8.1. Bending moment coefficients based on
this simplified method are provided for slabs which span in one direction with
approximately equal spans, and also for flat slabs.
The moments in slabs spanning in two directions can also be determined using
coefficients tabulated in the code of practice. Slabs which are not rectangular in
plan or which support an irregular loading arrangement may be analysed by
techniques such as the yield line method or the Hille borg strip method, as
described in section 8.10.
Concrete slabs behave primarily as flexural members and the design is similar to
that for beams, although in general it is somewhat simpler because
(1) the breadth of the slab is already fixed and a unit breadth of 1 m is used
in the calculations
(2) the shear stresses are usually low in a slab except when there are heavy
concentrated loads, and
(3) compression reinforcement is seldom required.

8 .1 Simplified Analysis

BS 8110 permits the use of a simplified load arrangement for all slabs of maxi-
mum ultimate design load throughout all spans or panels provided that the
following conditions are met:
192
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 193

• • •I ;I
I~
.-·-·-·/1
! r(Ly· I T ~I +
~·--·-·--
•
•y I
I
I ~
I
•
Figure 8.1 Slab definitions '
(a) In a one-way slab, the area of each bay<( 30m2 (see figure 8.1).
(b) Live load qk :l> 1.25 Dead load Kk
(c) Live load qk :l> 5 kN/m 2 excluding partitions.
If analysis is based on this single load case, all support moments (except at a canti-
lever) should be reduced by 20 per cent and span moments increased accordingly.
No further redistribution is then permitted, but special attention must be given to
cases where a cantilever is adjacent to a span which is less than three times that of
the cantilever. In this situation the condition where the cantilever is fully loaded
and the span unloaded must be examined to determine possible hogging moments
in the span.
Tabulated bending moment and shear force coefficients for use with approxi-
mately equal spans and when these conditions are satisfied are given in section
8.5.2 for one-way spanning slabs and in section 8.7 for flat slabs.

8.2 Shear in Slabs

The shear resistance of a solid slab may be calculated by the procedures given in
chapter 5. Experimental work has indicated that, compared with beams, shallow
slabs fail at slightly higher shear stresses and this is incorporated into the values of
design ultimate shear stress Vc given in table 5.1.
The shear stress at a section in a solid slab is given by

v=-
v
bd
where Vis the shear force due to the ultimate load, dis the effective depth of the
slab and b is the width of section considered. Calculations are usually based on a
strip of slab 1 m wide.
194 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The code requires that for a solid slab
(1) v :I> the lesser of 0.8 ..Jfcu or 5 N/mm2 •
(2) v :I> Vc for a slab thickness less than 200 mm.
(3) Ifv > Vc, shear reinforcement must be provided in slabs more than
200 mm thick.
If shear reinforcement is required, then nominal steel, as for beams, should be
provided when v < (vc + 0.4) and 'designed' reinforcement provided for higher
values of v. Since shear stresses in slabs due to distributed loads are generally small,
shear reinforcement will seldom be required for such loads. Localised 'punching'
actions due to heavy concentrated loads may, however, cause more critical con-
ditions as shown in the following sections. Practical difficulties concerned with
bending and fixing of shear reinforcement lead to the recommendation that it
should not be used in slabs which are less than 200 mm deep.

8.2.1 Punching Shear- Analysis

A concentrated load (N) on a slab causes shearing stresses on a section around the
load; this effect is referred to as punching shear. The initial critical section for
shear is shown in figure 8.2 and the shearing stress is given by
N N
v= =
Perimeter of the section x d (2a + 2b + 12d) d
where a and b are the plan dimensions of the concentrated load. No shear rein-
forcement is required if the punching shear stress, v < Vc. The value of Vc in
table 5.1 depends on the percentage of reinforcement 1OOA 8 /bd which should be
calculated as an average of the area of tensile reinforcement in the two directions

15d

CcltiOoi__J--~
SQction !I~ ~
I I
I I
L ________ _j
Plan

Load N

! ~ +l ~
EIQVation

Figure 8.2 Punching shear

 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 195

and should include all the reinforcement crossing the critical section and extend-
ing a further distance equal to at least d or 12 bar diameters on either side.
Checks must also be undertaken to ensure that the stress v calculated for the
perimeter at the face of the loaded area is less than the smaller of 0.8 v'fcu or
5 N/mm 2 •

Example 8.1 Punching Shear

A slab 17S mm thick, d = 14S mm, is constructed with grade 30 concrete and is
reinforced with 12 mm bars at ISO mm centres one way and 10 mm bars at
200 mm centres in the other direction. Determine the maximum load that can be
carried on an area, 300 x 400 mm, without exceeding the ultimate shear stress.
For 12 mm bars at ISO mm centres

IOOA 8 = 100 x 7S4 = O.S 2

bd 1000 X 145
and for 10 mm bars at 200 mm centres
IOOA 8 = 100x393 =0. 27
bd 1000 X 14S

Average IOOAs = 0395

bd
From table S.l, Vc = 0.62 N/mm 2 for grade 30 concrete
Punching shear perimeter = (2a + 2b + 12d)
= 600 + 800 + 12 x 14S = 3140 mm
Maximum load = vc x perimeter x d
= 0.62 X 3140 X 145
=282x10 3 N
At the face of the loaded area, the shear stress
N
v= - - - -
(2a+2b)d
282 X 103
=------
(600 + 800) 14S
= 1.39 N/mm 2
which is less than 0.8 v'fcu and S N/mm2 •

8.2.2 Punching Shear- Reinforcement Design

If reinforcement is required for the initial critical section shown in figure 8.2, this
steel should be located within the failure zone lying between the face of the loaded
area and the perimeter checked. The amount of reinforcement required is given by
196 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

"'A
4< ,.... (v
. Ct ::;;.
sv Sill _,___- vc) ud
__.::_:__
0.87 /yv
where et = angle between shear reinforcement and the plane of the slab
u =length of the outer perimeter of the zone
and (v- vc) should not be taken as less than 0.4 N/mm 2 .
The reinforcement should be distributed evenly around the zone on at least two
perimeters not greater than 1.5 d apart as illustrated in example 8.2. It will
then be necessary to check a second perimeter taken a distance 0.75d further
away from the face of the load than the initial critical section, as shown in figure
8.3. The failure zone associated with this perimeter is 1.5 d wide and shear rein-
forcement within the zone which has been provided to reinforce previous zones
may be included when designing reinforcement for the zone. This design pro-
cedure continues by checking successive zones until a perimeter is obtained which
does not require reinforcing.

Figure 8.3 Punching shear reinforcement zones

Similar procedures must be applied to the regions of flat slabs which are close
to supporting columns, but allowances must be made for the effects of moment
transfer from the columns as described in section 8. 7.

Example 8.2 Design of Punching Shear Reinforcement

A 260 mm thick slab of grade 30 concrete is reinforced by 12 mm High yield bars
at 200 mm centres in each direction. The slab is subject to a mild environment
and must be able to support a localised concentrated load of 650 kN over a square
area of 300 mm side. Determine the shear reinforcement required for
/yv = 250 N/mm 2 .
For mild exposure, nominal cover required by grade 30 concrete is 25 mm,
thus average effective depth allowing for 8 mm links is equal to
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 197

260- (25 + 8 + 12) = 215 mm

(a) Check shear stress at face of loaded area

Perimeter u = 4 x 300 = 1200 mm

thus v = ~ = 650 x 103 = 2.52 N/mm 2

ud 1200 x 215
which is less than 0.8 vfcu and 5 N/mm 2 .

(b) Check first critical perimeter at 1.5 d from load face

Perimeter side =300 + 2 x 1.5 x 215 =945 mm
and perimeter u = 4 x 945 = 3780 mm.
V 650x103
Shear stress v = - = = 0.80 N/mm 2
ud 3780 x 215
100As = 100 X 566 = 0. 26
bd 1000 X 215
From table 5.1, Vc = 0.50 for grade 30 concrete, and thus v > Vc and shear rein-
forcement is required.
For vertical links
A = (v- vc) ud
sv 0.87 fyv
(v - Vc) = 0.3 N/mm 2 is less than the minimum 0.4 N/mm 2 required, thus take
(v- Vc) = 0.4 and
A = 0.4x3780x215
sv 0.87 X 250
= 1495 mm 2
1495
Total number of 8 mm links required = Asv
27T<I> 2 /4 2 X 50.3
= 15
The links must be distributed evenly between two perimeters within the failure
zone. The spacing between the legs of the links must not be greater than
l.5d = 1.5 x 215 ~ 320 mm.
Position the links on two perimeters 150 mm and 300 mm from the face of
the load. The lengths of these perimeters are
u 1 = 4 x 600 = 2400 mm
and u2 =4 x 900 =3600 mm
198 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Number of links on perimeter, u 1 = 15 x 2400 = 6

(2400 + 3600)
Number of links on perimeter, u 2 = 15 - 6 = 9
Spacing of legs of the links = (2400 + 3600)/(2 x 15)
= 200 rum< 320 rum

(c) Check second perimeter at (1.5 + 0.75)d from load face

Perimeter side= 300 + 2 x 2.25 x 215 = 1268 rum
and perimeter u = 4 x 1268 = 5072 rum.

Thus v = ~ = 650 x 103 = 0.60 N/mm 2

ud 5072 x 215
As v > Vc, nominal reinforcement is still required within the failure zone associated
with the second perimeter.
A = 0.4 X 5072 X 215 = 2006 mm 2
sv 0.87 X 250
2006 .
for 8 rum links = 20 are requtred
2 X 50.3

In part (b), on the perimeter at 300 rum from the load face 91inks are already
provided, thus at least 11 further links are required. These could be provided at
450 rum from the load face by similar links at approximately 400 rum centres.

(d) Check third perimeter at (1.5 + 1.5)d from the load face
Perimeter side= 300 + 2 x 3 x 215 = 1590 rum
and perimeter u = 4 x 1590 = 6360 rum.
V 650 X 103
Thus v = - = = 0.48 N/mm 2
ud 6360 x 215
As this is less than Vc no further reinforcement is required. It should be noted,
however, that wherever links are required, top steel must also be provided in the
slab at 200 rum centres to ensure proper fixing and anchorage of the shear links.

8.3 Span-Effective Depth Ratios

Excessive deflections of slabs will cause damage to the ceiling, floor finishes and
other architectural details. To avoid this, limits are set on the span-depth ratios.
These limits are exactly the same as those for beams as described in section 6.2.
As a slab is usually a slender member the restrictions on the span-depth ratio
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 199
become more important and this can often control the depth of slab required. In
terms of the span-effective depth ratio the depth of the slab is given by

minimum effective depth= _ _ _ _s=-pan_ _ _ _ _ _ __

basic ratio x modification factors
The modification factor is based on the area of tension steel in the shorter span
when a slab is singly reinforced at mid-span but if a slab has both top and bottom
steel at mid-span the modification factors for the areas of tension and compression
steel, as given in tables 6.7 and 6.8 are used. For convenience, the factors for
tension steel have been plotted in the form of a graph in figure 8.4.
It can be seen from the figure that a lower service stress gives a higher modifica-
tion factor and hence a smaller depth of slab would be required. The service stress
may be reduced by providing an area of tension reinforcement greater than that
required to resist the design moment, or alternatively mild steel reinforcement
with its lower service stress may be used.
The span-depth ratios may be checked using the service stress appropriate to
the characteristic stress of the reinforcement, as given in table 6. 7. Thus a service
stress of 288 N/mm 2 would be used when /y is 460 N/mm 2 • However, if a more
accurate assessment of the limiting span-depth ratio is required the service stress
fs can be calculated from

c
0
+'
8 1· 2 t----+------'~--t--~

u
~ 1·0~----+-----+-~~~-----P~~~~~~

0·6~--~--~--~---L---~--~
0·0 1-0 2·0 4·0 5·0 6·0

Figure 8.4 Modification factors for lipan-effective depth ratio

200 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

fs = ~ [y Asreq X _1_
8 Asprov f3b
where Asreq = the area of reinforcement required at mid-span
Asprov =the area of reinforcement provided at mid-span
(3b = the ratio of the mid-span moments after and before any
redistribution
The second part of example 8.3 illustrates the calculations to determine the service
stress, and how the provision of extra reinforcement reduces the depth of slab
required.

8.4 Reinforcement Details

To resist cracking of the concrete, codes of practice specify details such as the
minimum area of reinforcement required in a section and limits to the maximum
and minimum spacing of bars. Some of these rules are as follows:

(a) Minimum Areas of Reinforcement

. .
mm1mum area = - - - f or hgh
0.13bh . ld stee1
i -y1e
100
0.24 bh
or - - - for mild steel
100
in both directions.

(b) Maximum Spacing of the Bars

These requirements are described in detail in section 6.1.3 and are similar to beams
except that for thin slabs, or if the tensile steel percentage is small, spacings may
be increased from those given in table 6.4 to a maximum of 3d.

(c) Reinforcement in the Flange of aT- or L-beam

When the slab forms the flange of aT- or L-beam the area of reinforcement in the
flange and at right angles to the beam should not be less than 0.15 per cent of the
longitudinal cross-section of the flange.

(d) Curtailment and Anchorage of Reinforcement

The general rules for curtailment of bars in a flexural member were discussed in
section 7 .2.5. Simplified rules for curtailment in different types of slabs are
illustrated in the subsequent sections of this chapter. At a simply supported end
the bars should be anchored as specified in figure 7.14 or figure 8.5.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 201

bs
Grczatczr of 3
or 30mm

if v < .!. Vc
2

Figure 8.5 Anchorage at simple support for a slab

8 .5 Solid Slabs Spanning in One Direction

The slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of I m breadth. The
main steel is in the direction of the span and secondary or distribution steel is
required in the transverse direction. The main steel should form the outer layer
of reinforcement to give it the maximum lever arm.
The calculations for bending reinforcement follow a similar procedure to that
used in beam design. The lever-arm curve of figure 7.5 is used to determine the
lever arm (z) and the area of tension reinforcement is then given by

A= Mu
s 0.87 [yz
For solid slabs spanning one way the simplified rules for curtailing bars as shown in
figure 8.6 may be used provided the loads are substantially uniformly distributed.
With a continuous slab it is also necessary that the spans are approximately equal
and· the simplified single load case analysis has been used.

8.5.1 Single-span Solid Slab

The effective span of the slab is taken as the lesser of: (a) the centre-to-centre
distance of the bearings, or (b) the clear distance between supports plus the effec-
tive depth of the slab. The basic span-effective depth ratio for this type of slab
is 20:1.
202 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

0·1L 0·1L
L

Simp I y Supportad

50°/o of midspan
staal
C = 0·3L
C{45 ~
C=0·15L

50%

Continuous Slab

Figure 8.6 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in slab spanning in one direction

T10- 300

i ,. .
s;
-:f: . . iT10 - 150
d

12301
4·5m

Figure 8.7
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 203
Example 8.3 Design of a Simply Supported Slab
The slab shown in figure 8. 7 is to be designed to carry a live load of 3.0 kN/m 2 ,
plus floor finishes and ceiling loads of 1.0 kN/m 2 . The characteristic material
strengths are feu = 30 N/mm 2 and fy = 460 N/mm 2 . Basic span-effective depth
ratio= 20

therefore minimum effective depth d = _ _ _ _s~p_an_ _ _ __

20 x modification factor m.f.
4500 225
=-----
20 x m.f. m.f.
(I) Estimating the modification factor to be of the order of 1.3 for a
lightly reinforced slab. Try effective depth d = 170 mm. For a mild
exposure the cover= 25 mm. Allowing, say, 5 mm as half the diameter
of the reinforcing bar
overall depth of slab h = 170 + 25 + 5 = 200 mm
self-weight of slab= 200 x 24 x 10-3 = 4.8 kN/m 2
total dead load= 1.0 + 4.8 = 5.8 kN/m 2
For a 1 m width of slab
ultimate load= (1.4gk + 1.6qk) 4.5
= (1.4 X 5.8 + 1.6 X 3.0) 4.5 = 58.1 kN
M= 58.1 x 4.5/8 = 32.7 kN m
Span-Effective Depth Ratio
M 32.7 X 106
-- =1.13
bd2 1000 X 1702
From table 6. 7, for fs = 288 N/mm 2 the span-effective depth modification
factor= 1.34. Therefore

limiting -~sp,_a_n_ _ = 20 x 1.34 = 26.8

effective depth
_ ____,sp,__a_n_ _ = 4500 = 26 _5
actual
effective depth 170
Thus d = 170 mm is adequate.

Bending Reinforcement
M 32.7 x 106 = 0 _038
bd 2 fcu - 1000 X 170 2 X 30
From the lever arm curve of figure 7.5, / 8 = 0.95. Therefore
lever arm z = l8 d = 0.95 x 170 = 161 mm
204 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

M 32.7 X 10 6
As= - - - = - - - - - -
0.87/yz 0.87 X 460 X 161
=508 mm 2 /m
Provide TlO bars at 150 mm centres, As= 523 mm 2 /m.

Shear
At the face of the support

Shear V= 58.1 ( 2.25-0.5 x 0.23) =27 _6 kN

2 2.25
V 27.6 X 103
Shear stress, v = - = = 0.16 N/mm 2 < 0.8 Vfcu
bd lOOOx 170

lOOAs = 100 X 5~ = 0.3l

bd 1000 X 170
from table 5.1, Vc =0.55 N/mm 2 and since v < Vc no further shear checks or
reinforcement are required

End Anchorage (figure 8.5)

V =0.16 < Vc/2
therefore
end bearing
anchorage length ;;;;. 30 mm or-----=-
3
end bearing = 230 mm
therefore

anchorage length = -230

3
= 77mm
beyond the centre line of the support.

Distribution Steel

A rea oft ransverse h1"gh -y1e

. ld rem
. f orcement 0.13bh
=- --
100
0.13 X 1000 X 200
=-------
100
= 260 mm 2 /m

Provide TlO at 300 mm centres.

 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 205
(2) The second part of this example illustrates how a smaller depth of slab is
adequate provided it is reinforced so that there is a low service stress in the steel
and therefore a high modification factor for the span-effective depth ratio. Try
a thickness of slab, h = 170 mm and d = 140 mm.
Self.weight of slab = 0.17 x 24 = 4.08 kN/m 2
total dead load = 5.08 kN/m 2
ultimate load = (1.4gk + 1.6qk) 4.5
= (1.4 X 5.08 + 1.6 X 3.0) 4.5 = 53.6 kN
Bending

M= 53.6 x 4 ·5 = 30.2 kN m
8
30.2 X 106
= 0.051
1000 X 140 2 X 30
From the lever-arm curve, figure 7.5, la = 0.94
Therefore using mild steel bars

30.2 X 10 6
A= M = ----------------
s 0.87 fyz 0.87 X 250 X 0.94 X 140
= 1055 mm2 /m
Provide R12 at 100 mm centres, As= 1130 mm 2 /m.

Span-Effective Depth Ratio

M 30.2 X 106:
1000 X 1402
= 1.54
Service stress fs is given by the equation of section 8.3 as

I"
Js
=~ fy X
Asreq
X--
1
8 Asprov (3b

= ~ X 250 X 1055 X 1 = 146 N/mm 2

8 1130
From figure 8.4, for M/bd 2 = 1.54, span-effective depth modification factor= 1.7.
Therefore

. .t.mg
1Imi span
= 20 X 1. 7 = 34.0
effective depth
206 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

span = 4500 =32.1

actual
effective depth 140
Therefore d = 140 mm is adequate.

8.5.2 Continuous Solid Slab Spanning in One Direction

For a continuous slab, bottom reinforcement is required within the span and top
reinforcement over the supports. The effective span is the distance between the
centre lines of supports and the basic span-effective depth ratio is 26: 1.
If the conditions of section 8.1 are met for the single load case analysis, bend-
ing moment and shear force coefficients as shown in table 8.1 may be used.

Table 8.1 Ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients

in one-way spanning slabs

Outer Middle of First interior Middle of Interior

support end span support interior span supports

Moment 0 0.086FL -0.086FL 0.063FL -0.063FL

Shear 0.4F 0.6F 0.5F

Note: F is the total design ultimate load on the span, and L is the effective span.

Example 8.4 Design of a Continuous Solid Slab

The four-span slab shown in figure 8.8 supports a live load of 3.0 kN/m 2 , plus
floor fmishes and a ceiling load of 1.0 kN/m 2 . The characteristic material strengths
are feu =30 N/mm2 and fy =460 N/mm 2 .
Basic span-effective depth ratio = 26
span = 4500 = 173 mm
26 26
Try effective depth d = 140 mm, and with a mild exposure overall depth,
h = 170 mm.
self-weight of slab = 170 x 24 x 10-3 = 4.08 kN/m 2
total dead weight = 1.0 + 4.08 = 5.08 kN/m 2
ultimate load F per span= (1.4gk + 1.6qk) 4.5
= (1.4 X 5.08 + 1.6 X 3.0) 4.5
= 53.6 kN per metre width
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 207

1I ~1 ~, L-j 1-
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I

- -
I : I I El I
IE 1 IE
E1
7m ~I
d) I
Span 1E1
1~1
ldll
...._.
Span 10 1
I ())I
Span
1ol
1~1
.......
Span lo
l(ll
ldl
ldll
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
-~I
J
H H H ~
Plan

~ LtJ Lf LtJ ~
'· 4·5m

El<2vation
.. j. 4·5m
·I· 4·5m
+ 4·5m
·I

Figure 8.8 Continuous slab

Bending
Since the bay size > 30 m 2 , the spans are equal and Qk l> 1.25 Kk the moment co-
efficients shown in table 8.1 may be used. Thus for the first span
M= 0.086FL = 0.086 x 53.6 x 4.5 = 20.8 kN m
Span-Effective Depth Ratio
M 20.8 X 10 6
- - -----,- = 1.06
bd
2 10002 X 140
From table 6. 7, span-depth modification factor= 1.36. Therefore

limiting span_ _ _ = 26 x 1.36 = 35.3

effective depth

actual __s.=...p_an_ _ = 4500 = 32 .1

effective depth 140
208 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Thus d = 140 mm is adequate.

Bending Reinforcement
M 20.8 X 10 6
------::--- =0.035
bd 2 feu - 1000 X 1402 X 30
From the lever-arm curve, figure 7.5, /8 = 0.95. Therefore
lever arm z =1 d =0.95 x 140 = 133 mm
8

M 20.8 X 106
As = =
0.87 fyz 0.87 X 460 X 133
=391 mm2 per metre
Provide T1 0 at 200 mm centres, As = 393 mm 2 /m.
Similar calculations for the supports and the interior span give the steel areas
shown in figure 8.9. ·
Over the interior support beams 100As/bhr > 0.15 for the reinforcement
provided and therefore extra steel is not required for the flange of the T -beam.
At the end supports there is a monolithic connection between the slab and the
beam, therefore top steel should be provided to resist any negative moment. The
area of this steel should not be less than half the area of steel at mid-span. In fact
to provide the 0.15 per cent of steel for the flange of the L-beam, T1 0 bars at
300 mm centres have been specified.
The layout of the reinforcement in figure 8.9 is according to the simplified
rules for the curtailment of bars in slabs as illustrated in figure 8.6
. c
Transverse rem1orcement 0.13bh
= ---
100
0.13 X 1000 X 170
= = 221 mm 2 /m
100
Provide T1 0 at 350 mm centres top and bottom, wherever there is main rein-
forcement.

T10- 300 T10- 200 T10-350 T10- 250

&7~~-\~~=· =~-
B~;;~ :·F==!=(
T 10-200 T10-350 T 10-250 T10- 250

Figure 8.9
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 209

8.6 Solid Slabs Spanning in Two Directions

When a slab is supported on all four of its sides it effectively spans in both direc-
tions, and it is sometimes more economical to design the slab on this basis. The
amount of bending in each direction will depend on the ratio of the two spans
and the conditions of restraint at each support.
If the slab is square and the restraints are similar along the four sides then the
load will span equally in both directions. If the slab is rectangular then more than
one-half of the load will be carried in the stiffer, shorter direction and less in the
longer direction. If one span is much longer than the other, a large proportion of
the load will be carried in the short direction and the slab may as well be designed
as spanning in only one direction.

B<lam A

45°

u t----'1..
E
0
~r---..,.,

~am B

Figure 8.10 Loads carried by supporting beams

Moments in each direction of span are generally calculated using coefficients

which are tabulated in the codes of practice. Areas of reinforcement to resist the
moments are determined independently for each direction of span. The slab is
reinforced with bars in both directions parallel to the spans with the steel for the
shorter span placed furthest from the neutral axis to give it the greater effective
depth.
The span-effective depth ratios are based on the shorter span and the percent-
age of reinforcement in that direction.
With a uniformly distributed load the loads on the supporting beams may
generally be apportioned as shown in figure 8.10.

8.6.1 Simply Supported Slab Spanning in Two Directions

A slab simply supported on its four sides will deflect about both axes under load
and the corners will tend to lift and curl up from the supports, causing torsional
moments. When no provision has been made to prevent this lifting or to resist the
torsion then the moment coefficients of table 8.2 may be used and the maximum
moments are given by
 210 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Msx = tXsx nlx2 in direction of span lx

and
Msy =CJisynlx2 in direction of span ly
where Msx and Msy are the moments at mid-span on strips of unit width with spans
lx and ly respectively, and

n =(1.4gk + l.6qk), that is the total ultimate load per unit area
ly =the length of the longer side
lx =the length of the shorter side
and 01sx and exsy are the moment coefficients from table 8.2.
The area of reinforcement in directions lx and ly respectively are

A = Msx per metre width

sx 0.87fyz
and

Asy = Msy per metre width

0.87fyz
The slab should be reinforced uniformly across the full width, in each direction.
The effective depth d used in calculating Asy should be less th~ that for Asx
because of the different depths of the two layers of reinforcement.
At least 40 per cent of the mid-span reinforcement s~ould extend to the
supports and the remaining 60 per cent should extend to within O.llx or O.lly
of the appropriate support.

Table 8.2 Bending-moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two

directions at right angles, simply supported on four sides

ly/lx 1.0 I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0

tXsx 0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.118

Gl:sy 0.062 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029

Example 8.5 Design the Reinforcement for a Simply Supported Slab 220 mm
Thick and Spanning in Two Directions
The effective span in each direction is 4.5 m and 6.3 m and the slab supports a
live load of 10 kN/m 2 . The characteristic material strengths are feu= 30 N/mm 2
and fy = 460 N/mm 2 .
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 211

ly/lx = 6.3/4.5 = 1.4

From table 8.2, O:sx =0.099 and OSy =O.OSI.
Self-weight of slab = 220 x 24 x 10-3 = 5.3 kN/m 2

ultimate load n = I.4gk + I.6qk

= 1.4 X 5.3 + 1.6 X IO.O = 23.4 kN/m 2
Bending - Short Span
With mild exposure conditions take d = I85 mm.
Msx = O:sxnlx 2 = 0.099 X 23.4 X 4.5 2
= 46.9 kN m

Msx __ 46.9 X I 06
-------=--- = 0.046
bd feu
2 1000 X I85 2 X 30
From the lever-arm curve, figure 7.5, la = 0.95. Therefore
lever arm z =0.95 x I85 = I76 mm
and

A = Msx 46.9 X I0 6
=------
5
0.87 fyz 0.87 X 460 X I76
= 666 mm 2 /m
Provide Tl2 at ISO mm centres, A 5 =754 mm 2 /m
Span-Effective Depth Ratio
Msx _ 46.9 X I06
= 1.37
bd 2 - 1000 X I85 2
From table 6.7, for fs = 288 N/mm 2 the span-effective depth modification factor
= 1.25.

. ..
1tmttlng span
-~--- = 20 X 1.25 = 25.0
effective depth

actual
span = 4500 =24.3
effective depth 185
Thus d = I85 mm is adequate.

Bending - Long Span

Msy =0:5ynl/ = 0.051 X 23.4 X 4.5 2
= 24.2 kN m
212 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Since the reinforcement for this span will have a reduced effective depth, take
z = 176- 12 = 164 mm. Therefore
A =. Msy 24.2 X 106
5
0.87 [yz 0.87 X 460 X 164
= 369 mm 2 /m
Provide TlO at 200 mm centres,A 5 = 393 mm 2 /m
100A 5 = 100x393 =0_ 18
bh 1000 X 220
which is greater than 0.13, the minimum for transverse steel.
The arrangement of the reinforcement is shown in figure 8.11.

T10- 200

T12 -150

4·5m

Figure 8.11 Simply supported slab spanning in two directions

8. 6. 2 Restrained Slab Spanning in Two Directions

When the slabs have fixity at the supports and reinforcement is added to resist
torsion and to prevent the corners of the slab from lifting then the maximum
moments per unit width are given by
Msx = f3sx nix 2 in direction of span lx
and
M 5y = f3sy nix2 in direction of span ly
where f3sx and f3sy are the moment coefficients given in table 3.15 of BS 8110 for
the specified end conditions, and n =(1.4gk + 1.6qk), the total ultimate load per
unit area.
The slab is divided into middle and edge strips as shown in figure 8.12 and rein-
forcement is required in the middle strips to resist Msx and Msy. The arrangement
this reinforcement should take is illustrated in figure 8.6. In the edge strips only
nominal reinforcement is necessary, such that IOOA 5 /bh = 0.13 for high yield
steel or 0.24 for mild steel.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 213

a. I Ia.
L:l li:
tli Middl!l strip jtl M iddl a strip
~I lg,
.g'l IU
WI lw
I I
ly :.2 2 T~8
_j8 1--
_ 1 _ 4_---i•l 8 f--
(a) For span 'x (b) For span ly

Figure 8.12 Division of slab into middle and edge strips

In addition, torsion reinforcement is provided at discontinuous corners and it

should
(1) consist of top and bottom mats, each having bars in both directions of
span
(2) extend from the edges a minimum distance lx/5
(3) at a corner where the slab is discontinuous in both directions have an
area of steel in each of the four layers equal to three-quarters of the
area required for the maximum mid-span moment.
(4) at a corner where the slab is discontinuous in one direction only, have
an area of torsion reinforcement only half of that specified in rule 3.
Torsion reinforcement is not, however, necessary at any corner where the slab is
continuous in both directions.
Where ly/lx > 2, the slabs should be designed as spanning in one direction only.
Shear force coefficients are also given in BS 8110 for cases where torsion
corner reinforcement is provided, and these are based on a simplified distribution
of load to supporting beams which may be used in preference to the distribution
shown in figure 8.10.

Example 8. 6 Moments in a Continuous Two-way Slab

The panel considered is an edge panel, as shown in figure 8.13 and the uniformly
distributed load, n =(1.4gk + 1.6qk) = 10 kN/m 2 .
The moment coefficients are taken from case 3 of table 3.15 of BS 8110.

!x_ = 6.0 = 1.2

lx 5.0
Positive moments at mid-span
Msx = f3sxnlx 2 = 0.042 X 10 X 52
= 10.5 kN m in direction lx
214 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Msy = f3synlx 2 = 0.028 X 10 X 52

= 7.0 kN min direction ly
Negative moments
Support ad,Mx = 0.056 x 10 x 52 = 14 kN m
Supports ab and dc,My = 0.037 x 10 x 52 = 9.3 kN m

ix = 5·0m
I· ·I
support
a b

E +-'
0 L
~Discontinuous
cb 0
a. supported edge
II a.
_» :::J
(/)

d c
support

Figure 8.13 Continuous panel spanning in two directions

The moments calculated are for a metre width of slab.

The design of reinforcement to resist these moments would follow the usual
procedure. Torsion reinforcement, according to rule 4 is required at corners b and
c. A check would also be required on the span-effective depth ratio of the slab.

8.7 Flat Slab Floors

A flat slab floor is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete

columns without the use of intermediary beams. The slab may be of constant
thickness throughout or in the area of the column it may be thickened as a drop
panel. The column may also be of constant section or it may be flared to form a
column head or capital. These various forms of construction are illustrated in
figure 8.14.
The drop panels are effective in reducing the shearing stresses where the column
is liable to punch through the slab, and they also provide an increased moment of
resistance where the negative moments are greatest. They are generally used with
live loads in excess of 7 kN/m 2 , or thereabouts.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 215

a) Floor without b) Floor with c) Floor with drop

drop panczl or column hczad but panczl and column
column hczad no drop panczl hczad

Figure 8.14 Drop panels and column heads

The flat slab floor has many advantages over the beam and slab floor. The
simplified formwork and the reduced storey heights make it more economical.
Windows can extend up to the underside of the slab, and there are no beams to
obstruct the light and the circulation of air. The absence of sharp corners gives
greater fire resistance as there is less danger of the concrete spalling and exposing
the reinforcement. Deflection requirements will generally govern slab thicknesses
which should not be less than 125 mm.

------_;?' Position of maximum

nczga t i vcz momczn ts

Posit ion of maximum

positiVC2 momcznts

Width of half column strip = t,

4 with no drops
or =half drop width
whczn drops ora usczd

Figure 8.15 Flat slab divided into strips

216 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The analysis of a flat slab structure may be carried out by dividing the structure
into a series of equivalent frames. The moments in these frames may be determined
by
(a) a method of frame analysis such as moment distribution, or the
stiffness method on a computer
or (b) a simplified method using the moment and shear coefficients of table
8.3 subject to the following requirements:
(i) the lateral stability is not dependent on the slab-column
connections
(ii) the conditions for using the single load case described in section 8.1
are satisfied
(iii) there are at least three rows of panels of approximately equal span
in the direction being considered.

Table 8.3 Simplified moment and shear coefficients for flat slabs
Outer support First
interior Interior Interior
Col. Wall First span support span support
Moment -0.04FL* -0.02FL +0.083FL* -0.063FL +0.071FL -0.055FL
Shear 0.45F 0.4F 0.6F O.SF
Column mom. 0.04FL 0.022FL 0.022FL

*Check column moment transfer capacity (see BS 8110).

In this calculation L is the effective span and F is the total ultimate load on the slab strip
between columns. The effective span is the distance between column centre lines - 2hc/3
where he is the effective diameter of the column or column heads.

Interior panels of the flat slab should be divided as shown in figure 8.15 into
column and middle strips. Drop panels should be ignored if their smaller dimen-
sion is less than the 1/3 of the smaller panel dimension l x. If a panel is not square,
strip widths in both directions are based on lx.
Moments determined from a structural analysis or the coefficients of table 8.3
are distributed between the strips as shown in table 8.4.
Reinforcement designed to resist these slab moments may be detailed accord-
ing to the simplified rules for slabs, and satisfying normal spacing limits. This
should be spread across the respective strip, but steel to resist negative moments in
column strips should have two-thirds of the area located in the central 1/2 strip
width. If the column strip is narrower because of drops, the moments resisted by
the column and middle strips should be adjusted proportionally as illustrated in
example 8.7.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 217
Table 8.4 Division of moments between strips

Column strip Middle strip

Negative moment 75% 25%

Positive moment 55% 45%

Column moments can be calculated using the coefficients from table 8.3, but
reference should also be made to BS 8110 regarding the moment transfer capacity
at the outer columns. The moments calculated should be divided between the
column lengths above and below the floor in proportion to their stiffnesses.
Particular care is needed over the transfer of moments to edge columns. This is
to ensure that there is adequate moment capacity within the slab adjacent to the
column since moments will only be able to be transfcned to the edge column by a
strip of slab considerably narrower than the normal internal panel column strip
width.
The reinforcement for a f1at slab should generally be arranged according to the
rules illustrated in figure 8.6.
An important feature in the design of the slabs are the calculations for punch-
ing shear at the head of the columns and at the change in depth of the slab, if
drop panels are used. The design for shear should take the procedure described in
the previous section on punching shear except that BS 8110 requires that the
design shear force be increased above the calculated value by 15 per cent for
internal columns and up to 40 per cent for edge columns to allow for the effects
of moment transfer. If spans are not approximately equal, reference should be
made to BS 8110. In this respect it can be advantageous to use mild steel in the
design, as the resulting higher percentages of reinforcement will allow a corres-
pondingly higher ultimate concrete shear stress.
The usual span-effective depth ratios may be used if the slabs have drop panels
of widths at least equal to one-third of the respective span, otherwise the ratios
should be multiplied by a factor of 0.9.
Reference should be made to codes of practice for further detailed information
describing the requirements for the analysis and design of flat slabs.

Example 8. 7 Design of a Flat Slab

The columns are at 6.5 m centres in each direction and the slab supports a live
load of 5 kN/m 2 . The characteristic material strengths are feu = 30 N/mm 2 and
fy =250 N/mm 2 for mild steel reinforcement.
It is decided to use a floor slab as shown in figure 8.16 with 200 mm overall
depth of slab, and drop panels 2.5 m square by 100 mm deep. The column heads
are to be made 1.4 m diameter.
218 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

I~·5 m sq drop~ I
h = 200

I
1-

Figure 8.16

Dead load
Weight of slab = 0.2 x 24 x 6.5 2 = 203 kN
Weight of drop= 0.1 X 24 X 2.5 2 = 15 kN
Total = 218 kN
Live load
Total= 5 x 6.5 2 = 212 kN
Therefore ultimate load on the floor F = 1.4 x 218 + 1.6 x 212
= 645 kN per panel

and equivalent distributed load n = 64 ~ = 15.3 kN/m 2 •

6.5
The effective span L = clear span - 2hc/3

= 6.5 - 2 X 1. 4 = 5.6 m
3
A concrete cover of 25 mm has been allowed, and where there are two equal layers
of reinforcement the effective depth has been taken as the mean depth of the two
layers in calculating the reinforcement areas.
The drop dimension is greater than one-third of the panel dimension, therefore
the column strip is taken as the width of the drop panel (2.5 m).
Since the live load is less than 1.25 x the dead load, and is not greater than
5 kN/m 2 , the single load case may be used. From tables 8.3 and 8.4:
Bending Reinforcement
(1) Centre of interior span
Positive moment= 0.071 FL
= 0.071 X 645 X 5.6 = 257 kN m
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 219

The width of the middle strip is (6.5 - 2.5) = 4 m which is greater than half the
panel dimension, therefore the proportion of this moment taken by the middle
strip is given by

0.45 X - 4 - = 0.55
6.5/2
Thus middle strip positive moment= 0.55 x 257 = 142 kN m
The column strip positive moment= (I - 0.55) x 257 = 116 kN m
(a) For the middle strip
M 142 X 106
------;:--- = 0.049
4000 X 155 2 X 30
From the lever-arm curve, figure 7.5, la = 0.94, therefore
142x106
- - - - - - - - =4481 mm 2, bottom steel
0.87 X 250 X 0.94 X 155
Thus provide twenty-three R16 bars each way in the span, distributed evenly
across the 4 m width of the middle strip.
(b) The column strip moment will require 3622 mm 2 bottom steel which can be
provided as nineteen R16 bars in the span distributed evenly across the 2.5 m
width of the column strip.

(2) Interior support

Negative moment= -0.05 5 FL
= -0.055 X 645 X 5.6 = 199 kN m
and this is also divided to

middle strip= 0.25 x 4 x 199 = 0.31 x 199 = 62 kN m

6.5/2
and column strip -= 0.69 x 199 = 138 kN m

(a) For the middle strip

M 62 X 106
-----=--- = 0.02
bd fcu - 4000 X 155 2 X 30
2

From the lever-arm curve la = 0.95, therefore

A= 62x106 =1936mm2
s 0.87 X 250 X 0.95 X 155
Provide eighteen evenly spaced R12 bars as top steel.
(b) For the column strip
M 138 X 106
------=---
2
= 0.029
2500 X 255 X 30
220 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
From lever-arm curve /8 =0.95, therefore
As= 138 X 106 = 2619 mm2
0.87 X 250 X 0.95 X 255
Provide fourteen R16 bars as top steel, ten of these bars should be placed at
approximately 125 mm centres within the central half of the column strip.
The bending reinforcement requirements are summarised in figure 8.17.

} Column
18R12-220 18R12-220
} Column·

f
,(
)
'
;
7 I
c

+
I
)

7
23 R16-175 <2ach way

(a) Middl<2 strip 4·0m wid<2

~~+1'~'~1<=·=7~'====~'~~~)~
19R16 -135

(b) Column strip 2·5m wid<2

Fipre 8.17 Details of bending reinforcement

Punching Shear
(1) At the column head:
perimeter u =1r x diameter of column head
=1r x 1400 =4398 mm
1.42
Shear force V= F- !!. 1.42 n =645 1r X
X 15.3
4 4
=621.5 kN
To allow for the effects of moment transfer, Vis increased by 15 per cent, thus
v = 1.15 V = 1.15 X 621.5 X 1o' = 0 _64 N/mm2
ud 4398 x 255
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 221
which is less than 0.8 vfcu and 5 N/mm 2 .

(2) First critical perimeter is 1.5 d = 1.5 x 255 mm

= 383 mm from the column face
thus the length of perimeter u = 4 ( 1400 + 2 x 383)
=8664 mm
Ultimate shear force
= 645- (1.4 + 2 X 0.383) 2 X 15.3
= 574 kN
1.15 X 574 X 103
thus shear stress v = = 0.30 N/mm 2
8664 X 255
By inspection from table 5.1 v < Vc, therefore the section is adequate in punching
shear.

(3) At the dropped panel, critical section is 2.5 + 2 x 1.5 x 0.155 = 2.965 m square
and perimeter u = 4 x 2965 = 11 860 mm.
Calculated shear V= 645-2.965 2 x 15.3 = 511 kN
1.15 X 511 X 103
thus shear stress v = = 0.32 N/mm 2
11 860 X 155
which is also less than Vc, thus the section is adequate.
Span-Effective Depth Ratios
(This calculation could usefully be performed as part of step (1) but has been
presented here for clarity.)
At the centre of span

M 142xl06
-- = 1.48
bd 2 4000 X 155 2
From table 6.7, for a service stress fs = 156 N/mm 2 the modification factor is 1.67.
Therefore

limiting span =26 x 1.67 =43.4

effective depth

actual __s_,_pa_n_ _ = 6500 =4 1. 9

effective depth 155
(To take care of stability requirements, extra reinforcement may be necessary in
the column strips to act as a tie between each pair of columns - see section 6. 7 .)
222 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

8.8 Ribbed and Hollow Block Floors

Cross-sections through a ribbed and hollow block floor slab are shown in figure
8.18. The ribbed floor is formed using temporary or permanent shuttering while
the hollow block floor is generally constructed with blocks made of clay tile or
with concrete containing a light-weight aggregate. If the blocks are suitably manu-
factured and have an adequate strength they can be considered to contribute to
the strength of the slab in the design calculations, but in many designs no such
allowance is made.

lJ
(a) Ribblld floor

(b) Hollow block floor

Figure 8.18 Sections through ribbed and hollow block floors

The principal advantage of these floors is the reduction in weight achieved by

removing part of the concrete below the neutral axis and, in the case of the hollow
block floor, replacing it with a lighter form of construction. Ribbed and hollow
block floors are economical for buildings where there are long spans, over about
5 m, and light or moderate live loads, such as in hospital wards or apartment
buildings. They would not be suitable for structures having a heavy loading, such
as warehouses and garages.
Near to the supports the hollow blocks are stopped off and the slab is made
solid. This is done to achieve a greater shear strength, and if the slab is supported
by a monolithic concrete beam the solid section acts as the flange of aT-section.
The ribs should be checked for shear at their junction with the solid slab. It is
good practice to stagger the joints of the hollow blocks in adjacent rows so that,
as they are stopped off, there is no abrupt change in cross-section extending
across the slab. The slabs are usually made solid under partitions and concentra-
ted loads.
During construction the hollow tiles should be well soaked in water prior to
placing the concrete, otherwise shrinkage cracking of the top concrete flange is
liable to occur.
The thickness of the concrete flange or topping should not be less than
(1) 30 mm for slabs with permanent blocks which are capable of contribu-
ting to the structural strength as specified in BS 8110, and where there
is a clear distance between ribs of not more than 500 mm
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 223
(2) 25 mm when the blocks described in (1) are jointed with a cement-
sand mortar
(3) 40 mm or one-tenth of the clear distance between ribs, whichever is the
greater, for all other slabs with permanent blocks
(4) 50 mm or one-tenth of the clear distance between ribs, whichever is the
greater, for slabs without permanent blocks.
The rib width will be governed by cover, bar spacing and fire resistance (section
6.1).
With in situ construction, the ribs should be spaced no further apart than 1.5 m
and their depth below the flange should not be greater than four times their width.
The shear stress is calculated as

v= -v-
bwd
where bw is the breadth of the rib. If hollow blocks are used this breadth may be
increased by the wall thickness of the block on one side of the rib. When v exceeds
Vc shear reinforcement is required, and v must be less than 0.8 ..jfcu and 5 N/mm 2 .
Links are also needed in ribs with more than one longitudinal bar if v > vc/2.
Span-effective depth ratios are limited to the values for a flanged beam based
on the shorter span but the web width used in determining the ratio from table 6.6
may include the thickness of the two adjacent block-walls.
At least 50 per cent of the total tensile reinforcement in the span should con-
tinue to the supports and be anchored. In some instances the slabs are supported
by steel beams and are designed as simply supported even though the topping may
be continuous. Reinforcement should be provided over the supports to prevent
cracking in these cases. It is recommended that the area of this top steel should
not be less than one-quarter of the area of steel required in the middle of the
span and it should extend at least 0.15 of the clear span into the adjoining spans.
A light reinforcing mesh in the topping flange can give added strength and
durability to the slab, particularly if there are concentrated or moving loads, or
if cracking due to shrinkage or thermal movements is likely. An area of 0.12 per
cent of the topping flange is recommended.

Example 8.8 Design of a Ribbed Floor

The ribbed floor is constructed with permanent fibreglass moulds; it is continuous
over several equal spans of 5.0 m. The characteristic material strengths are
feu =30 N/mm 2 and fy = 250 N/mm 2 •
An effective section as shown in figure 8.19 is to be tried. The characteristic
dead load including self-weight and finishes is 4.5 kN/m 2 and the characteristic
live load is 2.5 kN/m 2 .
The calculations are for an interior span for which the moments and shears can
be determined by using the coefficients in table 8.1.
224 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

1,600,1 3 -R10 abova

solid slab aach rib
I

2- R12 par r1b

span= 5·0m

Cross- saction at midspan

Figure8.19

Considering a 0.4 m width of floor as supported by each rib

Ultimate load =0.4 (1.4gk + 1.6qk)
=0.4 (1.4 X 4.5 + 1.6 X 2.5)
=4.12 kN/m
ultimate load on the span F = 4.12 x 5.0 = 20.6 kN

Bending
(I) At mid-span: design as aT-section
M= 0.063FL = 0.063 x 20.6 x 5.0 = 6.49 kN m
M 6.49 X 106 =0.02 l
bd 1'fcu - 400 X 1602 X 30
From the lever-arm curve, figure 7.5, 18 = 0.95. Thus the neutral axis lies
within the flange and
- M 6A9 X 10 6
A s- = ----------------
0.87/yz 0.87 X 250 X 0.95 X 160
= 197 mm2
Provide two Rl2 bars in the ribs, As= 226 mm2 •
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 225
(2) At a support: design as a rectangular section for the solid slab
M= 0.063FL = 0.063 x 20.6 x 5.0 = 6.49 kN mas in (1)
and
As = 197 mm 2 as at mid-span
Provide three Rl 0 bars in each 0.4 m width of slab, As = 236 mm 2 .
(3) At the section where the ribs terminate: this occurs 0.6 m from the
centre line of the support and the moment may be hogging so that the
125 mm ribs must provide the concrete area required to develop the design
moment. The maximum moment of resistance of the concrete ribs is
Mu = 0.156fcubd 2 = 0.156 X 30 X 125 X 1602 x'I0- 6
=15.0kNm
which must be greater than the moment at this section, therefore com-
pression steel is not required.

Span-Effective Depth Ratio

At mid-span M/bd 2 = -6_.4_9_X_1_0-=-

6
= 0.63
400 X 1602
From table 6.7, withfs = 156 N/mm 2 , the modification factor= 2.0. For a
T-section with web width 0.31 x flange width the basic ratio is 20.8 from table
6.6.

limiting span = 20.8 x 2.0 = 41.6

effective depth
span 5000 = 31.3
actual
effective depth 160
Thus d = 160 mm is adequate.

Shear
Maximum shear in the rib 0.6 m from the support centre line
= 0.5F- 0.6 x 4.12 = 0.5 x 20.6-2.5 = 7.8 kN
Therefore
v
shear stress = - = 7800 = 0.39 N/mm2
bd 125 X 160
100As = 100 X 226 = 1.1 3
bd 125 X 160
From table 5.1, Vc = 0.87 N/mm 2 ; therefore the section is adequate in shear, and
since v < vc/2 no links are required provided that the bars in the ribs are securely
located during construction.
226 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
8.9 Stair Slabs

The usual form of stairs can be classified into two types: {1) Those spanning
horizontally in the transverse direction, and (2) Those spanning longitudinally.

A~
- ---------·-----,
- - - - - - · --·----·---1
- - - -- · - - - - - - - - - j

)
Strmg12r
bllom

Span

D•stributton
st:zrz1

A-A

Figure 8.20 Stairs spanning horizontally

8. 9.1 Stairs Spanning Horizontally

Stairs of this type may be supported on both sides or they may be cantilevered
from a supporting wall.
Figure 8.20 shows a stair supported on one side by a wall and on the other by a
stringer beam. Each step is usually designed as having a breadth b and an effective
depth of d = D/2 as shown in the figure; a more rigorous analysis of the section is
rarely justified. Distribution steel in the longitudinal direction is placed above the
main reinforcement.
Details of a cantilevered stair are shown in figure 8.21. The effective depth of
the member is taken as the mean effective depth of the section and the main rein-
forcement must be placed in the top of the stairs and anchored into the support.
A light mesh of reinforcement is placed in the bottom face to resist shrinkage
cracking.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 227

-------------1
----- ------1
_____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _j
- - ---- -- - - - _ j Main
r---==========-:::t:.==~l rQ 1n for cQmcmt

SQCtlon B-B

Figure 8.21 Cantilevered stairs

8. 9.2 Stair Slab Spanning Longitudinally

The stair slab may span into landings which span at right angles to the stairs as in
figure 8.22 or it may span between supporting beams as in figure 8.23 of the
example.
The dead load is calculated along the slope length of the stairs but the live load
is based on the plan area. Loads common to two spans which intersect at right
angles and surround an open well may be assumed to be divided equally between
the spans. The effective span (/) is measured horizontally between the centres of
the supports and the thickness of the waist (h) is taken as the slab thickness.
Span-effective depth ratios may be increased by fifteen per cent provided that
the stair flight occupies at least 60 per cent of the span.
Stair slabs which are continuous and constructed monolithically with their
supporting slabs or beams can be designed for a bending moment of say Fl/ 10,
where F is the total ultimate load. But in many instances the stairs are precast or
constructed after the main structure, pockets with dowels being left in the sup-
porting beams to receive the stairs, and with no appreciable end restraint the
design moment should be Fl/8.

Example 8. 9 Design of a Stair Slab

The stairs are of the type shown in figure 8.23 spanning longitudinally and set into
pockets in the two supporting beams. The effective span is 3 m and the rise of the
228 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Landing Londtng

Opan
wall

Figure 8.22 Stairs spanning into landings

stairs is 1.5 m, with 260 mm treads and 150 mm risers. The live load is 3.0 kN/m 2 ,
and the characteristic material strengths are feu= 30 N/mm 2 and /y = 250 N/mm 2 •
Try a 125 mm thick waist, effective depth, d = 90 mm.
Slope length of stairs= v(3 2 + 1.5 2 ) = 3.35 m
Considering a 1 m width of stairs
weight of waist plus steps = (0.125 x 3.35 + 0.26 x 1.5/2) 24
= 14.7 kN
Uve load = 3.0 x 3 = 9.0 kN
Ultimate load F = 1.4 x 14.7 + 1.6 x 9.0 = 35.0 kN
With no effective end restraint
M= Fl = 35.0 X 3.0
8 8
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 229

=13.1kNm
Check span to effective depth ratio:

M = 13.1 X 106 = 1. 62
bd 2 1000 X 90 2
for simply supported span, basic ratio from table 6.6 = 20 and modification factor
from table 6.7 for a service stress of 156 N/mm 2 is 1.61.
Since the stair flight occupies more than 60 per cent of the span, a further
increase of 15 per cent is permitted, thus

R12-270

1·5m

R12-150

Effect1ve depth, d =90

I. Span = 3·0m

R12- 270

Figure 8.23 Stairs supported by beams

. ..
1tmttlng __s~p_an_ __
= 20 X 1.61 X 1.15 = 37.0
effective depth
span = 3000 = 33 .3
actual
effective depth 90

= 13.1 X 106 = 0.054

1000 X 90 2 X 30
230 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Therefore from the lever-arm curve of figure 7.5, 13 = 0.93

13.1 X 106
0.87 X 250 X 0.93 X 90
=720 mm2 /m
Provide R12 bars at 150 mm centres, area= 754 mm 2 /m.
. 'b .
Transverse d1stn l 0.24 bh 0.24 X 1000 X 125
utwn stee = = -------
100 100
=300 mm 2 /m
Provide RIO bars at 250 mm centres, area= 314 mm 2 /m.
Continuity bars at the top and bottom of the span should be provided and
about 50 per cent of the main steel would be reasonable, while satisfying maxi-
mum spacing limits of 3 d = 270 mm.

8.10 Yield Line and Strip Methods

For cases which are more complex as a result of shape, support conditions, the
presence of openings, or loading conditions it may be worth while adopting an
ultimate analysis method. The two principal approaches are the yield line method,
which is particularly suitable for slabs with a complex shape or concentrated
loading, and the strip method which is valuable where the slab contains openings.
These methods have been the subject of research in recent years, and are well
documented although they are of a relatively specialised nature. A brief introduc-
tion is included here to illustrate the general principles and features of the methods,
which are particularly valuable in assisting an understanding of failure mechanisms.

8.1 0.1 Yield Line Method

The capacity of reinforced concrete to sustain plastic deformation has been
described in section 3.4. For an under-reinforced section the capacity to develop
curvatures between the first yield of reinforcement and failure d,ue to crushing of
concrete is considerable. For a slab which is subjected to increasing load, cracking
and reinforcement yield will first occur in the most highly stressed zone. This will
then act as a plastic hinge as subsequent loads are distributed to other regions of
the slab. Cracks will develop to form a pattern of 'yield lines' until a mechanism is
formed and collapse is indicated by increasing deflections under constant load.
It is assumed that a pattern of yield lines can be superimposed on the slab,
which will cause a collapse mechanism, and that the regions between yield lines
remain rigid and uncracked. Figure 8.24 shows the yield line mechanism which
will occur for the simple case of a fixed ended slab spanning in one direction with
a uniform load. Rotation along the yield lines will occur at a constant moment
equal to the ultimate moment of resistance of the section, and will absorb
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 231

Yiald linas

Fixad supports

Figure 8.24

energy. This can be equated to the energy expended by the applied load under-
going a compatible displacement and is known as the virtual work method.
Considerable care must be taken over the selection of likely yield line patterns,
since the method will give an 'upper bound' solution, that is, either a correct or
unsafe solution. Yield lines will form at right angles to bending moments which
have reached the ultimate moment of resistance of the slab, and the following
rules may be helpful.
(I) Yield lines are usually straight and end at a slab boundary.
(2) Yield lines will lie along axes of rotation, or pass through their points
of intersection.
(3) Axes of rotation lie along supported edges, pass over columns or cut
unsupported edges.
In simple cases the alternative patterns to be considered will be readily deter-
mined on the basis of common sense, while for more complex cases differential
calculus may be used. The danger of missing the critical layout of yield lines, and
thus obtaining an incorrect solution, means that the method can only be used
with confidence by experienced designers.
A number of typical patterns are shown in figure 8.25.
A yield line caused by a sagging moment is generally referred to as a 'positive'
yield line and represented by a full line, while a hogging moment causing crack-
ing on the top surface of the slab causes a 'negative' yield line shown by a broken
line.
The basic approach of the method is illustrated for the simple case of a one-
way spanning slab in example 8.1 0.
232 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

FiX<2d
support
N<2gativ<2 yi<2ld
/ lin<2
Posit iv<2
yi<2ld lin<2

Simpl<2 Ax<2s of
support rotation

"'
I"
I \ ', AX<2S of
\'>j
Fr<2<2
I rotat1on <2dQ<2
I \ '
1 ' Column
I '
I '

''
''
''
'
' ',
.............
/'7~~~~""7'"-:'"7'7- - - - - -'__~!a

Figure 8.25

Example 8.10 Simply Supported, One-way Spanning Rectangular Slab

The slab shown in figure 8.26 is subjected to a uniformly distributed load w per
unit area. Longitudinal reinforcement is provided as indicated giving a uniform
ultimate moment of resistance m per unit width.
The maximum moment will occur at midspan and a positive yield line can thus
be superimposed as shown. If this is considered to be subject to a small displace-
ment .!l, then
external work done = area x load x average distance moved for each rigid
half of the slab

=(~xT)xwx~
therefore
1
total= - ~ 2 w!l.
2
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 233

Longitudinal
reinforcement

Yield
line
ot.L

;Plan

Collapse
mechan1sm
~ ~
f
t
Figure8.26

Internal energy absorbed by rotation along the yield line is

moment x rotation x length = mcpa.L

where ¢f':j2(~) = 4~
O.SL L
hence internal energy = 4m a~
Thus equating internal energy absorbed with external work done

4ma~ = _!_ aL 2 w~
2
or
wL 2
m = -- as anticipated
8

Since the displacement~ is eliminated, this will generally be set to unity in

calculations of this type.
In the simple case of example 8.10, the yield line crossed the reinforcement at
right angles and transverse steel was not involved in bending calculations. Generally,
a yield line will lie at an angle (} to the orthogonal to the main reinforcement and
will thus also cross transverse steel. The ultimate moment of resistance developed
is not easy to define, but Johansen's stepped yield criteria is the most popular
approach. This assumes that an inclined yield line consists of a number of steps,
each orthogonal to a reinforcing bar as shown in figure 8.27.
234 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Yiald tina

~ /
1/
/
/
/
,/
/
/
fo L sin e "l m2 L sine

Rainforcamant Stappad Momant

Yiald Lina Vactors

Figure 8.27

If the ultimate moments of resistance provided by main and transverse steel are
m 1 and m 2 per unit width, it follows that for equilibrium of the vectors shown,
the ultimate moment of resistance normal to the yield line m 0 per unit length is
given by
m0 L =m 1 L cos() X cos()+ m 2 L sin() X sin()
hence mn = m 1 cos 2 () + m 2 sin 2 ()

In the extreme cases of() = 0, this reduces to m 0 = m 1 , and when m 1 = m 2 = m,

then m 0 =m for any value of(). This latter case of an orthotropically reinforced
slab (reinforcement mutually perpendicular) with equal moments of resistance is
said to be isotropically reinforced.
When applying this approach to complex situations it is often difficult to
calculate the lengths and rotations of the yield lines, and a simple vector notation
can be used. The total moment component m0 can be resolved vectorially in the x
andy directions and since internal energy dissipation along a yield line is given by
moment x rotation x length it follows that the energy dissipated by rotation of
yield lines bounding any rigid area is given by
mxlA>x + myly¢Jy
where mx and my are yield moments in directions x andy, lx and ly are projec-
tions of yield lines along each axis, and C/Jx and ¢Jy are rotations about the axes.
This is illustrated in example 8.11.

Example 8.11 Slab Simply Supported on Three Sides

The slab shown in figure 8.28 supports a uniformly distributed load of w per unit
area.

Internal energy absorbed (E) for unit displacement at points X andY

 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 235

I· pL ·I

Figure 8.28

Area A
EA = mxlA)x + mylyifJy
where C/Jx = 0; hence

AreaB
Ea = mxlxifJx + mylyifJy
where ifJy = 0; hence

Ea = 2m2{3L x - 1- =2m 2 !
aL a
hence total for all rigid areas is
2
2EA +Ea·=- (m1a 2 +m 2 {32 )
a(3
External work done can also be calculated for each region separately

WA= _!_ (aL X {3L) w x _!_ = _!_ wa{3L 2

2 3 6

Wa = [~ wa{3L 2 + aL ( ~- {3L) w x ~] x 2
therefore total= 2WA + Wa

= -1 a ( 3 - 2{3)L 2 w
6
Hence equating internal and external work, the maximum u.d.l. that the slab can
sustain is given by
236 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

w =2_(m01?+m(32)x 6
max 0:{3 1 2 0: ( 3 _ 2{3)L 2

= 12(m 1 o:2 +m 2 {32 )

o:2 L 2 (3{3 - 2{32)
It is clear that the result will vary according to the value of {3. The maximum value
of w may be obtained by trial and error using several values of {3, or alternatively,
by differentiation, let m 2 = p.m 1 , then
w = 12m 1 ( o:2 + p.{32)
o:2 L 2(3{3 - 2(32)
and

d (m 1 /w) = 0 will give the critical value of {3

d(J

hence

and

A negative value is impossible, hence the critical value of {3 for use in the analysis
is given by the positive root.

8.10.2 Hillerborg Strip Method

This is based on the 'lower bound' concept of plastic theory which suggests that if
a stress distribution throughout a structure can be found which satisfies all equilib-
rium conditions without violating yield criteria, then the structure is safe for the
corresponding system of external loads. Although safe, the structure will not
necessarily be serviceable or economic, hence considerable skill is required on the
part of the engineer in selecting a suitable distribution of bending moments on
which the design can be based. Detailed analysis of a slab designed on this basis is
not necessary, but the designer's structural sense and 'feel' for the way loads are
transmitted to the supports are of prime importance.
Although this method for design of slabs was proposed by Hillerborg in the
1950s, developments by Wood and Armer in the 1960s have produced its currently
used form. The method can be applied to slabs of any shape, and assumes that at
failure the load will be carried by bending in either the x or y direction separately
with no twisting action. Hence the title of 'strip method'.
Considering a rectangular slab simply supported on four sides and carrying a
uniformly distributed load, the load may be expected to be distributed to the
supports in the manner shown in figure 8.29.
Judgement will be required to .determine the angle o:, but it can be seen that if
o: = 90° the slab will be assumed to be one-way spanning and, although safe, is
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS 237

·o
§ u
-ado.
8~5
_ji:!)(/)

Load and B.M.D.

Strip A

Figure 8.29

Sugg12st12d Strips

Ix, Ix21 XJ Ix41 X51

Ill
:::
f
0. NOt!2
...
L
;,! Strips
Vl
x, and X5
... Y1 and Y5
"0
01
>-"'
Ill 12tc.
01

!
Cl ~ id12nticaL
Cl
:J
Vl ~

Figure8.30
238 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
unlikely to be serviceable because of cracking near the supports along they axis.
Hillerborg suggests that for such a slab, a: should be 45°. The load diagram causing
bending moments along typical strips spanning each direction are also shown. It
will be seen that the alternative pattern, suggested by Wood and Armer in figure
8.30 will simplify the design, and in this case five strips in each direction may be
conveniently used as shown. Each of these will be designed in bending for its
particular loading, as if it were one-way spanning using the methods of section 8.5.
Reinforcement will be arranged uniformly across each strip, to produce an overall
pattern of reinforcement bands in two directions. Support reactions can also be
obtained very simply from each strip.
The approach is particularly suitable for slabs with openings, in which case
strengthened bands can be provided round the openings with the remainder of the
slab divided into strips as appropriate. A typical pattern of this type is shown in
figure 8.31.

Figure 8.31
9
Column Design
The columns in a structure carry the loads from the beams and slabs down to
the foundations, and therefore they are primarily compression members, although
they may also have to resist bending forces due to the continuity of the structure.
The analysis of a section subjected to an axial load plus bending is dealt with in
chapter 4, where it is noted that a direct solution of the equations which determine
the areas of reinforcement can be very laborious and impractical. Therefore, design
charts or some form of electronic computer are often employed to facilitate the
routlne design of column sections.
Design of columns is governed by the ultimate limit state; deflections and
cracking during service conditions are not usually a problem, but nevertheless
correct detailing of the reinforcement and adequate cover are important.
Many of the principles used in this chapter for the design of a column can also
be applied in a similar manner to other types of members which also resist an
axial load plus a bending moment.

9.1 Loading and Moments

The loading arrangements and the analysis of a structural frame have been described
with examples in chapter 3. In the analysis it was necessary to classify the column
into one of the following types
(I) a braced column - where the lateral loads are resisted by walls or some
other form of bracing, and
(2) an unbraced column - where the lateral loads are resisted by the bend-
ing action of the columns.
With a braced column the axial forces and moments are caused by the dead and
imposed load only, whereas with an unbraced column the loading arrangements
which include the effects of the lateral loads must also be considered.
For a braced column the critical arrangement of the ultimate load is usually
that which causes the largest moment in the column, together with a large axial
load. As an example, figure 9.1 shows a building frame with the critical loading
arrangement for the design of its centre column at the first-floor level and also the

239
240 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

1·4 Gk + 1·6 Ok

1·4 Gk + 1·6Qk

1-4 Gk + 1·6Qk

1st 1-4 Gk + 1·6 Qk 1·0G•

Floor

- -
Figure 9.1 A critical loading arrangement

left-hand column at all floor levels. When the moments in columns are large and
particularly with unbraced columns, it may also be necessary to check the case of
maximum moment combined with the minimum axial load.
The axial forces due to the vertical loading may be calculated as though the
beams and slabs are simply supported. In some structures it is unlikely that all the
floors of a building will carry the full imposed load at the same instant, therefore,
a reduction is usually allowed in the total imposed load when designing columns
and foundations in buildings which are two or more storeys high, as shown by
table 9.1.

Table 9.1 Reduction of total imposed floor loads

on columns, walls and foundations

Reduction of imposed
No. of floors carried load on all floors above
by member the member

I 0 per cent
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 to 10 40
over 10 50
 COLUMN DESIGN 241
9.2 Short and Slender Columns

A column is classified as short if both Zex/h and ley/b are:

less than 15 for a braced column
less than 10 for an unbraced column
The effective lengths lex and ley are relative to the XX and YY axis, h is the overall
depth of the section in the plane of bending about the XX axis, that ish is the
dimension perpendicular to the XX axis. The effective lengths are specified as
le =~lo
10 is the clear distance between the column end restraints
and ~ is a coefficient which depends on the degree of end restraints as specified
in table 9.2.
The application of these coefficients is illustrated for the braced column shown in
figure 9.2.

Table 9.2

(3 for braced columns (3 for unbraced columns

End End condition at bottom End End condition at bottom

condition condition
at top 2 3 at top 2 3

1 0.75 0.80 0.90 1 1.2 1.3 1.6

2 0.80 0.85 0.95 2 1.3 1.5 1.8
3 0.90 0.95 1.00 3 1.6 1.8
4 2.2

End conditions. The four end conditions are as follows:

(a) Condition I. The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams on either side
which are at least as deep as the overall dimension of the column in the plane considered.
Where the column is connected to a foundation structure, this should be of a form specifi-
cally designed to carry moment.
(b) Condition 2. The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs on
either side which are shallower than the overall dimension of the column in the plane
considered.
(c) Condition 3. The end of the column is connected to members which, while not specifically
designed to provide restraint to rotation of the column will, nevertheless, provide some
nominal restraint.
(d) Condition 4. The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral movement and
rotation (for example, the free end of a cantilever column in an unbraced structure).
242 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

lox=
4·0m loy=
3·6m

For and condition 1 of Tabla 9. 2, top and bottom

I!Zy 0·75 )( 3600 = 6·75 < 15

b 400

For and condition 2, top and bottom

I!Zx f3xlox = 0·85 X 4000 17>15

h h 200
Tharafora: Column is slander about tha X X axis.

Figure 9.2 Braced column slenderness ratios

Short columns usually fail by crushing but a slender column is liable to fail by
buckling. The end moments on a slender column cause it to deflect sideways and
thus bring into play an additional moment Neadd as illustrated in figure 9 .3. The
moment Neadd causes a further lateral deflection and if the axial load (N) exceeds
a critical value this deflection, and the additional moment become self-propagating
until the column buckles. Euler derived the critical load for a pin-ended strut as
1T2 EI
Ncrit = T
The crushing load Nuz of a truly axially loaded column may be taken as
Nuz = 0.45fcuAc + 0.87 Ascfy
where Ac is the area of the concrete and Asc is the area of the longitudinal steel.
Values of Ncnt!Nuz and 1/h have been calculated and plotted in figure 9.4 for a
typical column cross-section.
 COLUMN DESIGN 243

Mom<Znt M

Figure 9.3 Slender column with lateral deflection

10

5
I
crushing I buckling
I I
I I
----+------
10 20 30 40 50 60

Figure 9.4 Column failure modes

244 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

The ratio of Ncrn/Nuz in the figure determines the type of failure of the
column. With ljh less than, say, 15 the load will probably cause crushing, Nuz is
much less than Ncrit, the load that causes buckling- and therefore a buckling
failure will not occur. This is not true with higher values of 1/h and so a buckling
failure is possible, depending on such factors as the initial curvature of the column
and the actual eccentricity of the load. When ljh is greater than 32 then N crit is
less than Nuz and in this case a buckling failure will occur for the column con-
sidered.

The mode of failure of a column can be one of the following.

(I) Material failure with negligible lateral deflection, which usually occurs
with short columns but can also occur when there are large end moments
on a column with an intermediate slenderness ratio.
(2) Material failure intensified by the lateral deflection and the additional
moment. This type of failure is typical of intermediate columns.
(3) Instability failure which occurs with slender columns and is liable to be
preceded by excessive deflections.

9.3 Reinforcement Details

The rules governing the minimum and maximum amounts of reinforcement in a

load bearing column are as follows.

Longitudinal Steel
(I) A minimum of four bars is required in a rectangular column and six
bars in a circular column.
(2)
1OOAs <1: 0.4
A col
(3)
1OOAs :1> 6.0 in a vertically cast column
A col
or

100As )> 8.0 in a horizontally cast column

A col
but at laps
IOOA
___ s )> 10.0 for both types of columns
A col

where As is the total area of longitudinal steel and A col is the cross-
sectional area of the column.
 COLUMN DESIGN 245
Links
(1) Minimum size= 1/4 x size of the largest compression bar but not less
than 6 mm.
(2) Maximum spacing = 12 x size of the smallest compression bar.
(3) The links should be arranged so that every corner bar and alternate bar
or group in an outer layer of longitudinal steel is supported by a link
passing round the bar and having an included angle not greater than
135°.
(4) All oth~r bars or groups not restrained by a link should be within
150 mm of a restrained bar.
(5) In circular columns a circular link passing around a circular arrangement
of longitudinal bars is adequate.
No provision is made in BS 8110 for calculating the strength of a column which
has helical reinforcement in place of links. This form of spiral reinforcement is
widely used in the USA and their codes take account of the added strength it gives
to a column and its resistance to seismic forces.
Figure 9.5 shows possible arrangements of reinforcing bars at the junction of
two columns and a ~oor. In figure 9.5a the reinforcement in the lower column is
cranked so that it will fit within the smaller column above. The crank in the rein-
forcement should, if possible, commence above the soffit of the beam so that the

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.5 Details of splices in column reinforcement

246 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
moment of resistance of the column is not reduced. For the same reason, the bars
in the upper column should be the ones cranktd when both columns are of the
same size as in figure 9.5b. Links should be provided at the points where the bars
are cranked in order to resist buckling due to horizontal components of force in
the inclined lengths of bar. Separate dowel bars as in figure 9.5c may also be used
to provide continuity between the two lengths of column. The column-beam
junction should be detailed so that there is adequate space for both the column
steel and the beam steel. Careful attention to detail on this point will greatly assist
the fixing of the steel during construction.

9.4 Design of Short Columns

Short columns are divided into three categories according to the degree of eccen-
tricity of the loading as described in the following sections.

9.4.1 Short Braced Axially Loaded Columns

This type of column can occur in precast concrete construction when there is no
continuity between the members. Also it can be considered to occur when the
columns support a symmetrical and very rigid structure.
When the load is perfectly axial the ultimate axial resistance is
N =0.45 fcuAc + 0.87 [yAsc
where Ac is the net area of the concrete and Asc is the area of the longitudinal
reinforcement.
Perfect conditions never exist and to allow for a small eccentricity the ultimate
load should be calculated from
N= 0.4fcuAc + 0.75/yAsc (9.1)*
For a rectangular column and to allow for the area of concrete displaced by the
longitudinal reinforcement this equation may be modified to
N= 0.4fcubh + Asc(0.75[y- 0.4/cu) (9.2)

Example 9.1 Axially Loaded Column

Design the longitudinal reinforcement for a 300 mm square column which supports
an axial load of 1700 kN at the ultimate limit state. The characteristic material
strengths are [y = 460 N/mm 2 for the reinforcement and feu= 30 N/mm2 for the
concrete.
From equation 9.2
1700 X 103 = 0.4 X 30 X 300 2 + Asc(0.75 X 460-0.4 X 30)
therefore
A = (1700- 1080) 103 = 1862 mm2
sc 333
Provide four T25 bars, area = 1960 mm 2 •
 COLUMN DESIGN 247
9.4.2 Short Braced Columns Supporting an Approximately Symmetrical
Arrangement of Beams
The moments on these columns will be small and due primarily to unsymmetrical
arrangements of the live load. Provided the beam spans do not differ by more than
15 per cent of the longer, and the loading on the beams is uniformly distributed,
the column may be designed to support the axial load only. The ultimate load that
can be supported should then be taken as
N = 0.35 fcuAc + 0.67 [yAsc (9.3)*
To take account of the area of concrete displaced by the reinforcement the equa-
tion for a rectangular section may be written as

N = 0.35 fcubh + (0.67 [y - 0.35 fcu)Asc

9.4.3 Short Columns Resisting Moments and Axial Forces

The area of longitudinal steel for these columns is determined by:
(1) using design charts or constructing M-N interaction diagrams as in section 4
(2) a solution of the basic design equations, or
(3) an approximate method.
Design charts are usually used for columns having a rectangular or circular cross-
section and a symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement, but interaction diagrams
can be constructed for any arrangement of cross-section as illustrated in examples
4.9 and 4.10. The basic equations or the approximate method can be used when
an unsymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement is required, or when the cross-
section is non-rectangular as described in section 9.5.
Whichever design method is used, a column should not be designed for a
moment less than N X em in, where em in has the lesser value of h/20 or 20 mm.
This is to allow for tolerances in construction. The dimension h is the overall size
of the column cross-section in the plane of bending.

(i) Design Charts and Interaction Diagrams

The design of a section subjected to bending plus axial load should be in accord-
ance with the principles described in section 4.8, which deals with the analysis of
the cross-section. The basic equations derived for a rectangular section as shown
in figure 9.6 and with a rectangular stress block are
N= Fcc+ Fsc + Fs (9.4)
=0.45 fcubS + fscA~ + fsAs
M=Fcc (~ -~) +Fsc(~ -d') -Fs ( d- ~) (9.5)

s = the depth of the stress block = 0.9 x

A~ = the area of longitudinal reinforcement in the more highly compressed face
As =the area of reinforcement in the other face
f sc = the stress in reinforcement A~
248 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

b
·I
Fsc
0 ® ~
A's
d
h Nczutral
axis

L-
~ ® ®

Sect ion Strain Stress block

Figure 9.6 Column section

0·80

+-------+- h liD• • •
A2c
Asc
2

20

0 2 I. 6 8 10 12 11. 16
M/bh 2 Nlmm 2

Figure 9. 7 Column design chart

fs = the stress in reinforcement As, negative when tensile

These equations are not suitable for direct solution and the design of a column
with symmetrical reinforcement in each face is best carried out using design charts
similar to those published in Part 3 of BS 8110. An example of one of these charts
is shown in figure 9. 7.
 COLUMN DESIGN 249
Example 9.2 Column Design Using Design Charts
Figure 9.8 shows a frame of a heavily loaded industrial structure for which the
centre columns along line PQ are to be designed in this example. The frames at
4 m centres, are braced against lateral forces, and support the following floor loads:
dead loadgk = 10 kN/m 2
live load Qk = 15 kN/m 2

Plan

p
3rd Floor

~ I i
3·5m

I I I
2nd Floo r l1

~ b<2oms 300 x 700 dp i i

3·5m

I I I
1st Floor II I I

~ I
I
- 1.=
I 4oo

I
3·5m
300x 400-

+ L
L: u
Ground columns
Floor
~
Q
60m 4·0m

S<Lction through the frame

Figure 9.8 Columns in an industrial structure

250 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Characteristic material strengths are feu = 30 N/mm 2 for the concrete and
[y = 460 N/mm 2 for the steel.
Maximum ultimate load at each floor= 4.0(1.4gk + 1.6qk) per metre
length of beam
= 4(1.4 X 10 + 1.6 X 15)
= 152 kN/m
Minimum ultimate load at each floor = 4.0 x 1.0gk
= 4.0 x 10 = 40 kN per metre
length of beam
Consider first the design of the centre column at the underside (u.s.) of the first
floor. The critical arrangement of load which will cause the maximum moment in
the column is shown in figure 9.9a.
Column loads
second and third floors= 2 x 152 x 10/2 = 1520 kN
first floor = 152 x 6/2 + 40 x 4/2 = 536
Column self-weight, say 2 x 14 28
N= 2084 kN
Similar arrangements of load will give the axial load in the column at the underside
(u.s.) and top side (t.s.) of each floor level and these values of N are shown in
table 9.3.
The moments on the column are not large and therefore equation 9.3 may be
used for a preliminary sizing. Trying a 300 x 400 column
N= 0.35fcubh + 0.67 /yAst.:
2084 X 103 = 0.35 X 30 X 300 X 400 + 0.67 X 460 X Asc
from which
Asc = 2674 mm 2 and 100 Asc/bh = 2.23
This provides an adequate cross-section and a 300 x 400 column is to be used.
Column Moments
The loading arrangement and the substitute frame for determining the column
moments at the first and second floors are shown in figure 9.9b. Member stiff-
nesses are

kAB =t _!!!!:_ =t X 0.3 X 0.73 =0.71 X 10-3

2 12LAB 12 X 6

ksc =t X 0.3 X0.7 3 = l.0 7 X 10-3

2 12 X 4

kcol
0.3 X 0.43 =0.46 X 10-3
12 X 3.5
 COLUMN DESIGN 251

1·4Gk t 1·6Qk

f4Gk + 1~Qk

1·0Gk
l4Gk ~ 1·61Jk
1st Floor
A B c

(a) Critical loading arrangamant for cantra

columns at 1st floor

kcolumn

A B c
+456 -456 +53 -53
kN.m

kcolumn
(b) Substitute frame and Ftxad and moments
load

Figure 9.9

therefore
l:k =(0.71 + 1.01 + 2 x 0.46) 10-3 =2.10 x 1o-3
and

distribution factor for the column= kcot = 0.46 = 0.17

l:k 2.70
Fixed end moments at B are

F.E.MsA = 152 X
62 = 456 kN m
12

F •• x 42
EM BC = 40 12 = 53 kN m

Thus
column momentM= 0.17(456- 53)= 69 kN m
252 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
At the 3rd floor
~k = (0.71 + 1.01 + 0.46) 10-3
= 2.24 x 1o-3
and

column momentM= 0 ·46 (456- 53)= 83 kN m

2.24
The areas of reinforcement in table 9.3 are determined by using the design chart
of figure 9. 7. Sections through the column are shown in figure 9 .10.
Cover for the reinforcement is taken as SO mm and d/h = 320/400 = 0.8. The
minimum area of reinforcement allowed in the section is given by
Asc = 0.004bh = 0.004 X 300 X 400 = 480 mm 2
and the maximum area is
Asc = 0.06 X 300 X 400 = 7200 mm 2
or at laps
Asc = 0.1 x 300 x 400 = 12000 mm 2
and the reinforcement provided is within these limits.

Table 9.3
Floor N M N M 100Asc Asc
(kN) (kNm) - (mm2)
bh bh 2 bh
3rd u.s. 536 83.0 4.47 1.73 0.4 480
2nd t.s. 774 69.0 6.45 1.44 0.4 480
+536
2nd u.s. 1310 69.0 10.92 1.44 0.4 480
lst t.s. 1548 69.0 12.9 1.44 0.9 1080
+536
lst u.s. 2084 69.0 17.37 1.44 2.1 2520
Foundation 2098 34.5 17.48 0.72 1.6 1920

A smaller column section could have been used above the first floor but this
would have involved changes in formwork and also increased areas of reinforce-
ment. For simplicity in this example no reduction was taken in the total live
load although this is permitted with some structures, as shown by table 9 .1.

(ii) Design Equations

The symmetrical arrangement of the reinforcement with A~ = A 8 is justifiable for
 COLUMN DESIGN 253

300 RS at 190 R8 at 240 R8 at 190

I•
j_ I
~ I
~ l!l ~ IZ

0
0
't

4 T25 + 4T16
~

4 T20
e>.

"4T16
e!

(a) Ground to (b) 1st to 2nd Floor (c) 2nd to 3rd Floor
1st Floor

Figure 9.10 Column sections in design example

the columns of a building where the axial loads are the dominant forces and where
any moments due to the wind can be acting in either direction. But some members
are required to resist axial forces combined with large bending moments so that it
is not economical to have equal areas of steel in both faces, and in these cases the
usual design charts cannot be applied. A rigorous design for a rectangular section
as shown in figure 9.11 involves the following iterative procedure.
(I) Select a depth of neutral axis, x
(2) Determine the steel strains esc and e8 from the strain distribution.
(3) Determine the steel stresses fsc and fs from the equations relating to
the stress-strain curve for the reinforcing bars (see section 4.1.2).
(4) Taking moments about the centroid of As

N Normal to tha saction

A'&

:E
drr IL~
-,-- ~ fsc A~
~ 0 ~
2 . . - - 0·45fcubS
x
- ~utral
QXIS
·--·

~
As ~
_.._ .12
I· b
·I
Saction St~ss Block

Figure 9.11 Column with an unsymmetrical a"angement of reinforcement

254 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

N ( e+ ~ - d2) =0.45 fcubs (d- s/2) + fscA; (d- d')

where s =0.9x (9.6)
This equation can be solved to give a value for A;.
(5) As is then determined from the equilibrium of the axial forces, that is
N= 0.45fcubs + fscA; +fsAs (9.7)
(6) Further values of x may be selected and steps 1 to 5 repeated until a
minimum value for A~ +As is obtained.
The term f sc in the equations may be modified to (fsc - 0.45 f cu) to allow for
the area of concrete displaced by the reinforcement A;. Stress fs has a negative
sign whenever it is tensile.

Example 9.3 Column Section with an Unsymmetricol Arrangement of Reinforcemen;

The column section shown in figure 9.12 resists an axial load of 1100 kN and a
moment of 230 kN m at the ultimate limit state. Determine the areas of reinforce-
ment required if the characteristic material strengths are /y =460 N/mm2 and
feu = 30 N/mm2 •
(1) Select a depth of neutral axis, x = 190 mm.
(2) From the strain diagram

. esc = 0.0035 (x _ d')

steeI stram
X

= 0 ·0035 (190- 80) =0.00203

190

b:: 300

0 0
~
0 M
~

As
~ @ ~

=n
~

Srzction Strains

Figure 9.12 Unsymmetrical column design eXIlmple

 COLUMN DESIGN 255
and
.
stee1 stram €8
__ 0.0035 (d _ x)
X

= 0 ·0035 (340 - 190) = 0.00276

190
(3) From the stress-strain curve and the relevant equations of section 4.1.2
yield strain, Ey = 0.002 for grade 460 steel
Both Esc and € 8 > 0.002
therefore fsc = 460/1.15 = 400 N/mm2
and / 8 = 400 N/mm 2 , tension.
(4) In equation 9.6

N (e + ~ - d2) = 0.45 fcubs (d- s/2) + fscA~ (d- d')

M 230 x 106
e=- = =209mm
N 1100 X 103
s = 0.9x =0.9 x 190
= 171 mm
To allow for the area of concrete displaced
fsc becomes 400- 0.45/cu = 400-0.45 x 30 = 386 N/mm 2
and from equation 9.6
A'= 1100 X 103 (209 + 140)- 0.45 X 30 X 300 X 171 (340- 171/2)
s 386 (340 - 80)
= 2069 mm 2
(S) From equation 9. 7
N= 0.45fcubS + fscA~ + fsAs
A = (0.45 X 30 X 300 X 171) + (386 X 2069)- (1100 X 103 )
s 400
= 978 mm 2
Thus
A~+ A 8 = 3047 mm 2 for x = 190 mm
(6) Values of A~ + A 8 calculated for other depths of neutral axis, x are
plotted in figure 9.13. From this figure the minimum area of reinforce-
ment required occurs with x ~ 210 mm. Using this depth of neutral
axis, steps 2 to 5 are repeated giving
256 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

190 200 210 220 230

Dllpth of nllutral axis, x

Figure 9.13 Design chart for unsymmetrical column example

Esc = €s = 0.00217 > 0.002

fsc = /y/rm = 400 N/mm 2 and fs = 400 N/mm 2 tension
so that
A~= 1950 mm 2 and As= 1049 mm 2
(Alternatively separate values of A~ and As as calculated for each value
of x could also have been plotted against x and their values read from
the graph at x = 210 mm.) This area would be provided with
A~ = three T25 plus two T20 bars = 2098 mm 2

and
As= one T25 plus two T20 bars= 1119 mm 2
With a symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement the area from the
design chart of figure 9.7 would be A~+ As= 3200 mm 2 or 7 per cent
greater than the area with an unsymmetrical arrangement, and including
no allowance for the area of concrete displaced by the steel.
These types of iterative calculations are readily programmed for solution by a
small microcomputer, which could find the optimum steel areas without the
necessity of plotting a graph.

(iii) Simplified Design Method

As an alternative to the previous rigorous method of design an approximate
method may be used when the eccentricity of loading, e is. not less than
(h/2- d2)·
The moment M and the axial force N are replaced by an increased moment
Ma where

(9.8)
 COLUMN DESIGN 257

plus a compressive force N acting through the tensile steel As as shown in figure
9.14. Hence the design of the reinforcement is carried out in two parts.
(1) The member is designed as a doubly reinforced section to resistMa act-
ing by itself. The equations for calculating the areas of reinforcement
to resist Ma are given in section 4.5 as
Ma = 0.156fcubd 2 + 0.87 fyA~ (d- d') (9.9)
0.87 fyAs = 0.201fcubd + 0.87 fyA~ (9.10)
(2) The area of As calculated in the first part is reduced by the amount
N/0.87fy·
This preliminary design method is probably most useful for non-rectangular
column sections as shown in example 9.6, but the procedure is first demonstrated
with a rectangular cross-section in the following example.

= =

I
~~i~~
~
Figure 9.14 Simplified design method

Example 9.4 Column Design by the Simplified Method

Calculate the area of steel required in the 300 x 400 column of figure 9 .12.
N= 1100 kN.M= 230 kN m, feu= 30 N/mm2 andfy = 460 N/mm 2 •
F . .
~ccentncttye=
230 X 106
1100 x 103 =
209 mm >( 2-h d 2)

(1) Increased moment

Ma =M+N( ~ -dz)
= 230 + 1100(200- 60) 10-3 = 384 kN m
The area of steel to resist this moment can be calculated using the
258 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
formulae 9.9 and 9.10 for the design of a beam with compressive rein-
forcement, that is
M 8 = 0.156fcubd 2 + 0.87 [yA~ (d- d')
and
0.87 [yAs = 0.201 fcubd + 0.87 [yA~
therefore
384 X 106 = 0.156 X 30 X 300 X 3402 + 0.87 X 460A; (340- 80)
so that
A~= 2130 mm 2
and
0.87 X 460A 8 = 0.201 X 30 X 300 X 340 + 0.87 X 460 X 2130
A 5 = 3667 mm 2
(2) Reducing this area by N/0.87 [y
A = 3667 _ 1100xl03
5
0.87 X 460
= 919 mm2
This compares with A;= 1950 mm 2 andA 8 = 1049 mm 2 with the design
method of example 9.3. (To give a truer comparison the stress in the
compressive reinforcement should have been modified to allow for the
area of concrete displaced, as was done in example 9.3.)

9.4.4 Bioxial Bending of Short Columns

For most columns, biaxial bending will not govern the design. The loading patterns
necessary to cause biaxial bending in a building's internal and edge columns will
not usually cause large moments in both directions. Corner columns may have to
resist significant bending about both axes, but the axial loads are usually small and
a design similar to the adjacent edge columns is generally adequate.
A design for biaxial bending based on a rigorous analysis of the cross-section
and the strain and stress distributions would be according to the fundamental
principles of chapter 4, otherwise a simplified method as described in BS 8110
may be used.
This method specifies that a column subjected to an ultimate load Nand
momentsMx and My about thexx andyy axes respectively may be designed for
single axis bending but with an increased moment and subject to the following
conditions:

(a) 1"f Mx ;:;;,. ~

h' ,.... b'
then increased single axis design moment is
 COLUMN DESIGN 259

( b) if Mx <~
h' b'
then increased single axis design moment is
, b'
My=My+/3 1 xMx
h
The dimensions h' and b' are defined in figure 9.15 and the coefficient {3 is speci-
fied in table 9 .4.

..I

I•
x-
h
·-t--- Mx
X

1
~ ~

Figure 9.15 Section with biaxial bending

Table 9.4 Values of coefficient {3 for biaxial bending

N
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 ~0.6
bhfcu
1.00 0.88 0.77 0.65 0.53 0.42 0.30
260 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Extimple 9.5 Design of a Column for Biaxial Bending
The column section shown in figure 9.16 is to be designed to resist an ultimate
axial load of 1200 kN plus moments of Mxx = 75 kN m and MYY = 80 kN m. The
characteristic material strengths are feu = 30 N/mm 2 and [y = 460 N/mm 2 .

If\
I
My= 80kNm

300
~I

Figure 9.16 Biaxial bending example

Mx = 75 = 0.268
h' (350- 70)

~ = 80 =0.333
b' (300- 60)
Mx/h' <My/b'
therefore increased single axis design moment is
b'
M'y=My+f3 1 xMx
h
N/bhfcu = 1200 X 103 /(300 X 350 X 30) = 0.38
From table 9.4, {3 = 0.55
240
M'y = 80 + 0.55 X- X 75 = 115.4 kN m
280
'N/bh'= 1200 X 10 3 /(350 X 300)= 11.4

'M/bh 2 ' = 115.4 X 106/(350 X 3002) = 3.66

 COLUMN DESIGN 261

From the design chart of figure 9.7

IOOAsc/bh = 2.6
Therefore required Asc = 2730 mm 2 .
Provide four T32 bars.

9.5 Non-rectangular Sections

Design charts are not usually available for columns of other than a rectangular or a
circular cross-section. Therefore the design of a non-rectangular section entails
either (1) an iterative solution of design equations, (2) a simplified form of design,
or (3) construction of M-N interaction diagrams.

( i} Design Equations
For a non-rectangular section it is much simpler to consider the equivalent rectan-
gular stress-block. Determination of the reinforcement areas follows the same
procedure as described for a rectangular column in section 9.4.3(ii), namely

(1) Select a depth of neutral axis.

(2) Determine the corresponding steel strains.
(3) Determine the steel stresses.
(4) Take moments about As so that with reference to figure 9.17.

N normal to the section

n
0·0035 0"45 feu

1· 'I

Section Strains Stress

Block

Figure 9.17 Non-rectangular column section

262 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

N (e+ ~ -dz) =0.45fcuAcc(d-x)+fscA~(d-d')

Solve this equation to give A~
(5) For no resultant force on the section
N = 0.45/cuAcc +fscA~ + fsAs
Solve this equation to give As.
(6) Repeat the previous steps for different values of x to find a minimum
(A~+ As).
In steps 4 and 5
Ace is the area of concrete in compression shown shaded
x is the distance from the centroid of Ace to the extreme fibre in
compression
fs the stress in reinforcement As is negative if tensile
The calculation for a particular cross-section would be very similar to that
described in example 9.3 except when using the design equations it would be
x
necessary to determine Ace and for each position of the neutral axis.

(ii} Simplified Preliminary Design Method

The procedure is similar to that described for a column with a rectangular section
as described in section 9.4.3(iii) and figure 9.14.
The column is designed to resist a moment Ma only, where

Ma=M+N (~ -d2) (9.11)

The steel area required to resist this moment can be calculated from
Ma = 0.45 feu Ace (d- x) + 0.87 [yA~ (d- d') (9.12)
and
(9.13)
where Ace is the area of concrete in compression with x = d/2, and .X is the distance
from the centroid of Ace to the extreme fibre in compression.
The area of tension reinforcement, As as given by equation 9.13 is then reduced
by an amount equal toN/0.87 [y.
This method should not be used if the eccentricity, e is less than (h/2- d 2 ).

(iii) M-N Interaction Diagram

These diagrams can be constructed using the method described in section 4.8 with
examples 4.9 and 4.10. They are particularly useful for a column in a multi-storey
building where the moments and associated axial forces change at each storey.
The diagrams can be c.onstructed after carrying out the approximate design pro-
cedure in (ii) to obtain suitable arrangements of reinforcing bars.
 COLUMN DESIGN 263

d'=B~

d = 320

1. 3oo .1
Figure 9.18

Example 9.6 Design of a Non-rectangular Column Section

Design the reinforcement for the non-rectangular section shown in figure 9.18
given M::: 320 kN m, N::: 1200 kN at the ultimate limit state and the characteristic
material strengths are feu ::: 30 N/mm 2 and [y ::: 460 N/mm 2 .

e ::: -M ::: 320 x 10 ::: 267 mm > -h - d2)

6 (
N 1200 X 103 2

Increased moment Ma ::: M + N ( ~- d 2)

:::320 + 120o(2oo- 80) w- 3

:::464kN m
With x::: d/2 = 160 mm, s = 0.9x = 144 mm and the width (b!) of the section at
the limit of the stress block

b :::300 + 200(400- 144) :::428 mm

1
400
A ::: x(b + bt)
cc 2

::: 144(500+428) ::: 66816 mm 2

2
The depth of the centroid of the trapezium is given by

-X s(b + 2bt)
::: ----'--_____::'-'-
3(b + bt)

::: 144 (500 + 2 x428) :::70.1 mm

3 (500 + 428)
264 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Therefore substituting in equation 9.12
464 X 106 = 0.45 X 30 X 66 816 (320- 70.1) + 0.87 X 460A~ (320- 80)
hence
A~= 2484 mm 2
Provide three T32 plus two T16 bars, area= 2812 mm 2 .
From equation 9.13
0.87 [yAs = 0.45 X 30 X 66816 + 0.87 X 460 X 2484
therefore
As= 4738 mm 2
Reducing As by N/0.87 [y gives

A = 4738- 1200 X 103

s 0.87 X 460
= 1740 mm 2
Provide one Tl6 plus two T32 bars, area= 1811 mm 2
The total area of reinforcement provided= 4623 mm 2 which is less than the
6 per cent allowed.
An M-N interaction diagram could now be constructed for this steel arrange-
ment. as in section 4.8, to provide a more rigorous design.

9.6 Design of Slender Columns

As specified in section 9.2, a column is classified as slender if the slenderness ratio

about either axis is
> 15 for a braced column
or > 10 for an unbraced column
There is a general restriction on the maximum slenderness of
10 :1> 60b'
and for an unbraced column
b'2
lo :1> 100 - ,
h
where 10 is the clear distance between end restraints and
b' and h' are respectively the smaller and larger dimensions of the column
section
A slender column must be designed for an additional moment caused by its
curvature at ultimate conditions. The expressions given in BS 8110 for the addi-
 COLUMN DESIGN 265
tional moments were derived by studying the moments' curvature behaviour for a
member subject to bending plus axial load. The equations for calculating the
design moments are only applicable to columns of a rectangular or circular section
and with symmetrical reinforcement.
A slender column should be designed for an ultimate axial load (N) plus an
increased moment given by
Mt =Mi +Madd

=Mi +Nau (9.14)

where Mi is the initial moment in the column
Madd is the moment caused by the deflection of the column
au is the deflection of the column.
The deflection of a rectangular or circular column is given by
au = f3aKh (9.15)
The coefficient f3a is calculated from the equation

f3a = 201oo u~ J (9.16)

with b' being generally the smaller dimension of the column section except when
biaxial bending is considered.
In equation 9.15 the coefficient K is a reduction factor to allow for the fact
that the deflection must be less when there is a large proportion of the column
section in compression. The value forK is given by the equation

K = Nuz- N ,;;;;; 1.0 (9.17)

Nuz- Nbal
where Nuz is the ultimate axial load such that
N uz = 0.45 fcuAc + 0.87 [yAsc
and Nbal is the axial load at balanced failure defined in section 4.8 and may be
taken as

In order to calculate K, the area Asc of the columns reinforcement must be

known and hence a trial and error approach is necessary, taking an initial conserva-
tive value of K = 1.0. Values of K are also marked on the column design charts as
shown in figure 9.7.

9. 6.1 Braced Slender Column

Typical bending moment diagrams for a braced column are shown in figure 9.19.
The maximum additional moment Madd occurs near the mid-heightof the column
and at this location the initial moment is taken as
(9.18)
266 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

largar
M2 - Modd/2
momant
,..,2 !• •I
Madd/2

,..,1 Madd/2
smallar
momant ,. ..,
/111 + Modd/2

Figure 9.19 Braced slender column design moments

where M 1 is the smaller initial end moment due to the design ultimate loads
and M2 is the corresponding larger initial end moment.
For the usual case with double curvature of a braced column,M1 should be
taken as negative andM2 as positive. From figure 9.19, the final design moment
should never be taken as less than
M2
Mi +Madd
Mt + Madd/2
or N X emin with emin l> h/20 or 20 mm
Equations 9.14 to 9.18 can be used to calculate the additional moment and
combined with the appropriate initial moment to design a slender column with
single axis bending about either axis, provided that the ratio of the lengths of the
sides is always less than 3 and the slenderness ratio le/h for a column bent about
its major axis does not exceed 20. Where these conditions do not apply and the
column is bent about its major axis, the effect of biaxial bending should be con-
sidered with zero initial moment about the minor axis and additional moments
about both axes.

Example 9. 7 Design of a Slender Column

A braced column of 300 x 450 cross-section resists at the ultimate limit state an
axial load of 1700 kN and end moments of 70 kN m and 10 kN m causing double
curvature about the minor axis XX as shown in figure 9.20. The column's effective
heights are lex = 6. 75 m and fey =8.0 m and the characteristic material strengths
feu = 30 N/mm 2 and /y = 460 N/mm2 •
 COLUMN DESIGN 267

b ~ 450

(a) S<Zction

N~1700kN

~r--~ M ~ 70kNm
2

M1 = 10kNm

(b) Axial toad and initial mom<Znts

Figure 9.20 Slender column example

Slenderness ratios are

lex/h =6.75/0.3 =22.5 > 15
ley/b = 8.0/0.45 = 17.8 > 15
Therefore the column is slender.
As the column is bent in double curvature
M 1 =-lOkNm
and Mi = 0.4M1 + 0.6M2
=0.4 X -10 + 0.6 X 70 =38 kN m
andMi is therefore greater than 0.4M2 •
The additional moment induced by deflection of the column is
268 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

M
add-
- Nh (
2000
Ze)2 K
lJ
= 1700 X 300 ( 6750)2 X l.O X 103
2000 300
= 129 kN m
with K = 1.0 for the initial value.
For the first iteration the total moment is
Mt =Mi +Madd
= 38 + 129 = 167 kN m
N/bh = 1700 X 103 = 12.6
450 X 300

Mjbh2 = 167 X 106 = 4.12

450 X 300 2
From the design chart of figure 9.7
100Asc/bh = 3.2
and K = 0.65
This new value forK is used to recalculate Madd and hence Mt for the second itera-
tion. The design chart is again used to determine 100Asc/bh and a new K is shown
in table 9.5. The iterations are continued until the value of Kin columns (1) and
(5) of the table are in reasonable agreement, which in this design occurs after two
iterations. So that the steel area required is
Asc = 2.2bh/100
= 2.2 x 450 x 300/100 = 2970 mm 2
As a check on the final value of K interpolated from the design chart:
Nbal = 0.25 fcubd
=0.25 X 30 X 450 X 240 X 10-3
= 810kN
Nuz = 0.45 fcubh + 0.87 [yAsc
= (0.45 X 30 X 450 X 300 + 0.87 X 460 X 2970) 10-3
= 3011 kN

K = Nuz -N
Nuz -Nbal
3011-1700
=
3011 -810
=0.6
 COLUMN DESIGN 269
which agrees with the final value in column 5 of the table.

Table 9.5

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

K Mt M/bh 2 lOOAsc/bh K

1.0 167 4.12 3.2 0.65

0.65 122 3.0 2.2 0.6

9. 6. 2 Unbraced Slender Columns

The sway of an unbraced structure causes larger additional moments in the
columns. Figure 9.21 shows how these additional moments are added to the initial
moments at the ends of the columns. The additional moment calculated from
equations 9.14 to 9.17 is added to the initial moment in the column at the end
with the stiffer joint. At the other end of the column the additional moment may
be reduced in proportion to the ratio of the stiffnesses of the two joints.

stiffczr cznd

M1
Mood M1 + Madd
lczss stiff t---==+1 14 •I
cznd at this cznd Madd
may bcz rczducczd
in proportion to
thcz joint stiffnczssczs
at czach cznd.

Figure 9.21 Unbraced slender column design moments

10
Foundations

A building is generally composed of a superstructure above the ground and a sub-

structure which forms the foundations below ground. The foundations transfer
and spread the loads from a structure's columns and walls into the ground. The
safe bearing capacity of the soil must not be exceeded otherwise excessive settle-
ment may occur, resulting in damage to the building and its service facilities, such
as the water or gas mains. Foundation failure can also affect the overall stability
of a structure so that it is liable to slide, to lift vertically or even overturn.
The earth under the foundations is the most variable of all the materials that
are considered in the design and construction of an engineering structure. Under
one small building the soil may vary from a soft clay to a dense rock. Also the
nature and properties of the soil will change with the seasons and the weather. For
example Keuper Marl, a relatively common soil, is hard like a rock when dry but
when wet it can change into an almost liquid state.
It is important to have an engineering survey made of the soil under a proposed
structure so that variations in the strata and the soil properties can be determined.
Drill holes or trial pits should be sunk, in situ tests such as the penetration test
performed and samples of the soil taken to be tested in the laboratory. From the
information gained it is possible to recommend safe earth bearing pressures and, if
necessary, calculate possible settlements of the structure. Representatives values
of the safe bearing pressures for typical soils are listed in table 10.1.
In the design of foundations, the areas of the bases in contact with the ground
should be such that the safe bearing pressures will not be exceeded. Settlement
takes place during the working life of the structure, therefore the design loading
to be considered when calculating the base areas should be those that apply to
the serviceability limit state, and typical values that can be taken are
(1) dead plus imposed load + l.OQk
= l.OGk
(2) dead plus wind load = 1.0Gk + 1.0 Wk
(3) dead plus imposed plus wind load = 1.0Gk + 0.8 Qk + 0.8 Wk
These partial factors of safety are suggested as it is highly unlikely that the maxi-
mum imposed load and the worst wind load will occur simultaneously.

270
 FOUNDATIONS 271
Table 10.1 Typical allowable bearing values
Rock or soil Typical bearing value
(kN/m 2 )

Massive igneous bedrock 10000

Sandstone 2000 to4000
Shales and mudstone 600 to 2000
Gravel, sand and gravel, compact 600
Medium dense sand 100 to 300
Loose fme sand less than 100
Hard clay 300 to 600
Medium clay 100 to 300
Soft clay less than 75

+--
+--
+--

---
+--
+--
1·0~ +--
1·4Wk
~

-
+ --

+ --
+ ---

Figure 10.1 Uplift on footing

Where the foundations are subject to a vertical and a horizontal load the
following rule can be applied.
V H
- + -<1.0
Pv Ph
where V = the vertical load
H = the horizontal load
Pv :::: the allowable vertical load
Ph =the allowable horizontal load
The allowable horizontal load would take account of the passive resistance of
the ground in contact with the vertical face of the foundation plus the friction and
cohesion along the base.
272 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The calculations to determine the structural strength of the foundations, that
is the thickness of the bases and the areas of reinforcement, should be based on the
loadings and the resultant ground pressures corresponding to the ultimate limit
state.
With some structures, such as the type shown in figure 10.1, it may be
necessary to check the possibility of uplift on the foundations and the stability of
the structure when it is subjected to 1ateralloads. To ensure adequate safety, the
stability calculations should also be for the loading arrangements associated with
the ultimate limit state. The critical loading arrangement is usually the combina-
tion of maximum lateral load with minimum dead load and no live load, that is
1.4 Wk + 1.0Gk. Minimum dead load can sometimes occur during erection when
many of the interior finishes and fixtures may not have been installed.
For most designs a linear distribution of soil pressure across the base of the
footing is assumed as shown in figure 10.2a. This assumption must be based on
the soil acting as an elastic material and the footing having infinite rigidity. In fact,
not only do most soils exhibit some plastic behaviour and all footings have a
finite stiffness, but also the distribution of soil pressure varies with time. The
actual distribution of bearing pressure at any moment may take the form shown
in figure 10.2b or c, depending on the type of soil and the stiffness of the base
and the structure. But as the behaviour of foundations involves many uncertain-
ties regarding the action of the ground and the loading, it is usually unrealistic to
consider an analysis which is too sophisticated.

t!ttttl
(a) Uniform (b) COh<ZSiV<Z (c) Sandy
distribution soil soil

Figure 10.2 Pressure distributions under footings

Foundations should be constructed so that the underside of the bases are below
frost level. As the concrete is subjected to more severe exposure conditions a
larger nominal cover to the reinforcement is required. It is recommended that the
minimum cover should be not less than 75 mm when the concrete is cast against
the ground, or less than 50 mm when the concrete is cast against a layer of blind-
ing concrete. A concrete grade of at least feu = 35 N/mm 2 is required to meet the
serviceability requirements of BS 811 0; see table 6.1.
 FOUNDATIONS 273
10.1 Pad Footings

The footing for a single column may be made square in plan, but where there is a
large moment acting about one axis it may be more economical to have a rectangu-
lar base.
Assuming there is a linear distribution the bearing pressures across the base will
take one of the three forms shown in figure 10.3, according to the relative magni-
tudes of the axial load Nand the moment M acting on the base.
(1) In figure 10.3a there is no moment and the pressure is uniform
N
p=- (10.1)*
BD
(2) With a moment M acting as shown, the pressures are given by the equation for
axial load plus bending. This is provided there is positive contact between the

M
Br(2adth of footing = B, Ecc(2ntricity(e) = N

0
I·

e =0 e <£2 e>Q.
"6 6
N N 6M =2N
P: 80 P=BD T 80 2
p
BY
Wh(2r(2
Y=3(.Q -e J
2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.3 Pad footing- pressure distributions

274 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
base and the ground along the complete length D of the footing, as in figure
10.3b so that
N My
p=-±-
BD I
where I is the second moment of area of the base about the axis of bending
andy is the distance from the axis to where the pressure is being calculated.
Substituting for I= BD3 I 12 andy = D/2, the maximum pressure is
N 6M
PI = BD + BD2 (10.2)*

and the minimum pressure is

N 6M
p 2 = BD- BD2
(10.3)*

There is positive contact along the base if p 2 from equation 10.3 is positive.
When pressure p 2 just equals zero
N 6M
- - -=0
BD BD 2
or
M D
N 6
So that for p 2 to always be positive,M/N- or the effective eccentricity, e-
must never be greater than D/6. In these cases the eccentricity of loading is
said to lie within the 'middle third' of the base.
(3) When the eccentricity, e is greater than D/6 there is no longer a positive
pressure along the length D and the pressure diagram is triangular as shown
in figure I 0.3c. Balancing the downward load and the upward pressures.
}pBY=N
therefore
. 2N
max1mum pressure p = -
BY
where Y is the length of positive contact. The centroid of the pressure
diagram must coincide with the eccentricity of loading in order for the load
and reaction to be equal and opposite. Thus
y D
---- e
3 2
or
 FOUNDATIONS 275

therefore in this case of e > D/6

maximum pressure p = - -2N- - - (10.4)*
3B(D/2- e)
A typical arrangement of the reinforcement in a pad footing is shown in figure
10.4. With a square base the reinforcement to resist bending should be distributed
uniformly across the full width of the footing. For a rectangular base the reinforce-
ment in the short direction should be distributed with a closer spacing in the region
under and near the column, to allow for the fact that the transverse moments must
be greater nearer the column. If the footing should be subjected to a large over-
turning moment so that there is only partial bearing, or if there is a resultant uplift
force, then reinforcement may also be required in the top face.
Dowels or starter bars should extend from the footing into the column in order
to provide continuity to the reinforcement. These dowels should be embedded
into the footing and extend into the columns a full lap length. Sometimes a
75 mm length of the column is constructed in the same concrete pour as the foot-
ing so as to form a 'kicker' or support for the column shutters. In these cases the
dowel lap length should be measured from the top of the kicker.

Dowels

}ap length

8
I
I
-

Figure 10.4 Pad footing reinforcement details

The critical sections through the base for checking shear, punching shear, bend-
ing and local bond are shown in figure 10.5. The shearing force and bending
moments are caused by the ultimate loads from the column and the weight of the
base should not be included in these calculations.
276 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The thickness of the base is often goverened by the requirements for shear
resistance.
The principal steps in the design calculations are as follows.
(1) Calculate the plan size of the footing using the permissible bearing
pressure and the critical loading arrangement for the serviceability limit
state.
(2) Calculate the bearing pressures associated with the critical loading
arrangement at the ultimate limit state.
(3) Assume a suitable value for the thickness (h) and effective depth (d).
Check that the shear stress at the column face is less than 5 N/mm 2
or 0.8 Vfcu' whichever is the smaller.
(4) Check the thickness for punching shear, assuming a probable value for
the ultimate shear stress, Vc, from table 5.1.
(5) Determine the reinforcement required to resist bending.
(6) Make a final check of the punching shear, having established Vc
precisely.
(7) Check the shear stress at the critical sections.
(8) Where applicable, foundations and structure should be checked for
overall stability at the ultimate limit state.
Reinforcement to resist bending in the bottom of the base should extend at
least a full tension anchorage length beyond the critical section for bending.

...
I
I
I!
I
I I
I
•I •i
I
I
~
I
• }
Maximum shear

,-----
1
Punching shear
I perimeter =
I column perimeter
I
I + 8 X 1·5d
I
I
I
I
I
L _____ _
Shear

Bending

Figure 10.5 Critical sections for design

 FOUNDATIONS 277
Example 10.1 Design of a Pad Footing
The footing is required to resist characteristic axial loads of 1000 kN dead and
350 kN imposed from a 400 mm square column. The safe bearing pressure on the
soil is 200 kN/m 2 and the characteristic material strengths are feu = 35 N/mm 2
and [y = 460 N/mm 2 •
Assume a footing weight of 150 kN so that the total dead load is 1150 kN.

400sq
1------1

}= 520

2 Bm.sq

Figure 10.6 Pad footing example

(a) For the Serviceability Limit State

Total design axial load = l.OGk + l.OQk
= 1150 + 350 = 1500 kN

required base area = 1500 = 75 m2

200
Provide a base 2.8 m square, area= 7.8 m 2 .

(b) For the Ultimate Limit State

Column design axial load = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4 X 1000 + 1.6 X 350 = 1960 kN

earth pressure = 1960 = 250 kN/m 2

2.8 2

(c) Assume a 600 mm thick footing and with the footing constructed on a blinding
layer of concrete the minimum cover is taken as 50 mm. Therefore take mean
effective depth d = 520 mm.
278 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
At the column face
shear stress, Vc =N/(column perimeter x d)
= 1960 X 103 /(1600 X 520)

= 2.36 N/mm 2 < 0.8 Vfcu

(d) Punching Shear - see figure 10.5

critical perimeter =column perimeter+ 8 x 1.5d

= 4 x 400 + 12 x 520 = 7840 mm
area within perimeter = (400 + 3d) 2
= (400 + 1560)2
= 3.84 x 106 mm 2
therefore
punching shear force V = 250 (2.8 2 - 3.84)
= IOOOkN

punching shear stress v = V

Perimeter x d

= 1000 x 103 = 0.25 N/mm2

7840 X 520
From table 5.1 this ultimate shear stress is not excessive, therefore h = 600 mm
will be suitable.

(e) Bending Reinforcement- see figure 10.7a

At the column face which is the critical section

M= (250 X 2.8 X 1.2) X _!2

2
= 504kNm
for the concrete
Mu =0.156fcubd 2
= 0.156 X 35 X 2800 X 5202 X 10-6
= 4133 kN m > 504

A= M
8
0.87[yz
From the lever-arm curve, figure 7.5, 18 = 0.95. Therefore
 FOUNDATIONS 279

A = 504 X 106
8
0.87 X 460(0.95 X 520)
= 2550 mm 2
Provide nine T20 bars at 330 mm centres,A 8 = 2830 mm 2 • Therefore
IOOA 100 x 2830 .
_ _s = = 0.17 > 0.13 as requued
bh 2800 X 600
Maximum spacing= 750 mm. Therefore the reinforcement provided meets the
requirements specified by the code for minimum area and maximum bar spacing
in a slab.

1·0d =
0·6Bm 0·52m

(a) Bending (b) Shear

Figure 10.7 Critical sections

(f) Final Check of Punching Shear

From table 5.1, for feu= 35 and 100A 8/bd = 0.19
ultimate shear stress, Vc = 0.4 N/mm 2
punching shear stress was 0.25 N/mm 2 , therefore a 600 mm thick pad is adequate.

(g) Shear Stress- see figure 10.7b

At the critical section for shear, l.Od from the column face
V= 250 X 2.8 X 0.68
= 476 kN

v = -=
v 476 X 103
bd 2800 X 520
= 0.33 N/mm 2 < 0.4
Therefore the section is adequate in shear.
280 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

10.2 Combined Footings

Where two columns are close together it is sometimes necessary or convenient to

combine their footings to form a continuous base. The dimensions of the footing
should be chosen so that the resultant load passes through the centroid of the base
area. This may be assumed to give a uniform bearing pressure under the footing
and help to prevent differential settlement. For most structures the ratios of dead
and imposed loads carried by each column are similar so that if the resultant passes
through the centroid for the serviceability limit state then this will also be true -
or very nearly - at the ultimate limit state, and hence in these cases a uniform
pressure distribution may be considered for both limit states.

CQntroid of baSQ and

rQsultant load coincidQ

-+-ffi-·

RQctangular TrapQzoidal

Figure 10.8 Combined bases

The shape of the footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal as shown in figure

10.8. The trapezoidal base has the disadvantage of detailing and cutting varying
lengths of reinforcing bars; it is used where there is a large variation in the loads
carried by the two columns and there are limitations on the length of the footing.
Sometimes in order to strengthen the base and economise on concrete a beam is
incorporated between the two columns so that the base is designed as an inverted
T-section.
The proportions of the footing depend on many factors. If it is too long, there
will be large longitudinal moments on the lengths projecting beyond the columns,
whereas a short base will have a larger span moment between the columns and the
greater width will cause large transverse moments. The thickness of the footing
must be such that the shear stresses are not excessive.

Example 10.2 Design of a Combined Footing

The footing supports two columns 300 mm square and 400 mm square with
characteristic dead and imposed loads as shown in figure 10.9. The safe bearing
pressure is 300 kN/m 2 and the characteristic material strengths are feu =35 N/mm 2
and [y = 460 N/mm 2
 FOUNDATIONS 281

r-j .. ·I
2·3m 124m
I

~1"
Gk = 1000kN Gk = 1400kN

Qk= 200kN :'::: 0 300kN

:J 0
<ll-

"'
L

{
T16 at 180 9T20
(tronsv~rs~)

400sq

co'"=
m-T
I
I
3·0m

46m
106m :I
Figure l 0.9 Combined footing example

(I) Base area: allow, say, 250 kN for the self-weight of the footing. At the
serviceability limit state
total load= 250 + 1000 + 200 + 1400 + 300 = 3150 kN
. 3150
area of base requued = - - = 10.5 m2
300
provide a rectangular base, 4.6 m x2.3 m, area= 10.58 m 2 .
(2) Resultant of column loads and centroid of base: taking moments about the
centre line of the 400 mm square column
1200 X 3
x= = 1.24 m
1200 + 1700
The base is centred on this position of the resultant of the column loads as
shown in figure 10.9.
282 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
(3) Bearing pressure at the ultimate limit state: at the ultimate limit state
column loads= 1.4 x 1000 + 1.6 x 200 + 1.4 x 1400 + 1.6 x 300
= 1720 + 2440 = 4160 kN
therefore
4160
earth pressure = = 393 kN/m 2
4.6 X 2.3
(4) Assuming an 800 mm thick base with d = 740 mm for the longitudinal bars
and with a mean d = 730 mm for punching shear calculations:
At the column face
shear stress, Vc = N/column perimeter x d
For 300 mm square column
Vc = 1720 X 103 /(1200 X 730)
= 1.4 7 N/mm 2 < 0.8 .../feu

0·54m 3·0m 1·06m I

1· -r720kN 2440k~r ·
ttttttttttttt
w = 393x 2·3 = 904kN/m

1232 958

~ ~
~ 1~1
: ~1482
I SF- kN
I
I
1708

~
508
B.M-kN.m

Figure 10.10 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams

 FOUNDATIONS 283
For 400 mm square column
Vc = 2440 X 103 /(1600 X 730)
= 2.09 N/mm 2 < 0.8 Vfcu

(5) Longitudinal moments and shear forces: the shear-force and bending-moment
diagrams at the ultimate limit state and for a net upward pressure of
393 kN/m 2 are shown in figure 10.10.
(6) Shear: punching shear cannot be checked, since the critical perimeter I.5d
from the column face lies outside the base area. The critical section for shear
is taken I.Od from the column face. Therefore with d =730 mm

V = 1482- 393 X 2.3 (0. 74 + 0.2)

= 632 kN
thus
V 632 X 103
shear stress v = - = - - - -
bd 2300 X 730
= 0.38 N/mm 2 which from table 5.1 is just
satisfactory for grade 35 concrete
(7) Longitudinal bending
(i) Mid-span between the columns
-
A s- M 708 X 106
=---------
0.87/yz 0.87 X 460 X 0.95 X 740
= 2517 mm 2
Provide nine T20 at 270 mm centres, area = 2830 mm 2 , top.
(ii) At the face of the 400 mm square column

M = 393 X 2.3 X ( 1·06 - 0 ·2)2

2
=334kNm
334x10 6
-
A s- M
0.87/yz
= ---------
0.87 X 460 X 0.95 X 740
= 1188 mm 2
but
. . A 0.13bh 0.13 X 2300 X 800
mmtmum 8 = - - = - - - - - - -
100 100
=2392mm2
284 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Provide nine T20 at 270 mm centres,A 8 = 2830 mm 2 , bottom.
(8) Transverse bending
1 15 2
M= 393 x -·- = 260kN m/m
2
M 260 X 106
As=---
0.87 [yz 0.87 460
X X 0.95 X 720
= 950 mm 2 /m
But
. . A 0.13bh 0.13 X 1000 X 800
mmtmum = =-------
s 100 100
= 1040 mm 2 /m
Provide T16 bars at 180 mm centres, area= 1117 mm 2 per metre.
The transverse reinforcement should be placed at closer centres under the
columns to allow for greater moments in those regions.

10.3 Strap Footings

Strap footings, as shown in figure 10.11, are used where the base for an exterior
column must not project beyond the property line. A strap beam is constructed
between the exterior footing and the adjacent interior footing - the purpose of the
strap is to restrain the overturning force due to the eccentric load on the exterior
footing.
The base areas of the footings are proportioned so that the bearing pressures
are uniform and equal under both bases. Thus it is necessary that the resultant of
the loads on the two footings should pass through the centroid of the areas of the
two bases. The strap beam between the footings should not bear against the soil,
hence the ground directly under the beam should be loosened and left uncom-
pacted.
To achieve suitable sizes for the footings several trial designs may be necessary.
With reference to figure 10.11 the principal steps in the design are as follows.
(1) Choose a trial width D for the rectangular outer footing and assume
weights W1 and W2 for the footings and W8 for the strap beam.
(2) Take moments about the centre line of the inner column in order to
determine the reaction R 1 under the outer footing. The loadings
should be those required for the serviceability limit state. Thus

(R 1 - Wt) ( L + f- ~) - N 1 L - Ws ~ =0 (1 0.5)
 FOUNDATIONS 285

C<Zntroid of bos<Zs
0
•j to comcid<Z with 5
.----------. rasultont of
N1 and N2

B 5

Loads at th<Z ult limit stat<Z

r;-- 514"\-R,

"·L[Ej
E;;:i
I
Sh<Zar Forcas
I
I a,.2
2- (N+14W-R
2 2 2 )~
2

Banding Mom<Znt Pu = nat upward prassur<Z at

th<Z ultimata limit stata

Figure 10.11 Strap footing with shearing force and bending moments for the strap beam
286 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
and solve for R 1 . The width B of the outer footing is then given by

B = Rt
pD
where p is the safe bearing pressure.

(3) Equate the vertical loads and reactions to determine the reaction R 2
under the inner footing. Thus
(10.6)
and solve for R 2 • The sizeS of the square inner footing is then given by

S= J:2
(4) Check that the resultant of all the loads on the footings passes through
the centroid of the areas of the two bases. If the resultant is too far
away from the centroid then steps 1 to 4 must be repeated until there
is adequate agreement.
(5) Apply the loading associated with the ultimate limit state. Accordingly,
revise equations 10.5 and 10.6 to determine the new values for R 1 and
R 2 . Hence calculate the bearing pressure Pu for this limit state. It may
be assumed that the bearing pressures for this case are also equal and
uniform, provided the ratios of dead load to imposed load are similar
for both columns.
(6) Design the inner footing as a square base with bending in both direc-
tions.
(7) Design the outer footing as a base with bending in one direction and
supported by the strap beam.
(8) Design the strap beam. The maximum bending moment on the beam
occurs at the point of zero shear as shown in figure 10.11. The shear on
the beam is virtually constant, the slight decrease being caused by the
beam's self-weight. The stirrups should be placed at a constant spacing
but they should extend into the footings over the supports so as to give
a monolithic foundation. The main tension steel is required at the top of
the beam but reinforcement should also be provided in the bottom of
the beam so as to cater for any differential settlement or downward
loads on the beam.

10.4 Strip Footings

Strip footings are used under walls or under a line of closely-spaced columns. Even
were it possible to have individual bases, it is often simpler and more economic to
excavate and construct the forrnwork for a continuous base.
On a sloping site the foundations should be constructed on a horizontal bearing
and stepped where necessary. At the steps the footings should be lapped as shown
in figure 10.12.
 FOUNDATIONS 287

Figure 10.12 Stepped footing on a sloping site

The footings are analysed and designed as an inverted continuous beam subjected
to the ground bearing pressures. With a thick rigid footing and a fum soil, a linear
distribution of bearing pressure is considered. If the columns are equally spaced and
equally loaded the pressure is uniformly distributed but if the loading is not sym-
metrical then the base is subjected to an eccentric load and the bearing pressure
varies as shown in figure 10.13.

N N N

!· i· ·i

I
TI TI TI I

f f f f f f t [tttffJ
Un1 form prczssurcz Non-uniform prczssurcz

Figure 10.13 Linear pressure distribution under a rigid strip footing

The bearing pressures will not be linear when the footing is not very rigid and
the soil is soft and compressible. In these cases the bending-moment diagram
would be quite unlike that for a continuous beam with frrmly held supports and
the moments could be quite large, particularly if the loading is unsymmetrical. For
a large foundation it may be necessary to have a more detailed investigation of the
soil pressures under the base in order to determine the bending moments and
shearing forces.
Reinforcement is required in the bottom of the base to resist the transverse
bending moments in addition to the reinforcement required for the longitudinal
bending. Footings which support heavily loaded columns often require stirrups
and bent-up bars to resist the shearing forces. ·

Exomple 10.3 Design of a Strip Footing

Design a strip footing to carry 400 mm square columns equally spaced at 3.5 m
centres. On each column the characteristic loads are 1000 kN dead and 350 kN
288 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

3·5m ctrs

8T20 T20 at 250 ctrs

I. 22~

Figure 10.14 Strip footing with bending reinforcement

imposed. The safe bearing pressure is 200 kN/m 2 and the characteristic material
strengths are feu = 35 N/mm 2 and fy = 460 N/mm 2 .
(1) Try a thickness of footing= 800 with d = 740 mm for the longitudinal
reinforcement. Assume a footing self-weight = 45 kN/m.

W1'dth offoo t'mg requue

. d = 1000+350+(45x3.5) =2.15m
200 X 3.5
Provide a strip footing 2.2 m wide.
At the ultimate limit state
column load= 1.4 x 1000 + 1.6 x 350 = 1960 kN
. 1960
beanng pressure = - - -
2.2 X 3.5
= 255 kN/m 2
(2) Punching shear at column face
Vc = N/column perimeter x d
= 1960 X 103 /1600 X 740
= 1. 7 N/mm 2 < 0.8 Vfcu
By inspection, the normal shear on a section at the column face will be
significantly less severe.
(3) Longitudinal Reinforcement
Using the moment and shear coefficients for an equal-span continuous
beam (figure 3.10), for an interior span
moment at the columns = 255 x 2.2 x 3.5 2 x 0.08
= 550kN m
therefore

A = 550 x 106 = 1955 mm2

s 0.87 X 460 X 0.95 X 740
 FOUNDATIONS 289

Minimum As = 0 · 13 bh = 0.13 x 2200 x 800 = 2288 mm 2

100 100
Provide eight T20 at 300 mm centres, area= 2510 mm 2 , bottom steel.
In the span
M = 255 X 2.2 X 3.5 2 X 0.07
=481 kNm
therefore

A = 481 x 106 = 1710mm2

s 0.87 X 460 X 0.95 X 740
Provide eight T20 bars at 300 mm centres, area = 2510 mm 2 , top steel.
( 4) Transverse Reinforcement
1 12
M = 255 X-·- = 155 kN m/m
2

As = 155 x 106 = 566 mm2 /m

0.87 X 460 X 0.95 X 720

Minimum As= 0 · 13 bh = 0.13 x 1000 x 800 = 1040 mm 2

100 100
Provide T20 bars at 250 mm centres, area= 1260 mm 2/m, bottom steel.
(5) Normal Shear will govern as the punching shear perimeter is outside the
footing.
l.Od from column face
V= 255 X 2.2 (3.5 X 0.55-0.74- 0.2) = 553 kN
(The coefficient of0.55 is from figure 3.10.)
553 X 103
Shear stress v = = 0.34 N/mm 2
2200 X 740
Allowable ultimate shear stress= 0.38 N/mm 2 , from table 5.1 for
feu = 35 N/mm 2.

10.5 Raft Foundations

A raft foundation transmits the loads to the ground by means of a reinforced

concrete slab that is continuous over the base of the structure. The raft is able to
span over any areas of weaker soil and it spreads the loads over a wide area.
Heavily loaded structures are often provided with one continuous base in pre-
ference to many closely spaced, separate footings. Also where settlement is a
problem, because of mining subsidence, it is common practice to use a raft founda-
tion in conjunction with a more flexible superstructure.
The simplest type of raft is a flat slab of uniform thickness supporting the
columns. Where punching shears are large the columns may be provided with a
290 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
pedestal at their base as shown in figure 10.15. The pedestal serves a similar
function to the drop panel in a flat slab floor. Other, more heavily loaded rafts
require the foundation to be strengthened by beams to form a ribbed construc-
tion. The beams may be downstanding, projecting below the slab or they may be
upstanding as shown in the figure. Downstanding beams have the disadvantage of
disturbing the ground below the slab and the excavated trenches are often a
nuisance during construction, while upstanding beams interrupt the clear floor
area above the slab. To overcome this a second slab is sometimes cast on top of
the beams, so forming a cellular raft.
Rafts having a uniform slab, and without strengthening beams, are generally
analysed and designed as an inverted flat slab floor subjected to the earth bearing
pressures. With regular column spacing and equal column loading, the coefficients
tabulated in section 8.7 for flat slab floors are used to calculate the bending
moments in the raft. The slab must be checked for punching shear around the
columns and around pedestals, if they are used.

(a) Flat slob (b) Downstond (c) Upstand

beam beam

Figure 10.15 Raft foundations

Water
table
Upward pressure

Figure 10.16 Raft foundation subject to uplift

A raft with strengthening beams is designed as an inverted beam and slab floor.
The slab is designed to span in two directions where there are supporting beams on
all four sides. The beams are often subjected to high shearing forces which need to
be resisted by a combination of stirrups and bent-up bars.
Raft foundations which are below the level of the water table as in figure 10.16
should be checked to ensure that they are able to resist the uplift forces due to the
hydrostatic pressure. This may be critical during construction before the weight of
 FOUNDATIONS 291
the superstructure is in place, and it may be necessary to provide extra weight to
the raft and lower the water table by pumping. An alternative method is to
anchor the slab down with short tension piles.

10.6 Piled Foundations

Piles are used where the soil conditions are poor and it is uneconomical, or not
possible, to provide adequate spread foundations. The piles must extend down to
firm soil so that the load is carried by either (1) end bearing, {2) friction, or
(3) a combination of both end bearing and friction. Concrete piles may be precast
and driven into the ground, or they may be the cast in situ type which are bored
or excavated.
A soils survey of a proposed site should be carried out to determine the depth
to firm soil and the properties of the soil. This information will provide a guide to
the lengths of pile required and the probable safe load capacity of the piles. On a
large contract the safe loads are often determined from full-scale load tests on
typical piles or groups of piles. With driven piles the safe load can be calculated
from equations which relate the resistance of the pile to the measured set per
blow and the driving force.
The load-carrying capacity of a group of piles is not necessarily a multiple of
that for a single pile- it is often considerably less. For a large group of closely
spaced friction piles the reduction can be of the order of one-third. In contrast,
the load capacity of a group of end bearing piles on a thick stratum of rock or
compact sand or gravel is substantially the sum total of the resistance of each
individual pile. Figure 10.17 shows the bulbs of pressure under piles and illustrates
why the settlement of a group of piles is dependent on the soil properties at a
greater depth.

I--

I
I
I
\\/pr<Zssur<Z""'' -""-tI I1
Bulb of
I
I I I
• o:: o:: •,
~~~~~~~~~~
: •/ • -:' •' • o•.,I • :, a" •. ,,• ', ': •._ o •o', t', ~ ', j t • : .• ' ~ ...

7//717J~o~tr:~:~ ~7777:
' ............. ___ _,.,.,. /

Pii<Z group Singi<Z pii<Z

Figure 10.17 Bulbs of pressure

292 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The minimum spacing of piles, centre to centre, should not be less than (1) the
pile perimeter - for friction piles, or (2) twice the least width of the pile - for
end bearing piles. Bored piles are sometimes enlarged at their base so that they
have a larger bearing area or a greater resistance to uplift.
A pile is designed as a short column unless it is slender and the surrounding soil
is too weak to provide restraint. Precast piles must also be designed to resist the
bending moments caused by lifting and stacking, and the head of the pile must be
reinforced to withstand the impact of the driving hammer.
It is very difficult if not impossible to determine the true distribution of load
of a pile group, therefore, in general, it is more realistic to use methods that are
simple but logical. A vertical load on a group of vertical piles with an axis of
symmetry is considered to be distributed according to the following equation,
which is similar in form to that for an eccentric load on a pad foundation:

Pn = !'! -+ Nexx + Neyy

Yn- Xn
n lxx lyy
where Pn is the axial load on an individual pile
N is the vertical load on the pile group
n is the number of piles
exx and eyy are the eccentricities of the load N about the centroidal axes XX
and YY of the pile group
lxx and lyy are the second moments of area of the pile group about axes XX
and YY
Xn andyn are the distances of the individual pile from axes YY and XX,
respectively.

Example 10.4 Loads in a Pile Group

Determine the distribution between the individual piles of a 1000 kN vertical load
acting at position A of the group of vertical piles shown in figure 10.18.
Centroid of the pile group: taking moments about line TT
y = ~Y = 2.0 + 2.0 + 3.0 + 3.0 = 1. 67 m
n 6
where n is the number of piles. Therefore the eccentricities of the load about the
XX and YY centroidal axis are
exx =2.0-1.67 =0.33 m
and
eyy = 0.2 m
lxx = ~Yn2 with respect to the centroidal axis XX
=2 X 1.67 2 + 2 X 0.33 2 + 2 X 1.33 2 =9.33
similarly

Therefore
 FOUNDATIONS 293
N + Nexx
P n =- + Neyy
- Yn- Xn
n lxx lyy
= 1000 + 1000 X 0.33 + 1000 X 0.2
6 - 9.33 Yn- 6.0
= 166.7 ± 35.4yn ± 33.3Xn
Therefore, substituting for Yn and Xn
P1 = 166.7-35.4 X 1.67 + 33.3 X 1.0 = 140.9 kN
P2 = 166.7- 35.4 X 1.67-33.3 X 1.0 = 74.3 kN
P3 = 166.7 + 35.4 X 0.33 + 33.3 X 1.0 = 211.7 kN
P4 = 166.7 + 35.4 X 0.33-33.3 X 1.0 = 145.1 kN
P5 = 166.7 + 35.4 X 1.33 + 33.3 X 1.0 = 247.1 kN
P6 = 166.7 + 35.4 X 1.33-33.3 X 1.0 = 180.5 kN
Total 999.6"" 1000 kN

i=1·67m
2·0m

Figure 10.18
294 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

When a pile group is unsymmetrical about both co-ordinate axes it is necessary

to consider the theory of bending about the principal axes which is dealt with in
most textbooks on strength of materials. In this case the formulae for the pile
loads are

where
A= N(exx~X~ ~ eyy~XnYn)
~X~ ~y~ - (~XnYn) 2

and B = N(eyy~Y~ ~ exx~XnYn)

~x~~y~ - (~XnYni
Note that exx is the eccentricity about the XX axis, while eyy is the eccentricity
about the YYaxis, as in figure 10.18.
Piled foundations are sometimes required to resist horizontal forces in addition
to the vertical loads. If the horizontal forces are small they can often be resisted by
the passive pressure of the soil against vertical piles, otherwise if the forces are not
small then raking piles must be provided as shown in figure 10.19a.
To determine the load in each pile either a static method or an elastic method is
available. The static method is simply a graphical analysis using Bow's notation as
illustrated in figure 10.19b. This method assumes that the piles are pinned at their
ends so that the induced loads are axial. The elastic method takes into account the

(a>

Figure 10.19 Forces in raking piles

 FOUNDATIONS 295
displacements and rotations of the piles which may be considered pinned or ftxed
at their ends. The pile foundation is analysed in a similar manner to a plane frame
or space frame and available computer programs are commonly used.
The pile cap must be rigid and capable of transferring the column loads to the
piles. It should have sufficient thickness for anchorage of the column dowels and
the pile reinforcement, and it must be checked for punching shear, diagonal shear,
bending and local bond. Piles are rarely positioned at the exact locations shown on
the drawings, therefore this must be allowed for when designing and detailing the
pile cap.
11
Water-retaining Structures and
Retaining Walls
The design of both of these types of structure is based on fundamental principles
and analysis techniques which have been discussed in previous chapters. Because
of their specialised nature, however, design is often governed by factors which
may be regarded as secondary in normal reinforced concrete work. Such structures
are relatively common, in one form or another, and hence justify coverage in some
detail.

11.1 Water-retaining Structures

This category includes those which are required to contain, or exclude, any non-
aggressive aqueous liquid. Since water is that most commonly involved, however,
the rather loose title is frequently used to describe such structures. Common
structures of this type include water towers and reservoirs, storage tanks including
sewage disposal and treatment systems, and floors and walls of basements and
other underground constructions where it is necessary to prevent ingress of
groundwater.
As it is important to restrain cracking so that leakages do not take place the
design is generally governed by the requirements of the serviceability limit state,
but stability considerations are particularly important and design must take
careful account of the construction methods to be used. British Standard Code
of Practice BS 8007 offers guidance on the design and construction of this
category of structure, and is based on a limit state philosophy as embodied in
BS 8110.
Elastic design methods have traditionally been used, and these are also sum-
marised in this chapter although not included in BS 8007.
Code of Practice BS 8007 recommends modifications to the detailed Urnit
State design requirements of BS 8110, with the principal features being:
(a) Use of r f = 1.4 for liquid loads.
(b) Use of concrete grade C35A (this has a maximum water/cement ratio of

296
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 297
0.55 and minimum cement content of 325 kg/m 3 -that is, durability
performance comparable to grade C40).
(c) Exposure classification of internal members and both faces of members
exposed to liquid on at least one face is severe, giving minimum cover of
40 rum. If a more severe exposure condition exists, BS 8110 durability
requirements may dominate.
(d) Maximum crack width limited to 0.2 rum unless the aesthetic appearance
is critical, when 0.1 rum is required to avoid staining of the concrete.
(e) Maximum bar spacing of 300 rum.
(f) Anchorage bond stresses for straight horizontal bars in sections subjected
to direct tension must be reduced to 70 per cent of the usual values.
(g) At least 75 rum blinding concrete is required below ground slabs.
Design procedures are aimed primarily at providing appropriate combinations of
movement joints and reinforcement to limit crack widths to the required values.

11.1.1 Design and Construction Problems

To ensure a watertight structure the concrete must be adequately reinforced in
sections where tension may occur. For this reason it is important to be able to
envisage the deflected shape of the structure and its individual elements. Tensile
stresses due to any direct tensile forces as well as those due to bending must be
included in the design calculations.
Continuity reinforcement to prevent cracking must be provided at corners and
at member junctions. This reinforcement must extend well beyond where it is
required to resist the tensile stresses, particularly when these stresses occur on the
face in contact with the liquid.
The design should consider the cases where the structure is full of liquid
(allowing for blocked outlets) and also when it is empty. The structure when empty
must have the strength to withstand the active pressure of any retained earth.
Since the passive resistance of the earth is never certain to be acting, it should
generally be ignored when designing for the structure full.
Cracking may occur not only from flexure and shrinkage, but also from sub-
sidence and in some areas earthquakes. Careful attention must thus be given to
geological aspects of a proposed site and in particular to the possibilities of
differential settlement. It may sometimes be necessary to provide movement
joints to cater for this, in addition to expansion and contraction joints required
to allow for thermal and shrinkage movements. Flexural cracking can be control-
led by careful design and detailing and is discussed in chapter 6, while shrinkage
and thermal effects can be reduced considerably by careful attention to the
construction factors listed in section 1.3.
With a thick section, the heat generated by hydration cannot readily be dis-
sipated, and the resulting temperature rise in the body of the concrete may be
considerable. In addition to the normal precautions, it may be necessary to use
low-heat cements and to restrict the size of pours, for example. Experimental
work has shown that in walls and slabs greater than 500 rum in thickness, the
outer 250 rum on each face may be regarded as the surface zone and the remainder
as core. Minimum reinforcement quantities to control thermal and shrinkage
cracking should thus be based on a maximum member thickness of 500 rum.
298 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The bottom surface zone for ground slabs should be only 100 mm. Temperature
rises due to hydration must be averaged to allow for the core temperature.
The importance of good curing cannot be overemphasised, but it is important
to remember that good compaction on site is just as vital, if not more critical, in
producing an impermeable concrete. It is essential, therefore, that the concrete
mix used is sufficiently workable to enable easy handling during construction,
with no tendency to segregation. An increased water content combined with a
higher cement content will help to achieve this, while a longer mixing time, and
the use of natural aggregates in preference to crushed stone are also helpful. Wall
thicknesses of at least 200 mm are recommended to assist compaction.
Formwork must also be carefully constructed to avoid grout leakage at joints
and consequent areas of concrete vulnerable to water penetration. Particular care
must also be given to the use of formwork ties. Through ties should not be used,
as these offer a potential leakage path. The choice of surface finish should take
account of possible staining of exposed surfaces.
Flotation, particularly during construction, is a major problem in many under·
ground tanks and basements. To overcome this it may be necessary to dewater the
site, increase the dead weight of the structure, use anchor piles or provide for
temporary flooding of the structure. In any case, the construction sequence must
be carefully studied, and specified at the design stage to ensure a minimum factor
of safety of 1.1 against flotation.
When filling a tank or reservoir for the first time, this should be done slowly.
This permits stress redistributions to occur, and this, coupled with creep effects,
will greatly reduce the extent of cracking. An initial watertightness test is likely to
be specified, and a recommended procedure is given by BS 8007. Access provision
will be required for inspection, cleaning and testing and this must take account of
safety and ventilation requirements.

11.2 Joints in Water-retaining Structures

All concrete structures must inevitably contain construction joints, although the
need for joints to accommodate movement in water-retaining structures is governed
by the likelihood of, and need to restrict, unacceptable cracking principally due to
shrinkage and thermal movements. Frequently it may be possible to combine the
two categories of joint.
The principal characteristics of joints are that they must be watertight, and in
the case of movement joints must also permit the repeated required movements to
take place as freely as possible. Waterbars will generally be incorporated, either
the surface type in slabs, or commonly the centre bulb type in walls. These must
be effectively held in position during concreting, while allowing good compaction
of the concrete to be still possible. Such waterbars must furthermore be able to
accommodate anticipated movement without tearing, and withstand considerable
water pressures.
All movement joints must be sealed with a flexible compound which effectively
is watertight and also prevents dust and grit from entering and thus blocking the
joint. Jointing materials must be durable under the conditions of exposure to
which they may be subjected, but routine replacement is likely to be necessary.
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 299
11.2.1 Construction Joints
Construction joints cannot be avoided, and the aim must be to ensure reinforce-
ment continuity with good bonding between the new concrete and old. Such
requirements, of course, apply to any reinforced concrete construction but
especial care must be taken in this instance if leakage is to be avoided. Laitance
must always be removed to expose coarse aggregate and a sound irregular con-
crete surface. The new concrete is then poured either directly against this surface,
or alternatively a thin layer of grout may be applied before casting. If well con-
structed, such joints should be completely watertight. Waterstops are not usually
necessary; however, it is sometimes preferred to seal the joint on the water-
retaining surface as an additional precaution.

h -1-

\Prczparczd
surfaccz

Figure 11.1 Construction joint

Wherever possible the construction should be arranged so that the joints are
either all horizontal or all vertical. In some instances long lengths of walls or slab
are constructed in alternate lengths as shown in figure 11.2, so that when the
intermediate pours are made later the older concrete in the earlier pours will have

I'..,.__p-,~-~-r--1~-·--3-rd-+~·--2-n_d_l...,
...___ ~~?:::uct oon

Altczrnatcz Bay Constructoon

1st 2nd 3rd

Contonuous Bay Constructoon

Figure 11.2 Construction procedure for walls

300 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
already taken up some of the shrinkage movement. But on the other hand some
engineers prefer to construct successive lengths, arguing that this will mean there
is only one restrained edge and the other edge of the slab is free to contract with-
out cracking.

11.2.2 Movement Joints

Movement joints are provided to reduce the likelihood of unwanted thermal or
shrinkage stress concentrations. They ensure there is only a partially restrained
condition during contraction of the immature concrete.
Joints to accommodate contraction may be of two types, 'partial' or 'com-
plete', depending upon the extent of contraction anticipated and the degree of
restraint that can be tolerated. 'Partial' contraction joints are the simplest to
provide, and consist of a deliberate discontinuity of the concrete, but without
an initial gap, as shown in figure 11.3. Care must be taken to prevent excessive
adhesion of the concrete surfaces when the second slab is cast against the first,
and a waterbar may be desirable as a precaution in addition to the joint sealer.
Reinforcement is continuous across the joint to provide some shear transfer, but
at the same time this reduces the effective freedom of movement of the adjacent
concrete sections. Such joints thus provide only limited relief from constraint
and they must always be separated by at least one movement joint with complete
discontinuity of concrete and steel.

S<2al<2r - - - - - - - - -
LIQUid Od)OC<Znt
fOC<2
C<2ntr<2 bulb
wat<Zrbar
Concr<2t<2 bond -J:~~::-"""'f-----""'i
brok<Zn at JOint
S<2al<2r
Surfac<Z
wat<Zrbar

(a) Wall (b) Slab

Figure 11.3 Partial contraction joint

An example of a 'complete' contraction joint which fulfils this requirement is

shown in figure 11.4a. In this case both steel and concrete are discontinuous, but
if any shear must be transferred then a shear key is required, as shown. In this type
of joint a water bar is considered to be essential, although there is no initial gap
between the concrete surfaces.
Where expansion of the concrete is considered possible,joints must be provided
which permit this to take place freely without the development of compressive
stresses in the concrete. Expansion joints must, therefore, not only provide com-
plete discontinuity of concrete and steel reinforcement, but also must have an
initial gap to accommodate such movement. Contraction can also of course be
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 301
catered for by this type of joint. Figure 11.4b shows a common expansion joint
detail, where in addition to a sealer and special waterstop, the joint is filled with a
non-absorbent compressible filler. Shear can obviously not be transmitted by this
joint, but if it is essential that provision for shear transfer be made, a special joint
involving sliding concrete surfaces must be designed. Water pressure on the joint
materials may also cause problems if the gap is wide, and this must be considered.

SC2allzr

f i IIC2r
CC2nfrC2 bulb
watC2rbar
ConcrC2tC2 bond
brokC2n
SC2aiC2r
ShC2ar kC2y
(if rC2quirC2d)

Blinding concrcztC2

(a) CompiC2tC2 contract1on (b) Expansion joint

joint in wall in floor slab

Figure 11.4 Complete movement joints

Occasionally, a structure may be designed on the basis that one part is to be free
to move relative to another, for example in a circular tank on a flat base, the walls
may be designed as independent of the base. In such cases special sliding joints
are sometimes used. The essential requirement is that the two concrete surfaces
are absolutely plane and smooth and that bond is broken between the surfaces such
as by painting or the use of building paper, or that a suitable flexible rubber pad is
used. Figure 11.5 shows a typical detail for such a joint, which must always be
effectively sealed.

FIC2XibiC2
SC2CIC2r

PrC2parC2d 'sliding'
joint surfacC2

Figure 11.5 Typical1liding joint between llab and wall

302 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Provision.of Movement Joints
The need for movement joints will depend to a considerable extent on the nature
of the structure and the usage to which it is put. For instance an elevated structure
may be subjected to few restraints, while an underground structure may be
massive and restrained. On the other hand, temperature and moisture variations
may be greater in exposed structures than those which are buried. If warm liquids
are involved, then this must be reflected in the provision of adequate joints.
The type of member, and construction sequence, will also be an important
consideration. Floor slabs will generally be cast on a separating layer of polythene
or some similar material laid on the blinding concrete, and in this case joints should
be complete contraction or expansion joints. Alternatively, the slab may be cast
directly on to the blinding and reinforced to limit cracking on the basis of full
restraint as described in chapter 1.
Walls may similarly be designed as fully restrained, or alternatively contraction
joints provided at spacings indicated by table 11.1.
Expansion joints must be provided if necessary. In some instances roofs may be
separated from the walls by sliding joints. If the roof is to be designed as unre-
strained then great care must be taken to minimise the restraints to thermal
movement during construction. If significant restraints cannot be avoided, rein-
forcement must be designed to limit the likely cracking. Where roof and wall are
monolithic, joints in the roof should correspond to those in the wall, which in
turn may be related to those in the floor slab.
If design of a member is based on the fully restrained condition, it is assumed
that cracking will be controlled by the reinforcement; therefore the critical steel
ratio rcrit which is discussed in section 6.5 must be exceeded. The reinforcement
is then detailed to limit the maximum likely crack width to the required value,
using appropriate values of likely temperature change and concrete properties
recommended by the code of practice. In this instance greatest benefit is
obtained from closely spaced small diameter bars.
Alternatively, if proper movement joints are provided so that cracks are con-
centrated at the joints, reinforcement may be designed on the basis of only partial
restraint as indicated in table 11.1, but bar spacing should not exceed 300 mm, or
the section thickness.

11.3 Reinforcement Details

Reinforcement should normally be placed near the surface of the concrete but
with a minimum cover of 40 mm. Minimum steel areas in each of two directions
at right angles depend on the joint arrangement as discussed above, but these
will frequently need to be exceeded to limit thermal crack widths.
The critical steel ratio, rcrit, is given by f ct/fy as in equation 6.12 of section 6.5,
and typically has the following values for grade C35A concrete:
High-yield bars (/y = 460 N/mm 2 ), rcrit = 0.0035
Mild steel bars (/y =250 N/mm2 ), rcrit =0.0064
 Table 11.1 Design options for control of thermal contraction and restrained shrinkage
Option Type of construction and ~ovementjoint spacing Steel ratio Comments
method of control (see note)
1 Continuous: No joints, but expansion joints at ~mum Use small size bars at close g
for full restraint wide spacings may be desirable in of rcrlt spacing to avoid high steel
walls and roofs that are not pro- ratios well in excess of r crlt ~
tected from solar heat gain or where ~
the contained liquid is subjected to ~
a substantial temperature range
2 Semicontinuous: (a) Complete contraction joints, ~inirnum Use small size bars but less ~
for partial restraint EO; 15 m of 'crlt steel than in option 1 ~
(b) Alternate partial and
complete contraction joints
(by interpolating), EO; 11.25 m
(c) Partial joints, EO; 7.5 m
til
3 Close movement joint (a) Complete joints, in metres ~irnum Restrict the joint spacing
~
spacing: for freedom of2/3 rcrlt for options 3(b) and 3(c)
E0;4.8 + w ~
of movement e
(b) Alternate partial and complete In these expressions
~
joints, in metres Smax =maximum likely
w crack spacing
EO; 0.5 Smax + 2.4 + - ~
e (metres)
(c) Partialjoints w =allowable crack width
w (mm)
~
t;;
EO;smax +- e =strain in concrete
e
~
Note: In options 1 and 2 the steel ratio will generally exceed 'crlt to restrict the crack widths to acceptable values. w
In option 3 the steel ratio of 2/3 r crit will be adequate. Evaluation of joint spacin~s for option 3 is illustrated in example 11.1.
304 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
In walls less than 200 mm thick or ground slabs less than 300 mm thick steel areas
should be provided in one layer, but in thicker members two equal layers should
be provided. Spacing should not exceed 300 mm or the section thickness.
Limitation of crack widths means that under service conditions the reinforce·
ment is likely to be acting at stresses below those normally existing in reinforced
concrete members. This reduces the advantages of increased strengths usually
associated with high-yield steels. It will be noted however that minimum thermal
crack control quantities are considerably reduced if deformed bars are used,
because of their improved bond characteristics. The choice between high-yield
and mild steel is, therefore, not well-defined and is often a matter of personal
preference of the engineer.

11.4 Design Methods

The design of water-retaining structures may be carried out using either

(I) a limit state design, as recommended by BS 8007, or
(2) an elastic design, which is not now covered by the British Code of Practice.
A limit state design is based on both the ultimate and serviceability limit states,
using the methods described in the previous chapters. As the restraint of cracking
is of prime importance with these structures, the simplified rules for minimum
steel areas and maximum spacing are no longer adequate. It is necessary to check
the concrete strains and crack widths, using the methods described in chapters 1
and 6. The calculations tend to be lengthy and depend on factors such as the
degree of restraint, shrinkage and creep which are difficult to assess accurately.
Elastic design is the traditional method which will possibly continue to be
used for many structures. It is relatively simple and easy to apply. It could be
used in conjunction with limit state methods when there are special circumstances,
such as when stability calculations are necessary, or when the structure has an
irregular layout, so that the critical loading patterns for the ultimate limit state
should be considered. Even though a structure has been designed by the elastic
method it may still be necessary to calculate the possible movement and crack
widths.

11.4.1 Limit State Design

The application of limit state techniques to water-retaining structures is relatively
new and the recommendations of BS 8110 are used subject to modifications
contained in BS 8007. The principal steps for the limit state design of a
reinforced concrete structure are:
1. Ultimate limit state design calculations
2. Serviceability limit state design calculations with either
(a) Calculation of crack widths
or (b) 'Deemed to satisfy' requirements for applied loading effects on the
mature concrete. These are based on maximum service stresses in
the reinforcement and analysis involves the triangular stress block
of section 4.1 0.
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALlS 305
If a water-retaining structure is to be constructed in prestressed concrete, the
category of prestressed member to be adopted as described in chapter 12 will be
determined on the basis of the exposure conditions. Once the appropriate category
has been established, each member will be designed in the way described in
chapter 12. Special provisions for cylindrical structures which are prestressed
vertically and circumferentially are given in BS 8007.
For the ultimate limit state the procedures followed are exactly the same as for
any other reinforced concrete structure. The partial factor of safety on imposed
loading due to contained liquid should be taken as 1.4 for strength calculations to
reflect the degree of accuracy with which hydrostatic loading may be predicted.
Calculations for the analysis of the structure subject to the most severe load
combinations will then proceed in the usual way.
Serviceability design will involve the classification of each member according
to its crack-width category as described in section 11.1. External members not in
contact with the liquid can be designed using the criteria discussed in other
chapters for normal reinforced concrete work.
The maximum likely crack widths may be calculated using the methods given
in section 1.3 and chapter 6 and then checked for compliance with the allowable
values. Alternatively, reinforcement stresses due to bending or direct tension may
be calculated and checked for compliance with the demand to satisfy limits as
illustrated in example 11.1.
Serviceability calculations will be required to consider three specific cases:
(1) Flexural tension in mature concrete. This may result from both dead and
imposed loads.
(2) Direct tension in mature concrete. This may be caused by hydrostatic
loadings.
(3) Direct tension in immature concrete. This is caused by restrained thermal
and shrinkage movement.

Flexural Tension in Mature Concrete

The design surface crack width may be calculated from equation 6.10 in section
6.4.2 such that
3acr Em
(6.10)*
Wmax = ------;-"=----=-----.-
1 +2 (a-cmin)
h-x
where acr is the distance from the point at which the crack width is being cal-
culated to a point of zero concrete strain (which is commonly taken as the surface
of the nearest longitudinal reinforcing bar) as illustrated in figure 11.6. Cmin is the
minimum cover to main reinforcement, Em is the average concrete strain and is
based on e 1 , the apparent strain, but allows for the stiffening effect of the cracked
concrete in the tension zone by the relationship Em = e 1 - e2 • The value of e2 is
given by an empirical expression such that
_ bt (h -x)(a' -x)
€2 - ---"---'-----'--'-----'-
3EsAs(d-x)
 f.
306 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

• ~r· .f
Position at which crock
Width is b<Zing OSS<ZSS<Zd

Figure 11.6 Position of calculated crack width

for a limiting design surface crack width of 0.2 mm, as in equation 6.11
or
_ 1.5 bt{h- x)(a'- x)
Ez - _ _.:.....:..._--'-__::_-----'- (11.1)'
3E5A5 (d -x)
for a limiting design surface crack width of 0.1 mm. In these expressions bt is the
width of the section at the centroid of the tensile steel and a' is the distance from
the compressive face to the point at which the crack is calculated. A negative
value of Em indicates that the section is uncracked.
As an alternative to such calculations of crack widths, table 11.2 offers maxi-
mum service stresses for the reinforcement and if these values can be shown to be
satisfied it may be assumed that maximum likely crack widths in the mature
concrete will be below the limiting values. This requires an elastic analysis of the
member under working conditions using the equations for the triangular stress
block as derived in section 4.10 and illustrated in example 11.1.

Table 11.2 Allowable steel stresses in direct or flexural tension for

serviceability limit states
Design crack Allowable stress
width
(mm) Plain bars Deformed bars
(fy = 250 N/mm2 ) (/y = 460 N/mm2 )
(N/mm2 ) (N/mm 2 )
0.1 85 100
0.2 115 130

Direct Tension in Mature Concrete

The maximum likely surface crack width due to direct tension may be calculated
from
(11.2)*
where Ocr is the distance to the surface of the nearest reinforcing bar and the
average concrete strain Em is given by Em = E 1 - E2
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 307

where e2 = 2 bth for a 0.2 mm design surface crack width limit (11.3)*
3E5 A 5

or e2 = __!!i!_ for a 0.1 mm design surface crack width limit (11.4)*

EsAs
In these expressions e1 is the apparent concrete tensile strain and bt is the width
of the section at the centroid of the tensile steel. This is illustrated in example 11.2.
Service stresses in the reinforcement may alternatively be calculated for
comparison with the 'deemed to satisfy' stresses given in table 11.2.

Combined Flexural and Direct Tension in Mature Concrete

Where flexural tension and direct tension are combined, the strains due to each
must be added together in calculating crack widths in the mature concrete.
Usually one of these will dominate as illustrated in example 11.3.

Direct Tension in Immature Concrete

Calculations of crack widths are based on the procedures described in section 6.5
with some simplifications often used. Provided the critical steel ratio rcrit is
exceeded, thermal cracking is taken to have a maximum spacing
fct q>
Smax = fb X lr (6.13)*

where r =steel ratio A 5/Ac

'I> = bar diameter .
fct = 3 day tensile strength- taken as 1.6 N/mm 2 for grade C35A concrete
fb = average bond strength between concrete and steel - taken as 1.6 N/mm2
for plain round bars, or 2.4 N/mm2 for deformed type 2 bars, with
grade C35A concrete.
The critical steel ratio rcrit will have a value of 0.0035 when [y = 460 N/mm 2 , or
0.0064 when [y = 250 N/mm2 as described in section 11.3.
The width of a fully developed crack may be taken generally as

Wmax = Smax ( fsh + T ~c - (100 X 10-6 ) )

= Smax fth
based on equation 6.14 where esh is the drying shrinkage strain and ac is the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the mature concrete. In practice the drying
shrinkage strain may be of the order of 100 x 10-6 JJ.S, hence a simplified
expression
ac (11.5)*
Wmax = Smax T -
2
is suggested as adequate, where T°C is the relevant temperature change.
308 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Temperature rises due to hydration of the concrete (T1°C) in walls may be
expected to be of the order of20°C in winter and 30°C in summer but should be
increased for high cement contents, rapid hardening cement, thick members or
timber shutters in summer. Values for ground floor slabs may be about 5°C less
as illustrated in table 11.3.

Table 11.3 Typical design values of T 1 for O.P.C. concrete in U.K.

Section Walls and slabs with Walls with 18 mm Slabs on ground or
thickness steel formwork plywood formwork plywood formwork
(mm)
Cement content Cement content Cement content
(kg/m 3 ) (kg/m 3 ) (kg/m 3 )
325 350 400 325 350 400 325 350 400
oc oc oc oc oc oc oc oc oc
300 20* 20* 20* 23 25 31 15 17 21
500 20 22 27 32 35 43 25 28 34
700 28 32 39 38 42 49
1000 38 42 49 42 47 56

*l5°C for slabs.

Note: These values assume a placing temperature of 20°C with a mean daily
temperature of 15°C, and the formwork is not removed until the temperature
peak has passed. No allowance has been made for solar gain in slabs.

Additional seasonal temperature falls may also be directly substituted into the
above expression since the effects of concrete maturity are offset by a smaller
ratio of tensile to bond strength and other effects. These should be included as
T 2°C in calculations for continuous construction so that T= T 1 + T 2 .
The final details of reinforcement to be provided must be co-ordinated with
the joint spacing arrangement. This is a complicated procedure since a wide range
of possibilities exists, but some alternative combinations based on control of
thermal and shrinkage effects are suggested in table 11.1 and are illustrated in
example 11.1. Particular care must be taken to ensure that joints do not interfere
with intended structural actions. Reinforcement provided to resist thermal and
shrinkage cracking in the immature concrete may form part or the whole of the
reinforcement required to resist direct or flexural cracking in the mature concrete.
It will be seen that small-sized, closely spaced bars are best when joint spacing
is large; however, since crack spacing is related to bar diameter, large bars should
be used when closer joints are combined with less steel. Although table 11.1 offers
a general guide, flexural effects may dominate and it is recommended that the
engineer consults specialist literature when undertaking a major design on this
basis.

Example 11.1 Limit State Design of a Water-retaining Section

The wall section shown in figure 11.7 is subject to a moment of 14.6 kN m under
working loads which may be considered as purely hydrostatic. The moment acts
so that there is tension in the face adjacent to the liquid. A grade C35A concrete
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 309
with mild steel bars are specified and appearance is not critical. 18 mm plywood
formwork is to be used.

Figure 11.7 Wall section

Minimum cover= 40 mm, therefore assumed= 150 mm.

(a) Ultimate Limit State

Ultimate moment M = 14.6 x 1.4 = 20.44 kN m

M 20.44 X 106
= 0.026
1000 X 1502 X 35
therefore lever-arm factor la = 0.95, hence

Ast = 20.44 x 106 = 659 mm2 /m

0.87 X 250 X 0.95 X 150
This requires 12 mm bars at 150 mm centres, area= 754 mm2 /m.

(b) Serviceability Limit State

Flexural Tension in Mature Concrete

Using the 'deemed to satisfy' conditions, check the service stress in the reinforce-
ment assuming a cracked section and an estimated Ec = 27 kN/mm 2 .

Modular ratio ae = ~ = 200 = 14.8 (includes allowance for creep)

Ec/2 27/2
therefore
ae As = 14.8 X 754 = 0.074
bd 1000 X 150
and from figure 4.29, x RJ 0.31d = 0.31 x 150 = 46 mm, therefore the reinforcement
tensile stress is given by equation 4.47 as

fs = M = 14.6 X 106 = 144 N/mm2

As (d- ~) 754 (150- ~6 )
310 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
This is greater than the 115 N/mm 2 allowable from table 11.2 and the steel area
must be increased if 'deemed to satisfy' requirements are to be met.

Minimum As= 144 X 754 = 944 mm 2 /m

115
which may be provided as 12 mm bars at 110 mm centres, area 1028 mm2 /m, and
exceeds the ultimate limit state requirement.

Direct Tension in Immature Concrete

To control thermal and shrinkage cracking, the critical steel ratio rcrit = 0.0064
from section 11.3 for plain bars and grade C35A concrete. Thus
minimum steel area to control cracking= As = 0.0064 Ac
= 0.0064 x 1000 x 200 = 1280 mm 2 /m

and maximum crack spacing Smax = fct X ~ from equation 6.13.

!b 2r
For grade C35A concrete and plain bars.fct = 1.6 N/mm2 and fb = 1.6 N/mm2 ,
thus for 12 mm bars
1.6 X 12
Smax = - - - - - - - - = 937 mm
1.6 X 2 X _ _1_28_0__
200 X 1000
The temperature fall from the hydration peak T 1 , assuming summer concreting
(ambient temperature l5°C), is taken as 23°C from table 11.3. Assuming a typical
value of O!c = 10 X 10-6 tc
_ O!c _ 10 X 10-6
Wmax- Smax - T1 - 937 X X 23 = 0.11 mm
2 2
from equation 11.5. This satisfies the 0.2 mm limit.

Reinforcement and Joint Detailing

Since the wall is 200 mm thick, reinforcement must be provided in two layers with
at least 1/2 rcrit = 640 mm2 /min each face. (12 mm bars at 175 mm centres,
area = 646 mm2 fm.) Thermal effects may thus be considered adequately covered
if 12 mm bars are provided at 110 mm centres in the liquid adjacent face as
required by flexural requirements, and at 17 5 mm centres in the other face.
Alternatively 10 mm bars also at 110 mm centres (area= 722 mm 2 fm) may be
more convenient in the liquid remote face.
Continuous construction will be required in the direction subject to the bending
moment. Thus seasonal temperature effects on thermal crack widths should be
checked.
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALlS 311
For the proposed reinforcement arrangement,

Smax = 1.6 X 12 = 717 mm

1.6 X 2 X (1028 + 646)
200 X 1000
and assuming T 2 = 25°C, equation 11.5 gives

Wmax = Smax ac (Tl + T2) = 717 X~ X 10-6 (23 + 25)

2 2
= 0.17 mm
which still satisfies the 0.2 mm limit.
Transverse reinforcement requirements will depend onjointing·arrangements.
If there are no structural actions in that direction, options as defined in table 11.1
range from continuous construction to close joint spacings with steel reduced to
2/3 rcrit which is the equivalent of 10 mm bars at 185 mm centres in each face
(853 mm2 fm total).
If continuous construction is to be used, crack widths including seasonal
temperature changes should be checked and it will be found that a total steel
area of at least 1440 mm2 Jm is required to satisfy the 0.2 mm limit.
If option 3 of table 11.1 is adopted, the alternatives are:

(a) Complete joints at 4.8 + ~metres

€

where w = allowable crack width = 0.2 x 10-3 m

and € =thermal strain= ac T1 = .!.Q x 10-6 x 23 = 115 x 10-6 m

2 2
. must be 1ess t h an 4 .8 + 0.2 x 1o-3
t hus spacmg 6
115 X 10-
= 4.8 + 1.74 = 6.54 m centres.

(b) Alternate partial and complete joints at EO; 0.5Smax + 2.4 + ~ metres
€
In this calculation Smax should correspond to a steel area of 853 mm2 /m and
10 mm bars and will thus be

= 937 X 1280 X _!Q X 10- 3 = 1.173 m

853 12

thus spacing must be less than 1. 173 + 2.4 + 1.74 = 4.73 m centres.
2

(c) Partial joints at EO; Smax + w

€

thus spacing must be less than 1.173 + 1.74 =2.91 m centres.

312 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
EXIlmple 11.2 Limit State Design of Section Subject to Direct Tension Only
A wall is subject only to a direct tensile working force of 265 kN/m due to hydro-
static loads. Determine a suitable thickness and reinforcement arrangement using
high-yield bars, /y = 460 N/mm2 , and grade C35A concrete for a 0.1 mm
maximum crack width.

(a) Ultimate limit state

Ultimate tensile force = 265 x 1.4 = 371 kN/m

thus A 8 = 371 X 103 = 927 mm 2 /m

0.87 X 460

(b) Serviceability limit state

Critical steel ratio to control thermal cracking from equation 6.12

r crit = fct = 1.6 = 0.0035 as in section 11.3

/y 460
thus for continuous construction, maximum allowable section thickness for this
steel area is given by

.!!!!....._ = 0.0035
lOOOh
hence maximum h = 265 mm.
Try h = 150 (note that this is less than the 200 mm generally recommended
but is used to illustrate procedures).

Direct Tension in Mature Concrete

Maximum crack width = 0.1 mm = 3 Ocr Em

thus for a 150 mm thick section, with 16 mm bars at 100 mm centres in one layer
.
A 8 = 2010 mm2 /m and st ram E1
tension force
= -----
265 x 103 =0.00066
EgA8 200 X 103 X 2010

and from equation 11.4 E = bth = 1000 x 150 = 0.00037

2 EgA 8 200 X 103 X 2010
hence
Em = E1 - E2 = 0.00066 - 0.00037 = 0.00029
Since from equation 11.2 Wmax = 3 Ocr Em

.
maXImum all owable Ocr= - -0- · 1- - = 115 mm
3 X 0.00029
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 313
For 16 mm bars in one layer at 100 mm centres

= ) { ( 100 ) + ( 150 )
2 2
acr }- 8 = 82 mm which is less than
2 2 115 mm (see example 6.4)
Crack width is less than 0.1 mm as required.

Direct Tension in Immature Concrete

To control thermal and shrinkage cracking

steel ratio r = As = 2010 = 0 013 (> r . )

bh 1000 X 150 . cnt

thus from equation 6.13 Smax = let cp where fctffb = 0.67 for high-yield bars
fb 2r
= 0.67 x 16 = 412 mm
2 X 0.013
Thus for continuous construction with T1 = 20°C, T2 = 20°C and ac = 10 x 10- 6 ;oc,
equation 11.5 gives
O:c 10 X10- 6
Wmax = Smax - (T1 + Tz) = 412 X (20 + 20) = 0.08 mm (< 0.1 mm)
2 2
hence a 150 mm thick section with 16 mm bars at 100 mm centres in one central
layer is acceptable.
Note: If a thicker section is used, thermal cracking will probably dominate since
em in the direct tension calculation decreases while Smax increases. If the thickness
exceeds 200 mm, steel should be provided in two equal layers.

Example 11.3 Design of a Water-retaining Structure by the Limit State Method

A cross-section of a long rectangular tank which is to be designed is shown in figure
11.8. The floor slab spans on to supporting beams at B and C. A grade C35A
concrete and plain mild steel bars are to be used ( 1 m3 of water weighs 9.81 kN).
Aesthetic appearance is critical hence maximum crack width is 0.1 mm. It may be
assumed that O:c = 10 JJ.stC and £ 8 = 27 kN/mm 2 •
For the walls: h = 200 mm and d = 150 mm with T 1 = 20°C and T 2 = 20°C
For the slab: h = 300 mm and d = 250 mm with T 1 = l5°C and T 2 = l5°C
The design of the floor slab in this example illustrates the calculation of crack
widths in the mature concrete.

(i) Walls

Maximum water pressure at base of wall= 9.81 x 2.0 = 19.62 kN/m 2 • For the
effective span of the cantilever and considering a 1 m length of wall, the
serviceability moment
314 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

R16 -115
0
0
(")

D
c
4·5m
... j .. .I
1·0m

Figure 11.8 Water tank showing location of main reinforcement

M= t x 19.62 x 2.oe;o + 0; 15 )= 14.6kNm

(a) Ultimate Limit State

This has been considered in example 11.1 giving a minimum requirement of
659 mm 2 /m. (12 mm bars at 150 mm centres gives area= 754 mm2 /m.)

(b) Serviceability Limit State

Flexural Tension in Mature Concrete

Check the service stress in the reinforcement as in example 11.1 giving 144 N/mm 2 .
For 0.1 mm crack width limit this stress must be limited to 85 N/mm 2 as in
table 11.2.
Thus

minimumA 8 = 144 x 754 = 1277 mm 2 /m

85
Try 16 mm bars at 150 mm centres, area= 1340 mm 2 /m which exceeds ultimate
limit state requirements.

Direct Tension in Immature Concrete

To control thermal and shrinkage cracking, equation 6.12 gives

critical steel ratio r · = fct = 1·6 = 0.0064

cnt [y 250
thus
minimum steel area= 0.0064 bh = 0.0064 x 1000 x 200 = 1280 mm 2 /m
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALlS 315
If 16 mm bars at 150 mm centres are provided in each face
2 X 1340 .
r= = 0.0134 and for plam bars fct = !b
1000 X 200
then
f.
Smax = __£!_ X -
<I>
=
1.0 X 16
=597 mm from equation 6.13
!b 2r 2 x 0.0134

giving a maximum crack width ofwmax = Smax ac (T1 + T2 ) from equation 11.5
2
10 x w- 6
= 597 x (20 + 20) = 0.12 mm
2
Since this exceeds the 0.1 mm allowable, close 16 mm steel to 125 mm centres in
each face giving Wmax = 0.10 mm which is just acceptable. Continuous construction
is required vertically. Similar steel should be provided transversely assuming
continuous construction along the length of the tank, or alternatively joints should
be provided as illustrated in example 11.1.

(ii) Floors

The serviceability bending moment diagram is shown drawn on the tension side of
the structure in figure 11.9.

34·7

Figure 11.9 Bending-moment diagram (kN m)

Weight of slab+ water = 0.3 x 24 + 9.81 x 2 = 26.8 kN/m 2

Weight of wall = 2.3 x 0.2 x 24 = 11.0 kN/m
Considering 1 m breadth of slab; at the supporting beam
M = 14.6 + 11.0 (1.0- 0.1) + 26.8 x 0.8 2 /2 = 33.1 kN m hogging
316 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
and at mid-span between B and C
M= 26.8 x 4.5 2/8-33.1 = 34.7 kN m sagging
The slab will also carry a direct tension force of
t X 19.62 X 2.0 = 19.62 kN/m
which must be allowed for in the design. The critical section for bending is at
mid-span.

(a) Ultimate Limit State

Ultimate moment= 1.4 x 34.7 = 48.6 kN m/m

M 6
bd2 !;: - 100048.62502
X 10
X X 35 = 0.022, thus la = 0.95

and A = 48.6 x 106 = 941 mm2 /m

8
0.87 X 250 X 0.95 X 250

(b) Serviceability Limit State

Flexural and Direct Tension in Mature Concrete

Try 16 mm bars at 125 mm centres, area= 1610 mm 2 /m, as for walls then

acr = j {e~ 5 2
) + 502 } - 8 =72 mm
and aeAs = 14.7 X 1610 = 0 _095
bd 1000 X 250

hence!. = 0.34 from figure 4.29 and x = 85 mm, thus equation 4.47 gives the
d
bending stress in steel
34.7 X 106
= --;-----;----
(250- 8: )1610

thus fs = 97.2 N/mm2

and flexural strain= (h- x) ~ = 215 x 97 ·2 = 0.63 x w- 3 .

(d - x) E 8 165 200 x 103
.
Duect il . tension force 19.62 X 103 0 03 x 10-3 .
tens e stram = - 3 = .
A8 £ 8 1610 X 2 X 200 X 10
Thus it is clear that flexural strain dominates, and total strain
€1 =(0.63 + o.o3) x w-3 =o.66 x w- 3
For 0.1 mm crack width limit
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 317

Em = (E 1 - Ez) where Ez = 1. 5 bt (h- x) (a'- x) according to equation 11.1

3EsAs(d-x)
then E = 1.5 X 1000 (300 - 85) (300 - 85) = 0.43 X 1o-3
Z 3 X 200 X 103 X 1610 (250- 85)
thus Em = (0.66 - 0.43) X 10-3 = 0.23 X 10-3
and equation 6.10 gives
_ 3acr Em 3 X 72 X 0.23 X 10- 3
Wmax - -----:-=---=---:-- =- ------
1 + 2 (acr - Cmin ) 1 + 2 ( 72 - 40 )
h -X 300-85
= 0.038 rnrn
which is acceptable.

Direct Tension in Immature Concrete

To control thermal and shrinkage cracking the critical steel ratio rcrit = 0.0064,
thus minimum As= 0.0064Ac.
:. As = 0.0064 X 1000 x 300 = 1920 rnrn 2 /m
thus proposed 16 rnrn at 125 rnrn centres in each face, area= 3220 rnrn2 /m,
satisfies this requirement.

r = As = 3220 = 0.0107
Ac 1000 X 300

then Smax = fct x ~= l.O X 16 = 748 mm from equation 6.13

fb 2r 2 x 0.0107
with equation 11.5 giving a maximum crack width

Wmax = Smax ~ (Tl + Tz)

2

= 748 X _!Q X 10-6 (15 + 15)

2
= 0.11 rnrn
This just exceeds the allowable limit, and since continuous construction is required
in the direction of the span 16 rnrn bar spacing should be reduced to 115 mm
centres in both faces, area= 3500 mm2 fm. The design of the slab is thus governed
by thermal cracking requirements, and hogging moments at A and B are
adequately covered. Similar reinforcement will be required transversely unless
closely spaced joints are provided according to table 11.1.

11.4.2 Elastic Design

This method is based on working loads, and permissible stresses in the concrete
and steel which are considered to be acting within the elastic range. Hence the
318 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
design assumes a triangular stress block as analysed in section 4.1 0. The ratio
(ae) of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete is taken as 15.
Calculations are performed on the basis of two criteria: strength, and
resistance to cracking, with exposure class related to allowable crack widths.
Strength calculations assume a cracked section. Low permissible steel stresses
are specified in order to limit the width of cracks and thus reduce the chance of
leakage and corrosion of the reinforcement.
The analysis for resistance to cracking assumes a limiting tensile stress in the
concrete and is based on an uncracked concrete section. The governing factor in
such an analysis is inevitably the permissible tensile stress in the concrete, with
the steel and concrete stresses being related by the compatibility of strains across
the section.
Reference should be made to previous editions of this book for a more detailed
treatment of this design approach.

11.5 Retaining Walls

Such walls are usually required to resist a combination of earth and hydrostatic
loadings. The fundamental requirement is that the wall is capable of holding the
retained material in place without undue movement arising from deflection, over-
turning or sliding.

11.5.1 Types of Retaining Wall

Concrete retaining walls may be considered in terms of three basic categories:
(1) gravity, (2) counterfort, and (3) cantilever. Within these groups many common
variations exist, for example cantilever walls may have additional supporting ties
into the retained material.
The structural action of each type is fundamentally different, but the techniques
used in analysis, design and detailing are those normally used for concrete structures.

(i) Gravity Walls

These are usually constructed of mass concrete, with reinforcement included in
the faces to restrict thermal and shrinkage cracking. As illustrated in figure 11.1 0,
reliance is placed on self-weight to satisfy stability requirements, both in respect
of overturning and sliding.
It is generally taken as a requirement that under working conditions the result-
ant of the self-weight and overturning forces must lie within the middle third at
the interface of the base and soil. This ensures that uplift is avoided at this inter-
face, as described in section 10.1. Friction effects which resist sliding are thus
maintained across the entire base.
Bending, shear, and deflections of such walls are usually insignificant in view of
the large effective depth of the section. Distribution steel to control thermal crack-
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 319
ing is necessary, however, and great care must be taken to reduce hydration
temperatures by mix design, construction procedure and curing techniques.

- - Frtctton forcq
I
;
Rqsultant Sqlf
forcq wqtght

Figure 11.10 Gravity wall

(ii) Counterfort Walls

This type of construction will probably be used where the overall height of wall is
too large to be constructed economically either in mass concrete or as a cantilever.
The basis of design of counterfort walls is that the earth pressures act on a thin
wall which spans horizontally between the massive counterforts (figure 11.11).
These must be sufficiently large to provide the necessary dead load tor stability
requirements, possibly with the aid of the weight of backfill on an enlarged base.
The counterforts must be designed with reinforcement to act as cantilevers to
resist the considerable bending moments that are concentrated at these points.
The spacing of counterforts will be governed by the above factors, coupled
with the need to maintain a satisfactory span-depth ratio on the wall slab, which
must be designed for bending as a continuous slab. The advantage of this form of
construction is that the volume of concrete involved is considerably reduced,
thereby removing many of the problems of large pours, and reducing the quanti-
ties of excavation. Balanced against this must be considered the generally increased
shuttering complication and the probable need for increased reinforcement.

(iii) Cantilever Walls

These are designed as vertical cantilevers spanning from a large rigid base which
often relies on the weight of backfill on the base to provide stability. Two forms
of this construction are illustrated in figure 11.12. In both cases, stability calcula-
tions follow similar procedures to those for gravity walls to ensure that the
resultant force lies within the middle third of the base and that overturning and
sliding requirements are met.
320 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Wall Count12rfort

I.
·'
Span

Cross - S12ction Plan

Figure 11.11 Counterfort wall

...............
H1212l b12am
••
a) b)

Figure 11.12 Cantilever walls

11.5.2 Analysis and Design

The design of retaining walls may be split into three fundamental stages: (I)
Stability analysis - ultimate limit state, (2) Bearing pressure analysis - service-
ability limit state, and (3) Member design and detailing - ultimate and serviceability
limit states.

(i) Stability Analysis

Under the action of the loads corresponding to the ultimate limit state, a retaining
wall must be stable in terms of resistance to overturning and sliding. This is demon-
strated by the simple case of a gravity wall as shown in figure 11.13.
The critical conditions for stability are when a maximum horizontal force acts
with a minimum vertical load. To guard against a stability failure, it is usual to
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALlS 321

I· I
Earth
+rl
Surchorg2
prassura prassura
Salfwaight
Gk

Figure 11.13 Forces and pressures on a gravity wall

apply conservative factors of safety to the force and loads. The values given in
table 2.2 are appropriate to strength calculations but a value of 'Yr = 1.6 or higher
should be used for stability calculations.
If this force is predominantly hydrostatic and well defined, a factor of 1.4 may
be used. A partial factor of safety of 'Yr = 1.0 is usually applied to the dead load
Gk.
For resistance to overturning, moments would normally be taken about the toe
of the base, point A on figure 11.13, thus the requirement is that
l.OGkx;;;.. 'YrHky (11.6)
Resistance to sliding is provided by friction between the underside of the base and
the ground, and thus is also related to total self-weight Gk. Resistance provided by
the passive earth pressure on the front face of the base may make some contribu-
tion, but since this material is often backfilled against the face, this resistance
cannot be guaranteed and is usually ignored. Thus, if the coefficient of friction
between base and soil is p., the total friction force will be given by p.Gk for the
length of wall of weight Gk; and the requirement is that
l.Op.Gk;;;.. 'YrHk (11.7)
where Hk is the horizontal force on this length of wall.
If this criterion is not met, a heel beam may be used, and the force due to the
passive earth pressure over the face area of the heel may be included in resisting the
sliding force. The partial load factor 'Yr on the heel beam force should be taken as
1.0 to give the worst condition. To ensure the proper action of a heel beam, the
front face must be cast directly against sound, undisturbed material, and it is
important that this is not overlooked during construction.
In considering cantilever walls, a considerable amount of backfill is often
placed on top of the base, and this is taken into account in the stability analysis.
The forces acting in this case are shown in figure 11.14. In addition to Gk and Hk
there is an additional vertical load Vk due to the material above the base acting a
322 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
distance q from the toe. The worst condition for stability will be when this is at a
minimum; therefore a partial load factor 'Yr = 1.0 is appropriate. The stability
requirements then become
l.OGkx + 1.0 Vkq ~ 'YrHkY for overturning {11.8)
1-L {l.OGk + 1.0 Vk) ~ 'YrHk for sliding {11.9)
When a heel beam is provided the additional passive resistance of the earth must be
included in equation 11.9.
Stability analysis, as described here, will normally suffice. However, if there is
doubt about the foundation material in the region of the wall or the reliability of
loading values, it may be necessary to perform a full slip-circle analysis, using
techniques common to soil mechanics, or to use increased factors of safety.

Rasultont
forca Hk

Baoring
prassuras P,

Figure 11.14 Forces on a cantilever wall

(ii) Bearing Pressure Analysis

As with foundations, the bearing pressures underneath retaining walls are assessed
on the basis of the serviceability limit state when determining the size of base that
is required. The analysis will be similar to that discussed in section I 0.1 with the
foundation being subject to the combined effects of an eccentric vertical load,
coupled with an overturning moment.
Considering a unit length of the cantilever wall {figure 11.14) the resultant
moment about the centroidal axis of the base is
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 323
M ='Yfl Hky + 'Yn Gk (D/2- x) + 'Yf3 Vk (D/2- q) (11.10)
and the vertical load is
(11.11)
where in this case for the serviceability limit state the partial factors of safety are

'Yrt = 'Yr2 = 'Yr3 = 1.0

The distribution of bearing pressures will be as shown in the figure, provided the
effective eccentricity lies within the 'middle third' of the base, that is
M D
_.;;;;_
N 6
The maximum bearing pressure is then given by
N M D
Pt =- +- x-
D I 2
where/= D 3 /12. Therefore
N 6M
Pt = - + - (11.12)
D D2
and
N
P2 = - (I 1.13)
D

(iii) Member Design and Detailing

As with foundations, the design of bending and shear reinforcement is based on an
analysis of the loads for the ultimate limit state, with the corresponding bearing
pressures. Gravity walls will seldom require bending or shear steel, while the walls
in counterfort and cantilever construction will be designed as slabs. The design of
counterforts will generally be similar to that of a cantilever beam unless they are
massive.
With a cantilever-type retaining wall the stem is designed to resist the moment
caused by the force 'YrHr, with 'Yr = 1.4 or larger, depending on how accurately the
load may be predicted. For preliminary sizing, the thickness of the wall may be
taken as 80 mm per metre depth of backfill.
The thickness of the base is usually of the same order as that of the stem. The
heel and toe must be designed to resist the moments due to the upward earth
bearing pressures and the downward weight of the soil and base. The soil bearing
pressures are calculated from equations 11.10 to 11.13, provided the resultant of
the horizontal and vertical forces lies within the 'middle third'. Should the result-
ant lie outside the 'middle third', then the bearing pressures should be calculated
using equation I 0.4. The partial factors of safety 'Yfl, 'Yr 2 and 'Yr 3 should be taken
to provide a combination which gives the critical design condition.
Reinforcement detailing must follow the general rules for slabs and beams as
appropriate. Particular care must be given to the detailing of reinforcement to
324 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
limit shrinkage and thermal cracking. Gravity walls are particularly vulnerable
because of the large concrete pours that are generally involved, and these should
be treated in the manner described in section 11.1 for thick sections.
Restraints to thermal and shrinkage movement should be reduced to a mini-
mum; however, this is counteracted in the construction of bases by the need for
good friction between the base and soil; thus a sliding layer is not possible. Rein-
forcement in the bases must thus be adequate to control the cracking caused by a
high degree of restraint. Long walls restrained by the rigid bases are particularly
susceptible to cracking during thermal movement due to loss of hydration heat,
and detailing must attempt to distribute these cracks to ensure acceptable widths.
Complete vertical movement joints must be provided, and the methods used for
the design of joints for water-retaining structures can be used. These joints will
often incorporate a shear key to prevent differential movement of adjacent sections
of wall, and waterbars and sealers should be used as shown in figure 11.4a.
The back faces of retaining walls will usually be subject to hydrostatic forces
from groundwater. This may be reduced by the provision of a drainage path at the
face of the wall. It is usual practice to provide such a drain by a layer of rubble or
porous blocks as shown in figure 11.15, with pipes to remove the water, often
through to the front of the wall. In addition to reducing the hydrostatic pressure
on the wall, the likelihood of leakage through the wall is reduced, and water is
also less likely to reach and damage the soil beneath the foundations of the wall.

Plp<Z cast
mto wall

Figure 11.15 Drainage layer

Example 11.4 Design of a Retaining Wall

The cantilever retaining wall shown in figure 11.16 supports a granular material of
saturated density 2000 kg/m", and the allowable bearing pressure is 110 kN/m:.~.
It is required to
(I) check the stability of the wall
(2) determine the actual bearing pressures, and
(3) design the bending reinforcement using high-yield steel, {y = 460 N/mm 2
and grade 35 concrete.
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALlS 325
(a) Stability
Horizontal force: it is assumed that the coefficient of active pressure Ka = 0.33,
which is a typical value for a granular material. So the earth pressure is given by
p =Kapgh
where p is the density of the backfill and h is the depth considered. Thus, at the
base
p = 0.33 X 2000 X 10-3 X 9.81 X 4.9
= 31.7 kN/m 2
Therefore horizontal force on 1 m length of wall is
Hk = 0.5ph = 0.5 X 31.7 X 4.9 = 77.7 kN
Vertical loads
wall = t(0.4 + 0.3) x 4.5 x 24 = 37.8 kN
base = 0.4 x 3.4 x 24 = 32.6
. earth= 2.2 X 4.5 X 2000 X 10-3 X 9.81 = 194.2
Total = 264.6 kN

For stability calculations a partial factor of safety of 1.6 is used for the lateral
loadings, while 1.4 will be used for strength calculations.
(i) Sliding: from equation 11.9 it is necessary that

Assuming a value of coefficient of friction tJ. = 0.45

frictienal resisting force= 0.45 x 1.0 x 264.6 = 119.1 kN
sliding force= 1.6 x 77.7 = 124.3 kN
Since the sliding force exceeds the frictional force, resistance must also be pro-
vided by the passive earth pressure acting against the heel beam and this force is
given by
Hp = 'Yr X 0.5Kppga 2
where Kp is the coefficient of passive pressure, assumed to be 3.0 for this granular
material and a is the depth of the heel. Therefore
Hp = 1.0 X 0.5 X 3.0 X 2000 X 10-3 X 9.81 X 0.6 2
= 10.6 k.N
Therefore total resisting force is
119.1 + 10.6 = 129.7 k.N
326 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

300
.---1 I

4 500

--------- T20- 200

T20- 200

]ooo I· J
Pa = 31-7kN/m2

baa ring
prassuras

Figure 11.16

which exceeds the sliding force.

(ii) Overturning: taking moments about point A at the edge of the toe, at the
ultimate limit state
overturning moment = 'YrHkh/3 = 1.6 x 77.7 x 4.9/3
= 203 kN m
restraining moment = 1.0(37.8 x 1.0 + 32.6 x 1.7
+ 194.2 X 2.3)
= 540kNm
Thus the criterion for overturning is satisfied.

(b) Bearing Pressures

From equations 11.12 and 11.13 the bearing pressures are given by
 WATER-RETAINING STRUCTURES AND RETAINING WALLS 327

N 6M
p=- ± -
D D2
where M is the moment about the base centre-line. Therefore
M= 77.7 X 4.9/3 + 37.8(1.7 -1.0) + 194.2(1.7- 2.3)
= 126.9 + 26.5- 116.5 =36.9 kN m
Therefore
. b . 264.6 6 X 36.9
mruomum eanng pressure p 1 =- - + -----,---
3.4 3.4
2

= 77.8 + 19.2 = 97 kN/m 2

which is less than the allowable.

(c) Bending Reinforcement

(i) Wall
Horizontal force = 'Yr0.5K8 pgh 2
= 1.4 X 0.5 X 0.33 X 2000 X 10-3 X 9.81 X 4.5 2

= 91.8 kN
considering the effective span, the maximum moment is
M= 91.8 (0.2 + 4.5/3) = 156 kN m
156 X 106 = 0.04
1000 X 330 2 X 35
for which la =0.95 (figure 7.5). Therefore
As= 156 X 106 = 1243 mm2 /m
0.95 X 330 X 0.87 X 460
Provide T20 bars at 200 mm centres.
(ii) Base: the bearing pressures are obtained from equations 11.10 to
11.13. The critical partial factors of safety are
'Yn = 1.4 and 'Yf2 ='YrJ = 1.0
Using the figures from part (b) of this example, the moment about the
base centre-line is
M ='Yn X 126.9 + 'Yr2 X 26.5 - 'Yf3 X 116.5 =87.7 kN m
and
N ='Yf2 (37.8 + 32.6) + 'Yf3 x 194.2 =264.6 kN
Therefore
264.6 6 X 87.7
pressure p 1 =- - + 2 = 78 + 45 = 123 kN/m 2
3.4 3.4
328 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

P2 = 78 - 45 = 33 kN/m 2
and in figure 11.16
p3 =33 + (123- 33) 2.2/3.4 =91 kN/m 2
Heel: taking moments about the stem centre-line for the vertical loads
and the bearing pressures

M= 'Yr 2 X 32.6 X 1.3 X 2 ·2 + 'Yf3 X 194.2 X 1.3-33

3.4

X 2.2 X 1.3- (91 - 33) X 2 ·2 X 0.93 = 126 kN m

2
therefore
126 X 106
A = - - - - - - - - = 1004 mm 2 /m
s 0.87 X 460 X 0.95 X 330
Provide T20 bars at 200 mm centres, top steel
Toe: taking moments about the stem centre-line

M:::::: 'Yr 2 X 32.6 X 0.6 X 0 ·8 - 'YrJ X 123 X 0.8 X 0.6

3.4
.=55 kN m
(In fact for this wall the design moment for the toe would be marginally
higher with rr 2 = 1.4 and rf3 = 1.4 throughout.)

As= 55x106 =438mm2/m

0.87 X 460 X 0.95 X 330
The minimum area for this, and for longitudinal distribution steel which is also
required in the wall and the base is
As = 0.13 x 1000 x 400 = 520 mm 2/m
Thus, provide TI 2 bars at 200 mm centres, bottom and distribution steel.
Also steel should be provided in the compression face of the wall in order to
prevent cracking- say, T10 bars at 200 mm centres each way.
Bending reinforcement is required in the heel beam to resist the moment due
to the passive earth pressure. This reinforcement would probably be in the form
of closed links.
12
Prestressed Concrete
The analysis and design of prestressed concrete is a specialised field which cannot
possibly be covered comprehensively in one chapter. This chapter concentrates
therefore on the basic principles of prestressing, and the analysis and design of
statically determinate members in bending for the serviceability and ultimate
limit states.
A fundamental aim of prestressed concrete is to limit tensile stresses, and hence
flexural cracking, in the concrete under working conditions. Design is therefore
based initially on the requirements of the serviceability limit state. Subsequently
considered are ultimate limit state criteria for bending and shear. In addition to
the concrete stresses under working loads. deflections must be checked, and
attention must also be paid to the construction stage when the prestress force is
first applied to the immature concrete. This stage is known as the transfer condition.
Design of prestressed concrete may therefore be summarised as
(1) design for serviceability - cracking
(2) check stresses at transfer
(3) check deflections
(4) check ultimate limit state- bending
(5) design shear reinforcement for ultimate limit state.
The stages are illustrated by the flow chart in figure 12.1.
When considering the basic design of a concrete section subject to prestress, the
stress distribution due to the prestress must be combined with the stresses from the
loading conditions to ensure that permissible stress limits are satisfied. Many
analytical approaches have been developed to deal with this problem; however, it
is considered that the method presented offers many advantages of simplicity and
ease of manipulation in design.

12.1 Principles of Prestressing

In the design of a reinforced concrete beam subjected to bending it is accepted that

the concrete in the tensile zone is cracked. and that all the tensile resistance is

329
330 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

BS8110
CLAUSE

CALCULATE MOMENT
4.3. VARIATION
(LIVE LOADS + FINSHES) Mv
4.1. 3. t STRUCTURE CLASS
1..1. 8. STRESS LIMITS
---
{
CONCRETE GRADE
s
t E
4.3.4. MIN SECTION MODULI
(z ;. fMA~~MIJ R
v
+ SHAPE. DEPTH, WEB
c
I
4.12. TRIAL SECTION - - - { FLANGE LIMITS,COVER,
E
LOSS ALLOWANCE
A
8
SELF WT. + DEAD LOAD MOMENT
I
~

l
L
TOTAL MOMENT
I
T

+
MIN PRESTRESS f'"ORCE-
CABLE ZONE WIDTH
LIMITS
y

L
~ MAX. ECCENTRICITY
I
M
DESIGN PRESTRESS FORCE
I
T
+
TENDON PROFILE
s
T

I. 8.
+
TRANSFER STRESSES- LOSSES
A
T
E
4. 3.5.
4.3.4.
+
CHECK FINAL STRESSES

4.3.6.
+
CHECK DEFLECTIONS

1..11.
+
DESIGN END BLOCK - PRESTRESS SYSTEM

4.3.Z •
ULTIMATE MOM. OF RESISTANCE
u
L
T
+
UNTENSIONED REINFT - UL T. MOMENT
I
M
A
4.3.8.
+
SHEAR DESIGN
T
- UL T. SHEAR FORCE E

4.11. 3.
+
CHECK END BLOCK IUNBONDED)
L.

~ s.
FINISH

Figure 12.1 Prestressed concrete design flow chart

 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 331
provided by the reinforcement. The stress that may be permitted in the reinforce-
ment is limited by the need to keep the cracks in the concrete to acceptable widths
under working conditions, thus there is no advantage to be gained from the use of
very high strength steels which are available. The design is therefore uneconomic
in two respects: (1) dead weight includes 'useless' concrete in tensile zone, and
(2) economic use of steel resources is not possible.
'Prestressing' means the artificial creation of stresses in a structure before load-
ing, so that the stresses which then exist under load are more favourable than
would otherwise be the case. Since concrete is strong in compression the material
in a beam will be used most efficiently if it can be maintained in a state of com-
pression throughout. Provision of a longitudinal compressive force acting on a
concrete beam may therefore overcome both of the disadvantages of reinforced
concrete cited above. Not only is the concrete fully utilised, but also the need for
conventional tension reinforcement is removed. The compressive force is usually
provided by tensioned steel wires or strands which are anchored against the con-
crete and, since the stress in this steel is not an important factor in the behaviour
of the beam but merely a means of applying the appropriate force, full advantage
may be taken of very high strength steels.
The way in which the stresses due to bending and an applied compressive force
may be combined are demonstrated in figure 12.2 for the case of an axially applied
force acting over the length of a beam. The stress distribution at any section will
equal the sum of the compression and bending stresses if it is assumed that the
concrete behaves elastically. Thus it is possible to determine the applied force so
that the combined stresses are always compressive.

c c c

c r c
B<znd~ngstrom Prczstrczss 9<2ndmg Total
diStribUtiOn
Sczction B·B Strczss Distr,bution- Sczction B-8

Figure 12.2 Effects of axial prestress

332 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
By applying the compressive force eccentrically on the concrete cross-section, a
further stress distribution, due to the bending effects of the couple thus created, is
added to those shown in figure 12.2. This effect is illustrated in figure 12.3 and
offers further advantages when attempting to produce working stresses within
required limits.
Early attempts to achieve this effect were hampered both by the limited steel
strengths available and by shrinkage and creep of the concrete under sustained
compression, coupled with relaxation of the steel. These meant that the steel lost
a large part of its initial pretension and as a result residual stresses were so small as
to be useless. It is now possible, however, to produce stronger concretes which
have good creep properties, and very high strength steels which can be stressed up
to a high percentage of their 0.2 per cent proof stress are also available. For
example, hard-drawn wires may carry stresses up to about six times those possible
in mild steel. This not only results in savings of steel quantity, but also the effects
of shrinkage and creep become relatively smaller and may typically amount to the
loss of only about 25 per cent of the initial applied force. Thus, modern materials
mean that the prestressing of concrete is a practical proposition, with the forces
being provided by steel passing through the beam and anchored at each end while
under high tensile load.

c c c

c c c
Axial Pnlstrczss Bczndmg Eccczntric1ty Total
of Prczstrczss

Strczss D1str1bution- Sczction 8-8

Figure 12.3 Effects of eccentric prestress

12.2 Methods of Prestressing

Two basic techniques are commonly employed in the construction of prestressed

concrete, their chief difference being whether the steel tensioning process is per-
formed before or after the hardening of the concrete. The choice of method will
be governed largely by the type and size of member coupled with the need for
precast or in situ construction.
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 333
12.2.1 Pretensioning
I!! this method the steel wires or strands are stretched to the required tension and
anchored to the ends of the moulds for the concrete. The concrete is cast around
the tensioned steel, and when it has reached sufficient strength, the anchors are
released and the force in the steel is transferred to the concrete by bond. In addi-
tion to long-term losses due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation, an immediate drop
in prestress force occurs due to elastic shortening of the concrete. These features
are illustrated in figure 12.4.
Because of the dependence on bond, the tendons for this form of construction
generally consist of small diameter wires or small strands which have good bond
characteristics. Anchorage near the ends of these wires is often enhanced by the
provision of small indentations in the surface of the wire.
The method is ideally suited for factory production where large numbers of
identical units can be economically made under controlled conditions, a develop-
ment of this being the 'long-line' system where several units can be cast at once
- end to end - and the tendons merely cut between each unit after release of the
anchorages. An advantage of factory production of prestressed units is that special-
ised curing techniques such as steam curing can be employed to increase the rate
of hardening of the concrete and to enable earlier 'transfer' of the stress to the
concrete. This is particularly important where re-use of moulds is required, but it
is essential that under no circumstances must calcium chloride be used as an

812am w1th pr12t<2nS10n<2d

t12ndons
7
I

Str12ss
In
t12ndon5
tran5t<2r
& 1055<25

bond
l12ngth

Figure 12.4 Tendon stresses- pretensioning

accelerator because of its severe corrosion action on small diameter steel wires.
One major limitation of this approach is that tendons must be straight, which
may cause difficulties when attempting to produce acceptable final stress levels
throughout the length of a member. It may therefore be necessary to reduce either
the prestress force or eccentricity of force near the ends of a member, in which
case tendons must either be 'debonded' or 'deflected'.
334 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

(1) De bonding consists of applying a wrapping or coating to the steel to

prevent bond developing with the surrounding concrete. Treating some
of the wires in this way over part of their length allows the magnitude
of effective prestress force to be varied along the length of a member.
(2) Deflecting tendons is a more complex operation and is usually restricted
to large members, such as bridge beams, where the individual members
may be required to form part of a continuous structure in conjunction
with in situ concrete slabs and sill beams. A typical arrangement for
deflecting tendons is shown in figure 12.5, but it must be appreciated
that substantial ancillary equipment is required to provide the necessary
reactions.

Daflaction supports
(Cut off attar transfar)

Cone rata
/ ""'
To
jacks

Mould

Figure 12.5 Tendon deflection

12.2.2 Post-tensioning
This method, which is the most suitable for in situ construction, involves the
stressing against the hardened concrete of tendons or steel bars which are not
bonded to the concrete. The tendons are passed through a flexible sheathing,
which is cast into the concrete in the correct position. They are tensioned by
jacking against the concrete, and anchored mechanically by means of steel thrust

Parabolic tandons

Pracast sagmants

Figure 12.6 Post-tensioned segmental construction

 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 335

plates or anchorage blocks at each end of the member. Alternatively, steel bars
threaded at their ends may be tensioned against bearing plates by means of tight-
ening nuts. It is of course usually necessary to wait a considerable time between
casting and stressing to permit the concrete to gain sufficient strength under in
situ conditions.
The use of tendons consisting of a number of strands passing through flexible
sheathing offers considerable advantages in that curved tendon profiles may be
obtained. A post-tensioned structural member may be constructed from an
assembly of separate pre-cast units which are constrained to act together by means
of tensioned cables which are often curved as illustrated in figure 12.6. Alterna-
tively, the member may be cast as one unit in the normal way but a light cage of
untensioned reinforcing steel is necessary to hold the ducts in their correct position
during concreting.
After stressing, the remaining space in the ducts may be left empty ('unbonded'
construction), or more usually will be fllled with grout under high pressure
('bonded' construction). Although this grout assists in transmitting forces between
the steel and concrete under live loads, and improves the ultimate strength of the
member, the principal use is to protect the highly stressed strands from corrosion.
The bonding of the highly stressed steel with the surrounding concrete beam also
greatly assists demolition, since the beam may then safely be 'chopped-up' into
small lengths without releasing the energy stored in the steel.

12.3 Analysis of Concrete Section under Working Loads

Since the object of prestressing is to maintain favourable stress conditions in a

concrete member under load, the 'working load' for the member must be con-
sidered in terms of both maximum and minimum values. Thus at any section, the
stresses produced by the prestress force must be considered in conjunction with
the stresses caused by maximum and minimum values of applied moment.
Unlike reinforced concrete, the primary analysis of prestressed concrete is
based on service conditions, and on the assumption that stresses in the concrete
are limited to values which will correspond to elastic behaviour. In this section,
the following assumptions are made in analysis.
(1) Plane sections remain plane.
(2) Stress-strain relationships are linear.
(3) Bending occurs about a principal axis.
(4) The prestressing force is the value remaining after all losses have occurred.
(5) Changes in tendon stress due to applied loads on the member have
negligible effect on the behaviour of the member.
(6) Section properties are generally based on the gross concrete cross-section.
The stress in the steel is unimportant in the analysis of the concrete section under
working conditions, it being the force provided by the steel that is considered in
the analysis.
The sign conventions and notations used for the analysis are indicated in figure
12.7.
336 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
,. b

....-------....., - Fibra 2

-r ri .
~ • ve

Cantro~
" QXIS

z, = ! r -vc
Y,
Fibra 1

Araa A= bh Pras t rassing

tandon

Figure 12.7 Sign convention and notation

For direct and bending stresses, compression is taken as positive -and a positive
moment is defined as one which causes a numerically greater stress to occur in
fibre 2 than in fibre 1, that is [ 2 greater than [ 1 corresponds to a positive moment,
hence sagging is positive. To fit this convention, the eccentricity of the prestress
force from the centroidal axis must thus be taken as having a negative value if
below the axis and positive if above.

12. 3.1 Member Subjected to Axial Prestress Force

If section BB of the member shown in figure 12.8 is subjected to moments ranging
between Mmax and Mmin, the net stresses at the outer fibres of the beam are given
by

Prastrass Banding Total

Strass Otstributton- Sactton B -B

Figure 12.8 Stresses in member with axial prestress force

 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 337

!
12 = p + Mmax at the top (12.1)
A Z2
underMmax
11 = p- Mmax at tne bottom (12.2)
A z1
12 = P + Mmin at the top (12.3)
A z2
under Mmin
It= p - Mmin at the bottom (12.4)
A Zt

where z 1 and z2 are the elastic section moduli and Pis the fmal prestress force.
The critical condition for tension in the beam is given by equation 12.2 which
for no tension, that is 11 = 0, becomes

!_ = Mmax
A z1
or

p = Mmax A =minimum prestress force required

Zt

For this value of prestress force, substitution in the other equations will yield the
stresses in the beam under maximum load and also under minimum load. Simi-
larly the stresses immediately after prestressing, before losses have occurred, may
be calculated if the value of losses is known.
For example, the maximum stress in the top of the member is given by equation
12.1

where

therefore

12 =P + P z1 =P (z 1 + z2 )
A A z2 A z2
It can be seen from the stress distributions in figure 12.8 that the top fibre is
generally in considerable compression, while the bottom fibre is generally at lower
stresses. Much better use of the concrete could be made if the stresses at both top
and bottom can be caused to vary over the full range of permissible stresses for
the two extreme loading conditions. This may be achieved by providing the force
at an eccentricity e from the centroid.
338 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
12.1.2 Member Subjected to Eccentric Prestress Force
The stress distributions will be similar to those in section 12.3 .1 but with the
addition of the term± Pe/z due to the eccentricity e of the prestressing force. For
the position shown in figure 12.9, e will have a negative value. So that

~ [, • P + Mmu + Pe at the top (12.5)

A z2 Z2

under Mmax It = P - Mmax - Pe

at the bottom (12.6)
A Zt Zt

lz = p + Mmin + Pe at the top (12.7)

A Zt z2
under Mmin
It = p - Mmin - Pe at the bottom (12.8)
A Zt Zt

The critical condition for no tension in the bottom of the beam is again given by
equation 12.6, which becomes

P - Mmax - Pe = 0
A Zt Zt

or

P = ~Mmax =minimum prestress force required for no

~ _e tension in bottom fibre
A

'/A - M;z, z,
- Pe/,
,,
Axial Prczstrczss Bcznding Eccczntricity Total
ot Prczstrczss

Strczss Distribution- SCi!ction B·B

Figure 12.9 Stresses in member with eccentric prestress force

 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 339
Thus for a given value of prestress force P, the beam may carry a maximum
moment of

M max =P (~-e)
A

When compared with Mmax = Pz dA for an axial prestress force it indicates an

increase in moment carrying capacity of Pe when e is negative.
The maximum stress in the top of the beam is given by equation 12.5 as

f2 = P + Mmax + Pe
A z2 z2
where

M = Pzt -Pe
max A

thus
P Pz Pe Pe
[2=~
A z2
+ -1 - - + -
Az 2 Z2

=:(z1z:Z2)
which is the same as that obtained in section 12.3.1 for an axially prestressed
member. Thus the advantages of an eccentric prestress force with respect to the
maximum moment-carrying capacity of a beam are apparent.
If the stress distributions of figure 12.9 are further examined, it can be seen
that the differences in the net stress diagrams for the extreme loading cases are
solely due to the differences between the applied moment terms Mmax and Mmin·
It follows that by increasing the range of the stresses by the use of an eccentric
prestress force the range of applied moments that the beam can carry is also
increased. The minimum moment Mmin that can be resisted is generally governed
by the need to avoid tension in the top of the beam, as indicated by equation 12.7.
In the design of prestressed beams it is important that the minimum moment
condition is not overlooked, especially when straight tendons are employed, as
stresses near the ends of beams where moments are small may often exceed those
at sections nearer mid-span. This feature is illustrated by the results obtained in
example 12.1.

Example 12. ' Calculation of Prestress Force and Stresses

A rectangular beam 300 x 150 mm is simply supported over a 4 m span, and
supports a live load of 10 kN/m. If a straight tendon is provided at an eccentricity
of 65 mm below the centroid of the section, find the minimum prestress force
necessary for no tension under live load at mid-span. Calculate the corresponding
stresses under self-weight only at mid-span and at the ends of the member.
340 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
(a) Beam Properties
Self-weight= 0.15 x 0.3 x 24 = 1.08 kN/m
Area= 45 x lOS mm 2
Section moduli Z1 = z2 = z = bh 2 = 150 x 3002 = 2.25 x to' mm3
6 6

{b) Loadings (Mid-span)

Mmax = {lO + l.08) X 42 =22.2 kN m

8

Mmin = -1._08_x_4_2 =2.2 kN m

8

(c) Calculate Minimum Prestress Force

For no tension at the bottom under Mmax

p - Mmax - Pe = 0
A z z
where
e =-65 mm
hence
P= Mmax _ 22.2 X 106 X 10-3
~- 2.25 X}(}' + 65
\ A - e} 45 X 1OS
= 193 kN
(d) Calculate Stresses at Mid-span under Mmin

Stress at top !:2 = -P + -

Mmin Pe
- +-
A z z
where
p 193 lOS
--
A 45
X
X 103
=4.3 N/mm 2

Mmin= 2.2 X 106 = l.ON/mm2

z 2.25 X 106
Pe - 193 103 X 65
X
- - - - - - =- 5.6 N/mm 2
z 2.25 X 106
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 341
Hence
l2 = 4.3 + 1.0-5.6 =- 0.3 N/mm 2
and
stress at bottom 11 P - Mmin - Pe
A z z
= 4.30 - 1.0 + 5.6 = +.8.9 N/mm 2

(e) Calculate Stresses at Ends

In this situation M = 0. Hence

l2 =- Pe = 4.3 - 5.6 =- 1.3 NImm 2

P +-
A z
and

It =P- - -Pe = 4.3 + 5.6 = 9.9 N/mm 2

A z

12.4 Design for the Serviceability Limit State

The design of a prestressed concrete member is based on maintaining the concrete

stresses within specified limits at all stages in the life of the member. Hence the
primary design is based on the serviceability limit state, with the concrete stress
limits based on the acceptable degree of flexural cracking.
A prestressed member may be categorised into one of three basic groups
depending on the allowable concrete tensile stress.

Class 1 - no tension permitted under working conditions.

Class 2 - tensile stresses are permitted, but these are limited to avoid
·flexural cracking.
Class 3 - cracking permitted, but tensile stresses limited on the basis of
maximum permissible flexural crack widths.
Guidance regarding suitable tensile stress limits for class 2 and 3 members is given
in BS 8110, but the maximum allowable concrete compressive stress in bending is
generally the same for all three classes at one-third of the characteristic compress-
ive cube strength, this value being determined by the dual requirements of avoid-
ance of spalling in the compression zone, and the prevention of excessive loss in
the prestress force due to creep.
At initial transfer to the concrete, the prestress force will be considerably higher
than the 'long-term' value as a result of subsequent losses which are due to a
number of causes including elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of the concrete
member. Estimation of losses is described in section 12.4.6. Since these losses
commence immediately, the conditions at transfer represent a transitory stage in
the life of the member and maximum permissible concrete stresses are related to
the actual cube strength at transfer, usually by a factor of one-half. Concrete
342 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
tensile stress limits may be increased where they are due to prestress alone, and
for a class 1 structure 1.0 N/mm 2 is permitted.
The choice of class for a structure will depend upon a number of factors which
include conditions of exposure and the nature of loading. If a member consists of
precast segments with mortar joints, or if it is essential that cracking should not
occur then design must be as a class 1 member, but otherwise class 2 would
generally be used. This offers the most efficient use of materials, while still avoid-
ing flexural cracking under normal circumstances. The design procedure for class
1 and class 2 members will be similar, with the basic cross-section and prestress
force details being determined by the above serviceability requirements. Subse-
quent checks for adequacy at the ultimate limit state will generally be satisfied,
although a class 2 member may sometimes require a small amount of additional
reinforcing steel (see section 12.5.2).
Class 3, which is often known as partial prestressing, represents a form of con-
struction which is intermediate between reinforced and prestressed concrete.
While not offering the full advantages of prestressing, this technique allows high
strength steels to be used in situations where crack avoidance is not essential, and
the otherwise excessive deflections are controlled by the prestressing. This form
of construction is governed by the requirements of the ultimate limit state, thus
the design procedure should consider this first, followed by the design of pre-
stressing.
The design of prestressing requirements is based on the manipulation of the four
basic expressions given in section 12.3.2 describing the stress distributions across
the concrete section. These are used in conjunction with the permissible stresses
appropriate to the class of member, coupled with the final prestress force after
losses and the maximum and minimum loadings on the member. These loadings
must encompass the full range that the member will encounter during its life, and
the minimum value will thus be governed by the construction techniques to be
used. The partial factors of safety applied to these loads will be those for th<:l
serviceability limit state, that is 1.0 for both dead and live loads.
The basic equations from section 12.3 .2 are expressed in the following form

p + Pe + Mmax ~fmax (12.9)*

A z2 z2
at the top
(12.10)*

P - Pe- Mmax '[, . (12.11)*

""'" mtn
A z1 z1
at the bottom
P _ Pe _ Mmin ~ [, (12.12)*
max
A z1 z1
where !max and /min are the appropriate permissible stresses.

12. 4. 1 Determination of Minimum Section Properties

The two pairs of expressions can be combined as follows.
12.9 and 12.10
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 343

(Mmax - Mmin).;;;; (fmax -!min) z2 (12.13)

12.11 and 12.12
(Mmax - Mmin).;;;; (fmax - fmin)Zt (12.14)
Hence, if (Mmax - Mmin) is written as Mv, the moment variation
..._ Mv
z2""" ----'---- (12.15)*
(fmax - fmin)
and
..._ Mv
z1 """ - - - - ' - - - (12.16)*
(fmax - fmin)
These minimum values of section moduli must be satisfied by the chosen section
in order that a prestress force and eccentricity exist which will permit the stress
limits to be met. Stresses at transfer are discussed in 12.4.3, and to avoid overstress-
ing in that condition the chosen section must have a margin above the minimum
values of section moduli calculated above. Detailed calculations may be based on
loss estimates, but it will usually be adequate at this stage to provide a section with
moduli exceeding the calculated minima by 20 per cent for post-tensioned and 35
per cent for pre-tensioned construction. The maximum moment on the section has
not directly been included in these figures, thus it is possible that the resulting pre-
stress force may not be economic or practicable. However, it is found in the
majority of cases that if a section is chosen which satisfies these minimum require-
ments, coupled with any other specified requirements regarding the shape of the
section, then a satisfactory design is usually possible. The ratio of acceptable
span-depth for a prestressed beam cannot be categorised on the basis of deflec-
tions as easily as for reinforced concrete. In the absence of any other criteria, the
following formulae may be used as a guide and will generally produce reasonably
conservative designs for post-tensioned members.

_.. 36 m
span""" h -- span+ 0.1 m
25

span~ 36m

In the case of short-span members it may be possible to use very much greater
span-depth ratios quite satisfactorily, although the resulting prestress forces may
become very high.
Other factors which must be considered at this stage include the slenderness
ratio of beams, where the same criteria apply as for reinforced concrete, and the
possibility of web and flange splitting in flanged members.

Example 12.2 Selection of Cross-section

Select a rectangular section for a post-tensioned beam to carry, in addition to its
self-v.:eight, a uniformly distributed load of 3 kN/m over a simply supported span
344 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

of 10 m. The member is to be designed as class I with grade 40 concrete, without

lateral support.
Class I member, thus

/max = 40 = 13.3 N/mm 2

3
/min =0 N/mm2
'Live load' 3 x I02
moment at = = 37.5 kN m
mid-span Mv 8
thus
Mv .. )
z = z1 = z2 = = 37.5xi06 = 282
. x I06 mm 3(mmunum
(/max -/min) I3.3
This should be increased by 20 per cent to allow for transfer case. Therefore
z = 1.2 x 2.82 x I06 mm 3
= 3.38 x I06 mm 3
To prevent lateral buckling, BS 8IIO specifies maximum permissible span/
breadth = 60, that is
IO X 103
minimum b = = 167.mm
60
thus if b = 170 mm
bh 2
z=- =
6
hence

. .
mmtmum h = ;1(6 X3.38
170
= 345 mm

This represents a span-depth ratio= IO x I03 /345 = 29.0 which may prove to be
excessive when deflections are checked (see example I2.7) but as a first trial a
section 350 x 170 is adopted (z 1 = z2 =z =3.47 x 106 mm 3 ) and this is used in
subsequent examples.

12.4.2 Design of Prestress Force

The inequalities of equations 12.9 and 12.I2, and 12.IO and I2.11 may also be
combined to yield expressions involving the moment variation Mv, thus
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 345
12.9 and 12.12

Mv=(Mmax -Mmin)~ (zl :z2) (A/max -P) (12.17)

12.10 and 12.11

Mv = (Mmax- Mmin) ~ ( Zt: z2) (P- A/min) (12.18)

thus if Mv and Pare treated as variables, these are both of the general form
Mv ~ aP + (j where 01. and (j are constants. These two expressions therefore repre-
sent linear limits, and since the signs of Pare opposite, one represents an upper
limit toP and the other a lower limit as shown in figure 12.10. The upper limits to
Mv for the section moduli chosen, as given by equations 12.13 and 12.14 are also
shown and since these are independent of the value of P, these are parallel 'hori-
zonallines'. If the section is symmetrical, lines 12.13 and 12.14 coincide, and it
can be shown that this passes through the intersection of 12.17 and 12.18.

17 18

Figure 12.10 Moment variation and prestress force relationships

It is necessary to choose a value of prestress force which lies between these

limits for the appropriate value of moment variation to be carried by the member.
It can be seen that no advantage in moment variation capacity is to be gained by
providing a prestress force in excess of the value X shown in figure 12.1 0.
In the case illustrated in figure 12.1 0, where z 2 > z 1 , the value of X is given by
the intersection of equations 12.14 and 12.18, that is

(12.19)
346 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
and Y is similarly given by
y- fmaxZ2 + fminZl
- (z1;z2) (12.20)

If z 1 > z2 then 12.13 lies below 12.14 and the values of X and Yare interchanged.
The minimum prestress force for a given moment variation is therefore given by
equation 12.18 which is based on satisfying the minimum stress requirements.
This may be rewritten in the form

P~ §Mv
+Z1 z2
+Afmin

A
that is

(12.21)*

Although a range of values of permissible prestress force can be found, this makes
no allowance for the fact that the corresponding eccentricity must lie within the
beam. It is necessary therefore to consider the effect of limiting the eccentricity
to a maximum practical value for the section under consideration. The effect of
this limitation will be most severe when considering the maximum moment acting
on the section, that is, the inequalities of equations 12.9 and 12.11.
If the limiting value for maximum eccentricity, em ax depends on cover require-
ments; equation 12.9 becomes

(12.22)

and equation 12.11 becomes

Mmax ~p(:l - emax) - fminZl (12.23)

Thus these represent linear relationships between Mmax and P. For the case of a
beam subjected to sagging moments, emax will generally be negative in value, thus

shown also that for most practical cases [(zdA)

equation 12.23 is of positive slope and represents a lower limit toP. It can be
+em ax]< 0, thus equation 12.22
is similarly a lower limit of positive, though smaller, slope.
Figure 12.11 represents the general form of these expressions, and it can be seen
clearly that providing a prestress force in excess of Y' produces only small benefits
of additional maximum moment capacity. The value of Y' is given by the inter-
section of these two expressions, when

P(:l -emax) -fminZl =fmaxZ2 -P(:2 +emax)

 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 347

23

y'

Figure 12.11 Maximum moment and prestress force relationship

thus
p- fmaxZ2 + fminZt _ y'
- (Zt: z2) - (12.24)*

It should be noted that this corresponds to the value of P = Yin equation 12.20,
thus the value of prestress force P = Y = Y' may be conveniently considered as a
maximum economic value. Equation 12.23 provides a second lower limit toP
such that

(12.25)*

Practically therefore, the prestress force must be selected to satisfy two lower
limits, based on

(I) the moment variation,Mmax -Mmin from equation 12.21

(2) the maximum permissible eccentricity and maximum moment Mmax
from equation 12.25
(3) the prestress force should be less than the economic maximum given
by equation 12.24.

In the case of a simply supported beam, the design prestress force will generally
be based on the minimum value which satisfies these criteria at the critical section
for bending in the member. If the governing criterion is that of moment variation,
the member is said to be 'below the critical span', and if maximum moment
governs, it is 'above the critical span' -the latter case generally applies only to
long-span beams.
348 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Although this treatment relates only to the commonly occurring case where
Mmax and Mmin are both sagging, the approach can be extended quite easily to
deal with other situations which may occur.

Example 12.3 Colculotion of Prestress Force

Calculate the minimum prestress force for the beam in example 12.2. (From
example 12.2, b = 170, h = 350, z 1 = z 2 = 3.47 x 106 mm3 ,Mv = 37.5 kN m,
/min= 0, /max= 13.3 N/mm 2 .)

(a) Based on Moment Variation

Lower limit toP from equation 12.21
p;;;, Mv +/min (zl + Zz)
( ZtA+ Zz)

';;J: 37.5 106 + 0

X X 10 _3
2 X 3.47 X 106
350 X 170
';;J:322 kN

(b) Based on Maximum Eccentricity and Maximum Moment

Self-weight of beam= 350 X 170 X 10-6 X 24 = 1.43 kN/m
thus

Mmin = 1. 43 X 102 = 17.9 kN m

8
and
Mmax =Mmin + Mv = 17.9 + 37.5 = 55.4 kN m
Thus lower limit toP from maximum moment is given by equation 12.25 as
p;;;, Mmax + fminZt

(~ 1 - emax)

where emax is given by - [(h/2) - cover]. Thus if minimum cover= 50 mm,

emax = - (I 75 - 50)
= -125 mm
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 349
hence
...,. 55.4x106 +0
P ., ----:--- x w-3
3.47 X 106 + 125
350 X 170
;;o..302kN
Thus the critical minimum value is given by moment variation requirements and
the member is below the critical span. Provision of a prestress force of 322 kN will
therefore produce an acceptable eccentricity at mid-span.

(c) Check the Upper Limit to Prestress Force

From equation 12.24
P<:. fmaxZz + fminZt = 13.3zA
Zt+Zz 2z
A
<:. 6.65A
<:, 6.65 X 350 X 170 X 10-3
<:. 395 kN
Since this is above the value of 322 kN to be provided, the design will be considered
as acceptable at this stage.

12.4.3 Transfer Stresses

Stresses existing in the concrete at transfer must always be checked, since these
will generally be higher than those occurring in the design based on fmal prestress
force. This is due to the combined effects of a higher prestress force, and an applied
moment which is frequently lower than Mmin considered in the basic design. In
addition to'the increased stresses, the concrete is usually relatively immature and
not at full strength. These factors combine to make transfer a critical stage which
must always be examined carefully, even though. allowance may have been made
when determining section size.
Since this condition is transitory with losses commencing immediately, it is
usually permitted that stresses may reach higher values than normal relative to the
concrete strength. This has been discussed in section 12.4 and transfer-stress calcu-
lations will often govern the minimum permissible concrete cube strength at the
time of transfer.

EXtJmple 12.4 Transfer Stresses

For the previous examples, check transfer stresses at mid-span. Assume losses= 25
per cent and prestress force constant throughout span. Assume also that M = Mmin
= 17.9 kN m and e = - 100 mm.
350 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

322
Prestress force at transfer Pt = -- = 430 kN
0.75
Then minimum stress at top fibre, from equation 12.10 is
J; . = Pt + Pte + Mmin = 430 X 103 _ 430 x 103 X 100 + 17.9 X 106
mm A z2 z2 170 X 350 3.47 X 106 3.47 X 106
= 7.2- 12.4 + 5.2
=0
and maximum stress at bottom fibre from equation 12.12 is

= Pt - Pte - Mmin
fmax A

= 7.2 + 12.4- 5.2

= 14.4 N/mm 2
If it is assumed that the compressive stress at transfer may reach 50 per cent of the
cube strength at that time, the minimum permissible concrete strength at transfer
is given by 2 x 14.4 ~ 30 N/mm 2 . The minimum stress is within the limit permit-
ted in a class 1 structure.
Near the ends of the member, Mmin becomes very small and the resultant
stresses will be even more severe than those calculated at mid-span. This demon-
strates the common situation where it is necessary to reduce either the prestress
force or its eccentricity near supports as discussed in sections 12.2.1 and 12.4.4.

12.4.4 Design of Tendon Profiles

Having obtained a value of prestress force which will permit all stress conditions to
be satisfied at the critical section, it is necessary to determine the eccentricity at
which this force must be provided, both at the critical section and throughout the
length of the member.
At any section along the member, e is the only unknown term in the four
expressions 12.9 to 12.12 and these will yield two upper and two lower limits
which must all be simultaneously satisfied. This requirement must be met at all
sections throughout the member and will reflect both variations of moment,
prestress force, and section properties along the member.
The design expressions can be rewritten as

e~ ftmaxZ2 _ Z2] _ Mmax (12.26)

t P A P

e;;,. ftmmZ2 _ Z2
l P A
J_ P
Mmin (12.27)

e~ [~
A
_ fminZt
p
J_Mmax
p
(12.28)
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 351

e;;;.. [~ _ fmaxZl] _ Mmin (12.29)

A p p
Although it is relatively simple to evaluate all four expressions, it can be shown
that expressions 12.27 or 12.29 and 12.28 govern when Mmax and Mmin are both
positive, although this does not apply in other situations. The moments Mmax and
Mmin are those relating to the section being considered.
For a member of constant cross-section, if minor changes in prestress force
along the length are neglected, the terms in brackets in the above expressions are
constants. Therefore the zone within which the centroid of prestress force must lie
is governed by the shape of the bending-moment envelopes, as shown in figure
12.12. In the case of uniform loading, these are parabolic, hence the usual practice
is to provide parabolic tendon profiles if a straight profile will not fit within this
zone.

Mmtn
p

Figure 12.12 Cable zone limits

At the critical section, the zone is generally narrow and reduces to zero if the
value of prestress force is taken as the minimum value from moment variation
requirements. At sections away from the critical section, the zone becomes
increasingly wide as the moments reduce and the prestress force provided is
increasingly greater than the minimum required.

Example 12.5 Colculotion of Cable Zone

Determine the cable zone limits at mid-span and ends of the member designed in
examples 12.2 and 12.3 for a constrant prestress force of322 kN.

(a) Ends of Beam

Limits to cable eccentricity are given by
equation 12.27

-Mmin
--
p
352 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
and equation 12.28
z1
e..:; [ A _ fm;nZI J_M;ax
equation 12.27 becomes

e~ [o _ 3.47 x 106 ]
350 X 170
_ 0

~- 58.3 mm
Similarly equation 12.28 becomes

e.,.;; [3.47 X 106

350 X 170
_ o] _ O

..:;+58.3mm
Thus at the ends of the member, the tendons must lie at a practical eccentricity
in the range± 58 mm.

(b) Mid-span
Equation 12.27 gives

e~ [o _ 3.47 x 106]
350 X 170
17.9xl06
322 X 103
~- 58.3 - 55.6
~ -113.9 mm
and equation 12.28 gives

e..:; [3.47x 106

350 X 170
-o] 55.4 X 106
322 X 103
..:;58.3 -172
..:;-113.7mm
Hence at mid-span the tendon must theoretically lie at an eccentricity of -113.8
mm and the practical width of cable zone is zero for this prestress force.

12.4.5 Width of Cable Zone

The widths (sx) of the permissible cable zone at any section x may be obtained by
subtracting equations 12.28 and 12.27 for a simply supported beam, thus
s =~ - fminZ! - Mmax - fminZ2 + z2 + Mmin
XA p p pAp
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 353
therefore

where the values of moment, prestress and section properties are those relating to
section x. The design expression for minimum prestress force based on moment
variation (equation 12.21) may be rewritten so that

:v = ( Z 1 : Z2 ) _ f min ( z 1 ; Z2 )

where Mv = design moment variation at critical section. Hence

S = Mv _ (Mmax -Mmin)
X p p

= Mv - (Mmax - Mmin)
p

When section x coincides with the critical section, (Mmax - Mmin) corresponds to
Mv and hence sx = 0, unless the value of Mv used in the design calculations for pre-
stress force is increased to provide for a positive zone width, in which case the
value of Mv used in the design must be obtained from the above expression, so
that
Mv =(Mmax - Mmin) + Ps x
where sx is the minimum required zone width at section x. Hence the expression
for minimum prestress force corresponding to equation 12.21 becomes
p ~ (Mmax - Mmin) + Psx + fmin (z1 + Z2)
( z1 :z2)
or

(12.30)*

Example 12.6 Cakulotion of Prestress Force for Minimum Cable Zone Width
Find the minimum prestress force necessary for the beam in examples 12.2 and
12.3 if the minimum cable zone width is to be ± I 0 mm and minimum cover
remains at 50 mm.

(a) Based on Moment Variation from Equation 12.30

At mid-span section
354 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

where sx = 20 mm. Hence

P";;J; 37.5 X 106 +0 X 10 _3
2x3.47x106
-20
350 X 170
";;J; 388 kN

(b) Based on Limits of Eccentricity from Equation 12.25

Now for maximum tolerance, emax may be reduced to- [(h/2- Cover] + 20,
thus
emax =- (175 -50)+ 20 =- 105 mm
hence

P";;J; Mmax + fminZt

1
(: - emax)

55.4x106 +0
';iJ; X 10-3
3.47 X 106
- - - - + 105
350 X 170
";;J; 339 kN

Thus, moment variation still governs.

It will be noted immediately that the minimum prestress force is increased con-
siderably by this requirement, and approaches the maximum economic value of
395 kN for the section chosen, as determined in example 12.3. This demonstrates
clearly the need for precision of construction in prestressed concrete members,
particularly with reference to tendon fixing. The importance in selecting section
properties which exceed the minimum values by a reasonable margin is also
emphasised and confirmed by example 12.4 in order that transfer conditions may
be met.

12.4. 6 Prestress Losses

From the moment that the prestressing force is first applied to the concrete
member, losses of this force will take place because of the following causes
(I) Elastic shortening of the concrete.
(2) Creep of the concrete under sustained compression.
(3) Relaxation of the prestressing steel under sustained tension.
(4) Shrinkage of the concrete.
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 355
These losses will occur whichever form of construction is used, although the
effects of elastic shortening will generally be much reduced when post-tensioning
is used. This is because stressing is a sequential procedure, and not instantaneous as
with pre-tensioning. Creep and shrinkage losses depend to a large extent on the
properties of the concrete with particular reference to the maturity at the time of
stressing. In pre-tensioning, where the concrete is usually relatively immature at
transfer, these losses may therefore be expected to be higher than in post-
tensioning.
In addition to losses from these causes, which will generally total between 20
to 30 per cent of the initial prestress force at transfer, further losses occur in post-
tensioned concrete during the stressing procedure. These are due to friction
between the strands and the duct, especially where curved profiles are used, and
to mechanical anchorage slip during the stressing operation. Both these factors
depend on the actual system of ducts, anchorages and stressing equipment that are
used.
Thus although the basic losses are generally highest in pre-tensioned members,
in some instances overall losses in post-tensioned members may be of similar
magnitude.

Elastic Shortening
The concrete will immediately shorten elastically when subjected to compression,
and the steel will generally shorten by a similar amount (as in pre-tensioning) with
a corresponding loss of prestress force. To calculate this it is necessary to obtain
the compressive strain at the level of the steel.
If the transfer force is Pt, and the force after elastic losses is P' then
P' = Pt -loss in force

=:
and the corresponding stress in the concrete at the level of the tendon

fc + (P'eJ X e + f(wct)

where f(wd) is the stress due to self weight which will be relatively small when
averaged over the length of the member and may thus be neglected. Hence

p' ( e2
fc=A l + l
A)
and concrete strain= fc/Ec, thus reduction in steel strain= fc/Ec and

reduction in steel stress= (fc)

Ec
E =ex
s
f.
e c

thus
loss in prestress force= cx.efcAst
where Ast = area of tendons
356 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Ast p
A
hence

so that
Pt
I+ a
remaining prestress force P = ----~,-----:-----,

e
Ast
A
(I + e2
I
A)
In pre-tensioned construction this full loss will be present; however when post-
tensioning the effect will only apply to previously tensioned cables and although a
detailed calculation could be undertaken it is normally adequate to assume 50 per
cent of the above losses. In this case the remaining prestress force is

p' = Pt
I + 0.5ae ~st (I + e~A )
and it is this value which applies to subsequent loss calculations.

Creep of Concrete
The sustained compressive stress on the concrete will also cause a long-term short-
ening due to creep, which will similarly reduce the prestress force. As above, it is
the stress in the concrete at the level of the steel which is important, that is

!.=
c
p -( I +
A
e2-
I
A)
and
loss of steel stress =Esfc x specific creep strain
then

loss of prestress force = £ 8 ~st P (I + e; A) x specific creep strain

The value of specific creep used in this calculation will be influenced by the
factors discussed in section 6.3.2, and may be obtained from the values of creep
coefficient rp fiven in figure 6.5 using the relationship

specific creep strain= j_ I N/mm 2

Ec
For most outdoor exposure purposes in the UK it will be adequate to use values
of creep coefficient between I.8 for transfer within 3 days and I.4 for transfer
after 28 days.
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 357

Relaxation of Steel
Despite developments in prestressing steel manufacture which have taken place in
recent years, relaxation of the wire or strand under sustained tension may still be
expected to be a significant factor. The precise value will depend upon whether
pre-tensioning or post-tensioning is used and the characteristics of the steel type
defined in BS 5896. Factors allowing for method of construction are given in
BS 8110 which should be applied to l 000 hour relaxation values provided by the
manufacturer. The amount of relaxation will also depend upon the initial tendon
load relative to its breaking load. In most practical situations the transfer steel
stress is about 70 per cent of the characteristic strength and relaxation losses are
likely to be approximately 8-10 per cent of the tendon load remaining after
transfer. This loss decreases linearly to zero for a transfer stress of about 40 per
cent characteristic.

Shrinkage of Concrete
This is based on empirical figures for shrinkage/unit length of concrete ( esh) for
particular curing conditions and transfer maturity as discussed in chapter 6.
Typical values for pre-tensioned concrete (stressed at 3 to 5 days) range from
100 X w- 6 for UK outdoor exposure to 300 X 10-6 for indoor exposure. Cor-
responding values for post-tensioning (stressed at 7 to 14 days) are reduced to
70 X w- 6 and 200 X w-6 0 More detailed guidance in unusual circumstances
may be obtained from section 6.3.2.
The loss in steel stress is thus given by esh£8 , hence
loss in prestress force= EshEsAst

Friction in Ducts (Post-tensioning only)

When a post-tensioned cable is stressed, it will move relative to the duct and other
cables within the duct and friction will tend to resist this movement hence reducing
the effective prestress force at positions remote from the jacking point. This effect
may be divided into unintentional profile variations, and those due to designed
curvature of ducts.
(a) 'Wobble' effects in straight ducts will usually be present. If P0 =jack
force, and Px = cable force at distance x from jack then it is generally
estimated that
Px =Poe-kx

where e =base of napierian logs (2.718) and k =constant, depending on

duct characteristics and construction procedures, generally taken as
ct 33 x 10-4 but reducing to 17 x 10-4 in special cases.
(b) Duct curvature will generally cause greater prestress force losses, and is
given by
Px =Poe-~-txfrps

where JJ. =coefficient of friction (typically 0.55 steel on concrete, 0.3

steel on steel, 0.12 greased strand on plastic) and r08 = radius of curva-
358 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

ture of duct. If r ps is not constant, the profile must be subdivided into

sections, each assumed to have constant r ps, in which case P0 is taken as
the force at the jacking end of the section and x the length of the seg-
ment. Px, the force at the end remote from the jack then becomes P0
· for the next section and so on.
The above effects may be combined to produce an effective prestress force
diagram for a member. If friction losses are high. it may be worth while to jack
simultaneously from both ends, in which case the two diagrams may be super-
imposed, maintaining symmetry of prestress force relative to the length of the
member.

Example 12. 7 Estimation of Prestress Losses

A rectangular 250 x 150 mm pre-tensioned beam is stressed by wires of total area
200 mm 2 with a total characteristic strength of 3 70 kN at an eccentricity of
-50mm.
If the transfer prestress force is 250 kN, estimate the final value after losses.
Assume: Ec (transfer)= 28 kN/mm 2 ; £ 5 = 205 kN/mm 2 ; shrinkage/unit length
(esh) = 300 X 10-6 ; specific creep= 48 X 10-6 /N/mm 2 •

(1) Elastic Shortening

where A = 37 500 mm 2

I= bh 3 = 195 x 106 mm4

12
therefore

p' 250
1 + 205 X~ 1 + 50
2 x37~
28 37 500 195 X iQ6)

= 236.3 kN (that is, loss= 13 ·7 = 5.5%)

250
(2) Creep

Loss in force= specific creep x £ 5 x ~, (1 + e; A ) Ast

=48 X 10-6 X 205 X 103 X ~~ X

37500

( 1 + 50 X 37 500 )
2 X 200
195 X 106
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 359

=18.3kN (thatis,loss= 183 =7.3%)

250

(3) Relaxation

Transfer force= 250 x 100 = 67.5 per cent characteristic

370
therefore assuming that a loss of about 8 per cent corresponds to a stress of 70 per
cent characteristic,
. 1oss ~ 8
re 1axatlon x (67.5 - 40) = 7 .3 per cent
30
therefore

loss in force~ 73 x 236.3 = 17.3 kN

100

(4) Shrinkage
Loss in force= €shEsAst = 300 X w- 6 X 205 X 200

=12.3kN
Thus
final prestress force = 236.3 - 18.3 - 17.3 - 12.3
= 188 kN
and

total estimated loss of force is 62 = 25 per cent

250

12.4. 7 Calculation of Deflections

The anticipated deflections of a prestressed member must always be checked since
specific span-effective depth ratios are not met in the design procedure. The
deflection due to the eccentric prestress force must be evaluated and added to that
from the normal dead and applied loading on the member. In the case of class 1
and 2 structures, the member is designed to be uncracked, and a similar procedure
is followed to that described in chapter 6. Although class 3 members are designed
as cracked under full load, when evaluating deflections due to non-prestress load-
ings it has been found that little error is introduced if the uncracked case is again
considered, thus simplifying calculations considerably. BS 8110 recommends that
for class 3 members such an assumption may be made if the permanent load is no
more than 25 per cent of the total design load. If this is not satisfied then the
member deflections must be evaluated as cracked unless the basic span-effective
depth ratios (section 6.2) are satisfied, in which case the deflections of the
member may be assumed to be not excessive.
360 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

The basic requirements which should generally be satisfied in respect of deflec-

tions are similar to those for a reinforced beam (section 6.3). which are
(1) Final deflection :I> span/250 measured below the level of supports.
(2) 20 mm or span/500 maximum movement after finishes applied.
Additionally in prestressed concrete
(3) Total upward deflection :I> span/350 or 20 mm where finishes are
applied. unless uniformity of camber between adjacent units can be
ensured.
The evaluation of deflections due to prestress loading can be obtained by
double integration of the expression

M =Pe = E/d2y
X X dx2

over the length of the member, although this calculation can prove tedious for
complex tendon profiles.
The simple case of straight tendons in a uniform member however, yields
M = Pe =a constant. which is the situation evaluated in section 6.3.3 to yield a
maximum mid-span deflection of -ML 2 /8£/ = -PeL 2 /8£/. If the cables lie
below the centroidal axis, e is negative, and the deflection due to prestress is
then positive, that is upwards.
Another common case of a symmetrical parabolic tendon proftle in a beam of
constant section can also be evaluated quite simply by considering the bending-
moment distribution in terms of an equivalent uniformly distributed load.
For the beam in figure 12.13 the moment due to prestress loading at any
section isMx = Pex but since ex is parabolic, the prestress loading may be likened
to a uniformly distributed load We on a simply supported beam; then mid-span
moment

M= WeL2 =Pee
8
thus
8Pec
We=--
L2
But since the mid-span deflection due to a uniformly distributed load w over a
span L is given by
5 wL 4
y=--
384 EI
the deflection due to We is
5 (Pec)L 2
y=--
48 EI
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 361

Figure 12.13 Parabolic tendon profile

If the prestress force does not lie at the centroid of the section at the ends of
the beam, but at an eccentricity e0 as shown in figure 12.14, the expression for
deflection must be modified. It can be shown that the deflection is the same as
that caused by a force P acting at a constant eccentricity e 0 throughout the length
of the member, plus a force P following a parabolic profile with mid-span eccentri-
city e~ as shown in figure 12.14.

Figure 12.14 Parabolic tendon profile eccentric at ends of beam

The mid-span deflection thus becomes

_ (Pe 0 )L 2 5 (Pe~)L 2
y - - 8£/ - 48 £/

Deflections due to more complex tendon profiles are most conveniently esti-
mated on the basis of coefficients which can be evaluated for commonly occurring
arrangements. These are on the basis y =(KL 2 )/EI where K incorporates the varia-
tiom of curvature due to prestress along the member length.
There are three principal stages in the life of a prestressed member at which
deflections may be critical and may require to be assessed.
362 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
(1) At transfer- a check of actual deflection at transfer for comparison
with estimated values is a useful guide that a prestressed beam has been
correctly constructed.
(2) Under dead load, before application of finishes - deflections must be
evaluated to permit subsequent movement and possible damage to be
estimated.
(3) Long term under full load - deflections are required, both to determine
the subsequent movement and also to assess the appearance of the final
structure.
Short-term deflections will be based on materials properties associated with
characteristic strengths hm = 1) and with actual loading ('Yr = 1). Long-term
assessment however must not only take into account loss in prestress force, but
also the effects of creep both on the applied loading and the prestress loading
components of the deflection. Creep is allowed for by using an effective modulus
of elasticity for the concrete, as discussed in section 6.3.2.
Thus if Ec is the instantaneous value, the effective value after creep is given by
Ec
Err=--
e 1 + tP
where the value of 1/J, the creep coefficient can be obtained from figure 6.5.
It can be shown in some instances that when net upward deflections occur,
these often increase because of creep, thus the most critical downward deflection
may well be before creep losses occur, while the most critical upward deflection
may be long term. This further complicates a procedure which already has many
uncertainties as discussed in chapter 6; thus deflections must always be regarded
as estimates only.

Example 12.8 Calculation of Deflections

Estimate transfer and long-term deflections for the 350 x 170 mm beam of 10m
span in examples 12.2 to 12.4 if it is assumed that the mid-span eccentricity =
- 100 mm and the end eccentricity = 0. Assume that prestress losses amount to
25 per cent and that the creep coefficient= 2.0. The prestress force may be
assumed constant throughout the member. (From the previous examples, final
prestress force P = 3 22 kN, minimum loading Wmin = 1.43 kN/m and maximum
loading Wmax = 4.43 kN/m.)

(a) At Transfer
322
Pt = - =430kN
0.75
take Ec = 31 kN/mm 2 as typical for a grade 40 concrete. Thus
deflection due to self-weight=- _2_ WminL 4
384 Eel

deflection due to prestress

__ _2_ (Ptec)L 2
48
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 363
But
bh 3 170 X 35Ql
I= - = = 607 x 106 mm4
12 12
Thus
-5 X 1.43 X 1<f X 10 12
deflection y = -------,-----o-
384 X 3I X I Ql X 607 X 106
5 430 X I0 3 X(- 100) X I0 2 X I06
- -- X -----7-~-~~-
48 3I X I 0 3 X 607 X I 0 6
=- 9.9 + 24
= + I4 mm (upward)

(b) At Application of Finishes

If the dead load due to finishes= 2.0 kN/m, the instantaneous deflection due to
finishes
-5 X 2.0 X I04 X I0 12
y = ------=------:-
384 X 3I X I Ql X 607 X I 0 6
=- I4 mm (downward)
Assuming that only a small proportion of prestress losses have occurred at this
stage, the total deflection will be given by
y = + I4- I4 = 0

(c) In the Long Term

Eeff = ~=~ = 10.3 kN/mm 2

I+cp 1+2
Thus deflection under sustained minimum loading of dead load plus finishes
becomes
_ 5 X (1.43 + 2.0) X I04 X I0 12 5 X322 X 103 ( - 100) X I0 2 X I06
y-- 384 X 10.3 X I03 X 607 X 106 - 48 X 10.3 X 103 X 607 X 106
=- 71 +53=- 18 mm (downward)
The deflection under sustained maximum loading is given by
4.43
y=- 71 X - +53
3.43
=- 92 +53

= - 39 mm (downward)
364 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The criteria that should be satisfied are
(1) Maximum downward deflection= span/250 =10000/250 =40 rnm.
This is just satisfied.
(2} Maximum upward deflection = span/350 = 29 mm or 20 rnm. This is
satisfied.
(3} Maximum movement after fmishes =span/500 =20 rnm.
The actual value is given by
Maximum long-term deflection - instantaneous deflection
after application of fmishes
= - 39 - 0 = - 39 rnm
Hence this requirement is not satisfied, and special consideration must be given
to the importance attached to this criterion in this particular instance.

12.4.8 End Blocks

In pre-tensioned members, the prestress force is transferred to the concrete by
bond over a definite length at each end of the member. The transfer of stress to
the concrete is thus gradual. In post-tensioned members however, the force is
concentrated over a small area at the end faces of the member, and this leads to
high tensile forces at right angles to the direction of the compression force. This
effect will extend some distance from the end of the member until the compression
has distributed itself across the full concrete cross-section. This region is known as
the 'end block' and must be heavily reinforced by steel to resist the bursting
tension forces. End block reinforcement will generally consist of closed links which
surround the anchorages, and the quantities provided are usually obtained from
empirical methods.

Flat Plot<2 Anchorog<Z. Con1cal Anc horaga.

Figure 12.15

Typical 'flow lines' of compressive stress are shown in figure 12.15, from which
it can be seen that whatever type of anchorage is used, the required distribution
can be expected to have been attained at a distance from the loaded face equal to
the lateral dimension of the member. This is relatively independent of the anchor-
age type, and the distribution of bursting tensile stress is generally as shown in
figure 12.16.
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 365

End
Block

OlC:.
C:: L "'"'
- +'
-:;:;"'
L C:.
:::l -=
c!l"'
c::
"'
+' 0 I....L__--'-------L---'----'"-----L___l..-~
D1stancq from qnd facq of mqmbqr

Figure 12.16

The magnitude of these stresses depends on the ratio of the dimensions of the
loaded area to the dimensions of the end block. It will normally be necessary to
establish the end-block dimensions both horizontally and vertically based on the
size of the end face of the beam and the layout of the anchorages. The end block
for each individual anchorage will be symmetrical about the centre line of the
anchorage and its total width (2y 0 ) will be limited by the distance (y 0 ) to an edge
of the concrete member or half the distance to an adjacent anchorage. Values of
bursting tensile force (Fbst) are given in table 12.1 related to the jacking force (Po)
for a square end block of side 2y 0 loaded through a square anchorage of side 2Ypo.
If a circular anchorage is used, then 2Ypo is taken as the side of a square of equiva-
lent area, and if the end block is not square, then separate values of Fbst must be
evaluated for both vertical and horizontal planes based on the largest symmetrical
end block.
Once Fbst has been obtained, reinforcement is provided to act at a stress of
200 N/mm2 and is usually distributed evenly over the length of the end block. The
calculation is thus based on serviceability conditions and will be adequate for

Table 12.1 Bursting forces in end blocks

2Ypo
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
2yo
Fbst 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.11
Po
366 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
bonded tendons. If tendons are unbonded, an ultimate limit state check with Fbst
based on the tendon characteristic load and with reinforcement acting at its design
strength of 0.8 7 fy will be necessary.
High local stresses should also be controlled by limiting the maximum compres-
sive bearing stress to 0.6 x transfer cube strength, and extra helical reinforcement
is often incorporated into 'wedge' type anchorages.
In situations where there is more than one anchorage, each should be treated
individually_ and then combined as indicated in example 12.9.

Example 12.9 Design of End Block Reinforcement (Bonded)

The beam end in figure 12.17 is stressed by four identical 100 mm conical anchor-
ages located as shown, with a jacking force of 400 kN applied to each.
The area may be subdivided into four equal end zones of side 200 x ISO mm
(figure 12.17a), that is
2y 0 = 200 mm vertically
= 150 mm horizontally

0
0
'<t
D
.
I 176
"'
l---4_oo_-----.J•I
(a) (b)

Fipre 12.17

Equivalent square anchorage has side 2Ypo =V(rr x 1002 /4) =88 mm. Thus
vertically
2Ypo = ~ =0.44
2y0 200
hence from table 12.1
Fbst =400 X 0.188 =75.2 kN
to be resisted by horizontal steel within 200 mm of end face; and horizontally
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 367

2Ypo = ~ = 0.59
2y0 150
hence from table 12.1
Fbst = 400 X 0.143 = 57.2 kN

to be resisted by vertical steel within 150 mm of end face.

Then using High-yield steel withfy = 460 N/mm 2 for bonded tendons
allowable stress= 200 N/mm 2
hence force of 75.2 kN requires
75.2 x 103 = 376 mm 2
200
that is, three 10 mm closed links (471 mm 2 ) adequate, at say 50, 100 and
150 mm from end face
Check horizontal plane: two links lie within 150 mm of end face, thus
requirement satisfied.
Consider combined effects of anchorages, Pk = 4 x 400 = 1600 kN
side of end block= 400 mm each way (figure 12.17b)
side of equivalent anchorage= V'(88 2 x 4) = 176 mm
hence

2Ypo = 176 = 0.44

2y 0 400
and
Fbst = 1600 X 0.188 = 301 kN

to be resisted by horizontal and vertical steel over 400 mm from end face needing

301 x 103 = 1505 mm 2

200

provide as seven 12 mm links (1584 mm 2 ) at 50 mm centres commencing 50 mm

from end face of the beam.

12.5 Analysis and Design at the Ultimate Limit State

After a prestressed member has been designed to satisfy serviceability require-

ments, a check must be carried out to ensure that the ultimate moment of resist-
ance and shear resistance are adequate to satisfy the requirements of the ultimate
limit state. The partial factors of safety on loads and materials for this analysis
are the normal values for the ultimate limit state which are given in chapter 2.
368 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
12.5.1 Analysis of the Section
As the loads on a prestressed member increase above the working values, cracking
occurs and the prestressing steel begins to behave as conventional reinforcement.
The behaviour of the member at ultimate is exactly the same as that of an ordinary
reinforced concrete member except that the initial strain in the steel must be taken
into account in the calculations. The section may easily be analysed by the use of
the equivalent rectangular stress block described in chapter 4. BS 8110 contains
tables to permit the stress in the prestressing steel at ultimate, and the correspond-
ing neutral axis position to be obtained for rectangular sections. These are based
on empirical results but alternatively the simplified method illustrated in example
12.10 may be adopted for bonded members.
Although illustrated by a simple example this method may be applied to a
cross-section of any shape which may have any arrangement of prestressing wires
or tendons. Use is made of the stress-strain curve for the prestressing steel as
shown in figure 12.18, to calculate tension forces in each layer of steel. The total
steel strain is that due to bending added to the initial strain in the steel resulting
from prestress. For a series of assumed neutral axis positions, the total tension
capacity is compared with the compressive force developed by a uniform stress of
0.45 feu, and when reasonable agreement is obtained, the moment of resistance
can be evaluated.

StrQSS fpu
N/mm 2 ~m

0·8fpu
~m

Vari<2s 165kN/mm2
to 206kN/mm2
according to st<2<2 I t yp<2
(BS4486 or BS5896)

0·005
Strain

Figure 12.18 Stress-strain curve for prestressing steel

Example 12.10 Calculation of Ultimate Moment of Resistance

The section of a pretensioned beam shown in figure 12.19 is stressed by ten
5 mm wires of characteristic strength /pu = 1470 N/mm 2 . If these wires are
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 369
initially stressed to 1000 N/mm 2 and 30 per cent losses are anticipated, estimate
the ultimate moment of resistance of the section if grade 40 concrete is used.
The stress-strain curve for the prestressing wire is shown in figure 12.20.
Area of 5 mm wire = rr x 52 /4 = 19.6 mm 2
Stress in steel after losses= 1000 x 0.7 = 700 N/mm 2

b =120 €cc =0·0035

I' 'I H

Se2ct ion Be2nding Stre2ss

Strains Block

Figure 12.19

f pu = 14 70
¥m 1·15
1278

N
E
E
z

Strain
0 c,
(0·005)

Figure 12.20 Stress-strain curve for wire

370 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
therefore

strain in steel after losses = fs = 700 =0.0034

£5 205 X 103
which is less than e 1 , the lower yield strain.
A depth x of neutral axis must be found for which the compressive force Fe
in the concrete is balanced by the tensile force F8 in the steel. Then the ultimate
moment of resistance is given by
Mu =Fez =Fsz (12.31)
where z is the lever arm between Fe and Fs.
As a first attempt try x = 130 mm, approximately equal to 0.5d.

(a) Steel Strains

Final steel strain €s = prestress strain + bending strain, e~
(In calculating €~, the initial concrete strain due to prestress can be ignored with-
out undue error.)
Top layer
€sa = 0.0034 + €~

therefore €sa
= 0 · 0034 + (250 -x) €ee (12.32)
X

= 0.0034 + (250 - 130) 0.0035

130
= 0.0066
Bottom layer
€sb = 0.0034 + €~b

= 0.0034 + (275 - x) €ee

{12.33)
X

= 0.0034 + ( 275 - l30) 0.0035

130
= 0.0073

(b) Steel Stresses

From the stress-strain curve the corresponding steel stresses are
Top layer

t; = 1022 + (1 278 - 1022 ) (€ - 0.005) (12.34)

sa (0.0112 - 0.005) sa
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 371
= 1022 + 41 290 (0.0066 - 0.005)
= 1088 N/mm 2
and
fsb = 1022 + 41 290(€sb- 0.005) (12.35)
= 1022 + 41 290(0.0073 - 0.005)
= 1117 N/mm 2

(c) Forces in Steel and Concrete

Steel tensile force F 5 = 1:[5 A 5 =(!sa +fsb) 5 X 19.6 (12.36)
=(1088 + 1117)98
=216x103 N
With a rectangular stress block
concrete compressive force Fe= 0.45feub x 0.9x (12.37)
= 0.45 X 40 X 120 X 130 X 0.9
=253 x 103 N
The force Fe in the concrete is larger than the force F5 in the steel, therefore a
smaller depth of neutral axis must be tried.
Table 12.2 shows the results of calculations for further trial depths of neutral
axis. For x = 110, Fe became smaller than F 5 , therefore x = 120 and 116 were
tried and it was then found that F 5 =Fe.

Table 12.2
Strains Stresses Forces
X €sa €sb fsa fsb Fs Fe
(mm) (x 103 ) (N/mm 2 ) (kN)

130 6.6 7.3 1088 1117 216 253

110 7.8 8.6 1138 1171 226 214
120 7.2 7.9 1113 1142 221 233
116 7.4 8.2 1121 1154 223 225

In terms of the tensile force in the steel, the ultimate moment of resistance of
the section is given by
Mu = F5 z = ~[[5 A 5 (d- 0.45x)] (12.38)
= 5 X 19.6 [1121 (250- 0.45 X 116) + 1154(275 - 0.45 X 116))
= 46.9 x 106 N mm
372 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Ifx had been incorrectly chosen as 130 mm then using equation 12.38 Mu
would equal44.1 kN m, or in terms of the concrete
Mu =0.45 feu b X 0.9xz
~ 0.45 X 40 X 120 X 0.9 X 130(262.5- 0.45 X 130) X 10-6
~51 kNm
Comparing the average of these two values of Mu ( =47.5 kN m) with the correct
answer, it can be seen that a slight error in the position of the neutral axis does
not have any significant effect on the calculated moment of resistance.

12.5.2 Design of AdditioTUJI Reinforcement

If it is found, as may be the case with class 2 or 3 members, that the ultimate limit
state requirements are not met, additional untensioned or partially tensioned steel
may be added to increase the ultimate moment of resistance.

Example 12.11 Design of Untensioned Reinforcement

Design untensioned high yield reinforcement (fy = 460 N/mm 2 ) for the rectangular
beam section shown in figure 12.21 which is stressed by five 5 mm wires, if the
ultimate moment of resistance is to exceed 40 kN m for grade 50 concrete. The
characteristic strength of tensioned steel, fpu = 1470 N/mm 2 •

(a) Check Ultimate Moment of Resistance

Maximum tensile force if = 5 x 19 .6 x 1470 x 10-3 = 125 kN
prestressing steel yielded 1.15

Concrete compressive = 125 X 103 =0.9 x 120x

area to balance 0.45 x 50
thus, neutral axis depth x = 51 mm.
Assuming prestrain as calculated in example 12.10

total steel strain = prestrain + bending strain

= 0.0034 + (d- x) x 0.0035

X

= 0.0034 + 224 x 0.0035 = 0.0187 (>yield)

51
Lever arm = 275 -0.45 x 51= 252 mm
Hence
ultimate moment of resistance = 25 2 x 125 x 1o-3 = 31.5 kN m
Untensioned steel is therefore required to permit the beam to support an ultimate
moment of 40 kN m.
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 373
Additional moment of capacity to be provided = 40 - 31.5 = 8.5 kN m
Effective depth of additional steel = 245 mm
then
lever arm to additional steel R< 210 mm
then

. al tens10n
a ddi hon ~
. 10rce . d = 8500
reqmre - - = 40 .5 kN
210

1..b =120•I

]_.

S<2ction 8<2nding Str12ss Block

Strains

Figure 12.21
thus
estimated area of untensioned steel= 40 500 = 102 mm2
required at its yield stress 460 x 0.87
Try two 10 mm diameter bars (157 mm 2).

(b) Check Steel Strain

If additional steel has yielded, force in two Tl 0 bars= 157 x 460 x 10-3 /1.15 =
62.8 kN, therefore
total tensile force if all the steel has yielded = 125 + 62.8
= 187.8 kN
Thus
.
dept h o f neutr al ax1s l. 187.8 X lQl
at u tlffiate = - - - - - - - -
0.45 X 50 X 120 X 0.9
=77mm
374 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Therefore

prestressing steel strain esb = -198 X 0.0035 + 0.0034

77
= 0.0124 (>yield)
and

. d stee1 stram
untenswne . esa = 245 - 77 x 0.0035
77
= 0.0076
This value is greater than the yield strain of 0.002 from section 4.1.2.

(c) Check Ultimate Moment of Resistance

Taking moments about the centre of compression
Mu = 125(275 -0.45x)+62.8(245 -0.45x)
= [125(275 - 0.45 X 77) + 62.8(245- 0.45 X 77)) 10-3

= 43.2 kN m
If it had been found in (b) that either the prestressing steel or untensioned steel
had not yielded, then a trial and error approach similar to example 12.10 would
have been necessary.

12.5.3 Shear
Shear in prestressed concrete is considered at the ultimate limit state. Design for
shear therefore involves the most severe loading conditions, with the usual partial
factors of safety on loading for the ultimate limit state being incorporated.
The action of a member in resisting shear is similar to that for reinforced
concrete, but with the additional effects of the compression due to the prestress
force. This will increase the shear resistance considerably, since design is based on
limiting the diagonal principal tensile stresses in the concrete.
Although most prestressed concrete members will be uncracked under working
loads, when carrying the loads for the ultimate limit state they may well be
cracked over part of their span. This will reduce the shear capacity, but fortunately
the regions of cracking in simply supported members will generally be the centre
part of the span where shear forces are relatively small.

Uncracked Section
At an uncracked section, a Mohr's circle analysis of a beam element shown in
figure 12.22 which is subjected to a longitudinal compressive stress fc and a shear

J[(;cr V~oJ -( ~c)

stress Vc 0 , gives the principal tensile stress as

ft = +
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 375
This can be rearranged to give the shear stress

-
Vco = -J(f?-+ left)

"co

~r
1-
fc

-
Figure 12.22
Vco

The actual shear stress at any level of a beam subjected to a shear force, V, can
be shown to be
V(Ay)
v=---
bi
where (Ay) is the first moment of area of the part of the section above the level
considered about the centroidal axis of the beam, as shown in figure 12.23, b is
the breadth of the section at the level considered and I is the second moment of
area of the whole section about its centroidal axis.
Hence if ft is the limiting value of principal tensile force, the ultimate shear
resistance Vco of an uncracked section becomes

Vco = (!~) -J(f? + fcft)

For a rectangular section the maximum shear stress occurs at the centroid, thus
A= bh/2, I= bh 3 /12, y = h/4; then

_!!!___ = 0.67 bh
(Ay)
and
Vco
v
co
= -32 bh

giving
Vco =0.67 bh -J(fl + fcft)
This equation forms the basis of the design expression given in BS 8110. A
partial factor of safety of 0.8 is applied to the centroidal compressive stress due to
prestress fcp, hence fc = 0.8fcp. ft is taken as positive and is given a limiting value
376 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

0
Cross -Sczct1on Shczar Strczss >'co

Figure 12.23

of 0.24 vfcu which may be regarded as being equivalent to 0.3 v(fcui'Ym) with
'Ym = 1.5.
The resulting expression
Vco = 0.67 bh y(fl + 0.8fcpft)
may also be applied to I- and T-sections with sufficient accuracy for practical
purposes, although the maximum principal tensile stress may not coincide with
the centroid. If the centroid of the section lies within the flange however, the
expression should be evaluated for the flange/web junction with b taken as the
web width and fcp being the compression due to prestress at that level.
If a duct lies in the web, then the value of b used in calculations should be
reduced by the duct diameter if the tendons are unbonded or two-thirds of the
diameter if bonded.
Additional shear resistance will be provided by the vertical component of the
prestress force where curved cables are used, provided the section is uncracked.
Near the ends of beams where shear forces are highest, and cable slopes generally
greatest, a considerable increase in resistance can be obtained from this, and shear
strength contribution should be a consideration when detailing tendon proftles.
The total shear resistance of an uncracked section may then be taken as
Vc = Vco + P sin {3 where {3 is the cable slope.

Cracked Section
BS 8110 gives an empirical expression for the calculation of shear resistance of a
section which is cracked in flexure

Vcr = (1 - 0.55 [pe) Vc bd + Mo V <t 0.1 bd Vfcu

fpu M
where [pe = prestressing steel stress after losses
d = effective depth to centroid of tendons
b = width of web for flanged beam
Vc =allowable ultimate shear stress (as for reinforced concrete)
V = ultimate shear force acting on section
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 377

M = ultimate moment acting on section

Mo = 0.8 fptlfy is the moment necessary to produce zero stress at the
extreme tensile fibre which is a distance y from the centroid of
the section, where fpt is the concrete compressive stress at this level
due to prestress and a factor of safety of 0.8 is applied to this value.
Thus if M < M 0 it follows that Vcr will always be greater than the applied
ultimate shear force, and a check on cracking is thus incorporated. The vertical
component of prestressing force should not be added to the value of Vcr obtained
from this expression.

Upper Limit to Shear Force

A further upper limit to shear force must be imposed to avoid web crushing and
this is achieved by limiting the value of shear stress so that V/bd < Vmax in the
same way as for reinforced concrete. Vmax is the maximum allowable ultimate
shear stress with a value which may be calculated as the lesser of 0.8 .../feu or
5 N/mm 2 •

Design Procedure
The usual design procedure consists of calculating the shear resistance of the
cracked and uncracked sections at intervals along the length of the member for
comparison with the applied ultimate shear force V. The lower of the two values
obtained from the analyses must be taken as shear resistance at the point concern-
ed. Thus
ultimate shear resistance Vc = lesser of Vcr or Vco + P sin P
If Vis less than 0.5 Vc no shear reinforcement is required, but for values between
0.5 Vc and Vc + 0.4 bd nominal links should be provided such that
Asv ;> 0.4b
Sv 0.87 fyv
and where V> Vc + 0.4 bd designed steel is needed such that for links
Asv ;> V- Vc
Sv 0.87 fyvdt
In this expression dt is the greater of the depth to the centroid of the tendons or
the corner longitudinal bars anchoring links.
As for reinforced concrete the usual design procedure will be to evaluate the
shear resistances of the sections plus nominal steel to identify areas which require
more detailed attention, as illustrated in example 12.12.

EXIlmple 12.12 Design of Shear Reinforcement

The beam cross-section in figure 12.24 is constant over a 30m span with a para-
bolic tendon profile and an eccentricity varying between -300 mm at the ends to
-750 mm at mid-span. The beam supports an ultimate uniformly distributed load
of 43 kN/m and is of grade 40 concrete.
378 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
P= 2590kN
I= 145 106 x 106 mm4
A= 500 x 103 mm 2
(a) Upper limit to shear force
V = 43 X 15 X 1000 =4 _5 N/mm2
bd !50 X 950
< 0.8 v'fcu ( = 5 .I N/mm 2 ) and< 5 N/mm 2 at end of beam

(b) Uncracked resistance: since centroid lies within web

Yeo= 0.67 bh v'C!l + 0.8/cpft)
where ft = 0.24'1/fcu = 0.24 '1/40 = 1.51 N/mm 2 and

• = p = 2590 x 103 = 5.18 N/mm2

Jcp A 500 x IoJ

I· 1000

150

0
0 AXiS
l()

0
l()
co

Figure 12.24

hence
Vco =0.67 X 150 X 1500'1/(1.51 2 + 0.8 X 5.18 X 1.51) X 10-3
=440.4 kN
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 379
The vertical component of prestress force is P sin fj, where fj = tendon slope.
Tendon proflle is y = Kx 2 + C, and if origin is at mid-span x = 0, y = 0 and
C= 0 hence atx = 15 000, y = 750-300 = 450 and
450=Kx 150002
K= 2.0 x 10-6
therefore tendon profile is y = 2.0 X 10-6 X 2 , therefore

tendon slope = dy = 2Kx

dx

at end dy = 2 x 2.0 x 10-6 x 15 000 = 0.060 =tan fj

dx
hence fj = 3.43° and sin fj ~tan fj = 0.06. Therefore
vertical component of prestress force at end of beam= 2590 x 0.06 = 155 kN
Hence
maximum uncracked resistance = 440 + 155
= 595 kN
This value will decrease away from the end of the beam
at 2m from support= 440 + 134 = 574 kN
5 m from support = 440 + 103 = 543 kN
10m from support= 440 + 51 = 491 kN

(c) Cracked resistance

Vcr . [,~)
= (1-055 Vcbd+Mo ~
M
pu

This will vary along beam. At mid-span V = 0, d = 1400 mm. If tendons stressed
to 70 per cent characteristic strength at transfer and then subject to 30 per cent
losses

~ = 0. 7 X 0. 7 =0.49
[pu

If total area of tendons= 3450 mm 2 , then

100A 5 = 100 X 3450 = 1. 64
bd 150 X 1400
therefore from table 5.1, Vc = 0.86 N/mm2 for grade 40 concrete
Vcr = (1 - 0.55 X 0.49) 0.86 X 150 X 1400 X 10-3
= 132 kN
380 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Also check minimum
Vcr <t:0.1 bd.../fcu
<t:0.1 x 150x 1400x .../40x 10-3
= 133 kN
At section 10m from supports, d =1400-2.0 x 10-6 x 50002 =1350 mm,
therefore
100A
--8 = 1.70 and hence Vc = 0.87
bd
V = 43 X 5 = 215 kN
M = 15 X 43 X 10 - 10 X 43 X 5 = 4300 kN m
I
M 0 = 0.8/pt-
y
where y = y 1 = 850 mm, and
_ P Pey1
/pt--- - -
A I
= 5 . 18 _ 2590 X (-700) X 850 X 103
145 106 X 106
= 15.8 N/mm 2
hence
Mo = 0.8 X 15.8 x 145 106 = 2158 kN m
850
and

Vcr =(I - 0.55 X 0.49)0.87 X 150 X 1350 + 2158 X 215 X 103

4300
=(128.7 + 107.9) X 103 N
= 236.6 kN
This calculation may be repeated for other sections to give the resistance diagram
shown in figure 12.25.
From this diagram it can be seen that at all points except for about 3 m at
midspan V> t Vc and hence nominal reinforcement is required such that
Asv = 0.4b
Sv 0.87 /yv
 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 381

800 Uncracked res1stance

Uncracked res1stance
600 Vco + P Sin f3

Cracked
400 res1stance Vcr
Ultimate
Shear Force v
200

0
0 5m 10m 15m
Support Midspan

Figure 12.25

therefore with mild-steel links /yv =250 N/mm 2 , hence

Asv = 0.4 X 150 = 0 _276
Sv 0.87 X 250
which could be provided by 8 mm stirrups at 350 mm centres (Asv/sv = 0.287).

Shear resistance provided by these links= 0.87 [yvdt ( ~:)

= 0.87 X 250 X 1400
X 0.287 X 10-3
= 87.4 kN
hence at the ends of the beam
total shear resistance of section+ nominal steel= 595 + 87.4
= 682.4 kN
Since this is greater than the ultimate shear force of 645 kN, no additional
reinforcement is required. Thus provide 8 mm mild-steel links at 350 mm centres
throughout.
Appendix

Typical Weights and Uve Loads

1 lb = 0.454 kg = 4.448 N force

llb/ft 2 = 4.88 kg/m 2 = 47.9 N/m 2
1 lb/ft3 = 16.02 kg/m 3 = 157 N/m 3

Weights
kN/m 3
Aluminium, cast 26
Asphalt paving 23
Bricks, common 19
Bricks, pressed 22
Clay, dry 19-22
Clay, wet 21-25
Concrete, reinforced 24
Glass, plate 27
Lead 112
Oak 9.5
Pine, white 5
Sand, dry 16-19
Sand, wet 18-21
Steel 77
Water 9.81

kN/m 2
Brick wall, 115 mm thick 2.6
Gypsum plaster, 25 mm thick 0.5
Glazing, single 0.3

382
 APPENDIX 383
Floor and Roof Loads
kN/m 2
Classrooms 3.0
Dance halls 5.0
Flats and houses 1.5
Garages, passenger cars 2.5
Gymnasiums 5.0
Hospital wards 2.0
Hotel bedrooms 2.0
Offices for general use 2.5
Flat roofs, with access 1.5
Flat roofs, no access 0.75

Bar Areas and Perimeters

Sectional areas of groups of bars (mm 2 )

Bar Number of bars
size
(mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6 28.3 56.6 84.9 113 142 170 198 226 255 283
8 50.3 101 151 201 252 302 352 402 453 503
10 78.5 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 . 785
12 113 226 339 452 566 679 792 905 1020 1130
16 201 402 603 804 1010 1210 1410 1610 1810 2010
20 314 628 943 1260 1570 1890 2200 2510 2830 3140
25 491 982 1470 1960 2450 2950 3440 3930 4420 4910
32 804 1610 2410 3220 4020 4830 5630 6430 7240 8040
40 1260 2510 3770 5030 6280 7540 8800 10100 11300 12600

Perimeters and weights of bars

Bar size (mm) 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40
Perimeter (mm) 18.85 25.1 31.4 37.7
50.2 62.8 78.5 100.5 125.6
Weight (kg/m) 0.222 0.395 0.616 0.888 1.579 2.466 3.854 6.313 9.864
Bar weights based on a density of 7850 kg/m 3 •
384 APPENDIX
Sectional areas per metre width for various bar spacings (mm2 )

Bar Spacing of bars

size
(mm) 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
6 566 377 283 226 189 162 142 113 94.3
8 1010 671 503 402 335 287 252 201 168
10 1570 1050 785 628 523 449 393 314 262
12 2260 1510 1130
905 754 646 566 452 377
16 4020 2680 2010
1610 1340 1150 1010 804 670
20 6280 4190 3140
2510 2090 1800 1570 1260 1050
25 9820 6550 4910 3930 3270 2810 2450 1960 1640
32 16100 10700 8040 6430 5360 4600 4020 3220 2680
40 25100 16800 12600 10100 8380 7180 6280 5030 4190

Shear Reinforcement

Asv/sv for varying stirrup diameter and spacing

Stirrup Stirrup spacing (mm)

diameter
(mm) 85 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
8 1.183 1.118 1.006 0.805 0.671 0.575 0.503 0.447 0.402 0.366 0.335
10 1.847 1.744 1.57 1.256 1.047 0.897 0.785 0.698 0.628 0.571 0.523
12 2.659 2.511 2.26 1.808 1.507 1.291 1.13 1.004 0.904 0.822 0.753
16 4.729 4.467 4.02 3.216 2.68 2.297 2.01 1.787 1.608 1.462 1.34
 APPENDIX 385
Anchorage and Lap Requirements

Anchorage lengths (anchorage length L =KA x bar size)

KA
feu= 25 30 35 40 or more

Plain (250)
Tension 39 36 33 31
Compression 32 29 27 25
Deformed Type 1 ( 460)
Tension 51 46 43 40
Compression 41 37 34 32
Deformed Type 2 (460)
Tension 41 37 34 32
Compression 32 29 27 26

Basic lap lengths in tension and compression (lap length =K L x bar size)

KL
feu= 25 30 35 40 or more
Plain (250) 39 36 33 31
Deformed Type 1 ( 460) 51 46 43 40
Deformed Type 2 (460) 41 37 34 32

Minimum lap lengths : 15 X bar size or 300 mm.

Refer to figure 5.8 for increased lap lengths at certain locations in a member section.
Type 1 and 2 bars are described in section 1.6.2.
Further Reading
(a) British Standards

BS 1881 Methods of testing concrete

BS4449 Specification for hot rolled steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete
BS4461 Specification for cold worked steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete
BS4466 Specification for bending dimensions and scheduling of reinforcement
for concrete
BS4482 Hard drawn mild steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete
BS4483 Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete
BS5075 Concrete admixtures
BS5896 Specification for high tensile steel wire strand for the prestressing of
concrete
BS6399 Design loading for buildings
BS 8007 Code of practice for the design of concrete structures for retaining
aqueous liquids
BS8110 Structural use of concrete, Parts 1, 2 and 3
CP3 Code of basic data for the design of buildings
Chapter V Loading
Part 2 Wind loads
CP 8004 Foundations

(b) Textbooks and Other Publications

R. D. Anchor, Design of Liquid Retaining Structures (Blackie)

J. H. Bungey, The Testing of Concrete in Structures (Surrey University Press)
R. J. Cope and L. A. Clark, Concrete Slabs: Analysis and Design (Elsevier
Applied Science)
B. P. Hughes, Limit State Theory for Reinforced Concrete (Pitman)
R. Hulse and W. H. Mosley, Reinforced Concrete Design by Computer (Macmillan)
R. Hulse and W. H. Mosley, Prestressed Concrete Design by Computer (Macmillan)
M. K. Hurst, Prestressed Concrete Design (Chapman and Hall)
L. L. Jones and R. H. Wood, Yield Line Analysis of Slabs (Chatto and Windus)

386
 FURTHER READING 387
F. K. Kong and R. H. Evans, Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete (Nelson)
K. Leet, Reinforced Concrete Design (McGraw-Hill)
T. Y. Lin and N. H. Bums, Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures (Wiley)
T. J. MacGinley, Reinforced Concrete (Spon)
S. Mindess and J. F. Young, Concrete (Prentice-Hall)
A. M. Neville, Properties of Concrete (Pitman)
R. Park and W. L. Gamble, Reinforced Concrete Slabs (Wiley)
R. Park and R. Paulay, Reinforced Concrete Structures (Wiley)
C. E. Reynolds and J. C. Steedman, Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook
(Viewpoint Publications)
F. Sawko (ed.), Developments in Prestressed Concrete, Vols 1 and 2 (Applied
Science)
Handbook on BS 8110:1986 (Viewpoint Publications)
Index
Age factors 3 reinforcement details 113-17,
Analysis of structures 164,170-2,175
beams 26-33 singly reinforced 58-62, 160-2
column moment 39, 42-3, 239, sizing 156-7
249-52 Bearing pressures 271-5,322
damaged structure 153 Bearing stresses at a bend 179
frames 35-47, 249 Bending moments
lateralloads 44-7 coefficients 34, 183, 206
retaining walls 318-28 envelopes 34, 42, 170, 181
Analysis of the section redistribution 48-52, 75-9, 180
bending 57, 61, 67 Bending with axial load 79-88, 239
elastic 91-7 Bends and hooks 105, 179
flanged 68-75 Bent-up bars 101-2, 178
uncracked 95-7 Biaxial bending 258-61
with axial load 79-88 Bond, anchorage 103-6
Anchorage bond 103-6 Bond lengths 385
Anchorage bond lengths 105, 297, Braced columns 35,239, 246-7
385 Bundled bars 115
Areas of bars 383-4

Balanced failure 82-3 Cantilever beams 187-8

Bars see Reinforcement Cantilever retaining walls 319-28
Bases see Footings Characteristic loads 17, 24, 382-3
Beams Characteristic material strengths 13,
analysis of moments and shears 17
26-33 Circumference of bars 383
analysis of sections 57, 61, 6 7 Coefficients of bending moments
cantilever 187 and shears 34, 183, 206
continuous 26-33, 180-7 Columns
deflections 119-32, 359-64 analysis of section 79-88
design 154-91 axially loaded 246
design charts 59,65-6, 161 biaxial bending 258-61
doubly reinforced 63-8, 162-7 braced 35, 239, 246-7
effective spans 15 6 design 239-69
one span 29,157-8,173,177 design charts 80-8, 248
prestressed 329-81 effective height 241-2
388
 INDEX 389

loading arrangements 36, 42 Deadloads 19,25,382

240, 251 Deflections 119-32, 198, 359-64
moments 36, 42, 240, 251, Design charts
266, 269 beams 59, 65-6, 161
non-rectangular section 86-8, columns 80-8, 248
261-4 Diagonal tension 9 8, 19 7, 3 7 4
reinforcement details 244-6 Distribution steel 11 7, 200
short 241-4,246-7 Doubly reinforced beams 63-8,
simplified design 246-7, 262-4 162-7
slender 241-4, 264-9 Dowels 245, 275
substitute frame 36, 42, 251 Durability 12, 144-6
unsymmetrically reinforced
253-8 Earth -bearing pressures 2 71-5,
Combined footings 280-4 322-3
Compression reinforcement 63-8, Effective depth 56, 156
162-7 Effective flange width 167
Concrete Effective height of a column 241-2
age factor 3 Effective span 156, 201,206
characteristic strength 13, 17 Elastic analysis of a section 91-7,
cover 12,113-14,146,272,297, 317-18
302 Elastic modulus
cracking 7, 134-44, 297, 304-8 concrete 4-5, 123, 362
creep 11, 124, 356, 362 steel 54-5
durability 12, 144-6,297 End blocks 364-7
elastic modulus 4-5, 123, 362 Envelopes, bending moment and
shrinkage 7-11, 124, 141-4, shearforce 34,42, 170,181
297,307,357 Equivalent rectangular stress block
stress-strain curve 3, 5, 54 55-7
thermal expansion 2, 7, 10,
141-4,298-302 Factors of safety
Continuous beams global 19-20
analysis 29-34 partial 18-19, 270, 296, 298,
curtailment of bars 170-2 321
design 18 2-7 Fire resistance 16, 113-15, 14 7
envelopes 34, 181 Flanged section see T -beams
loading arrangements 26-7, 31 Flat slab 214-21
moment and shear coefficients Floors see Slabs
34, 183 Footings
Counterfort retaining walls 319 allowable soil pressures 271
Cover to reinforcement 12, 113-14, combined 280-4
146,272,297,302 horizontal loads 271,294
Cracking pad 273-9
control 7, 140-1, 297-308 piled 291-5
flexural 134-41 raft 289-91
thermal and shrinkage 7-11, strap 284-6
141-4 strip 286-9
Creep 11,124,356,362 Foundations see Footings
Creep coefficients 124, 356 Frames
Critical section 194, 276 analysis 35-47
Critical span 34 7 braced 35-43
Critical steel ratio 141, 302, 307, laterally loaded 44-7
310 loading arrangements 26-8, 36,
Curtailment of bars 170-2 239-40
Curvatures 125-6 unbraced 35,44-7, 239
390 INDEX
Gravity retaining walls 318-19, 3 21 Neutral-axis depth 56-7,59,69
Nominal reinforcement 115-17,
Hooks and bends 105, 175, 179 159, 176, 194,200,213,
244-5,308
Joints Non-rectangular section 86-8,
construction 299-300 261-4
contraction and expansion 299-
302,303,324 Overturning 22, 27,273, 320-2
Lap lengths 106-7,385
Laps 106-7, 385 Pad footings 273-9
L-beams see T -beams Parabola, properties of 89-90
Lever arm 5 8-9, 77, 161 Partial safety factors 18-19, 296,
Lever arm curve 59, 161 298,305,321
Limit state design 15-23, 304-17 Permissible bearing pressures 271
Limit states Permissible stresses 21,306,318,
serviceability 16, 112-44, 270 341
ultimate 16 Piled foundations 291-5
Link!i 99-101, 108-9, 164, 174-8, Prestressed concrete
188,245,377 analysis and design 3 29-81
Load combinations 26-8 cable zone 351-4
Loading arrangements 26-7, 36, deflections 359-64
240,271,321-22 end block 364-7
Loads losses 354-9
characteristic 17 post-tensioning 334-5, 343
dead 25 pretensioning 333-4, 343
imposed or live 25, 305, 321 shear 374-81
typical values 382-3 transfer stress 349-50
Long-term deflection 119-20, ultimate strength 367-81
123-7,359,362 Punching shear 194-8,217,220-1,
Loss of prestress 354-9 276

Material properties 1-14, 54 Raft foundations 289-91

Maximum bar spacing 113-15,117, Rectangular stress block 5 5-9
164,175,180,200,245,297, Rectangular-parabolic stress block
302 54,89-91
Maximum steel areas 116, 159, Redistribution of moments 48-52,
244-5 57,75-9, 162, 193
Minimum bar spacing 115, 174 Reinforcement
Minimum steel areas 115-17, 159, areas 383-4
176,194,200,213,244-5, bond lengths 385
303,309 characteristic strengths 14, 17
Modularratio 92,318 circumference 383
Modulus of elasticity see Elastic lap lengths 106, 385
modulus maximum and minimum areas
Moment coefficients 34, 206, 210, 115-17,159,176,194,
216 200,213,244-5,303,308
Moment envelopes 34, 41, 170, 181 properties 6, 13-14, 54-5
Moment redistribution 48-52,57, spacing 113-15, 117, 164,
75-9, 162, 193 174-5,180,200,245
Moments in columns 36, 39-4 7, torsion 107-11,188-91
239-44,247-64 untensioned 3 72-4
 INDEX 391
Retaining walls Stirrups see Links
analysis and design 318-28 Strap footings 284-6
cantilever 319-20, 322, 324-8 Stress blocks 54-5, 89-92, 95
counterfort 319 Stresses
gravity 318-19,321 anchorage 103-6, 297, 307
bond 103-5,297,307
concrete, characteristic 13, 17
permissible 21,306,317-18,341
shear 102-3,374-7
Serviceability limit state steel, characteristic 14, 17
cracking 134-44,304-8,317-18 Stress-strain curves 3-6, 54-7, 368
deflections 119-34, 359-64 Strip footings 286-9
durability 12, 112, 144-6 Strip method 236-8
factors of safety 18-19 Substitute frame
fire resistance 114-15, 14 7 braced 35-43
Shear column 36, 42-3
beams 30, 98-103, 174-9 continuous beam 29-37
concrete stresses 101, 174
footings 276, 278-9
prestressed beams 3 74-81
punching 194-8, 217, 220-1, Tanks 296-318
276 T-beams
reinforcement 99-103, 17 4-9, analysis 68-75
377-81 design 167-9, 183
slabs 193-8,220-1 flange reinforcement 115, 168
torsion 107-10, 188-91 flangewidth 167
Short columns 241-4, 246-7 second moments of area 43
Shrinkage 7-11,124-5,131-2, span-effective depth ratio ll 7
141-4,307,357 Tendons 331-5
Slabs Thermal cracking 10, 141-4,306-8
continuous, spanning one Thermal movement 7, 10-11, 299
direction 206-8 Tie forces 148-52
flat 214-21 Torsion
hollow block 222-3 analysis 107-ll
one span, spanning one direction design 188-91
201-6 Transfer stresses 332,341-43,
ribbed 222-5 349-50
spanning two directions 209-14 Transmission length 333
stair 226-30 Triangular stress block 91-7,
strip method 236-8 121-3,318
Slender column 241-4, 264-9
Spacing of reinforcement 113-15,
117,164,174-5,180,200,
245,297,302,308 Ultimate limit state
Span-effective depth ratios 117-19, factors of safety 18, 19, 297,
132-4,198-200,217 304,321
Stability 147-53, 271,320-2 loading arrangements 26-7, 19 3,
Stairs 226-30 240,320-3
Steel prestressed concrete 367-81
characteristic stresses 14, 17 stability 27,271,320-2
stress-strain curve 5-6, 54-5, Uncracked section 9 5-7, 121-2
368-9 Untensioned steel in prestressed
yield strains 55 concrete 3 72-4
392 INDEX
Water-retaining structures Weights of materials 382
elastic analysis 91-7 Wind loading 19, 25,44-7,271
elastic design 31 7-1 8
joints 298-302, 303 Yield lines 230-6
limit state design 304-17 Yield strains 55
reinforcement details 302, 304 Young's modulus see Elastic modulus