MODULE-2

MODULE -2

Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites: Thermoset Polymers Hand layup Process,

Vacuum Bagging Process, Post Curing Process, Filament winding, Pultrusion, Pulforming,
Autoclave Process
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites: Thermoplastic Polymers Extrusion process,
Injection Moulding Process, Thermo-forming process.
Post Processing of Composites – Adhesive bonding, drilling, cutting processes.

PROCESSING OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES: THERMOSET POLYMERS

HAND LAYUP PROCESS:

Fig1. Hand Lay up

Table1. Raw materials used in Hand Lay up Process

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

• Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing.

• The infrastructural requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing
steps are quite simple.
• First of all, a release gel is sprayed on the mold surface to avoid the sticking of
polymer to the surface.
• Thin plastic sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mold plate to get good
surface finish of the product.
• Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or chopped strand mats are cut as per
the mold size and placed at the surface of mold after Perspex sheet. Then
thermosetting polymer in liquid form is mixed thoroughly in suitable proportion
with a prescribed hardner (curing agent) and poured onto the surface of mat
already placed in the mold. The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of
brush.
• Second layer of mat is then placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved
with a mild pressure on the mat-polymer layer to remove any air trapped as well
as the excess polymer present.
• The process is repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers
are stacked. After placing the plastic sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner
surface of the top mold plate which is then kept on the stacked layers and the
pressure is applied.
• After curing either at room temperature or at some specific temperature, mold is
opened and the developed composite part is taken out and further processed.
• The time of curing depends on type of polymer used for composite processing.
For example, for epoxy based system, normal curing time at room temperature is
24-48 hours. This method is mainly suitable for thermosetting polymer based
composites.
• Capital and infrastructural requirement is less as compared to other methods.
Production rate is less and high volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult to
achieve in the processed composites.

Advantages:
• The process results in low cost tooling with the use of room-temperature cure resins.
• The process is simple to use.
• Any combination of fibres and matrix materials are used.
• Higher fibre contents and longer fibres as compared to other processes.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Disadvantages:
• Since the process is worked by hands, there are safety and hazard considerations.
• The resin needs to be less viscous so that it can be easily worked by hands.
• The quality of the final product is highly skill dependent of the labours.
• Uniform distribution of resin inside the fabric is not possible. It leads to voids in the
laminates.
• Possibility of diluting the contents.

Applications:
• The process is suitable for the fabrication of wind-turbine blades, boats and architectural
mouldings.
• Hand lay-up method finds application in many areas like aircraft components, automotive parts,
boat hulls, diase board, deck etc.

Spray lay-up:

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

• The spray lay-up technique can be said to be an extension of the hand lay-up method.
• In this technique, a spray gun is used to spray pressurized resin and reinforcement which
is in the form of chopped fibers.
• Generally, glass roving is used as a reinforcement which passes through spray gun where
it is chopped with a chopper gun. Matrix material and reinforcement may be sprayed
simultaneously or separately one after one.
• Spray release gel is applied on to the mold surface to facilitate the easy removal of
component from the mold.
• A roller is rolled over the sprayed material to remove air trapped into the lay-ups.
• After spraying fiber and resin to required thickness, curing of the product is done either at
room temperature or at elevated temperature.
• After curing, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken out and further
processed further.
• The time of curing depends on type of polymer used for composite processing
• Spray lay-up method is used for lower load carrying parts like small boats, bath tubs,
fairing of trucks etc.
• This method provides high volume fraction of reinforcement in composites and virtually,
there is no part size limitation in this technique.

Advantages:
• It is suitable for small to medium-volume parts.
• It is a very economical process for making small to large parts.
• It utilizes low-cost tooling as well as low-cost material systems
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Limitations:
• It is not suitable for making parts that have high structural requirements.
• It is difficult to control the fiber volume fraction as well as the thickness. These
parameters highly depend on operator skill.
• Because of its open mold nature, styrene emission is a concern.
• The process offers a good surface finish on one side and a rough surface finish on the
other side.
• The process is not suitable for parts where dimensional accuracy and process
repeatability are prime concerns. The spray-up process does not provide a good surface
finish or dimensional control on both or all the sides of the product.
• Cores, when needed, have to be inserted manually.
• Only short fibers can be used in this process.
• Since, pressurized resin is used the laminates tend to be very resin-rich.
• Similar to wet/hand lay-up process, the resins need to be of low viscosity so that it can be
sprayed.

Applications:
• Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings,
bathtubes, shower trays, some small dinghies.
VACUUM BAGGING PROCESS

Fig3. Vacuum Bagging Process

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Materials Options:
Resins: Primarily epoxy and phenolic. Polyesters and vinyl esters may have problems due to
excessive extraction of styrene from the resin by the vacuum pump.

Fibres: The consolidation pressures mean that a variety of heavy fabrics can be wet out.

• A vacuum bag provides pressure and vacuum, which always results in a better quality
laminate. Pressure compact the laminate, providing good consolidation and
interlaminar bonds. Vacuum draws out the volatiles and trapped air, resulting in a low
void content. Both help to improve resin flow.
• This is basically an extension of the wet lay-up process where pressure is applied to the
laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation. This is achieved by sealing a
plastic film over the wet laid-up laminate and onto the tool. The air under the bag is extracted
by a vacuum pump and thus up to one atmosphere of pressure can be applied to the laminate
to consolidate it.

• Once layers of reinforcement and resin are laid-up by hand, the laminate is sealed in
an air-tight environment, like a vacuum bag, and connected to a vacuum source.
Vacuum is applied, creating mechanical pressure on the laminate throughout the cure
cycle.

• Breather / absorption fabric’s function is to allow air and volatiles to be removed

within the vacuum bag and across the corner of the laminate or the mould. It is very
much useful material in vacuum bagging and helps in maintaining the vacuum
throughout the mould during the process. When the bag wrinkles against the hard
laminate, it traps air and the breather prevents this from happening. The fabric will
also absorb excess resin bleeding through the perforated release film. As the bleeder
has no release capability, a release film must be used against the component.

• Release films are non-woven, thin plastic films available with either porous or non-
porous surfaces. Porous release films are also known as Perforated Films. Release
films are recommended for use when a bondable surface on the finished laminate in
not required.

• In vacuum bag molding, vacuum is created to remove entrapped air, gases and excess
resin. As the lay-up of reinforcement (it may be a woven mat or other fabric form) and
resin is completed then a non-adhering film of nylon or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is
placed over the lay- up and sealed. These films forms a bag through which vacuum is
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

created within the mold and at this condition composites are cured either at room
temperature or at any specific temperature. In this process, atmospheric pressure is
used to suck air under vacuum bag which compacts composite layers down and
produces a superior quality laminate.

• Vacuum bagging is a technique employed to create mechanical pressure on a laminate

during its cure cycle. Pressurizing a composite lamination serves several functions.
First, it removes trapped air between layers. Second, it compacts the fiber layers for
efficient force transmission among fiber bundles and prevents shifting of fiber
orientation during cure. Third, it reduces humidity. Finally, and most important, the
vacuum bagging technique optimizes the fiber-to-resin ratio in the composite part.

Advantages:
• Higher fibre content laminates can usually be achieved than with standard wet lay-up
techniques.
• Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
• Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibres, with
excess into bagging materials.
• Health and safety: The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during cure.

Disadvantages:
• The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
• A higher level of skill is required by the operators.
• Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill

Applications:
• Large one-off cruising boats, race car components, core-bonding in production boats.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Pressure Bag Molding

Fig4. Pressure Bag Molding

• Pressure bag molding process which is same as the vacuum bag molding process with the
only difference of air pressure.
• Air pressure is applied to eliminate entrapped gases and excess resin to the film or bag of
poly vinyl alcohol or nylon which covers the lay-ups of fiber and resin matrix
• . Sometimes, pressurized steam is also used instead of air which has dual benefits. Steam
removes excess air as well as provides curing to the composite part.

AUTOCLAVE PROCESS

Fig5. Autoclave Process

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Table3. Raw materials used in Autoclave Process

• Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding method with
some modifications.
• This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and pressure to the composite product during
curing.
• In this method, prepregs are stacked in a mold in a definite sequence and then spot welded to
avoid any relative movement in between the prepreg sheets.
• After stacking the prepregs, the whole assembly is vacuum bagged to remove any air entrapped
in between the layers.
• After a definite period of time when it is ensured that all air is removed, the entire assembly is
transferred to autoclave. Here, heat and pressure is applied for a definite interval of time.
• In this process, matrix is uniformly distributed and intimate contact is achieved through proper
bonding between fibers and matrix.
• After the processing, the assembly is cooled to a definite rate and then vacuum bag is
removed.
• The composite part is taken out from the mold. Initially, a release gel is applied onto the mold
surface to avoid sticking of polymer to the mold surface.

Advantages
1. This composite processing method allows high volume fraction of reinforcement in the
composite part.
2. This method is applicable for both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer composites.
3. High degree of uniformity in part consolidation, better adhesion characteristics between
layers and good control over resin and reinforcement is achieved.
4. No void content in the finished part due to removing entrapped air through vacuum.
5. If cores and inserts are used, there is better bonding of these attachments due to vacuum
bag processing.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Disadvantages
1. There is limitation on part size which depends upon autoclave size.
2. It is a costly technique for composite processing.
3. Rate of production is low and skilled labour is required in this process

Application:
• The process is mainly used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio components
such as aircraft parts, marine, military, space craft and missiles.
• Helicopter blades, Helicopter rotor shafts, Instrument panels for aircrafts.

POST CURING PROCESS

• Post curing is the process of exposing a part or mold to elevated temperatures to speed up the
curing process and to maximize some of the material’s physical properties.
• This is usually done after the material has cured at room temperature for at least 12 hours.
• In general, thermoset materials will achieve full cure at room temperature over a period of 7-10
days.
• After a full cure is achieved at room temperature, post curing will have no effect on the
material’s properties
• Post curing will expedite the cross-linking process and properly align the polymer molecules.
• Post Curing will extremely important when an application requires secondary machining.

. FILAMENT WINDING

Fig 6 Filament Winding

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Table 4 Raw materials used in Filament winding process

• In filament winding method, fiber strands are unwind and passed continuously to
the resin tank.
• In resin tank, fiber strand are impregnated completely with the resin. Now, these
resin impregnated strands are passed onto a rotating mandrel. These strands are
wound around the mandrel in a controlled manner and in a specific fiber
orientation.
• Fiber tension is critical in filament winding because compaction is achieved
through the fiber tension.
• The fiber tension affects the percentage of fiber reinforcement and porosity
content in the composite which in turn affects the properties of the processed
composite product. The fiber tension depends upon the type of fiber, its geometry
and the winding pattern required on the rotating mandrel. The fiber tension should
be at optimal level because too high fiber tension may break the fiber completely
or initiate fiber fracture at the surface.
• Curing of the composite is done with heat, generally in an oven and final
composite product is taken out of the mandrel.
• To remove the metallic mandrel from the composite part, hydraulic rams may be
used. For complex geometry of composite part, the mandrel used may be of
soluble plaster which can be washed out after processing or it may be a collapsible
rubber and materials having low melting point.
• The profile of the mandrel is exactly the same as that of the final product is
required. In some cases, mandrel becomes the integral part of the assembly. A
carriage is used to keep the roving in place and to direct them to the mandrel.
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

• A high fiber volume fraction can be achieved in the composite with this
processing technique.
• Cores may be used in this method but normally, product is in single skin. Now a
day, computer controlled machines are used which independently monitor every
movement of the whole process.

Advantage:

• High strength to weight ratio is possible to achieve with this process.

• High degree of uniformity in fiber distribution, orientation and placement.
• Labor involvement is minimal as it is an automated process.
• Filament winding method is suitable to process composite parts requiring precise
tolerances.
• Fiber orientation in a specific direction is possible in this process.
• Cost of the composite part processed through filament winding method is substantially
low as compared to other manufacturing methods as this process involves less and low
cost material to produce high strength component.
• Design flexibility in composite part is possible with the change in winding patterns,
material and curing option.
• The size of the component is not restricted.
• For high production volume, process automation results in cost saving.
Disadvantage:
• Capital investment is relatively high.
• Very precise control over the mechanism is required for uniform distribution and
orientation of fiber.
• Composite product configuration be such that it should facilitate in mandrel extraction.
• It is not possible to produce the reverse curvature (female feature).
• For some applications, mandrel may be expensive and surface of the composite part may
not be satisfactory.
Application:
• Composite products like storage tanks, pipelines, vessels, gas cylinders, fishing rods,
missile cases, rocket motor cases, ducting, cement mixture, sail boat mast, aircraft
fuselages and golf club shafts are very common to be developed with this method.
• Now, the application spectrum of filament winding has expanded to complex engineered
non- pherical and non-cylindrical composite products with the use of sophisticated
machineryandsoftware

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

PULTRUSION

Pultrusion is a type of continuous automated closed molding, composite processing

method. The basic mechanism of putlrusion system is same as that of the metal extrusion
process. The only difference is that in extrusion process, material is pushed through the dies
whereas in pultrusion, material is pulled through the dies. Reinforcement in terms of continuous
rovings or fiber mats is unrolled from creel holding rolls and passes through a resin tank. In resin
tank, fibers are dipped thoroughly to get completely wetted fibers. Now, these resin saturated
fibers are guided to the hot die where the desired profile is given to these resin impregnated fibers
with the help of dies. Curing of the composite also takes place in this section due to heating.
Now, the cured composite profile is pulled with the help of gripper coming from the hot dies.
Finally, pultruded profiles are cut with the help of a cutter which is inbuilt after the pulling
mechanism in the pultrusion system. Sometimes, in the resin tank, some filler materials are added
which also go with the fiber roving. Though, excess resin is removed in the hot die portion due to
pressure, but in some pultrusion systems, a pre-former is used in between the resin tank and hot
die. In the pre- former, excess polymer is squeezed out and uncured composite is generated which
is then passed through hot die section. The pultrusion process is generally used and is suitable for
thermoset polymer composites and a constant cross section profile of the composite product is
produced on a continuous basis. As the cross section of product is uniform, the fiber distribution
and alignment and resin impregnation is good in this process. Though rate of production is high
but a large variation in area of cross-section is difficult to achieve. The expenditure requirement
to start pultrusion process is low as compared to other costly and complex molding processes.

Important components of pultrusion process:

There are mainly six components in the pultrusion system which govern the processing of
composites. These components are:
1. Fiber Creels
2. Preformer
3. Resin impregnation systems
4. Hot dies
5. Pulling mechanism
6. Cut off saws

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

The creel should be located in such a way that it should provide uniform and controlled tension
to roving while transferring to the pultrusion system. For continuous and uninterrupted supply of
the roving strand (Roving is the simplest and most common form of glass. It can be chopped,
woven or otherwise processed to create secondary fiber forms for composite manufacturing, such
as mats, woven fabrics, braids, knitted fabrics and hybrid fabrics.), a second back-up roving
package is also provided besides running package. The shape and size of creel is decided on the

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

basis of number of roving packages to be handled and its dimension and the distance to be
maintained in between the strands. Preform plates are critical component of pultrusion system as
it properly aligns and feeds the reinforcement to the heated die. If pre-forming system is not
properly functioning, it may lead to bad quality output and failure of pultrusion system. Resin
impregnation system has a resin bath tank. The size of the tank depends upon the volume of resin
to be handled. Resin impregnation system may have a heating arrangement for the resin to
enhance fiber wetting but the working life of bath is decreased due to heating system. The
commonly used resin impregnation system is dip bath system which is also known as open bath.
It allows the reinforcement travelling from the creels down into the bath and the resin coated
fibers comes out through a guided bar located into the bath. Heating dies are the main component
of any pultrusion system where part to be produced is given shape and is cured.

Pulling system pulls the product from the heated dies on a continuous basis. Generally, a
caterpillar belt is used in the pulling system. The last unit of pultrusion system is cut off saw
which cut the pultruded product in desired size. Most commonly, a flying type of cut off saws
are used in the pultrusion system. A flying cut off is movable unit which moves with the same
speed as the pultruded product moves. The advantage of this movement is that the cutting edge
of the component is square and straight. Sometimes, water is used as coolant and lubricant for
cutting blades during cutting which is known as a wet saw. It also flushes the dust and debris
generated during cutting to the filter. A dry-cut saw uses a continuous rim diamond blade which
does not require any coolant or lubrication during cutting and it gives clean cut of the product.

Raw materials used in the pultrusion system:

A wide variety of reinforcement and resin systems are used to fabricate composite
materials with exceptional properties. The reinforcing materials used are: glass (E-glass and S-
glass), carbon, aramid fibers in the form of roving strands, mat (continuous filament mat,
chopped strand mat) and fabrics. Specific properties can be achieved by altering the design of the
fabric reinforcement. Sometimes veils are also used in pultrusion system to achieve high quality
surface layer of the pultrused component. These veils may have pre-printed designs and logos
that appear in the final product. Generally, unsaturated polyester, epoxy, vinyl ester resin and
phenolic resins are used as matrix materials. The fillers and additives are also incorporated
during composite fabrication as per the design requirement.

Application:
• Products like solid rods, tubing, and long flat sheets are easily fabricated with pultrusion
process.
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

• Simple and constant cross sectional structural sections such as channels, angled and
flanged beams.
• Tool handles for high voltage work, and third rail covers for subways.

Advantages of pultrusion system:

• This is a low cost automated system where human involvement is least which produces
high quality products.
• The surface finish of the product is high as compared to other composite processing
methods.
• The production rate is high as it is a continuous production process.
• It is a straight forward and simple process which does not require specific labour skills.
• Easy handling and low maintenance.

Disadvantages of pultrusion system:

• The process is mainly suitable for constant cross sectional areas. Tapered and complex
shapes cannot be produced with this method.
• Control of fiber orientation is not possible in the pultrusion system.
• Thin wall parts cannot be produced with this system.

PULFORMING

Fibres are pulled from a creel through a resin bath and then on through a heated die. The
die completes the impregnation of the fibre, controls the resin content and cures the material into
its final shape as it passes through the die. This cured profile is then automatically cut to length.
Fabrics may also be introduced into the die to provide fibre direction other than at 0°. Although
pultrusion is a continuous process, producing a profile of constant cross-section, a variant known
as 'pulforming' allows for some variation to be introduced into the cross-section. The process
pulls the materials through the die for impregnation, and then clamps them in a mould for curing.
This makes the process non-continuous, but accommodating of small changes in cross-section.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

PROCESSING OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES: THERMOPLASTIC

POLYMERS

EXTRUSION PROCESS

Extrusion is the process by which a block/billet of metal is reduced in cross section by

forcing it to flow through a die orifice under high pressure.
In general, extrusion is used to produce cylindrical bars or hollow tubes or for the starting
stock for drawn rod, cold extrusion or forged products. Most metals are hot extruded due to large
amount of forces required in extrusion. Complex shape can be extruded from the more readily
extrudable metals such as aluminium. The products obtained are also called extrusion.

The reaction of the extrusion billet with the container and die results in high compressive
stresses which are effective in reducing cracking of materials during primary breakdown from
the ingot. This helps to increase the utilization of extrusion in the working of metals that are
difficult to form like stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and other high-temperature materials.
Similar to forging, lower ram force and a fine grained recrystallised structure are possible in hot
extrusion. However, better surface finish and higher strengths (strain hardened metals) are
provided by cold extrusion.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Typical parts produced by extrusion are trim parts used in automotive and construction
applications, window frame members, railings, aircraft structural parts. Aluminium extrusions
are used in commercial and domestic buildings for window and door frame systems,
prefabricated houses/building structures, roofing and exterior cladding, curtain walling, shop
fronts, etc. Furthermore, extrusions are also used in transport for airframes, road and rail vehicles
and in marine applications.

Classification of extrusion processes

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Direct extrusion
Direct extrusion is also called forward extrusion. A metal billet is loaded into a container,
and a ram compresses the material, forcing it to flow through one or more openings in a die at
the opposite end of the container. As the ram approaches the die, a small portion of the billet
remains that cannot be forced through the die opening. This extra portion, called the butt, is
separated from the product by cutting it just beyond the exit of the die. One of the problems in
direct extrusion is the significant friction that exists between the work surface and the walls of
the container as the billet is forced to slide toward the die opening. This friction causes a
substantial increase in the ram force required in direct extrusion.

In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the presence of an oxide layer on
the surface of the billet. This oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded product. To solve
these problems, a dummy block is often used between the ram and the work billet. The diameter
of the dummy block is slightly smaller than the billet diameter, so that a narrow ring of work
metal (mostly the oxide layer) is left in the container, leaving the final product free of oxides.

Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct extrusion by the process setup in The
starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis .This allows passage of a mandrel that is
attached to the dummy block. As the billet is compressed, the material is forced to flow through
the clearance between the mandrel and the die opening.

Indirect extrusion
Indirect extrusion is also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion. Here the die is
mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the container.
As the ram move, the metal is forced to flow through the clearance in a direction opposite
to the motion of the ram. Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is
no friction at the container walls, and the ram force is therefore lower than in direct extrusion.
Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of the hollow ram and the
difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exits the die.
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

There are practical limitations on the length of the extruded part that can be made by this
method. Support of the ram becomes a problem as work length increases.

Hot extrusion
Hot extrusion involves prior heating of the billet to high temperature . This reduces
strength and increases ductility of the metal, permitting more extreme size reductions and more
complex shapes to be achieved in the process. Additional advantages include reduction of ram
force, increased ram speed. Cooling of the billet as it contacts the container walls is a problem,
and isothermal extrusion is sometimes used to overcome this problem.

Cold extrusion
Cold extrusion and warm extrusion are generally used to produce discrete parts, often in
finished (or near finished) form. Some important advantages of cold extrusion include increased
strength due to strain hardening, close tolerances, improved surface finish, absence of oxide
layers, and high production rates. Cold extrusion at room temperature also eliminates the need
for heating the starting billet.

INJECTION MOLDING
Injection molding is the one of the most commonly used manufacturing process for the
plastic components. It is used to manufacture thin walled plastic parts for a wide variety of
shapes and sizes. In this process, the plastic material is melted in the injection chamber and then
injected into the mold, where it cools and finally the finished plastic part is ejected.
In this process, the plastic materials usually in the form of powder or pellets are fed from
hopper into the injection chamber. The “piston and cylinder” arrangement is used to forward the
material inserted from the hopper in to the injection chamber. The plastic material is heated in
the injection chamber with the application of heating elements. The cooling system is also used
to maintain the temperature of the injection chamber. The molten plastic material is then injected
into the mold cavity through a nozzle. The molded part is cooled quickly in the mold. Thereafter,
the final plastic part is removed from the mold cavity. The process cycle for injection molding is

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

very short, typically between 2 to 60 seconds. The complete injection molding process is divided
into four stages: clamping, injection, cooling and ejection.

a. Clamping: The two halves of the mold must be tightly closed, before the molten plastic
material is injected into the mold. One half of the mold is attached to the injection unit
(nozzle) and other half is allowed to slide on the guide ways. The clamping of mold is
operated hydraulically which it pushes the moving half part of the mold towards the fixed
part to make an air tight chamber. The force and the time required to close and open the
mold depends upon the machine capability.

b. Injection: During this process, the plastic material is melted by the application of heat and
forwarded through the piston towards the nozzle and finally into the mold. The function of
torpedo in the heating zone is to spread the molten plastic into the thin film. The molten plastic is
then injected into the mold cavity quickly. The amount of material that is injected into the mold
is referred to as the shot volume. The injection time can be estimated by the shot volume,
injection power and pressure

c. Cooling: The injected molten plastic begins to cool as soon as it comes in contact with
the mold surfaces. As the molded part cools, it will solidify into the desired shape of the
product.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

d. Ejection: The molded part, which is attached to the rear half of the mold has to be ejected
from the mold. When the mold is opened, an ejector mechanism is used to push the part
out of the mold. Force must be applied to eject the plastic part because during cooling the
molded part shrinks and adheres to the mold surface. A mold release agent should be
sprayed onto the mold surfaces prior to injection of the material. Once the molded part is
ejected, the mold will be closed for the next shot to be injected.

The important process parameters that have to be considered during the injection molding
process are: injection temperature and pressure, shot volume, mold temperature, cooling time,
ejection temperature, and cycle time.

Some of the common injection molding defects are flash, blister, warping, bubbles,
unfilled sections, jetting, sink and ejector marks. These defects can be eliminated by optimal
selection of the process parameters.

Materials Used
The injection molding process can be used to process materials such as Acetal, Acrylic,
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Cellulose Acetate, Polyamide (Nylon), Polycarbonate,
Polyester, Polyether Sulphone (PS), Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), Polyetherimide,
Polyethylene, Polyphenylene Oxide, Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS), Polypropylene (PP),
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), and Elastomers.

Applications
This process can be used to manufacture thin walled plastic housing products which
require many ribs and bosses on the interior surfaces. These housings are used in a variety of
products including household appliances, electronics, and automotive dashboards. Other
common thin walled products include different types of open containers, such as buckets. It is
also used to produce several daily use items such as toothbrushes or small plastic toys, many
medical devices, including valves and syringes.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Advantages
• Higher production rate
• Close tolerances on small intricate parts
• Minimum wastage of material
• Complex geometry can be easily produced

Disadvantages
• Tooling cost higher
• High setup cost
• Large undercuts can’t be formed

THERMOFORMING
Thermoforming is a plastic manufacturing process in which the thermoplastic sheets are
formed with the application of heat and pressure in a mold. The thermoplastic sheet is held
horizontally over a mold surface and clamped with a holding device. The sheet is heated up to
predetermined temperature using a heating element called heater. The thermostat is used to
maintain the temperature of the heater. When the temperature becomes substantially high in the
mold, the temperature is controlled by adjusting the heater and providing the cooling air. The
thermoplastic sheet softens with the application of heat and is pressed into or stretched over the
mold surface by application of air pressure or by any other means. The softened sheet conforms
to the mold shape and it is held in place until it cools. The mold cavity is opened and the
thermoformed part is released. Some of the plastic materials require air cooling in order to make
those rigid quickly, because plastic materials have low thermal conductivity. The excess material
is then trimmed out from the formed part. Excess material can be reground, mixed with unused
plastic, and again reformed into thermoplastic sheets. Thin sheet (up to 1.5 mm) and thick sheet
(about 3 mm) can be formed easily.

Thermoforming set-up usually consists of the clamping unit, heaters, mold, and air
cooling system. The molds should be cleaned after every cycle, as materials in the mold can
cause the change in the shape of the finished goods.
There are mainly three different types of thermoforming process depending upon the
pressure required i.e., vacuum forming, pressure forming and matched die forming.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

a. Vacuum Forming
In this process, the vacuum pressure is used to form the heated thermoplastic
sheet into the desired shape. The thermoplastic sheet is placed on the mold surface and
fixed with the help of clamping unit. The sheet is heated until it is softens and thereafter
vacuum needs to be applied quickly. A surge tank is used to quickly pull the air out
between the mold cavity and the sheet. When the vacuum is created, the sheet conforms
to the shape of the mold cavity. The formed part is cooled and then ejected from the mold
cavity.

b. Pressure Forming
The pressure forming process is closely related to vacuum forming. In this
process, the air pressure required is much higher as compared to the vacuum forming.
The preheated plastic sheet is placed on the mold surface, and then air pressure is applied
quickly above the sheet. The high pressure is developed in between the softened sheet
and the pressure box. Due to high pressure, the preheated plastic sheet can be deformed
into the mold cavity in a fraction of a second.

The formed sheet is held in the mold cavity for cooling for a few seconds. The
formed part thereby solidifies and is ejected from mold cavity. Prototype parts can also
be made using pressure forming process.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

c. Matched die Forming

Matched die forming is also called mechanical forming. In this process, mold
consists of two parts i.e. die and punch . The thermoplastic sheet is heated with the
application of heat until it softenes. The preheated sheet is placed into the mold surface
(that is called die) and through punch pressure is applied on the hot sheet. The air in
between the die and softened sheet is evacuated by using vacuum pump, and therefore
the thermoplastic sheet conforms to the mold shape. The formed part is cooled and
ejected from the mold cavity.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

The important process parameters that are considered during the thermoforming process are
heating temperature, heating time, vacuum pressure, air pressure, mechanical pressure, cooling
time and ejection mechanism.

Materials Used
The different types of thermoplastic materials which can be processed using thermoforming
process are: Acrylic (PMMA), Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Cellulose acetate, Low
density polyethylene (LDPE), High density polyethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene (PP),
Polystyrene (PS), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Applications
Thermoforming process is used for variety of applications, for example, food packaging,
automotive parts, trays, building products and aircraft windscreens. Thick gauge parts are used as
cosmetic surfaces on permanent structures such as trucks, medical equipment, material handling
equipment, electrical and electronic equipment, spas and shower enclosures, vehicle door and
dash panels, refrigerator liners, utility vehicle beds, and plastic pallets. Thin gauge parts are
primarily used to package or contain a food item, disposable cups, containers, lids, blisters and
clamshells.

Advantages:
• Extremely adaptive to design requirement
• Rapid prototype development
• Low initial setup costs
• Low production costs
• Less thermal stresses than injection molding and compression molding
• Good dimensional stability

Disadvantages:
• Poor surface finish
• Parts may have non-uniform wall thickness.
• All parts need to be trimmed
• Ribs and bosses cannot be molded easily
• Limited number of materials can be used
• Very thick plastic sheets can’t be formed

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

POST PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES – ADHESIVE BONDING

Adhesive bonding
The adhesive joint is made between two substrate (Adherends) material with the help of
an adhesive (e.g., epoxy, methyl acrylate cyanoacrylates, anaerobics, silicones, or phenolics).
From the large variety of adhesives, the optimum selection of the adhesive material is very
important. The selection of the adhesive material depends upon type of composites, applications,
the service environment and the most importantly the cost. The adhesive materials are classified
as: structural, pressure sensitive, hot melt, water based and radiation cured. Structural adhesives
are the most commonly used when joining of fiber reinforced composites is required. Various
types of adhesive joints are made with the help of adhesive bonding, for example, single lap,
tapered lap, scarf, butt, strap, double strap, tapered double strap, double lap and stepped lap.
There are generally two type of failure in adhesive joints: Adhesive failure and cohesive
failure. Adhesive failure is a failure at the interface between the adherend and the adhesive.
Cohesive failure occurs in the adhesive or in the substrate material. Cohesive failure of the
adhesive or substrate material occurs when the joint between the adhesive and the substrate
material is stronger than the inherent strength of the adhesive or substrate material.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Mechanical Joints
Mechanical joints are made in fiber reinforced plastics composites by drilling a hole and
placing a mechanical fastener between two joining members. Examples for mechanical joints are
bolting, riveting, screw and pin joints. For most of the mechanical joints, an overlap is required
in two mating members. The mechanical joints can be a single lap joint, double lap joint or butt
joint. The failure under various types of loading in mechanical joint may be caused by shearing
of the substrate, tensile failure of the substrate, crushing failure of the substrate or shearing of the
fastener (bolt or rivet).

Difference between Adhesive and Mechanical Joint

• In adhesively bonded joint, the load is distributed over an area rather than
concentrated at a point. This results in more uniform distribution of stresses.
• Adhesively bonded joint are more resistant to flexural, fatigue and vibrational stresses
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

than mechanical joints because of uniform stress distribution.

• The weight penalty is negligible with adhesive bonding compared to mechanical
joints.
• Adhesive not only bonds the two surfaces but also seals the joint. The seal prevents
galvanic corrosion between dissimilar adherend materials.
• Adhesive bonding provides smooth contours and creates virtually no change in part
dimension. This is very important in designing aerodynamic shapes and in creating
good part aesthetics.
• Adhesive bonding is often less expensive and faster than mechanical joining.
• Mechanical joining allows repeated assembly and disassembly for repair and
maintenance without destroying the parent materials.
• Mechanical joints offer easy inspection and quality control.
• Mechanical joint require little or no surface preparation than adhesively bonded joint.

Factors influencing the failure of adhesively bonded joints

• Type of adhesive
• Mechanical properties of adhesive
• Mechanical properties of adherend
• Bonding between adhesive and adherend
• Wettability of adhesive
• Surface properties of joint surface
• Types of loading

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Issues and challenges in adhesive bonding and bolting/fastening

With the increase in the use of composites materials, there is variation in the properties of
composites materials and its production processes. These variations cause multiple adhesive
challenges during adhesive joining of composites. The brief issues and challenges during
adhesive joining of composites materials are as follows:
• A thin coating may be applied prior to joining that completely changes the chemistry of
the part surface. The physical and chemical characteristics of the bond surface have a
significant effect on the bond strength.
• An adhesive must be able to fully “wet” the substrate surface. This occurs when the
adhesive is lower in surface energy than the substrate.
• Heat and pressure may be required during the bonding operation. This may limit the part
size if curing in an oven or autoclave is required
• With some adhesives, a long curing time may be required.
• Adhesive bonding requires more training and rigid process control than mechanical
joints.

Disadvantages of Adhesive joints

• Adhesive bonding usually requires extensive surface preparation before bonding.
• Pressure may be required during the bonding operation.
• With some adhesives, a long cure time may be needed.
• Health and safety could be an issue.
• Inspection of a bonded joint is difficult.
• Surface treatments used for adhesive bonding are generally hard to control in an
industrial environment and affect directly the strength and durability of bonded
joints.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
 MODULE-2

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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