Introduction to Food and Beverage Production BHM/DHM 103

UNIT 01: INTRODUCTION TO MODERN HOTEL

KITCHEN
Structure
1.1 Objective
1.2 Introduction
1.3 The rationale behind kitchen organization
1.4 The Classical Kitchen Brigade
1.5 Modern Kitchen Organization
1.6 Sections of Kitchen
1.6.1 Larder Section
1.6.2 Sauce Section
1.6.3 Roast Section
1.6.5 Vegetable Section
1.6.6 Soup Section
1.6.7 Indian Section
1.6.8 Pastry Section
1.7 Kitchen Layouts
1.7.1 The single line (or Pullmann) kitchen
1.7.2 The galley kitchen
1.7.3 The L-shape kitchen
1.7.4 The U-shape kitchen
1.7.5 The island kitchen
1.7.6 The G-Shaped Kitchen
1.8 Summary
1.9 Review Questions

1.1 Objective
After reading this unit learner will be able to understand the following:
 The rationale behind kitchen organization
 The Classical Kitchen Brigade
 Modern Kitchen Organization
 Sections of Kitchen
 Layout of Kitchen

1.2 Introduction
The organization of kitchens will vary, mainly due to the size and the type of the
establishment. Obviously, where a kitchen has hundred Chefs preparing for
banquets for up to 1000 people and a lunch and dinner service for 300-400
customers with a la carte menu, the organization will be quite different from a
small restaurant doing thirty table d'hote lunches or a hospital diet kitchen
preparing diets.

Even when there are two kitchens of a similar nature, the internal organization
may vary as each Chef de Cuisine will have his own way of running his kitchen. It
has been found most satisfactory in organizing the work of a kitchen to divide it
into "Parties' or "Corners". The parties system was perfected by Escoffier and it
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was the result of studying about the food production and the recipes allocating
tasks to different specialists so as to help produce the more complex dishes
regularly, efficiently and swiftly. The kitchen was divided into sections, each one
of which was responsible for a particular contribution to the entire food production
system.

In the kind of kitchen Escoffier organized, the parties system reached the height
of complexity because the end-products had to be of the highest finish and yet be
completed to order in rapid sequence for a substantial number of customers. A
set pattern was made. Basically the principles of kitchen organization represent a
standard practice though there are no set rules for deciding how many sections
and how many staff a particular kitchen requires. Each catering establishment
has different factors to be taken into consideration such as extent of menu,
number of persons to be served and management policy.

A large kitchen, which caters for a large number, will have more sections than a
smaller kitchen catering for lesser numbers. The number of staff in a section is
determined by the amount of work to be done and importance of the contribution
of the section to the menus and the skill of work. The base of different kitchen
organizations is taken from the Traditional Kitchen Organization that was
pioneered by Auguste Escoffier, the instigator of the partie or corner system. He
had many sections such as grill, roast, vegetable, fish, sauce, soup, larder,
patisseur etc. As everything was done manually it was necessary but now the
sections have become fewer, because of labour-saving machines, convenience
foods and combined catering equipment (microwave cum convection ovens,
etc.), and the changing of public taste, which seeks simpler menus and meals.

Latest trends are that the kitchen organizations vary with almost every
establishment. In former times there were specialized large staffs called
brigades. The various sections were being clubbed together to suit the
establishments. Many kitchens use fresh food, ready to cook and sometimes
ready to serve. This speeds the preparation and cooking times. The kitchens
have become smaller and cook more versatile. New establishments employ less
cooks.

1.3 The Rationale of Kitchen Organization

The purpose of kitchen organization is to assign or allocate tasks so they can be
done efficiently and properly and so all workers know what their responsibilities
are. The way a kitchen is organized depends on following factors:

1. The Menu: The kinds of dishes to be produced obviously determine the

jobs that must be done. The menu is, in fact, the basis of the entire
operation.

2. The Type of Establishment :The major types of food-service

establishments are as follows:
a. Hotels

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b. Institutional kitchens Schools Hospitals, nursing homes, and other
health care institutions and executive dining rooms Airline catering
Military food service institutions
c. Private clubs
d. Catering and banquet services
e. Fast-food restaurants
f. Carry-out or take-out food facilities, including supermarkets
g. Full-service restaurants
3. The size of the operation (the number of customers and the volume of
food served)
4. The physical facilities, including the equipment in use

1.4 The Classical Brigade

One of Escoffier's important achievements was the reorganization of the kitchen.
This reorganization divided the kitchen into departments, or stations, based on
the kinds of foods produced. A station chef was placed in charge of each
department. In a small operation, the station chef might be the only worker in the
department.

But in a large kitchen, each station chef might have several assistants. This
system, with many variations, is still in use, especially in large hotels with
traditional kinds of food service. The major positions are as follows:

 The Chef is the person in charge of the kitchen. In large establishments,

this person has the title of executive chef. The executive chef is a
manager who is responsible for all aspects of food production, including
menu planning, purchasing, costing, planning work schedules, hiring, and
training.

 If a food-service operation is large, with many departments (for example,

a formal dining room, a casual dining room, and a catering department),
or if it has several units in different locations, each kitchen may have a
chef de cuisine. The chef de cuisine reports to the executive chef.

 The Sous Chef (soo shef) is directly in charge of production and works
as the assistant to the executive chef or chef de cuisine. (The word sous
are French for "under.") Because the executive chef's responsibilities may
require a great deal of time in the office, the sous chef takes command of
the actual production and the minute-by-minute supervision of the staff.

 The Station Chefs, or Chefs de Partie, are in charge of particular areas

of production. The following are the most important station chefs.
 The Sauce Chef, or Saucier (so-see-ay), prepares sauces, stews, and
hot hors d'oeuvres, and sautés foods to order. This is usually the highest
position of all the stations.

 The Fish Cook, or Poissonier (pwah-so-nyay), prepares fish dishes. In

some kitchens, this station is handled by the saucier.

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 The Vegetable Cook, or Entremetier (awn-truh-met-yay), prepares
vegetables, soups, starches, and eggs. Large kitchens may divide these
duties among the vegetable cook, the fry cook, and the soup cook.

 The Roast Cook, or Rôtisseur (ro-tee-sur), prepares roasted and

braised meats and their gravies and broils meats and other items to
order. A large kitchen may have a separate broiler cook, or grillardin
(gree-ar-dan), to handle the broiled items. The broiler cook may also
prepare deep-fried meats and fish.

 The Pantry Chef, or Garde Manger (gard mawn-zhay), is responsible for

cold foods, including salads and dressings, pâtés, cold hors d'oeuvres,
and buffet items.

 The Pastry Chef, or Pâtissier (pa-tees-syay), prepares pastries and

desserts.

 The Relief Cook, swing cook, or Chef de Tournant (toor-nawn),

replaces other station heads.

 The Expediter, or Aboyeur (ah-bwa-yer), accepts orders from waiters

and passes them on to the cooks on the line. The expediter also calls for
orders to be finished and plated at the proper time and inspects each
plate before passing it to the dining room staff. In many restaurants, this
position is taken by the head chef or the sous chef.

 Cooks and assistants in each station or department help with the duties
assigned to them. For example, the assistant vegetable cook may wash,
peel, and trim vegetables. With experience, assistants may be promoted
to station cooks and then to station chefs.

1.5 Modern Kitchen Organization

As you can see, only a large establishment needs a staff like the classical
brigade just described. In fact, some large hotels have even larger staffs, with
other positions such as separate day and night sous chefs, assistant chef,
banquet chef, butcher, baker, and so on. Most modern operations, on the other
hand, are smaller than this. The size of the classical brigade may be reduced
simply by combining two or more positions where the workload allows it. For
example, the second cook may combine the duties of the sauce cook, fish cook,
soup cook, and vegetable cook. A typical medium-size operation may employ a
chef, a second cook, a broiler cook, a pantry cook, and a few cooks' helpers.

A working chef is in charge of operations not large enough to have an executive

chef. In addition to being in charge of the kitchen, the working chef also handles
one of the production stations. For example, he or she may handle the sauté
station, plate foods during service, and help on other stations when needed.
Small kitchens may have only a chef, one or two cooks, and perhaps one or two
assistants to handle simple jobs such as washing and peeling vegetables. Cooks
who prepare or finish hot à la carte items during service in a restaurant may be

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known as line cooks. Line cooks are said to be on the hot line, or simply on the
line. In many small operations, the short-order cook is the backbone of the
kitchen during service time. This cook may handle the broiler, deep fryer, griddle,
sandwich production, and even some sautéed items. In other words, the short-
order cook's responsibility is the preparation of foods that are quickly prepared to
order. One special type of short-order cook is the breakfast cook. This worker is
skilled at quickly and efficiently turning out egg dishes and other breakfast items
to order. By contrast, establishments such as school cafeterias may do no
cooking to order at all. Stations and assignments are based on the requirements
of quantity preparation rather than cooking to order.

The team of cooks and their assistants under the partie system is commonly
called the KITCHEN BRIGADE. Specialists head the parties and with their
assistants help produce complex dishes with great speed and efficiency. All the
heads of the parties come under the control of the Chef de Cuisine (Head) aided
by one or more sous chefs. In small establishments, head of the larder or sauce
section acts as Sous Chef.

Figure 1.1 Kitchen organization Chart

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1.6 Sections of Kitchen
Hotel kitchen is divided into various sections for fast and efficient functioning of
department.
The various sections that may be found in hotel kitchen are as under:
 Larder Section
 Sauce Section
 Roast Section
 Vegetable Section
 Soup Section
 Indian Section
 Pastry Section
1.6.1 Larder Section
The word larder has in professional kitchens a much wider significance. The
larder is not simply a place where food is stored but a place where the raw
materials for cooking are prepared and dressed. In large establishments, the
work is further broken into sections. The larder is a room set aside for the storage
of perishable foods, both raw and cooked, where food as meat, fish, poultry and
game are prepared and made ready for cooking. In this department too, all cold
items found on the menu, such as hors d'oeuvres, cold dish or meat dishes, cold
salads, etc. are prepared and dressed.
For these function to be effective, it is essential that:
1. The room should be separate from the kitchen situated in a cool place. At
the same time, it must be close to the kitchen to avoid undue running
about between the two departments which are closely interrelated.
2. It should be suitably lighted, well-ventilated and sufficiently open to allow
the staff to perform their duties in a clean and efficient manner.
3. It must be equipped with the necessary fittings, plant, machinery and
tools in accordance with the volume, and or quality of the trade of the
catering establishment in which it is situated.

Figure 1.2 Layout of Larder Section

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1.6.2 Sauce Section
The sauce section is responsible for providing all meat, poultry. game and offal
dishes with the exception of those that are plain roasted or grilled. All the meat
dishes are cooked and garnished. The partie will also provide all basic and
finished sauces served hot, that are normally required by the various parties in
the kitchen. Normally, one first commences early duty to cover the preparations
and cooking of dishes as "Plat de Jour" as these often require a cooking time of
3-4 hours. Braising, boiling, peeling is also done in this section. Similar to the fish
partie an extensive part of the dishes are cooked and a variety of cooked
garnishes are also prepared. Miseen-place for, banquets is also done here. The
Chef Saucier does important work as he assembles dishes which have an impact
on the customers.

1.6.3 Roast Section

The roast section is responsible for providing all roast dishes of meat, poultry and
game. It is responsible for all grilled dishes of meat, chicken, offal and fish, and
this duty is often delegated to the grill cook. The section is also responsible for
the preparation of a number of dishes and the deep frying of the food items. It
also prepares and finishes any savouries that are required.

1.6.4 Fish Section

This section is responsible for the provision of all fish dishes with the exception of
those that are plain grilled or deep fried. The cleaning, descaIing, filleting,
crumbling is done by the fishmonger in larder. Generally as a larger selection of
fish are offered, an extensive mise-en-place is required. At each service period,
the following basic sauces are made ready for service: béchamel, white wine
sauce, fish velouté, hollandaise and melted butter. Further, a number of
garnishes are prepared in advance to a part cooked stage, By this arrangement,
a variety of fish dishes particularly the poached and meuniere types can be done.
Grilling is done by the grill cook or commis.

1.6.5 Vegetable Section

An entrement course in France was the responsibility of the entrement of
vegetables, who skilfully prepared and cooked vegetables, which could be
served as a separate course. An entrement was originally something sent to the
table between the courses in France. During the period before service, each day
various quantities of vegetables are prepared, cooked, refreshed and placed into
refrigerator. Peeling, cleaning and trimming are done by semi-skilled workers.
Limited quantities of certain potato dishes are cooked and finished to varying
degrees, kept ready when service begins. Vegetable garnishes are prepared
here and given to other sections. The cooking of eggs forms an important part of
the work in this section particularly, omelettes of various types, e.g. plain,
garnished, stuffed and flat round omelettes. Italian pastas but not noodles are
also prepared in this section. Items like spaghetti, macaroni and rice may be sent
to other sections for garnishes. The mise-enplace is carried out according to
menu requirements. By this method, the vegetable cook and senior commis are
able to cope with the finishing and serving of a vast amount of different dishes.
Management of cooking vegetables well for large numbers calls for particular

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knowledge, skill and judgment and should never be entrusted to an unskilled and
disinterested cook.

1.6.6 Soup Section

It is the responsibility of this section to prepare soups such as consommés,
creams, velouté, purees, broths, bisques and many special international soups.
All basic stocks are also prepared here. The cold soups are prepared and
passed to the larder for service. The garnishes come from the larder and
vegetable section.

1.6.7 Indian Section

This section is responsible for the preparation, of all Indian dishes. The work is
subdivided into subsections such as: Indian (bread and rice, pulaos, biryanis,
chappaties, puries, bhaturas, etc.), vegetables, (bhajees, curries), meat,
(including eggs and fish), tandoor (seekh kababs, tandoor chicken, boti kababs),
Indian sweets jalebis, rasgullas, rabri, etc.) Each day a variety of dishes are
prepared according to menu requirements.

1.6.8 Pastry Section

The work of this section is normally separated from the main kitchen and is self-
contained in the matter of cold storage. The function of this section is to prepare
hot and cold sweets, for lunches, dinners and pastries for tea-time and other
occasions. It also prepares pastes like short and puff pastry, frying batters for
making noodles for supply to other corners of the kitchen. Sorbets and water-ice
like items are made in pastry section. The service of ices and those sweets which
are based upon ice-cream are prepared and assembled in Patisserie. They also
include the sweet omelettes au surprise and soufflé surprise, Melbas, etc. The art
of pastry includes work like colored sugars to make flower baskets and similar
decorative centre pieces, work with fondant and icing sugar, gum pastes,
fashioning of praline into decorative objects. Where hotels operate a bakery
section, the responsibility is carried out by the master baker. Normally one
commis will commence early duty each day to provide the mise-en-place
required by the various sections. The section needs workers with skill,
imagination and experience.

1.7 Kitchen Layouts

If you understand the basic principles of kitchen layout will help take much of the
mystery out of the design process. The most basic layout principle is the work
triangle. The work triangle is the line drawn from each of the three primary work
stations in the kitchen - the food storage, cooktop, and sink. By drawing these
lines, you can see the distance you'll walk to move to and from each area.

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Figure 1.3 Layout of large hotel kitchen

The sum of the ideal triangle is supposed to be between 15 and 22 feet, putting
each of the three appliances within two or three steps of one another. The three
primary kitchen work stations which create the work triangle are:

1. Food storage - Your refrigerator and pantry are the major items here.
Cabinetry like lazy susan or swing-out pantry units adds function and
convenience. Options like wine racks, spice racks, and roll-out trays help to
organize your groceries.

2. The preparation/cooking station - Your range, oven, microwave, and smaller

appliances are found in this area. Counter space is important in this section.
Conserve space by moving appliances off the counter with appliance garage
cabinets and space-saving ideas like towel rods and pot lid racks.

3. The clean-up station - Everyone's least favourite activity is one of the

kitchen's most important - clean-up. This area is home to the sink, waste
disposal, and dishwasher. Cabinetry for this station is designed to organize with
the trash bin cabinet and roll-out tray baskets for storage convenience.

Triangle reloaded: The work triangle however is experiencing a remodel of its

own. The work triangle was designed for an age when there was only one cook,
and only three appliances (fridge, stove, sink). Here are a few top tips:
1. No leg of the triangle is supposed to be less than 4 feet or more than 9
feet.
2. There should be no human (well, or non human, of course) traffic flow
cutting through the triangle.
3. Place the microwave near the refrigerator for convenience
4. Walk space should be 42-inch wide to account for traffic flow and
clearance of large appliance doors or large relatives
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5. Counter space on either side of the range or cook-top should be a
minimum of 15 inches
6. An 18-inch counter should be adjacent to the fridge on the same side as
the handle
7. The food prep area (minimum counter space 36 inches) is ideally located
between the fridge and the sink; If the food prep area is between the sink
and the range or cook-top, it will involve more travel.
8. A lower surface is best for food prep (measure 7 to 8 inches below your
elbow height)
9. In two-cook kitchens, the fridge and range/cook-top are usually shared.
10. Two triangles can share a leg, but shouldn't overlap
11. An island with a second sink creates at least one more triangle, and
adapts too many uses: wet bar location, flower cutting and arranging,
homework station etc.

1.7.1 The Single Line (Or Pullmann) Kitchen

This is a smart and simple solution for narrow rooms, ideally with one wall over
10 feet long, without windows or doors. However, this layout causes the longest
journey distances since you often have to walk from one end of the room to the
other. Therefore, it's a good idea to place the sink in the middle of the line, with
adequate space separating it from the range:
1. Ideal for apartments and smaller homes
2. Works well with the open designs found in many contemporary homes
3. Small moveable table can provide eating space
4. Can be enhanced with the addition of an island

1.7.2 The Galley Kitchen

This shape offers the most efficient use of space, making it the choice of many
professional chefs. The two rows allow room for lots of preparation space, and
moving between activity areas can be as easy as turning around. However, this
shape is not ideal if the corridor is open at both ends, since it can cause traffic
congestion.

Make sure there is enough room for opposite drawers to be open at the same
time (at least 48?). Another important consideration is to keep the cleaning and
cooking areas on the same side in order to minimize the risk of accidents while
moving hot pans between the sink and range.
1. Great for smaller kitchens
2. Appliances are close to one another
3. Easy for one cook to maneuver
4. Can easily convert to a U-Shape by closing off one end

1.7.3 The L-Shape Kitchen

This is a very popular kitchen layout - ideal for a family kitchen, or for entertaining
guests, since it can easily accommodate table and chairs in the same room.
Using two adjacent walls, the kitchen also benefits from the lack of through
traffic. The sink, range and fridge should be separated by a preparation area.
1. Very flexible layout design

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2. Major appliances can be placed in a variety of areas
3. Work areas are close to each other
4. Can easily convert to a U-Shape with a cabinet leg addition

1.7.4 The U-Shape Kitchen

The use of three full walls in a room offers the perfect working kitchen. The
fridge, range and sink can be spaced out for maximum efficiency and
convenience. This is great news for those who take your cooking seriously, as it
provides the best workflows with the shortest distances around the kitchen. This
shape also allows for large amounts of countertop and storage space.
1. Perfect for families who use their kitchens a great deal
2. Provides plenty of counter space
3. Efficient work triangle
4. Can convert one cabinet leg into a breakfast bar

1.7.5 The Island Kitchen

A very popular kitchen type, the island layout is perfect if you plan to entertain but
requires more floor space. An independent island unit can face a dining or living
area, allowing the cook to socialise while preparing. A sink here provides the
optimal arrangement in terms of the kitchen's working triangle. Otherwise, a
cook-top with a canopy over the island can form a stunning focal point to the
kitchen.

1.7.6 The G-Shaped Kitchen

Built very much like the U-Shaped with the addition of an elongated partial wall,
the G-Shaped kitchen offers a great deal of space.
1. Ideal for larger families needing extra storage space
2. Plenty of counter and cabinet space
3. Multiple cooks can function well in this layout
4. Can convert one cabinet leg into a breakfast bar or entertaining area

1.8 Summary
Traditional Kitchen Organization that was pioneered by Auguste Escoffier, the
instigator of the partie or corner system. He had many sections such as grill,
roast, vegetable, fish, sauce, soup, larder, patisseur etc. As everything was done
manually it was necessary but now the sections have become fewer, because of
labour-saving machines, convenience foods and combined catering equipment
(microwave cum convection ovens, etc.), and the changing of public taste, which
seeks simpler menus and meals. The various layout of kitchen is been discussed
in the unit.

1.9 Review Questions

Q.1 What is kitchen brigade?
Q.2 Write a note on Modern kitchen organization.
Q.3 What are the various sections of modern hotel kitchen?
Q.4 Who gave the concept of classical kitchen brigade?
Q.5 Explain the functions of following sections of kitchen:
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a. Larder Section
b. Sauce Section
c. Roast Section
d. Vegetable Section
e. Soup Section
f. Indian Section
g. Pastry Section
Q.6 Write a note on Kitchen Layouts.
Q.7 Explain following kitchen layout:
a. Single line (or Pullmann) kitchen
b. Galley kitchen
c. L-shape kitchen
d. U-shape kitchen
e. Island kitchen
f. G-Shaped Kitchen

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UNIT 02: JOB DESCRIPTION AND

RESPONSIBILITIES OF KITCHEN STAFF
Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Job description
2.3.1 Design of Job Description
2.3.2 Uses of Job Description
Check your progress-I
2.4 Job description of kitchen staff
2.4.1 Job description of Executive Chef
2.4.2 Job description of Sous Chef
2.4.3 Job description of Pastry Chef
2.4.4 Job description of Kitchen Executive
2.4.5 Job description of Chef de Partie
2.4.6 Job description of Demi-Chef de Partie
2.4.7 Job description of Commis
2.4.8 Job description of Chef Garde Manger
Check your progress-II
2.5 Summary
2.6 Answer to check your progress
2.7 References/Bibliography
2.8 Review Questions

2.1 Objectives
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
o Define the concepts of job description,
o Design of Job Description
o Uses of Job Description
o Understand duties and responsibilities of kitchen staff

2.2 Introduction
We presume that you are doing this course to acquire or enhance your
knowledge about the modern management concepts and techniques. This
understanding should, undoubtedly improve your skills as a manager, especially
as a manager of people. You will also appreciate that an effective manager is
one who is able to handle his or her people efficiently. In order to be a good
manager of people, it will also be imperative for you to have an adequate
understanding of the jobs assigned to them as also the relative job differentials in
terms of their level of difficulty, responsibility, knowledge and skill. In this Unit, we
shall be dealing with the concepts and techniques of job description of kitchen
staff in hotel.

2.3 Job Description

Job description is a broad statement of the purpose, duties and responsibilities of
a job or position. A job description is based on a detailed job analysis and usually

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summarises the essential information gathered through job analysis. They
describe the main tasks and responsibilities of the job clearly and concisely in
order to facilitate the systematic comparison of jobs for evaluation purposes. The
kind of information and amount of detail contained in the job descriptions depend
on the job evaluation plan to be used. However, in all cases they must be
standardised and use a uniform phraseology. If job characteristics are set out
differently from one job to another, systematic comparisons are likely to be
hampered and one of the main advantages of job evaluation will be lost right
from the beginning.

Before we examine in detail the two cornerstones of job evaluation, viz., job
analysis and job descriptions, we should mention a complementary means of
describing jobs, namely by job specifications. These usually involve a listing of
the personal qualifications regarded as necessary for satisfactory performance.
Job specifications are mainly used in selecting and recruiting staff and are
accordingly not essential to job evaluations. But certain personal attributes, such
as experience, education and aptitude, may occur in both, the job description as
well as the job specification. Many job evaluation plans accordingly use job
specifications to complement job description.

A primary output or result of job analysis is a job description. Information

obtained by job analysis is shifted and recorded concisely, clearly and fully in the
job description. The job description must assemble all the important elements of
a job, such as essential tasks, responsibilities, qualifications required and the
functional relation of the job to other jobs.

2.3.1 Design of Job Description

There is no universally accepted standard format for job description for the
reason that the form and structure of the job descriptions must depend on the
kind of work being analysed and the job evaluation plan being used. For
example, if the job evaluation plan comprises factors such as physical and
intellectual effort, knowledge, skills, and responsibilities and working conditions, it
follows that job description should be structured to reflect these factors so as to
facilitate factor by factor comparison and evaluation of jobs. With non-analytical
methods, job descriptions may be more flexible and simpler but must specify the
title of the job and its position in the organisation, summarise the tasks performed
and list the skills and abilities required.

A complete job description should rightly contain three categories of information:

1. Job mission and location,
2. The work performed, and
3. The context in which the action takes place.
With non-analytical methods, job descriptions may be more flexible and simpler
but must specify the title of the job and its position in the organisation, summarise
the tasks performed and list the skills and abilities required. While writing a job
description one should be brief, factual and precise as far as possible. It will be
helpful to follow the following guidelines while writing a job description:
1. Always be accurate about what is expressed.

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2. Omit expressions which are attributes - such as uninteresting, distasteful,
etc.
3. Personal pronouns should be avoided - if it is necessary to refer to the
employee, the work 'operator' or 'so and so executive' may be used.
4. Do not describe only one phase of the job and give the impression that all
phases are covered.
5. Generalised or ambiguous expressions, such as 'prepare', 'assist',
'handle', etc., should be omitted unless supported by data that will clarify
them.
6. All statements should be clearly and simply set down - promiscuous uses
of adjectives only reflect one's own opinion.
7. Describe the job as is being done, by the majority of workers holding the
designation.
8. Write in simple language - explain unusual technical terms.
9. Description of a job which is part of team-work, should establish the team
relationship.
10. The length of description is immaterial, it is not expected even with
printed forms that all job descriptions should be of equal length but write
concisely.
11. When the job analyst finds that the data he or she has to work with is
insufficient, he or she should stop until sufficient data is available.
12. Put the date of completion of each description and revise it as often as
changes in jobs and occupation require.
13. Job description should have the concurrence of the concerned
supervisor.
14. Description should contain the initials of the persons who compile them.

2.3.2 Uses of Job Description

Apart from being a basis for job evaluation, the job descriptions can be put to
many uses. These are as under:

Supervisor - Employee Communication: The information contained in the Job

Description outlines the work which the incumbent is expected to perform.
Hence, it is an extremely useful document for both the supervisor and the
subordinate for purposes of communication. Furthermore, it helps employees to
understand just what work their associates are expected to perform, thus,
facilitating integration of efforts at the work-site by the employees themselves.
Recruitment, Selection, Promotion, Transfer: Information pertaining to the
knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform the work to an acceptable
standard, can be used as a sound basis on which to base standards are
procedures for recruitment, selection, promotion and transfer.

Work Performance Appraisal: To be sound and objective, a performance

appraisal system must be rooted in the work performed by the employees; such
work is indicated by the duties in the job description. In such an approach, using
each duty as the basis for discussion, the employee and the supervisor agree on
work performance goals for the period to be covered by the subsequent
evaluation report, they also agree on the criteria to be used to determine the
extent to which the goals have been attained. The reports resulting from this

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methodology minimize subjectivity by focussing attention on the job, as distinct
from the personality traits, habits or practices of the employee. As a
consequence, the results are more factual, valid and defensible than is the case
in other types of systems.

Manpower Planning, Training and Development: These three processes are

closely interrelated. The job description showing, in specific terms, the
knowledge, skill and ability requirements for effective performance of the duties,
is a sound and rational basis for each of these processes. Analysis of various
types of jobs at progressively more senior levels will indicate logical sources of
supply for more senior posts, as part of manpower planning, it will also indicate
the gap to be bridged in terms of knowledge, skill and ability, thus providing a
sound basis for preparing job-related training and development programmes.

Industrial Relations: Frequently issues arise in the industrial relations field

which have their origin in the work to be undertaken. In these instances the job
description may be used to form a factual basis for discussion and problem
resolution.

Organisation and Procedure Analysis: The duties and responsibilities outlined

in the job description may be used to great advantage by management in
analysing organisation and procedures, because they reveal how the work is
organised, how the procedures operate and how authority and responsibility are
apportioned.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

Q.1 Define job description?

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..

Q.2 How job description is designed?

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..

Q.3 What are the uses of job description?

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..
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2.4 Job Description of Kitchen Staff
Job description is a broad statement of the purpose, duties and responsibilities of
a job or position. A job description is based on a detailed job analysis and usually
summarises the essential information gathered through job analysis. They
describe the main tasks and responsibilities of the job clearly and concisely in
order to facilitate the systematic comparison of jobs for evaluation purposes. The
hotel kitchen employs people at various positions depending upon the functions
needs to be performed at various sections of kitchen. Let us discuss the job
responsibilities of each of these positions, which will make us clearer of the
kitchen department.

2.4.1 Job Description of Executive Chef

An executive chef has to direct and guide the food production team in providing a
consistent quality of food and beverage in all outlets, as per international
standards, in order to achieve the maximum level of guest satisfaction and
organizational profitability in an atmosphere of high employee morale. The
specific responsibilities of an executive chef are to:
i. Drive the vision and the goal of the company.
ii. Reflect the company's philosophy by providing the highest standard of
personalized and attentive, but discrete service in a professional and
friendly manner, which exemplifies the best of hospitality.
iii. Always lead by example, adopting a positive attitude to keep the team
spirit at its highest levels.
iv. Greet with a smile, colleagues and guests at any time or place within the
hotel, whether front or back of house.
v. Anticipate guests needs and wishes, and surpass their expectations.
vi. Look continuously for ways to achieve the hotel's strategic vision and
goals by working as a team and being a team player.
vii. Be proactive in developing oneself by taking advantage of all learning
opportunities, and by striving to achieve the goals of one's personal
career development plan and personal mission statements.
viii. Be committed to quality and profitability of product to ensure that guests
return and to aim to be the best hotel or outlet.
ix. Identify and develop new products and equipment, to enhance the
product quality.
x. Develop and define quality standards of food preparation and
presentation.
xi. Define the organization of work within the department including
assignments, time schedules, and vacations of staff.
xii. Ensure the quality of food preparation and presentation, as per
organizational standards.
xiii. Ensure availability of stock and raw ingredients by proper planning and
coordination with purchase and stores.
xiv. Coordinate with the engineering department to carry out preventive
maintenance programme in the kitchen.
xv. Establish recipes and methods of preparation, inform the F&B director of
significant change in prices affecting the preparation of menu items.
xvi. Recommend menu pricing in coordination with F&B director/F&B
manager/F&B controller/banquet manager.
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xvii. Be responsible for the hygiene and cleanliness of the kitchen areas,
equipment, and staff.
xviii. Ensure compliance with company and hotel policies department
employees.
xix. Constantly monitor key performance indicators for the department and
take appropriate action.
xx. Analyse and monitor costs, (material, energy and staff) to ensure high
profitability on a regular basis and initiate corrective action whenever
necessary.
xxi. Ensure that menus are changed on a regular basis, as per corporate
guidelines and market needs, in coordination with F&B manager/F&B
director.
xxii. Ensure that the best quality of raw material is procured and used in food
preparation.
xxiii. Prepare capital and operational budget in order to achieve desired
profitability.
xxiv. Ensure storage of raw and cooked food/raw material as per international
standards.
xxv. Keep oneself updated with market knowledge and trends by conducting
regular market surveys in coordination with the purchase department.
xxvi. Ensure department employees are fully trained through constant on-the-
job training.
xxvii. Attend behavioural and vocational training in own and related work areas
to enhance skills and develop multi-functionality.
xxviii. Ensure practice of hygiene and safety precautions as well as compliance
with hotel and company policies by the kitchen staff through training.
xxix. Provide career development and succession planning for subordinate
through training.

2.4.2 Job Description of Sous Chef

A sous chef has to organize, develop, and supervise the food production in the
main kitchen as per standards and recipes developed by the executive chef and
to handle independently one of the satellite kitchens assigned to him/her. The
specific responsibilities of a sous chef are to:
i. Look after the function of the executive sous chef during his/her absence.
ii. Train staff on improved work procedures, quality food production,
economical usage of food materials, and the attractive presentation of food
items.
iii. Approve requisitions from stores for stations assigned and in the executive
sous chef's absence for the entire main kitchen.
iv. Be responsible for all food production in area assigned to him.
v. Be responsible for overall food cost control without affecting standards and
specifications as laid out by top management.
vi. Account for the usage, consumption, spoilage, and control of food stuff
produced or stored under his/her supervision.
vii. Be responsible for the preparation of mise en place at all stations.
viii. Attend the food and beverage meetings and departmental meetings.
ix. Maintain all attendance records.

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2.4.3 Job Description of Pastry Chef
The pastry chef has to organize, develop, and supervise the pastry shop
including stations such as bakery, pastry, and confectionery. The specific
responsibilities of a pastry chef are to:
i. Be responsible for the mise en place and food preparation for all bakery
and pastry stations.
ii. Account for the usage, consumption, and control of all foods and
equipments in the stations supervised by him/her.
iii. Train staff in his/her stations on improved word procedures, quality food
production. The economical usage of food materials, and the attractive
presentation of food items.
iv. Supervise and train the chef de parties, commis, and apprentices, and to
review staff working in his/her department.
v. Initiate performance reviews of staff working in his/her department.
vi. Attend the daily and weekly kitchen chef's meetings and the F&B
meetings.
vii. Approve requisitions from stores for materials required in his/her stations.
viii. Recommend schedule changes and changes in personnel for adequate
manning of all stations.

2.4.4 Job Description of Kitchen Executive

A kitchen executive ensures that the food production team provides a consistent
quality of F&B in the area/shift under his/her control, as per the corporate preset
international standards, in order to maximize guest satisfaction and
organizational profitability in an atmosphere of high employee morale. The
specific responsibilities of a kitchen executive are to:
• Ensure adherence to organizational standards of food quality, hygiene,
preparation, and presentation in his/her kitchen.
• Make sure all the kitchen equipment and machinery is in good working
order at all times, in his/her kitchen.
• Recommend changes in systems and procedures to increase efficiency
and improve service levels.
• Ensure prompt, courteous, and accurate service to all the guests to
achieve high level of guest satisfaction.
• Be responsible for maintaining of records/documentation in his/her area
as per operational/control requirements.
• Check the quality and availability of raw ingredients at all times for
smooth operation.
• Provide timely follow-up on any sick team member and covey the report
immediately to HR and executive chef.
• Ensure buffets/food displays are set up and maintained professionally, as
per organizational standards.
• Be responsible for the hygiene standards of his/her kitchen, storage
areas, equipment, and machinery.
• Control food wastage, without compromising on food quality.
• Check that cleaning schedules by kitchen stewarding department are
being followed in timely manner.
• Ensure par level of dry stores and perishables are maintained on daily
basis, and also ensure correct store requisitioning.

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• Check attendance and punctuality of every team member.
• Provide functional assistance to all subordinates and peers of various
areas.
• Ensure excellent relations and professionalism amongst all staff in his/her
kitchen and with related departments and staff.
• Work in close coordination with F&B service team.
• Maintain appropriate and professional communication with F&B team at
all given times, and for any special occasions.
• Provide constant on-the-job and classroom training for his/her kitchen
employees.
• Personally conduct critical training sessions.
• Encourage team building through regular informal meetings and keep an
open door policy.
• Coordinate functions and activities with other F&B section,
engineering/housekeeping etc. whenever required.
• Assist sous chef with on-the-job training and class room training for
his/her kitchen and related F&B employees.
• Attend behavioural, vocational, and skill-related training, to enhance
his/her skills and develop multi-functionality.
• Provide cross training to employees of other department.
• Personally conduct critical training sessions.
• Provide constant on-the-job training and coaching to all the staff in the
department.
• Share his/her skill and knowledge with all employees; follow the company
standard operating procedures (SOP) in his/her kitchen.
• Counsel subordinates in work-related and personal matters.
• Attend behavioural training in own related work areas to enhance skills
and develop multi-functionality.
• Maintain records as required of training in the department.

2.4.5 Job Description Of Chef De Partie

A chef de partie assists his/her superior in maintaining the highest standards of
quality in food preparation by following standard recipes and high level of
hygiene standards maintained as per the hazard analysis and critical control
points (HACCP) standards in his/her area, in order to maximize guest satisfaction
and profitability in an atmosphere of high employee morale. The specific
responsibilities of a chef de partie are to:
• Ensure prompt and accurate service by all kitchen staff under his/her
control, to all the customers to achieve a high level of customer
satisfaction.
• Be responsible for implementing hotel standards on food quality,
preparation, and presentation in his/her section/shift.
• Recommend changes in systems and procedures to increase efficiency
and improve service levels.
• Recommend changes in menu at the time of new menu by introducing
new dishes/presentation.
• Ensure that the hygiene and cleanliness of the kitchen area is maintained
as per predetermined standards.

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• Be responsible for controlling food wastage, without compromising on
food quality.
• Ensure proper security and safety of raw and cooked food, and
equipment by proper storage.
• Make sure that all the kitchen equipment is operated, maintained and
stored properly and is safe to use.
• Check that all the kitchen records are maintained properly at all times.
• Ensure that organizational policies and standards are adhered to by all in
the department.
• Ensure availability of ingredients in the kitchen, at all times, in order to
provide a prompt service.
• Assist the chef de partie/sous chef in implementing standards set by
executive chef on food quality, preparation, and presentation in his/her
section.
• Assist the sous chef and higher authorities to define the organization of
work within his/her kitchen department including assignments, time
schedules, and vacations.
• Control food wastage without compromising on food quality.
• Check that inter-kitchen food transfers are accurate and conform to hotel
policy.
• Ensure proper mise en place in his/her production sections for speedy
preparation and service.
• Make sure that hygiene and cleanliness of the kitchen area/equipment is
maintained as per predetermined HACCP standards.
• Discuss production planning with his/her commis, demi chef de partie,
and concerned higher kitchen authorities.
• Ensure all the company SOPs are followed by all the team member.
• Make sure the cleaning schedules by kitchen stewarding department are
being followed in timely manner.
• Ensure par level of dry stores and perishables are maintained on daily
basis, and also ensure of correct store requisitioning.
• Receive daily requirement from storeroom and get it checked and duly
signed by his/her senior kitchen executive.
• Recommend quality status on all the products in his/her kitchen to senior
authority and rectify it as soon as possible.
• Register complaints regarding improper machinery functioning, or
employee's ill behaviours to his/her kitchen executive.
• Brief his/her team members on menu changes or introduction of new
ingredients/new dishes on the menu.
• Provide functional assistance to all subordinates and peers of various
kitchens.
• Ensure excellent relations and professionalism amongst all staff in his/her
kitchen and with related departments.
• Maintain appropriate and professional communication with all the team
members at all given times.

2.4.6 Job Description of Demi-Chef De Partie

A demi chef de partie assists his/her superior in maintaining the highest
standards of quality in food preparation by following standards receipts and high

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level of hygiene standards maintained as per the HACCP standards in his/her
area, in order to maximize guest satisfaction and profitability in an atmosphere of
high employee morale. The specific responsibilities of a demi chef de partie are
to:
• Ensure prompt and accurate service by all kitchen staff under his/her
control, to the entire guests to achieve high level of customer satisfaction.
• Assist the chef de partie in implementing standards set by executive chef
on food quality, preparation, and presentation in his/her section.
• Assist the chef de partie to define the organization of work within his/her
kitchen department including assignments, time schedules, and
vacations.
• Control food wastage without compromising on food quality.
• Make sure that all the kitchen equipment is operated, maintained, and
stored properly and is safe to use.
• Ensure all organizational policies and standards are adhered to by all in
the department.
• Check that inter-kitchen food transfers are accurate and conform to hotel
policy.
• Ensure proper mise en place in his/her production sections for speedy
preparation and service.
• Make sure that hygiene and cleanliness of the kitchen area/equipment is
maintained as per predetermined standards.
• Ensure all the kitchen records are maintained properly at all times as per
organizational standards in his/her department.
• Discuss production planning with his/her commis and concerned higher
kitchen authorities.
• Receive daily requirement from storeroom and get it checked and duly
signed by his/her senior kitchen executive.
• Maintain daily log book and register equipment issues, and any critical
information to be passed on to higher authority or next shift.
• Recommend quality status on all the products in his/her kitchen to senior
authority.
• Register complaints regarding improper machinery functioning, or
employee ill behaviour to his chef de partie or senior kitchen executive.
• Provide assistance to all subordinates and peers of various kitchens.
• Promote excellent relations and professionalism amongst all staff in
his/her kitchen and with related departments.
• Coordinate with other food and beverage section,
engineering/housekeeping, etc. whenever required.
• Ensure appropriate and professional communication with all the team
members at and develop multi-functionality.
• Attend behavioural, vocational, and skill-related training, to enhance
his/her skills and develop multi-functionality.
• Provide constant on-the-job training and coaching to subordinates.
• Share his/her skill and knowledge with all employees.

2.4.7 Job Description of Commis

A commis has to prepare and provide the highest quality food in his/her area by
following standard recipes, and high level of hygiene standards maintained as

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per the HACCP standards, in order to maximize guest satisfaction and optimum
profitability in an atmosphere of high individual morale. The specific
responsibilities of a commis are to:
• Prepare food and provide prompt, courteous, and accurate service to all
the customers as per organizational standards of quality, as directed.
• Control food wastage without compromising on food quality.
• Prepare all mise en place in production sections for smooth kitchen
operation, as directed.
• Ensure hygiene and cleanliness of his/her area at all the times.
• Assist chef de partie in implementing and following organizational
standards on food quality, preparation, and presentation.
• Be responsible for maintaining all kitchen equipment in his/her area in
good working condition.
• Take responsibility for adherence to all organizational policies and
procedures.
• Maintain complete hygiene in his/her work area and adhere to the
HACCP standards.
• Ensure exact collection of perishables, grocery, and meat/fish items as
per the storeroom requisition.
• Ensure timely cleaning and sanitization of all the equipment and tools in
appropriate hygienic manner.
• Recommend daily requirement from store room to the demi chef de
partie.
• Maintain daily log book and registering equipment issues, and any critical
information to be passed on to higher authority or next shit.
• Recommend quality status on all the products in his/her kitchen to demi
chef de partie.
• Provide assistance to all subordinates and peers of various kitchens.
• Promote excellent relations and professionalism amongst all staff in
his/her kitchen and with related departments.
• Coordinate with other food and beverage section,
engineering/housekeeping, etc. Whenever required.
• Ensure appropriate and professional communication with all the team
members at all given times.
• Attend behavioural, vocational, and skill-related training, to enhance
his/her skills and develop multi-functionality.

2.4.8 Job Description of Chef Garde-Manger

The responsibilities of the Chef Garde-Manger, therefore, are many and varied.
This person is responsible to the Chef for the efficient running of the Larder
department and for the co-ordination of the work of its staff; for the training and
discipline of larder staff; for the foodstuffs in the department, some of which may
be stored in refrigerators or even in deep freeze, or preserved by other means.
The Chef Garde-Manger is responsible for keeping a record of such foodstuffs
and a day-by-day record of issues to kitchen or other departments. The Chef
Garde-Manger must study the menus in advance, so as to be able to order meat,
fish, etc., in time for the foodstuff to be prepared and cleaned and made ready for
the kitchen in time for it to be cooked; and also to order all necessary stores for

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the various larder productions such as salads, hors d'oeuvres, sauces, buffets,
etc. The Larder Chef is responsible for the efficient storage of food to avoid
deterioration and wastage and for cleanliness and hygiene in the department, to
avoid any danger of contamination and possible food poisoning. He should also
advise the Head Chef as to what foodstuff items require using to prevent
eventual wastage.

LARDER CONTROL
If this department is to be run efficiently and economically, it is essential that the
Chef Garde-Manger should exercise the strictest possible control over the
foodstuffs received and stored in the department. This involves:
• Checking the quantity and quality of all goods delivered to the larder.
• Ensuring that all foodstuffs are stored at the right temperature and that
they can be easily checked.
• Ensuring that the food is protected from contamination by vermin.
• Ensuring that portion control is rigidly carried out, e.g. a given weight of
fish, poultry, meat, should always produce the required number of
portions.
• Ensuring that food is not overstocked and stocks of food are regularly
turned over.
• Making every effort to maintain the highest possible standard of hygiene
and to prevent any deterioration in the foodstuffs under his control.
• Taking every precaution to discourage pilfering.
• Ensuring (and this is imperative) that a simple daily stock sheet be kept
by each section within the Larder and handed to the Chef Garde-Manger
at the end of each day's business to enable him to write out his order for
the following day.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

Q.1 what are the duties of Executive chef?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..

Q.2 What are the duties of chef garde manger?

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..

Q.3 Write job description of following:

• Pastry chef
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..
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• Commis
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..

• Chef de partie
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..

2.5 Summary
Jobs are subjected to analysis to find out precisely what the duties,
responsibilities, working environment and other requirements of a job are and to
present these in a clear, concise and systematic way. The information gathered
through job analysis can be used for a wide range of personnel and general
management decisions. Job analysis is also a prerequisite to preparing job
descriptions. In fact, job descriptions summarise the essential information
gathered through job analysis. The various concepts and methods discussed in
this Unit are useful in hotel industry as they are in any other.

2.6 Answer To Check Your Progress

Check Your Progress-I

Q.1 Please refer to section 2.3
Q.2 Please refer to section 2.3.1
Q.3 Please refer to section 2.3.2
Check Your Progress-II
Q.1 Please refer to section 2.4.1
Q.2 Please refer to section 2.4.8
Q.3 Please refer to section 2.4.3, 2.4.7, and 2.4.6

2.7 References/Bibliography
1. Dennis L Crap, John Cousins, Food and Beverage Service, Hodder
Education 7th Edition.
2. Bobby George, Sandeep Chartergee, Food and Beverage Service and
Management.
3. P S Bali, Food Production operations, Oxford University Press, New Delhi

2.8 Review Questions

Q. Write job description of following kitchen personnel:
• Executive Chef
• Sous Chef
• Pastry Chef
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• Kitchen Executive
• Chef de Partie
• Demi-Chef de Partie
• Commis
• Chef Garde Manger

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UNIT 03: KITCHEN TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Large Equipments
3.3.1 Ranges
3.3.2 Induction cook-top
3.3.3 Oven
3.3.4 Deep Fat Fryer
3.3.5 Steamers
3.3.6 Hot Cupboards and Bain-Marie
3.3.7 Grills and Salamander
3.3.8 Tilting Skillet
Check Your Progress-I
3.4 Mechanical Equipment
3.4.1 Mixer
3.4.2 Peeler
3.4.3 Miners
3.4.4 Refrigerator
3.4.5 Dishwasher
Check Your Progress-II
3.5 Utensils and small equipments
3.5.1 Pots
3.5.2 Pans
3.5.3 Measuring Equipments
3.5.4 Hand Tools
3.5.5 Sinks
3.5.6 Tables
3.6 Summary
3.7 Answer to check your progress
3.8 References/Bibliography
3.9 Terminal Questions

3.1 Objectives
After reading this unit the learner will be able to understand the uses of:
• Large Equipments used in kitchen
• Mechanical Equipment used in kitchen
• Utensils and small equipments used in kitchen
3.2 Introduction
Kitchen equipment is expansive and to justify the expanse it is essential that
maximum use is made of it. This can only be done if the equipment works
efficiently and this depends upon the care and maintenance. The type of fuel
used is an important factor. Though solid fuel and oil both have their place under
certain circumstance, but for professional cookery the choice lies between
electricity and gas. In India soft coke is being in small establishments sometimes.
Firewood is used in Tandoor. The routine use, care and cleaning of all items of

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equipment are important and this should be appreciated and understood. When
selecting equipment, capacity, trade name, good quality simple design and easy
to clean should be the criteria. The purpose and price is also considered.

Kitchen equipment may be divided into following categories:

1. Large equipment: - Ranges, Steamers, Boiling pan, Fish fryers, Sinks and
Tables etc.
2. Mechanical Equipment: - Peeler, Mincers, Mixers, Refrigerator,
Dishwasher.
3. Utensils and small equipments:- Pots, Pans, Whisks, Spoons etc.

3.3 Large Equipments

A vast array of specialized equipment is available for today's kitchens. It would
take a large book, not just a short chapter, to describe all of the many items you
will encounter in your career items such as pasta machines, crêpe machines,
burger formers, breading machines, cookie droppers, beverage machines, Greek
gyro broilers, doughnut glazers, conveyor fryers, and so on. In this technological
age, nearly every year brings new tools to simplify various tasks. In this section
we will learn about some of the large equipments used in kitchen.

3.3.1 Ranges
A large variety of stove is available fired
by gas, electricity, solid fuel or oil. Solid
tops should be washed clean, or wiped
clean with a cleaning pad. When cool,
the stove is more thoroughly cleaned by
washing and using an abrasive such as
emery paper. After any kind of cleaning,
a solid top should always be lightly
greased. On the open type of stove all
the bars and racks should be removed,
immersed in hot water with detergent,
scrubbed clean, dried and put back in the
place on the stove. All gas jets should
then be lit to check that none are
blocked. All enamel parts of the stove should be cleaned while warm with hot
detergent solution, rinsed and dried. The inside of ovens and oven racks should
be cleaned while slightly warm, using detergent solution and mild abrasive. In
cases of extreme dirt or grease being stuck on to the stove or oven, a caustic
jelly may be used, but thorough rinsing must take place afterwards. Oven doors
should not be slammed as this is liable to cause damage. The unnecessary
lighting or the lighting of ovens too early can cause wastage of fuel, which is a
waste of money.

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3.3.2 Induction Cook-Top
The top of an induction unit does not
become hot. Rather, it works by
magnetically agitating the molecules in
steel or iron cookware so the cookware
becomes hot. As a result, much less
energy is used and the kitchen stays
cooler, because only the pots and pans
and their contents become hot. There are no hot surfaces or open flames. Also,
no warm-up is required. The top can be turned instantly on or off. Small, easily
portable induction burners are available. These are useful for off-premise
catering operations, for buffet service, and even for tableside heating and
cooking. The disadvantage of this cook-top is that only iron or steel pots can be
used. Traditional aluminium or copper cookware will not work. Some
manufacturers of cookware have responded to the new demand by producing
pots and pans made of aluminum sandwiched between layers of stainless steel.
In this way, the good heat-conducting qualities of aluminium are preserved as
well as adapted to this new technology.

3.3.3 Oven
The oven and the range top are the two
workhorses of the traditional kitchen, which is
why they are so often found in the same unit.
Ovens are enclosed spaces in which food is
heated, usually by hot air or, in some newer
kinds of ovens, by microwaves or infrared
radiation. In addition to roasting and baking,
ovens can do many of the jobs normally done
on the range top. Many foods can be
simmered, stewed, braised, or poached in the
oven, freeing the range top and the chef's
attention for other tasks. There are many kinds of ovens beyond those discussed
here, but they are often for specialty or high volume uses. These include
conveyor ovens, which carry foods through the oven on a steel conveyor belt;
holding ovens or warmers, which are designed to hold many types of foods at
serving temperatures for extended periods without
drying out or overcooking (this category includes
ovens that also cook the food, then automatically
switch to holding temperature); and high-volume roll-in
ovens, with large doors into which one can roll carts
loaded with trays of food.

Conventional Ovens: Conventional ovens operate

simply by heating air in an enclosed space. The most
common ovens are part of the range unit, although
separate oven units or ovens as part of a broiler unit
are also available. Stack ovens are units that consist of
individual shelves or decks arranged one above the

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other. Pans are placed directly on the oven deck rather than on wire shelves.
Temperatures are adjustable for each deck.

Convection Ovens: Convection ovens contain fans that circulate the air and
distribute the heat rapidly throughout the interior. Because of the forced air, foods
cook more quickly at lower temperatures. Also, shelves can be placed closer
together than in conventional ovens without blocking the heat flow.

3.3.4 Deep Fat Fryer

These are among the items of equipment that
are commonly used in catering establishments.
An unskilled or careless worker can cause
money to be lost by food or fat being spoilt
through misuse of the friture. Modern fryers are
heated by gas or electricity. Most incorporate a
thermostatic control in order to save fuel and
prevent oven heating. A fairly recent
development is the "cool zone". This is where
the heating elements are at the sides of the fire
but the lower part is kept at a reduced
temperature. This stops particles that may
falloff the food being fried from dropping to the
bottom of the friture, burning and so spoiling
other foods cooked.
This form of heating also saves fat; Frying
baskets can also be used. Deep fat fryers
should be cleaned daily after use by:

 Turning off the heat and allowing the fat to cool.

 Draining off and straining the fat.
 Closing the stopcock, filling the fryer with hot water containing detergent
and boiling for 10-15 minutes.
 Draining off the detergent water, refilling with clean water plus vinegar
and water, and re-boiling for 10-15 minutes.
 Draining off the water, drying the fryer, closing the stopcock and refill with
clean fat.

Do's and Don'ts : The following points relate to the operation of the equipment.
 When filling kettles with solid fats, set the thermostat at 250°F (120°C)
until the fat has melted enough to cover the heating elements.
 Keep the kettles filled to the fill line.
 Make sure the drain valve is shut before adding fat to the empty kettle.
 Check the accuracy of the thermostat regularly by reading the fat
temperature with a thermometer.

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3.3.5 STEAMERS
Steaming ovens that work from a main steam supply need little maintenance.
The door controls should be greased
occasionally. The steamer trays and
runners should be washed in hot
detergent water. This type of equipment
is usually fitted with a gauge which
registers steam pressure (1/2 lb. per
square inch), also an overflow valve
which gives a warning whistle, if the
pressure reaches danger point. These
should be periodically checked by a
qualified engineer to ensure that they are
working correctly. A constant supply of
water should be maintained in the
generating tank. Steamer trays and the
inside of the steamer should be cleaned
with detergent water and rinsed. Many
types are available in different metals
and various sizes (10, 15, 20 and 40
liters or more capacity). They may be heated by gas, electricity or steam from the
T

main supply. As they are used for cooking large quantities of food, it is Important
that they do not allow the food to burn. It is for this reason that the steam-jacket
type (double walled) boiler is most suitable. Many of these boilers are fitted with a
tilting device to facilitate the emptying of the contents. After use, the pan and lid
should be thoroughly washed with a mild detergent solution and then rinsed well.
Any moving parts should be greased, occasionally and checked to see that they
are in good working order. If gas fired, the gas jets and pilot should be inspected
to ensure correct working. If a pressure gauge and safety valve are fitted, these
should be checked to see that they are working correctly.

3.3.6 Hot Cupboards and Bain-Marie

Hot cupboards (commonly referred to in the trade as the hot plates) are used for
heating plates and serving dishes and for keeping food hot. Care should be taken
to see that the amount of heat fed into the hot cupboards and a thermostat is
necessary in maintaining this. Hot cupboards may be heated by gas, electricity or
steam. The doors should slide easily and essential greasing may be necessary.
The tops of most cupboards are used as serving counters and should be heated
to a higher temperature than the inside. These tops are usually made of stainless
steel and should be cleaned thoroughly after each service. (Method as for
cleaning stainless steel) Bain-marie in this case are open walls of water used for
keeping foods hot and are available in many designs, some of which are
incorporated into the hot cupboards, some in serving counters, and there is a
type which is fitted at the end of the cooking range. They may be heated by
steam, gas or electricity, and sufficient heat to boil the water in the bain-marie
should be available. Care should be taken to see that a bain-marie is never
allowed to burn dry when the heat is turned on. After use, the heat must be
turned off, and the bain-marie cleaned thoroughly inside and out side with

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detergent water, rinsed and dried. And drain off tap should be than checked for
any blockage and then closed.

3.3.7 Grills and Salamander

The salamander, heated from
above, probably causes more
wastage of fuel than any other item
of kitchen equipment, through
being allowed to burn
unnecessarily for long unused
periods Most salamanders have
more than one set of heating
element or jets, and it is not always
necessary to have them all turned
on. Salamanders are heated by
gas or electricity or a combination
of the two. Bars and draining trays
should be cleaned regularly with
hot water containing grease solvent
such as soda. After rinsing
thoroughly they should be replaced
and the salamander lit for a few
minuets to dry the bars. For an
UNDER FRIED GRILL to work
effectively it must be capable of
cooking food quickly and it should
reach a high temperature (within 15-20 minutes) after lighting and the heat
should be turned off immediately after use. When the bars are cool, they should
be removed and-washed in hot water containing a grease solvent, thoroughly
rinsed and dried, and replaced upon the grill. Care should be taken with the fire-
bricks if they are used for lining the grill as they are easily broken.

CONTACT GRILLS
These are sometimes referred to as a double-sided infra-grills, having two heated
surfaces facing each other. These grills are electrically heated and are capable of
cooking certain foods very quickly. The electricity should be turned off after use.
When the grill is cool, the cooking surface should be cleaned with a stiff wire-
brush. The surfaces are then wiped clean With a damp cloth and lightly oiled to
prevent rusting.

3.3.8 Tilting Skillet

The tilting skillet, also known as the tilting brazier and tilting fry pan, is a versatile
and efficient piece of equipment. It can be used as a griddle, fry pan, brazier,
stew-pot, stockpot, steamer, and bain-marie or steam table. The tilting skillet is a
large, shallow, flat bottomed pot. To look at it another way, it is a griddle with
sides 6 inches (24 cm) high, plus a cover. It has a tilting mechanism that enables
liquids to be poured out of it. Power may be gas or electric. Clean the skillet

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immediately after each use, before food has time to dry on. Add water, turn on
the skillet to heat it, and scrub thoroughly.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

Q.1 Write short note on kitchen ranges.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………..……………………..
Q.2 What are the uses of griller?
……………………………………………………………………………………
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Q.3 Which equipment is used for bulk frying?
……………………………………………………………………………………
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Q.4 What are the different types of Oven?
……………………………………………………………………………………
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Q.5 Describe tilting skillet.
……………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………

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3.4 Mechanical Equipment
We use various mechanical equipments in kitchen like mixers, food processors,
cutters, mincing machines, grinders etc. in this section we will study about some
of the mechanical equipments used in modern hotel kitchens.

3.4.1 Mixer
Vertical mixers are important and versatile tools for many
kinds of food mixing and processing jobs, both in the
bakeshop and in the kitchen. Bench-model mixers range in
capacity from 5 to 20 quarts (5 to 20 L). Floor models are
available as large as 140 quarts (133 L). Adaptor rings
enable several bowl sizes to be used on one machine. Most
mixers have three operating speeds.

AGITATOR ATTACHMENTS
There are three main mixing attachments, plus some specialized ones. The
paddle is a flat blade used for general mixing. The wire whip is used for such
tasks as beating cream and eggs and making mayonnaise. The dough arm is
used for mixing and kneading yeast doughs.

Whisker Creamer Dough kneader

3.4.2 Peeler
Use for peeling the raw potato, with the help of special emery lining inside the
feeder, Peeler is designed aesthetically and is used to peel the skin of potatoes
in faster way. Potato peeler leads to minimum peel loss and for better peeling
and continuous flow of water in the drum helps to carry away the waste from
drainage pipe. The drum storage capacity ranges from 6 to 8 kg potatoes.

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Care while using peeling machines:
 Potatoes should be free of earth and
stones before loading into the
machine, otherwise damage to the
machine will result.
 Before any potatoes are loaded, the
water spray should be turned on and
the abrasive plates set in motion.
 The interior should be cleaned daily
and the abrasive plate removed to
ensure that small particles are not
lodged below.
 The- peel trap should be emptied as
frequently as required.
 The waste outlet should be kept free
from obstructions.

3.4.3 Mincers
A meat grinder or meat mincer is a
kitchen appliance for grinding, fine
mincing or mixing raw or cooked meat,
fish, vegetables or similar food. It
replaces tools like the mincing knife, for
example, which has been used to
produce minced meat, filling etc. The
producer puts the minced food into a
funnel, which is placed on the top of the
grinder. From there the material goes on
a horizontal screw conveyor. This screw conveyor that can be powered by a
hand wheel or an electric motor squashes and partially mixes the food. At the
end of the screw conveyor there is a knife installed directly in front of the fixed
hole plate. At this opening the minced meat comes out of the machine. The
fineness of the meat depends on the size of the holes of the plate. The meat
grinder was invented by Karl Drais in the 19th century. By changing the hole
plate it is also possible to produce breadcrumbs or fill sausage casing. After the
drop from the retainer, it is possible to change the hole plate. By removing the
fixing screw the grinder can be disassembled completely for cleaning. Besides
the domestic manually or motor operated grinders, there are also grinders for
butchery (table- or shop-grinders for example) and for the food industry. Some
large machines are able to produce several tons per hour.

3.4.4 Refrigerator
In order to maintain a refrigerator at peak efficiency, the following points should
be observed:
 Defrost weekly. The control should be turned to defrost, the racks should
be emptied and racks and interior surfaces washed, rinsed and dried. If
the refrigerator is not defrosted regularly, excess frost accumulates on the

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 Cooling system, acts as an
insulator and causes the
refrigerator motor to work
longer than is necessary,
thus shortening the life of the
components.
 The door or doors should be
kept closed as much as
possible. If too much warm
air is allowed to enter the
refrigerator plant, it
overworks and excess frost
can accumulate on the
cooling system.
 Food should be stored sensibly and in such a way that the cold air can
circulate all around. Excessive packing of food into a refrigerator should
be avoided.
 A qualified engineer should be called in at the first sign of any defect in
the machinery operating a refrigerator.

3.4.5 Dishwasher
A dishwasher is a mechanical device for cleaning dishes and eating utensils.
Dishwashers can be found in
restaurants and private homes.
Unlike manual dishwashing,
which relies largely on physical
scrubbing to remove soiling,
the mechanical dishwasher
cleans by spraying hot water,
typically between 55 to 75 °C
(130 to 170 °F) at the dishes,
with lower temperatures used
for delicate items. A mix of
water and detergent is used for
cleaning purposes, followed by
clean water to remove the
detergent residue. Some dishwashers have multiple wash and rinse periods
within the complete cycle. In some dishwashers, a rinsing aid (also called rinse
aid) can be added to the rinse cycle to improve drying and avoid water spots
remaining on dry items. Large heavy-duty dishwashers are available for use in
commercial establishments (e.g. hotels, restaurants) where a large number of
dishes must be cleaned. Unlike a home dishwasher, commercial units typically
are not multi-level, and only wash a single tray of dishes per cycle. This is not an
inconvenience since trays are batch-processed consecutively one after the other.
They can wash a rack of dishes or a rack of 25 glasses in just approximately one
minute.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

Q.1 Write short note on mincing machine.

……………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..………………………………………….
Q.2 What are the uses of Peeler?
……………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..………………………………………….

Q.3 Which equipment is used for cold storing food?

……………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………
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Q.4 Describe dish washer.

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……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..………………………………………….

3.5 Utensils and Small Equipments

Apart from large and mechanical equipments various utensils, small equipments
and hand tools are used in kitchen some of them are described in this section.

3.5.1 Pots

Stockpot: A large, deep, straight-sided pot for preparing stocks and simmering
large quantities of liquids. Stockpots with spigots allow liquid to be drained off
without disturbing the solid contents or lifting the pot. Sizes: 8-200 quarts (liters).

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Saucepot: A round pot of medium depth. Similar to
a stockpot but shallower, making stirring or mixing
easier. Used for soups, sauces, and other liquids.
Sizes: 6-60 quarts (liters).
Brazier
A round, broad, shallow, heavy-duty pot with
straight sides. Also called a rondeau. Used for
browning, braising, and stewing meats. Sizes: 11-
30 quarts (liters).

3.5.2 Pans
Saucepan: Similar to a small, shallow, light
saucepot, but with one long handle instead of two loop
handles. May have straight or slanted sides. Used for
general range-top cooking. Sizes: 11 to15 quarts
(liters).

Sauté pan, straight-sided: Also called a sautoir.

Similar to a shallow, straight-sided saucepan, but
heavier. Used for browning, sautéing, and frying.
Because of its broad surface area, the sauté pan is
used for cooking sauces and other liquids when rapid
reduction is required. Sizes: 21to25 inches (65-130
mm) deep; 6-16 inches (160-400 mm) in diameter.

Sauté pan, slope-sided: Also called a sauteuse.

Used for general sautéing and frying of meats, fish,
vegetables, and eggs. The sloping sides allow the cook to flip and toss items
without using a spatula, and they make it easier to get at the food when a spatula
is used. Sizes: 6-14 inches (160-360 mm) top diameter.

Cast-iron skillet: Very heavy, thick-bottomed fry pan. Used for pan-frying when
steady, even heat is desired.

Double boiler: A pot with two sections. The lower section, similar to a stockpot,
holds boiling water. The upper section holds foods that must be cooked at low
temperatures and cannot be cooked over direct heat. Size of top section: 4-36
quarts (liters).

3.5.3 Measuring Equipments

Scales. Most recipe ingredients are measured by weight, so accurate scales are
important. Portion scales are used for measuring ingredients as well as for
portioning products for service. Traditional portion scales are spring-operated
and usually have a dial to indicate weight. More accurate digital scales are
electrically operated and provide a digital readout.

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Volume measures used for liquids have lips for easy
pouring. Sizes are pints, quarts, half-gallons, and gallons.
Each size is marked off into fourths by ridges on the sides.
Measuring cups are available in 1-, 1/2-, 1/3-, and 1/4-
cup sizes. They can be used for both liquid and dry
measures. Measuring spoons are used for measuring very
small volumes: 1 tablespoon, 1 teaspoon, 1/2 teaspoon,
and 1/4 teaspoon. They are used most often for spices and
seasonings. Ladles are used for measuring and portioning
liquids. The size, in ounces, is stamped on the handle.
Scoops come in standard sizes and have a lever for
mechanical release. They are used for portioning soft solid
foods. The number of the scoop indicates the number of
level scoopfuls per quart. In actual use, a rounded scoopful is often more
practical than a level scoopful, so exact
weights will vary.

Thermometers measure temperature. There

are many kinds for many purposes.
 A meat thermometer indicates internal
temperature of meats. It is inserted
before cooking and left in the product
during cooking.
 An instant-read thermometer gives
readings within a few seconds of being
inserted in a food product. It reads
from 0°F to 220°F. Many chefs carry
these in their jacket pocket like a pen,
ready whenever needed. Instant-read
thermometers must not be left in meats
during roasting, or they will be
damaged.
 Fat thermometers and candy
thermometers test temperatures of
frying fats and sugar syrups. They read
up to 400°F.
 Special thermometers are used to test
the accuracy of oven, refrigerator, and
freezer thermostats.

3.5.4 Hand Tools

Chef's knives and other knives have a number
of parts, and you should be familiar with their
names. These parts are illustrated in the
diagram. The spine is the back of the blade. It
is the edge opposite the cutting edge. The tip
is the pointed end of the blade, while the heel
is the back end of the blade closest to the
handle. On some knives, the blade has a

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raised part called a bolster at the
heel end. The bolster is a sort of
guard that helps protect the hand
from slips and also helps balance
the weight of the knife. The tang
is the portion of the metal blade
inside the handle. The highest-
quality, most durable knives have
a full tang, which means the tang
runs the full length of the handle.
On knives with traditional wood
handles, rivets hold the handle to the tang. The rivets should be perfectly smooth
and flush with the handle. Composite molded handles are bonded to the tang
without rivets.

VARIOUS KNIVES AND THEIR USES

French knife or chef's knife: Most frequently used knife in the kitchen, for
general-purpose chopping, slicing, dicing, and so on. The blade is wide at the
heel and tapers to a point. Blade length of 10 inches (260 mm) is most popular
for general work. Larger knives are for heavy cutting and chopping. Smaller
blades are for more delicate work. This is your most important tool, so you must
learn to handle it and care for it well.

Santoku knife or Japanese cook's knife: A wide-bladed knife that is becoming

increasingly popular as a substitute for the traditional chef's knife. Blades are
usually 5 inches (13 cm) or 7 inches (18 cm) long.

Utility knife or salad knife: A narrow, pointed knife 6-8 inches (160-200 mm)
long. Used mostly for pantry work, cutting and preparing lettuce, fruits, and so on.
Also useful for carving roast chicken and duck.

Paring knife: A small pointed blade 2-4 inches (50-100 mm) long. Used for
trimming and paring vegetables and fruits.

Boning knife: A thin, pointed blade about 6 inches (160 mm) long. Used for
boning raw meats and poultry. Stiff blades are used for heavier work. Flexible
blades are used for lighter work and for filleting fish.

Rubber spatula or scraper: A broad, flexible rubber or plastic tip on a long

handle. Used to scrape bowls and pans. Also used for folding in egg foams and
whipped cream.

Pie server: A wedge-shaped offset spatula. Used for lifting pie wedges from pan.

Bench scraper or dough knife: A broad, stiff piece of metal with a wooden
handle on one edge. Used to cut pieces of dough and to scrape workbenches.

Pastry wheel or wheel knife: A round, rotating blade on a handle. Used for
cutting rolled-out doughs and pastry and baked pizza.

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Spoons: slotted, perforated, and solid: Large stainless-steel spoons that hold
about 3 ounces (90 mL). Used for stirring, mixing, and serving. Slotted and
perforated spoons are used when liquid must be drained from solids.

China cap: A cone-shaped strainer. Used for straining stocks, soups, sauces,
and other liquids. Pointed shape allows the cook to drain liquids through a
relatively small opening.

Fine china cap or chinois (shee-nwah): A china cap with very fine mesh. Used
when great clarity or smoothness is required in a liquid.

Strainer: A round-bottomed, cup-shaped tool made of screentype mesh or

perforated metal. Used for straining pasta, vegetables, and so on.

Drum sieve or Tamis: A screen-type mesh supported in a round metal frame.

Used for sifting flour and other dry ingredients and for puréeing soft foods.

Pastry bag and tubes: Cone-shaped cloths or plastic bags with an open end
that can be fitted with metal tubes or tips of various shapes and sizes. Used for
shaping and decorating with items such as cake icing, whipped cream, duchesse
potatoes, and soft dough. Pastry brush: Used to brush items with egg wash,
glaze, etc.

Can opener: Heavy-duty can openers are mounted on the edge of the
workbench. They must be carefully cleaned and sanitized every day to prevent
contamination of foods. Replace worn blades, which can leave metal shavings in
the food.

3.5.5 Sinks
Different materials are used
for sinks according to the
purpose for which they are
intended:
 Heavy galvanized
iron for heavy pot
wash.
 Teak or other hard
wood for glass or
china wash. (If hard
wood sinks are left
unused for long
periods of time, they
should be filled with
cold water to prevent shrinkage of the timber.)
 Stainless steel for general purposes.
 Glazed earthenware for general light purposes. Sinks, drainers, waste
and overflow outlets should be cleaned with a suitable abrasive power
cleaner, thoroughly rinsed with plenty of clean water and left to dry.

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3.5.6 Tables
Wooden tables should be
scrubbed clean with hot soda
water, rinsed and wiped dry as
soon as possible to prevent
warping. Formica or Stainless
steel topped tables should be
washed with hot detergent
water, rinsed with hot water
and dried. Marble Slabs should
be scrubbed with hot water and
rinsed. All excess moisture
should be removed with a dry
cloth. No cutting or chopping
should be allowed on table-
tops; chopping boards must be
used. Hot pans must not be
placed upon tables; triangles
must be used to protect the table-tops. The legs and racks or shelves of tables
are cleaned with hot detergent water and then dried. Wooden table legs require
scrubbing.

3.6 Summary
Thorough knowledge of equipment is essential for success in the kitchen. Few
food-service operations depend on nothing more than a range and an oven, an
assortment of pots and pans, and knives and other hand tools. Modern
technology continues to develop more and more specialized and technically
advanced tools to reduce kitchen labor. Much of this equipment is so complex or
so sophisticated that only firsthand instruction and practice will teach you how to
operate it effectively and safely. Other items, especially hand tools, are simple
and need no explanation but require much practice to develop good manual
skills. A vast array of specialized equipment is available for today's kitchens. It
would take a large book, not just a short chapter, to describe all of the many
items you will encounter in your careeritems such as pasta machines, crêpe
machines, burger formers, breading machines, cookie droppers, beverage
machines, Greek gyro broilers, doughnut glazers, conveyor fryers, and so on. In
this technological age, nearly every year brings new tools to simplify various
tasks.

3.7 Answer to Check Your Progress

Check Your Progress-I
Q.1 Please refer section 3.3.1
Q.2 Please refer section 3.3.7
Q.3 Please refer section 3.3.4
Q.4 Please refer section 3.3.3
Q.5 Please refer section 3.3.8

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Check Your Progress-II
Q.1 Please refer section 3.4.3
Q.2 Please refer section 3.4.2
Q.3 Please refer section 3.4.4
Q.4 Please refer section 3.4.5

3.8 References/Bibliography
1. K Arora, Theory of Cookery, Franc Bro & Co. New Delhi
2. P S Bali, Food Production Operations, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi
3. Wayne Gisslen, Professional cooking, John Wiley & Sons

3.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Q.1 Write short notes on:
 Large equipments used in kitchen
 Mechanical Equipment used in kitchen
 Utensils and small equipments used in kitchen

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UNIT 04: FRENCH CLASSICAL MENU,

ACCOMPANIMENTS AND GARNISHES

Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Origin of Menu
Check your Progress-I
4.4 French Classical Menu Sequence
4.4.1 Hors-d'oeuves
4.4.2 Potages (Soups)
4.4.3 Oeufs (Egg Dish)
4.4.4 Faraineux (Pasta and Rice)
4.4.5 Poisson (Fish)
4.4.6 Entrée (Main Course)
4.4.7 Sorbet (Rest Course)
4.4.8 Relevé
4.4.9 Rôti (Roast)
4.4.10 Légumes (Vegetables)
4.4.11 Salade (Salad)
4.4.12 Buffet Froid (Cold Buffet)
4.4.13 Formage (Cheese)
4.4.14 Entremets (Sweets)
4.4.15 Savoureux (Savoury)
4.4.16 Dessert (Fruits)
4.4.17 Beverages (Tea/Café)
Check your Progress-II
4.5 Accompaniments
4.6 Garnishes
Check your Progress-III
4.7 Summary
4.8 Answer to check your progress
4.9 References/Bibliography
4.10 Terminal Questions

4.1 Objectives
After reading this unit the learner will:
• Have knowledge about the French Classical Menu.
• Have knowledge about the various dishes served in the French Classical
Menu.
• Know about various accompaniments ad garnishes

4.2 Introduction
The classical French Menu was originated from France and contains seventeen
courses served in classical format or order of dishes. This format is used to lay
out menus as well as to indicate the order of the various courses. The actual
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number of courses on a menu and dishes within each course depend on the size
and class of the establishment, the structure of the French, Classical Menu is
followed even for modern shorter menus. Nowadays a full French Classical Menu
is rarely served except as special dinner or banquet menu.

In this unit you will read about the French Classical Menu, the various kinds of
dishes in each course. The general procedure is to have 4 to 5 courses for lunch
and 5 to 6 courses for dinner altogether making up the French Classical Menu,
each course having a wide choice. These form of menu shows the true art of
menu compilation, where balance must be perfect throughout the courses
especially with regard to nutritional value, method of cooking garnishing etc.

After reading this unit you will understand the usefulness of the various courses
and the dishes that goes in that particular course and as the time went the
courses were also shortened due to lack of time and appetite. The French
Classical Menu and the French terms were the backbone of the culinary industry.

4.3 Origin of Menu

The word "menu," like much of the terminology of cuisine, is French in origin. It
ultimately derives from Latin "minutus," something made small; in French it came
to be applied to a detailed list or résumé of any kind. The original menus that
offered consumers choices were prepared on a small chalkboard, in French a
carte; so foods chosen from a bill of fare are described as "à la carte," "according
to the board." It is also known as bill of fare. The word "menu" dates back to the
eighteenth century, although the custom of making a list of courses for a meal is
much older. The bill of fare was originally very large and was placed at the end of
the table for everyone to read. As time progressed the menu became smaller in
size and number of copies was made which allowed individuals to read their own
copies.

The original European restaurants did not have menus in the modern sense;
these table d'hôte establishments served dishes that were chosen by the chef or
proprietors, and those who arrived ate what the house was serving that day, as in
contemporary banquets or buffets. In Europe, the contemporary menu first
appeared in the second half of the eighteenth century. Here, instead of eating
what was being served from a common table, restaurants allowed diners to
choose from a list of unseen dishes, which were produced to order according to
the customer's choice. A table d'hôte establishment charged its customers a
fixed price; the menu allowed customers to spend as much or as little money as
they chose.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

Q.1 Define menu?
……………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….……………………………..

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Q.2 What is the English equivalent for French term 'menu'?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….……………………………..

4.4 French Classical Menu

Menu is virtually a list of dishes planned for production in a catering operation
and may include full meals or snacks

TYPES OF MENUS
1. A la' Carte Menu: It is basically a choice menu and generally offers choices of
dishes or items to customers in a sequence i.e., from starters to desserts. Each
dish is priced separately so that a choice can be made according to the
customer's appetite, mood and pocket.

Figure 4.1 Sample A la' Carte Menu

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2. Table d'hote Menu: It is referred as a set menu, in which a number of dishes
are planned and offered at a set price, e.g. Thali meals on railways, tray meals
on airlines, etc.

Figure 4.2 Sample Table d'hote Menu

The sequence of the Classical French Menu is as follows:

1. Horsd' Oeuvres : Appetiser

2. Potage : Soup
3. Oeuf : Egg
4. Farineux : Pasta and Rice
5. Poisson : Fish
6. Entrée : First meat course
7. Sorbet : Rest course
8. Releve : Main meat course
9. Rôast or Rôti : Roasted game/poultry
10. Légumes :Vegetables

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11. Salade : Salad
12. Buffet Froid : Cold Buffet
13. Fromage : Cheese
14. Entremet : Sweet course
15. Savoureux : Savoury
16. Dessert : Fruits (fresh or dry)
17. Café/Tea : Tea or Coffee

The French Classical Menu offers sweeten courses to the guest. Nowadays it is
common for many establishments to offer a shorter version of the classical menu
which is limited to fourteen/eleven courses but even in this shorter version the
structure of the original menu is followed as far as far as succession of courses is
concerned. It is however quite common for some establishments to offer
savourex course before the entremets (sweet) course.

4.4.1 Hors-D'oeuves
Hors-d'oeuvre literally "apart from the main work", also known as appetizers,
starters, or the first courses, are food items served before the main courses of a
meal. The French (singular and plural) is hors d'oeuvre; in English, the oe
ligature is usually replaced by the digraph "oe" with the plural often written as
"hors d'oeuvres" and pronounced. There are several related terms, such as a
one-bite appetizer, as an amuse-bouche. Some of the common served starters
are as under:

CAVIAR
Sturgeon's eggs that have been salted and allowed to mature is known as
Caviar. Charles Ritz formally launched caviar by putting it on the menu of his
hotel. The sturgeon lives in the sea but
returns in winter to small streams to
lay its eggs. The eggs constitute about
10% female's body weight. After they
have been removed they are washed,
sieved, put into brine, drained and
finally packed into tins. There are two
sorts of caviar: caviar in grains and
pressed caviar.

Types of caviar
Sold fresh and sometimes
pasteurized, there are three types,
differentiated by size, colour, and
species of sturgeon.

Beluga: Most expensive and produced by the largest species. Eggs dark grey in
colour, firm, heavy and well separated. If they burst caviar becomes heavy.
Ossetra: Smaller and more even grains. Golden yellow to brown and quite oily.
Sevruga: Produced by small sturgeons, light to dark grey eggs. This is the
cheapest type.

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Pressed caviar: This is made it from the ripest eggs taken towards the end of
the fishing season which are then compressed. About 5k.g. fresh caviar are
needed to make 1 kg pressed caviar. It has a strong and oily taste and is
sometimes considered too salty. Caviar is semi- conserve and perishables. It
should be kept between -20 C to +40 C. It should be served cold but not frozen,
preferably on crushed ice: take the tin out of the fridge an hour before serving.
Lightly buttered toasts make an ideal accompaniment. Caviar has a calorific
value of 140 calories per 100 gm. It is rich in phosphorous and a good source of
protein.

FOIE GRAS
Goose liver which is enlarged
by methodically fattening the
bird. Each liver weighs 700-
900 Gms for geese & 300-
400 Gms. for ducks. Foie
gras is available in four forms

Raw Foie gras (Foie gras

cru):Increasingly in demand
is sold during the holiday
season at the end of the
year. It must be well lobed,
smooth & round, not to large.
Its preparation must be
meticulous. Fresh Foie gras (Foie gras frais):Can be purchased cooked from a
delicatessen, usually in pots. It will keep at the most for a week covered in the
refrigerator. Semi-cooked pasteurized Foie gras (Foie gras mi-cuit pasteurizes):
In cans it will keep for 3 months in the refrigerator once opened. It retains the
taste of fresh Foie gras quite well. The best quality must have a perfect
consistency, aroma & flavour. Preserved Foie Gras (Foie Gras de conserve): In
jars is the most traditional preparation. Sterilized and persevered in its own fat, it
will keep for years in a cool, dark, dry place and improves like wine.

Preparation of Raw Foie Gras:

Carefully remove all the tubes and skins with the point of a thin bladed knife.
• Make an incision in each lobe and pull on the vein using a knife, Season
the lobes with salt and pepper.
• Close each lobe wrapping it tightly in muslin and refrigerate it overnight.
• Next day place the liver in terrine, cover it with goose fat and poach it.
• When it is cooked, cool and drains the liver on the wire cooling tray and
refrigerate for 24 hrs.
• Serve the Foie gras cold.
The taste of liver can be enhanced by marinating it for 48 hrs in port mixed
with 10% Armagnac

CANAPÉS
A slice of bread cut into various shapes and garnished. Cold canapés are served
at buffets or lunches or with cocktails or aperitifs; hot canapés are served as
entrees or used as foundations for various dishes. When served with game birds,
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canapés are generally fried in butter and spread with a gratin forcemeat, a puree
made of the internal organs of the bird (cooked undrawn) or Foie gras.

Recipes
Preparation of canapés (preparation des
canapés) unlike sandwiches, which
consist of 2 slices of bread with a filling in
the middle, canapés are made with a
single slice of bread; they may be
rectangular, round, or triangular in shape
and the bread can also be lightly toasted.
Cold canapés are usually made from white
bread (slightly stale, so that it does not
crumble, and with the crust removed) or
rye bread; hot canapés are made from
white or whole meal bread. Cold canapés
should be served as soon as possible after preparation so they do not dry out.
They may be stored in a cool place covered with a cloth (a damp cloth if kept in a
hot or dry place). There is a wide variety of garnishes for canapés, including all
the garnishes indicated for croutes as well as various flavoured butters, spinach
mixed with béchamel sauce and Parmesan (á la Florentine), ham, scrambled
eggs with cheese, sardines (fresh sardine fillets or puree of sardines in oil hard
boiled (hard cooked) egg and English mustard etc.

COLD CANAPÉS
Canapés with asparagus (canapés aux asperges) spread some thickened
mayonnaise on rectangular slices of bread. Arrange very small asparagus tips on
each canapé and 'tie' each bunch with a thin strip of green or red sweet pepper.

Canapés with smoked salmon (canapés au saumon fumé) Butter some slices
of bread and garnish with slices of smoked salmon cut to the exact size of the
bread. Garnish each canapé with half a slice of fluted lemon.

HOT CANAPÉS
Canapés with cheese (canapés au fromage) Butter some slices of bread. Top
with a thick layer of Gruyere cheese either grated or cut into very thin strips.
Brown in a hot oven. The canapés may be served with seasoned tomato sauce.
Alternatively, grated Gruyere can be added to a wellreduced béchamel sauce,
seasoned with cayenne, and spread over the slices of bread, which are then
sprinkled with grated Gruyere or small cubes of Gruyere and browned in a very
hot oven.

Canapés with mushrooms (canapés aux champignons) prepare a dry well-

browned duxelles of mushrooms and add béchamel sauce (1 part to 3 parts
duxelles). Spread this on lightly toasted slices of bread and sprinkle with fresh
breadcrumbs and a sprinkle with fresh breadcrumbs and a little melted butter.
Brown in a very hot oven.

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SALAD
A dish of raw or cold cooked foods, usually dressed or seasoned, served as an
horsd'oeuvres.

Salads are classified into three main categories:

Green salads : Consists of green-leaved raw vegetables, such as lettuce,
endive, chicory, watercress, dandelion leaves, arugula, etc. These salads which
are served as horsd'oeuvres are usually dressed with vinaigrette which can be
flavoured and mixed with croutons, strips of bacon, cheese, shallots, garlic, etc.

Plain salads: Consists of basic ingredient, either raw or cooked, but always
served cold with a cold dressing (mayonnaise, vinaigrette, mustard, cheese
dressing etc) the basic ingredient can be vegetable, meat or fish.

Mixed salads: Are more elaborate dishes combining various ingredients of

contrasting flavours, textures and colours. Mixed salads can include exotic
ingredients, such as truffle, foie gras, lobsters, etc. the accompanying dressing
should blend with the flavour of the ingredients. Mixed salads are served as
starters, but can also accompany roast meats.

Alienor Salad
(salade alienor): Mix
2 tablespoons grated
horseradish and
enough fresh cream to
give a smooth sauce
with a strong flavour.
Trim 2 smoked trout
and remove the fillets,
taking out all the
bones. Cover 4 plates
with lettuce. Cut a
large stoned (pitted)
avocado into thin
slices; arrange the slices on the plates and sprinkle them with lemon juice.
Arrange 2 fillets of trout, coarsely shredded, on each plate. Coat with horseradish
sauce. Sprinkle with a few shredded almonds and complete with slices of
gherkin. The avocado may be replaced by pickled red cabbage.

American Salad (salade americaine): Line some individual salad bowls with
lettuce leaves. For each serving, mix together 1 tablespoon diced pineapple, 2
tablespoons (3 tablespoons) sweetcorn, either canned or cooked in boiling water,
1 tablespoon julienne of chicken breast poached in white stock, and 1 tablespoon
peeled, seeded and diced cucumber. Dress with 2 tablespoons (3 tablespoons)
vinaigrette flavoured with tomato ketchup and pile up in the bowls. Garnish each
bowl with quarters of hard-boiled (hard-cooked) egg and a small tomato cut to
resemble a flower.

Carrot Salad with Orange (salade de carottes à l'orange): Put 500 g (18 oz,
4¾ cups) peeled and grated carrots in a pile in a salad bowl. Remove the peel
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and pith from 4 oranges and dice the flesh finely. Peel and thinly slice 2 large
mild onions and break the slices up into rings. Pour some lemon vinaigrette over
the carrots just before serving, and add the orange dice. Toss and garnish with
the onion rings.

Port-Royal Salad (salade port-royal): Mix together slices of boiled potato,

chopped cooked French (green) beans, and slices of peeled apples lightly
sprinkled with lemon juice. Add some mayonnaise to this mixture. Heap up in a
salad bowl, pour over some more mayonnaise and garnish with whole French
beans in a star shape. Surround with small lettuce hearts and quarters of hard-
boiled (hardcooked) eggs.

New Turnip Salad (salade de petits navets nouveaux): Peel and quarter 1 kg
(2¼ lb) small new turnips. Blanch them for 6 minutes in boiling water, drain, and
then cook in stock, preferably chicken stock, for about 10 minutes. Drain and
leave to cool, and then sprinkle with chopped herbs. Add some strips of smoked
haddock poached in milk (1 part haddock to 2 parts turnips) and dress with olive
oil and vinegar.

HORSOEOEUVRES COCKTAILS
Some of the Horsoeoeuvres Cocktails are as under:
CRAB COCKTAIL
• Take 400gm canned crab meat
Preparation of sauce
• Cook 3 finely chopped shallots with white wine and reduces completely.
• Add shallots to mayonnaise prepared out of one egg yolk, ¼ lt. oil, 1 tbsp
strong mustard, 1 tbsp vinegar
• Blend in 1 tbsp tomato puree and 1 tbsp chopped tarragon
• Season to taste with salt, pepper and cayenne
• Can be flavoured with cognac
• Mix sauce with crab meat
• Place some
shredded
lettuce
seasoned with
vinaigrette in
4 sundae
glasses
• Chill and
serve,
sprinkle finely
chopped
tarragon
leaves

Prawn Cocktail
Same procedure but
garnished with
quarters of tomato and slices of hard boiled eggs.

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4.4.2 Potages (Soups)
Potage or soup is a liquid food consisting of meat, seafood vegetables, cereals or
poultry. They play an important role in the menu and when there is no appetizer
the soup takes its place as the first course. It should therefore be easy to
assimilate, attractive and have the ability to prepare appetite for the coming
heavy and solid food. Soups may be derided into different categories i.e. Thin
Thick, Cold and International soups.

THIN SOUPS may be passed (Consomme) or unpassed (Broths, Bouillon). Clear

soups are written first followed by thick soups. If a menu contains two soups, one
must be clear and the other thick. If only one soup is to be served, it may be
either clear or thick. Usually soups are served piping hot but some soups may
also be served cold and clear soups can be served in jellied form.

THICK SOUPS :Under this category are purees, cream, veloute, bisque and
chowders. Cold soup served cold during the summers eg. Vichyssoise Gazpacho

INTERNATIONAL SOUPS : These are national soups of a country famous all

over the world eg. Minestrone (Italy), Petit Marmite (Prance), Mulligatawny
(India), Clam Chowder (America), Green Turtle Soup (England).

SERVICE OF SOUP

Thin Soup : A variety of bowls, containers or

cups may be used for the service of soup but
one important point to be taken care of is that
hot soup must be served piping hot. Once
poured into the guest cup it must not be
heated or the cream will split, crisp garnish
will get spoilt and a thick layer of starch will
develop on top. The soup bowl should always
be kept hot before pouring the soup. Lighter
the soup deeper the bowl hence thin soup like
consommé are served in ceramic consommé cup with this handles so that the
guest may sip the soup from the cup.

Thick Soup : These soups are consumed from a soup plate available in different
designs as these thick starchy soups take a long time to cool. The soup plate
helps in displaying the colour and the variety of garnishes used. It also helps in
cooling the soup thus preventing burning of tongue accidentally.

Accompaniments and Garnishes of Soups:

• Diced bread croutons and sliced bread stripes are served as an
accompaniment with puree and tomato soup.
• Vegetable garnishes are added to clear, cream and veloute soup.
Parmesan cheese straws are served as accompaniment with Turtle soup
and St. Germain.
• Slices of poached beef marrow are served with some bouillon as garnish.

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• Sprigs of chervil are added to Consommé and Broth type soups.

4.4.3 Oeufs (Egg Dish)

Word egg is used for
hen's egg, in other
cases it should be
mentioned for e.g.
duck's egg, quail's
egg. Ostrich and
crocodile eggs are
some exotic rarities.
The weight of hen's
egg-60gms which
contains 58% is
albumen, 30% is yolk,
and 12% is shell
Albumen-water,
proteins, minerals
Yolk-albumins, fats,
vitamins, proteins.
The Calorific value of
egg is 76 cal/ 100gm.
It is easy to digest unless heavily garnished- foie gras, truffles, or cooked in fat.
Oeuf or Egg as a separate course has limited appeal in the modern menu except
during the breakfast. The different egg preparation styles are boiled (hard/soft),
omelets en cocotte (cooked in a small fire proof dish), scrambled, sur le plate
(baked/served in same dish), poached.

Dishes Prepared From Eggs

Oeuf Sur Le Plat: Sur le plat is small white earthenware or metal dish with ears
on which egg is placed and baked in the oven. Presented on an under plate with
sweet spoon and fork, side knife incase of garnish.

Oeuf En Cocotte: Egg in shell, usually half-

boiled placed on an egg cup eaten with a tea
spoon.

Omlette : Served on hot fish plate with joint

fork placed on the right side of the cover.

Omelets Bonne Femme : An omelet with

dices of bacon, minced mushrooms and slices
of onion tossed in butter.

Omelet Espagnole (Spanish Omelette) : An flat omelet, fluffy with minced

onions cooked in butter, dices of tomatoes, diced red pepper

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Egg Custard (Oeuf Au Lait): Sweetened boiling milk is poured onto lightly
beaten eggs, cooked in the oven in the bain-marie. Served cold usually in the
dessert course.
• Scrambled eggs with mushroom, liver, shrimps, smoked salmon.
• Fried egg with ham.

4.4.4 Faraineux (Pasta and Rice)

Commonly referred to as farinaceous or Pasta dishes such as spaghetti,
macroni, ravioli, penne, farfalle, vermicelli etc. These are of Italian orgin and one
made of durum wheat, semolina, water and egg. These are available in various
shapes and designs and may be handmade or machine made.

Pasta should never be over cooked or allowed to have carry over cooking which
makes them cling to one another. On the other hand they should be slightly
under cooked so that they are a little hard to bite (Al dente).

Pasta may be stuffed with a filling of minced meat, spinach, chicken, liver, herbs
etc. Italian cheese i.e. Parmesan, Gorgonzola, Riccota, Pecorino are used
liberally.

VARIETIES OF PASTAS
Pasta can be grouped according to its uses
1. Those that can be stuffed, such as ravioli, agnolotti, canneloni.
2. Those that are flat, such as lasagna
3. Strings such spaghetti
4. Spiral shaped such as macaroni and fusilli

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Another classification is on the basis of uses, for e.g.
1. Pasta for soup - risoni
2. Pasta for boiling- macaroni , spaghetti
3. Pasta for baking- first boiled in water- lasagna
4. Filled pasta- cannelloni, ravioli

Pasta should be cooked until it is firm and not soft and mushy. Adding a
teaspoon of oil to the cooking water with help prevent pasta from sticking
together when drained. Pasta can be served with a salad or with a sauce or can
be filled with various fillings. Bolognaise and milanaise are the traditional sauces.

4.4.5 Poisson (Fish)

This refers to
fish course
which is
commonly
included in a
dinner or buffet
menu. Fish is a
good source of
protein.
Calcium, phosphorus, unsaturated fatty acids as well as a rich source of vitamin
A, D, E & K. Fish contains the same proportions of protein as meat but nutritive
value of 500 gms of fish is generally regarded to be equal to that of 300 gms of
meat. It contains significant amount of vitamins, phosphorus and iodine. The
water content of all fish is much the same. The alluminoids constitute about 18%.
The fat contains less nitrogenous substance than other meats and is easily
digestible therefore it is good for ladies and children. Both fresh water fish such
as Salmon, Trout, Eel, Sole, Rohu and sea water fish i.e. Cod, Sardine, Herring,
Haddock, Mackerel are grilled, fryed, baked or poached and served with
appropriate garnish, sauce and accompaniments. Shell fish such as lobster,
Prawn, crab, shrimp, snails, oysters find a prominent place in the menu and are
patronized by the elite class. Most of these sea food require special service,
equipment and trained hotel staff for its preparation and service. These may be
served as an Horsd'oewre or as Poisson.

Fish is subjected to speedy decay therefore one should be very careful as far as
freshness is concerned. The predominant smell of fish can be diminished by
adding a little vinegar or white wine to the poaching stock or court bouillon. The
fish is kept at a temperature of -180C and thawed at 70C.

FISH DISHES
Fish a'l'orly: Fish which may be filleted or whole according to size, dipped in
batter or egg and breadcrumbs, then fried, drained. Accompaniments - tomato
sauce

Fish a'l'anglaise: Cut slices season with salt and pepper and dredge in flour. Dip
in beaten egg and oil, cover with white breadcrumbs, and fry in butter, golden
brown both the sides.
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Accompaniments- Tartare sauce, mayonnaise
sauce and lemon.

Grilled herring: Clean and trim medium-sized

herring, brush with oil or butter, season with pepper,
cook under a moderate grill. Sprinkle with salt.
Accompaniment- melted butter and mustard sauce

Mussels (poor man's oysters) mussel

a'l'mariniere: Remove shells, cook and leave to
cool. Marinate for 30 min in olive oil, lemon juice,
chopped parsley and pepper. Dip in batter and cook
in oil. Drain on absorbent paper. Accompaniment-
brown bread, butter and cayenne pepper.

Lobster (homard): Cooked in various ways.

Accompaniment- lemon and mayonnaise

4.4.6 Entrée (Main Course)

Entry to the main course starts after the fish course and preceding the roast. It
can be a hot or a cold dish in a sauce or gravy. When more than one entrée is
served they must be clearly differentiated- meat entrée, offal entrée, vegetable
entrée. Various items can be served in entrée for e.g. meat, fish, vegetables,
pastas, timbales, Noisette, tournedos, vol-au-vent.

Timbales - mould in which a pastry is made and baked and filled with several
fillings.

Noisette- small round steak usually of lamb and mutton, cut from the rib or loin.
Fried in butter and served with variety of garnishes including potatoes, fried
onions and sautéed herbs.

Tournedos- small round slice 2cm thick taken from the fillet of a beef, sautéed,
grilled. Served garnished and with sauces.

Vol-au-vent- round case of puff pastry 15-20cm in diameter having a pastry lid
filled with different fillings and sauces.

4.4.7 Sorbet (Rest Course)

Type of water ice served in the middle of the meal. Softer and more granular than
ice-cream. Sorbet is derived from the Italian word 'Sorbetto' which is derived from
Turkish word 'Chorbet' which in turn is derived from an Arabic word 'Charab'
which means drink. It may be served as a dessert or between meals to refresh
the palate. Basic ingredients of a sorbet are fruit juice, puree, wine, spirit, and
liqueur. Sugar syrup may also be added. Russian and Jamaican cigarette and
cigars is also served in this course. Sorbets are usually served in a Sundae dish
or tall cocktail glasses. Example of a sorbet: PEAR SORBET

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• Peel the pears and dice the pieces
• Sprinkle lemon juice
• Reduce to fine puree in a blender & add sugar
• Pour the puree into ice-cream maker, until the sorbet freezes
• Put the container into freezer or serve immediately in a well decorated
sundae dish or a cocktail glass

4.4.8 Relevé
This is the second meat course/main course. It is larger than entrée course and
takes the form of butcher's joint/meat which has to be carved eg. Joint of lamb,
mutton or pork, rib of beef. Roasting, Braising or spit roasting of large pieces of
meat is carried out and the meat served with various accompaniments, garnishes
and sauces. The compliments are vegetables and potatoes.
Menu Example :
• Cole de Porc Charcutiere
• Navarin de Meuton Printanier
• Escalope de Veau Cordon Bleu
• Chateaubriand Steak
• Beef Strognoff
• Poulet Saute Chasseur
• Poulet Saute Hongraise
• Poulet Cordon Bleu
• Lancashire Hot Pot
• Beef Steak a' la Americaine

4.4.9 Rôti (Roast)

This course comprises of game or poultry. Roast is served with its own sauce
along with potatoes and vegetables. Game birds like wild duck, wild goose,
pheasant, quail, turkey, partridge are roasted in a oven to allow the succulent
juice and fine flavour to be retained in the flesh. Basting is done at regular
intervals to prevent the outer layer from becoming hard and dry. Often these
game birds are stuffed
and trussed before being
roasted. If served as
main course the meat is
served in a large plate
along with large knife
and large fork.
Menu Example :
• Canenton Roti
• Oie Roti
• Dinde Roti
• Becasse Roti
• Conard Savage
Roti
• Roast/Roti is
usually served pre-plated garnishes with a variety of accompaniments.

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4.4.10 Légumes (Vegetables)
At this stage the
balance of meal
is gradually
returning from
heavy to light so
vegetable dishes
such as
asparagus,
artichoke, corn
on the cob,
brocili,
mushrooms, bamboo shoots are served with their accompanying sauces. These
are usually eaten with fingers and so a finger bowl is provided after service. The
vegetables are either boiled or steamed, cream, butter or hollandaise's sauce
added and served decorated with fancy cut vegetables. It is served cold or hot
depending upon the dish. If artichoke and asparagus are served cold vinegrette
or mayonnaise is served as accompaniment. If served hot Beurre Noisette or
Hollandaise is served. An inverted fork is put below the plate so as to allow
accumulation of sauce at the tips.

Menu Example :
• Corn on the Cob (Mis Natural)
• Pomme au four
• Tomate Farcis
• Champignons au beurge fondu

4.4.11 Salade (Salad)

These of two types

• Simple salad
• Compound Salad.

It consists of food items

such as green vegetables
fruits, cold food item, hot
mixture of piquent foods,
chopped food in aspic,
coleslaw, potato or meat
served with a garnish.
Salads may be served in
small quantities as an
Horsd' oeuvre, as an
accompaniment to Entrée or as a separate course of its own. Salad should
possess freshness and stimulating flavour. It should be cold, crisp, piquent
colourful, well seasoned and attractive.

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Simple Salad: These may be divided into green salad made up of green leaf
ingredient or vegetable salad made up of one main vegetable which will
dominate the overall flavour of the dish.
Compound Salads: These are elaborate salads consisting of more than one
ingredient. They may be divided into the following :
1. Fish based
2. Vegetable based
3. Poultry, Game or Meat based
4. Fruit based

Menu Example :
• Salad Verte
• Salad Francaise
• Salade Russe
• Salade Japonnaise
• Salade Waldrof

4.4.12 Buffet Froid (Cold Buffet)

This course includes a variety of cold meats and fish along with assortment of
pate work placed on a large mirror/attractive bowl displayed at an prominent
place.

Menu Example :
• Cote de boeuf
• Jambon

4.4.13 Formage (Cheese)

Cheese was discovered
by a shepherd who used
to carry milk in musk and
once started crying after
seeing the consistency
of milk. Next day he
realized that the milk had
not spoilt but smelt and
tasted excellent. He
called it magic milk and
sold it like hot cakes.
That is how cheese was
considered as god's gift.
This is a milk product made from buffalo milk but may also be made from the milk
of cow, goat, sheep, reindeer, camel, ass and other domesticated herbivores.
Cheese is made by coagulating of the milk. It is then cured, matured/aged
flavourings, spices, moulds, preservatives added depending upon the type of
cheese.

Categories of Cheese
1. Fresh
2. Soft

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3. Hard
4. Semi-hard
5. Blue

Fresh: Cottage, Mozzarella, Cream, Ricotta

Soft: Brie, Camembert, Bel Paese, Carr? de lest, Feta

Hard: Amul, Parmesan, Pecorino, Provolone, Caciocavalio

Semi Hard: Cheddar, Chesire, Cantal, Derby, Edam, Emmenthal

Blue: Stilton, Roquefort, Dorset Blue, Danish Blue, Gorgonzola

4.4.14 Entremets (Sweets)

The sweet course which in France is served after the cold buffet categorized into
3 parts:
1. Hot
2. Cold
3. Ied

Hot Sweet: fritters- a preparation of consisting of a piece of cooked or raw food

coated in batter and deep fried in oil.

Apple fritters (beignet de pomme): Peel the apple and cut into 4mm thick
roundels. Sprinkle with lemon and keep it in cognac for 30min. drain and dip in
batter and deep fry in oil. Serve hot with castor sugar.

Cold sweet: cold pudding, usually served pre-plated in a dessert plate with the
dessert cover.

Iced sweet: ice-cream and sorbets

Note: sauces, custard, whipped cream are served from sauce boat as
accompaniment and Cut & croc according to the dish served.
Menu Example:
• Diplomat Pudding
• Charlotte Royale
• Baked Alaska
• Gateau Foret Noir
• Kaisersmarren
• Peach Melba
• Condé Ananas
• Pudding Diplomaté

4.4.15 Savoureux (Savoury)

These may be served as an alternative to the sweet course or as a separate
course in addition to sweet or cheese to bring back the natural taste after sweet

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course. Some items served in savourex may also be found in Horsd' oeuvre (in
small quantities). They are usually pre-portioned by the kitchen.
Menu Example :
• Anchovies on toast
• Sardines on toast
• Buck Rare Bit
• Angles on horse back
• Devils on horse back
• Canape Cecil
• Welsh Rare bit
• Quich Lorraine
• Crepe a la Reine
• Canape Qvo Uadis

4.4.16 Dessert (Fruits)

These include all types of fresh fruit/dry fruits available according to the season
accompanied by castor sugar and salt. The fruits are presented to the guest in a
fruit basket to allow the guest to make his choice. In case the guest chooses dry
fruits a nut cracker is provided for breaking the shell.
1. Soft fruits : Fruits like banana, grapes, cheeku, papaya
2. Hard fruits : Fruits like mangoes, apples, pears.
3. Dry fruits : It includes fruit like walnuts, cashewnuts, almonds, pistachio,
chilgoja.
4. Citrus fruits : It includes fruit like grape fruit, oranges, sweet lime .

Service of Fruits :
1. It may be served in a fruit basket and half plate is provided.
2. Cutlery provided is fruit knife and fruit fork.
3. Grapes are served along with grape scissors and a finger bowl is passed
at the end.
4. Dry fruits are served in the shells with a nut cracker.

4.4.17 Beverages (Tea/Café)

Traditionally referred to coffee
only but nowadays may
include a wide range of
beverages like tea, tisanes,
chocolates and other
proprietary beverages. Coffee
is listed in the French
Classical Menu at the end
course but it should not be
counted as a course when
planning a meal and should
not be stated when referring to
the number of courses in a
meal.

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Tea or coffee is served to the guest in a small cup of coffee (demitasse) to aid
digestion. It is served from a tray in which coffee pot, milk pot and sugar are
arranged and then it is served on an under liner and quarter plate provided.
Cutlery provided is coffee spoon/tea spoon.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

Q. 1 List seventeen course menu in its correct order.

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Q. 2 Name 5 classical Horsd'oeuvres and explain any one in detail.

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4.5 ACCOMPANIMENT
Accompaniments are offered with certain dishes are mainly to assist in improving
the flavour or to counteract richness. Depending upon the nature, style and
extent of the menu on offer, there will be variety of food items available which
supports the service of a range of dishes. Some of these items have specific use
for particular dishes and others are used generally across a number of dishes.
Accompaniments are highly flavoured seasonings of various kinds offered with
certain dishes. The object of offering accompaniments with certain dishes is to
improve the flavour of the food or to counteract its richness, eg. Apple sauce with
roast pork. Many dishes have separate accompaniments and as they are not
always mentioned on the menu, the waiter must know them. He should always
have specific accompaniments ready for service at the right time. Hot adjuncts
come with the dish from the kitchen, but cold sauces are often to be found at the
buffet or sideboard. They should be served directly with a dish to which they
belong. They should be served from the guest's left on to the top right of his plate
(not on the rim). While serving from a sauceboat, the boat should be on an
under-dish or small plate, carried on the palm of the left hand.

In serving, the sauceboat, lip should point towards the guest's plate. The spoon,
or ladle, should be passed over the lip. Sauces are not to be poured from a boat.
The following is a list of dishes with their standard accompaniments.

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DISH ACCOMPANIMENTS

Grapefruit Cocktail : Castor Sugar

Tomato Juice : Worcester sauce

Oysters : Oyster cruet (cayenne pepper, pepper mill,

chilli vinegar, Tabasco sauce) Half a lemon,
Brown bread and butter.
Snails : Brown bread and butter, Potted shrimps
Cayenne pepper, Peppermill, Segments of
lemon, Hot breakfast toast.

Ham Mousse : Hot breakfast toast crusts, (removed cut into

triangles served in, folded napkin on a side
plate).

Gulls' Egg : Brown bread and butter, Oriental salt

Smoked Salmon : Cayenne pepper, Pepper mill, Half a lemon,

Brown bread and butter.

Asparagus : Hollandaise sauce (if served hot), Sauce

Vinaigrette (if served cold)

Globe Artichoke : Hollandaise sauce (if served hot), Sauce

Vinaigrette (if served cold)

Corn on the Cob : Beurre fondue

Fresh Prawns : Brown bread and butter, Mayonnaise sauce,

Chilled Melon Ground ginger, Castor sugar

Avocado : Brown bread and butter

Onion Soup : Grated Parmesan cheese

Tomato soup : Croutons

Turtle soup : Brown bread and butter, Segments of lemon,

Cheese straws, Measure of sherry

Fish (fried) : Slices of lemon with skin removed,Sauces:

tartare, remoulade, gribiche

Fish (grilled) : Slices of lemon with skin removed, Cold

Sauces: tartare, remoulade, gribiche, Hot
sauces: bearnaise, Tyrolienne

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Fish (poached) : Slices of lemon with skin removed, Cold
Sauces: tartare, remoulade, gribiche,
Hollandaise sauce, Mousselin sauce, Beurre
fondue

Spaghetti : Grated parmesan cheese

Roast Beef : French and English mustard, Horseradish

sauce, Yorkshire pudding, Roast gravy

Roast Lamb : Mint sauce, Roast gravy

Chicken : Bread sauce, Roast gravy, Parsley and thyme

stuffing Bacon rolls, Game chips, Watercress

Baked Jacket Potato : Cayenne Pepper, Peppermill, Butter

4.6 GARNISHES
A garnish is an item or substance used as a decoration or embellishment and
often a flavour component on a prepared food dish or drink. In many cases, it
may give added or contrasting flavor, some garnishes are selected first to
augment the visual impact of the plate, while others are selected specifically for
the flavor they may impart. This is in contrast to a condiment which is primarily a
prepared sauce product of a specific flavor added to another food item. Parsley is
an excellent example of an old fashioned garnish; this pungent green herb has
small distinctly shaped leaves, firm stems, and is easy to trim into a garnish.
Typically, few diners eat parsley garnishes.

A garnish makes food or drink items more visually appealing. They may, for
example, enhance their color, such as when paprika is sprinkled on a salmon
salad. They may give a color contrast, for example when chives are sprinkled on
potatoes. They may make a cocktail more visually appealing, such as when a
cocktail umbrella is added to an exotic drink, or when a Mai Tai is topped with
any number of tropical fruit pieces. Sushi, the Japanese fish dish, may be
garnished with baran, a type of plastic grass or leaf. Sometimes a garnish and a
condiment will be used together to finish the presentation of a dish, for example
an entrée could be topped with a sauce and then a sprig of parsley would be
added as a garnish.

A garnish may be so readily identified with a specific dish that the dish may
appear incomplete without the garnish. For example buffalo wings with celery
stick garnish and blue cheese dressing or a banana split sundae with cherries on
top. A food item which is served with garnish may be described as being garni,
the French term for 'garnished'.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-III

Q.1 What is accompaniment?

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Q.2 What is garnish?

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4.7 SUMMARY
As can be seen from above French Classical Menu plays an important role in
Menu planning. Whatever the type of establishment or type of menu offered to
the guest, French Classical Menu plays an important role in menu planning/menu
designing. All catering establishment borrow heavily from the French Classical
Menu when choosing the menu or list of dishes to be placed in the menu card.

Similarly for planning of meals, buffets, banquets or any other function the
sequence of French Classical Menu is usually offered will 4-5 courses in the
meal often offering and appetizer, a main course, vegetable and a sweet course
taking into consideration the nutritional value, colour, variety of ingredients,
accompaniments, garnishes etc.

4.8 Answer to Check Your Progress

Check your progress-I

Q1. Refer to section 4.3
Q2. Refer to section 4.3

Check your progress-II

Q1. Refer to section 4.4
Q2. Refer to section 4.4.1

Check your progress-III

Q1. Refer to section 4.5
Q2. Refer to section 4.6

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4.9 References/Bibliography
1. Dennis Lilli Crap, John Cousins, Food and Beverage Service, Hodder
Education 7th Edition.
2. Manoj Kumar Yadav, Food and Beverage Service : A Text Book, Aman
Publications 1st
3. Edition, 2010.
4. S.N. Bagchi, Anita Sharma, Food and Beverage Service, Aman
Publications 3rd Edition,
5. 2006.
6. Bobby George, Sandeep Chartergee, Food and Beverage Service and
Management.

4.10 Terminal Questions

1. Define Horsd'oeuvre and explain the various types.
2. Why do we serve cheese during a meal? Explain the method of serving
cheese.
3. Plan a 5 course menu and give the cover for each course.
4. Write the French Classical Menu in its right sequence. Give eg. of each
course along with the correct cutlery to be laid on the table.
5. Write short notes on following:
1. Sorbet
2. Farineux
3. Caviar
6. Define Potage. Classify them and give one of each along with its country
of origin.
7. Discuss the reasons for growing popularity of Sorbet.
8. Explain the following in 2-3 lines
4. Savoury
5. Oeuf
6. Entrée
7. Classical Horsd'oeuvre
8. Salman Furmé

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UNIT 05: BASIC INTRODUCTION TO BAKERY AND

CONFECTIONARY

Structure
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Raw Materials for bakery Products
5.3.1 Flour
5.3.1.1 Variety of wheat
5.3.1.2 Flour milling
5.3.1.3 Flour constituents
5.3.1.4 Types of bakery flour
Check your Progress-I
5.4 Leavening agent
5.4.1 Chemical leavening agents
5.4.2 Biological leavening agents
5.4.3 Mechanical leavening agents
5.4.4 Water vapor
5.4.5 Combination
5.5 Milk products
5.5.1 Constituents of milk
5.5.2 Production of milk powder
Check your Progress-II
5.6 Sweetener
5.6.1 Corn starch
5.6.1 Sucrose
5.6.1 Other sweeteners
5.7 Egg
5.8 Fruits and Nuts
5.9 Shortening
5.10 Flavors and Colors
Check Your Progress-III
5.11 Cake Making
5.12 Qualities in baked products
5.13 Summary
5.14 Answer to check your progress
5.15 References/Bibliography
5.16 Terminal Questions

5.1 Objectives
After reading this unit the learner will be able to understand following:
• Raw materials used in bakery
• Cake making

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5.2 Introduction
The introduction to baking ingredients is necessarily simplified. Hundreds of
pages could be written-and have been-on wheat flour alone. Much of the
available information, however, is technical and of concern primarily to large
industrial bakers. In this unit, you will find the information you need to produce a
full range of baked items in a small bakeshop or a hotel or restaurant kitchen.

5.3 Raw Materials for Bakery Products

Wheat flour is the most important ingredient in the bakeshop. It provides bulk and
structure to most of the baker's products, including breads, cakes, cookies, and
pastries. While the home cook depends almost entirely on a product called all-
purpose flour, the professional baker has available a wide variety of flours with
different qualities and characteristics. In order to select the proper flour for each
product and to handle each correctly, you should understand each type of flour
and how it is milled.

Sugars belong to a group of substances called carbohydrates, a group that also

includes starches. There are two basic groups of sugars: simple sugars (or
monosaccharides, which means "single sugars") and complex sugars (or
disaccharides, meaning "double sugars"). Starches, or polysaccharides, have
more complex chemical structures than sugars. Sucrose is a disaccharide, as are
maltose (malt sugar) and lactose (the sugar found in milk). Examples of simple
sugars are glucose and fructose. All these sugars have different degrees of
sweetness. For example, lactose is much less sweet than regular table sugar
(sucrose), while fructose (or fruit sugar, one of the sugars in honey) is much
sweeter than sucrose.

Any fat acts as a shortening in baking because it shortens gluten strands and
tenderizes the product. However, we generally use the word shortening to mean
any of a group of solid fats, usually white and tasteless, that are especially
formulated for baking. Shortenings generally consist of nearly 100% fat.

Next to water, milk is the most important liquid in the bakeshop. Water is
essential for the development of gluten. Fresh milk, being 88 to 91% water, fulfills
this function. In addition, milk contributes to the texture, flavor, crust color,
keeping quality, and nutritional value of baked products.

5.3.1 Flour
Flour as used in the bakery industry is the primary product produced by milling of
wheat, rye, barley etc. Wheat Flour is a very important ingredient which can
impart unique appearance characteristics to the product other flours from oats,
corn of rye etc. are used to give special texture, flavour, appearance and
nutritional qualities. Wheat flour is unique among cereal products in that it can be
made into cohesive elastic doughs when it is mixed with water under appropriate
conditions. Because of their physical characteristics these doughs will retain
leavening gases throughout the various handling procedure necessary for

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making bread and rolls, and they can be made to yield finished products of low
density with fine uniform cell structure and a soft resilient response to chewing.
Flours and meals made from rye, barley, oats and sorghum give doughs which
are much less elastic and extensible. They do not retain leavening gases will and
they tend to finished products which are coarser and denser.

Both, the inherent quality of the wheat and the milling conditions to which it is
subject can lead to differences in the suitability of the flour for a given purpose
since different bakery products may require different characteristics - a wheat
which is entirely satisfactory for making bread flour may be totally unsuited for
making pastry flour . The limits within which the milling quality of wheat can very
are genetically determined while the level achieved by any particular sample of
wheat is affected by growing conditions, cultural practices and the treatment of
wheat during the after harvesting.

5.3.1.1 Variety of Wheat

The only wheat species of importance for milling into bakery flour is Tritium
vularge. The following discussion concerns varieties of this species. For
commercial purposes, wheat intended for flour milling is divided into the following
types:

Hard red spring wheat- grown primarily in the Northern Great Plains states. The
flours are usually high in protein and have strong gluten. They are especially
suitable for hearth and pan breads, rolls, and specially breads. These wheats
may be blended with weaker wheat to improve the baking quality of flour.

Hard red winter wheat- produced in largest quantity in the southern Great
Plains states. Most of the wheat grown in the United States is of this type. The
flours are intermediate in protein percentage and strength. Most white pan bread
is made with these flours and they have general usefulness for bakery goods.

Soft red winter wheat- grown in many regions of the country, but the region of
greatest production is east of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers and below the
great Lakes. Flour from this wheat is used mostly for cakes, cookies, and
pastries since their protein content is low and the gluten relatively weak.

White wheat- grown in rather small quantities in many sections of the country.
This grain is even lower in protein content than the soft red wheats and yields
flour which may be suitable for cakes, pies, cookies, and other pastry products.

Each type includes many varieties, of which several may be of commercial

importance at any time. New varieties of supposedly superior characteristics
(Yield, resistance or baking quality, etc.) are introduced each year, and some
achieve widespread acceptance by farmers displacing older varieties. The quality
of the varieties falling into any the above categories can vary greatly. The mere
fact that a wheat variety is classified as hard red spring , for example , is no
assurance that it can be milled into a satisfactory bread flour although the odds
are good of several varieties, mixed so as to give flour of predictable quality.

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Adjustments of the milling conditions are made to optimize the quality of the flour
obtained from a given mill stock.

5.3.1.2 Flour Milling

The main process in flour manufacturing is the milling where wheat is separated
into endosperm, bran and germ. It is the endosperm portion which is used in the
bakery industry. The more efficient is the process the less bran and germ is
mixed with the finished flour. Although a small amount of flour is still produced on
stone buhr mills the major production is by modern mills where combination of
roller mills sieves and air separators are used. Following are the steps of
operations which are performed in the flour mills:
1. Wheat selection and blending
2. Cleaning
3. Conditioning or Tempering
4. Milling

Wheat selection and Blending

The wheat chosen for mills, milling depends upon the final products, wheat flour
variety i.e. quantum nutritious value or composition of Protein, Vitamins etc.
There is some hybrid product of wheat which contains the qualities of different
types of wheat together in it. Sometimes wheat of different graded are blends
together for milling processes.

Cleaning
The grain is passed over a number of sieves to separate that wheat from
impurities. Dust is removed by blowing with fans. The wheat from here is passed
onto a disc separator. The machine consists of disc having hole through which
smaller grains of barley, oats and others seeds from broken wheat grains. The
clean wheat is then passed over a magnetic separator to remove iron
contamination. Final cleaning operation is carried out by passing the grain
through a washer and whizzes. Wheat separation from dirt is conveyed upwards
out of the water by means of inclined vanes. Grain is moistened so that layers
can be removed early.

Conditioning or tempering
Water and heat are added in the process known as tempering. It is done to
prevent the bran from fragmenting which occur usually during milling and to
maintain milling conditions.

Milling
Grading wheat into small pieces between steel rolls is called breaking. Pieces of
broken kernel of various sizes and dimensions are separated by rotating sieves
by purifiers which combine sieves and air currents to separate the particles on
the basis of size classification. This produce is directed to either additional rolls
or smooth steel reduction rolls.

The series of break rolls and sieves convert the grain into ' Semolina' which are
small granules made up largely of endosperm, the outer husk will have been
sifted out collected and ' Bran ' or coarse wheat feed, the semolina , is separated
in a special plan-sifter into 3 grades, fine, medium and coarse. These three being
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put through a purifier , which is an arrangement of sieves coupled to suction fans
to draw off branny particles, each paned through a further series of period roller
and sieving machine. The second part of milling operations is called gradual
reduction system. There the rolls are smooth and the one rotate with a greater
speed than the other.

A portion having few of flour fractions separated in the milling system is known as
"Patent flour" and sells at a higher price than the straight run flour.

Wheat Flour Grades

There are four commercial grades of flours available in the market:
 Straight Flour: The total amount of flour containing all the four streams
of the milled product is 100% of the extraction is called straight flour.

 Patent flour: A better grade of flour having lower ash content and lighter
in color than straight flour is called patent flour. Short patent represents
about 70-80% of the extraction while a fancy patent is only about 40-60%.

 Cut straight flour: Flour from which only a part of the middings have
been removed is called cut straight flour.

 Clear Flour: The portion of the straight flour left after the removal of
patent is called clear flour. It is darker and stronger than patent flour from
the same wheat.

5.3.1.3 Flour Constituents

The range of composition which can be expected to occur in the United states in
a crop year is shown in given table

Approximate Composition of Wheat

Determinant Range of Analysis in Percentage

Low High
Protein 07.0 18.0
Mineral Substance (ash) 01.5 02.0
Lipid Fats 01.5 02.0
Starch 60.0 68.0
Cellulose (Fibre) 02.0 02.5
Moisture 08.0 18.0

The average composition of different components in wheat is given below:

Carbohydrates: Flour consists of about 70% of starch which is the principal

carbohydrate present. The amylase content is 19.26%, the remainder being
amylopectin. Starch influences the mixing and handling characteristics of flour.
Small amount of sugar is also present in the flours in addition to the dextrin's,
cellulose and gums. Starch is not usually considered as a major factor

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influencing flour quality but these are some indications that starch may influence
mixing time and dough handling characteristics. Some of the starch granules are
broken during any first grinding may rupture a fairly large number of particles so
that susceptibility of amylage action and the absorption are increase.

According to Koch-et-al (1951), aqueous extracts of baker and patent flour

contains 0.01 % glucose, 10.02% tractose , 0.01% sucrose , 0.08% maltose
0.18%% melibiose and 0.07 % raffinose. Dextrins, cellulose and gums are also
present.

Lipids: Wheat lipids consist of fatty oils, phosphatides and un-saponifiable

matter and largely located in the germ. It is generally guessed that the lipids of
wheat do have a definite effect on the baking quality of flour. The exacted is not
known, in spite of numerous studies made on the subject , but it is through that
both surfactants effect the reactions with protein are involved.

Mineral content: Most of the inorganic substances of wheat are contained in the
bran and the aleurone cells. Flour showing a relatively high ash content will
probably have more bran particles in it. The mineral content comprising mainly of
sodium, aluminium, chlorine and silicone which are present in the bran and
aleurone cells. Ash content is therefore an indication of extraction) since higher
extraction flours of the same extraction from two different varieties of wheat may
have different percentages of inorganic substances . Taking all of these variables
into consideration flours with ash contents of 0.3% can be obtained .

Protein: The total protein content of wheat samples may vary from a low of
about 7% to a high of almost 18%. These extreme values apply to only a very
small percentage of all wheat and the usual range is about 8 to 10% for soft red
or white wheats and 12 to 14% for hard wheat. Approximately 80% of this protein
constitutes the gluten fraction the water insoluble protein complex which makes
up the structural frame work of low density bakery foods gluten is located
exclusively is the endosperm and so a large percentage of it is recovered in flour.

Vitamins: Wheat contains appreciable amounts of vitamins of B Group, but it is

almost completely lacking in vitamins, unless the grain is sprouted. Vitamin D is
also absent. Although wheat does contain carotenoids, they consist entirely of
xanthophyll which cannot act as precursor of vitamin A. The oils of the embryo of
wheat are rich sources of vitamin E.

Flour Additives: The additives are added to the flour to improve its baking
characteristics. These may be bleached such as benzyl peroxide, maturing
agents like chlorine dioxide enzyme sources such as malted wheat flour and
enrichments such as vitamins and minerals.

5.3.1.4 Types of Bakery Flour

What samples can be of the same type and grade and yet be milled into flours
having very different baking qualities. Some tests for the inherent baking quality
of wheat can be applied directly to the grain or to products obtained from the
grain by simple laboratory milling operation. The quality of flour required for
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different products should have different analysis matching with requirements e.g.
for domestic market a protein content of 9.5% is suitable. The biscuit flour should
have lesser protein content about 8.5% and cake flour still lesser of protein.

Soya Flour: Soya flour, a milled product from Soya Bean, is generally used in
bread to raise its protein content and maintain the freshness. It contains about
45% protein, 25% oil and about 2% of lipids. Due to its deadening effect on
dough, proportion of Soya flour is restricted to about 8% quantity below this does
not change the appearance, flavour and texture of the pan bread appreciably.
Sometimes additional oxidizers may be required when Soya flour is used as an
ingredient if the preparation. Soya flour is high in Lysine, an essential amino aid
which is present in wheat at levels insufficient to allow complete utilization of
wheat proteins .Use of milk in bread accomplishes the same effect, but protein
concentrates from Soya are cheaper than milk. Solvent defatted Soya meal is the
usual base for the concentrates.

Corn Meal & Flour: Corn flour is used in some of the specialty breads. These
are also used to dust the oven and peel when making hearth breads. Corn flour
is produced by dry milling of corn, as opposed to the wet milling process which is
used to make corn starch products from the grain. Some small country millers
still grind whole corn for the local trade or for health food stores, but these meals
develop rancidity in a few days, so it is the universal practice in large mills to
remove the germ in order to improve storage stability. Corn Flour contributes
water absorption capacity but not strengths to doughs. Assuming that flavour is
satisfactory, the chief quality factors of corn flour or meal are moisture, colour fat
content and particle size.

Rye Flour: In some of the European countries rye flour is commonly used as
bread grain in combination with wheat flour. Rye is a cereal grain closely related
to wheat. It is the most common bread in northern Europe because it yield is
more than wheat in cold climates and poor soils. The physical properties of
doughs made from rye flour are inferior because they do not form extensible,
elastic gluten with good gas retaining properties. Important characteristics of rye
flour are colour, granulation and flavour. Protein content and ash are also
important but are secondary factors. Since rye flour is comparatively cheaper, it
is used to replace wheat flour in cookies and other applications where gluten is of
little importance and different flavours can be covered up with other ingredients.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

Q.1 What are different types of wheat?

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Q.2 Write a note on flour constituents.
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5.4 Leavening Agent

Leavening is increasing the surface area of a dough or batter by creating within
myriads of gas bubbles puffing up, thus increasing the volume and making it
light. The expansion of these gases during baking increases the volume of the
product and gives a desirable porous structure. The aeration of flour products is
affected by the following:
1. Biological (yeast)
2. Chemical (baking powder)
3. Mechanical (whisking. beating)
4. Lamination (folding. rolling)
5. Combination of the above.
Substances which provide raising or leavening effect in bakery foods are call
leavening agents. Carbon dioxide from added chemical reagents or from yeast
fermentation is the principal leavening gas. Agents raise the volume thus
reducing the bulk density. In the case of cookies ammonia produced by
decomposition of added ammonium bicarbonate act as leavening agent.

5.4.1 Chemical Leavening Agents

Some of the widely used chemicals leavening agents are discussed as under:

Sodium Bicarbonate: It is extensively used in bakery industry as leavening

agent due to its low cost, lack of toxicity, ease of handling, relatively tasteless
and products and degree of high purity in which it is commercially available. An
additional advantage of this bicarbonate is that its solutions tend to be less
alkaline than; for example, the carbonates so that localized regions of very high
alkalinity are less apt to be formed as the granules dissolve dough.

Carbon dioxide evolution from pure solution of Na2CO3 is slow at room

temperature. When it is added to the dough gas evolves rapidly as the PH of acid
is 5-6. Soda has some disadvantage. Among them it is rather rapid of solution at
room temp. A feature which reduces the amount of control which can be
exercised over in leavening action.

Carbonic Acid gas : 52.32%

Sodium Bicarbonate : 99.84%
Sodium Carbonate : 0.057%

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Sodium Chloride : 0.007%
Total Alkali : 36.88%
Other substances : 0.096%

Ammonium Bicarbonate is used rather extensively in cookies '8' and in few

products that are baked almost to dryness. It volatilizes completely to ammonia
and carbon dioxide under the influence of heat.

Ammonium Bicarbonate: Ammonium Bicarbonate is extensively used for

products which are baked to low moisture content, almost to the dryness e.g.
cookies other wise the product shall possess ammoniacal odour if water
percentage remains high. Its leavening effect is due to the evolution of carbon
dioxide from the sodium bicarbonate in the dough. Cream of tartaric potassium
acid tartrate, acid calcium phosphate and acid sodium pyrophosphate are some
of the more common chemicals used as acid leavening agents. Sodium
aluminium phosphate is most economical due to its high neutralising values. Acid
sodium pyrophosphate reacts more slowly with sodium bicarbonate than doe‟s
acid calcium phosphate and therefore leads to the less loss of gas during the pre
baking period.

Baking Powders: It is a mixture containing chemicals used for the aeration of

various types of confectionery. The active ingredients are sodium bicarbonate
and an acid substance, which in the presence of water will react with the
bicarbonate to produce CO2. The relative proportions of bicarbonate and acid
body must be such that the bicarbonate is fully neutralised but the residue of acid
is not excessive. In addition to these two chemicals, a baking powder contains
inert filler such as starch. The acid bodies mainly used in baking powder are
cream of tartar, acid sodium pyrophosphate and acid calcium phosphate. The
amount of acid calcium phosphate or acid sodium pyrophosphate needed in a
baking powder is about 1.3 times the proportion of sodium bicarbonate that is
present and the amount of cream of tartar required is about 2.2 times the
bicarbonate.

The aerating powers of baking powders are fixed by a statutory instrument, S.R.
and O.1946 No. 157. According to these regulations , making powder must yield
not less than 8% of available carbon dioxide and not more than 1.5% of residual
CO2 the available CO2 being determined as specified in the schedule to the
order. Golden raising powder must yield not less than 6% of available CO2.

Fillers: Corn starch, rice flour etc. are commonly used fillers in the baking
powders. The purpose of filler is to stabilize the baking powder by keeping the
acid from contacting the bicarbonate of soda and it prevents reaction if moisture
should get into the baking powder. It also acts as a means of standard the
strength of baking powder. Egg albumen is also used as a filler to slow up the
action of powder. These two components to gather thicken up the water so that a
good body of foam is made.

Composition of Baking Powders

These are formulated to give total carbon dioxide strength of 14 to 20% based on
the fact that the powder when used will be moisture free. As a guideline principal
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the neutralizing values of various acidic ingredients are given on the basis of
pure chemicals.

Ingredients Kgs. of Sodium Bicarbonate

neutralized per kg. Of the
ingredient
Tartaric Acid 1.16
Cream of Tartar 0.44
Sodium Aluminium Sulphate 1.04
Mono Calcium Phosphate 0.80
Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate 0.75

Depending on the various combinations following types of baking powders are

given along with their formulations.

1. Cream of Tartar Baking Powder

Component %Composition
Corn Starch 22.40
Sodium Bicarbonate 27.00
Cream of Tartar 45.00
Tartaric Acid 5.60
100.00

Another formulation is -%
Sodium Bicarbonate 26.00
Potassium Bitartarate 60.00
Corn Starch 60.00
100.00

2. Straight Alum Baking Powder %

Sodium Bicarbonate 29.73
Sodium Aluminium Sulphate 25.68
Starch 47.59
100.00

Another formulation is -%
Sodium bicarbonate 28
Strach 33
Sodium Aluminium Sulphate 19
Acid Sodium Phosphate 20
100

Soda Alum 28
Sodium Bicarbonate 29
Corn Starch 43
100

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3. Calcium Acid phosphate Baking Powder %
Sodium Bicarbonate 26.80
Mono Calcium Phosphate 35.50
Corn Starch 39.70
100

This formulation is most common of the phosphate baking powders.

%
Sodium Bicarbonate 35
Acid Calcium Phosphate 13
Sodium Aluminium Sulphate 25
Edible Starch 27
100

Sodium Bicarbonate 25.20

Acid Calcium Phosphate ( Gran.) 56.00
Edible Starch 18.80
100.00

4. Mono Sodium Phosphate Baking Powder %

Mono Sodium Phosphate (Anhy.) 38
Sodium Bicarbonate 27
Edible Starch 35
100

%
Acid Sodium Phosphate (Anhy.) 27
Sodium Aluminium Sulphate 30
Edible Starch 43
100

5.4.2 Biological Leavening Agents

Yeast are used by bakers are unicellular plants which possess, under normal
conditions of growth, a vegetables body (thallus) consisting of simple in pairs, in
groups of three in straight or branched chains consisting of as many as twelve or
more cells. Yeast normally reproduced by budding, the process where a
daughter cell grows from the parent cell and eventually assumes an independent
existence, although it may retain its attachment to the parent cell. For their
energy requirements yeast utilise sugars of the flours and doing so carbon
dioxide and alcohols are produced as waste products. The process is called
fermentation. It is their property of the yeast which is utilised by bakers for
leavening or rising of different products like bread, rolls, sweet doughs and
crackers. The advantages of yeast as leavening agents is that it can contribute a
characteristics taste and aroma and the evolution of gas can continue over a
much longer period of time. Its disadvantage is the difficulty to control the
evolution of carbon dioxide. It is also expensive as compared to chemical
leavening agents. Each Yeast cell can perform many different chemical reactions
but those of most concern to the baker are in the group making up fermentation.
The most obvious manifestations of these changes are the production of carbon
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dioxide and ethyl alcohol. Sugar such as glucose and fructose are the substrates
which are transformed by fermentation. A simplified equation describing the sum
total of the fermentation reaction is

C6H12O6 2C2H4OH+2CO2

Carbon dioxide is responsible for raising the dough while ethanol contributes to
the aroma of baked products. Yeast is available in market in two forms.
i) Compressed yeast.
ii) Dry yeast

Compressed Yeast: Compressed yeast is sold in wax wrapped blocks

containing about 70% moisture. The cell averages 4-6 in Width and 5-7 in length.
Compressed yeast loses about 6.5% of its activity during 2 weeks storage time at
400F. Fresh compressed yeast is supplied to local consumers while refrigerated
trucks are used to transport this commodity to the far away situated consumers.

Dry Yeast: Active dry yeast containing about 92% solids having almost double
amount of active ingredient when compared to a compressed yeast . Although
compressed yeast it suitable for any yeast leavened product, active dried yeast
has certain advantages like stability at room temperature, ease of measuring and
better dispensability and is therefore preferred and used by most of the bakery
plants. It can tolerate drying, high sugar concentrations and some inhibitors
better than can compressed yeast strains. It may take a few minutes for the
minutes the water to reach to the centre of the granules. After dehydration is
complete the yeast may be chilled or even heated to slightly higher temperatures
with out any appreciable loss to its active properties of fermentation. Mixing of
dry yeast with water is accompanied by significant evolution of carbon dioxide .

Checking the Relative activity of yeasts: This property may be checked by

incorporating different samples in a series of doughs made under identical
conditions, placing these doughs in graduated cylinder and noting the height to
which they rise in a given time.

Production of Yeast: In the modern techniques yeast is produced from

molasses which a by-product of distilleries manufacturing alcohols etc. In
practice molasses is filtered to remove any suspended impurities and feed to a
clean tank called fermenter. A small amount of yeast is added as seed and the
temperature is maintained at about 26 for several days. Air is also tumbled to
help the fermentation process. Fermentation is complete of about 8-10 days time
and the product from this tank is sent to crystallizer. Yeast crystals are again
filtered and mixed with magnesium phosphate in required proportion. Mother
liquor from the crystallizes is sent to the fermentation tank for reuse. Milk of
magnesium phosphate mixed with yeast crystal is again filtered and dried. A tray
drier is generally used for drying purposes. A controlled humidity air is used for
drying purpose. Dried yeast containing about 7-15% of moisture is packed in
water proof bags or tins.

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Requirement for
Specification for Bakers Yeast
Baker's Yeast
Characteristics Bakers Yeast
(Dried )
(Compressed)
1 Moisture % by wt. max. 75 8
2 Dispensability in water To satisfy ISI test To satisfy ISI test
3 . Fermenting power, min 80 160
Yeast cell count millions
4 500 10000
(Dry bases ) Min.
5 Dough raising capacity To satisfy ISI test To satisfy ISI test
Microflora, other than yeats,
6 Million per gram or dry basis 3.0 8.0
maximum

5.4.3 Mechanical Leavening Agents

It is incorporating air by whisking, beating and sieving. When sugar and eggs, fat
and sugar, fat and flour or any combination of these are beaten or whisked
together, or flour is sieved, it works as aeration. Whichever way the air is
introduced into the mixing, be it by hand, whisk, spatula or by machine, it is still
termed mechanical aeration. Air is incorporated into the mixing by one of the
above means and is held there by the fat, eggs, or both; aeration is brought
about by the expansion of the air in the hot oven, together with the water vapour
pressure within the air bubbles. One of the best examples of mechanical aeration
is the sponge cake, where foam is produced from the eggs and sugar, the flour is
then folded in the sponge and baked. The egg and flour proteins coagulate and
the starch cooks thereby making the sponge set.

5.4.4 Water Vapour

Lamination acts as a raising agent. In pastries- folding and rolling helps to give
the lift. In Idlis, khaman, dhoklas, etc. steam formed by the heat, helps to puff up,
as liquid and flour are present in equal quantities. As the popcorns have moisture
inside the grains, when heated, they expand in volume. The fundamental
objective when making puff pastry is to build up a structure of fat and dough
consisting of many layers so that when subjected to heat in an oven, it will
expand and lift evenly, to produce goods with short eating properties. In the
oven, the pastry, which consists of thin layers of dough separated by films of fat,
comes under the influence of heat, and the gluten in the dough layers is caused
to expand and blister. The fat melts and the dough layers are insulated and the
fat takes on a higher temperature, dough layers are cooked, the gluten
coagulates and becomes almost rigid and the pastry does not collapse. It is the
expansion and blistering of the gluten in the dough layers as a result of steam
pressure from the water in the dough that is responsible for the lift.

5.4.5 Combination
Danish pastries are a combination of aeration by yeast and by lamination. For
this, rich yeast dough is made and butter is incorporated as for puff pastry. In
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this, the pastry expands in volume, because of the process of aeration, by
lamination, and at the same time is aerated by the action of yeast.

5.5 Milk Products

Milk is a biological commodity obtained by complete milking of one of more
healthy cows. It is widely used in bakery and confectionery industry to improve
the flavour and physical characteristics as well as nutritive value of the product.
In the case of bread the addition of non at dry milk to the dough improves the
crust colour increase the water adsorption and modifies dough handling
properties. Lactose of the milk helps the toast made from the bread to colour
more rapidly and uniformly. The added water is retained in the loaf so that it
remains softer for long periods. The principal constituents of milk are butterfat,
milk protein lactose, minerals and water. Milk and milk derivatives have several
effects on bakery foods and the result is generally improvement of the flavour
and physical characteristics as well as the nutritive value. Whole milk is used
mostly in premium goods where the flavour contribution of butter fat can be worth
while.

5.5.1 Constituents of Milk

Constituents of milk are discussed as under:

Proteins: The principal proteins of milk are casein, lactalbumin and lactoglobulin.
These probably should be regarded as single compounds. Casein is the structure
forming, Water binding protein. When coagulated by acids or enzymes it forms
the basis for virtually all cheeses. The milk proteins have a high protein efficiency
ratio. Because they are relatively high in lysine, they are excellent supplements
for cereal proteins.

Carbohydrates: The only sugar present in milk is lactose. It is a reducing sugar,

a disaccharide containing glucose and galactose moieties. Lactose is
considerably less soluble than either sucrose or glucose. In baked goods, it
functions as a tenderizer, since it is a reducing sugar, lactose participates in non
enzymatic browning and improves coloration in the oven.

Lipids: Virtually all of the lipid materials in whole milk are triglycerides of fatty
acids. The phospholipids apparently tend to stabilize the milk of suspension and
have a small emulsifying effect on doughs. The sterols an high molecular, weight
alcohols, primarily cholesterol, which are soluble is fats.

Vitamins and Minerals: On a weight basis or on a caloric content basis, Milk is

not a particularly good source of vitamins. Milk is excellent source of calcium and
phosphorus which are especially important in the nutrition of babies. It is low in
iron. Averaging about 3 ppm. The mineral constituents of milk play important role
in the coagulation of proteins during heat processing. Calcium and magnesium
facilitate the precipitation of protein while phosphates and citrates tend to protect
them or keep them in suspension during sterilization procedures or other heat
treatments.

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Fluid and concentrated milk products: Fluid milk products such as whole milk,
skim milk and butter milk have large percentage of water and therefore are more
bulky and difficult to store. Being perishable they should be stored under
refrigeration and used within short period. Due to these disadvantages they are
very expensive to be used except in the cases where local supply is plentiful.

Concentrated products are fluid a product from which most of the water has been
removed. These are called condensed if only water has been removed,
condensed sweetened if sucrose has been added and evaporate if water has
been removed and end product is canned and sterilized. Concentrated milk
products are viscous fluids adaptable to bulk handling operations. Average
composition of the whole milk is :

Constituent %
Water 87.2
Fat 3.8
Lactose 4.9
Ash 0.7
Casein 3.0
Solubles 0.4

Dried milk solid products: These are most common milk products in bakery
due to their distinctive advantage over others. They occupy a minimum of
storage space and have good storage stability at ordinary temperatures and are
therefore cheaper to use . They are produced by removing all the moisture from
the fluid products and are available in powder and granular form.

5.5.2 Production of Milk Powder

Milk powder may be produced by any of the following two methods:
1. Roller drying.
2. Spray drying.
Roller and spray dried products differ considerably in appearance and properties.
While roller dried powder is creamy in colour, granular product having
characteristic tallowy odour, spray dried milk is a fine powder with smaller particle
size and reconstitute more easily due to eat treatment. Yield of powder per gallon
is 1.9 lbs. From whole milk and 0.9 lb. From skim milk. It also contains about 3%
of moisture.

The most important property of milk powder is its solubility measured by

proportion which can be reconstituted in solution or colloidal suspension in water.
Roller dried powder show a solubility value of 90% while for spray dried powder
this value is 99%. To improve this value milk to be roller dried is usually
neutralized down to a "Lactic acid" value of 0.12%.

Roller Drying: Two standard steam heated rollers of about 5ft. long by 2 ½ ft. in
diameter with a clearance of 0-2 are generally used for milk powder production.
These revolve inward at the top and are heated to a temp . of 285to 302 . Dried
milk formed on the roller is scraped off by a steel knife. The powder is
transported to the sieve shakerby a screw conveyer and satisfactory fraction is
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packed in tins of special bags. A standard pair of rollers have capacity of drying
90 gallons of milk per hour.

Spray drying: Spray drying process essentially consists in directing a spray of

hot, pre-condensed milk into a current of hot air. In practice the milk is preheated
to a temperature of about 160 of and atomised into a system of air heated to
about 200- 500 of . powder formed falls to the bottom and is collected. Milk
powder produced under ideal conditions of temperature and flow rate of milk and
air is virtually soluble in water and has a light colour and mild flavour.

Dried Milk Solids Non Fat (MSNF): This is the name given to the dried milk
powder produced from skimmed milk by above mentioned process. The three
principal stages in converting fluid skim milk into MSNF are:
1. Preheating of the fluid Milk
2. Condensing
3. Drying
Variations of conditions existing in any of these treatments can change the
characteristics of finished material. General composition of MSNF required for
Bakery product is given in the following table.

Requirement of extra Grade MSNF

Spray Process Roller Process
Composition
(Not more than) (Not more than)
Milk fast 1.25% 1.25%
Moisture 4.0% 4.0%
Scorched particles 15 mg. 22.5 mg.
Bacterial Estimate (Per gm) 50,000 50,000
Solubility Index 1.25 ml 15.0 ml.
Titratable Acidity 0.15% 0.15%

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

Q.1 What are different types of leavening agents used in bakery?

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5.6 Sweetener
Sweetener is an essential ingredient of almost all the bakery products. These
sweeteners can affects the taste, texture and appearance of sealed product to an
appreciable extent depending on the proportion and the types of sweetener most
commonly used are sucrose. Sweeteners can be divided as follow:
1. Corn Starch Sweeteners
2. Sucrose and invert sugar
3. Other sweeteners.

5.6.1 Corn Starch

This is the cheapest and most commonly used sweetening agent in the industry
in the form of liquid syrups and dried corn syrups. These are hydrolysed products
of corn starch and sometimes have functional advantage over sugar.

Two important characteristics of corn syrups are Dextrose Equivalent (DE) and
degree Baume. Dextrose Equivalent gives the information about the sweetness
viscosity and preservative quality of the material and degree brume, the solid
content.

Corn syrup commonly known a liquid glucose is chiefly produced from maize and
potato starches. In the manufacturing process starch is hydrolysed under high
pressure in the presence of hydrochloric and the product from the hydrolysed is
neutralized, de-odorized. Extent of hydrolysis is controlled to produce syrup of
required dextrose equivalent.

According to the conversion liquid glucose can be divided as:

Low conversion : Having Dextrose equivalent value of less than40

Regular conversion : Having DE value from 50-57.
High Conversion : Having DE value of 58-64.

Corn syrups some time are specially treated to reduce mineral content and to
improve flavouring properties.

Quality Control of Corn Syrup: Refractive index and density of the syrup give
fairly good indication of total solids content which is ultimately important for the
takers. Degree Baume is the specification quoted for the density and can be
determined by special hydrometers. Because of the high viscosity determination
is made at 140 of and as an arbitrary correction 1.00 Baume is added to the
reading. Corn syrup solid and dextrose are prepared by drying corn syrups. The
normal mixture content of these products lies between 3 to 3.5%. These are
generally available as 42DE.

5.6.1 Sucrose
Refined sugar commercially known as Sucrose is derived from sugar cane or
sugar beet. It contains about 99.8% sucrose, with less than 0.05% moisture,
about 0.05% invert sugar and other carbohydrates and traces of as. Granulated
sugars of different particle size are used for icings, frostings , uncooked candies

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and for dusting on finished products . Sugar of the fine particle sizes tend to cake
badly if stored for long periods of time. This problem can be alleviated by adding
about 3% of corn starch or, less often, 1% tri-calcium phosphate during grinding,
some of the bakeries have their own pulverising plants to get sugar of required
sieve analysis.

Invert Syrups: The mixture of dextrose and levulose in equal weights produced
by heating a sucrose in the presence of an acid of certain enzymes of called
“Invert Sugar". By this treatment the sugar requires more sweetness and also
more concentrated solution can be prepared. Common types of these invert
syrups or invert sugars contain 73-76% solid with 30-60% invert. Total inverted
syrups contain 72-73% solids.

Honey: Honey due to the cost factor, is not used as sweetening but as flavouring
agent in honey cakes and gateaux. The flavour of honey which is distinctive
varies with the type of nectar which is used by bees in its production. Typical
analysis would be -water 17.2% protein 0.3%, Ash 0.2%, Carbohydrates 82.3%
and no fat. The sugars are mostly D glucose and D fructose with substantial
percentages of sucrose and traces of several other sugars.

Molasses: Juices extracted from sugar bearing plants and concentrated by

boiling are called molasses. These thick syrups contain .Other substance
besides sugar that are present in plant juice. Open kettle molasses is produced
in West Indies by boiling cane juice until most of the water has been evaporated.
Blackstrap molasses is the final molasses removed in the sugar manufacturing
process.

Brown sugar: Brown sugar from cane syrups results from stopping the
purification process short of the final steps so that some of the molasses
flavouring ingredients are retained in the finished product. Brown sugar is made
by adding can molasses to fully refined sugar crystals. Total sugar content
ranges from 90 to 95% and moisture from about 2.4% brown sugars are
composed of very small crystals.

5.6.1 Other Sweeteners

Saccharin: For all practical purposes, saccharin is the only non-nutritive
sweetening agent being used by bakers and confectioners, although number of
new artificial sweeteners are investigated. It is sodium salt of 2,3 dihydro-3
oxobenzino -sulphomazol. In acid from an aqueous solution, it is about 300 to
500 times sweeter than sugar but does not exactly match to its flavour. In some
of the bakery products, like cookies and crackers substitution of sugar by
saccharin my lead to the difficulty in providing adequate bulk and texture. To
avoid the this difficulty sorbitol or monnitoal may also be incorporated in the
product formulation.

5.7 Egg
Eggs are used in bakery and confectionery as a result of their emulsifying
leavening, tenderizing and binding actions. They have power of entrapping air
when they are whipped there by forming stiff and stable flour which can be

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further improved by the addition of citric or lactic acid, Liquid whole eggs and the
frozen and dried products derived from them vary in composition depending upon
the characteristic of the shell eggs used in breaking operation. Many
specifications for frozen whole egg require a minimum solid content of 26% and
some years ago this was valid. Fresh egg consists of about 30% yolk, of about
58% egg white or albumen and about 12% of shell. The average composition of
yolk and whites are:
Whites % Yolk %
Moisture 87.0 50
Protein 12.5 16
Fat 0.3 32
Mineral salts 0.6 0.8

White part or albumen mainly contributes to the forming properties of the egg.
Yolks alone cannot be beaten into stiff foam because of their high fat content.
The colour of whole eggs and egg yolks depends to a very great extent upon the
plant pigments which are in the feed the chicken, and it may vary with the season
source, method of processing and other factors. The glucose in egg white leads
of the development of off flavours and darkening during storage as a result of the
non-enzymatic browning. In manufacture of dried albumen or dried whole egg
glucose is removed by fermentation or by enzymatic oxidation. The percentage
of glucose in yolk is about half that in white and is less of a storage problem. One
whole egg shell aerates its own weights of flour and if smaller amount of egg is
used in the composition some baking powder has also to be included. Frozen or
dried eggs are almost as good as fresh eggs if properly made.

Eggs are used in bakery and confectionery as a result of their emulsifying

leavening, tenderizing and binding action. They have power of entrapping air
when they are whipped thereby forming a stiff and stable foam which can further
be improved by the addition of citric or lactic acid.

Dried Eggs
There are four drying procedures which are used to make dried egg albumen.
1) Pan Drying
In this process a very thin layer of egg white is placed in shallow pans. A current
of hot air is blown over it. The dry crystals so formed are ground to a powder and
packed for use in bakery products.

2) Foam Drying
It is similar to that if pan drying except that albumen is foamed by whipping
before it is put in the drier and layers so formed are thicker.

3) Spray drying
Most of the dried albumen available in the market is produced by spray drying
which yields a product entirely satisfactory for most of the purposes when
dehydration conditions are carefully controlled.

4) Freeze Drying
This method is relatively expensive but the product is of good quality with virtually
no heat damage. In the process the egg white is first frozen and then subjected
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to vacuum treatment to remove water vapours. Depending upon the conditions,
both frozen and dried eggs deteriorate in storage. Quality of the raw eggs is more
important in this regard. In general frozen eggs retain more of the original
properties. Powdered dried eggs are easy to use and store but reconstitution and
sequence of addition are critical factors for their use in bakery products.

One kg of whole egg solids are mixed with 4 kgs. of water to yield the equivalent
of 4 kgs of liquid whole egg. The part of dried, yolk plus 1.25 parts of water is the
appox. Equivalent of 2.25 parts of fresh or frozen parts of liquid white. These
rations can be treated as a guide for reconstitution of eggs.

An egg yolk contributes colour, flavour, shortness and an emulsifying action to

the bakery products while albumen contribute towards the natural properties i.e.
texture characteristics. Egg whites should cause the change in flavour if of good
quality. The most common tests which are used to check quality of eggs are test
for protein, fat, total solids and inorganic matter. Odour, taste and colour are
representative of freshness of eggs.

Mixture of eggs and other additives like salt, sugar, corn syrup or cereal such as
defatted soya flour are also available in the market to use in specific products.

5.8 Fruits and Nuts

In bakery products use of fruits and nuts have a unique importance. The
customer tends to evaluate the products as of high quality if costly fruits and nuts
are incorporated in the formulation. Presence of fruits and nuts is clearly
correlated in consumer‟s minds with high quality and they tend to evaluate the
bakery product. Cherry, strawberry, blueberry and peach are some of the
common fruits used. Raisins, currents figs and dates are few dried fruits which
find application in bakery products.

Cherries: Cherries are extensively used in bakery products. These are marketed
in canned, frozen or candied form. Two distinct varieties are canned, the sweet
white fruit and sub acid red or purple fruit. Stage of maturity at harvest
processing conditions and storage conditions are the factors which effect flavour,
firmness and appearance of the cherries. Size established buy grading original
conditions of the cherries is indicated by the number of blemishes present. The
packs of frozen sweet white cherries are packed in plain cans. In syrup
containing erythromine to colur them red, white, purple fruit is packed in
lacquered cans. After filling and covering them with hot syrup, the cans are
exhausted for a few minutes at about 180f the lids are spun on and the cans
cooked for 16 to 20 min at 210 f and cooled Cherries in plain can do not require
any special precaution while that canned in syrup should be given a heat
treatment sufficient to inactive the enzymes in the stores of fruit. These should be
stored in cold condition and avoid the hydrogen swelling sugar syrup or dry sugar
is added to cherries being prepared for freezing. Flavour of strawberries is

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compatible with many kinds of baked foods. Strawberry jams, jellies and their
imitations are desirable. A typical analysis of straw berries is as follows:
%
Moisture 88.6
Protein 0.7
Fat 0.5
Total Carbohydrate 8.4
Ash 0.5
Fibre 1.3

Frozen fruits are greatly preferred to the canned when piece appearance and
fresh flavour are important, and not much of the canned fruit is sold to bakers.
Strawberries are canned only after washing and colouring. Washing removes
adherent soil and sand. Bakers generally prefer frozen strawberries because
frozen fruit has better texture and flavour than canned. Frozen berries without
sugar are packed in plastic lined fibre board boxes while sugared berries are
packed mostly in 10 to 30 lb Tins.

Peanuts: Peanuts are most common nut used in bakery industry as garnishing,
texturising and flavouring ingredient for sweet dough products, cakes and dough
nuts etc. Freshly dry peanuts have a moistures content of 30-39%, which on air
drying of shell drop to 5-10 percent. The roasted peanuts have 0.5 -1.5 percent
moisture contents the same as peanut butter. The average composition of
peanut kernels is as follows:

Peanut Kernel Composition

Ingredient Percentage
Protein 21.0-36.4
Lipids 35.8-54.2
Crude fibre 1.2-4.3
Nitrogen free extracts 6.0-0.3
Reducing Sugars 0.1-0.3
Disaccharide Sugar 1.9-5.2
Starch 1.0-5.3
Pentosons 2.2-2.7
Pentosons 3.9-13.2
Ash 1.8-3.1

These peanuts have a storage life of about one year if kept protected from
infestation and foreign orders. This life reduces by 2/3 if stored after shelling and
by another 2/3rd if stored after blanching and spitting. Chopping and roasting
further the storage life. Then nuts retain their good organoleptic properties when
stored properly. To increase the shell life of stability in or on cookies antioxidants
are added or coatings of rein and acetylated monoglycerides are applied.
Roasted nuts are used for this purpose.

Peanut butter is also used in certain cookie doughs and fillings. The peanut
butter used for cookies should be of special high roast type, roasted to a point
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just short of development of bitterness or scorched flavour. Blanched peanuts are
highly desirable as the raw material. Peanut butter is firstly resistant to the
development of rancidity if stored in light proof containers and protected from
oxygen. Its stability depends to a considerable extent on the conditions to which
the peanuts were subjected before being ground.

Almonds: Almonds are also widely employed nuts in the bakery of confectionery
trade. The average composition of almond as food produce is
Ingredient %
Protein 20.5
Fat 53.5
Available Carbohydrate 4.3
For most of the applications, kernel i.e. skin removed kernel are used. For this
purpose, almond is treated with hot water at 1800f for about 3 minutes and then
skin is removed by hand or special machines. If long storage life is required
excess of moisture is also removed.

As compared to peanuts an almond are more resistant to rancidity development,

but deteriorates with time and decrease in acceptability is accelerated by
blanching or roasting. Antioxidants are also used to increase the storage life of
roasted nuts. These should be stored at freezing temperature if to be stored for
several months. Moisture -proof and inert resistant packaging is used for room
temperature storage. A useful composition for some bakery foods is made of the
following ingredients mixed to a smooth paste.

Ingredient Parts
Kernel paste 15
Granulated sugar 12
Flour 4
Eggs 2
Water 2
Almond paste 7.5

Coconut: Dried meat of ripe coconut is generally used for cookies and other
bakery products. Sometimes further processing is also done to change the
texture appearance and taste etc. i.e. these are cooked with sugar and glycerol
or roasted. When included in cookies dough thin nut usually increase the spread.
Shredded particles are more effective than fine particles in this respect.
Sweetened coconut is more expensive than the unsweetened and contains about
39% of fat, 53% of carbohydrate and 3% water. Plastic coconut is a dried meat
finely ground. Liberation of oil through the rupture of the cell wall causes the
product to feel softer than the granular dried material. Coconut syrup and
coconut honey made by cooking sugar with freshly ground coconut meat is also
available in the market. Coloured coconut shreds are also used in some of the
products. To give a nut like flavour and crisp texture to the cookie toasted
coconuts may be used.

Pecans: These are highly decorative and flavourful ingredients used in bakery
foods. Before use pecans are cured for about three weeks at room temperature
in dry stage. By this treatment, moisture content of the meat is reduced to about
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4.5%. Free fatty acids and peroxide value of the lipids increase ad tannins of the
seed coat oxidize with a resultant colour change from pale to medium brown.
This thin treatment imparts to the pecans characteristic appearance, aroma,
flavour and texture. If fresh flavour is to be retained for more than three months,
storage temperature of 400f and 70 to 80%. Rh value are necessary. At 0f the in
shell kernel retains good quality for more than five years period.

To double the shell life pecans meat is heated to an internal temperature of 176
0f in dry air or in oil by inactivating the oxidative enzymes. Higher temperature
treatment up to 365of for 15 minutes destroys natural antioxidants but increase
but increase the aroma and flavour many times. This is good for baked foods but
have unfavourable implications for cookies and frozen baked foods.

Raisins are dried grapes of Muscat or Thompsen seedless variety. These are
mostly used in highly moisture bakery products. Before use, these are often
soaked and are brought to moisture content in equilibrium with that of dough and
mixed with it. But excessive soaking leads to the effusion of aid and sugar into
the dough with consequent deleterious effects and also makes the fruit
susceptible to breakage during mixing. Addition of 6 kgs of hot water to 100 kgs
of fruit and allowing the mixture to stand for 3-5 hrs is sufficient to soften the fruit
and permit its use in cookies. Normally raisin has a moisture content of 15-17%
and will be in equilibrium of about 50% at room temperature.

The currant is a small and dark grape which yields a small raisin of quality for
baked goods when dried. Typical analysis of raisin is given:

Analysis of Raisin
%
Moisture 16.1
Crude Fibre 0.9
Nitrogen 0.5
Ash 1.8
Acidity 1.6
Total Sugar 71.0

5.9 Shortening
Shortenings are essential components of bakery products. The kind and amount
of shortenings and emulsifiers in the formula affect both the machining response
of the doughs and the quality of the finished product. Shortening may be
classified either on the basis of their chemical or physical characteristics, the raw
materials from which they are made, or the application for which they are
intended. The most popular diversion of shortening is as follows:
1. Natural
2. Modified

1. Natural Shortening: Under this heading the natural fats and oils come. They
are vegetable oils. Amongst these vegetable oil is used as shortening in India.
Mainly soybean oil, cottonseed oil are the principal raw materials for

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hydrogenated vegetable oil shortening. Where blend flavours, good creaming
properties or vegetable origin are important, hydrogenate fats prepared from
soybean or cottonseed oil is the shortening of choice and they are used in
breads, rolls, pastry and icing etc. Colorant oil is widely used in the cracker and
cookie industry as a spray fat, and in fillings and coatings. Cocoa butter is an
essential part of pure chocolate coatings and is used in a few other special
formulas.

2. Modified Shortening: Modified shortening include liquid shortening. They are

made by processes known as hydrogenation.

Emulsifiers: Emulsifiers are surface active agents which are mainly noted for
their ability to promote the formation and improve the stability of emulsions. In
bakery foods, they may have desirable functions apparently unrelated to their
emulsifying action. There are very potent emulsifiers which cannot be used in
food stuffs because of legal restriction. A few are acceptable in most
standardized foods however and several more are permitted for non-
standardized foods. In bakery foods they may have desirable functions
apparently unrelated to their emulsifying action. There are very potent emulsifiers
which cannot be used in food stuffs because of legal restriction. A few are
acceptable in most standardized foods, however and several more are permitted
for non-standardized foods. In bakery foods they may be desirable functions
apparently unrelated to their emulsifying actions. Emulsifiers are used in bakery
foods to improve palatability, texture and sales appeal. They inhibit forming of
crumb associated with selling retarding the rate at which starch Crystallises.
GMS is important emulsifiers. It is used to increase the shape of the cake.
Emulsifiers used in the bakeries are mono and diglycerides propylene glycol,
sorbitol etc.

Antioxidants: Antioxidants are materials which can retard the development of

certain of odours during storage of fat containing foods. Although antioxidants
are of little importance for preserving high moisture bakery products such as
bread and cakes, they may be needed in crackers, cookers and snack products
which are expected to remain edible for several months. In addition, antioxidants
are usually added to bulk shortening since the conditions of storage and length of
storage create the danger of rancidity development. Rancidity means
development of objectionable odour and flavour due to decomposition of fatty
matters. At the present time, only three chemical compounds are commercially
important as antioxidant for foods. They are
1. Butylated hydroxyabusole (BHA)
2. Butylated hydroxyabusole (BHT)
3. Propyl gailate
Citric acid or phosphoric acid may be added to improve the effectiveness of
antioxidant.

5.10 Flavours and Colours

Flavour plays an important role in bakery products as they contribute something
to the odour or taste of finished product. The fruit fillings in the pies ard other
pastries dominate the character of the product. In the case of bread the addition

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of non fat dry milk to the dough improves the crust colour, creates the water
absorption and modifies dough handling properties. All spices should be stored in
a cool airy and dry room. Following are some of the common spices used as
flavouring agent in bakery products.
Cinnamon
Cloves
Ginger
All spices
Cardamom seed
Poppy seed
Vanilla

Vanilla: Vanilla is the fruit of an orchid cultivated in tropical and semitropical

countries. The pods are cured in special ways to bring out the characteristic
aroma and taste of vanilla. Although the ground pods may be used, it is common
to use its alcoholic extract incorporating all the desirable flavour notes. These
extracts are aged in glass or stainless steel containers to improve the flavouring
properties.

Oleoresin of vanilla is prepared by evaporating the filtered extract of commented

vanilla beans under vacuum. These are diluted with solvent to give 10 fold
extracts and solid.

Synthetic vanilla is a mixture vanillin and ethyl vanillin is almost perfectly

acceptable substitute for the natural product. Being considerably cheaper than
natural extract it is finding more and more use in conventional bakery products.

Volatile components of both synthetic and natural extracts tend to be lost in the
baking process the later being quicker to be distilled. The loss is greatest at
elevated temperatures and in products baked almost to dryness, such as
cookies.

Cocoa Products: Coca is a chocolate from which fatty material has been
removed. Mostly it is done by pressing but solvent extraction method is also
used. Chocolate is prepared from seeds of an evergreen free of the genus,
Theobroma. After removing the seeds from pads and fermenting them to
facilitate the removal of surrounding pulp, they are dried or cured. These are then
roasted and further loosen the outer covering and develop the desirable flavour.
After removing the hull and the germ the remaining part called nib is subjected to
colloidal size and develops the texture which is characteristic of chocolate liquor
called baker's chocolate.

Although liquor chocolate is superior in the taste and aroma cocoa perform quite
adequately in bakery foods and is mostly used by bakers being considerably
cheaper.

Fat content, particle size, colour, PH, moisture content, flavour and micro-
biological contamination are the quality control tests employed by the purchaser
to check the product . It is more important to get fine ground cocoas for use in
icings and fillings than for doughs batters. Very find powder may be described as
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0.5% move on 325 mesh screen. For batters 0.5% move on 200 mesh screen is
satisfactory particle size.

Colour: Colour used in bakery products are purchased as compounded mixtures

in liquid or gel form designed for easy measuring. Coloured products in the trade
are restricted to decorative adjuncts made from yellow doughs. In addition to the
natural colours chemically synthesized dyes and their lakes are also used. Lakes
are water soluble dyes absorbed on insoluble subtracts.

Caramel Colour: Caramel is extensively use in breads to impart peculiar colour

and flue. It gives the baker flexibility in adjusting the colour without affecting it is
manufactured by heat treating high DE corn syrup, in the presence of certain
alkalis and is very dark syrup of about 1 lbs. per gallon density, having very low
viscosity. Depending on the amount used, it imparts varying shades to the bakery
products. The colour of finished products may range from light tarnish yellow to
very dark brown. Amount to be used varies from 1 to 5% of the weight of flour.

Dough improves and yeast food: There are mixtures of several inorganic salts
and starch flour. These ingredients have following functions to perform:

1. Gluten oxidising agents such as potassium bromate, potassium iodate, or

calcium peroxide.
2. Calcium salts in the form of phosphates and sulfates, which correct
hardness of dough water and provide some additional buffering action.
3. Ammonium salts to supply nitrogen in a form which can be used by yeast
for protein building.

Following are some of the typical dough improver formulation.

Ingredient %
1. Starch and moisture 40.49
Calcium Sulphate 24.93
Sodium Chloride 24.93
Ammonium 9.38
Potassium Bromate 0.27

2 Dicalcium Phosphate 90.00

Di-ammonium Phosphate 9.00
Calcium Peroxide 0.65
Starch 0.35

3. Mono Calcium Phosphate 50.06

Starch and Moisture 23.36
Sodium Chloride 19.35
Ammonium Sulphate 7.01
Potassium Bromate 0.12
Potassium Iodate 0.10

Amount to be used varies from 0.25 to 0.5% depending on the type of the
product.
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Inhibitors of Microbiological Spoilage: It is the mould growth spoilage with
which baker is concerned. There are a number of chemicals used as fungicides
by bakers. Sodium and calcium salts of propionic acid and sodium di-acetate are
used with good results. Calcium or sodium propionate to the extent of 0.32% of
the dour weight my be increased in the case of whole wheat or gram bread and
rolls to about 0.38% on the basis of whole wheat flour used.

Oxidising Agents: Oxidising agents are added to the bakery product to produce
larger volume increase, brighter crum, better texture and improved appearance
of the finished loaf as a result of greater symmetry and darker crust. They have
nothing to do with gas production but act by retaining the gases for the long
periods. Potassium bromate is the most commonly used oxidising agent. Other
chemicals like calcium peroxide and potassium bromate can also be used to
some extent. All these three chemicals act differently. Potassium bromate acts in
the later stages of processing cycle to shorten the fermentation time. Potassium
iodate acts earlier then bromate at high ph value and give sometimes drier dough
with improved machinability. Calcium peroxide gives more pliable and elastic
dough which have a greater oven spring and can be taken with a somewhat
smaller proof. It also increases absorption and must be added at the dough
stage. Dough improvers, should not be incorporated in doughs prepared from
flours which have been already aged or treated with oxidizers at the mill stage
otherwise these my produce inferior quality bread. A larger amount of bromate
may be needed when short fermentation time, low dough temperature, soft
doughs, small addition of yeast, short times of fermentation

Time (hrs.) 3-5 4

Temperature 80-84 82

Manufacturing: Soda crackers are made from laminated doughs. For lamination
or sheet making reversible dough brakes or automatic laminators are used. The
number of sheets on one machine varies form plant to plant but is definitely not
less than 6 or 7 to have the full benefit of automatic machine operation. The
fermentation process is simple and similar to general yeast leavened products,
however a few special consideration for soda crackers of which a baker should
have knowledge are discussed here. In general acidity development and rate of
gas evolution are dependent on temperature of sponge and is function of
temperature at which the sponge is set and fermentation room temperature for a
particular formulation. In addition it is also related to dough composition in the
following manner:

1. Absorption: The greater is the percentage of water in composition, the faster

is the fermentation.

2. Salt: This ingredient inhibits fermentation.

3. Sugars: Sugars added in form of sucrose, corn syrup or invert syrups are
rapidly consumed by bacteria and yeast, both.

4. Amylolytic Enzymes: Mono-saccharides of the dough are first consume by

the yeast. After this almost quickest adaptation period starts and then maltose
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split off from starch by amylolytic enzymes can be metabolized. Any loses are
present in good quantity in malt and fungal supplements, however, flour also
contain these enzymes.

The soda percentage shown in the formulation is only representative of typical

formulations and correct amount should be determined based on the ph required
in the bake crackers. Thus the sodium bicarbonate percentage is in practical
sense is related to the acid produced during fermentation. Acidity to be
compensated for by addition of soda can be manufactured. For this PH readings
on the doughs can be used as a rough guide for soda supplementation. Although
these are only indirectly related to acid development, the determination, total
tritable acidity being difficult and time consuming, is invariably used in practice.

There is a loss of about 2.3% due to the evolution of ethanol and carbon dioxide
during the fermentation process. It is desirable to keep this loss at minimum
without sacrificing the flavour and other desirable qualities. The only way to keep
it at a minimum is by keeping fermentation time at the shortest possible length
consistent with a quality cracker. Addition of ripe sponges or a fermented broth
for flavour purposes are other possible approaches to minimising fermentation
losses.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-III

Q.1 What is the use of egg in bakery?
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Q.2 Write short note on use of fruits and nuts in baked products.
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5.11 Cake Making

The basic ingredients of cakes are flour, shortening, eggs, sugar, and milk. Eggs
will aerate approximately their own weight of flour and consequently if more flour
than eggs is used a cake recipe baking powder must be added to aerate the
surplus flour. Cakes are chemically leavened bakery products which depend on
the reactions of sodium bicarbonate and leavening acids for the expensive effect
exerted during baking. Other essential ingredients of the cakes are flour, sugar,
milk, shortenings and eggs etc.

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THE FLOUR: As is the case with all bakery products, flour serves as a basic
structural element in the cakes also. However, the use of relatively smaller
amounts of flour, the weaker (less extensible) protein in the soft wheat flours,
which are customarily employed , and the lower amount of protein in the flour in a
softer, crumblier, texture in cakes and other similar products. The protein of the
flour is mostly inadequate in quantity and quality to support an expansion of the
extent found in quantity and quality to support an expansion of the extent found
in bread so that they are of higher density comparatively. Important specifications
for some of the flours used in cakes are:

Soft Straight flour %

Extraction 72
Ash (14% moisture) 0.38
Protein (14% moisture) 8.2

Soft Short patent flour %

Extraction 35
Ash(14%moisutre ) 0.3
Protein(14%moisture) 7.5

Baker's Patent Flour

Extraction 65
Ash(14%moisture) 0.34
Protein (14%moisture) 7.9
Extraction 10
Ash 0.68
Protein 9.9
Extraction of flour is based on wheat.

SUGAR: In cakes sugars have a tenderising effect and promote the colouring of
the crust in addition to their sweetening properties. Invert sugars and glucose
give better crust colour. Sucrose in contrast to the case with yeast leavened
doughs of breads and rolls. Sugar strain moisture in crumb and thereby retard
staling. Again due to their lower molecule weight and consequently greater
osmotic effect glucose and invert sugars are more effective than sucrose on
weight for weight basis. As the sugar concentration increases, the butter has a
tendency to become more liquid and so entertain less air under these conditions.

SHORTENING: During the mixing operation shortenings act to entrap air in the
cake batters. These air buddies not only contribute directly to the leavening effect
but also help to control grain size by serving as foci for gas evolution.
Shortenings also tenderize the crumb and may contribute slightly to the flavour of
the product. Emulsified shortenings also contribute to tenderness and resistance
to staling finished product.

EGG: The deficiency of the gluten in cake batters are remedied to some extent
by using whites in the formulation. Proteins of the egg form the vehicle wall in
combination with the gluten and permit the entrapment of the air during mixing. In
case of angel food cakes the entire leavening effect is obtained from the air
enclosed by the egg white during vigorous whipping. The egg proteins
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themselves do no have sufficient mechanical strength to withstand oven
expansion or handling after baking and do not contribute the texture desired in
the cakes. These characteristics are obtained from the cakes only. Egg yolks
contribute emulsifying and tenderising effects. Eggs also contribute flavour and
are an important source of colour.

Milk: Due to its lactose content, which is a reducing sugar, milk performs the
function of accentuating the crust colour. While skim milk makes the cakes cramp
tougher, this effect is balanced by the lubricating or tenderizing action of milk fat
in the case of whole milk.

Formulation Guidelines: Based on the flour weight sugar should be 110-180%

in devils and chocolate layers, 110-160% in white layers and again 110-160% in
yellow layers. Shortening should tall in the range rate should be 1.2% and salt 3-
4% of the flour weight. Eggs as liquid eggs should be equal or exceed the
shortening percentage. Total liquid including the water in the eggs is increased.
Additional water is usually not added when formula contains dry milk , but if water
in formulation is not sufficient to equal the reconstitution water for milk add about
1% of water for each additional percentage of milk solids . If the amount of sugar
in a formula is increased the egg content should be increased on equal amount.
Batter bake in large pieces size requires less water and less leavened than those
baked in small piece sizes. Also such formulae need less chemical leavening
because they incorporate more air during mixing. The batters display lower
specific gravity and perform better at a lower baking temperature. Recommended
temperature for cake batters is 360-400of depending on the type, size and shape
of the cake. It is essential to use high emulsifying shortening in cakes which have
a high proportion of sugar to flour the so called high ratio cakes.

CAKE PROCESSING
1. Single stage mixing.
2. Two stage mixing.
3. Creaming method.
4. Blending
5. Sugar and Water method.

SINGLE STAGE MIXING: Single stage mixing process is the simplest of them
all consists of during all of the ingredient into the mixer bowl and beating them
with the wire whip or batter beater until they are homogeneous. Usually the batter
is beaten at low speed for 1-3 min or until the dry ingredients have been welted
and then the mixer is turned to high speed or second near the end of mixing
penool or adding the eggs near the end with a total mixing time much reduced
from the normal . The obvious advantage of this process is the saving of time
which results . Disadvantages are said to be poorer grain texture and volume in
the finished product.

TWO STAGE BATTERS: Two stage batters are mixed by placing of the dry
ingredients and part of the liquid materials into the bowl and mixing until
homogeneous or creamed mass results. The remainder of the liquids is then
added, usually gradually, and the mixing completed. Variations in this method
usually involve changes in the stage at which the eggs are added. The creaming
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process requires that the sugar and shortening be beaten until a light and fluffy
(creamed) mass is obtained. The eggs are then added while creaming is
continued at medium speed, and finally the milk and flour are added alternately,
in small portions. This method allows entrapment of a maximum number of small
air bubbles in the fat with a consequent good effect on the grain in the finished
product. It also does not develop the flour gluten as much as some of the other
methods and this improves the texture of the cake somewhat.

THE BLENDING METHOD: The blending method requires the placing of flour
and shortening in the mixing bowl and blending them together until the flour
particles are thoroughly coated by the fat. The remainder of the dry ingredients is
then added and the batter mixed until it is homogeneous. Finally, the remaining
liquid is added in portions and the mixing continued for a predetermined period. A
modification which is frequently used requires that the sugar and eggs be beaten
together to form a foam before they are added to the flour and shortening
mixture. The chief advantage of the blending method is that it permits a very
thorough dispersion of the shortening throughout the better. This results in a very
fine and uniform grain. On the other hand, the blending method does require
more time and the use of more equipment than for example, the single stage
method. Player (1952) says that cakes made by this method are tougher and
have lower volume.

COMMON FAULTS IN CAKES

1. Texture Defects: Under baking and improper cooling before packaging are
common causes of gumminess, doughtiness or chewiness. Toughness may be
caused by using too strong a flour, overtaking, inadequate amounts of water,
over mixing with consequent over development of the gluten, inadequate amount
of water and shortening.

2. Defects of Crust Appearance: on homogeneous batter may cause spotted

crust. The bubbles in the crust which may also produce spotted crust can also be
caused by unsuitable type of leaveners, or batters which are too viscous or
excessive oven heat. Crust bursting may also be caused due to high baking
temperatures, or over mixing, too much flour or flour which is too strong. Low
temperature baking may result in pale coloured crust and excessively high
temperature baking may cause too dark coloured crusts. Dark coloured crust
may also be caused due to the use of too much sugar particularly the reducing
sugars. Pale crust colour may also result from under scaling with resultant
shielding of the top crust from the radiant heat by the pan sides.

3. Too low volume: Insufficient shortening in the formulation may cause low
volume of the cakes. Under mixing may also result in low volume due to the
reduced aeration of the batter. Improper balance of ingredients on their improper
type especially the flour and the shortening can also reduce the expected volume
markedly. Also if the batters allowed standing too long at too high a temperature,
an initially adequate leavening action may be lost as a result of premature
reaction of the bicarbonates and the leavening acids.

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4. Irregular or coarse Grain: Some ingredients, particularly the dried milk,
solids, when improperly stored, will form agglomerates which are indestructible
by the usual mixing procedure and this may result in the presence of undissolved
spots of material in the crumb. Under baking may cause wet streaks. Too cold an
oven can cause the grain to be open. Excessively high bottom heat during baking
may produce tunnels and large holes at the bottom of the cake. Both under
mixing and over mixing can create a coarse, open grain in the finished product.

CAKE ICINGS
These are the materials used for decoration of cakes and bakery products.
Consistency i.e. coherence and firmness or the ability to be spread and to stay
firm are the properties desired of these products. As these are the sweet
covering or coatings in which sugar is the main constituent. Sugar and water are
main ingredients of icings .In the manufacture water dissolves some of the sugar
crystals to form syrup which surrounds and holds together the other particles.

Some Guidelines for Icing Preparation: The time of setting in an icing depends
considerably upon its moisture content. Icing with less of water set more quickly,
therefore it is good practice to use least amount of water. Flat icings , e.g. plain
water icings should contain 11 to 13% water, those will large amount of fat
should contain less and those with water absorbing materials e.g. cocoa, more
icing containing gelatine or eggs should be made with 15 to 21% of water
content.

It is difficult to easily handle thickening, it is good practice to add a little of sugar

syrup or keep it warm rather than to add water. On warming the syrup and the
fats become more fluid, allowing sugar crystals to slide by each other more
easily. Of course this is not applicable to icings made fluffy by shortening.

For dipping purposes, flat icing can be made thin by adding sugar syrup made up
of 2kgs. of sugar dissolved in 1 kg of water. Warming the icing to about 100 of
also make it thin. Warmed icings needs less or no extra syrup for thinning and
therefore set more quickly and require less time for surface drying.

Flavours Development in Icings: By bringing few changes in formulation and

manufacturing technique different flavours can be developed icings for variety.
For instance, caramel flavour is developed by making two changes in a cold
processing made of water and sugar. Milk is used instead of water and part of
sugar is replaced by brown sugar. Again, sugar and milk are cooked to develop
universally appealing caramel flavour. To obtain the flavour of butter scotch, milk
is replaced by butter. By blending sugar, butter and milk together and cooking the
blend, a rich flavour of cream of fudge is obtained. When chocolate and milk are
combined in the formulation milk chocolate is obtained.

Fluffy Icings: When butter and creamy fats are creamed with powdered sugar,
they take on the air. Whole eggs, egg yolks or egg whites are also added for
smoothness and loudly and to help water mix more readily with fat. The light and
fluffy icing so produced when applied make the cakes look larger and also the
increase in bulk alters the consistency and makes the operations easy. For cold

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process fluffy icings dried egg white, which has been dissolved previously or
whole egg white is simply beaten with icing sugar.

RECIPES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF ICING

Chocolate Icing
Chocolate powder 100 gms
Confectioners sugar 500 gms
Vanilla essence a few drops or as desired
Water 20 gms or as required

Blend chocolate and about 100 gms of sugar in a container. Now take rest of
sugar in separate container and add warm water in such an amount that the
resultant mixture when mixed produced a cream-like product. Add vanilla
essence and mix again. Take this container in hot water bath and add slowly the
previously prepared blend of chocolate and sugar in small amount with continued
stirring. To get the final product of creamy consistency a little of water may also
be added. When whole of the blend has been added continue mixing for few
minutes and cool slightly. The icing is now ready for decoration.

Batter Icing
The icing in addition to the decoration can also be used for filling purposes. The
Formulation is:
Confectioner's sugar 450 gms.
Butter 350 gms.
Flavour and colour as desired
Sugar and butter are mixed thoroughly to obtain a consistent creamy product,
flavour and colour is then mixed, the icing is ready.

Water Icings
This is a mixture of confectioner sugar and boiling water, with flavour and colour
as desired. Boiling water is slowly added to the sugar with continuous stirring to
obtain workable consistency cream. Flavour and colour are next mixed. This is a
soft type of icing is also prepared from sugar and water with a difference that
warm water is used instead of boiling water. This icing should be used
immediately after preparation and not kept for a long time. For cake size 20 cm.
about 100 gms. Of icing will be required for decoration.

Royal Icing
Ingredients
Confectioners sugar 300 gms
White of egg 2 nos
Lemon juice 1 ml
Glycerin 1 ml
Colour as required
White of egg should be separated carefully from the rest of the portion otherwise
whole of the icing may get spoiled .Beat the white of the eggs till it is hard. Now
add to it lemon juice and again beat to obtain a thick and light mass. Mix this
mass and the sugar thoroughly along with the required colour to make the icing.
Care should be taken to keep all the containers used in the preparation away
from the contact with any shortening.
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Icing Paste (General) %
Confection's sugar 60
Corn syrup 30
Glycerine 8
Shortening 2
Total 100
The materials are melted in heated and stirred vessel and stirring continued till
cold. Colour and fruit flavour are then added to obtain desired flavoured icing
cream.

Vanilla Icing
Sugar (powder) 26 kgs.
Corn syrup 1.0kg
Egg white 800 gms.
Hot water 5.0 lit
Vanilla bean extract 175 gms.
The icing is prepared as the icing paste explained above.

Butter Scotch Icing

Brown sugar 3.6 kgs.
Butter 900 gms.
Corn syrup 175 gms
Water 3.2 lit.
Boil all the ingredients in a copper kettle upto 245 of and transfer to a shallow
pan and cool. When cold mix up in mixing bowl and grain off.

Butter Scotch paste Icing

Brown sugar 10 kgs.
Skimmed milk powder 4 kgs.
Butter 5 kgs.
Water 8 lit.
Mix together dried milk, powder and water.
Scorch the butter in a kettle, add brown sugar and sur. Heat to 260 of and to thin
hot syrup add milk, prepared as above, and again cook cup 230of , stirring
continued vigorously.

Banana Icing
Mix and whip together:
Cake flour 5 kgs
Shortening 10 kgs
Slat 300 gms
And add about 8 litres of water continuing mixing. Then add 50 kg of
confectioner's sugar and 10 kgs. of banana paste and mix upto a good consistent
light icing .

Caramel Boiled Icing

Boil together 6 kgs. brown sugar and 2 kgs. water to a temperature of 240 of .
Take 2 kgs. egg white, one kilogram sugar and 60 gms.of salt. Start egg white
beating when syrup reaches 200 of . Beat half way up and add sugar , salt and
beat well till the icing is firm.
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Honey Macaroon Icing
Cream the following ingredients in a mixing machine.
Shortening 1 kg.
Skim milk powder 200 gms.
Salt 35 gms.
Mix together the following separately.
Honey 325 gms.
Brown sugar 1 kgs.
Water 800 gms.
Vanilla as desired
Blend first and second, mix together and add 1 kg. of confectioner's sugar and
whip whole to the light consistency.

Spice cake Icing

The formulation for one of the old fashioned spice cake icing is:
Sugar 5 kgs.
Shortening 1.25 kgs.
Salt 65 gms.
Spice blend 45 gms.
Skim milk powder 250 gms.
Pastry flour 250 gms.
Place all the ingredients in mixing machine and cream at high speed for about 10
minutes Add ground raisings 275 gms. and again mix for about 2 minutes until
consistent icing is obtained .

Butter Cream Icing

Mix up the following ingredients:
Sugar powdered 10 kgs.
Milk Powder 2 kgs.
Shortening 5 kgs.
Eggs 0.70 kg.
Vanilla Flavour as desired
Salt 90 gms.
Add to the above mix about 10 kgs. of boiled meringue icing.

5.12 Qualities In Baked Products

Texture is the term used to describe the characteristic of a finished food product.
Variety includes some hard and soft food in meal, so that the amount of chewing
required is varied. This is the one of the point that is considered while planning a
menu. The menu includes dishes that have different textures as soft, crisp, hard,
smooth etc. All the mentioned factors contribute to the concept of texture. The
texture, as related to food is not an entity in itself, but rather the accumulated
effect of several characteristics such as:
 Appearance
 Feel to touch
 Softness
 Mouth feel

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Appearance: This is the first factor in the appreciation of the food. The size,
shape and distribution of cells are of prime importance. Ideally the holes should
be comparatively small, slightly oval or elongated and evenly distributed. Large
cells (holes) produces coarseness to the eye, as in cake and breads.

Feel to Touch: The perceptiveness to touch should be exact as it is desired to

be. E.g. a sponge cake should be light and spongy.

Softness: It is the characteristic of texture and the product should possess the
resiliency (springiness) to gradually return to its normal shape as soon as
pressure applied id released. Ex. Idlis, Breads etc.

Mouth Feel: Texture involves feels or bite tenderness Ex. Dry, soft, wet, hard,
firmness, crumbliness and short. Observation, experience, preparing foods, by
adding ingredients and incorporating and applying the right principles (combining,
mixing, fractionation etc.) has a definite bearing in the result.

TYPES OF TEXTURES
Firm and Close: Raising agents added raise the food, the volume is increased.
The holes are small and many. The products are crisp and not spongy. E.g.
Biscuits, Tartlets etc.

Short and Crumbly: The product is short and it just melts in the mouth, when
eaten. The right quantity of fat added gets this effect. More fat is added, as it
prevents the mixture from becoming hard and short. It is very similar to firm and
close texture. E.g. Shortbread, Nankhatai, Biscuits, Short crust pastry etc.

Light and Even: There are plenty of holes of more or less the same size. It is
less short than pastry and less spongy than a sponge cake. The product is firm to
touch. E.g. Madeira, Queen cakes etc.

Spongy : The holes (air cells) are small and evenly distributed. as air has been
included. It is soft and elastic to touch as in Idlis, Khaman, Dhokla, Swiss rolls
etc.

Flaky: The products have thin crisp flakes and they are formed by air pockets.
The crispness is due to the method of rubbing fat with the flour. In order to get a
good flaky texture, the right amount of ingredients. Proper mixing and correct
temperature is essential. E.g. Vol-au-vent, Patties, Bouchees, Paratha, Tikona,
Mathis etc.

Smooth: When a dry ingredient is added to a liquid and the blending results in a
smooth texture. E.g. Sauces. Batters. Gravies, Phirnees.

5.12 Summary
In this unit we have discussed about various ingredients that are used in the
bakery such as flour, sweetening agents like Corn starch, Sucrose and other
sweeteners; leavening agent like Chemical leavening agents, Biological

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leavening agents, Mechanical leavening agents, Water vapour, and Combination;
Milk products and its Constituents along with production of milk powder; other
ingredients like Egg, Fruits and Nuts, shortening and flavours and colours
discussed in detail. The cake making and icing for cakes are discussed in the last
section of the unit.

5.13 Answer to Check Your Progress

Check Your Progress-I

Q.1 Refer to section 5.3.1.1
Q.2 Refer to section 5.3.1.3

Check Your Progress-II

Q.1 Refer to section 5.4
Q.2 Refer to section 5.5

Check Your Progress-III

Q.1 Refer to section 5.7
Q.2 Refer to section 5.8

5.14 References/Bibliography
1. Wayne Gisslen, Professional Baking, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. S C Dubey, Basic Baking.

5.15 Terminal Questions

1. Write detailed note on various ingredients used in bakery.
2. What are the various types of bakery flour?
3. Write a detailed note on use of yeast as leavening agent.
4. Write a short note on icing.
5. What are different fruits used in baking?

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UNIT 06: METHODS OF COOKING

Structure
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Heat and Cooking
6.3.1 What is heat?
6.3.2 Effect of Heat on food
6.3.3 Method of heat transfer
Check your Progress-I
6.4 Methods of cooking
6.5 Moist heat Methods of Cooking
6.5.1 Boiling
6.5.2 Poaching
6.5.3 Steaming
6.5.4 Stewing
6.5.5 Braising
6.6 Dry heat Methods of Cooking
6.6.1 Baking
6.6.2 Roasting
6.6.3 Grilling
Check your Progress-II
6.7 Frying
6.8 Modern Methods of cooking
6.8.1 Paper Bag (en papillotte)
6.8.2 Microwave Cooking
Check your Progress-III
6.9 Summary
6.10 Answer to check your progress
6.11 Terminal Questions

6.1 Objectives
After reading this unit the learner will be able to understand:
• Methods of heat transfer
• Effect of heat on food
• Moist heat Methods of Cooking
• Dry heat Methods of Cooking
• Frying
• Modern Methods of cooking

6.2 Introduction
This chapter deals with basic principles. You will learn about what happens to
food when it is heated, about how food is cooked by different methods, and about
rules of seasoning and flavouring. It is important to understand the science of
food and cooking so you can successfully use these principles in the kitchen.

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6.3 Heat and Cooking
To cook food means to heat it in order to make certain changes in it. Skillful
cooks know exactly what changes they want to make and what they have to do
to get them right. To learn these cooking skills, it is important for you to know why
foods behave as they do when heated. For this, you have to study the theory.
Perhaps not all of this section will make sense to you at first. But the ideas
should become clearer to you after you think about them in relation to specific
techniques, as demonstrated by your instructor. Later in your studies, when you
are learning about cooking meats, fish, vegetables, and other foods, review this
section from time to time. Not only will you understand it better but also it should
help you make more sense of the procedures you are learning and practicing.

6.3.1 What Is Heat?

Heat is a form of energy associated with the motion of atoms or molecules. When
a substance absorbs heat, its molecules moves faster. In liquids and gases, the
molecules move more quickly from place to place and bounce off each other
more frequently. In solids, the molecules stay mostly in place, but they vibrate
with more energy. Temperature can be defined as a measure of this molecular
activity. The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules are moving. When
we add enough heat to foods, the molecules may move so fast the structure of
the food changes. For example, sucrose (regular sugar) may break apart and
form new molecules that happen to have a brown colour and the taste of
caramel. Or protein molecules may break apart and reform with a different
structure. Creating these molecular changes is called cooking.

6.3.2 Effect of Heat on Food

Foods are composed of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and water, plus small
amounts of other compounds such as minerals (including salt), vitamins,
pigments (colouring agents), and flavour elements. It is important to understand
how these components react when heated or mixed with other foods. You will
then be better equipped to correct cooking faults when they occur and to
anticipate the effects of changing cooking methods, cooking temperatures, or
ingredient proportions. The following discussion is concerned with the physical
and chemical reactions that affect the components of food.

Carbohydrates : Starches and sugars are carbohydrates. Both compounds are

present in foods in many forms. They are found in fruits, vegetables, grains,
beans, and nuts. Meats and fish also contain a small amount of carbohydrate.
For the cook, the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat
are caramelisation and gelatinization. Caramelization is the browning of sugars.
The browning of sautéed vegetables and thevgolden color of bread crust are
forms of caramelization. Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and
swell. This is a major principle in the thickening of sauces and in the production
of breads and pastries. Acids inhibit gelatinization. A sauce thickened with flour
or starch will be thinner if it contains acid.

Fruit and Vegetable Fibre: Fibre is the name for a group of complex substances
that give structure and firmness to plants. Fibre cannot be digested. The

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softening of fruits and vegetables in cooking is, in part, the breaking down of
fibre. Sugar makes fibre firmer. Fruit cooked with sugar keeps its shape better
than fruit cooked without sugar. Baking soda (and other alkalis) makes fiber
softer. Vegetables should not be cooked with baking soda because they become
mushy and lose vitamins.

Proteins: Protein is a major component of meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and
milk products. It is present in smaller amounts in nuts, beans, and grains.
Proteins consist of long chains of components called amino acids. These chains
normally form tight coils. As proteins are heated, the coils gradually unwind. At
this point, the protein is said to be denatured. For the cook, the important fact
about denaturing is that, when the protein coils unwind, they become attracted to
each other and form bonds. This bonding is called coagulation. The coagulated
proteins form a solid network of bonds and become firm. As the temperature
increases, the proteins shrink, become firmer, and lose more moisture.
Exposure of proteins to excessive heat toughens them and makes them dry.
Most proteins complete coagulation or are cooked at 160°-185°F (71°-85°C).
Many protein foods, such as meats, contain small quantities of carbohydrate.
When proteins are heated to about 310°F (154°C), the amino acids in the protein
chains react with the carbohydrate molecules and undergo a complex chemical
reaction. The result is that they turn brown and develop richer flavours. This
reaction is called the Millard reaction. It is what happens when meat browns.
Because of the high temperature it requires, the Millard reaction takes place only
on the dry surface of the food. Because of its water content, the interior of the
meat cannot get this hot. Connective tissues are special proteins present in
meats. Meats with a great deal of connective tissue are tough, but some
connective tissues are dissolved when cooked slowly with moisture. Cooking
tough meats properly, therefore, makes them tenderer. Acids, such as lemon
juice, vinegar, and tomato products, have two effects on proteins:
• They speed coagulation.
• They help dissolve some connective tissues.

Fats: Fats are present in meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk products, nuts, whole
grains, and, to a lesser extent, vegetables and fruits. Fats are also important as
cooking mediums, as for frying. Fats can be either solid or liquid at room
temperature. Liquid fats are called oils. When solid fats are heated, they melt, or
change from solid to liquid. The melting point of solid fats varies. When fats are
heated, they begin to break down. When hot enough, they deteriorate rapidly and
begin to smoke. The temperature at which this happens is called the smoke
point, and it varies by type of fat. A stable fat-one with a high smoke point-is an
important consideration in deep-fat frying. Many flavour compounds dissolve in
fat, so fats are important carriers of flavour. When fats melt and are lost from
food, some flavours, as well as some vitamins, are lost with them.

Minerals, Vitamins, Pigments, And Flavour Components: Minerals and

vitamins are important to the nutritional quality of the food. Pigments and flavour
components are important to a food's appearance and taste and may determine
whether the food is appetizing enough to eat. So it is important to preserve all
these elements. Some of these components are soluble in water, and others are
soluble in fats. All of these components may be leached out, or dissolved away,
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from foods during cooking. Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by
heat, by long cooking, and by other elements present during cooking. It is
important, then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as possible, a
food's nutrients, taste, and appearance. This is addressed whenever cooking
techniques are explained in the remainder of this book.

Water: Nearly all foods contain water. Dried foods may contain as little as a
fraction of 1 percent water, but fresh meats, fish, vegetables, and fruits consist
mostly of water. Water exists in three states: solid (ice), liquid, and gas (water
vapour or steam). At sea level, pure liquid water becomes solid, or freezes, at
32°F (0°C) and turns to steam at 212°F (100°C). When water molecules turn to
steam and energetically escape into the atmosphere, water is said to be boiling.
Water can also turn from liquid to gas at lower temperatures. When water turns
to gas at any temperature, the process is called evaporation. Evaporation occurs
more slowly the lower the temperature is. Evaporation is responsible for the
drying of foods. The drying of food surfaces as they are cooked enables them to
be browned. Many minerals and other compounds dissolve in water, so water
can be a carrier of flavour and of nutritional value. When water carries dissolved
compounds, such as salt or sugar, its freezing point is lowered and its boiling
point is raised.

6.3.3 Method of Heat Transfer

There are three methods to transfer heat:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

Conduction: This is the transfer of heat through a solid object by contact. Some
materials are good conductor while some are bad. Some material can retain heat
like ceramics, iron while some materials can not such as copper.

Convection: Convection involves the transfer of heat in liquid and gases.

Convection of air and Convection of liquids

Radiation: Radiation involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves

such as infra-red and microwaves. When this wave passes through food, looses
some of its energy in form of heat.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

Q.1 What is effect of heat on carbohydrate?

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Q.2 What is heat?
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Q.3 What are the different methods of heat transfer?

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6.4 Methods of Cooking

Different cooking methods are suited to different kinds of foods. For example,
some meats are high in connective tissue and are tough unless this tissue is
broken down slowly by moist heat. Other meats are low in connective tissue and
naturally tender. They are at their best and juiciest when cooked with dry heat to
a rare or medium-done stage.

Many other factors must be considered when choosing cooking methods for
meats, fish, and vegetables, such as the flavour and appearance imparted by
browning, the flavour imparted by fats, and the firmness or delicacy of the
product. These factors are discussed in later chapters with respect to individual
foods. Cooking methods are classified as moist heat or dry heat.

• Moist-heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted to the food
product by water or water-based liquids such as stock and sauces, or by
steam.

• Dry-heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted without

moisture-that is, by hot air, hot metal, radiation, or hot fat. We usually
divide dry-heat methods into two categories:
 Without Fat
 With Fat

6.5 Moist Heat Methods of Cooking

Moist-heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted to the food product
by water or water-based liquids such as stock and sauces, or by steam.
Following are the moist heat method of cooking:
 Boiling
 Poaching
 Steaming
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 Stewing
 Braising

6.5.1 Boiling
Boiling is cooking of prepared food in a liquid at boiling point. The liquid be water,
court-bouillon, milk or stock. The Purpose of Boiling Food Is:
• Pleasant taste & agreeable flavour
• Suitable texture
• Easy to digest and safe to eat.
There is Two Way of Boiling:
1. Place food in boiling liquid, re-boil and then reduce heat. (Simmering)
2. Cover the food with cold liquid, boil and then reduce the heat.

NOTE: Court-bouillon is fish cooking liquid prepared by simmering sliced carrot,

sliced onion, parsley stalk, sprig of thyme, salt, bay leaf, vinegar and peppercorn
in water for 30-40 minutes and then strained.

Effect of Boiling
• Gentle Boiling Break down tough fibers (tenderize)
• Tough connective tissues of meat Soluble gelatin
• Coagulation of Protein without hardening.

Advantages of Boiling
• Tougher and Older joints of M P palatable & digestible
• Appropriate for large-scale cooking and economic to fuel]
• Nutritious, well-flavored stock can be produced

Food added to Boiling Liquid

• Suitable for green veritable as they can retain maximum colour, and
nutrition ( if boiling is for minimum time)
• Seals the natural juices in meat.

Food added to Cold Liquid

• Helps to tenderize and extract maximum flavour
• Avoid damage to shape of food

Time and Temperature Control

• Temperature must be controlled to avoid over cooking
• Although approximate cooking time for most foods, the age, quality and
size of food will also affect the cooking time.

General Rules
• Select pans which are neither too small or too large
• While adding food to boiling liquid ensure sufficient liquid is there at
boiling point
• Frequently skimming
• Simmer to minimize evaporation of cooking liquid

Safety
• Select containers of right capacity
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• Move pans of boiling liquid with care
• Position of handles
• Extra care while adding or removing food

Parboiling
• Parboiling is the boiling the food until it is only partially cooked
• The food is placed in boiling liquid for short time so that it's outside
becomes soft
• The cooking process is the completed by using another method
• Use for quantity cooking

Blanching
• It is not strictly a method of cooking
• Blanching means placing food in boiling liquid for 1 to 2 minute and the
refresh with cold water.
• This method is used to remove skin from tomato, fruits and nuts
• This helps to prepare vegetables and fruit for freezing.
• It destroys enzyme and help to retain colour and nutrition by sealing
surface.

Disadvantages of Boiling
• Flavours and colour of food in cooking liquid
• Loss of water soluble vitamins and nutrients.

6.5.2 Poaching
Poaching is the cooking of food in the required amount of liquid at just below
boiling point. Purpose of Poaching
• Easy to digest
• To get suitable tender texture
• Pleasant to eat as appropriate sauce is made from cooking liquid
Two Ways of Poaching
• Shallow poaching
• Deep poaching

SHALLOW POACHING
• The food cooked in this method is covered in minimum amount of cooking
liquid
• Never allowed to boil (Temperature below 1000C)
• To prevent boiling complete cooking in a moderately hot oven

DEEP POACHING
• Food cooked in this method covered with more water. E.g.. Poaching of
eggs.(8Cm.or 3" water cover)
• Poaching is ideal for food like Fish, Egg, Fruit and delicate vegetable
such as Asparagus

Effects of Poaching
Poaching helps to tenderize the fibrous structure of the food, and the raw texture
of the food becomes edible by chemical process.

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Method of Poaching
• Heat liquid to boiling point then reduce the temperature
• Gently lower the food in cooking liquid.
• Allow the food to remain in liquid until cooked.
• Remove the food and reserve the liquid if it is to be used for sauce.

Principles of Poaching
• Cooking liquid kept below BP (to avoid damage to food)
• Sufficient quantity of liquid (to prevent uneven cooking)

Advantages of Poaching
• Food with delicate texture is cooked without breaking up
• Poached foods are easy to digest
• Addition of fat is not required (Good for health conscious)

Disadvantages of Poaching
• Not suitable for large pieces of food
• Some flavour and nutrients are lost in cooking liquid
• Little development in colour and flavour

6.5.3 Steaming
Steaming is the cooking of prepared foods by steam (moist heat) under varying
degree of pressure. Purpose of Steaming
• Easy to digest
• To get edible texture
• Pleasant to taste
• Retain maximum nutrition

Methods of Steaming
1. Atmospheric or Low pressure steaming
• DIRECT - Cooking food in steamer of a pan of boiling water
• INDIRECT - Between two plates over a pan of boiling water
2. High pressure steaming
• There is a equipment built such that it does not allows steam to escape,
therefore pressure of steam is built up, thus increasing the temperature
and reducing the cooking time.

Vacuum Cooking In Pouch

• This is also known as sous-vide
• Food sealed in vacuum pouches and cooked by steam

Advantages
• Minimum change in texture
• Minimum weight loss
• No drying out and minimal colour loss
• Garnishing can be done before vacuum packing & Cooking
• Food is cooked in it's own natural juices
• Labour saving and uniformity of standards

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Steps of Steaming
• Principles of Steaming
• Smaller pieces of food are suitable for steaming
• Doors of steamer should be closed
• Green vegetables are not suitable (Colour will distort )
• Potato & Root vegetable to be cut and placed on tray
Pressure Cooking
• Pressure cooking makes use of steam from water boiled in sealed
container of oven (Pressure cooker).
• Boiling point of water varies with pressure.
• At atmospheric pressure water boils at 1000C
• With increase of pressure Boiling Point of water increases
• In this method pressure in side the cooking container is increased which
results in increasing Boiling Point of water which in turns gives more heat
to food and food is cooked early

Procedure of Pressure Cooking

• Check the water level in cooking container.
• Ensure tight seal
• Use perforated tray for vegetable
• When cooking is complete allow the pressure to return to normal pressure

Advantages of Steaming
• Less loss of nutrients from food
• Food retains maximum colour and flavour
• Cooking time is reduced
• Fuel saving

Disadvantages of Steaming
• Steaming is slow ( If Pressure cooker is not used)
• Steaming does not allow much development of flavour

6.5.4 Stewing
"Stewing is the slow cooking of food cut into pieces and cooked in the minimum
amount of cooking liquid, the food and the liquid are served together"
• A tight-fitting lid must be used during cooking to retain the juices and
flavour.
• The temperature is held at simmering point over an extended period.

Types of Stews
Types of stewing is charted as under:

White Blanquette White meat is cooked in a suitable stock from

which the sauce is made
Fricassée White meat is used and milk is added to
maintain a white colour in the stew
Brown Ragoût Red meat is used, it is fried first to develop
brown colour and flavour, stock and or red
wine is used as cooking liquid
Navarin Refers to rich dark lamb stew
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Vegetable Ratatouille Vegetable stew containing tomatoes, onion
eggplant, capsicum and Zucchini
Fish Bouillabaisse Stew of fish, mussels etc. simmered with
herbs

Advantages of Stewing
• Nutrients and flavours which escape in cooking liquid during cooking is
retained as cooking liquid is also served with the food
• There is very little loss of nutrient as cooking is done at simmering point,
which prevents the loss of vitamins
• Tough and older cuts of Meat and Poultry is tenderize
• This is suitable for bulk cooking
• This method is economical

Principles of Stewing
• The meat and vegetables are normally cut into bite-size pieces (helps
even cooking )
• The meat is often fried prior to stewing (it develops the flavour and
colours the sauce)
• Some times white meat is blanched (to remove any impurity which may
discolour the sauce)
• Seasoning and flavouring are added to the cooking liquid (to enhance the
taste of sauce)
• Cooking time should be long and slow (This enables tougher cuts to
tenderize)

Disadvantages of Stewing
• Stewing requires longer cooking time.
• If correct process is not followed, result in high rate of evaporation of
cooking liquid which will lead to toughening of protein fibbers in meat
• This is a slow cooking method

6.5.5 Braising
"Braising is a method of cooking in the oven; unlike roasting or baking, the food is
cooked in liquid in covered pan, casserole or cocotte. This is combination of
stewing and pot roasting"

Purpose of Braising
• To give variety to menu and diet
• Food becomes tender, palatable, digestible & safe to eat
• To produce and enhance flavour, texture, and eating quality of food
Methods of Braising
There are two methods of Braising
1. Brown Braising
2. White Braising

Brown Braising: Joints and portioned size meat is marinaded, larded and
sealed by browning on all side in oven. Sealing helps to retain flavour, nutrition
and good brown colour. Joints are then placed on bed of root vegetables in a
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braising pan with liquid and other flavourings and then covered with lid and
cooked slowly in oven.

White Braising: White braising is used for vegetables and sweetbreads. Food is
blanched, refreshed and cooked on bed of root vegetables. Food is then placed
in a covered pan with white stock and placed in oven.

Advantages of Braising
• Tougher and less expansive meat and poultry can be cooked using this
method
• Maximum flavour and nutrition can be retained
• It gives a variety to food presentation and menu

1.6 Dry Heat Methods of Cooking

Dry-heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted without moisture-that
is, by hot air, hot metal, radiation, or hot fat. We usually divide dry-heat methods
into two categories: without fat and with fat. Dry heat methods of cooking are as
under:
1. Baking
2. Roasting
3. Grilling

6.6.1 Baking
"Baking is cooking of food by dry heat in an oven in which the action of dry heat
is modified by steam"

Purpose of Baking
• To make food palatable, digestible and safe to eat
• To create eye-appeal through colour and texture
• To produce an enjoyable eating quality
• To lend variety in the menu card

Effect of Baking
There is chemical action on ingredients like sugar, yeast, baking powder etc.
Changes the raw structure of food which depends upon the different ingredients
and ways of mixing the same.

Principles of Baking
• The conventional convection oven should be pre-heated (This gives the
correct starting temp.)
• Products should be placed evenly in the oven (This allows the even hot
air circulation)
• Products should be placed in greased or lined tins or tray ( Helps to
remove finished food easily)
• Items taking long time should be placed in lined tin at lower shelf
( prevent drying & burning of crust )

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Dry Baking
• In this method when food is placed in pre-heated oven, steam arises from
water content of food, this steam combines with the dry heat of the oven
is used to cook food.
• Using this method Cakes, Pastry, Baked jacket potatoes etc. are
prepared.

Baking With Increased Humidity

In this method while baking the humidity of oven is increased by placing a bowl of
water of injecting steam thus increasing water content in food which improves
eating quality of the food. This is used to bake bread.

Baking With Heat Modification

In this method food is placed in container. Food items such as egg custard is
baked in this way, this prevents the over cooking of food.

Advantages of Baking
• A wide variety of sweet and savory food is prepared
• Baking yields appetizing, eye-appealing food with mouth watering aroma
• Uniformity in color and degree of cooking can be achieved even in bulk
cooking
• Temperatures can be effectively controlled
• Adding and removing food for baking is very easy

General Rules
• Oven should always be pre-heated
• Accuracy is essential in measuring and weighing and controlling
temperature
• Trays and moulds should be greased or lined
• Once process of baking starts minimize the opening the doors of oven
• Use thick dry oven mitts while placing or removing food in oven
• Trays and oven should not be overloaded
• One should be very careful while placing food in oven and while removing
the same

6.6.2 Roasting
"Roasting is to cook food over a source of radiant heat such as on spit, open fire
or oven". Now the term roasting is also used to describe cooking of food in an
oven with the addition of fat or oil. Thus oven roasting is a combination of
convection and radiation.

Types of Roasting
1. Oven Roasting
2. Spit Roasting
3. Pot Roasting
4. Tandoori Cooking

Oven Roasting
It is cooking food in an oven. In this method hot convection of air is produced
inside the oven which is responsible for cooking of food. Heat conducted from the
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base of cooking try is responsible for browning of food which is desirable with
some food e.g. Potatoes, where a crisp golden brown colour is required.

Spit Roasting
Food is cooked over spit (live charcoal) or open fire. Food is rotated slowly over
the source of heat, and is cooked by radiant heat and convection of air
depending upon the position of food in relation to fire. Usually large joints of meat
are cooked by this method. This method produces its own distinct colour, flavour
and texture in cooked food.

Pot Roasting
Pot roasting is cooking food on bed of root vegetable in a covered pan. This is
not a true roast as moist heat (steam) trapped under the lid of closed utensil is
used to cook the food. This method is also known as POÊLÉ. Using this method
will result in retention of maximum flavor of ingredients.

Tandoori Cooking
Tandoori cooking is done in a clay oven known as tandoor using dry heat.
Although the source of heat is at the base of the oven but heat is evenly
distributed as clay radiates heat evenly.

Method
• The marinated food (marinating may be done 20Min to 2 Hr. in advance
depending upon the type of food) such as meat, fish & poultry is placed
vertically in side the oven.
• Naan etc are slapped on the wall of the tandoor
• The temperature of tandoor is 3750C or 7000F

Advantages of Roasting
• Good quality of meat and poultry is tenderized and succulent when
roasted
• Meat juices oozing from the joints are used for gravy and enhance flavor
• Energy and oven temperature can be controlled
• Ovens with transparent doors enables cooking to be observed
• Access, adjustment and removal of food is very easy
• This method involves the minimum risk of Fire

6.6.3 Grilling
This is a fast method of cooking by radiant heat and is also known as "Broiling".
This is of following four types.
• Over heat
• Under heat
• Between heat
• Barbecuing

Over Heat: Food is cooked over hot grill bars. Grill bars are pre-heated and
brushed with oil otherwise food will stick to the bars. The cooking time will
depend upon the thickness of food and temperature of grill bars.

Under Heat: The source of heat to cook the food, is over the food (salamander)
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Between the Heat: This is grilling the food in between electrically heated grill
bars or plates. This method is used for small cuts of meat

Barbecuing: This is grilling of food on pre-heated, greased bars over fierce heat
(gas, Charcoal or wood) when solid fuel is used care should be taken that food is
placed on bars when flame and smoke dies out. Food is marinated a brushed
with barbecue sauce during cooking

Advantages of Grilling
• Speed of grilling enables the food to be cooked to order
• Charring of food gives a distinctive appearance and flavor
• Control of cooking is aided because food is visible while cooked
• Variety is given to menu and diet
• Grill may be suitable in view of customer

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

Q.1 What are the dry heat methods of cooking?

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Q.2 What are the moist heat methods of cooking?

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6.7 Frying
Frying is a quick method of cooking food in hot oil or fat. Frying gives a good
flavour and colour to food. It is of following two type:
• Shallow frying
• Deep frying

Shallow Frying: Shallow frying is the cooking of food in a small quantity of pre-
heated fat or oil in a shallow pan or flat surface. This is of following type:
• Shallow frying
• Sauté
• Griddle
• Stir fry

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Shallow Frying: Food is cooked in small amount of fat/oil in a fry/sauté pan. This
is used to cook small cuts of fish, meat and poultry.

Sauté: Tender cuts of meat and poultry are cooked by this method. After cooking
fat is discarded and pan is deglazed with stock or wine to prepare sauce.

Griddle: Food can be cooked on a girdle (a solid metal plate).

Stir Fry: Vegetables, strips of beef, chicken etc. are fast fried in wok with little oil
or fat.

DEEP FRYING
This is the cooking of food in pre-heated deep oil/fat/clarified butter. Fried foods
are often coated before frying.

Coating improves
• The appearance of food
• Food retains it's shape
• Prevents fat soaking by forming crust
• Enhances the taste of food
• Prevents direct contact of hot fat/oil to food

COATING FOR FRIED FOOD

• Seasoned flour (plain flour + salt + pepper) for foods such as sausages,
hamburger and fish
• Seasoned flour, egg wash and breadcrumbs for food such as fish,
croquettes, cutlets, chicken and vegetable
• Batter ( A wet mixture of Flour, egg and milk ) for food such as Fish,
Seafood, Fritters, Onion rings and Fruits)

Principles of Shallow Frying

• Preheat the cooking utensil before adding the food (This seals the food
and prevents the absorption of fat by food and reduce the risk of stickling
of food)
• The side to be presented for the service is fried first (The best colour and
finish occurs on the side fried first)
• Foods which are thick are cooked at lower frying temperature (This allows
the food to cook through and colour without burning)
• Different foods to be fried in same pan should be cooked in order of
relative cooking time, that is food which will take longer time to cook are
placed in the pan first ( this allows food to be prepared at time of service)
• Frying pan is moved and turned during cooking ( this helps in even
distribution of heat and results even browning and cooking of food)
• Tongues are used to move and turn food
• Foods are turned over when moisture appears on surface
• Food should be seasoned before shallow frying
• All fried foods are well drained before service
• Food should never be crowded in frying pan

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Principles of Deep Frying
• Food should be of uniform size
• Food should be chilled after crumbing, loose crumbs shaken free and the
surface patted
• If coated in butter, any excess should be drained off and the food slowly
lowered into the fryer
• Very cold or frozen food, should be added in small pieces and quantities
• Residues of crumbs, batter or food should be skimmed form frying
medium
• Frying medium should be at correct temperature before adding food
• The temperature of cooking medium should not exceed the cooking
temperature of the food
• Food should be dried before immersing in hot frying medium
• When removing drain the fat over the fryer
• All fried foods should be drained on absorbent kitchen paper before
serving
• Food should be seasoned away from the fryer
• Fried food should be served immediately after frying

TEMPERATURE CHART

Type of Fat/Oil Approximate

Flash Point Smoke Flash Point
(0c) Point (0c) (0c)
Finest Vegetable Oil 324 0c 220 0c 180 0c
Finest Vegetable Fat 321 0c 220 0c 180 0c
High Class Vegetable Oil 324 0c 204 0c 180 0c
Pure Vegetable Fat 318 0c 215 0c 170 -182 0c
Pure Vegetable Oil 330 0c 220 0c 170 -182 0c
Finest Maize Oil 224 0c 215 0c 180 0c
Finest Fat 321 0c 202 0c 180 0c
Finest Quality Dripping 300 0c 165 0c 170 -182 0c
Finest Olive Oil 270-2730c 148 -1650c 175 0c

6.8 Modern Methods of Cooking

Modern methods of cooking are as under:
1. Paper Bag (en papillote)
2. Microwave Cooking

6.8.1 Paper Bag (En Papillote)

A new technology that has had a rapid growth in popularity among the world's top
chefs is sous vide (soo veed) cooking. French for "under vacuum," the term is
applied to cooking foods that have been vacuum-sealed in plastic bags. In
simplest terms, this food preparation technique is a two-step process:
1. Vacuum-pack the food item, plus any seasonings or marinades, in an
appropriate plastic bag.
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2. Cook the food item, while in the bag, at a constant low temperature,
usually in a special water bath.

This method is also known as en papillote; in this method food is tightly sealed in
oiled greaseproof paper or foil so that no steam escape during cooking and
maximum natural flavour and nutrition is retained in cooked food.

Although the name of the technique refers to the vacuum packing, the heart of
sous vide cooking-and the reason many chefs are so excited about it-is the
precise temperature control it permits.

As an example, think of roasting a boneless loin of lamb. We could place the

meat in an oven at 400°F (200°C) and roast it until the centre reaches a
temperature of 140°F (60°C) for medium doneness. As we discussed on pages
69-70, however, the lamb will be medium done only in the centre and more done
everywhere else. In addition, we would have to monitor the cooking closely to
make sure we remove it from the oven at the right time.

On the other hand, we could vacuum-pack the lamb loin in plastic and place it in
a water bath heated to an exact 140°F (60°C). The temperature of the lamb
would never go above that temperature, no matter how long we left it in the water
bath. And it would be at exactly the same doneness from outside to centre.
Because we like a browned exterior on the lamb, we could then remove it from
the bag, brown it quickly in a hot sauté pan, and serve it immediately.

6.8.2 Microwave Cooking

Microwave cooking refers to the use of a specific tool rather than to a basic dry-
heat or moist-heat cooking method. The microwave oven is used mostly for
heating prepared foods and for thawing raw or cooked items. However, it can be
used for primary cooking as well. Microwave oven models range in power from
about 500 watts up to about 2,000 watts. The higher the wattage, the more
intense the energy the oven puts out and the faster it heats foods. Most models
have switches that allow you to cook at different power levels.

One of the most important advantages of the microwave oven in à la carte

cooking is that it enables you to heat individual portions of many foods to order
quickly and evenly. Instead of keeping such foods as stews hot in the steam
table, where they gradually become overcooked, you can keep them refrigerated
(either in bulk or in individual portions) and reheat each order as needed. This is
perhaps the main reason why most restaurants have one or more microwave
ovens, even though they may not use them for primary cooking.

Because the microwave oven is a unique tool in food service, the cook should
observe the following special points regarding its use:
• Small items will not brown in a standard microwave. Large roasts may
brown somewhat from the heat generated in the item itself. Some models
have browning elements that use conventional heat.
• Watch timing carefully. Overcooking is the most common error in
microwave use. High energy levels cook small items very rapidly.
• Large items should be turned once or twice for even cooking.
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• An on/off cycle is often used for large items to allow time for heat to be
conducted to the interior.
• If your equipment has a defrost cycle (which switches the oven to lower
power), use this cycle rather than full power to thaw frozen foods. Lower
power enables the item to thaw more evenly, with less danger of partially
cooking it. If your oven does not have this feature, use an on/off cycle.
• Sliced, cooked meats and other items that are likely to dry out in the
microwave should be protected either by wrapping them loosely in plastic
or wax paper or by covering them with a sauce or gravy.
• Because microwaves act only on water molecules, foods with high water
content, such as vegetables, heat faster than denser, drier foods, such as
cooked meats.
• Foods at the edge of a dish or plate heat faster than foods in the centre.
This is because they are hit by rays bouncing off the walls of the oven as
well as by rays directly from the energy source. Therefore:
o Depress the centre of casseroles so the food is not as thick there
as at the edges. This will help it heat more evenly.
o When you are heating several foods at once on a plate, put the
moist, quick-heating items like vegetables in the centre and the
denser, slower-heating items at the edges.
o Because microwaves do not penetrate metal, aluminium foil and
other metals shield foods from the radiant energy. For example, a
potato wrapped in foil will not cook in a microwave oven.
o Because microwaves cook so rapidly, they will not break down the
connective tissues of less tender meats. Slow, moist cooking is
necessary for dissolving these connective tissues.
• The more food placed in a microwave at once, the longer the cooking
time. Thus, the primary advantage of microwave cooking-speed-is lost
with large roasts and other large quantities.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-III

Q.1 Define frying? Explain various types of frying.

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Q.2 Write a short note on microwave cooking?

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6.9 Summary
This unit starts with defining heat and its application in cooking. We have covered
the various methods of transfer of heat. The cooking is application of heat to the
food and the heat that is applied to food may be moist or dry and depending
upon this methods of cooking food is categorised in to many categories like
boiling, poaching, steaming, grilling, frying, baking, roasting etc. All the methods
of cooking is been discussed in this unit.

6.10 Answer to Check Your Progress

Check your Progress-I

Q.1 Refer section 6.3.2
Q.2 Refer section 6.3.1
Q.3 Refer section 6.3.3

Check your Progress-II

Q.1 Refer section 6.5
Q.2 Refer section 6.6

Check your Progress-III

Q.1 Refer section 6.7
Q.2 Refer section 6.8

6.11 Terminal Questions

Q. Write short note on:
1. Effect of heat on food
2. Methods of transfer of heat
3. Dry heat method of cooking
4. Moist heat method of cooking
5. Frying
6. Paper bag cooking
7. Microwave cooking

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UNIT 07: BASIC PREPARATIONS

Structure
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Stock
7.4 Sauce
Check your progress-I
7.5. Soup
Check your progress-II
7.6 Marinades
7.7 Garnish
7.8 Summary
7.9 Answer to check your progress
7.10 Terminal Questions

7.1 Objectives
After reading this unit learner will be able to:
• Understand meaning ,definition, types and method of preparation of stock
• Understand meaning ,definition, types and method of preparation of
sauce
• Understand meaning ,definition, types and method of preparation of soup
• Understand meaning and definition of marinades
• Understand meaning and definition of garnish

7.2 Introduction
The French word for stock is fond, meaning "foundation" or "base." In classical
cuisine, the ability to prepare good stocks is the most basic of all skills because
so much of the work of the entire kitchen depends on them. A good stock is the
foundation of soups, sauces, and most braised foods and stews. Nevertheless,
the finest cuisine still depends on soups and sauces based on high-quality
stocks, so stock-making remains an essential skill you should learn early in your
training. Stocks and sauces are almost never served by themselves but are
components of many other preparations. You will need to refer to this chapter in
connection with many other subjects.

Like stocks, sauces have lost some of the importance they once had in
commercial kitchens except, of course, in the best restaurants serving what may
be considered luxury cuisine. Some of this decline is due to changes in eating
habits and to increased labor costs. No matter where you work, sauce-making
techniques are basic skills you will need in all your cooking. Croquettes, soufflés,
and mousses have sauces as their base, nearly all braised foods are served with
sauces made of their cooking liquids, and basic pan gravies, favourites
everywhere, are made with the same techniques as the classic sauces.

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The popularity of soups today may be due to increased nutrition consciousness,
to a desire for simpler or lighter meals, or to an increased appreciation of how
appetizing and satisfying soups can be. Whatever the reasons, they emphasize
the importance of soup making skills. A few more techniques are necessary for
you to master before you are able to prepare all the types of soups that are
popular today. As in sauce-making, basic techniques are the building blocks you
can use to create a wide variety of appetizing soups.

Marinades are intended to flavour all manner of fish and meats before cooking. In
the olden days they were mostly applied to fish and meat portions to be grilled,
especially if a little bland, such as poultry. As today we have increasingly to use
more chilled and frozen fish and meats, marinating helps to give back flavour and
even colour that has been lost in the defrosting process.

The word garnish is derived from a French word meaning "to adorn" or "to
furnish." In English, we use the word to mean "to decorate or embellish a food
item by the addition of other items." The word is used also for the decorative
items themselves. This definition, at first, seems vague because it could include
just about anything.

7.3 Stock
The preparation of stocks has been simplified in many ways since the days of
Escoffier, although this does not mean it demands less care or skill. Few chefs
today bother to tie vegetables for a stock into a bundle, for example. They're
going to be strained out anyway. The number and variety of ingredients is usually
not as great as it once was. Nor is it common to cook stocks for as many hours
as was once thought necessary. All these details are taken up one by one in this
section.

Stock is a liquid containing some of the soluble nutrients and flavours of the food
which are extracted by prolonged and gentle simmering (Exception is Fish Stock
which only requires 20 Min.). A stock may be defined as, “a clear, thin-that is,
unthickened-liquid flavoured by soluble substances extracted from meat,
poultry, and fish, and their bones, and from vegetables and seasonings”.

TYPES OF STOCK
On the basis of colour and ingredients used for stock making stock can be
classified in to following categories:

WHITE STOCK BROWN STOCK

White Beef Stock Brown Beef Stock Fish Stock
White Mutton Stock Brown Mutton Stock Veg. Stock
White Veal Stock Brown Veal Stock
White Chicken Stock Brown Game Stock

CARE WHILE PREPARING STOCK

• Unsound meat, bones and decaying vegetable will give an unpleasant
flavor to stock and stock will deteriorate quickly

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• Scum should be removed otherwise it will spoil the colour and flavour of
stock
• Fat should be skimmed, otherwise stock will taste greasy
• Stock should always simmer, otherwise water will evaporate and stock
will become cloudy
• Salt should never be added to stock

SAFETY AND HYGIENE

• If we wish to store stock, it should be cooled rapidly and stored in
refrigerator below 50C
• If they are to be deep-frozen then it should be labelled and dated and
stored at -180C
• Stock should not be reheated more than once
• Never store stock above eye-level

GENERAL PREPARATION OF STOCK

Ingredients Quantity
Raw meaty bones 2 Kg.
Water 4.5 Liter
Vegetable 400 Gms.
Bouquet-Garni One bunch
Peppercorn 12 Nos
METHOD
1. Chop and clean the bones
2. Place in stock pot
3. Add water
4. Cover and bring to boil and reduce the heat
5. Scum should be skimmed
6. Add vegetables and bouquet-garni
7. Simmer for 6-8 Hrs.
8. Skim and strain.
During cooking certain amount of water is evaporated. Add .5Ltr water (cold) this
will help to throw scum at surface

GLAZE
Glazes are made by steady boiling white or brown stock and allowing them to
reduce to a sticky or gelatinous consistency.

1. They are stored in jars and when cold kept in refrigerator.

2. The peeping quality of glazes are higher the stock, it can be kept for
months.
3. Glazes are used to improve the flavor of prepared food.
4. They may be used as base for sauces

7.4 Sauce
Sauce works like a seasoning. It enhances and accents the flavour of the food; it
should not dominate or hide the food. A good cook knows that sauces are as
valuable as salt and pepper. A simple grilled steak is made even better when it
has an added touch, something as simple as a slice of seasoned butter melting

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on it or as refined as a spoonful of béarnaise sauce. No matter where you work,
sauce-making techniques are basic skills you will need in all your cooking.
Croquettes, soufflés, and mousses have sauces as their base, nearly all braised
foods are served with sauces made of their cooking liquids, and basic pan
gravies, favourites everywhere, are made with the same techniques as the
classic sauces. Sauce is defined as under:
“Sauce is a liquid, having smooth and glossy appearance, definite in
taste and light in texture; thickening is done in moderation”.

USES OF SAUCES
1. To enhance the flavour of the food
2. To give colour to food
3. Help in digestion
4. Moisten dry food
5. Enhance nutritional value of food
6. Lend a name to dish e.g. fish Portuguese
7. Give a balanced taste

THICKENING AGENTS FOR SAUCES

Thickening agents used for SAUCES are as under:
1. Roux
2. Beurre-manie
3. Starch
4. Egg yolk
5. Puree
6. Blood
7. Glazes

ROUX: A roux is a combination of Fat and Flour which are cooked together.
Roux is of type:
1. White roux
2. Blond roux
3. Brown roux

BEURRE- MAINE: Equal quantity of Butter or Margarine and Flour kneaded to a

smooth paste and added to boiling liquid.

STARCH: Starch such as corn flour, arrowroot, potato starch etc. are used to
thicken sauce or gravy.

EGG YOLK: Egg yolk is used in emulsified sauces such as mayonnaise,

hollandaise and custard sauces.

PUREE: Vegetable or fruit puree is known as CULLIS used in thickening.

BLOOD: Blood is used in recipes such as jugged hare

GLAZES: Stock reduced base sauces are prepared using demi-glaze

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CLASSIFICATION OF SAUCES

Sauces are classified as shown in the chart below:

Figure7.1 Classification of sauces

BASIC MOTHER SAUCES

Basic mother sauces are:

1. BÉCHAMEL
2. VELOUTÉ
3. ESPAGNOLE
4. TOMATO
5. HOLLANDAISE
6. MAYONNAISE

BÉCHAMEL SAUCE
A white sauce prepared by adding milk to roux. This sauce is widely used for
egg, vegetables and gratin dishes. It can be kept warm in bain-marie and used to
prepare other derivatives

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Ingredients Quantity
Margarine / oil / Butter 100Gms.
Flour 100Gms
Milk 1000 Ml.
Studded onion 1 Nos
METHOD
1. Met fat in thick bottom pan.
2. Add flour and mix well.
3. Cook for few minutes over a gentle heat with out coloring.
4. Remove from heat and cool the roux.
5. Gradually add the warm milk and stir till smooth.
6. Add onion studded with clove and allow simmering for 30 Min. remove
from heat and take out onion and strain.
7. Cover with thin film of butter to prevent skin formation.

DERIVATIVES OF BÉCHAMEL

Sauce Name of Ingredients Served With

Mornay Béchamel + Parmesan + Egg yolk Fish, Eggs &
Vegetables
Cream Béchamel + Fresh cream + Butter Poached Fish, Boiled
Vegetable
Soubise Béchamel, Sautéed Onion, Pepper + Eggs, Fish, Roast Meat
Nutmeg and strained
Scotch egg Béchamel + 2 Hard Boiled egg, diced Poached/Boiled Fish
Parsley Béchamel + Fresh Cream + Chopped Poached/Boiled Fish,
Parsley Veg
Anchovy Béchamel + Anchovy Essence Poach/Boil/Fry Fish
Onion Béchamel + minced Onion cooked in Roast Mutton
milk
Mustard Béchamel + French/English Mustard Grilled Herrings

SAUCE VELOUTÉ
A sauce prepared from white stock and blond roux. It can be kept warm in bain-
marie and used to prepare other derivatives.
Ingredients Quantity
Margarine / oil / Butter 100Gms.
Flour 100Gms
Stock 1000 Ml.
METHOD
1. Melt fat in thick bottom pan.
2. Add flour and mix well.
3. Cook to a sandy texture over a gentle heat with out coloring.
4. Remove from heat and cool the roux.
5. Gradually add the boiling stock and stir till smooth.
6. Allow to simmer for approximately 1Hrs.
7. Remove from heat and strain

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DERIVATIVES OF VELOUTÉ

CHICKEN VELOUTÉ

SAUCE NAME OF INGREDIENTS SERVED WITH

Supreme Chicken Velouté + White wine + Parsley Fish Chicken
+Shallots + Mushroom trimmings & strain
add Fresh Cream + Egg yolk +Lemon juice

Allemande Chicken Velouté + Egg yolk + Mushroom Poached Chicken

trimmings + Cream + Lemon juice

Ivory Chicken Velouté + White wine + Parsley Poached/Boiled

+Shallots + Mushroom trimmings & strain Chicken
add Fresh Cream + Egg yolk +Lemon juice
+ Meat Glaze

Mushroom Chicken Velouté + White wine + Parsley Chicken & Mutton

+Shallots + Mushroom trimmings & strain
add Fresh Cream + Egg yolk +Lemon juice
+ sliced Button Mushroom

Chaudfroid Chicken Velouté + Chicken glaze + Cold dishes

Cream

Chivry Chicken Velouté + Tarragon +Parsley Boiled/Poached

+Chives then strain + Green Butter Poultry

MEAT/FISH VELOUTE

SAUCE NAME OF INGREDIENTS SERVED WITH

Shrimp Fish velouté + fish fumet + cream + shelled Fish Shrimp
shrimp tails + shrimp butter

Normande Fish velouté + mushrooms + oyster liquor Fish & Shell Fish
+fish fumet finished with egg yolk cream
+ shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter

Diplomat Fish velouté + mushrooms + oyster liquor Fish Shellfish

+fish fumet finished with egg yolk cream +
shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter sauce +
Lobster butter garnished with dices of
lobster and truffles

Caper Mutton velouté + caper Boiled leg of

Mutton

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Bercy Allemande Sauce + chopped shallots +white Grilled meat
wine + meat glaze + butter garnished with
dices of marrow & chopped parsley

Nantua Fish velouté + fried mirepoix fish in crayfish Fish Shellfish

butter

ESPAGNOLE SAUCE
A sauces made by adding brown stock to brown roux and mirepoix and tomato
puree.

Ingredients Quantity
Margarine / oil / Butter 50 Gms.
Flour 60 Gms.
Brown Stock 1000 Ml.
Tomatos puree 25 Gms.
Carrot 100 Gms.
Onion 100 Gms.
Celery 50 Gms.
METHOD
1. Met fat in thick bottom pan.
2. Add flour and mix well to a light brown colour, stirring frequently.
3. Cool and mix the tomato puree. Gradually add the boiling stock and bring
to boil.
4. Wash, peal and roughly cut the vegetables and brown lightly, drain extra
fat and add to sauce.
5. Simmer for 4-6 Hrs. and Skim when necessary.

DERIVATIVES OF ESPAGNOLE

Sauce Name of Ingredients Served With

Bercy Demi glaze + meat glaze + Minced Grilled Meat Fish
shallots + white wine + sliced bone
marrow

Chasseur Demi glaze + minced mushroom Grilled/Sautéed Meat,

+ sautéed chopped shallots & Parsley Poultry and Egg
+ reduced white wine

Robert Demi glaze + chopped onion + vinegar Grilled Meat

+ sugar + mustard

Charcutiere Demi glaze + chopped onion + vinegar Grilled Pork chops

+ sugar + mustard+ juliennes of
Gherkin

Madeira Demi glaze + Madeira wine Small items of Meat,

Fish and Poultry

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TOMATO SAUCE
A sauce made by cooking tomatoes with bacon, carrots, chopped onion and
garlic in stock and passed through sieve.

Ingredients Quantity
Margarine / oil / Butter 10 Gms.
Flour 10 Gms.
Stock 375 Ml.
Tomatos puree 50 Gms.
Carrot 50 Gms.
Onion 50Gms.
Celery 25 Gms
Bacon strips 10 Gms.
Bay leaf, Thyme, clove, garlic, salt & Pepper

METHOD
1. Met fat in thick bottom pan.
2. Add the herbs and mirepoix and Bacon scrap brown lightly.
3. Mix the flour and cook to sandy texture and colour slightly.
4. Mix tomato puree and allow cooling.
5. Gradually add boiling stock.
6. Stir and add garlic, seasoning and simmer for 1 Hrs.
7. Correct the seasoning and cool. Pass through strainer.

DERIVATIVES OF TOMATO

Sauce Name of Ingredients Served With

Bretonne Tomato sauce + sautéed chopped Haricots
onions +White wine reduce & strained
add Butter and chopped Parsley

Portugaise Tomato sauce + White wine + garlic + Egg, Fish, Shell Fish
concussed tomato

Italienne Tomato sauce + demi-glaze + chopped Brains, Lamb, Cutlets

shallots, Mushroom, Lean Ham & fine
herbs

Barbecue Tomato sauce + ketchup + vinegar + Barbecued Meat, Fish

Sugar and Poultry

Tomato- Tomato sauce + aspic jelly Cold chicken and Eggs

Chaudfroid

Provencale Thin Tomato sauce + sauteed sliced With cold Meat, Fish
mushroom + chopped Parsley, Garlic, and Poultry
Tomato Concasse + Sugar

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HOLLANDAISE SAUCE
A hot emulsified sauce made from egg yolk and clarified butter.
Ingredients Quantity
Butter 200 Gms.
Egg yolk 200 Gms.
Crushed Pepper Corn 2 Nos.
Vinegar 15 Ml.
Lemon juice ½
METHOD
1. Melt butter in a pan.
2. Place crushed peeper corn and Vinegar and reduce.
3. Add little water to cool.
4. Add egg yolk and whisk.
5. Place the pan in a double boiler and whisk the egg yolk till it gets cooked.
6. Gradually add the melted butter until it blends and forma a thick sauce.
7. Add lemon juice.
8. Strain and correct the seasonings.

DERIVATIVES OF HOLLANDAISE

Sauce Name of Ingredients Served With

Maltaise Hollandaise + Zest + Orange juice Hot Asparagus

Mousseline Hollandaise + stiffly whipped Cream Fish, Egg, Vegetable &

Meat

Noisette Hollandaise + nut brown cooked butter

Poached Salmon,
Trout
Béarnaise Hollandaise + chopped Tarragon & Grilled Meat and Fish
Chervil

Choron Hollandaise + chopped Tarragon & Grilled & Sautéed Meat

Chervil + Tomato puree

Foyot Hollandaise + chopped Tarragon & Grilled & Sautéed Meat

Chervil + meat glaze

Mustard Hollandaise + mustard Meat and Steak

SAUCE MAYONNAISE
A cold emulsified sauce consisting of egg yolks and oil blended together and
flavoured with vinegar, salt, pepper and mustard.
Ingredients Quantity
Salad oil 1000 Ml.
Egg yolk 8 Eggs
Mustard ¼ table spoon
Vinegar 25 Ml.
Lemon 1 Nos.
Seasonings to taste
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METHOD
1. Place the egg yolk, vinegar & seasonings in a clean bowl.
2. Whisk well.
3. Slowly add oil and whisk continuously until all oil is incorporated.
4. Finnish it by adding juice of lemon and warm water.

DERIVATIVES OF MAYONNAISE

Sauce Name of Ingredients Served With

Cambridge Pounded hard-boiled eggs + anchovy Cold meat
fillets +capers + chervil + tarragon +
chives + vinegar +Cayenne pepper, add
oil gradually as for mayonnaise, strain +
chopped parsley

Tartare Mayonnaise + hard yolk of eggs, Fried fish / shellfish

garnished with finely chopped onion and
chives

Green Mayonnaise sauce mixed with puree of Cold fish & shellfish
Sauce blanched herbs, spinach, water parsley,
chervil, tarragon. Pass through very fine
sieve

Vincent Equal quantity of Tartare & Green Sauce Cold fish & Shellfish

Thousand Mayonnaise + hard boiled eggs + tomato Cold Meat

Island- ketchup + chopped gherkins + onions
Dressing +pimentos, olives + paprika+ onions
+pimentos, olives + paprika Powder

Cocktail Mayonnaise + tomato ketchup + Shellfish

Worcester sauce + Tabasco + cream +
lemon juice

Check Your Progress-I

Q.1 Define stock? What are the different types of stock?

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Q.2 What are the thickening agents? Explain
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7.5 Soup
Soup, according to the dictionary, is a liquid food derived from meat, poultry, fish,
or vegetables. This definition is all right as far as it goes, but there's a lot it
doesn't tell us. Is a stock, straight from the stockpot, a soup? Is beef stew liquid
enough to be called a soup? We're interested more in production techniques than
in definitions. However, a few more definitions are necessary before we can go
into the kitchen, so we can talk to each other in the same language. Definitions
aren't rules, so don't be alarmed if you hear other books or chefs use these terms
differently. What matters is that you learn the techniques and are able to adapt
them to many uses. "Soup is a liquid food prepared by extracting nutrients
from solid food like Meat, Beef, Poultry, and Game etc in a liquid medium".
• Soups are regarded as appetizers.
• Soups are served as first course of meal.
Soups are classified as under:
1. Thin
2. Thick
3. Cold
4. National & International

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1. THIN SOUP: Thin soups are clear, flavoured, nutritious liquid prepared without
any thickening agent, garnished with small cuts of food items floating in it. Thin
soups are further classified, whether they are passed through strainer or not.
Depending on these criteria they are of following two types:
• Passed
• Un passed

PASSED: They are passed through the strainer. E.g. Consommé

Consomme: Consommé is a clear soup prepared from Meat, Beef, Poultry or

Game stock, garnished with variety of ingredients; Name of consommé depends
upon the garnish. E.g. consommé julienne
o Consommé should be sparkling, clean and well flavoured.
o Consommé may be served hot or cold.

Ingredients Quantity
Minced Meat 225 Grams
Onion 70 Grams
Carrot 50 Grams
Turnip 30 Grams
Stock 1500
Egg white 2 Nos.
Celery 40 Grams
Thyme ¼ TSP
Bay leaf ½ Nos.
Pepper corn 3 Nos.
Method:
1. Mix minced meat with chopped Onion, Carrot, Turnip, Celery and mix well
with egg white.
2. Add cold stock and Thyme, Bay leaf and Pepper corn in it.
3. Place on fire and keep stirring to keep food particle suspended.
4. Bring it to boil and simmer for 1½ Hrs.
5. Strain through double muslin cloth.

Examples
Consomme Alexandra: Chicken consommé thickened with Tapioca and
garnished with Juliennes of Chicken, Quenelles and shredded lettuce.

Consomme Andalouse: Consommé blended with Tomato puree and garnished

with dices of Royale and dices of tomato, juliennes of ham, boiled rice and
vermicelli and threaded eggs.

Consomme Bretonne: Consommé garnished with juliennes of Leek, Celery,

Onion and Mushroom with shredded Lettuce.

Consomme Colbert: Consommé garnished with Printaniere of vegetables and

small poached eggs.

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SOME CONSOMME GARNISHES
BRETON : Juliennes of Celery, Onion and Leeks
BRUNNOISE : Small Diced vegetables
DUBARRY : Flowerettes of cauliflower
FLORENTINE : Fine strips of blanched Spinach
JULIENNES : Julienne cuts of vegetables
PAYSANNE : Fresh vegetables cut in uniform size
ST. GERMAIN : Fresh green Peas
ROYAL : Dices of savory egg custard
VERMICELLI : Fine Noodles
PRINTANIERE : Small dices of mixed fresh vegetables

UN PASSED SOUPS
Thin soups which are not passed through sieve after preparation and served with
solids are known as un passed soups. Un passed soups are of following two
types:
1. Broth
2. Bouillon

Broth: Broth is prepared by cooking good quality of stock along with diced Meat,
Vegetables and Rice or Barley; and served with solids. Thickening agents such
as Rice or Barley or Macaroni etc. are put at the beginning of preparation.

Bouillon: Bouillons are strong Meaty flavoured, clear soup with pieces of
vegetables, Meat, Seafood etc. floating in the soup. It is a clear soup served un
passed.

2. THICK SOUPS
These are passed thick soup; thickening is done by using some thickening agent
such as Starch, Puree etc. they are of following six types:
1. Puree
2. Cream
3. Velouté
4. Chowder
5. Bisque
6. Coulis

Puree: Soups thicken by its main ingredients (E.g. Leguminous plants, Potato or
Cereals) and passed through sieve. Consistency of such soups should
resembles to cream. These soups are served with Croûtons. E.g. Puree de
lentils, Puree de haricot blance, Puree Parmount, Puree de tomato, Puree de
pois faris

Cream: A Soup of creamy consistency which is made with generally puree of

vegetables mixed with béchamel or white sauce. It can be finished with cream if
required. E.g. Crème de celeri, crème de tomato, crème de champignon

Veloute: A thick soup made from white stock & roux finished with liaison (mixture
for thicker) of egg yolk & cream. E.g. Veloute Indinne, Veloute princesse, Veloute
celeries
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Chowder: A thick soup of American origin prepared from Potatoes, Onion,
pieces of bacon, seasonings and seafood. Crackers are added just before
service. E.g. Praum chowder, Vegetable Chowder, Oyester Chowder, Pork
Chowder etc.

Bisques: These are thickened fish soups generally made from shellfish puree
and thickened with rice or cream. Diced fish is served in it. E.g. Crayfish Bisque,
Lobster bisque etc.

Coulies: A thick soup prepared from puree of shellfish.Eg. Coulis decrevisses,

Coutes de crabes.

3. COLD SOUPS
Cold soups are thickened by natural gelatin present in ingredients or by adding
starch or puree. They are served cold. Eg. Vichyssoise, Velaille Napolitaine,
Veloute de velaille froid, Gelee de velaill aux tomato

4. INTERNATIONAL SOUPS
There are varieties of cold / hot, thick / thin soups placed in this special category,
because of their origin. There are some soups originated in a certain locality and
are associated with a particular place. Most of these are un-passed one.
Eg. Soup Country
Minestrone Italy
Green Turtle Soup England
French Onion Soup France
Scotch Broth Scotland
Mulligatawny India
Gazpacho Spain
Manhattan Calm Chowder America
Camaro Brazil
Paprika Hungary

Care While Preparing Soup

1. Use good quality strong flavoured stock.
2. Garnish should be small so that it can be picked up by soup spoon.
3. Soup should be moderately seasoned.
4. One liter of soup yields five portions.
5. Accompaniments should be crisped

Common Garnish for Soup

Croutons - Dices or fancy cut bread / toast fried to golden brown color
Cereals - Rice or barley
Cream - Unsweetened whisked cream or sour cream
Meat - Usually small dices or juliennes
Poultry - Usually small dices or juliennes
Cheese - Cheese balls, grated parmesan cheese
Seafood - Diced or flakes of seafood
Pasta - Noodles or Spaghetti
Vegetables - Different cuts of vegetables like carrot, turnip etc.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

Q.1 Define Soup?

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Q.2 What ate the various types of soup?

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7.6 Marinades
Marinades are intended to flavour all manner of fish and meats before cooking. In
the olden days they were mostly applied to fish and meat portions to be grilled,
especially if a little bland, such as poultry. As today we have increasingly to use
more chilled and frozen fish and meats, marinating helps to give back flavour and
even colour that has been lost in the defrosting process.

Marinade for fish and shellfish

Ingredients: 500 ml white wine, 250 ml oil, Juice of 2 lemons, Salt and milled
pepper and Parsley stalks

Method: Mix all ingredients well, brush on fish portions and prawns etc. an hour
or so before cooking Ideal whether fish is to be grilled, fried or deep fried. Prawns
will much improve even for cocktails

Marinade for poultry (especially chicken and veal)

Ingredients: 500 ml white wine, 250 ml oil, Juice of 1 lemon, 2-3 tbsp honey,
Salt, milled pepper, cayenne, paprika powder

Method: Mix all ingredients well, brush on fish portions and prawns etc. an hour
or so before cooking

Marinade for red meats and game

Ingredients: 500 ml oil, 1 glass of port, 2-3 crushed cloves garlic, Salt, milled
pepper and cayenne

Method: Mix all ingredients well, brush on fish portions and prawns etc. an hour
or so before cooking

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Brine for pickled/brined salmon (Gravad Lax)
Ingredients (for both sides of a 3 kg salmon): 200 g sea salt, 150 g caster
sugar, 30 g black peppercorns, coarsely crushed, 2-3 bunches of dill stalks only
(keep most dill itself for sauce)

Method: Pick best dill off stalks and set aside. Crush dill stalks with bat (most
flavour inside) Mix salt, pepper and sugar well, rub into the flesh sides of the
salmon, place on top of one another into a stainless steel tray with the crushed
dill stalks in between, store in fridge. Marinate for 48-72 hours, turning the sides
several times Serve cut in thin slices garnished with sprigs of dill and with
mustard sauce.

7.7 Garnish
To many people, the word garnish means a sprig of parsley haphazardly placed
on the plate. Just as common is the practice in some restaurants of adopting a
single garnish and using it routinely on every plate, from prime rib to batter-fried
shrimp. No one garnish is appropriate for every plate, just as no one side dish is
appropriate for every plate. In fact, the term garnish has been used for a great
variety of preparations and techniques in the history of classical and modern
cuisines. Today, the use of parsley sprigs on every plate has become rare, and
we are again using the word garnish in a more traditional way.

Classical Garnish
In classical cooking, the terms garnish and garniture have been used the way we
use the term accompaniments. In other words, garnishes are any items placed
on the platter or plate or in the soup bowl in addition to the main item. It happens
that these accompaniments also make the food look more attractive, but that is
not the emphasis.

The classical French chef had a tremendous repertoire of simple and elaborate
garnishes, and they all had specific names. A trained chef, or a well-informed
diner, for that matter, knew the word Rachel on the menu meant the dish was
served with artichoke bottoms filled with poached marrow, and Portugaise meant
a garnish of stuffed tomatoes.

There were so many of these names, however, that no one could remember
them all. So they were catalogued in handbooks to be used by chefs. Le
Répertoire de la Cuisine, first published in 1914 and one of these handbooks has
209 listings in the garnish section alone, not to mention nearly 7,000 other
preparations, all with their own names. The garnishes may be as simple as the
one called Concorde or as complex as the one called Tortue, quoted here to give
you an idea of the complexity and elaborateness of classical garnish.

Concorde (for large joints)-Peas, glazed carrots, mashed potatoes.

Tortue (for Entrées)-Quenelles, mushroom heads, gherkins, garlic, collops of

tongue and calves' brains, small fried eggs, heart-shaped croutons, crayfish,
slices of truffles, Tortue sauce.
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Many of the classical names for garnishes are still used in modern kitchens,
although they have lost the precise meanings they once had. You will encounter
some of these terms in your career, so it is worthwhile learning them. Remember
that the following definitions are not the classical ones but simply the garnish or
accompaniment generally indicated by the terms in today's kitchens.

Bouquetière : bouquet of vegetables

Printanière : spring vegetables
Jardinière : garden vegetables
Primeurs : first spring vegetables

Some of the common terms used in garnish and its meaning are as under:
Clamart : peas
Crécy : carrots
Doria : cucumbers (cooked in butter)
Dubarry : cauliflower
Fermière : carrots, turnips, onions, and celery, cut into uniform slices
Florentine : spinach
Forestière : mushrooms
Judic : braised lettuce
Lyonnaise : onions
Niçoise : tomatoes concassé cooked with garlic
Parmentier : potatoes
Princesse : asparagus
Provençale : tomatoes with garlic, parsley, and, sometimes, mushrooms
and/or olives
Vichy : carrots (especially Carrots Vichy)

Hot Platter Garnish

In classical cuisine, food was nearly always brought to the dining room on large
platters and then served, rather than being plated in the kitchen, as is most often
done today. Platter garnish need not be elaborate or difficult to prepare. A simple
assortment of colourful vegetables, carefully cut and properly cooked to retain
colour and texture, is appropriate to the most elegant presentation. Stuffed
vegetables, such as tomato halves filled with peas, are a little fancier, but still
easy to prepare. Borders of duchesse potatoes are also popular. Following are a
few more guidelines that apply to hot platter presentation and garnish.
1. Vegetables should be in easily served units: In other words, don't heap
green peas or mashed potatoes on one corner of the platter. More
suitable are vegetables such as cauliflower, broccoli, boiled tomatoes,
asparagus spears, whole green beans, mushroom caps, or anything that
comes in large or easy-to-handle pieces. Small vegetables such as peas
can be easily served if they are used to fill artichoke bottoms, tomato
halves, or tartlet shells.
2. Have the correct number of portions of each item: Vegetables like
Brussels sprouts and tournéed carrots are easily portioned in the dining
room if they are arranged in little portionsize piles.
3. Arrange the garnishes around the platter to get the best effect from the
different colors and shapes: The meat, poultry, or fish is usually placed in

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the centre of the platter, or in a row or rows, and the garnishes arranged
around it.
4. Avoid being too elaborate: While it is sometimes desirable to make ornate
platters, simplicity is usually preferable to an overworked appearance. Let
the attractiveness of the food speak for itself. The garnish should never
dominate or hide the meat, which is the center of attention.
5. Serve extra sauce or gravy in a sauceboat: If it is appropriate, dress or
nap the meat or fish items with some of the sauce, but don't drown the
entire platter with it.
6. Serve hot foods hot, on a hot platter: Don't spend so much time arranging
the food that it's cold by the time it reaches the dining room.

7.8 Summary
In this unit we lave learnt about basics of food production. The unit begin with
stock-the foundation, for various sauce, soup and gravies. Then we have
discussed about the mother or basic six sauces and their derivatives. Then the
unit discusses the marinades and garnishes.

7.9 Answer to Check Your Progress

Check your progress-I

Q.1 Refer to section 7.3
Q.2 Refer to section 7.4

Check your progress-II

Q.1 Refer section 7.5
Q.2 Refer section 7.5

7.10 Terminal Questions

Q. Write short notes on:
• Stock and its types
• Mother Sauce
• Types of Soup
• Marinades
• Garnish

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UNIT 8: INTRODUCTION TO FOOD & BEVERAGE

SERVICE INDUSTRY

Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Food & Beverage Service Industry
8.4 Characteristics of Food & Beverage Service Industry
8.5 Trends in Food & Beverage Service Industry
8.6 History of Food & Beverage Service Industry
8.7 History of food & Beverage service Industry in India.
8.8 Major establishments in Food & Beverage Service Industry.
8.9 Summary
8.10 Glossary
8.11 Check your Progress-1 Answer
8.12 Check your Progress-2 Answer
8.13 Further Reference/Bibliography
8.14 Suggestive Reading
8.15 Terminal Questions

8.1 Introduction
The Provision of food & beverage away from home forms a substantial part of the
activities of the hotel and catering industry. People need accommodation with
food and beverages if they are away for more than a day and only food &
beverage if they are away for a short duration.

Food & beverage service has developed into a huge industry. The number and
type of eating out establishments has increased tremendously as suppliers
constantly try to satisfy the changing demands and tastes of the market.
In this first unit we are going to learn about the introduction of food and beverage
industry.

8.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, the student must know.
 Understand the origin and growth of Food & Beverage Industry.
 Trace the development of food & Beverage service Industry.
 Identify the reasons for its phenomenal growth.
 Learn about the people who contributed to the development and
expansion of food & beverage service Industry.

8.3 Food & Beverage Service Industry

Food & beverage industry is usually defined by it output of products, to satisfy,
the various demands of food & drinks of people. But it doesn‟t include the
manufacturing of food & drink and its relating. In today‟s world, the food &

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beverage service industry has expended a lot and now- a-days as per calculation
it is serving more than 100 million meals per day. It has spread across all walks
of life. Hotel, restaurants, industrial canteen, hospital canteen, railways, airways,
all is now part of food & beverage service industry.

Food of Beverage service is an operation in which product/service are created

and delivered to the customer almost simultaneously. “To be of service literally
means to attend to someone‟s needs. It involves helping, giving, sharing and
meeting needs. Services and manufactured products have different
characteristics.

Manufactured product Service

Tangible, produced, shipped Intangible simultaneously produced
purchased now for consumption and consumed.
later, lacking interaction between
manufacturer and consumer.

Nature of service:
1) Services are partly or wholly intangible.
2) Services are consumed at the moment or during the period of production
or delivery.
3) Services usually requires interaction between the service provider and the
customer/client/Guest.

Food & Beverage Service Industry is defined by three words.

Competence Friendliness Ubiquitous

Serving Food & The service person It means found
Beverage in the correct should make the guests everywhere at the
manner to the guest in a private room. same time. A
competence alone ubiquitous manager
does not make a good will appear to have
service person. eyes in the back of his
or her head. The
Service persons know
what you want without
having to request it.

Most food & beverage businesses operate with in the cycle & the different stages
of the cycle present both challenges & opportunities for operators. The food &
beverage service industry engages itself in the provision of food and beverages,
mainly to the people who are away from their homes for different reasons. Such
people need accommodation with food & beverages if they are away for more
than day and only food & beverages if they are away for a short duration of time.
The basic needs of customers for food & beverages are met by the food &
beverage service industry, which has been associated with loading ever since
people started travelling. People who move out of their houses for various
reasons, such as job, education, business, leisure, medical treatment, sports,
religion and so on, depend completely on the food & beverage service industry
for their meals.
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Most food of beverage operations aims to provide:-

 Quality food of beverages
 A clean, hygienic & safe environment
 Comfortable & well designed facilities
 Professional, attentive and friendly service
 Value for money

8.4 Characteristics of the Food & Beverage Service Industry

The following are the main characteristics:-

 A vital part of everyday life.
 Major contributor to the national economy.
 Highly fragmented & complex
 Creates employment
 Encourages entrepreneurship
 Promotes diversity through many different food concept and cuisines
 Local multiplier using many other peripheral services
 Consumer led
 Competitive
 An opportunities to enjoy the company of friends, family & colleagues
 Fulfils, basic needs -food is a basic need for everyday life.

8.5 Trends in Food & Beverages Service Industry

Following are some key trends:-
 Guests become more sophisticated.
 More emphasis on food safety & sanitation.
 Increase in restaurants.
 More casual/less formal & theme restaurants.
 Growth in chains-all cuisines.

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 Increase in convenience food.
 Increase in coffee chains-coffee culture.
 Increase takes out meals & home meal replacement.
 Out sourcing outlets in hotels-co-branding.
 More focus on healthier eating.
 Increase in organic food consumption.

8.6 History Food & Beverage Service Industry

The hotel industry originated in the 6th Century BC and is perhaps one of the
oldest endeavours. The earliest inns were just large halls where travellers slept
on the floor along with the animals on which they travelled. These conditions
prevailed for hundred of years until the mode of travel changed.

The invention of the wheel, one of the greatest events in the history of civilization
resulted in the production of quicker modes of conveyance. The speed of travel
increased with the development of vehicles. With the advent of the Industrial
revolution in England, travel for business gradually started increasing. A growing
economy also led to an increase in travel for recreation and meaningful utilization
of leisure. This created a yearning among people to travel beyond the traditional
boundaries. Travellers of earlier times belonged to different segments of society.
They consisted of members of the nobility as well as religious messengers,
missionaries, traders and soldiers. Travel for the common man came at a much
later date. The aristocrats or nobility travelled on horseback or in carriages, and
were usually entertained by people of their own class in castles and mansions of
great estates. They were accommodated and fed, befitting their status, with
sumptuous meals and gallons of wine. Monasteries provided shelter to the
religious order, while the soldiers were lodged in forts or in tents. It was the
traders who helped in promoting the establishment of inns. They had no other
alternative but to stay in inns for a night or two while travelling.

The improvement of roads and the building of carriages also increased the
number of people on the move. To provide accommodation and food for this
increasing number of travellers, many types of inns were set up along the
frequently travelled roads and pathways. Thus, inn-keeping began its steady
growth and became more popular as time progresses. In earlier times, working
in an inn was skill-oriented, and these inns were normally run by a husband and
wife team. Inns provided shelter and stabling facilities. Some of them also
provided wholesome food & wine.

“A hotel is defined as a place where a bonafide traveller can receive food and
shelter, provided he is in a position to pay for it, and is in a fit condition to be
received.”
The lead in a hoteliering was taken by several nations of Europe, especially
France and Switzerland. Chalets-small cottages with an overhanging roof found
in the Swiss Mountains and small hotels, which provided a variety of services,
were mainly patronized by the aristocracy of the day.

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The food & beverage service industry has its roots in the inns and taverns of the
colonical period. Inns in America were patterned after those in England. Samuel
cole of Boston opened the first American tavern, the Coles ordinary, in Boston in
1634. Taverns and Inns became informal gathering places where patrons could
discuss politics and community gossip over ale and food. In 1740, the first stage
coaches began travelling from Boston and made roadside inns even more
accessible and popular. The American Revolution ended the reign of the
roadside inns as they went out of fashion along with the British. French cuisine
became popular in government and society circles, with even presidents
Washington and Jefferson serving French dishes to their guests.

Around 1760, a type of establishment that became common in Paris, called Hotel
Garni came into vogue. It was a large house with a number of rooms or
apartments available for rent by the day, week or month. Its advent signified a
more luxurious and organized way of providing lodging quite different from the
basic requirements met by the inns of that period. In France the first restaurant
where customer could choose from a selection of items presented on a menu
was opened in 1765 by A. Boulanges. The City Hotel in New York was the
first building meant solely for use as a hotel. It was built in the year 1794. In the
1820s the first American restaurant opened in New York with these
establishment began the era of „fashionable‟ restaurants where dining was a
social event and an indulgence in fine food surrounded by lush decor, some
featuring nightingales and elaborate fountains. In the year 1827, the Delmonico
brothers, who were immigrants from Switzerland, opened a pastry shop and café
in New York City.

It proved to be a change for the better from the eateries of that era, and led to
the opening of their first restaurant a few years later. Thus, the art of food service
became recognized as an important part of the dining experience. The big boom
in the hotel industry came in the 1920s, when the concept of chain hotels was
born, under the stewardship of Ellsworth Milton Steatler. He was the hotel man
of the century. He has given statements like “Life is Service” and “Guest is
always right”. However, during the Great Depression of the 1930s, there was a
considerable decrease in business thereby affecting the growth of the hotel
industry. Immediately after the second world war, the hotel industry regained its
prominence and registered a steady growth. In 1950s, Motels and International
hotel chains gave a big boost to the industry. These chains either bought up
smaller individually owned properties, or built their own hotels. Many individual
hotel operators merged with these international hotel chains, as it increased their
ability to cope with the growing competition. As far as specialized dining was
concerned, it was Cesar Ritz and Auguste Escoffier, who popularized public
dining in Europe. Gradually dining out became fashionable. The pioneers in this
field set very exacting standards, with superb cuisine and impeccable and stylish
service of food and wine. By the turn of the century, they had taken London by
storm and given Londoners a new fad a gracious dining experience with the
increase of affluence among many segments of society, public dining gained
greater acceptance and led to expansion and charges in the food and beverage
services to suit varied tastes.

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8.7 History of Food & Beverage Service Industry in India
The food and beverage service industry in India traces its roots to the traditional
community feasts and the movement of people on Pilgrimage thousands of years
ago. Most people were on the move primarily for preaching religion and hunting.
People took shelter under trees when they were away from their homes and
depended on natural sources for their food. Their lives were endangered by wild
animals and wayside robbers, which forced them to look for a place that assured
them safety, accommodation and food. Dharamshalas and Chatrams came up
to protect the lives of travellers from wild animals and robbers. These were
buildings where travellers could stay free of cost. The travellers were also
provided stables and sheds for horses and bullock carts, respectively, free of
charge. They were given food and accommodation at no cost during the rule of
kings. Kings entertained common people and merchants with feasts consisting of
a variety of rich dishes, traditional dances, bravery arts, etc, during festivals.
The outsiders who cames to India during the course of its history include the
Greeks under Alexander the great, the Kushanas from Central Asia, the Mongols
under Genghis Khan, Muslim traders and invaders from the Middle East and
Central Asia, and finally the British and other Europeans.

It was during the Mughal rule that Sarais were developed to provide
accommodation to travellers which were later converted to inns and western style
hotels during the British rule. The invasion by other dynasties brought in their
cultures and cuisines to the land.

Europeans visited the country to trade for the finest cotton textiles as well as
spices. Eventually the British colonized the region. They introduced their
cuisines, the skills of making wines and distilled drinks and eating habits. Table
etiquettes and the art of eating with continue to eat with. However, even today,
people continue to eat with their fingers. In Tamil Nadu, people eat their meals
from banana leaves and in the north, from a thali. Economic activities Paved the
way for development of western-style hotels and restaurants, mainly to cater to
the requirements of the British & European traders. The development of catering
in India is mainly attributed to the British, who introduced hotels and restaurants
similar to the ones in Europe. The rapid development of transportation, especially
the railways in the mid-nineteenth century, enabled people to move in large
numbers. This led to the establishment of small lodges and restaurants in and
around railway stations to cater to the needs of the travellers. Refreshment
rooms at railway stations and Pantry cars in some of the trains were introduced.
Reputed hotels such as Taj, the oberoi and the ambassador were well
established when India became independent. After independence, the hospitality
industry grew at a faster rate. Civil aviation developed rapidly soon after the
Second World War. The introduction of international flight services in the year
1948 and additional services in the mid-1950s encouraged a lot of foreigners to
visit India and also many international chains of hotel such as the Holiday Inn,
the Sheraton, and the inter continental and so on, started their operations in
India. The Oberoi group establishment the first franchised hotel with the Inter
continental hotels in Delhi in the early 1960s. The people of India, in general did
not Prefer dining out till the early 1960s. They always carried with them home
made food to the workplace, school a while travelling. Even today, some people

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carry food whenever they go out. Perhaps this could be one of the reason for
dabbawalas, who are food vendors engaged in distributing meals in dabbas
(Boxes) to clients at their workplaces, doing so well in Mumbai. In South India,
people used to packed food such as lime rice, tamrind rice and curd rice from
vendors. In the north, bhojanalayas served local dishes, especially roti, sabji and
salad.

Indian Tourism development corporation (ITDC) was set up in 1966 with the
developing & expanding tourism infrastructure in the country and thereby
promoting India as a tourist destination. ITDC succeeded in achieving its
objectives by promoting the largest hotel chain in India and providing all tourist
services such as accommodation, catering, transport, in house travel agency and
so on. For development of manpower to meet the growing needs of hotels,
restaurants and other hospitality based industries. For this purpose, Institute of
Hotel Management (IHM) and Food craft Institute (FCI) were established. These
programme imparts adequate knowledge and training in the core operational and
managerial areas of the hospitality industry. This makes the students understand
the environment and execute their job professionally. In 2002, Ministry of
Tourism (MOT) launched a programme called Capacity Building For service
provider (CBSP) to train persons engaged in small hotels, dhabas, eating joints
& and restaurants. Projects Priyadarshini was launched in 2005 to impart training
to women in taxi driving/operation, entrepreneurship such as setting up souvenir
kiosks and so on, to adopt tourism as their profession. People of different region
in India have different style of food like Hyderabadi Cuisine, Avadhi Cuisine,
Goan Cuisine, South Indian cuisine etc.

A lot of foreign food service organization such as McDonald‟s, Pizza king,

Dominos, subway and soon, have set up their operation in India, which has made
local restaurant fine-tune their operations in order to compete with these outlets.
Nirula‟s and Haldiram in the north and Saravana Bhavan, Adyar Ananda Bhavan
and Annapoorna in the South are doing well in the food service Industry.

Radhakrishna Hospitality Services offers Catering services to industries and

schools in a big way. Wineries, especially the ones in Maharashtra, are coming
out with wines to complement Indian dishes. The food service sectors continually
change their style of operation to meet the changing needs of the customers.
Today we have top quality restaurants in India that are comparable with
international standards.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- 1

Q-1 Define food & beverage service Industry.

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Q-2 Explain the nature of Service.

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Q-3 Give the History of food & beverage service Industry.

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8.8 Major Establishments in Food & Beverage Service Industry

The food & beverage service Industry provides millions of meals a day in a wide
variety of types of food & beverage Industry. Food & beverage service industry
includes various types of restaurants, Bar, Cafes, Cafeterias, take-aways,
canteens, function halls, tray service operation, lounge service operations, home
delivery operations and room service operations for hotel guests. Some
examples of the types are as follows.-

Restaurant: A restaurant is a place where food and beverage are sold and
served to customers. There are different types of restaurants that have evolved
to meet the dynamic demands of consumers. The lifestyle of people is
continuously changing and so are their eating habits. The owner of restaurant
must consider the menu, service hour, mode of service, expenditure potential of
the customer, the time the target customers are likely to spend on dining and so
on, to satisfy the changing needs of customers and to sustain themselves in an
ever changing market environment.
Bistro: It is small restaurant that serves simple, moderately priced meals and
wine. The menu consists of dishes that are simple and easily prepared in bulk.
Braised meats are typical dishes that are provided in a bistro. It serves coffee as
well. The services are formal and quick. It may not have printed menus.

Brasserie: It is formal restaurant, which serves drinks, single dishes and other
meals one can have just a drink or coffee. It extends professional service and
presents printed menus. The waiters are in traditional uniform of long apron and
waist coats.

Coffee shop: It is a restaurant that mainly serves snacks and beverages 24

hours a day, however it may serve all the three meals. Most star hotels have
coffee shop to Cater to the needs of customers at any time of the day. This

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coffee shop concept has come from the USA. The service and ambience of the
coffee shop are informal. The furniture and service equipment are not very
expensive. Covers are laid on place mats. A “Cover” is a term, referring to a
place setting with necessary, cutlery, crockery and glassware required at the
beginning of the service for one person. This term also refer to the seating
capacity of a good service area.

Specialty restaurant: It serves specialty dishes which are its strength and
contribute to the brand image. It operates during luncheon and dinner hours,
between noon and 3 P.M and between 7 P.M and 11 P.M. The ambience and
decor of the restaurant reflect the theme of the specialty restaurant. It may
specialize either in a particular type of food such as fish and chips, pastas or
steaks, or in a particular type of cuisine, for example Indian, Chinese, Italian,
Mediterranean and so on.

Fine dining Restaurant: This kind of restaurant primarily caters to the

requirement of the affluent market segment which wants to experience fine
dining. The restaurant may either offer dishes of one particular region or country
or exotic dishes from various cuisines, wines, spirits and digestives. It is open
mostly by during dinner time. The ambience and décor of the restaurant will be
elegant are rich. The dining chair has arm rest. All the tables will be covered with
good quality linen and napkin.

Popular Restaurant: This type of restaurant is informal, yet hygienically kept

and it is located in a busy area such as bus stands, railway stations, shopping
area and so on, catering to the requirements of the middle class and the
customers who are in a hurry. The restaurant is generally quite large with more
number of covers. It serves the dishes that are very popular and highly
demanded in that area, quickly and at moderate prices. The menu may either be
displayed on a board at a prominent place or printed and laminated.

Dhaba: It is a roadside Food stall found on national and state highways mainly
catering to the requirements of heavy vehicle crew. It specializes in Punjabi
cuisine and tandoor cooking. Serving very limited dishes, which are freshly
prepared. The service is very informal and there is hardly any cutlery used. The
dishes are kept on the table with service spoons for customers to help
themselves. Coir cots are used for the customers to sit on and a narrow table is
used for placing the dish and eating. The dishes served here are inexpensive
and taste like home-made food. It offers both vegetarian and non-vegetarian
dishes.

Fast food outlets: The fast food concept was first introduced in the USA and
now it has become popular around the world. It is characterized by the speed of
service and affordable price of the menu items. They are specializing in a
particular products like burger, pizza and so on. Food products can be prepared
quickly and kept for a short while without spoilage. Food can either be eaten in
the premises or taken away as packed food. In India, Pav Bhaji, bhel, pani puri,
samosa, kachori, kabab paratha, poori bhaji, chole bhatura, varieties of dhosa
and so on are served as fast food items.

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Rotisserie: This type of restaurant specialize in grilled or roast meat, poultry and
fish, which are prepared in front of the guests. The griller is operated either by
gas or by electricity. The guests can see the way their chosen cuts are being
cooked through a glass partition. The cooked meat is served on a plate by the
food service staff along with salads, potatoes and accompanying sauce. The
décor of the restaurant may be moderate. Wine and beer may also be served.

Carvery: It is a restaurant serving roast meant and poultry, which are carved at
the carving counters by a carver in the presence of guests. Accompanying
sauces and vegetables are served with the roast. Table d‟hote (fixed) menu of
three or four courses with roast meat or poultry as the main course is offered.

Barbeque restaurant: This kind of restaurant specializes in barbeque dishes,

both vegetarian and non-vegetarian delicacies. The marinated pieces of meat,
poultry, fish, vegetables, Paneer and so on, are inserted into skewers and
cooked over live charcoal or electric griller. Frequent basting with marinades and
oil is done during cooking, which fills the area with aroma. It serves as an
excellent tool of merchandising. The aroma of barbeque dishes and the way they
are prepared and presented make people buy them. It is generally located near a
swimming pool, roof top, lawn, sea, and so on, and is open during evening hours.
Western and Indian.

Bar: It offers all kinds of spirits such as whisky, rum, gin, vodka, brandy, tequila,
wines and beers. Hotels and restaurants have a separate licensed area to sell
these alcoholic drinks. Snacks are also offered. Hotels may also have an
additional bar in the service area/ restaurant to dispense wines, beers and spirits
during the service, called a dispense bar.

Pub: It mainly serves various kinds of beer, especially draught beer and snacks.
It has been borrowed from the concept of public houses in England. Pubs were
owned by breweries (beer manufacturing firm) to sell their beers. In India cities
like Mumbai & Banglore have some of the finest pubs.

Night Club: It operates during the night and offers dinner, dance and live
entertainment. Cabarets or floor shows are the main attraction of the night club.
Couples can dance on the dance floor to music performed by the live bands or to
recorded music. Guests are required to wear formal dress. Dinner and wine are
served at the table and guests can have their meal while enjoying the show. In
India, some metro cities have night clubs.

Discotheque: It operates during night hours. It provides a dance floor for guest
to dance on. Special sound and lighting effect is created for on appropriate
ambience. Drinks, especially beer, and snacks are made available during the
operations. The service is very informal. It is patronized mostly by the youth and
couples. Dress code is not insisted upon. It is generally located in hotels as well
as in the malls. The entry is limited to a certain number of guests according to the
floor/room capacity.

Ice Cream Parlour: It serves different kinds of ice creams- sundae, coupe,
bombe, cassata and so on. These ice cream containers are kept in refrigerated
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displays with see through glass. Some ice cream manufactures have introduced
sugar-free and cholesterol-free ice-creams. The seating arrangement and service
are very informal name of ice-creams available are displayed on brand with
pictures to market the products. Ice creams are served with wafer biscuits and
sweet sauces and nuts. Guest may either eat in the premises or have it packed
any carry.

Cafeteria: The traditional cafeteria system consists of a straight line of counters

containing a variety of hot and cold dishes. The customers start at the end of a
line, pick up a tray and move along the length of the counter as they select
dishes they want to have. The cashier who is seated at the end of the counter
makes bills for the items selected and collects payment. This from of service is
widely followed in institutional and industrial establishment.

Food Court: It refers to a number of independent food stalls, each serving

different items food. The customers order the food items they want to have and
consume them at a common dining area. The types of dishes that is popular
globally. Food courts are found in big shopping complexes, entertainment
complexes, amusement parks, airports and so on, where there is a heavy traffic
of customers. It is mostly self-service waiters may assist in clearing the table and
serving water.

Kiosks: A kiosk is a small permanent or temporary structure and side walk from
which items such as coffee, tea, chocolates, pastries and so an, may be sold.
The items may either by taken away or consumed at tables arranged nearby.
Most kiosks do not love seating provision.

Drive in: In a drive-in restaurant, customers drive in park their vehicles at a

parking lot, and remain seated in their vehicles. The waiters go to the customers
with menu cards, collect orders and deliver the food items on specially designed
trays and the customers remain parked while they eat.

Banquets: Banquets is the highest revenue generating section of food and

beverage department. Various types of functions like conferences, board
meetings, cocktails parties, weddings, state banquets, etc are organized in the
banquet room or hall of a hotel.

Check Your Progress- 2

Q-1 Define the coffee shop.
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Q-2 Give the features of a popular restaurant.
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……………………………………………………………………………………
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Q- 3 Give difference between Bar & Pub?

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8.9 Summary
India, a popular country, has very good potential for the development of food &
beverage service industry. The number of people availing the services of food &
beverage industry is steadily increasing due to their increased disposable
income. Eating out in future will not be a luxury but an essential activity. The food
& beverage service industry is different from other industries in satisfying the
needs of customers. It satisfies one of the most important physiological needs of
the consumer, that is, of hunger and thirst. From last decade food & beverage
Industry is expanding very fast.

8.10 Glossary

Auguste Escoffier: The most famous French chef, known as the emperor of
chefs.

Inn: A house providing food, beverage and accommodation.

Food service: Food service is an operation in which products/services are

created and delivered to the customer almost simultaneously.

Dhabha: It is a roadside food stall located at national and state highway

specialize in tandoori and Punjab style of cooking.

Table d‟hote Menu: Table d‟ hote menu is a restricted menu, offering a small
number of courses (three of four) a limited choice within each course, fixed
selling price and all the dishes being ready at a set time.

Coffee Shop: It is a restaurant open round the clock, providing a multi cuisine
menu.

Banquet: An outlet that caters to the service of food and beverage to a large
gathering of people.

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Bar: An outlet that primarily serves alcoholic beverages.

Specialty restaurant: A fine dining out let in which service is both formal and
stylish.

8.11 Check Your Progress- 1 Answer

Ans-1 Food of Beverage service is an operation in which product/service are
created and delivered to the customer almost simultaneously. “To be of service
literally means to attend to someone‟s needs. It involves helping, giving, sharing
and meeting needs.

Ans-2 Nature of service is:

(1) Services are partly or wholly intangible.
(2) Services are consumed at the moment or during the period of production
or delivery.
(3) Services usually require interaction between the service provider and the
customer/client/Guest.

Ans- 3 The hotel industry originated in the 6th Century BC and is perhaps one of
the oldest endeavors. The earliest inns were just large halls where travellers
slept on the floor along with the animals on which they traveled. These conditions
prevailed for hundred of years until the mode of travel changed. The invention of
the wheel, one of the greatest events in the history of civilization resulted in the
production of quicker modes of conveyance. The speed of travel increased with
the development of vehicles. With the advent of the Industrial revolution in
England, travel for business gradually started increasing.

8.12 Check Your Progress- 2 Answers.

Ans-1 It is a restaurant that mainly serves snacks and beverages 24 hours a day,
however it may serve all the three meals. Most star hotels have coffee shop to
Cater to the needs of customers at any time of the day. This coffee shop concept
has come from the USA. The service and ambience of the coffee shop are
informal. The furniture and service equipment are not very expensive. Covers are
laid on place mats. A “Cover” is a term, referring to a place setting with
necessary, cutlery, crockery and glassware required at the beginning of the
service for one person. This term also refer to the seating capacity of a good
service area.

Ans-2 This type of restaurant is informal, yet hygienically kept and it is located in
a busy area such as bus stands, railway stations, shopping area and so on,
catering to the requirements of the middle class and the customers who are in a
hurry. The restaurant is generally quite large with more number of covers. It
serves the dishes that are very popular and highly demanded in that area, quickly
and at moderate prices. The menu may either be displayed on a board at a
prominent place or printed and laminated.

Ans-3 Bar: It offers all kinds of spirits such as whisky, rum, gin, vodka, brandy,
tequila, wines and beers. Hotels and restaurants have a separate licensed area
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to sell these alcoholic drinks. Snacks are also offered. Hotels may also have an
additional bar in the service area/ restaurant to dispense wines, beers and spirits
during the service, called a dispense bar. Pub: - It mainly serves various kinds of
beer, especially draught beer and snacks. It has been borrowed from the concept
of public houses in England. Pubs were owned by breweries (beer
manufacturing firm) to sell their beers. In India cities like Mumbai & Banglore
have some of the finest pubs.

8.13further Reference/Bibliography

 Malhotra R.K. (1998) Food service and catering Management, Anmol

Publication Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, pp 3-5
 Singaravelavan R (2011) food and beverage service, oxford University
press, New Delhi pp 3-13
 Varghese, Brain (1999), Professional food & Beverage service
Management, Macmillan India, Ltd. Bangalore pp 3-7
 Vijay Dhawan (2000), Food & beverage service, Frank Bros. & Com.
(Publishes) :Ltd. pp 3-10
 Lillicrap, DR, Cousins John A (1971), Food & Beverage service, Hodder
and Stoughton Limited, London, pp 5-7

8.14 Suggested Reading

 Singaravelavan R. (2011) Food & Beverage Service, Oxford University

Press, New Delhi.
 George Bobby & Chatterjee Sandeep (2008) Food & Beverage service
and Management, Jaico publishing House, Mumbai.
 Andrioli Sergio, Douglas Peter (1990), Professional Food service,
Heineman Professional published Ltd., oxford.

8.15 Terminal Questions

Fill in the blanks
1- The concept of fast food was first introduced in…………………….
2- Silver service in implement in a ……………………………....outlet
3- Dhabas are located at…………………………………………………
4- Non alcoholic beverages are served in…………….and ……………..
5- ……………….is an outlet organized conferences and meetings.
Short Answer type Questions
1- Why the fast food outlets are very popular in India?
2- Give the difference between fine dining restaurant & popular restaurant?
3- Explain Bistro & Coffee shop?
4- Give the definition of hotel?
5- Give the Characteristics of the food & beverage service industry?
6- Give the difference between product & services?
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Long Answer type Questions
1- Give a details note of food & beverage service industry?
2- Explain the history of food & beverage service industry in India?
3- Explain the major establishment in food & beverage service industry?

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Unit 9: Food Service Operation

Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Food Service Operation
9.4 Organization of the food & beverage service department.
9.5 Duties & responsibilities of food & beverages service staff.
9.6 Different Ancillary Departments of F & B Service.
9.7 Inter-department relationship.
9.8 Summary
9.9 Glossary
9.10 Answers to Check your Progress
9.11 Further Reference / Bibliography
9.12 Suggestive Reading
9.13 Terminal Question

9.1 Introduction
In the last reading of Unit, “Classification of catering industry” we have learnt
about Catering industry and their classification into Primary catering
establishment and Secondary Catering establishment according to the Priority
given to the provision of food and beverages. In this unit we are going to learn,
about food Service operation, organization of food & beverage Department,
Duties & responsibilities of their respective staff, different ancillary department of
F & B service, and Inter-departmental relationship of F & B Service with other
departments. We must know that, this department is the major revenue
producing department in a hotel. In this unit you will understand that Food &
Beverage Service department is a complex operation involving highly specialized
tasks.

9.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, the student will understand and know about:
 Identify the operational areas in Food Service Operation.
 Understand how the food & beverage Service department is organized
 Learn the functions of different outlets.
 List and discuss the hierarchy of food and beverage service department.
 Describe the functions of the key Personnel of the department.

9.3 Food Service Operation

People staying away from home for some reasons depend on food Service
Industry for their food and beverages, these sections in a hotel came under the
control of food and beverage Service Department. The food and beverage
service department of a hotel is the most labour intensive department. The F & B
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Service department is a complex operation involving highly specialized tasks. For
the case of operation food service is comes under these sections.

1. Pre- Customer arrival Preparation - The Service staff have Plenty to do

before the Customers arrive. These jobs include cleaning and Polishing, taking
booking (reservation), Setting the tables and back-up preparatory tasks. Wiping
of glass, Crockery and cutlery spotlessly. Arranging table and chairs with proper
cover. The table set up is correct, the silver is polished and chinaware and
glassware are spotlessly clean. Floor/ Carpet is clean and dry. The restaurant
and back area are in a state of readiness before the Service session commence.
The head water is usually responsible for keeping the booking diary.
Reservations for restaurants are usually made by telephone. The Place on the
table for dinner/ lunch is called cover. The middle of each cover should be
marked with a „centre guide‟ round which to position the cutlery, crockery and
glassware. The Centre guide could be plate or an unfolded napkin. Placing knife,
fork, glassware on the cover. Place of cutlery and crockery the students will know
in upcoming units. A simple table decoration, often of flowers or candles, is
placed in the middle of the table. Finally a folded napkin is placed in the middle
each place setting.

Mise-en- scene – This French term means to prepare the environment of the
outlet before service. It involves cleaning the serve area, table, chairs, side
station, trolleys or any other service equipment. This operation generally
proceeds mise-en-place.

Mise- en – place - This French term means to put in place. It is widely used in
the food and beverage service department in every day hotel operations. Before
service commences, the staff should ensure that the outlet is in total readiness to
receive guests. This is an ongoing process and needs to be done in all outlets of
the food service department.

2. Guest Arrive- How guests are received is very important. Greet the guest
warmly, by wishing them the time of the day. Escort the guests to the table and
seat them promptly by pulling the chairs out to ease seating. Place the chair
behind the guest‟s knees and move it in under as he sits down, using a knee as
well as your hands to keep the chair steady. Let the guest settle themselves.
Ensure that children have high chairs and special attention is paid to the elderly.
Remove extra cover if any from the table. Serve the water and present the menu
card. Common styles of presenting menus include placemats, single cards and
folded cards. Menu are two types, a la carte menu offer a large number of
courses with each dish priced individually are used in most circumstances, table
d‟ hote menu is a fixed number of dishes with a set price at a set time to serve.
The style of the menu must affect, the way in which it is presented. Taking orders
is an important skill which must be learnt. It is not easy as to might seem to make
sure that you customers each receive exactly what they have ordered and that
they are properly billed for what they have had. If the order has to be taken, offer
suggestions to the guests in the choice of food & beverages and repeat the final
order to avoid any errors.

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3. During the meal - When all the dishes in each courses are ready the waiter
collect the food from kitchen. There will be side board in the restaurant, ideally
one for each waiter‟s station. Collect the food from the kitchen on a tray and put it
on the side board before unloading the tray and taking the dishes to the table by
hand. Serve the food on the guest table on the basis of type of table service
(either silver service or pre plated service). Ensure that service is fast, efficient
and pleasant. Properly serve the accompaniment of each dish to the guest in
proper portion and serving temperature.

4. Clearing the table: Plates should not be taken from the table until all the
dinner/ lunch has finished. The usual sign that people have finished even if there
is food left on their plates, is that they push the remaining food to one side of the
plate and place their knife & fork together. Remove plates from the table by
taking them from each customer‟s right.

5. Billing: Be sensitive to what your guest wants. If the bill is presented too so
on, guest may be offended, feeling that you are trying to push them out. On the
other hand, it is extremely annoying for dinner, if they have limited time, to be
kept waiting for the bill. The waiter must be alert to signs that the bill is wanted.
People will usually be ready for the bill as soon as they have fined their meal.
Bring the bill in a bill folder and kept on the right hand side of the guest table. Do
not stand about waiting for your customers, to pay, leave them alone so that the
host can check the bill. When the host can check the bill, he or she will put
money or credit card on bill folder for you to collect. After the payment is cleared,
pull out the chairs or the table to enable guests to move out comfortably. Warmly
wish them and request them to visit again. Clear the table immediately and reset
for the next guest. Have the side board cleared and restacked for the next sitting.

9.4 Organization of the Food and Beverage Service Department

The department can achieve its predetermined objectives efficiently if every
employee knows the part he is to play in the team operation and how his/her role
relates to the others and contributes to attaining the overall objectives. Every
employee is given his/her duties and responsibilities in the hierarchy of reporting.
This is done in organizing, which is one of the managerial functions. Organizing
is the process of:
o Identifying and classifying the activities to be performed
o Grouping of activities necessary to attain the objectives
o Assigning of each grouping to a manager with authority necessary
to supervise it (delegation)
o Providing for coordination horizontally and vertically in the
organization
o It may be summarized as 'organization is the process of identifying
and grouping the work to be performed, defining and delegating
responsibility and authority, and establishing relationships for the
purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
accomplishing objectives'.
An organization's structure must clearly state who is to do what and who is
responsible for what results. Though an organization implies many meanings to

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many people, for most practicing managers, it means 'formalized intentional
structure of roles or positions'.

The food and beverage manager identifies the nature of work to be carried out in
each area of the food and beverage department and identifies positions and
draws job description for each, in liaison with the personnel manager to establish
formal organization structure. The organization chart of Food & Beverage Service
department is shown in figure 9.01 on page 162.

9.5 Duties & Responsibilities of Food & Beverage Service Staff

The food & beverage service department usually has the largest staff. Able
leadership and supervision is required to effectively direct the department and
guide the staff. The personnel in the food & beverage service industry require
practical knowledge of operations of all outlets is essential to provide the guest
with quality service at all times.
Job Specification - Job specification is a document that contains information
about the skills and qualities required for a position. In includes information such
as personal qualities, skills, formal education, technical qualification, work
experience, previous training, physical skill &. Communication skill.
Job description - It is a document that contains duties, responsibilities and all
the tasks that constitute a job position. It specifies the parameters within which a
job is done. It not only includes duties and responsibilities but also contains
report relationships, working conditions, authorities and control, coordination with
other departments, status within departmental hierarchy, equipments and
materials to be used and other information specific to the hotel.
Job Description Job specification
Job Title :- Job Title :-
Department :- Sex :-
Scope :- Age :-
Responsible to :- Qualification :-
Main Duties & Responsibilities :- Desirable Qualifications :-
Technical :-
Experience :-
Qualities :-
Conditions of Employment :-

JOB DESCRIPTION OF FOOD & BEVERAGE MANAGER

Duties & Responsibilities:
1. To maintain efficient catering services within the hotel for the markets
previously identified in the marketing and catering policies.
2. To maintain effective control of raw material, labour and equipment costs
used in the Food and Beverage Departments.
3. Co-operate with heads of Departments in producing Departmental
budgets for approval by the Chief Accountant.
4. To be responsible for achieving required revenue and profit targets for, all
selling outlets, maintaining the agreed standards of Food and Beverage
production and service as laid down in the catering policy.

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FOOD & BEVERAGE MANAGER

Banquet Bar Room

Coffee Shop Manager Specialty Restaurant
Manager Manager Manager
Manager
Senior
Senior Senior Senior
captain Senior
captain captain captain
captain

Room
captain Banquet captain Restaurant captain captain Service Wine captain Restauran
Sales Hostess Order waiter t Hostess
Assistant Taker
captain Barman

Waiter Bar man

Waiter Waiter
Waiter Waiter

Assistant Assistant
Assistant Assistant Assistant waiter
waiter waiter
waiter waiter
Trainee Trainee
Trainee Trainee Trainee

Fig. 9.01 Organization Chart of Food & Beverage Service

Department

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5. Co-operate regularly at staff meetings with the heads of Departments,
together comprising the Food and Beverage Department.
6. To be responsible for Hygiene and safety standard in the Food and
Beverage Department and ensure all legal requirements are met.
7. To be prepared to attend any other staff meeting as arranged by the
general manager.
8. Co-operate with the personnel Department in the recruiting and training of
new personnel for the Food and Beverage Department.
9. In consultation with the chef and based on the availability of ingredients
and prevailing trends, the Food and Beverage Manager should update
and if necessary compiling new menus. New and updated wine lists
should also be introduced regularly.
10. Ordering of stocks.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF ASSISTANT FOOD AND BEVERAGE MANAGER

Duties & Responsibilities
1. The assistant Food and Beverage Manager assists the Food and
Beverage Manager in running the Department by being more involved in
the actually day- to-day operations.
2. Assisting section heads during busy periods.
3. Taking charge of an outlet, when an outlet manager is on leave.
4. Setting Duty schedules for all the outlet Managers and monitoring their
performance.
5. Running the Department independently in the absence of Food and
Beverage Manager.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF RESTAURANT MANAGER

Duties & Responsibilities
The restaurant Manager is either the coffee shop Manager, Bar Manager or
specialty Restaurant Manager.
1. The Restaurant Manager reports directly to the Food and Beverage
Manager and has overall responsibility for the organization and
administration of a particular outlet or a section of the Food and
Beverage service Department.
2. Setting and Monitoring the standards of service in the outlets.
3. Administrative Duties such as setting Duty charts, granting leaves,
monitoring staff position, recommending staff promotions and
handling issues relating to discipline.
4. Training the staff by conducting a daily briefing in the outlet.
5. Playing a vital role in Public relations, meeting guest in the outlets and
attending to guest complaints, if any.
6. Formulating the sales and Expenditure budget for the outlet.
7. Planning Food festivals to increases the revenue of the outlet along
with the chef and the Food and Beverage Manager.

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JOB DESCRIPTION OF ROOM SERVICE MANAGER
Duties & Responsibilities
1. The Room Service Manager reports directly to the Food and
Beverage Manager and is responsible for the Room Service outlet.
2. The Room Service Manager checks that the service rendered to the
guests conforms to the standards set by the hotel.
3. He also monitors all operational aspects of the outlet such as service,
billing, Duty charts, Leave and absenteeism, in addition to attending to
guest complaints regarding Food and Service.
4. The Room Service Manager is also in charge of the sales and
Expenditure budget. Since Room service is the outlet which is most
liable to have problems, the Room service Manager should ensure co-
ordination among the Room service order taker, the captain and the
waiter.
5. It is necessary for the Room service Manager to be present in the
outlet during Peak hours to interact with other departments of the
hotel and to take regular inventories of all the equipment used.
6. In the Event of the hotel offering valet service, the room service
managers takes charge of that service as well.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF BAR MANAGER

Duties & Responsibilities
The Bar Manager is responsible for all functions of the bar and the dispense bar.
The responsibilities of a Bar Manager include the following:-
1. Recruiting staff and training them for a bar operations.
2. Monitoring performance and activities of bar ad dispense bar.
3. Supervising alcohol service and forecasting volume of sales.
4. Maintaining a close watch on movement of bottles and formulating
beverage control system.
5. Preparing budget for bar and dispense bar.
6. Purchasing bar equipment & identifying alcoholic beverage suppliers.
7. Handling records of stock & sales report.
8. Handling guest‟s complaints

JOB DESCRIPTION OF BANQUET MANAGER

Duties & Responsibilities:-
1. The Banquet Manager too is responsible for the functioning of his
outlet, but as the Banquet outlet is a major revenue earner in the food
& Beverage Department, the work load is more intense and heavier.
2. From the time the Bookings are done till the guest settles the bill, the
Banquet Manager is in charge of all areas of Banquet and conference
operations.
3. Banquet Manager supervises the work of the Banquet sales
assistances who do the Banquet Bookings and the captains and
waiters who perform the service activities under his guidance.

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4. He is responsible for organizing everything right down to the finest
detail.
5. The Banquet Managers projects the Budget of the Banquets, and
works in close co-ordination with the chef in setting menus.
6. He is responsible for making an inventory of all the Banquet
Equipment and maintaining a balance between Revenue and
Expenditure.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF ASSISTANT BANQUET MANAGER

Depending upon the size of the Establishment and the number of Banquet Halls,
there may also be an Assistant Banquet Manager, who maintains Banquet
records, takes bookings and monitors correspondence.
Duties & Responsibilities
1. He ensures the smooth operations of all functions, by giving clear and
precise instructions to the concerned staff,
2. This job can also be done by a Banquet Sales Executive or Banquet sales
assistant.
3. The Assistant Banquet Manager is in charge of the actual performance of
the function held in the Banquet Department.
4. He Co- ordinates with the senior captain and is in charge of inventories,
Billing and briefing.
5. He also deals with complaints from the guests and co-ordinate with
various agencies for Banquet Requirements.
6. The Assistant Banquet Manager, should be aware of all that is happening
in the Banquet outlet, as he is responsible for the success of each
Banquet from the beginning to the end.
7. An Assistant Banquet Manager performs both the functions of Managing
the office and Monitoring Banquet operations.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF BANQUET SALES ASSISTANT

Duties & Responsibilities
1. They are responsible for Managing the Banquet Reservation system
in the Banquet office.
2. They normally work in shifts and take bookings for all functions to be
held in the Hotel.
3. They prepare the function prospectus (FP) or Banquet Function
Contract (BFC) that contains all the details of the proposed function,
according to the guest‟s needs.
4. They co-ordinate closely with the Banquet operational staff to ensure
that the function is planned as specified in the Booking form.
5. They interact closely with the other Departments of the Hotel, on
behalf of the operational team in the Banquets.
6. They report to the Banquet Manager.
7. Team work is the watchword in any food and Beverage. service
Department. A dedicated and committed team, with able leadership,

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under ideal working conditions, help in fulfilling the establishment‟s
ultimate goal of guest satisfaction.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF SENIOR CAPTAIN (MAITRE D‟ HOTEL)

Duties and Responsibilities:-
1. This senior captain has overall responsibilities for operations.
2. He prepares the Duty charts in consultation with the outlet manager.
3. He overseas the mise –en- place, cleaning, setting of the outlet and
staffing to ensure that the outlet is always ready for service.
4. The senior captain receives the guests and hands them over to the
captain or station holder.
5. He takes orders form guests if the captain in unable to do so.
6. The senior captain should be an able organizer and also be prepared
to take over the duties of any member of the staff as and when
required.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF CAPTAIN (CHEF DE RANG)

This position exists in Large Restaurants, as well as in the Food & Beverage
service Department of all major Hotels.
Duties & Responsibilities
1. The captain is basically a supervisor and is incharge of a particularly
section.
2. A Restaurant may be divided into section called stations, each consisting
of 4 to 5 tables or 20 to 24 covers.
3. A Captain is responsible for the efficient performance of the staff in his
station.
4. A captain should possess a sound knowledge of food and Beverage, and
be able to discuss the menu with the guests.
5. He should be able to take a guest‟s order and be an efficient
salesperson.
6. Specialized service such as Gueridon work involves a certain degree of
skill, and it is the captain who usually takes the responsibility to do this
work.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF WAITER (COMMIS DE RANG)

Duties & Responsibilities
1. The waiters serve the food & Beverage ordered by a guest and are
part of a team under a station captain.
2. They should be able to perform the duties of a captain to a certain
extent and replace the captain if he is busy or not on duty.
3. They should also be knowledgeable about all types of Food and
Beverages, so that they can effectively take an order from a guest,
execute the order and serve the correct dish with its appropriate
garnish and accompaniment.
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4. He should be able to efficiently co- ordinate with the other staff in the
outlet.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF TRAINEE

Duties & Responsibilities
1. The Trainee work closely with the waiter‟s fetching orders from the
kitchen and the Bar, and cleaning the side station in a restaurant.
2. He serves water and assists the waiter.
3. He is mainly responsible for the mise-en-place, and stacking the side
board with the necessary equipment for service.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF WINE WAITER (SOMMELIER)

Duties and Responsibilities
1. His job is to take orders for the service of wine and alcoholic beverages
and serve them during the meal.
2. They should have a good knowledge about wines that accompany a
particular dish and the manner in which they should be served.
3. They should also be aware of Licensing Laws.
4. He should be efficient salespersons.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF ROOM SERVICE WAITER (CHEF D‟ ETAGE)

Duties and Responsibilities
1. Room service waiters work in the Room service outlet, serving both Food
& Beverage to guests in their rooms.
2. The orders is placed by the guest on telephone, and is recorded on a
kitchen order Ticket (K.O.T)
3. The Room Service waiter, who has been assigned that order, sets the
tray according to the Food or Beverage ordered, picks up the orders
when it is ready and serve it to the Guest along with the check, either for
payment or signature.
4. The service should be prompt and efficient as one lapse means a
complaint about service and a dis-satisfied Guest.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF ROOM SERVICE ORDER TAKER

Duties and Responsibilities:
1. Room service order taker records all orders of food & beverage from a
resident guest over the telephone.
2. He records the order on a kitchen order ticket (K.O.T.) and passes it to
the captain.
3. The room service order taker is responsible for all communication
between the guest and the staff of the room service outlet and hence
should have good communication skills.

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JOB DESCRIPTION OF HOSTESS

Duties and Responsibilities
1. The job of a hostess to greet and seat guests.
2. The Hostess presents to the guests the menu card and hands them over
the station holder to continue service.
3. She should be pleasant and well organized be able to work under stress
and interact smoothly with her colleagues.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF BARMAN OR BARTENDER

Duties and Responsibilities
1. A Barman works behind the bar counter dispensing beverage and
making cocktails.
2. He should have pleasant manners, good communication skills and a
sound knowledge of all beverages and mixes.
3. He should be fast and efficient.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF CASHIER

Duties and Responsibilities
1. The main duty of a cashier is to make checks on the basis of kitchen
order Ticket (K.O.T)
2. Most cash counters are computerized.
3. Though cashiers are not a part of the food and Beverage team, they
work closely in association with the staff of the department.
4. They Report directly to the accountant.

CHECK YOUR PROGESS -1

Q.1 Give the difference between mise-en-plac and mise-en- scene.
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Q.2 Give the difference between Job description and Job specification.

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Q.9 Explain the duties and responsibilities of Assistant F & B Manager.
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9.6 Different Ancillary Department of F & B Service

1. SERVICE ROOM OR PANTRY

A clean and orderly service -room is essential to an efficient restaurant. A
service-room or pantry contains shelves or cupboards for stacking glassware
etc., a table (very often of two tiers) to take the dirty plates and silver brought in
from the restaurant, a box or boxes for dirty table silver, bins for rubbish, and
sinks with hot and cold water and draining racks, for washing glasses. If a small
service-lift is used, then more shelves should be available alongside it to facilitate
the service during peak hours. In some establishment the glass pantry is a
separate unit staffed by those who are used to handling glassware. A large linen-
box (similar to a post-box but with a larger “month”) should stand in one corner to
receive to received used table napkins, tablecloths, etc. If this box has a flat top
it can easily be used for extra service space.A "hot-plate" (a specially heated
table-cupboard with a hot flat top, inside which a supply of hot plates can be
kept), forms an essential part of the equipment.

Generally there is also a dispense bar or "wine stores control" adjoining the
pantry, so that waiters or waitresses can collect orders for wines, beers,
minerals, etc., ordered by the customers. There should be two doors connecting
the service-room with the restaurant: one should be used by waiters going from
the service-room to the restaurant, and the other for their return. In well-regulated
establishment. It is an offence to use the wrong door, for by so doing serious
accidents and clashes can happen.

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Pantry or Service Room Fig. 9.02

The words "In", "Out" will probably be marked on the doors. fig. 9.02 illustrates
a well-designed service-room or pantry.
A waiter leaving the restaurant with used materials puts the dirty plates, properly
stacked on the table provided, and the dirty silver in the appropriate boxes.
(These tables and boxes should be as near the exit door from the restaurant as
possible and between the door and the service lift if there is one, in order to save
fatigue and consequent breakages). He then goes to the service-table, in the
service-room or in the kitchen, to collect the next set of dishes ordered by the
customer, takes the plates from the hot plate, and re-enters the restaurant.
2. STILL ROOM
Main function of the still Room is to provide items Food and Equipment required
for the service of a meal. The Duties performed in the still Room will vary
according to the type of meals offered and the size of the established concerned.
A wide range of Food items are offered and therefore to ensure their correct
storage, preparation and presentation, a considerable amount of Equipment is
used.
 Refrigerator - For storage of Milk, cream, Butter Fruit Juices etc.
 Butter machine -For portion control purpose
 Coffee machine -For preparation of coffee.
 Tea Dispenser
 Salamander
 Bread slicing Machine

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3. WASH UP
The wash up is a most important Service Area the waiter should stack Trays of
dirties correctly at the sideboard, with all the correct sized plate together and
tableware stacked on one of the plates with the blades of the knives running
under the arches of the forks. All glassware should be stacked on a separate
Tray and taken to a separate wash-up point. The wash-up service area should be
the first section the waiter enters from the Food service area. Here he/she
deposits all the dirty plates, stacking them correctly and placing all the tableware
in a special wire basket or container in readiness for washing. The waiter must
place any debris into Bin or Bowl Provided.

4. HOT PLATE
Hot plate many be regarded as the meeting point between the food service staff
and the food preparation staff. Co-operation between food service staff and food
preparation staff will also ensure that all the dishes served are well and
attractively presented. At the same time all orders written by the waiter must be
legible to the aboyeur (Barker) so that there is no delay in “calling up” a
particular dish. Also the food service staff queue at the Hot plate and not cause
confusion by jumping the Queue.

5. PLATE ROOM
In large hotels plate or silver room, is a separate service Area. The large silver
such as Flats, salvers, soup tureens will be stored on shelves with all the Flats of
one size together and so on. All shelves should be labelled showing where each
different item goes. This makes it easier for control purpose and for stacking.
When stacking silver the heavier items should go on the shelves Lower Down
and the smaller and lighter items on the shelves higher up. This helps to prevent
accidents. All cutlery and flatware, together with the smaller items of silver such
as Ashtrays, cruet sets, Butter dishes, special Equipment, Table numbers and
menu holders are best stored in drawers lined with green baize. It helps to
prevent noise and stops the various items sliding about the drawer.

6. KITCHEN STEWARDING
Kitchen stewarding is essential charged to maintain and preserve the cleanliness
and condition of the china, silver, glassware, Equipment and working area of the
kitchen. It usually has a pot wash where large vessels are cleaned and a wash
area where service equipment is cleaned, washed and stored. In doing so that
the steward department maintains inventories and supplies of all equipments,
china and silver, scrubs and clean all the working surfaces and floor of entire
kitchen. Kitchen stewarding Department are mainly in the back area, it is still one
of the most Important Department. Strict vigilance can control wastage and keep
costs down by monitoring, breakage, controlling supply of Gas and coal to the
kitchen and co-operate with the maintenance Department and monitoring the
Garbage Disposal system (G.D.S). Also the care of the employee‟s cafeteria is
the charge of the steward Department. This Department plays an important role
in the functioning of both the Food production and F&B service Department. It is
headed by steward manager, who reports to the F&B manager.

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9.7 Inter- Department Relationship
The food and beverage service department is the selling point of the Hotel. In
order to enable maximum and efficient selling, other departments in a hotel also
play important roles. It requires a working knowledge of other departments and
their functioning to achieve this.

Food Production: In a service outlet, the F& B production has the most
important role to play. Items prepares here are the ones that the service person
sell. In the planning has any Restaurant, the first thing that comes to mind is the
menu.

Kitchen Stewarding: This department is involved in the general cleanliness and

upkeep of the kitchen. It has a pot wash where large vessels are cleaned and a
wash area where service equipment is cleaned, washed and stored .This
department also deals with the shortage and issue all service and kitchen
equipment and hence the controls are also part of this department. The kitchen
stewarding departments is headed a chief executive steward or steward
manager. The requisitions of the service equipment are done through a kitchen
stewarding indent book with signature from the outlet manager, F&B Manager
and chief Executive steward.
Accounts: The service department does not deal with the Accounts department
directly but indirectly through various outlet cashiers. The cashiers receive the
copy of the KOT and raise bill accordingly. They also have detailed information
about credit card and discount policies, etc. The general account department
deals with payments of the company like employee salaries, bill settlements,
vouchers etc. On a day – to- day level, the dining room is in direct coordination
with the cashiers, and on a weekly basis with the control of KOT books and
discrepancies with regard to entries in the KOT, bill authorization of signature
etc.
House Keeping: The House keeping department takes care of general upkeep
of the Hotel. It undertakes periodic cleaning of all public areas including cleaning
of carpet and polishing of fittings. Service personnel may call on house keeping
staff to take care of occasional spillage, accidents etc. In the event of a guest‟s
clothes getting spoilt, the house keeping staff will assist in laundering them, thus
helping retain the customer. This department also organizes to have flower
arrangements placed in the hotel . The book used in connection with house
keeping is the linen book, which lists all service linen used and exchanged on a
“One to One basis” of the more costly items in the overheads.
Engineering: This department takes care of the air- Conditioning, lighting,
plumbing and general maintenance. Communication is done through he
maintenance work order book and reminders are used if required. Good
coordination with the department is vital for the upkeep of equipment and helps
to prevent breakdown during service.
Front Office: This is a " Front of the - house " position and deals with the
guest directly. The check –in, check-out, billing, information, reservation, bell
desk, telephones etc. all come under this department. The front office
department may also be in- charge of the health club, beauty parlor, business

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centre and travel desk . All communication relating to the status of a guest (VIP,
HG), group staying, company guests etc can be obtained from the front office.
The dining room and room service need to coordinate with the front office for
guest lists, billing instructions, amenities placement in rooms, problem handling
during the night shift and other allied service.
Stores: This may be one or divided into separate areas such as food, liquor,
materials, perishables etc. It may get its supplies through the purchase
department gives the stores department its requirements of food items like
proprietary sauces and seasonings and materials like doilies, paper napkins,
candles, office materials, etc. through the corresponding indent book.
Personnel Department: All areas of staff requirement and employment are dealt
by the personnel department in collusion with the concerned heads of
departments (HODs). Any action to be taken regarding discipline will also be
dealt with in the same way. This department is also in charge of the staff
cafeteria, lockers etc. The service personnel get their leave applications
processed and leave cards updated by the personnel department. This
department also handles discrepancies in the time card. Job descriptions and job
specifications are drawn up by this department in accordance with requirements
from the individual departments. Recruitment, induction, training, evaluation and
personality development programmes are also conducted by this department in
the absence of a separate training cell.
Security:-This department handles the safety aspect of the organization. It is
required to conduct safety and first aid drills, and fire fighting exercises. Security
personnel also look into vehicle parking and are in close contact with the local
police to look out for known criminals and Anti-social elements. Service
personnel may use security personnel in case of drunks and unpaid bills. They
have to maintain law and order in the establishment it and when difficult
situations occur.

CHECK YOUR PROGESS -2

Q.1 What is a still room ?
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Q.2 What do you know about Pantry?

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Q.9 Explain the importance of inter- department relationship of F & B Service.

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9.8 Summary
The activities of this Food & beverage service department are highly complex,
demanding varied skill levels to perform the job. This department not only takes
up the responsibility of food & beverage services but also organizing various
types of function, events, conferences and so on. The type of people engaged in
executing the food and beverage products and services should be given
adequate training on various aspects of catering services. The Organization
structure varies from hotel to hotel depending on the quality of staff, technology
in use, production and service processes and so on. The organization must
clearly communicate to the employees what they should do and should not. All
the staff working in the Food & Beverage Department should have a thorough
knowledge of the entire range of Food and beverages served, with their correct
accompaniments, garnishes, service temperature of each dish and beverage and
sequence in which they are to be served.

9.9 Glossary
Sommeliers: This is the person to handle the ordering and serving of wine. They
must be thoroughly knowledgeable about their own wine lists and competent in
helping guest to select wine appropriate to the food they order.
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Captain: A supervisor of service staff in the food and beverage service

department.

Brigade: The staff in the dining room or kitchen as an organized team.

Pantry: Storeroom, especially for crockery, cutlery etc.

Waiter‟s friend: Tool that is a combination of bottle opener and corkscrew.

Budgeting: An estimate of revenue or income and expenditure made by a

company/ unit /hotel

Delegate: To entrust a task to another person.

Aboyeur: The person in a traditional kitchen brigade who controls the hotplate
and is responsible for communication between kitchen and waiting staff and who
“Calls up” the orders. Barker.

K.O.T.: Kitchen order Ticket

B.O.T.: Bar Order Ticket

9.10 Answers To Check Your Progress

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

Ans -1 Mise-en- scene – This French term means to prepare the environment
of the outlet before service. It involves cleaning the serve area, table, chairs, side
station, trolleys or any other service equipment. This operation generally
proceeds mise-en-place.
Mise- en – place - This French term means to put in place. It is widely used in the
food and beverage service department in every day hotel operations. Before
service commences, the staff should ensure that the outlet is in total readiness to
receive guests. This is an ongoing process and needs to be done in all outlets of
the food service department.

Ans -2 Job Specification - Job specification is a document that contains

information about the skills and qualities required for a position. In includes
information such as personal qualities, skills, formal education, technical
qualification, work experience, previous training, physical skill &.
Communication skill. Job description - It is a document that contains duties,
responsibilities and all the tasks that constitute a job position. It specifies the
parameters within which a job is done. It not only includes duties and
responsibilities but also contains report relationships, working conditions,
authorities and control, coordination with other departments, status within
departmental hierarchy, equipments and materials to be used and other
information specific to the hotel.

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Ans -3 The assistant Food and Beverage Manager assists the Food and
Beverage Manager in running the Department by being more involved in the
actually day- to-day operations. Assisting section heads during busy periods.
Taking charge of an outlet, when an outlet manager is on leave. Setting Duty
schedules for all the outlet Managers and monitoring their performance. Running
the Department independently in the absence of Food and Beverage Manager.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

Ans -1 Still Room:- Main function of the still Room is to provide items Food and
Equipment required for the service of a meal. The Duties performed in the still
Room will vary according to the type of meals offered and the size of the
established concerned. A wide range of Food items are offered and therefore to
ensure their correct storage, preparation and presentation, a considerable
amount of Equipment is used.
Ans -2 A clean and orderly service -room is essential to an efficient restaurant. A
service-room or pantry contains shelves or cupboards for stacking glassware
etc., a table (very often of two tiers) to take the dirty plates and silver brought in
from the restaurant, a box or boxes for dirty table silver, bins for rubbish, and
sinks with hot and cold water and draining racks, for washing glasses. If a small
service-lift is used, then more shelves should be available alongside it to facilitate
the service during peak hours. In some establishment the glass pantry is a
separate unit staffed by those who are used to handling glassware.

Ans -3 The food and beverage service department is the selling point of the
Hotel. In order to enable maximum and efficient selling, other departments in a
hotel also play important roles. It requires a working knowledge of other
departments and their functioning to achieve this.

9.11 Further Reference / Biblography

 Davis, Bernard, Lockwood Andrew, (2008) Food & Beverage
Management. Elsevier India Pvt, New Delhi pp 17-20.
 George Bobby, Chatterjee Sandeep (2008), Food & Beverage Service
and Management, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai, pp 27-49
 Varghese, Brain (1999), Professional Food & Beverage Service
Management, Macmillan India Ltd., Banglore pp 26-29
 Lillicrap Dennies, Cousins John (2006), Food and Beverage service ,
Hodder Headline Group, London pp 90-97.
 Bagchi S.N., Sharma Anita, (2004) Text book of Food & Beverage
Service, Aman Publications, New Delhi pp 26-94.

9. 12 Suggestive Reading
 Singaravelavam R, (2011) Food & Beverage Service, oxford university
Press, New Delhi.
 Villella, Joseph A, (1968) The Hospitality Industry- The World Of Food
Service, 2nd edition, Mcgraw- Hill, New York.

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 Andrioli Sergio, Douglas Peter (1990), Professional Food Service,
Heineman Professional published Ltd., Oxford.

9.13 Terminal Questions

Fill in the blanks :

1. The Person who controls the hot plate at service time is known as the
_________
2. Sommelier is responsible for the service of _____________.
3. The French word for Room Service waiter __________.
4. The French word for waiter _________.

Short Answer type questions :-

1. What are the duties and responsibilities of a waiter.
2. Write shot notes on
a. (i) Pantry (ii) Still room
3. Describe the duties and responsibilities of Captain.
4. Give the difference between Job Specification & Job description.

Short Answer type questions :-

1. Explain kitchen Stewarding department.
2. Explain ancillary departments of a restaurant
3. Give the duties and responsibilities of a Restaurant Manager.
4. Draw a neat staff organization chart of a first class restaurant.
5. How does F & B department Coordinate with other departments in the
a. Hotel.
b. Motel
c. Resort
6. Give the hierarchy chart of F & B department of hotel.

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UNIT 10: MIS-EN-PLACE AND MIS- EN-PLACE

Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Briefing
10.4 Mis-en-Scene
10.5 Mis-en-Place
10.5.1 Setting-up the Sideboard
10.5.2 Preparing the Trolleys for Service
10.5.2.1 Wine Trolley
10.5.2.2 Hors d'oeuvres Trolley
10.5.2.2 Salad Trolley
10.5.2.3 Guerdon Trolley
10.5.2.4 Cheese Trolley
10.5.2.5 Dessert Trolley
10.5.2.6 Liqueur Trolley
10.5.2.7 Fruit Trolley
10.5.3 Cover Set-up
10.6 Summary
10.7 Glossary
10.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise
10.9 Reference / Bibliography
10.10 Suggested Readings
10.11 Terminal Questions

10.1 Introduction
In the previous units you have studied about Attributes, attitude, etiquette of food
and Beverage Service staff, the present unit will provide you the knowledge
about the mis-en-scene, mis-en-place and cover setup procedure in the
restaurant. The restaurant is the hub of several activities before the actual arrival
of the guests as well as at the point of his arrival followed by satisfactory service
and his departure, further winding off operations. This also involves part
preparation for the next service. This process is often referred to as the
Restaurant Service Chain. The Restaurant Service Chain is therefore regarded
as string of events that takes place before, during and after the service to the
guests in the restaurant. The service chain consists of the following:

 Briefing
 Mis-en-scene
 Mis-en-place
 Setting up the sideboard
 Preparing the trolleys for service
 Cover set –up
 Restaurant Table Reservations
 Receiving and Seating a guest

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 Taking an Order
 Food and Beverage Service
 Special Food Service
 Cheese and Its Service
 Tobacco and Cigars and Their Service
 Coffee Service
 Presenting The Check
In present unit we shall discuss the activities performed in doing briefing Mis-en-
scene and Mis-en-place in the restaurant.

10.2 Objectives
After going through this Unit you will be able to:
 Know the meaning of briefing, Mis-en-scene and Mis-en-place,
 Process of briefing of restaurant staff,
 Knowledge of various activities to be undertaken in doing restaurant Mis-
en-scene,
 Actions to be undertaken in Mis-en-place in a restaurant, and
 Understand the uses and preparations of different trolleys used in the
food & beverage service.
 Meaning & set up procedure of the restaurant cover

10.3 Briefing
One of the most important interpersonal communication is carried out an hour
before the restaurant is opens for public. Briefing is a meeting of the restaurant
staff prior to the opening of the restaurant, while de-briefing is done when the
restaurant closes. Briefing is an important event to analyze and evaluate the
functioning of the restaurant. In this, first a regimented line up is developed
where grooming, personal hygiene of waiters is checked followed by a discussion
on events that marked the previous day operations highlighting the good points,
bad points and their remedies. In this session the senior most member of the
restaurant gives his instructions, checks on certain aspects of service and
receives suggestions or problems of the staff.

Therefore the briefing is an important two way communication between

management and staff that ensures that there is harmony in the thought process
of both in executing service. The service staffs are required to come for the
briefing in their proper uniform, equipped with KOT pads, waiter cloth, clean
handkerchiefs, bottle openers, ball pens and cigarette lighters. There are certain
points that each waiter should keep in mind before presenting himself for briefing:

 He should acquaint himself with the non available food and beverage item
listed on the menu by asking the chef or referring to the „non available
items‟ board.
 They should ask the chef for the specials (dish du jour) of the day in
order to push it to the customers.
 He should be fully conversant with the menu card and the beverage list of
the day.
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The restaurant In-Charge would normally check whether the waiter has satisfied
the above points in addition would explain new house rules or policies to the staff
and encourage an upward communication from the staff in terms of suggestions
and problems. The waiter should be prepared to clarify doubts or give
suggestions and ask questions.

Activities performed during briefing in a Restaurant

During briefing the restaurant manager checks the following:

1. Grooming standards of the server.

2. Uniforms are properly pressed and clean.

3. Finger nails to see that they are manicured and clean.

4. Their shoes are polished.

5. Servers‟ knowledge of non available items.

6. Servers‟ knowledge of the special of the day.

7. Equipments carried by the servers i.e. KOT pads, waiter cloth,

clean handkerchiefs, bottle openers, ball pens and cigarette

lighters.

8. Staff Grievances

9. Staff Feedback on operations of the previous day.

10. Staff suggestions for improving restaurant performances.

11. Knowledge of the menu.

12. The restaurant manager will also communicate the following:

13. New policies of the management.

14. Table reservation status

15. VIP‟s expected

16. Service standards that need re-enforcing.

17. Guest complaint and how they can be avoided.

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18. Training tips

19. Revenue performance of the restaurant

20. Recognition for jobs well done.

21. Transfers, promotions, new staff and exits.

22. Encouragement and motivation.

23. Staff Schedules and table allotments.

24. Cost Control measures

25. New menu items

26. Management observations and suggestions.

10.4 Mis-En-Scene
The dining room is the hub of several activities before the actual arrival of the
guests as well as at the point of his arrival followed by satisfactory service and
his departure, further winding off operations. This also involves part preparation
for the next meal. It is ideal to know the components not from beginning, but from
the end because end is the beginning of preparation of fresh service.

Mis-en-scene refers to preparing the environment of the areas in order to make

it pleasant, comfortable, safe and hygienic for the restaurant service. For the
restaurant serving staff the restaurant is considered as the service area and it is
expected from him to ensure that it should be made presentable enough to
accept guests before each service session.

In a regular restaurant where all the three meals are served with a pause of few
hours, the dinner is over around midnight. At this stage, the clearing of tables,
sideboards, displays and decorations are over. A group of staff with a supervisor
carries out the following activities step by step.

All the doors, windows are opened, curtains are withdrawn. All the lights are put
at the brighter level, in case there is a regular dimmer. The whole dining room is
thoroughly observed and scrutinized. The scrutiny is made on following lines:

1. Check for dirt

2. Check for unpolished metal surfaces
3. Check for stains on the carpets, curtains and tapestry

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4. Check for all the electrical gadgets like bulbs, tube lights, power points,
hot cases, display counters, pasta trolleys, pastry trolleys, microwave
ovens etc.
5. Check for glass panes, fountains, artificial landscapes, water bodies, flora
etc.
6. Check for damaged, broken furniture and fixtures.

Activities Performed During Mis-En-Scene in a Restaurant

1. Carpets are well brushed or hoovered.

2. All tables and chairs are serviceable.

3. Table lights or wall lights have functioning bulbs.

4. Menu cards are presentable and attractive.

5. Tent cards or other sales material are presentable.

6. Doors and windows are thrown open for sometime to air the

restaurant. This should be followed by closing the windows and

doors and setting the air conditioning or heating to a comfortable

temperature.

7. Exchange dirty linen for fresh linen.

8. Table cloths and mats are laid on the tables.

9. Wilted flowers are discarded and fresh flowers requisitioned.

After the inspection of the restaurant is over, through inspection is done from the
traffic side to the pantry as well as the front gate of the restaurant for any defects,
including the lock of the doors and windows. At this stage, many of restaurants
stack the tables and chairs one above the other to completely keep underside
free to enable the house keeping the cleaning of floor or carpet. Similarly the
tables and chairs are shifted the other side to complete the floor cleaning and put
back as per regular layout plan of the restaurant.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- I

1) Discuss the role of briefing and de briefing in the restaurant
operation?
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2) Enlist the chief activities to be performed while doing Mis-en-scene

in the restaurant?
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10.5 MIS-EN-PLACE
Mis-en-Place means putting in place and is the term attributed to the preparation
of work place for ultimate smooth service. To ensure that the restaurant is ready
for service the waiter makes sure that his station has been effectively prepared
for the service. A station comprises of a given number of tables which are
attended by a given team of waiters. Thus a restaurant may have several
stations, each with a team of waiters. In large restaurants each station may be
headed by a Captain or Chef –de-rang.

Mis-en-Place or preparation in which part of activity may be carried out

immediately and part left for the morning or an hour before opening of a
restaurant. The various steps involved are:

1. Shut the doors and windows and draw the curtains.

2. Keeping the light to the brightest level, set the tables and chairs according to
reservations if necessary or required.
3. Spread the table cloths and all other linen as and where required like slip
cloth (napperon), napkin (serviette), runner etc.
4. The activities of back area includes:
a) Washing, cleaning, wiping, sanitizing, drying, and polishing of cutlery,
crockery, glassware, china, stoneware etc.
b) Removal of all wilted flowers, foliage from buds or flower vases for the
purpose of substituting with fresh ones next morning (This may be done
by the housekeeping)
c) In case of candle sticks, scrap the wax, wipe, clean and polish, less than
half burnt candles are scraped, cut and fit in.

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d) Sauce bottles are replenished by discarding half filled and made into one,
washed under running water. The neck from inner and outer side wiped,
the cap cleaned and replaced.
e) Cruet set polished and wiped. The free flow checked, perforations
cleaned. The cellar or salt/pepper shaker should not be more than 2/3rd
filled for convenience of shaking.
f) Check, count, cluster and tie the linen, make a bundle, exchange from the
linen room. Stack fresh linen in sideboard for recycling.
g) Carry the cutlery, crockery, glassware from back area and stack them in
the sideboards.
h) Check all the cupboards, counters, doors, windows and lock before
leaving in case restaurant remains closed for some time. Switch off the air
conditioner and lights and deposit the keys with time office security (This
is done only when restaurant is open only for lunch and dinner or open for
dinner like in case of night clubs or discotheques).

When the restaurant is open round the clock like coffee shop, most of these
activities are carried out even though the restaurant is open for public. In case of
dining hall open for breakfast, the second phase of operation overlaps the
previous one like table for breakfast laying is carried out easily in the morning.
The following are the preparations to be done in the Mis-en-place of any
restaurant:

10.5.1 Setting-up the Sideboard

The sideboard (or dummy waiter) is a piece of furniture with shelves and
cupboards spacious enough to stock linen, cutlery, crockery and other supplies
required to service a set of tables in a station. Smooth service during the
restaurant operation depends on how well the sideboard is prepared. The
sideboard must be equipped with the following items:

1. Finger bowls
2. Folded napkins
3. Service cutlery
4. Cruet sets with salt and pepper
5. Cold water in water jugs with under plates and napkins to cover the
mouth of the jugs.
6. Proprietary sauces such as Worcestershire, sauce, Tabasco or chilly
sauce, tomato ketchup, JP/ HP sauces, Soya sauce, etc.
7. Toothpicks in toothpick holders.
8. Crockery - dinner plates, side plates, quarter plates, under plates, show
plates etc.
9. Crumbing plate with brush
10. Restaurant linen - table cloths, napkins, waiter cloths etc.
11. Paper napkins and doily papers
12. Water goblets
13. Pots for jam, marmalade, mustard
14. Butter dishes with butter knives
15. Sugar bowls with white and brown sugar with teaspoons and straw

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holders
16. Pots with pickles and chutneys
17. Bread boats with assorted breads
18. Ashtrays cleaned and polished (if the restaurant has a smoking policy)
19. Service spoons and forks
20. Cutlery for each cove-normally 2 1/2 times is the back- up stock
21. Salvers and trays with underlay for service

10.5.2 Preparing the Trolleys for Service

Trolleys in a restaurant are an important part of merchandising food and
beverage. They are display units that are meant to stimulate sales. A member of
the restaurant brigade is given the responsibility for the preparation of trolleys. It
is possible that someone is responsible for particular types of trolleys. For
example, the sommelier will be responsible for the wine cart or the patisserie for
the dessert trolley. Each has its distinct set of service ware which needs to be
understood.

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10.5.2.1 Wine Trolley
Wine service is important for its revenue potential. The wine trolley stocks and
displays wines and spirits and is wheeled to the guest table to stimulate liquor
sales. The trolley service is provided in gourmet restaurants and the person who
provides this service is a
qualified wine butler or
sommelier. He would set
the trolley with the
following:
1. Wine List
2. Wine bottle
corkscrew opener
3. Waiter cloths
4. Half plates to
present corks of
the wine bottles
5. Torch to show
labels to guests in
a dimly lit
restaurant
6. Display of all table
wines - Red, Rose,
White, Sparkling
7. Champagne
buckets
8. Wine boats to keep
wine bottles On the
table
9. Beverage glasses

10.5.2.2 Hors d'oeuvres Trolley

The hors d'oeuvres trolley is
found in gourmet restaurants
that presents the appetizers in
an attractive manner. The
trolley is wheeled beside the
guest table at the start of the
first Course. The tips for this
trolley are:

1. Clean the trolley

thoroughly first with a
wet cloth (if it is not
made of wood) and then
a dry cloth. In the case
of a wooden trolley use
vinegar for cleaning.

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2. See that the wheels of the trolley move freely and are well oiled. They
must of squeak as the noise can be an ugly distraction to guests during
service.
3. Set the hors d'oeuvre platters in an attractive way for easy identification
by the guest. Platters are usually pre-set-up in the platters by the kitchen
staff. The platters must be well polished and clean.
4. Keep a supply of service spoons, forks,
napkins and underlines.
5. Keep a sufficient number of dessert
plates to serve the guests.

10.5.2.3 Salad Trolley

Salads have become an important course

nowadays because of an ever-increasing
health-conscious have exclusive salad public.
This change in guest preferences has prompted
many restaurants bars dedicated to this public.
Most would like to mix and match their salads to their taste. They would also like
to have options of sauces. Most now are looking for fat free sauces, so this has
to be catered to.

1. The trolley must be cleaned as above.

2. Those who wish to mix and match their salads would like to see bowls of
fresh green vegetables. Some suggestions are tomatoes, lettuce,
Mushrooms, corn, cucumber, sprouts, spring onions, watercress, turnip,
beetroot, radish, etc. The key is to en re that the vegetables are crisp,
crunchy and fresh always.
3. Similarly, the prepared salads like Caesar's Salad, Russian Salad. Egg
Mayonnaise Salad, Mushroom Salad, etc. should be provided.
4. Meat salads are also to be provided like ham salad, tuna salad, chicken
salad etc. The meats must be fresh and presented in attractive bowls of
glass, china or silver.
5. Sauce boats provided must have an array of sauces to give guests a good
choice. The boats will be in quarter plates with underliners and spoons for
service. Some popular sauces are Italian Dressing, French Dressing,
Salsa Sauce, Mayonnaise Sauce, Thousand Island Dressing,
Horseradish Sauce, Mustard Sauce, lemon juice, etc.
6. An important service ware is a wooden mixing bowl for salads ·t'1 wooden
forks and spoons.

10.5.2.4 Guerdon Trolley

The Guerdon trolley is found in gourmet restaurants to prepare foods beside the
guest tables. Food is prepared with great fanfare and showmanship especially
the flambé items. It should be equipped with the following items:
1. Proprietary sauces

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2. White wine
3. Oil for cooking
4. Brandy
5. Red wine
6. Liqueurs for
special crepe
preparations
7. Pepper mill
8. Vinegar
9. Napkins
10. Service Spoons
and forks
11. Matches and
ashtrays
12. Flambe copper pans
13. French and English mustard
14. Wooden board for carving and cutting
15. Carving knife and fork
16. Butter
17. Salt and pepper
18. Sugar (grain and cube)
19. Filled gas cylinder

10.5.2.5 Cheese Trolley

Cheese in European countries is an
important part of a meal in the classical
tradition. Gourmet restaurants still offer
this as a cutting edge in their service.
1. Clean the trolley as given above.
2. Requisition cheese from the
kitchen and be fully conversant
with the cheese.
3. Display cheese on a wooden
bad with a cheese knife to cut the cheese.
4. Keep accompaniments such as brown bread, crackers, celery, olives and
watercress.

10.5.2.6 Dessert Trolley

The dessert trolley is one that adds a
dramatic end to a meal cycle. The
presentation and offer of desserts is a
sure revenue earner. The trolley must
be prepared as follows:

1. Dessert plates
2. Paper napkins or folded
serviettes

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3. Pastry forks
4. Gateaux Slice
5. Presentation platters with the dessert display most often prepared by the
pastry and confectionary section of the kitchen
6. Assorted pastries
7. Assorted cake slices

10.5.2.7 Liqueur Trolley

A liqueur trolley is one that is an additional attraction in a gourmet restaurant that
follows the classical menu preparations. The sommelier would be in charge of
this trolley as well. The trolley will have the following items:
 Cordial glasses
 Brandy balloon glasses
 Cocktail glasses for frappe drinks
 Cursed ice
 Straws
 Peg measures
 Waiter cloths
 A choice of liqueurs-a good standard would be eight to ten liqueur
 Cordials
 Brandy

10.5.2.8 Fruit Trolley

Guests may like to round off their meals with fresh fruits. This applies especially
to diet-conscious guests who may opt to eat only salads and fruits. Restaurants
recognize the health conscious and have a trolley for this niche public. The
server will volunteer to cut the fruits into manageable portions and serve in the
respective service ware. The trolley will have the following:
 Paring knives
 Half plates
 Fruit bowls
 Napkins
 Mixing bowls
 Castor sugar
 Teaspoons

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10.5.3 Cover Set-up
A cover is the space on the table for the cutlery, crockery, glassware and linen
for one person.
Each cover
requires
24"x18" of
space. Cover
set-up is based
on the type of
service being
offered by the
restaurant. It is
important for a
server to check
the standards
required by the
establishment.
The basic
principles of
cover layouts
are:

1. Each cover should be well balanced on the left and right of the guest's
plate.
2. All cutlery and other table appointments should be placed at least 2" away
from the edge of the table.
3. Knives and spoons must be placed to the right of the plate and all the forks
on the left, except the butter knife which is on the side plate.
4. The cutting edge of all knives should be towards the plate except for the
butter knife, which should face away from the plate.
5. The water goblet or tea-cup (for breakfast service) must be at the tip of the
knife.
6. The butter knife should be at the top of the forks along with a utter knife
and on an under- plate.
7. The napkin should be placed in the centre of the cover or on the side plate.
8. Cruet sets must be placed on the top of the cover at the centre of the table.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- II

1) Write the short note on the Gueridon trolley?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

2) Write in short about the setting up the side board in the restaurant?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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10.6 Summary
The present unit throws light on the importance of briefing and de-briefing in a
restaurant along with the points to be kept in the mind while doing this. The unit
also highlights the meaning, role and the activities involved in Mis-en-scene and
Mis-en-place of the restaurant. It also covers the preparation of sideboard, fruit
trolley, salad trolley, gueridon trolley, liqueur trolley, dessert trolley, cheese trolley
and wine trolley.The unit also covers the meaning of cover along with the basic
principles to be followed while laying the restaurant covers.

10.10 Glossary
Briefing: two way communication between management and staff before an
operation

Side Board: furniture central to an operation at a station

Mis-en-scene: preparation of the environment in a restaurant

Mis-en-place: preparation for an operation

Cover: The space on a table for crockery, cutlery and glassware for one person

10.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - I
1. Read Sec. 10.3 and write about briefing & de briefing
2. Read Sec. 10.4. to enlist chief activities undertaken during Mis-en-scene
Check Your Progress - II

1. Read Sec. 10.5.2.4 and write note on the Gueridon Trolley

2. Read Sec. 10.5.1 to write note on setting up the side board in the restaurant

10.12 Reference / Bibliography

1- Dhawan Vijay, Food and Beverage Service, Frank Bros. & Co., New
Delhi, 20010.
2- Andrews Sudhir, Textbook of Food and Beverage Management, Tata Mc
Graw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2008.
3- Bagchi S.N. & Sharma Anita, Textbook of Food and Beverage Service,
Aman Publications, New Delhi, 2005.
4- Andrews Sudhir, Food and Beverage Service – Training Manual, Tata Mc
Graw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2009.
5- Study material of B.Sc. (Catering Science & Hotel Management),School
of Distance Education, Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore

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10.13 Suggested Readings

1- Lillicrap Dennis, Cousins John & Smith Robert: Food & Beverage
Services; Hodder & Stoughton Educational.
2- Regina S. Baraban, Joseph F. Durocher (2001), Successful Restaurant
Design, John Wiley and Sons
3- Essential Table Service for Restaurants – John Fuller
4- The Waiter Handbook, Grahm Brown, Global books & Subscription
Services, New Delhi
5- Modern Restaurant Service – John Fuller, Hutchinson, London
6- Beverage Management – Michael Coltman
7- Table and Bar – Jeffrey Clarke
8- Dixit S.K. (ed): Promises & Perils in Hospitality & Tourism Management,
Aman Publications, New Delhi, 2005.

10.14 Terminal Questions

1- How do you prepare a salad trolley? Discuss.
2- What is stacked in the fruit trolley? Enlist.
3- How the restaurant cover is laid? Explain.

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UNIT 11: ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF FOOD

AND BEVERAGE SERVICE

Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Origin & Development of F. & B. Service Industry
11.3.1 Fast Food Restaurants
11.3.2 Institutional Catering
11.4 Classification of Food & Beverage Industry
11.4.1 Commercial Catering / Restaurant
11.4.2 Institutional Catering
11.4.3 Welfare Catering
11.5 Organisation Structure of F & B Department
11.6 Summary
11.7 Glossary
11.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise
11.9 Reference / Bibliography
8.10 Suggested Readings
8.11 Terminal Questions

11.1 Introduction
In the previous unit you have gained knowledge about the Mise-en-Scene and
Mise-en-Place of restaurant and other basic information about the food and
beverage service department. The present unit aims to provide you in-depth
knowledge about the organization of Food and beverage department along with
its development.

The food service industry has two categories:

(1) Commercial establishments which are committed to earn profit
through the sale of food and beverages. The restaurant is king in this
category.
(2) Institutional catering that provides volume food and beverage service
to institutions such as factories, business houses, schools, military,
prisons, railways, airlines, etc. Many institutional programs are
subsidized by the government.

To initiate a study on food and beverage operations it is important to know some

of the essential terms and references so often used in any study material on food
and beverage service. Here are some important terms frequently used.

1. Food and Beverage: As simple as it sounds. It refers to any service rendered

to gratify basic human needs of hunger and the joy of eating and drinking for
physiological and psychological satisfaction.

2. Hospitality (Service): The dictionary meaning for Hospitality reads ·'The

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friendly and generous reception of guest or stranger." So far the industry stands
for is all aspects related to the above meaning i.e. skill, knowledge and attitude
to fulfill the said goals.

3. Catering: one of the aspects of hospitality service is catering. It means

professionally organizing the supply of food and beverage and managing social
events.

4. Food and Beverage Department: Hotels have two branches of hospitality-

The Accommodation operations/service and the other one is Food and
Beverage Department. Further the food and beverage department has two
broad segments:
(a) Food and Beverage Production
(b) Food and Beverage Service
The above two segments are so intermingled and interwoven that the study of
one has to be supplemented and augmented with the other. Various subdivisions
of food and beverage service department are:
1. Restaurants
2. Room Service
3. Banquet and offsite catering
4. Bar
5. Pastry Shop
6. Cafeteria

11.2 Objectives
After going through this Unit you will be able to:
 Apprehend the meaning, importance and role of F & B industry,
 Origin & Development of Food & Beverage sector through ages,
 Classification of the various types of F & B outlets,
 Type of foods and services offered in different F & B outlets, and
 Learn about the Organizational structured of F & B department.

11.3 Origin and Development of F & B Service Industry

Restaurants make up a huge part of the food service business and create
extensive employment. Restaurants may be independent or part of hotel
operations. An ear1y type of restaurant was the Coffeehouse, which appeared in
England in the mid-1600s. By the 18th century, there were approximately 3000
coffeehouses in London alone.

The term restaurant, as we know today, began in 1765 in Paris, France. There is
an interesting story about the proprietor of, perhaps, the first public restaurant.
Before 1765, inns and catering operations offered public food services. The
caterers formed a guild (union) to protect their interests from unscrupulous
competition. This is when a soup vendor created a soup made of sheep‟s foot
and white wine sauce. He was brought to court by the guild for alleged
competition. However, the court ruled that this specialty dish did not compete

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with any dish prepared by the Guild and the vendor was allowed to continue.
Because of the publicity, the vendor's soup kitchen became famous and even the
king of France wanted to taste the specialty which created public commotion.
The soup vendor merchandised the soup as "Ie restaurant divin"- the divine
restorative, coming from the Latin word resturare, meaning 'to restore'. This gave
us the word restaurant, which is a place to restore health.

The credit of the first restaurant in the US goes to Delmonicos, established in

New York City in 1827. The Delmonico family operated nine restaurants until
1923. These restaurants were known for lavish banquets and extensive menus of
371 dishes. Then, as even now, the vast majority of American eating places
offered simpler, less expensive food. The first big chain restaurant operator in the
US was Fred Harvey. By 1912, his company operated a dozen large hotels, 65
railway restaurants and 60 dining cars. John R. Thompson was another early
chain operator. By 1926, he controlled 126 self-service restaurants in the
Midwest and the South.

11.3.1 Fast Food Restaurants

Fast-Food operations had a great impact on the food service industry. Fast food
restaurants standardized ready-to-eat food and service. Fast food operations
date back to at least the 1920s and 1930s when A&W Root Beer (the first fast
food restaurant) and Howard Johnson franchised some of their units. They
concentrated mostly on Hamburgers. Some leading fast-food chains in the world
are given below. It is interesting to note that all of them are from the US, which
establishes that they are the pioneers and leaders in this form of service.

A&W Restaurants Hamburgers

Dominos‟ Pizza Pizza
Pizza Hut Pizzas and Pastas
Wendy's international lnc. Hamburgers
McDonald's Corp. Hamburgers
Burger King Corp. Hamburgers
Subway Subs

11.3.2 Institutional Catering

There are many institutional food service programs, but three are worth
mentioning, as they were the original trailblazers of institutional catering.

11.3.2.1 Industrial Catering

A young mill-operator from Scotland by the name Robert Owen may be called
the father of Industrial Catering. In 1815, appalled by the exploitation of workers
in the British textile industry, he made it his mission to improve working
conditions. One of his efforts was to provide an "eating room" for his workers and
their families. This created a great motivation to his workforce who increased
their productivity. Owen's methods were so successful that they spread
throughout the world.

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In the US, the textile industry, established in 1820, flourished along the
Merrimack River in Massachusetts. The cotton mills provided boarding houses to
feed the workers as an essential way of life. By 1890s, other business sectors
adopted this 'practice of providing lunchrooms. In the US cafeteria service was
introduced in 1902 by Plymouth Cordage Company Plymouth, Massachusetts, by
building a special house with a kitchen, cafeteria and recreation facilities. A
cafeteria has a counter offering pre-cooked meals, which consumers choose
according to their budget, and eat by sitting in the free-seating areas in the
cafeteria. Cafeteria service was found convenient especially when workforces
had to consume their meals within limited lunch breaks. Establishments found
that self-help was quicker and the prices were economical and flexible for their
personal budgets. Today almost 75% establishments provide cafeteria services.
New forms of industrial catering emerged during and after the World War II.
Today we have gourmet lunchrooms to vending machines, on-site kitchen to
outside catering contracts, food basket sales persons to franchised fast food
operations within premises.

11.3.2.2 Hospitals
Hospitals were known in India and Egypt as early as 600 BC. In early Greece
and Rome, the sick took refuge in temples that provided food for the patients and
the poor. The first hospital in Europe was the Hotel Dieu in Paris built in 600 AD.
The first hospital was established in England in 1004 AD. The Spanish explorer
Hernando Cortes founded the first hospital on the American continent in 1524 in
Mexico City. There is evidence though, that Pie Spanish Government of
Hispanolia built the first hospital in 1503 in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
The first incorporated hospital in the US was the Pennsylvania Hospital, which
received its charter by Benjamin Franklin in 1751.

Diet for therapeutic purposes became imp ant only in 1800s. Florence
Nightingale can be credited to be the first dietician and creator of the modem
hospital. Food Preparation in the US was the responsibility of the cook. Only
when nutrition was recognized for the purpose of health recovery, did hospitals
look at specialists to prepare diet foods. In 1899, at the Home Economics
Conference in Lake Placid, New York, the title of "Dietitian" was created. In 1917,
the Dietetic Association was founded which led to dieticians as an important part
of Institutional Catering programmes especially in the Armed Forces, prisons,
schools and hospitals.

11.3.2.3 Schools
Though schools existed in early times, there is no record of school food
programs. Rugby, Eton and Harrow evolved from religious institutions of the
middle ages. They did not have any noted food service programs. At the
university level, Oxford (Founded in the 12th century) and Cambridge (in the 13th
century) provided lodging but not food. Students had to make do with the local
community or with servants. American schools were patterned after English
schools. By 1776, ten universities were established in the American Colonies.

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Food service in the American colleges started in 1800 and spread informally
across the US university structure. In 1935, the US Congress first made federal
funds available to subsidize school food programs. Federal support continues till
date. The accent is 0n nutrition for growing children. Today last-food franchises
have entered university premises in a big way. Many new innovations of Food
Service have taken place. Today's hotels, restaurants and institutions cater to all
the needs and wishes of the guest, worker or student and we hope that the future
holds a promise for a further mushrooming of new concepts.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- I

State whether the following statements are true or false
a. Restaurants serve airlines. (T/F)
b. Dieticians are an important part of institutional catering. (T/F)
c. The term restaurant was first introduced in England. (T/F)
d. Burger King Corp. specializes in hamburgers. (T/F)
e. The father of industrial catering was Robert Owen. (T/F)

11.4 Classification of Food & Beverage Industry

There are many ways to classify food and beverage industry:
1. Commercial enterprises like restaurants and cafes that are committed to
making profit.
2. Institutional catering that are operations that serve food in large quantities
to institutions like schools, hospitals, pension homes, etc. Some are
heavily subsidized by the government to benefit the communities they
serve and operate on covering their costs.
3. Those that serve the public like theme park food services or fairground
catering. They may be commercial or institutional operations that do not
make distinctions as to whom they serve. An independent restaurant is
willing to serve anyone who walks into the restaurant as long as the person
is in a position to pay for the food and services. Similarly, government
cafeterias may serve the public with subsidized meals. For example a
government funded university campus could have a Food Court that serves
enrolled students and faculty as well as visitors to the campus.
4. Those that serve restricted groups of people like passengers on a flight or
members of a club. Here food is subsidiary to a greater activity.
5. A government body who may want to subsidize food programs is a
perquisite to their employees.
6. Private ownership that provides food strictly for commercial purposes. The
figure 11.1 at next page gives an idea of how complicated the
classification can be. Let us examine some of the F & B units mentioned in
the above table:

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11.4.1 COMMERCIAL CATERING / RESTAURANT

A restaurant is a commercial establishment committed to the sale of food and
beverage. Restaurants can be further categorized by ownership:
1. A restaurant may be a licensed part of a hotel operation, whereby the sales of
the restaurant contributes to the sales performance of the hotel.
2. An independent business entity under individual ownership and management.
3. A chain restaurant that is part of a multi-unit organization, offering
standardized menus, decor, type of service and marketing strategy. Basically,
a restaurant provides tables and chairs for customers to eat meals prepared
by an attached kitchen. The restaurants are equipped with crockery, cutlery,
linen and decor which may vary in quality and concept in keeping with the
objectives of that establishment. In addition to the basic purpose, restaurants

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may provide the following facilities:
 Bar
 Entertainment
 Children party facilities
 Home delivery services
 Take-away services
 Outdoor catering
A restaurant professional will have to understand the types of restaurant that he
or she is part of, in the first instance. The types of restaurants are:

11.4.1.1 Coffee Shop

A concept borrowed from the United States, distinguished by its quick service.
Food is pre-plated from the kitchen. This is the main dining room of lodging
properties in many countries including India. It is perhaps the largest restaurant
also. Its multi-cuisine nature makes it to incorporate all popular international
dishes which are simple and well known. In fact Indian hotels include majority of
dishes of Indian origin with a clever mix of Italian, Chinese, Mexican, American
and some British ideas. The food is nutritious, colourful and wholesome without
being heavily garnished and complicated. It attracts people from all walks, i.e.
hotel's guests, local pleasure diners, shoe string budget individuals as well as
package deal guests. The menu changes four times in 24 hours, i.e. Breakfast,
Lunch / Dinner, Evening tea, Snacks and a Wee hour card (Mid-Night snacks
menu). It takes the maximum amount of breakfast load next to room service.
Actually in most hotels, there is no other outlet where breakfast is offered. Coffee
shop requires elaborate service and staff planning as it is open 24 hours 7 days
a week and 365 days in a year. Therefore within this non-stop operation Menage
i.e. opening and closing duties has to be done during operation. It is some kind
of fire fighting operation in which in the presence of the guests all types of works
arc carried out in a tactical way. The service has to be prompt and food should
be the main consideration for the guest as there is no entertainment or any other
attraction. Since the table turnover or repeat guests on the same table is often so
rapid that a large number of covers should be ready for replenishment. The
cutlery and crockery inventory should be fairly high. The equipment used should
be reasonably priced, as chances of breakage and pilferage are more.

11.4.1.2 Specialty Restaurants

In such restaurants, the entire atmosphere and decor is geared to a particular
theme normally related to a regional cuisine. Chinese, Indian, Polynesian,
Japanese and French restaurants are all geared to the speciality food they offer.
An Indian restaurant, for example, would therefore, have Indian motifs on the
walls, Indian artifacts, and costumes of the serving staff, piped Indian music,
crockery, cutlery and glassware that give a total Indian experience. While the
above mentioned cuisines have been popular and common, the world today has
new options of speciality restaurants including Russian, Vietnamese, Burmese,
Thai, etc. Speciality restaurants have gone further in giving the public ethnic
foods within a region. So we have Bavarian food from Germany, Chettinad food
from India, Cantonese food from China, Mongolian food from Russia, etc. The
global world is allowing investors bring cuisines to an ever adventurous and

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knowledgeable guest profile building restaurants around the cuisine.

11.4.1.3 Grill Room or Rotisserie

This is a restaurant that specializes itself in grills of different meats, fish and
poultry. The distinguishing feature of this type of restaurant is a glass partition
that separates the kitchen from the seating area so that guests can see the grill
preparation of their choice. Grill rooms are casual and may have log tables and
benches and the decor would be distinct American. The crockery may be coarse
with hardy cutlery, paper napkins or checked cloth one. Some of them may be as
casual as to have pool tables and indoor sports. Grill rooms can be sophisticated
casual too with finer crockery and linen.

11.4.1.4 Dining Rooms

Dining Rooms are found in smaller hotels, motels, resorts, inns, clubs or heritage
hotels. Smaller hotels may find it uneconomical to have more than one eating
place. The dining room is usually meant for the residents of the hotel or members
of a club who may bring their guests along. Dining rooms can change their
atmosphere from the casual in the morning breakfast to formal for lunch and
dinner. Dining rooms specialize in a good buffet spreads or a choice of two table
d' hote menus.

11.4.1.5 Discotheque
It is a restaurant which is principally meant for dancing to recorded music. The
music is driven by a qualified and experienced disc jockey (DJ) who creates or
responds to the moods of the guests. Special lighting and a dance floor are
essential to the discotheque. A feature of the discotheque is a bar which also
offers light meals and finger picking snacks. Discotheques in hotels permit only
formal casual clothing, while Independent ones allow casuals. Security is the
main concern for a discotheque where both girls and boys mix and drink. Just as
the bartender and the disc jockey are essential employees of a discotheque, so
is the bouncer who guards the entry to the discotheque and ensures proper
behavior. Discotheques do have an entry charge to ensure that the right crowds
enter. Others may permit only couples to ensure the right balance of men and
women. Some discotheques are strictly on membership basis.

11.4.1.6 Night Clubs

It is principally open at night for dinner, dance and live entertainment. The decor
is lavish while service is elaborate with fine linen and silver crockery. Night Clubs
permit formal wear only and some go to the extent of insisting black tie. An
essential feature is live performances or cabarets which promote famous
performers. A live band with a dance floor is a must. A variant to entertainment is
the supper theatre where guests experience a play before or after dinner. A night
club will have a bar with bartenders who are entertainers themselves. Some
discotheques that also have a live band are also called night clubs nowadays.

11.4.1.7 Milk Bars

This is a collective name to cover informal snack bars, milk bars, kiosks, frozen

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yoghurt stands, theatre counters, etc. A bar is a counter at which people eat
food. Basically, these food bars have refrigerated or heated glass counters
(based on the food they serve) displaying their wares. The public choose their
items and go to a cashier who supplies them the items in paper plates or a take-
away bag. They have limited seating places in the shop itself. The service is
quick and often in the form of self-help. Many food bars may be specialty ones
like the Subway that provides sub sandwiches; Dunkin Donuts that serves an
assortment of doughnuts; New York Fries that specialize in French fries with
various toppings and dips; London Dairy that specializes in ice creams;
Cinnabon that specializes on cinnamon delicacies; laundro-bars situated at
Laundromats; or food counters at supermarkets. Under this category are those
eateries that reach the public when an where they need them most such as
mobile food vans including the hotdog cart that serves meals at business
centers, fairs and fetes.

11.4.1.8 Fast Food Restaurants

Fast food restaurants have practically taken over the modem dining experience.
Fast food restaurants give ready-to-serve foods at reasonable rates. The guest
pays cash and carries the food instantly. The restaurant is informal with wooden
or plastic tables and chairs. Such restaurants can operate in limited space and
have small kitchens to finish food that is semi-prepared elsewhere in central
kitchens. The essential features are standard preparations, standard portion
sizes, standard decor, friendly waiters cum cashiers and brightly coloured
interiors. It is the Americans who have made this into a fine art and franchised
their expertise all over the world.

11.4.2 INSTITUTIONAL CATERING

Institutional catering is a huge business that is marked with volume. While a lot
has been written in this chapter as to the origins of institutional catering it would
suffice to mention few Institutions that specially use this kind of service.

11.4.2.1 Industrial Catering

It refers to food programs in factories and corporate houses. The food is
provided at staff canteens or cafeterias specially designated for the purpose of
giving wholesome food to workers and executives. The cafeteria style is food
presented at counters where a worker can choose the food according to his or
her budget. A menu board displays food offered along with the prices. Hotels
have huge food programs referred as 'free duty meals' given as a benefit to the
hotel staff. Hotels would have dedicated staff kitchens preparing food to large in -
house cafeterias. While cafeterias are for a large number of people, canteens
are smaller usually serving few employees of the establishment. Executives may
have exclusive dining rooms where the food is superior with formal service. This
again is a perquisite given by many corporate houses. Many non-hotel
establishments may offer subsidized meals as a perquisite. Some catering
programs get complimented when food has to be provided to offshore
establishments like oil-rigs.

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11.4.2.2 Hospitals and Nursing Homes
These are major beneficiaries of institutional catering. The main focus of these
food programs is to provide diet foods supervised by qualified dieticians, to
patients, who are unable to actively seek alternative sources of food. These
programs have chefs who are able to cook health foods of various requirements.
Food comes to the hospital beds in pre - portioned trays. Hospitals also have
large cafeterias on a paying basis for their staff and the visitors of patients.
Hospitals may opt to run their own food service program or outsource this activity
to qualified caterers.

11.4.2.3 School / College/ University

Catering is popular in full day school schedules and boarding schools. Food is
nutritious and planned by dieticians who know the kind of food for growing
children. College/ University foods are of two types. Residential hostels which
build in meal costs in the total fees structure and those that permit licensed
operators to open facilities to serve faculty, administrative staff and students.
Today universities have their own food courts to offer students a choice of
cuisines. These are in addition to hamburger stalls and mobile vans permitted to
ply their trade within the campus.

11.4.2.4 Military Catering

It covers the entire armed forces and paramilitary forces. The Armed Forces
cover the Army, Air Force and the Navy with their respective administrative
wings. Paramilitary forces would include the Border Security Forces, Home
Guards, etc. Food is provided in messes separately for soldiers, non-
commissioned officers and officers. They need the same attention to quality,
consistency and nutrition. While officers' messes may have formal silver service,
the soldiers' messes have self-service counters. Messes also provide food for
functions held at the mess. The real challenge comes when armies are on the
move and need mobile catering service behind them to provide large quantities
of food in changing locations.

11.4.2.5 Airline Catering

It may be classified into Flight Catering and Airport Catering. Flight Catering is a
specialized food program for passengers on board planes. It has developed a
long way from the sandwiches and flasks of coffee or tea to full dining service
including drinks and wine and a choice of menus. Food is served in difficult
conditions in narrow confines and especially when there is turbulence. The
service trolleys and equipment have to be stable to manage flight conditions. The
real challenge is to give complete, nutritious and tasty meals that can be kept
warm on long hauls or foods that have to be serving quickly on short hauls. Food
further varies with the class of travel. While economy class meals consist of
standardized food served in plastic trays disposable plastic cutlery, and paper
napkins, the First Class passengers get Guerdon service with a choice of menus,
silverware, china crockery and linen. Flight kitchens are specialized and need to
be geared to provide food to various airlines around the clock. They are required
to prepare complete meals that are nutritious, and also those special meals for
those with restrictive preferences like vegetarian food, non-fat meal etc. Airport

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Catering involves food outlets that are self-service, waiter service, vending
machines and licensed bars. They may be run by the airport authority or by
outsourced catering establishments.

11.4.2.6 Ship Catering

Ship Catering is almost like catering in a hotel. The challenge in cruise liner is
the ability of stocking and storing the right quantity of provisions and raw
materials between ports to ensure that food is available to passengers during
their voyage. The standard of catering is high as it is part of the sales package.
Cruise liners have full silver service with waiters and gourmet meals.

11.4.2.7 Railway Catering

Railway Catering is a large and challenging food program. They may be
classified into railway terminal catering and in-transit service. Catering at
terminals consist of a range of facilities including takeaway foods, fast food
restaurants, waiter service restaurants, vending machines, self-service
cafeterias, kiosks and mobile food trolleys where the food comes to the train
window. In-transit service can vary from fresh foods provided to passengers at
their seat by carefully planning supply points en-route. This needs precise
communication to catering companies within the railway network to respond
appropriately. The railway catering has to take into account the different eating
habits and tastes of a large travelling public. They have to further cater to
vegetarians and non-vegetarians. Then, there are the dining cars where
passengers can sit and eat in the car ordering a la carte meals. Then there are
the trolleys that move along seating aisles and provide limited choices of snack
food to passengers at their seat. Railway catering is pre-portioned food served
hot at a station stop or by food warmers in dining cars.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- II

Fill in the blanks:

1. Catering places in factories are called………………….
2. A type of eating place that has refrigerated or heated counters is
a…………………
3. Night clubs are ………………………
4. Speciality restaurant serve…………………….food.
5. Railway catering may be classified into in-transit service and…………………

11.4.3 WELFARE CATERING

Welfare catering may be defined as those operations in which the profitability of
the catering facility is not the primary concern. Since the operations are either
completely or partially subsidized by a parent organization, such establishment‟s
primary obligation is the well being and care of their customers.

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11.4.3.1 Prison Catering
It is very challenging to feed nutritious and wholesome food to inmates and to
avoid the spread of disease in a limited prison campus. Prisons have their own
catering which are supervised for hygiene and sanitation. Prisons do take care of
those inmates who need special dietary food. Food service is on a self-service
basis at food service counters.

11.4.3.2 Religious Catering

Recent successful management of kumbh mela was an eye-opener for the world
how such a massive number of pilgrims could successfully be taken care of for a
stretch of full one month. In fact the number of people who visited the mela were
above 30 million. The sheer number that poses the biggest stumbling block,
actually the government agencies were involved in providing the cereals, pulses,
spices and other non-perishable materials from the state godowns. The
vegetables and other perishable items were brought from far and near as the
local supplies had been only insufficient for such a massive programme. The
religious congregations and feeding is becoming more and more popular. We
see in Vaishno Devi, Amarnath, Sikh Guru Purav meals are provided in huge
numbers from make-shift kitchens. In some places it is a matter of all the meals
365 days a year like T-series langar at Vaishno Devi and Pondicherry Ashram.
The cooking involves unusually large pots and pans specially designed with
compatible cooking range. The kind of cooking involves rare experience and
managerial skill from fund procurement to materials management (purchasing.
receiving, storing and issuing).

11.4.3.3 Mass Feeding Programmes

These are rather an organizational activity of the Government department looking

alter social welfare, rehabilitation etc. or NGOs as Salvation Army on perpetual
basis. The number may vary from 500 to 5 million people, for example, small
organizations offer biscuits and milk to the school children of a slum cluster to a
massive „Bal Ahar Yojna‟ in which 5 million children were covered for meal at
their schools in rural areas for families below poverty line so that they are
motivated to send their children to schools. The enormous planning required is
something which makes the Government fail almost every time. Although some
organizations are carrying on the task successfully in Ethiopia, Zaire, Kosavo,
East Timor etc. It requires procurement at cheapest level and networking to
decentralize the distribution and production to reliable NGOs.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- III
Match the following:
1. Outdoor Catering a. diet foods
2. Clubs b. stable equipments
3. Railway Catering c. supply points
4. Ship Catering d. marquees and tents
5. Airline catering e. right quantity of provisions

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6. Hospitals f. membership

11.5 Organization Structure Of F & B Department

Organizing, the process of structuring human and physical resources in order to

accomplish organizational objectives, involves dividing tasks into jobs, specifying
the appropriate department for each job, determining the optimum number of
jobs in each department, and delegating authority within and among
departments. One of the most critical challenges facing hospitality managers
today is the development of a responsive organizational structure that is
committed to quality. The framework of jobs and departments that make up any
organization must be directed toward achieving the organization‟s objectives. In
other words, the structure of a hospitality business must be consistent with its
strategy. Managers give structure to a hotel through job specialization,
organization, and establishment of patterns of authority and span of control.

The primary function of the food and beverage department is to provide food and
drink to a hotel‟s guests. In earlier times, when an inn had a single dining room
that could hold a limited number of guests, this was a fairly simple task. Today,
however, providing food and drink is much more complicated. A large hotel might
well have a coffee shop, a gourmet restaurant, a poolside snack bar, room
service, two banquet halls, and ten function rooms where food and beverages
are served. It might also have a lounge, a nightclub, and a lobby bar. On a busy
day (or night), it‟s quite likely that functions will be booked in many outlets at the
same time. In addition, some outlets may have multiple events scheduled for a
single day. As you can see, there is great diversity in the types of activities
performed by a food and beverage department, requiring a significant variety of
skills on the part of its workers.

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The success of a food and beverage (F & B) service operation depends in the
way it is organized to achieve its goals. An organization structure is a framework
that establishes the relationship between job positions as well as establishes the
channel of communication. Such structures are explained graphically in an
organization chart. Most of the establishments follow traditional hierarchical
organization structures that have evolved over the ages comprising Top level
Management, Middle level Management, Junior Level Management, Supervisors
and operating Staff. The human resources in the food & beverages department
of a luxury five star category hospitality unit may be classified as presented in
above figure 11.2.

Because of the diversity of services provided, the food and beverage department
is typically split into subunits. The executive chef, a person of considerable
importance and authority in any full-service hotel, runs the food production, or
kitchen, department. A variety of culinary specialists who are responsible for
different aspects of food preparation report to the executive chef.

The actual serving of food in a large hotel‟s restaurants is usually the

responsibility of a separate department, headed by the assistant food and
beverage director. The food service department is composed of the individual
restaurant and outlet managers, maitre d‟s, waiters, waitresses, and bus help.

Because of their special duties and concerns, many large hotels have a separate
subunit that is responsible only for room service. Because of the high value and
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profit margins associated with the sale of alcoholic beverages, some hotels have
a separate department that assumes responsibility for all outlets where alcoholic
beverages are sold. The person responsible for this department is the beverage
manager.

Most full-service hotels also do a considerable convention and catering business.

The typical convention uses small function rooms for meetings and larger rooms
for general sessions, trade shows, exhibits, and banquets. As a hotel or lodging
business increases the use of its facilities for conventions and meetings, it may
form a separate convention services department. The convention services
department and its personnel are introduced to the client, a meeting planner, or
an association executive by the marketing and sales department. The convention
services department then handles all of the client‟s meeting and catering
requirements. Individually catered events include parties, wedding receptions,
business meetings, and other functions held by groups. To provide for the unique
needs of these types of customers, hotels often organize separate catering and
convention departments. Therefore, the challenge faced by management is the
diversity of the employees in the food and beverage department; the dishwasher
in the stewarding department is at a radically different level than the sous chef in
the kitchen.

11.6 Summary
The present unit will enable to understand the stages of origin & development of
food & beverage industry in the present form. The unit also gave you the
information about the different forms of catering operations found in the
hospitality business such as restaurants, coffee shops, hospital catering, religious
catering, cafeteria etc. Besides, the unit also provides the idea about the
organization structure of the food and beverage department of a luxury hospitality
unit to understand the human resources associated with the f & b trade in better
way.

11.7 Glossary
 Organization Structure: a framework of relationships in an organization

 Commercial Catering: A catering arrangement committed to earn profit

 Institutional Catering: Volume food service in institutions

 Pre- Plated Service: service where food is pre- portioned into platters in the
kitchen
 Welfare Catering: catering operations in which the profitability of the catering
facility is not the primary concern

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11.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - I

State whether true of false

1. F
2. T
3. F
4. T
5. T

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - II

Fill in the blanks:
1. Cafeteria
2. Delmonicos
3. Formal
4. Ethnic
5. Railway terminal catering

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - III

Match the following:
1. d
2. f
3. c
4. e
5. b
6. a

11.9 Reference / Bibliography

1. Andrews Sudhir, Food and Beverage Service – Training Manual, Tata Mc
Graw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2009.
2. Dhawan Vijay, Food and Beverage Service, Frank Bros. & Co., New
Delhi, 2007.
3. Andrews Sudhir, Textbook of Food and Beverage Management, Tata Mc
Graw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2008.
4. Bagchi S.N. & Sharma Anita, Textbook of Food and Beverage Service,
Aman Publications, New Delhi, 2005.

11.10 Suggested Readings

1. Modern Restaurant Service – John Fuller, Hutchinson, London

2. Beverage Management – Michael Coltman
3. Table and Bar – Jeffrey Clarke
4. Dixit S.K. (ed): Promises & Perils in Hospitality & Tourism Management,
Aman Publications, New Delhi, 2005.

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5. Lillicrap Dennis, Cousins John & Smith Robert: Food & Beverage
Services; Hodder & Stoughton Educational.
6. Essential Table Service for Restaurants – John Fuller
7. The Waiter Handbook, Grahm Brown, Global books & Subscription
Services, New Delhi

11.11 Terminal Questions

1. Describe the organizational structure of a food & Beverage department of
a luxury five star hotel?
2. Describe with suitable example the welfare catering?
3. Write a detailed essay on the origin & development of F & B industry through
ages?

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UNIT 12: BEVERAGE CLASSIFICATION, BAR AND

ITS TYPES
Structure:
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Classification of Beverage
12.3 Non-Alcoholic Beverages
12.4 Alcoholic Beverages
12.5 Introduction To Bar
12.6 Bar Equipments and Tools
12.7 Bar Planning and Design
12.8 Summary
12.9 Key Words
12.10 Check Your Progress
12.11 Bibliography

12.0 Introduction
You may know that the word “Beverage” has its origins in the Latin word “Bever”
which literally means “Rest from work”. When one does physically strenuous
work, one tends to perspire, thereby reducing the level of water in one‟s body.
Therefore, when one is taking a break from exhausting work, one feels the need
to drink some liquid to quench one‟s thirst.In this unit you will know about the
meaning of Beverage, kinds of beverage, classification of beverage, alcoholic
and non alcoholic beverage. You will also learn how to set up a bar, planning and
putting various bar equipments in order for a speedy service.After reading the
unit you will understand the kinds of beverages in the world and their
classification. You will also have adequate knowledge about the non alcoholic,
alcoholic beverages and in case you want to set up a bar either in the house or
the hotel you have the basic idea which can be improvised as per need and
budget.

12.1 Objectives
After reading this unit the student will :
 Have knowledge about uses of beverages.
 Have knowledge about type of beverages.
 Have knowledge about types of non alcoholic beverage and alcoholic
beverages
 Have knowledge about various types of Bar.
 Have knowledge about various bar equipments.
 Have knowledge about principles of bar design.

Definition of Beverage
A Beverage is any potable (consumable by humans) liquid which refreshes,
stimulates or nourishes the human body. Most beverages fulfill two or all of the

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above three objectives. A beverage may be plain or flavored, hot or cold, flat or
sparkling, alcoholic or non-alcoholic.

The 3 Objectives of a Beverage :

1. To Refresh: - This is the primary reason why all living beings need water,
in some form or the other. Water forms 70% of the human body and is the
medium of all body functions. The nervous system needs water to convey
electro-chemical signals between the brain and various parts of the body;
lungs need water to absorb oxygen from the air; blood needs water to
transport oxygen and nutrients to all parts of the body. However, when
one does physically strenuous work, one perspires, thereby losing water
and reducing the level of body‟s fluids below the minimum required for the
body to function efficiently. The body sends signals to the brain which we
interpret as thirst, or the feeling of need to drink some beverage. Thus,
the primary objective of beverages is to replenish the level of water in the
body, that is, to refresh the body.

2. To Stimulate: - “To stimulate” means to encourage the increment or the

growth or the acceleration of a process. Most of us feel the need for a
stimulating cup of tea or coffee when we wake up in the morning. When
one goes to sleep at night, all the body functions like heart-beat,
breathing, digestion, blood circulation, etc. Our body functions slow down
also when we are tired, but to a lesser degree compared to sleeping. To
bring them back to their normal rate (that is, to stimulate), we require
energy. Solid foods can also provide energy, but our digestive system
processes liquids faster than solids. Therefore, we prefer tea, coffee, hot
chocolate, etc. when we wake up from sleep. Apart from energy in the
form of sugar, stimulating drinks like tea, coffee, cola drinks, etc. also
have caffeine, which makes the adrenal gland in our body secrete the
hormone Adrenaline into our blood. Adrenaline makes our heart beat
faster, increasing blood circulation, and consequently, speeding up all the
other body functions. As a result, one feels more alert and energized,
more “stimulated”.

3. To Nourish: - When one sweats due to exertion, one‟s body doesn‟t lose
only water. It also loses vital nutrients like mineral salts, vitamins,
proteins, etc. that are essential to keep the body in good working
condition. Beverages like fresh fruit juices, mineral water and fruit drinks
(lemonade, ginger ale) contain various nutrients, and consuming these
beverages nourishes the body by augmenting the essential nutrients to
their required levels.

12.2 Classification of Beverages

Beverages are classified as either Alcoholic Beverages or Non-alcoholic
Beverages.
Alcoholic Beverages:
1. Wines
2. Spirits

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3. Liqueurs
4. Beers
5. Cocktails
6. Aperitifs
Any beverage containing at least 0.5% of alcohol is classified as an Alcoholic
Beverage. Alcohol is a family of Hydroxide of Organic Radicals. All the alcohols
except Ethyl Alcohol (scientific name – Ethanol, chemical formula – C2H5OH) are
highly toxic (poisonous) for humans.

Global excise laws require that any beverage containing between 0.5% and 76%
alcohol should be considered as a commercial alcoholic drink. Any beverage
containing more than 76% alcohol comes under the category of medicinal drinks.

Non-alcoholic:
1. Hot-Tea, coffee, cocoa, etc.
2. Cold-Dispense beverages
3. Aerated water
4. Mineral water and spicy water
5. Squashes
6. Juices
7. Syrups
Just as the name suggests, Non-Alcoholic Beverages contain no or less than
0.5% alcohol. They are potable drinks which have one, two or all of the 3
qualities of being refreshing, stimulating and nourishing. Non-Alcoholic
Beverages may be either HOT or COLD.

Cold non-alcoholic beverages can be further Germany), Vichy Celestine

(France) and Badoit (France) are examples of beverages which naturally contain
carbon dioxide gas.Coca Cola, Fanta, 7up, Limca, Tonic Water, Ginger Ale, etc.
are beverages which are artificially charged with carbon dioxide gas.

Hot non-alcoholic beverages, the prime examples of which are Tea, Coffee
and Hot Chocolate, are consumed primarily as stimulating beverages around the
world. Though most of the hot non-alcoholic beverages have substantial levels of
nutrients, their consumption for nutritional or refreshment purposes is very
limited. Categorized as either Aerated or Still (Non-Aerated).

Still Drinks are plain liquids which may be flavoured or unflavoured. Mineral
water, fruit & vegetable juices, squashes, cordials, crushes, slushes, shakes,
smoothes, syrups, nectars, ethnic drinks like lassi, nimbu-paani, aam-panna,
coconut water, jaljeera, etc., all come under the of Still or Non-Aerated
Beverages.

Aerated Beverages, also called Sparkling Beverages, are the drinks which
contain Carbon Dioxide, either occurring naturally or added artificially. Spring
waters or Mineral waters like Appolianaris.

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12.3 Non Alcoholic Beverages
Stimulating Beverages: some of the stimulating beverages such as tea, coffe
etc. are discussed as under:

12.3.1 Tea
Definition of Tea: Tea is a non-alcoholic
beverage obtained by processing the leaves
of Camellia Sinensis or Camellia Assamica,
which are tropical plants of the Camellia
family. The processed tea leaves are infused
with steaming hot water to release the rich
aroma and flavour of tea and then combined
with cream, sugar, lime juice or a huge array
of other herbs, flavours and mixers. Tea is
the second most popular non-alcoholic
beverage in the world after coffee. It is the
most commonly consumed drink in India,
China, Japan, Korea, Sri Lanka, West Asia,
Great Britain and France.

TYPES OF TEA
Black Tea: This is the most commonly
available and the most widely consumed
variety of processed tea in the world. Black tea is produced when the production
method described above is followed without variations. As the name suggests, it
is black in colour and is characterized by strong aroma and flavour. A variation of
the Black Tea is the CTC (Cut, Tear and Curl) Leaf Tea. This variation is
produced when, during the Rolling stage, the rolling cylinder in the crushing
machine has grooves and spikes on its rolling surface. When the leaves pass
under the cylinder, they not only get rolled but also get cut, torn and curled. The
CTC Leaf Tea leaves have a pellet-like appearance and are browner in colour
compared to Black Tea. Though having lesser flavour than Black Tea, CTC Leaf
Tea produces stronger liquor.

Oolong Tea: - The Oolong Tea is very popular in its country of origin, China. It is
produced by reducing the time of the Withering and Fermentation processes by
half. The liquor of the Oolong Tea is golden-amber in colour and, even though it
isn‟t very strong, it gives off a highly refreshing aroma and contains a fine,
delicate flavour.
Green Tea: - Green Tea is produced by steaming the leaves immediately after
plucking. The stages of Rolling, Withering and Fermentation are completely
eliminated. After steaming, the leaves are dried, rolled and packaged for sale.
Green Tea leaves, when infused with hot water, turn it a light golden in colour
and give off a delicate, enticing aroma. Green Tea is gaining popularity all over
the world due to its high content of vitamins and minerals as well as its anti-
oxidant properties. In India, Green Tea is grown in the Kangra valley and in
Dehradun and is used to make the popular Kashmiri Kahwa.

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Black Tea is graded into 4 major categories according to leaf or particle
size:
 Leaf Tea
 Broken or Small Leaf Tea
 Fannings
 Dust

Other Popular Teas:

1. Herbal Tea: - Herbal Teas do not contain any tea leaves. They are made
from the flowers, berries, peels, seeds and roots of many different plants
like Camellia, Camomile, Rosemary, Mint, Lemon Grass, Ginseng,
Yarrow and Rose. Herbal teas have gained great popularity among
health-conscious people due to their zero caffeine content.

2. Instant Tea: - An infusion of regular tea is freeze-dried and placed in air-

tight containers. Instant tea is used in Automatic Vending Machines.

3. Yerba De Mate: - It comes from Paraguay and Brazil and contains no

tea. It is produced from the leaves and small stems of a species of plant
native to the above-mentioned countries. The leaves and small stems of
this plant are processed exactly like tea.

4. Scented Tea: - They are simply teas which have been scented with
extracts of flowers, herbs and peels of plants like Jasmine, Rose, Orange
Zest, Lemon, Cinnamon, Earl Grey, etc.

Golden Rules for Making Tea:

1. Use a good quality tea.
2. Use fresh water, which is freshly boiled. The water should be lime free.
Tap water makes tea cloudy.
3. Heat the tea pot, i.e., rinse out the teapot with boiling water before putting
in the tea. One teaspoon of tea per person + one for the pot (depending
upon the quality of the tea).
4. Pour the water onto the tea just as it reaches boiling point, taking the pot
to the kettle, as the
water must be as
near boiling point as
possible to enable
the leaves to infuse
properly. Water
should be 950C (just
below boiling point),
before it is poured
over the tea leaves.
5. Infusion becomes
bitter if boiled longer.
6. Brew the tea, never
stew it. Allow the tea
to brew only for 4-5

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minutes, and stir well before pouring.
7. Just before serving, stir the tea in the teapot with a spoon. Use a strainer.

12.3.2 Coffee
Definition of Coffee : Coffee is a hot non-alcoholic beverage which contains a
strong stimulant called CAFFEINE. It is made by infusing the crushed processed
beans of the “Coffea” plant with hot water. Many different mixers, herbs,
sweeteners, juices, etc. are added to the coffee liquor according to the
consumers‟ tastes to make the bitter coffee more palatable. Coffee is the most
popular beverage, particularly as an after-dinner drink, in the world.

THE “COFFEA” FAMILY

Coffea Arabica: Arabica is the best quality, and consequently the most
expensive, variety of coffee. Its beans are uniform in shape, regular in size and
impart excellent aroma and flavour. The Arabica plant, however, is quite
vulnerable to climate change, pests and diseases. It is grown predominantly in
West Asia, India, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Kenya and Jamaica.

Coffea Canefora (Robusta Coffee):

As the name suggests, this is a very
robust variety, highly resistant to
pests, diseases and climatic
variations. It was grown mostly in the
equatorial parts of Africa till a decade
ago, but has now taken over most
parts of the coffee cultivating world
from the Arabica plant. Though
slightly behind Arabica in terms of
aroma and flavour, Robusta gives
much higher yield and also produces
stronger liquor.

Coffea Liberica: Liberica coffee beans are large in size but lack quality, aroma
and flavour. Liberica is grown in Malaysia and Guyana, but not on a large enough
scale, and its consumption is also limited to these regions only. Arabica and
Canefora (Robusta) are the only commercially important varieties of coffee in the
world market. Liberica, being low in quality, does not have any commercially
viable demand.

Method/type of Coffee Grinding Grade

Filter / Dip Fine to Medium
Jug Coarse
Turkish Medium
Cafetiere Medium
Vacuum Infusion Medium Fine to Fine
Espresso Very Fine
Percolator Medium

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Rules to Observe while making Coffee:

1. Use freshly roasted and ground coffee.
2. Buy the correct grind for the right type of machine
3. Clean the equipment
4. Use a set measure.
5. Add boiling water to the coffee.
6. Infusion time is according to the type of coffee being used and the
method of making
7. Control the temperature. Do not boil it.
8. Strain; serve.
9. Add/milk/cream separately.
10. Serving temperature – Coffee – 820C, Milk –
680C

Characteristics of Good Coffee:

1. Good flavour
2. Good aroma

3. Good aroma of milk/cream

4. Goody body

Cocoa and Chocolate:

The Cocoa plant is a small tropical tree
which was originally grown in South America. Nowadays, the Accra region in
Ghana (West Africa) is the single largest producer and exporter of Cocoa,
accounting for approximately 70% of the global output. Brazil, with 24%, is the
second largest producer. The cocoa plant needs fertile soil, low altitude, hot and
humid climate and high rainfall to grow. The fruit of the cocoa plant, called the
“Cocoa Pod”, is about 4-12 inches in length and about 4 inches in diameter. It
has a yellowish leathery rind covering the pulp, which contains 25-75 seeds per
pod. The cocoa and cocoa butter are contained within the seeds.

Cocoa Butter : Cocoa butter is used to make imitation chocolates which are of
inferior quality compared to genuine chocolate, and consequently, cheaper. The
most common use of cocoa butter, however, is in the manufacture of cosmetics.

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12.3.3 Nourishing Beverages
1. Bourn vita: Mixture of malt, sugar, glucose, cocoa powder, dried milk,
dried egg, salt and flavouring. Blended together; cooked under a vacuum
until brittle. Carefully broken up.

2. Horlicks: Malted milk made from wheat flour, malted barley and milk.

3. Oval tine: Made from barley, malt milk, cocoa powder, soya flour, eggs
and vitamins.

4. Milo: Made from condensed milk and malt extract with cocoa power, milk
products and added vitamins.

Other Patent Beverages:

1. Boost
2. Complan
3. Mistura – real almond, chocolate, rich protein mixture.

12.3.4 Hot Milk

It is a soothing beverage. It is served in a teacup with a sugar basin or
sometimes in a highball glass.

12.3.5 Refreshing Beverages

Iced Tea: Make strong tea. Chill well. The iced tea may be strained and stored
chilled until required. This may be then served in a glass, on a doily, with a
teaspoon on a side plate.

Garnish: A slice of lemon and sprig of mint.

Alternate method: Place crushed ice in a tall glass. Bring cool black tea in a
teapot. From the right, pour it over the ice.

Cold Coffee: Strong coffee (black) should be made in the normal way. Strained
and chilled well until required. It is served with an equal quantity of chilled milk for
a smooth beverage or with cream in a tall glass with ice cubes added and with
straws. The glass should stand on a doily on a side-plate with a teaspoon and
wherever necessary, some cream should be served separately. It could be
topped with ice cream.

Milk Drinks:
1. Plain cold milk – It is refreshing and nourishing. Generally served in a
tall glass with an underliner and doily in between and a sundae spoon.
Sugar syrup is given separately. A straw is also provided.

2. Milk shakes – A mixture of fresh milk, ice cream and flavouring syrup,
rapidly whisked. May be topped with ice cream.

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3. Ice cream sodas – A combination of fruit syrup and fresh cream in a long
glass filled with soda water and topped with ice cream.

4. Egg nog – These are beaten eggs with fruit syrup and sugar added,
mixed with hot/cold, and garnished with nutmeg power.

5. Iced chocolate – Make a hot chocolate with melted chocolate, castor

sugar and milk. Cook it, whisking it all the time. Allow it to cool
completely. Put it in a blender with crushed ice.

6. Flavoured milk – In tetra packs.

12.3.6 Mocktails
A non alcoholic beverage containing all properties of a cocktail except alcohol.
Some famous mocktails are given below :
1. Virgin Mary – Tomato juice with salt, pepper, worcester sauce. May be
garnished with a wedge of lemon. Served in a salt rimmed old-fashioned
glass.
2. Non-alcoholic Pina Colada – Pineapple juice and coconut cream,
shaken well and strained. Served in a Collins glass. Garnished with
pineapple. Served with a straw.
3. Shirley Temple/Roy Rogers – A mixture of ginger and grenadine.
Served on the rocks with a full fruit garnish and straws.
4. Tropicana – Pineapple juice + orange juice.
5. Pussyfoot – Orange juice, lemon juice, lime cordial, grenadine, egg yolk
and soda, shaken well. Served on ice in a Collins glass and topped with
soda.

12.3.7 Squashes and Cordials

These are all concentrated fruit extracts, meant to be broken down with fresh or
aerated water into a long drink and may be served hot or cold.
A fruit squash is made from fruit juice, sugar and preservative. Fruit cordial is a
fruit squash from which all suspended matter is completely eliminated and is
perfectly clear. It is filtered and clarified using fining agents. It is preserved by
adding Potassium Meta-bi-sulphide and Sodium Benzoate or pasteurized by
freezing.

Fruit Syrups : These are concentrated fruit juices preserved with sugar or
manufactured from compound colourings and flavours, eg. orange, lime, cherry,
etc. Grenadine syrup is made from pomegranate.

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Use : Base for cocktails,
fruit ups or mixed with
soda to give a long drink.

FRUIT JUICES
1. Fresh Juices:
The unfermented
juice of fresh fruits
e.g. Apples,
grapes,
pineapples.

2. Preserved : Used
in bars
 Canned
 Bottled
 Tetra
Packs

It is served in 8 oz
glasses on a doily-
covered underliner. Since they already have high sugar content, there is not
need to give sugar syrup separately. Provide a straw with it.

12.3.9 Waters
Soft Drinks: Drinks are acidified, sweetened, coloured artificially, carbonated
and often chemically preserved. The formulation and flavouring of many well-
known brands are a guarded secret. The water used should be well-purified, and
free from micro-organisms, dissolved metals and organic compounds.
Synthetic flavours are generally used because:
 Natural flavours added to the drinks do not give standard products.
 Natural flavour extracts undergo changes in the presence of light, acid
and storage.
 Natural flavours do not transport pigments of sufficient depth.
 Natural flavours are unstable in acidic conditions. Acids used are Citric,
Malic, Tartaric and Phosphoric. Dissolved carbon dioxide also produces
acidity.
Sodium Benzoate is a common preservative used in soft drinks.
Tonic – It is an aerated drink, sweetened and flavoured with natural fruit and plat
extracts including quinine. It is drunk straight with ice and a slice of lemon or
added in a cocktail. It is generally used with gin.

Gingerale – Consists of aerated water with colouring and ginger essence.

Lemonade – Consists of lemon juice, sugar and aerated water.

Bottled Water: It is of two types:

1. Mineral – This has a mineral content, which is strictly controlled.

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2. Spring Water – This has fewer regulations apart from those concerning
hygiene.

Waters can be classified as:

1. Still
2. Naturally sparkling
3. Carbonated during bottling.
The capacities of the bottles vary from 1.5 litre to 220 ml. Glass and plastic
bottles are available.

Natural Spring Waters: This is obtained from natural spring water in the ground.
The water itself is impregnated with the natural minerals found in the soil. It is
sometimes charged with an aerating gas. The uniqueness of this mineral water is
that they have medicinal value. Where natural spring waters are found, it is
usually termed as „Spa‟. Here the water may be drunk or bathed in, according to
the cures they are supposed to effect. Many of the best-known mineral waters
are bottled at the springs.

Mineral Waters: According to their chemical properties, they are classified as :

1. Alkaline Waters – Help treatment of gout and rheumatism.
2. Aperient Waters – Have saline constituents like sulphate of magnesia or
sulphates of soda.
3. Chalybeate Waters – Mineral waters are of two kinds : carbonated or
sulphated. They act as a stimulant and as a tonic.
4. Lithiated Water – Rich in lithia salts.
5. Sulphurous waters – These are impregnated with hydrogen.
6. Table Waters – These are less mineralised than other natural spring
waters and are mainly alkaline. They may be taken between meals or at
meal time, either alone or mixed with light wine or spirits.

Brand Names of Mineral Waters :

French : Badoit, Contrex, Evia, Perrier, Vichy Saint
England : Ashbourne, Abey Well, Ashe Park, Malvern, Aqua Pura
Ireland : Bally Gowan, Glenpatrick
Italy : San Pellegrino, Ferrarelle, Crodo Lisiel
Germany : Apollinaris, Uberkinger, Petrusquelle
Belgium : Spa
Switzerland : Aqui
Sweden : Ramlosa
India : Himalaya, Pondicherry

12.4 Alcoholic Beverages

Alcohol: Alcohol is a liquid obtained by the fermentation any sugar containing
liquid. Ethyl alcohol is the principal alcohol found in all alcoholic beverages. An
alcoholic beverage is defined as any potable liquid having a minimum of 0.5% of
ethyl alcohol by volume.

Methods of Obtaining Alcoholic Beverages:

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1) Fermentation: Sugar of fruit/grain is converted to alcohol by the action of
bacteria/yeast. The concentration can be controlled by the length of
fermentation.

2) Distillation: The fermented fruit or grain mash is heated. The alcohol

evaporates at a lower half than that of water and it is condensed,
collected and concentrated as per requirement.

Different Alcoholic Beverages:

1) Wine: It is an alcoholic beverage obtained by fermentation of freshly
gathered grapes.

2) Spirit: This is potable alcoholic beverages obtained by distillation of a

liquid containing alcohol. Some of the spirits are :
a) Whiskey: It is derived from the Gaelic term, „using beatha‟,
meaning, water of life, and is a distillation of fermented mash of
grain (maize, barley, corn, rice, etc.) or a combo. It is matured or
aged in wooden casks.

b) Brandy: „Brandewijn‟ in Dutch means „burnt wine‟ and it is

obtained from the mash of grapes. Brandies can be obtained from
other fruits like peach, apple, etc.

c) Gin: It is derived from a French word, „Geneivre‟, which means

juniper berries and it is the prime flavouring agent in gin. The base
is a neutral spirit made from grain with other flavourings like
coriander, orange and lemon peels added to it.

d) Rum: It is obtained from „Saccharum‟, a main constituent of

sugarcane and was originally made in West Indian plantations.

e) Vodka: The term „Voda‟ means water. This is a fermented mash

of grain/vegetables (potatoes). Re-distillation removes all odour,
taste and colours. It is diluted to required strength.
f)
g) Tequila: It is obtained from a large pineapple-type plant of the lily
family – mistaken usually for a type of cactus – found in
abundance in South West Mexico.

3) Beer: This is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of

several grains flavoured with hops and the by-product of carbon dioxide is
retained in the bottling. The method of making beer is known as brewing.

4) Sake: It is an oriental brewed beverage made from rice.

Type of Alcoholic Beverages: Alcoholic beverages are named differently due to

the use of different base raw materials, the methods of production and
flavourings achieved either by natural means of additives. The following are
different types of alcoholic beverages.

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1. Fermented: In this type, raw materials used are mostly fruits containing high
amounts of naturally occurring sugar, which can easily be converted by the
action of yeast to alcohol and carbon dioxide.

Base Material Fermented Products

Grapes (wine) Table wines (red, white and rose), sparkling (with
carbonation), fortified (with added alcohol),
aromatized (with added alcohol and flavouring),
vins doux naturals (naturally occurring sweet wines)
Applies Cider
Pears Perry
Honey Mead
Agave or maguey Pulque
(A type of prickly plant of the lily family)

2. Brewed: It is a process similar to fermentation. But since the base materials is

a carbohydrate, it has to be broken down to simpler sugars and yeast has to be
added to it before the fermentation an occur.
Base Brewed Products
Grain Lager, ale, stout and porter
Rice Sake (An oriental brewed product from Japan and
China)

3. Distilled: This process of separating water from alcohol is achieved by heating

the mixture obtained by fermenting of brewing and then condensing the alcohol
vapours.

From Distilled Products

Grapes (wine) Cognac, armagnac and other brandies
Grain (beer) Whisky, vodka and kornbranntwein (brandy from
corn)
Sugarcane (Molasses) Rum – light, dark, full-bodied
Dated, palm sap Arrack
Agave (pulque) Tequila

4. Fruit Brandies:They are also distilled beverages from fruit-based products.

Some of them are:
From Distilled Products
Applies Calvados
Plums Slivovitx, mirabelle, quetsch
Cherries Kirsch, cherry brandy
Pears Eau-de-vie de poire
Strawberries Eau-de-vie de fraise

5. Compounded Flavoured Spirits:These are distilled beverages with the

addition of flavouring agents (flowers, roots, barks, leaves, seeds) added either
during the distillation process or later.

From Distilled Products

Grain, molasses Gin
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Grain, potatoes Aquavit
Grapes Pastis-Pernod, Ricard, Ouzo
Aromatic fruits Bitter
Fruit, grapes, grain Liqueurs

12.5 Introduction to Bar

Bar is defined as a
retail outlet for drinks
which are generally
consumed standing up
or sitting on a bar stool
in front of a counter
fitted with a wooden
bar as a rest and
hence the name. The
back bar is a set of
shelves of glasses
and bottles behind the
counter. It may be
decorated with wood
work, etched glass
mirror and lights.
Alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks are sold for consumption within the premises.
The term „bar‟ applies to the counter itself.Bars originated in 1910 and developed
between the world wars with the fashion of cocktails. Type of bars range from
Dive (informal) bars to elegant places of entertainment.

12.6 Types of Bar

A bar's owners and managers choose the bar's name, décor, drink menu,
lighting, and other elements which they think will attract a certain kind of patron.
However, they have only limited influence over who patronizes their
establishment. Thus, a bar originally intended for one demographic profile can
become popular with
another. For example, a
gay bar with a dance floor
might, over time, attract an
increasingly straight
clientele. Or a blues bar
may become a biker bar if
most its patrons are bikers.
There are following types of
bars discussed as under:
1. Bistro – These are
small bars or
restaurants. The
name is said to have
been derived from
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the Russian word, „Bistro‟ which means „quick‟. The word may have come
into origin by the quick service given to Cossacks during the Russian
occupation of Paris in 1815. The most likely origin is an abbreviation of
the word „Bistrocile‟. Modern Bistros are of modest appearance and offer
local dishes, cold meat, cheese and wine.

2. Public House – These are also refereed to as Public bars or pubs. These
are large in size and offer drinks and light meal at a reasonable rate.

3. Saloon/Lounge/Private Bar – These bars offer varying degree of

comfort, elegance
and privacy. They
are small in size and
have restricted
entry. These bars
are expensive and
cater to the elite
class.

4. Dispense Bar –
This is a bar
situated within a
Food & Beverage
service area that
dispenses only wine and other alcoholic drinks for consumption with meal
or are sometimes dispensed from bars situated in the food and beverage
service area. The alcoholic drinks are served by a member of restaurant
staff known as Sommelier or Wine waiter.

5. Service Bar – This is a bar where drinks are poured and made ready to
serve in some other area like room service, lounge etc by the waiter. It
does not have a display counter and is usually situated at the back of the
house.

6. Cocktail Bar – These are modern bars situated in luxury hotels. They are
lavishly equipped and furnished. They introduce new concepts in style
and service of exquisite drinks.

7. Poolside Bar - These are the bars situated near the pool area. Alcoholic
and non-alcoholic drinks are provided to the guest frequenting the pool
area. The entry to these bars may be restricted for residential guests and
members only.

8. Wine Bar – An elegant bar that serves only wine. The guests are allowed
to taste the wine before placing the order. The style and service is
elegant.

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12.7 Bar Equipments
Some of the bar equipments are discussed as under:

Glassware: Different types of glassware are used in the service of alcoholic

beverages. They contribute to the appearance of the table and enhance the
overall appearance of the bar. Traditional glasses came in different sizes and
shapes but now, for the convenience of the caterer and the manufacturer, the
glasses are made in standard sizes. The capacity of capacity of a glass is
measured in Fl oz or ml. Except for certain specialty restaurants or deluxe hotels
which may use cut or coloured glassware, hotel glassware is usually plain and
clear. It should have a stem for holding the wine glass so the heat o the hand
does not affect the quality of the wine. The glass should be slightly curved
inwards so as to hold the aroma and should be large enough to hold the wine
being tasted.

Choosing Glassware:
 The glassware should be consistent in quality with other tableware.
 There should be no visible joints.
 The glassware should have a comfortable hold.
 The glasses which have a multipurpose use should be preferred.

Cleaning, Care and Storage of Glassware:

 Ideally, glassware should be hand washed with detergent although
dishwashers capable of washing glasses are available in the market.
 They should be thoroughly dried and then stored in a glass pantry in
single rows on paper lined shelves or mats, upside down to prevent the
dust settling on them.
 Tumblers should not be stacked inside one another to prevent breakage
and accidents.
 Glasses should be polished with glass polishing cloth only before being
placed on shelves.
 Care should be taken that all edible items are removed from the glasses
before being placed in the glass washer.
 Broken or chipped glass should be discarded immediately.

Types of glasses used in the Bar:

 Red / White Wine Glass

 Sherry glass

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 Port / Madeira glass

 Liqueur glass

 Hock / Mosselle glass

 Brandy Balloon

 Champagne Tulip / Flute

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 Champagne Saucer

 Cocktail glass

 Beer mug / tankard

 Water tumbler
 Old fashioned glass

 Decanter

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 Tequila shots

 Beer goblet

12.8 BAR EQUIPMENTS AND TOOLS

A number of electrical and manual equipments are required to carry out work
smoothly in the bar, for service of wine, spirits, preparation of cocktails and
mocktails. Some important bar equipments are listed below:-

Electrical :
 Refrigerator
 Ice making machine
 Glass chiller
 Beer cooler
 Glass washer
 Electronic spirit dispenser
 Beer taps
 Wine chiller
 Ice crusher
 Blender
 Ice Box

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Manual :
 Cocktail shaker
 Boston shaker
 Mixing glass
 Hawthorn Strainer
 Bar spoon
 Ice bucket
 Wine salver
 Peg Measure
 Straws
 Cocktail sticks
 Swizzle sticks
 Water jug
 Tongs
 Cock screw
 Wings screw
 T-shaped wooden screw
 Vegetable knife and chopping board
 Champagne bottle stopper
 Muslin and funnel
 Muddler
 Soda Siphon
 Fruit squeezer
 Sink unit

12.9 Bar Planning and Design

A bar is an important revenue generation facility of a hotel property. Clients, be
they of any class, frequent bars for unwinding and cherishing their drinks. Bar
designing, thus, has to be sensitive to their moods and preferences, while at the
same time ensuring maximum returns on investment to the organization at
minimal possible costs. The following factors need to be considered while
planning and designing a good bar.
 Budget
 Area
 Clientele
 Points of service
 Shape and size of bar counter
 Guest preferences
 Seat turnover
 Average spending power
 Timings
 Location and site
 Décor, ambience, and colours
 Style of service

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Location: The bar should be located at such a location that it is easily visible
and accessible to the customers so as to achieve maximum sale. In a hotel, bars
are mostly situated near the lobby and are usually visible from it.

Space: There should be sufficient space for the staff to work behind the counter,
too much space will result in tiring of the staff and too less space will make the
place crowded and difficult to work. Ideally, there should be a minimum of 3 feet
of space from the back of the counter to the storage shelves at the back.

Bar Counter : The bar counter may be round, oval or straight but round or oval
bar counter looks more attractive than a straight bar counter. The counter should
be a minimum of 1½ feet wide. The height of the counter varies from 4–4½ feet.
Bar stools placed in the front of the counter should be 3 feet high with foot rest
approximately a foot from the floor. It is always advisable to have a back rest and
to fix the bar stool to prevent accidents or guests toppling over.

Under Counter: The under counter should be 30 inches high. The width should
be 18 inches with the fitted sink and draining board installed at one side of the
counter. There should be enough space for the placing of various equipments
and glassware required at the bar. There should be shelves on either side of the
counter with mirrors at the back side for storage of wine, spirits and glassware.

Plumbing and Electricity: It is important to have regular supply of hot and cold
running water for washing of glassware and other work. Modern bars are
equipped with a number of electric machines therefore; sufficient power points
with proper earthing should be available.
Flooring: The work area should be such which is non slippery and easy to wipe
or mop. The guest area may be wooden or carpeted as these surfaces are able
to absorb sound.

Lighting: The bar should have a light and pleasant atmosphere. Too much
lighting is not preferred but should be enough so that the gusts can see each
other. Indirect lighting is preferred to direct lighting. There should be sufficient
lighting at the bar counter for the barman to carry out his work efficiently.

Furniture: Bar is usually a place where guests meet each other for close
interaction and spend plenty of time conversing with each other. Most of the bars
serve drinks along with light meals with the guest moving to the restaurant for
lunch or dinner. It is therefore advisable that the seating is comfortable. Sofa or
soft seating arrangements are preferred with low height for guests to place their
drinks and snacks.

A layout/design for a combination of public and service bar as well as the

placement of equipment in it.

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Cross Section Diagram of a Bar Counter

Standard Bar Details :

A- Arm rest – typical wood shape shown-many styles available including
finishes.
B- Decorative finish – wood panel, tongue and groove board, carpet,
upholstery, ceramic tile, etc.
C- Kick plate – linoleum, formica, etc.
D- Food rest – linoleum, slate, hard wood etc.
E- Cleat-for securing top to die, varies by manufacturer.
F- Bar Die – usually ¾” plywood.
G- Liquor gutter – usually constricted as shown, May be formed in one piece
mahogany bar top.
H- Water stop – ¼” thick black formica or wood. Cut down for cleaning at ends.
I- Shoe – To prevent moisture from separating laminations of the plywood die,
a solid wood base strip or metal channel shoe is desirable.
J- Extended arm rest – wood, Formica or upholstery.
K- Extension bar – brass or black iron
L- Water stop – same as “I”.
M- Brass foot rest – rail usually 2” diameter. Swing away support to floor
optional. Check thickness of brass rail proposed by supplier. They are
rather expensive.

Suggestions or Useful Tips while Planning and Designing a Bar:

1) When planning large island type bars, consider the slow periods when
only one bartender is on duty. Divide the islands into sections leaving
walk through space.
2) If your preference is for serpentine, round ends or curved bars, weigh
carefully the aesthetic value against the much higher construction costs

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and remember the under bar sinks and coolers. To place a long bottle
box, or draft beer unit under a curved bar, not having an exceptionally
large radius, could make it impossible for the bar tender to reach far
enough to be able to serve a customer sitting in front of the under bar
unit.
3) A fat expenditure on the bar front should be incurred only if it is an
absolute necessary and in keeping with the theme. People seldom pay a
lot of attention to it.
4) Inexpensive paneling or applying carpet to the bar front are usually quite
satisfactory.
5) Masonry brick fronts provide an attractive rustic appearance.
Dining and unwinding at a bar can be a pleasant and memorable
experience if the ambience is tastefully created. A good design is one that is
subtle and unobtrusive while at the same time imbuing a degree of affluence and
exclusivity.

12.10 Summary
After reading this unit the students should be able to understand the objectives of
beverages and their various roles in the human life. As seen from this unit
beverage have been classified into two main categories (1) alcoholic (2) non-
alcoholic. Both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages are beneficial to the man
kind if consumed in the right quantity and tend to be harmful to the human body if
excess amount is consumed. This is more profound in alcoholic beverages than
non-alcoholic beverages.

The second part of the unit deals with bar planning and design. After reading this
unit the student should be able to distinguish among different kinds of non-
alcoholic joints popularly known as Bars. They will be aware of different bar
equipments and their use. The student will understand the main features required
in planning of a bar. A diagram of a bar counter has been given so that the
students will have a basic idea of how a bar should be designed.

12.9 Key Words

 Alcoholic Beverage : Beverages containing minimum 0.5 alcohol. They
include sprits, wines, beer and other drinks.
 Beverage: Common name for all type of potable/consumable liquids
served on their own or with meals.
 Bistro: Small bars or restaurants having modest appearance and offering
local dishes, cold meat, cheese and wine.
 Brewing: A process similar to fermentation, induced by addition of yeast.
 Caffeine: Strong stimulant found in coffee.
 Coffee Arabica: This is the best and most expensive variety of coffee
grown in India, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Kenya, Jamaica.
 Dispense Bar: A bar situated within the F & B service area that
dispenses alcoholic drinks for consumption with meal.

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 Distillation: A process of separating alcohol from water by the
application of heat.
 Mocktails: A non alcoholic beverage containing all properties of cocktail
except alcohol.
 Non Alcoholic Beverages: These are potable drinks which may be
nourishing, stimulating, refreshing or may have thirst quenching
properties.
 Pub: Also known as public house, who are large in size and offer drink
and light meals at reasonable price.
 Sprit: A potable alcoholic beverage obtained from distillation of a liquid
containing alcohol.
 Theine: Stimulant found in tea.
 Wine: An alcoholic beverage derived from fermentation of grapes.
 Yerba De Mate: This tea comes from Paraguay and Brazil and contains
low tea. It is made from leaves and stems of flowers in the above
countries.

12.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

The students are suggested to read this unit and attempt the following questions,
hint has been given for the students to find the answer from the part of the unit
containing the answer :

1. Define beverage and give its uses. Ans. in 12.1

…………………………………………………………………………………..…
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….…….
2. Classify beverages into different groups. Ans. in 12.2
………………………………………………………………………………………
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3. Name 3 stimulating non alcoholic beverages. Name different type of tea.
Ans. in 12.3
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…………………………………………………………………………………..…
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………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What are the golden rules of tea/coffee making.
Ans. in 12.3
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5. Name and explain different types of Bar.

Ans. in 12.5
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6. What are the main principles involved in designing in bar?

Ans. in 12.7
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12.11 Bibliography
 Bobby George, Sandeep Chatterjee, Jaico, 2008
 Tarun Bansal, Hotel Facility Planning, Oxford, 2010.
 Costrar Katsigms, Marry Porter, Chris Thomas, The Bar and Beverage
Book, John Wiley and Sons, 2002
 Graham Brown, Karien Hipnor, The Waiter‟s Hand Book, Hutchinson,
1981
 Eckstein Shizeo Tsiji, Professional Restaurant Service, Hutchinson, 1981.

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 Michael M. Coltman, Beverage Management Product Knowledge and
Cost Control, Van Nastrand Reinhold.

12.12 Terminal Questions

1. Define beverage. Classify beverages into different groups and give their
uses.
2. Name 5 methods of coffee making. What are the principles involved in
making a good cup of coffee?
3. What are Mocktail? Name and give the recipe of any 3 Mocktails.
4. Short note :
1. Characteristics of Coffee
2. Black coffee
3. Coffee Arabica
5. State the use of water in human life. Name and describe ten types of
water available to the guest in a hotel.
6. Define bar. Discuss the various types in detail.
7. Name five types of glasses used in a bar. Draw neat sketch of any five
along with capacity.
8. Name ten electrical and manual bar equipments used in a standard bar.
Give their use.
9. What are the principles involved in planning and designing a bar.
10. Short notes :
1. Stimulating beverage
2. Characteristics of coffee
3. Pub

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UNIT 13: INTRODUCTION TO SPIRITS

Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Meaning and definition of Alcoholic beverage
13.3 Measuring Of Alcoholic Strength
13.4 Whiskey
13.5 Brandy
13.6 Gin
13.7 Rum
13.8 Vodka
13.9 Tequila
13.10 Summary
13.11 Key Words
13.12 Check Your Progress
13.13 Bibliography

13.0 Introduction
In the earlier units you have studied about beverages, different kinds of
beverages, mixing of drinks, making of alcoholic (cocktails) and non alcoholic
(mocktails) drinks, tobacco etc. Spirit is a potable alcoholic beverage obtained
from the distillation of an alcoholic containing liquid. A spirit is a distillate of
fermented liquor. The most common base ingredients of potable spirits are fruits,
cereals, molasses and vegetables. Distillation concentrates the strength and
flavour of the liquor by removing most of the water. The main kinds of spirits are
– Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Brandy and Vodka. In this unit you will read about these
spirits – Whisky, Rum, Gin, Tequila, Brandy and Vodka. You will read about the
making of the spirits, their main ingredients, composition, ways to drink and serve
and their use in different cocktails. After reading this unit you will know the details
of making different spirits, and you will have knowledge about its basic nature so
that you can use it in making new drinks or new cocktails. In making new and
innovative cocktails one must know about the aroma, flavour and colour of the
ingredients to be mixed and should think of the consequences of mixing the
drinks like – what will be the final colour, the smell, aroma, flavour of the mixed
drink? So when making drinks and serving in the house or hotels you will be very
comfortable and have full of knowledge as you know what you are serving,
drinking or making.

13.1 Objectives
After reading the unit the students will :
 Have knowledge about sprits, the process of making sprits.
 Have knowledge about how distillation is carried out in different ways.
 Have knowledge about ways of measuring alcoholic strength.
 Have basic knowledge about sprits like Whiskey, Gin, Brandy, Rum,
Vodka and Tequila.

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13.2 Meaning and Definition of Alcohol
Any potable beverage containing a minimum of 27% of ethyl alcohol (scientific
name– Ethanol, chemical formula – C2H5OH) can be classified as a Distilled
Alcoholic Beverage or a Spirit. Alcohols are hydroxides of organic radicals.
The simplest alcohol is called Methyl Alcohol (Scientific name - Methanol,
Chemical Formula – CH3OH) whereas the most complex ones which are
chemically stable are Octyl Alcohol (Octanol, C8H17OH), Nonyl Alcohol (Nonanol,
C9H19OH) and Decyl Alcohol (Decanol, C10H21OH), which are used as propulsion
fuel in rockets and missiles.All alcohols, with the exception of Ethyl Alcohol, are
highly toxic for humans.

The art of distilling was known centuries ago to Chinese who used it to
manufacture perfume and to Arabians who used it to make potable alcohol. The
first mention of distillation is attributed to an Arabian Alchemist, Albukassen of
the tenth century. In thirteenth century, chemist and philosopher, Ramon Lall,
described the process of distillation. It was introduced into the Europe in the
twelfth century. Spirit was introduced to the eastern world by the Mongols. The
necessity of discovery of distillation may have been felt so as to preserve wine
which was perishable commodity and was destroyed during transportation.
Distillation helped in preserving the shell life of the wine and introducing mankind
to a new product. It was the Arabs who introduced this art to the west. The
alcohol itself is of Arabic origin.
These spirits may be of two styles:-
1. Flavoured Spirits – Spirits which have their own intrinsic flavour example
brandy, which has multiple flavours due to ageing.
2. Neutral Spirits – These have no flavour of their own and flavour is added
to the spirit during the time of production. Example-gin.

DISTILLATION
Distillation is a scientific process which can be described as “The volatilization of
a liquid by heating in a retort or still and then condensing the resultant vapour
back to liquid form by cooling”. Literally, distillation means “To Purify” and/or “To
Concentrate”. In the case of spirits, or distilled alcoholic beverages, distillation
serves both these objectives. A fermented liquid contains dissolved impurities
which remain even after filtration. These impurities can be removed only by
subjecting the liquid to two or more cycles of distillation.

Also, since alcohol is a natural antibiotic, it kills all micro-organisms, including the
bacteria (yeast) which convert sugar into alcohol. A fermented beverage cannot
contain more than 10% alcohol because even the most resilient bacteria cannot
survive in a solution containing as little as 10% alcohols. Therefore, to increase
the alcohol content of a fermented beverage, one resorts to the process of
distillation.

THE PRINCIPLE ON WHICH DISTILLATION WORKS

Distillation is based upon the simple principle that no two liquids have the same
Boiling Point (The temperature at which a liquid changes into vapour or gaseous
form).A fermented liquid contains alcohol and impurities dissolved in water. In
this solution, alcohol has the lowest boiling point of 780C (Celsius), which means

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that it is the first to evaporate when the ambient temperature of the solution starts
rising. The dissolved impurities, most of which are organic esters and acids,
evaporate between 850C and 900C, whereas water has the highest boiling point
of 1000C. The filtered fermented liquid is put in a still and heated. As the
temperature rises, the alcohol vapourizes first. The vapours are passed through
a condenser which has cold water circulating around copper pipes. As vapours of
alcohol pass through these copper pipes, they cool down and condense back
into liquid form. They are collected in another container as purified and
concentrated alcohol. There are two distinctive methods of distillation used to
produce distilled Alcoholic Beverages.

1. POT STILL (TRADITIONAL STILL, ALEMBIC STILL)

The Pot Still has been used since time immemorial for distillation of spirits. It
consists of a large vessel, conical at the top and rounded at the bottom. The
rounded bottom rests on the concave top of a kiln. The heating vessel, vapour
pipe, condensation unit and all the other parts of the Pot Still which the alcohol
comes in contact with are made of copper. The fermented liquid is poured into
the vessel, which is then sealed. A fire is then lit in the kiln. As the temperature of
the liquid in the still rises, the alcohol component of the solution vapourizes. The
vapour pipe conveys the alcohol vapours to the condenser, which comprises of
an insulated cabinet with continuously circulating cold water through which run
copper pipes connected to the vapour pipe. When the alcohol vapours enter
pipes in the condenser, their temperature is reduced and they condense back
into liquid form. The Pot Still is used for producing spirits which have strongly
defined aroma and flavour, such as fine whiskies, brandies, etc.

2. PATENT STILL (COFFEY STILL, CONTINUOUS STILL, COLUMN STILL)

It was not until the late 1820s that a new form of still was invented by Robert
Stien, which produced spirit in a continuous stream as long as wine, beer or
some such mildly alcoholic wash was fed into it. First going into commercial
production in Cameron bridge distillery in Fife, Scotland. A Dublin Excise officer,
Aeneas Coffey, attended a demonstration of the new still, took the idea and
developed it further, and it was Coffey's version of the continuous still that
eventually caught on worldwide.This new still was called the „Continuous Still‟
(also „Column‟, or „Patent‟, or „Coffey Still‟). In simple terms, consists of two
columns, one of which has steam rising and wash descending through
successive storeys inside (referred to as the „Rectifier‟). The steam stripped out
the alcohol from the wash and carried over to the second column (referred to as
the „Analyzer‟) where it circulates until it can condense at the required strength.
The benefits of the continuous still are a cheaper and purer spirit.

STILL DISTILLATION
Has two main parts, a „Rectifier‟ and an „Analyzer‟, which both resemble tall, wide
tubes. They are both filled with steam. The liquid being distilled enters a pipe
travelling down the rectifier, and is heated almost to boiling point. The alcohol
from the primary liquid vaporizes and is channelled along with the steam back to
the base of the Rectifier. Here it mixes with more steam around the pipes, bring
with it more liquid to be distilled, hence a 'Continuous Still'. Roughly two-thirds up
the Analyser, the vapour hits a cold plate condensing it into a liquid. This is
channelled out as a distilled product. Today, alternatives open to distillers are to
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use the labour intensive pot still which carries the fragrances and flavours of the
raw material, or the faster, cheaper continuous still with its potential for high
strength, pure but tasteless spirit.

How does
it work :
Steam is
fed into
the base
of the
analyser
and hot
wash into
the top.
As the two
meet on
the
surface of
the
perforated
plates, the
wash boils
and a
mixture of
alcohol
vapours and uncondensed steam rises to the top of the column. The spent wash
runs down and is led off from the base. The hot vapours enter the rectifier at the
base and as they rise through the chambers they partially condense on the
sections of a long coil through which wash is flowing. The spirit vapour
condenses at the top of the rectifier and is run off through a water-cooled
condenser to the spirit safe and on to the spirit receiver. Once the spirit begins to
be collected it runs continuously until the end of distillation.

SIMPLIFIED PATENT STILL

A column still, also called a continuous still, patent still or Coffey still, is a
variety of still consisting of two columns invented in 1826 by Robert Stein, a
Clackmannanshire distiller, and it was first used at the Cameron Bridge Grain
Distillery in Fife, Scotland. The design was enhanced and patented in 1831 by an
Irishman, Aeneas Coffey. The first column (called the analyzer) has steam rising
and wash descending through several levels. The second column (called the
rectifier) carries the alcohol from the wash where it circulates until it can
condense at the required strength.

Column stills behave like a series of single pot stills, formed in a long vertical
tube. The tube is filled with either porous packing or bubble plates. The rising
vapour, which is low in alcohol, starts to condense in the cooler, higher level of
the column. The temperature of each successively higher stage is slightly lower
than the previous stage, so the vapour in equilibrium with the liquid at each stage
is progressively more enriched with alcohol. Whereas a single pot still charged
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with wine might yield a vapour enriched to 40-50% alcohol, a column still can
achieve a vapour alcohol content of 96%; an azeotropic mixture of alcohol and
water. Further enrichment is only possible by absorbing the remaining water
using other means, such as hydrophilic chemicals or azeotropic distillation.

13.3 Measuring Of Alcoholic Strength

During the Middle Ages, measuring of alcoholic strength of spirit was important
to calculate the price of the spirit. This was difficult due to the absence of
appropriate
hydrometers and
spectrum
analyzers. The
stronger the
spirit, the more
was its price. To
check the
alcoholic
strength of the
spirit, a chemical
test was
designed in
which gun
powder and spirit
in equal amount
were mixed and
ignited. If the
mixture burnt
rapidly in blue
flames, it was
called proved
spirit (proof
spirit). If it did not
burn or burnt
faintly, it was
called „under
proof‟. If it burst
into explosion, it was called „over proof‟. During that period, there were only these
three categories of spirits. In the modern era with scientific measurement
equipments like the hydrometer, it is possible to measure the exact percentage of
alcohol by volume at a given temperature. The British Custom and Excise Act,
1952, universally accepted as definition is as follows:-

„Spirits shall be deemed to – sweet (white wine) be at proof, if the volume of ethyl
alcohol contained there in made up to the volume of spirits with distilled water
has a weight equal to that of 12/13th of a volume of spirits with distilled water has
a weight equal to that of 12/13th of a volume of distilled water equal to the volume
of spirits, the volume of each liquid being computed as at 51˚F.‟Internationally,
the British Proof System is very much operational. All international brands must
carry two units of measurement.

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The Indian Custom and Excise Department has specified taxes precisely on the
percentage of alcohol volume per volume (V/V). Standard percentage of alcohol
should not exceed 42.8% alcohol V/V. Any spirit with higher percentage of
alcohol will invite higher tax hence all Indian manufactured foreign liquor (IMFL)
or any foreign liquor bottled in India has an alcoholic percentage of 42.8% V/V.

The three scales or systems of measuring the proof strength are:-

1. The British Proof System: Used generally in all commonwealth countries.

Under this system, proof spirits contain 57% alcohol by volume, thus 70 degree
British proof means 40% alcohol by volume.

2. The U.S. Proof System: Under this system, proof spirits contain 50 degree
alcohol by volume, thus, 80 degree U.S. Proof means 40% alcohol by volume.

3. The Gay Lussac or OIML Scale: Metric system or Organisation International

Metrologique Scale which gives the percentage of alcohol by volume thus 40%
GL means 40% alcohol by volume.

For the Mathematicians :

4/7 British Proof = GL
½ U.S. Proof = GL
U.S. Proof = 2 GL
Under Proof – A Spirit with an alcoholic strength which is below proof strength.
Over Proof – A Spirit with an alcoholic strength which is above proof strength.

13.4 Whisky

Malt Scotch Whisky: The process of

producing malt whisky has, in essence,
changed little through the centuries, although in
recent years, greater automation and
computerization in many distilleries has
reduced the level of individual skill and
experience required by the operators.

Despite any amount of automation, however,

the fact remains that the 'make' of no two
distilleries is ever the same. While it is possible
to copy production methods and equipment,
use the same water source, barley and yeast,
and mature spirit for the same duration in the
same type of casks within apparently identical
micro-climates, the result will always be
distinctly different spirits. Vast sums of money have been invested in the search
for a definitive scientific evaluation of the variables in malt whisky making, but

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despite the best efforts of the scientists, an element of mystery remains. By law,
Scotch malt whisky must be distilled entirely from a mash of malted barley, and
the business of making malt whisky begins by malting barley in order to induce
germination. In traditional distillery-based floor malting, the barley is steeped in
water for two or three days, then spread on a malting floor, where rootlets
develop as germination begins. So that the malt retains the sugars essential for
fermentation, the partially germinated „green malt‟, as it is known, is transferred
to a kiln for around seven days and dried over a fire or by jets of hot air, usually
with some peat used in the furnace to impart flavour. The amount of peat
introduced during kilning has a major influence on the character of the finished
whisky. Today, only a handful of distilleries still malt their own barley, with the
vast majority buying in malt prepared to their specification by commercial
maltsters in large, automated plants. Once dried, the malt is ground in a mill to
produce „grist,‟ after which the process of mashing begins. The grist is mixed with
hot water in a large vessel known as a mash tun to extract fermentable sugars,
and the sweet liquid that results from mashing is known as „wort‟ The „draff,‟
which is left behind is high in protein, and makes excellent cattle feed. The wort
is pumped from the mash tun into a number of washbacks, traditionally made
from Oregon pine or larch wood, but now frequently constructed of stainless
steel. There yeast is added to promote fermentation and create alcohol. The end
product of fermentation is a liquor known as „wash,‟ which is transferred to
copper pot wash stills, where it is brought to the boil. Alcohol boils at a lower
temperature than water, so the alcohol vapours rise from the still first and are
condensed into liquid when they pass through coiled copper pipes or 'worms',
immersed in vast wooden vats, or more modern 'shell and tube' condensers. The
alcohol produced must be re-distilled in order to obtain the most pure 'cut' of spirit
that will mature into whisky, and this takes place in vessels known as spirit stills.
Pot stills vary greatly in size, shape and technical design, and this diversity is one
of the variables that contribute to the style of spirit made. The product of the spirit
stills is referred to as „new make‟ or „clearic.‟ It is a clear liquid which is reduced
with water from its natural strength to around 63 or 64 per cent alcohol by
volume, as this is usually considered the optimum maturation strength. Most
whisky is further reduced to 40 or 43 per cent prior to bottling. 40 per cent is the
minimum legal strength at which Scotch whisky can be sold. There is also a legal
minimum maturation period of three years, and that maturation has to take place
in oak. However, most whisky marketed as single malt will have spent at least
eight years in European or American oak casks which have previously contained
either sherry or Bourbon. Some distillers believe that up to 75 per cent of the
character of the spirit is derived from maturation, and the size of cask, as well as
its previous contents, is yet another major variable of malt whisky production.
By law, a single malt whisky must be the product of just one distillery, though
many different casks of varying ages may be vatted together for any particular
bottling.

Grain or Column Still Whiskey: Virtually all Bourbon, rye, Tennessee and
Canadian whiskey, along with grain spirit for Scotch whisky blending, is distilled
in column stills. Irish distillers use both pot and column stills, producing grain
spirit, usually from corn, in the column stills, while what is termed Irish „pure pot
still whiskey‟ is made in pot stills from a mixture of both malted and raw barley.
Compared to malt whisky distillation in pot stills, the production of whisky in a
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column, continuous or patent still, as it is variously known, is significantly closer
to an 'industrial' process. Grain whisky is made from a variety of cereals,
including corn, wheat, and rye, which are less expensive to buy than the malted
barley used to make malt whisky. The stills making grain spirit are versatile and
highly efficient, as they can work continuously, whereas malt whisky distillation in
pot stills is a 'batch' process, requiring time-consuming cleaning between each
period of production. A much greater quantity of grain whisky can therefore be
distilled in any given period. However, depending on the cereal in the „mash bill,‟
the resultant spirit may be lacking in strong flavour compared to the product of
the pot still. Certainly this is the case in Scotland, where virtually all grain whisky
is distilled using wheat.

The processes of mashing and fermenting for grain whisky production are
broadly comparable to those for making malt whisky, but distillation then takes
place in a still which consists of two large, connected parallel stainless steel
columns, called the analyser and the rectifier. The wash enters at the top of the
rectifier column, where it is warmed by hot steam and is able to descend over a
series of perforated copper plates. These plates serve the purpose of holding
back heavier compounds, which flow from the bottom of the still, while the
desirable volatile compounds are vaporised and pass over into the second, or
analyser column. Here the vapours are cooled as they rise up the column,
eventually evaporating and being collected in liquid form. It is possible to distil to
strength of just below 95 per cent when producing grain whisky in a column still.

In the USA, the first column of the still is usually known as the 'beer still' while the
second distillation takes place in either a „doubler‟ or „thumper‟ still, which is not
dissimilar in style to a pot still.

Pot double still method

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13.5 Brandy

Definition of Brandy: Brandy is the product gained by the distillation of

fermented grape juice, which is then matured for a minimum of 3 years in
Oakwood casks.

Origin of Brandy: The word “Brandy” is derived from the phrase “Burnt Wine
(Dutch “Brand-Wein”); also called “Eau de Vie”, meaning “Water of Life”. An
enterprising Dutchman, a wine shipper by profession, was the first one to distill
wine so that more of it could be shipped in lesser space, and then diluted before
selling. However, the distilled product had a complete unique bouquet and flavor,
and customers started insisting on consuming the undiluted product. Thus,
Brandy was created. The chief brandy-producing areas in France are the Cognac
district, which lies north of Bordeaux, and Armagnac, which lies south-east of
Bordeaux. All the Brandy produced within the areas mentioned below is called
Cognac:
1. Grand Champagne
2. Petite Champagne
3. Les Borderies
4. Fins Bois
5. Bons Bois
6. Bois Ordinaires
7. Bois Commune
Only grapes produced in the Cognac or Charente region must be used for
making Cognac. The only three grape varieties allowed under Appellation
Cognac (A.C.) for production of Cognac are:
1. St. Emillion (Ugni Blanc)
2. Folle Blanche
3. Colombard

Production of Brandy:
1. Picking of Grapes: - Ripened grapes are plucked from the vineyards.
2. Sorting & Screening: - The grapes are graded by quality and state of
ripeness by first sorting them manually and then screening them.
3. Destalking: - The stalks (small wooden part of grape with which the
grape is attached to the vine) of grapes are removed manually.
4. Pressing: - The grapes are pressed using different methods like
Archimedean Screw Press, Hydraulic Press, Revolving Cylinder Press
(Centrifugal Press) to release the juice of the ripened grapes. The skin &
seeds are not separated from the juice. This mixture of juice, skin &
seeds, ready for fermentation, is called “MUST”.
5. Fermentation: - The yeast used for fermentation is called the
Saccharomyces Ellipsoideus. The Must is fermented for 8-10 days. After
completion of fermentation, one gets a harsh, full-bodied and acidic wine
which contains approximately 8-10% alcohol. The fermented liquid, called
“WORT” is separated from impurities by filtration.
6. Distillation: - The Wort or wine is distilled in a Pot Still, also called an
Alembic Still. The wort is distilled twice for making Brandy. The first
distillation is called “PREMIER CHAUFFE” and the distillate contains 25-

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30% alcohol. The second and final distillation is called “BONNE
CHAUFFE” and the distillate is approximately 43% alcohol. The product
derived from double distillation is colourless and is fruity & coppery in
taste.
7. Maturation: - If the flavour & body of the distillate is in need of
improvement, then it is blended with an older brandy. Blended, or
unblended, the liquor is then filled in casks made of the black oak or
Limousin oak. This name originates from the Limousin forests near the
Cognac district in France. The casks are then sealed and the maturation
or ageing process of brandy starts. Brandy should be matured for a
minimum of 3 years. However, French laws controlling the production of
cognac require that cognac must be matured for at least 7 years.
Maximum maturation found in cognacs in the market is 12 years, but a
very select few cognac producers mature their product for up to 70 years.
Cognacs matured for so long are very rare, and consequently, very
expensive. They are either used for drinking on very special occasions or
are blended with younger cognacs. 70 years old cognacs are stored in
glass or ceramic jars because their rate of evaporation goes up to 1.5% -
2% per annum (year).
The black oak of the cask gives the brandy a glowing golden red colour.
Black oak wood also contains the pigment “TANNIN”, which is vital for the colour
and maturation of brandy.
Brandy ages only in casks, not in bottles. For example, a brandy
produced in 1943 and kept for ageing in casks till 2003 will be 60 years old. If it is
bottled in 2003 but brought to the market for selling in 2007, it will still be 60
years old.

COGNAC
All cognacs are brandies but all brandies are not
cognacs. Only brandies produced under strict
regulations within the territorial limits of the Cognac
district from St. Emillion, Folle Blanche or
Colombard variety of grapes grown within either
Cognac or Charente districts can be labeled as
Cognacs. The processing of grapes into Cognac is
the same as that for regular brandies, but with only
the best quality grapes, extremely stringent controls
during pressing, fermentation, distillation, blending
and maturation stages.

To be called a Cognac, a brandy should be matured

for a minimum of 7 years.
Brand Names of Cognac
1. Remy Martin V.S.O.P. 2. Martell X.O.
3. Camus X.O. 4. Bisquit V.S.O.P.
5. Monnet V.O. 6. Hennessey V.S.O.P.
7. Hennessey X.O. 8. Girard V.S.P.
9. Courvoisier V.S.O.P.

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AGE & QUALITY DESIGNATIONS OF COGNAC
O. - Old (5 years)
V.O. - Very Old (5-10 years)
V.S. - Very Superior (10-15 years)
V.S.O. - Very Superior Old (15-20 years)
V.O.P. - Very Old Pale (15-20 years)
V.S.P. - Very Superior Pale (20-25 years)
V.S.O.P. - Very Superior Old Pale (25-30 years)
X.O. - Extra Old (Above 45 years)
Some Cognac manufacturers have their own labelling systems. For example, J &
F Martell have the 3-star marking system:-
1 Star - V.S.O.P. - 25-35 years
2 Stars - Cordon Bleu - 35-60 years
3 Stars - Cordon Argent - Over 60 years

ARMAGNAC
Armagnacs, just like Cognacs, are also
brandies of exceptional quality, bouquet and
flavour, and therefore, command very high
prices. They are produced in the Armagnac
region, which is situated south-east of
Bordeaux, near the Spanish border. The
Armagnac region comprises of three regions:
1. Bas Armagnac
2. Haut Armagnac
3. Tenareze

Armagnac is distilled in the Patent or

Continuous Still. It is matured in the black Gascony oak casks, which have high
sap content. This means that Armagnac matures much faster compared to
Cognac. Unlike Cognac, no caramel or sugar is added to Armagnac. Armagnac
has a very distinctive flavour, very similar to that of prunes.

BRAND NAMES OF ARMAGNAC

1. Delord X.O. 2. Mattiac X.O. 3.Sempe V.O.
4. Caussade V.S.O.P. 5. Cles de Ducs V.S. 6. Ryst X.O.

FAMOUS BRANDY BRANDS OF OTHER COUNTRIES

 India: - Honey Bee, Doctor‟s, Teacher‟s, Aristocrat, Golconda,
Hayward‟s.
 California: - Christian Brothers, Cresta Blanca, Petri, Lejon, Royal Host,
Korbel, Almaden.
 Spain: - Carlos the 1st, Fundador, Capa Negra, Cardinal Mendoza.

13.6 Gin

Definition of Gin : Gin is a compound alcoholic beverage made by flavouring

neutral spirit with berries of the Juniper plant (Scientific name – Juniperus
Communis). Other flavours, like Angelica Root, Orris Root, Cardamom, Fennel,

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Caraway Seeds, etc. may also be added according to the recipes of the
producers.

Origin of Gin: The word “Gin” is derived from the Dutch word “Genevre” or the
French word “Genièvre”, both of which mean “Juniper” in Dutch & French,
respectively. Holland (or Netherlands) is the place of origin of Gin, where King
William III, also known as William Orange, introduced this drink to the public in
1689. Gin was first prepared as a medicinal drink by Dr. Sylvius, a Dutch
physician, for patients suffering from kidney infections & rheumatic diseases.

Dr. Sylvius, a professor of medicine at Holland‟s University of Leyden, observed

during research that the oil of juniper berries had diuretic (fighting kidney
infections) properties as well as soothed rheumatic pain in the joints. So, he
bought a few litres of neutral spirit, added ripened juniper berries to it, and let it
stand for a week. Then, when all the solids had been filtered out of the liquid, it
had a sweetish, heady aroma. Dr. Sylvius named it “Aqua Vitae”(Literally
meaning “Water of Life”) and started prescribing it for patients with rheumatoid
and kidney problems. Some of his patients, even after making full recovery, kept
consuming the drink. They formed a loose group and started to produce this
drink commercially for the first time, changing its name from Aqua Vitae, first to
Geneva, and then to Gin. Slowly, the drink caught on and started being
consumed socially.

PRODUCTION OF GIN
1. Soaking & Malting: - Gin can be either the Holland or the English
(London Dry) variety. Holland gin is made from equal quantities of barley,
corn & rye mixed together whereas London Dry gin is made from a
mixture containing 75% corn, 15% barley & 10% other grain according to
availability. The mixture of grain is soaked in distilled water, then spread
on a wooden floor & allowed to malt.
2. Toasting: - After malting, the mixture of grain is subject to hot air to stop
the malting. This is called toasting.
3. Crushing & Boiling: - The mixture is then crushed into a coarse
consistency, mixed with water, and boiled. This results in the water
absorbing all the fermentable carbohydrates from the crushed grains. At
this stage, the mixture is called “Grist”.
4. Straining & Carbohydration: - The Grist is then passed through an
extremely fine mesh so that all the solid particles are strained out. Sugar
is then added to the liquid and it is boiled for 12 hours. This process is
called Carbohydration and it further increases the amount of fermentable
carbohydrates in the solution.
5. Fermentation: - The liquid is cooled down to 60°F, poured into large
vats, and yeast is added to it. Producers of London Dry gin use the top-
fermenting yeast called Saccharomyces Cerevisae while distilleries
producing Holland gin use the bottom-fermenting yeast called
Saccharomyces Carlsbergensis. Fermentation automatically stops when
alcohol strength reaches about 8-10%. The fermented liquid is then
filtered to remove any impurities.
6. Distillation: - Holland gin is distilled in Pot Still while London Dry gin is
distilled in Patent Still. Holland gin is made by first distilling the fermented
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liquid, then adding juniper berries and other botanicals to the distillate and
putting the whole mixture through a second distillation. In case of English
& American gin (Dry gin), the fermented liquid is first distilled in the Patent
still. Then, juniper berries and other botanicals are added to the distillate
and the whole mixture is again distilled, but this time in a Pot Still.
Therefore, the Holland gin is produced by distilling the liquid twice in a Pot
Still whereas Dry gin is produced by carrying out the first in a Patent Still
and the second distillation in a Pot Still.
7. Maturation: - Though Gin is predominantly a “fresh”, that is, unmatured
drink, some producers of Holland gin prefer to age their product for 3
years or more in white Oakwood casks.

BRAND NAMES OF GIN

1. London Dry
Gin: - John
Booth‟s,
Ballantine,
Burrough‟s,
Calvert, Gilbey‟s,
Bombay
Sapphire.
2. Holland Gin: -
Bols, Doornkaat,
De Kuyper.

INDIAN GIN BRAND NAMES

Blue Riband, Forbes‟ Dry Gin, High Society, Sikkim High & Dry, Blue Bull.

13.7 Rum

Definition of Rum: Rum is a highly aromatic alcoholic beverage made by

fermenting molasses, the thick, dark brown by-product left after processing
sugarcane juice into crystallized sugar. The fermented liquid is then distilled and
caramelized sugar is added to it for colour.

Origin of Rum: Rum was

invented by European sugarcane
plantation owners settled in West
Indies. It was observed that
molasses, a by-product obtained
when sugarcane juice is
processed into sugar, if left
exposed to air, would deteriorate
and start smelling and tasting
bitter. This gave the sugar
producers an idea. While earlier,
the only use that molasses could

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be put to was to make candy for children, it was now fermented, distilled and
darkened with caramelized sugar.
Thus was invented an alcoholic drink which was deemed “fit for the African slave
labourers”, because whiskey was considered a “white man‟s drink”. Today,
however, Rum has far outstripped Whiskey in terms of popularity in the global
market. There are many conflicting theories as to the origin of the word „Rum‟.
One theory points to the last three letters of the Latin word „Saccharum‟, which
literally means „Sugar‟. Another theory claims that „Rum‟ is a distortion of the
word „Aroma‟ which means „strong or powerful smell‟. The most widely accepted
theory, however, says that „Rum‟ is a derivation of the French word „Rumbullion‟,
which is a homonym, that is, it has more than one meaning. „Rumbullion‟ means
„strong liquor‟ and also „chaos‟ or „great upheaval‟.

Rum is divided into two varieties.

i. Light Bodied Rum : Light bodied rums are produced by Spanish-
speaking countries in the Latin American region (Puerto Rico, Virgin
Islands, Cuba, Haiti, Santo Domingo, Mexico & Venezuela).
ii. Full Bodied Rum : Full bodied rums are produced by the English-
speaking countries in the Latin American region. A few countries, though
outside Latin America, produce full bodied rums which are world-
renowned for their quality & flavour. The chief producers of full bodied
rums are West Indies (mostly Jamaica, Trinidad & Barbados), Demerara
(British Guyana), Martinique, New England state in USA and Queensland
state in Australia.

PRODUCTION OF RUM
1. Dilution: - The biggest cost-cutting factor in favour of Rum in comparison
to other spirits is that one need not go through the process of malting to
convert starch into fermentable sugar, because molasses itself is ready-
to-ferment sugar. The first step in the processing of molasses into Rum
consists of addition of distilled water to molasses to reduce its viscosity
(thickness) and make it more „liquid‟. This is done to ensure faster and
uniform fermentation.
2. Fermentation: - The diluted molasses is poured into large fermentation
vats and the residue of the last fermentation, called “Dunder” or “Dregs”,
is added to it and the process of fermentation begins. Depending upon
the quantity of the diluted molasses and that of the Dunder added to it,
the process of fermentation may take anywhere from 2 to 20 days to
complete.
3. Filtration: - The fermenting mass is put through filtration when the
alcohol strength reaches 7-8%. This process removes all the solids from
the fermented liquid. These solids are then dried and stored as Dunder or
Dregs, to be used for fermenting the next stock of diluted molasses. The
pure liquid is then sent for distillation.
4. Distillation: - There are no laws or regulations governing the type of
distillation, minimum number of distillation cycles or minimum maturation
period for the production of Rum. However, all producers of light bodied
rum use the Patent Still whereas all full bodied rums are distilled in Pot
Stills. Also, premium and deluxe quality rums are produced using the Pot
Still while regular brands are produced using the Patent Still. Irrespective
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of the type of still used, the distillate produced after a single distillation is
too rough and harsh, both in smell and flavour, to be commercially viable.
Therefore, all rum producers distill their product at least twice.
5. Maturation: - Though no regulation exists pertaining to a minimum period
of maturation, all rums are first blended and then matured. All light bodied
rums are matured in uncharred oak casks for 1-4 years while full bodied
rums are matured in charred oak casks for 5-7 years.
After the distillation process is complete, one gets a colourless liquid
which is approximately 90% alcohol. This distillate is then diluted with distilled
water to bring down its alcoholic strength to within legal limits. Caramelized sugar
is then added to it and it is blended with product from a few years back. Finally it
is poured into Oakwood casks for maturation.

BRAND NAMES OF RUM

1. White Rum: - Bacardi Carta Blanca, Bacardi Limon, Dry Cane,
Palo Viejo.
2. Jamaican Rum (Full Bodied):- Lemon Hart, Captain Morgan,
Myers, Rope & Anchor, Squadron.
3. Light Bodied Rum: - Bacardi Reserva, Ron Morito, Mount Gay.
4. Indian Rum: - Old Cask, Old Monk, Old Smuggler, Bermuda,
Contessa, McDowell‟s Celebration, Hercules, Royal Treasure,
Whitefield.

13.8 Vodka

Definition of Vodka: Vodka is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from high

starch-content grains such as rice, rye, corn and wheat. Though many decades
ago vodka was made principally with potatoes, the use of potatoes for vodka
production is very rare nowadays. Vodka is colourless, odourless and tasteless.

Origin of Vodka: Vodka has been made in Russia for over 700 years, but
Russia‟s claim to being the country of origin of vodka is disputed by Poland and
Ukraine. The Russian word “Voda” means “Water” and “Vodka” means “Little
Water”. Vodka, though produced and consumed in Russia for over 700 years,
was introduced to the rest of the world only after the Russian Revolution of 1917,
when people, fleeing to escape the newly established Communist regime,
brought the art of vodka-making to the western world.

Though Russian in history and character, Vodka is today produced all over the
world. Apart from Russia, the major vodka producing countries are Poland,
Finland, Sweden, Great Britain and Czechoslovakia.

PRODUCTION OF VODKA
1. Soaking & Malting: - The grain (or mixture of grains) is soaked in water
and spread out on a wooden floor for malting (germinating).
2. Toasting: - After the desired amount of malting is achieved, the grain is
subjected to air heated to 150oC. This is done to prevent further germination
of the grain. The time period of the grain‟s exposure to heated air should be

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controlled expertly, allowing enough time for the malting process to stop
completely, but not letting the grains become too brown.
3. Crushing & Boiling: - The malted grain is then crushed, mixed with
water and boiled. This releases all the fermentable sugar into the water.
The mixture is then cooled and passed through a fine mesh to remove all
solid components. The pure liquid is now ready for fermentation.
4. Fermentation: - The liquid is poured into large fermentation vats along
with yeast, which converts the sugar content of the liquid into alcohol. The
fermentation stops automatically when the alcohol ratio of the liquid 8-
10%. The fermented liquid is then purified by filtration and sent for
distillation.
5. Distillation: - Vodka is distilled in the Patent Still. There is no law or
regulation that requires a minimum number of distillation cycles that a
stock of potential vodka has to go through, but most vodka distillers distill
their product twice. Vodkas of exceptional quality are produced by triple
distillation.
6. Neutralization: - The product, at the end of the distillation process, still
contains marginal quantities of bbotanicals which alter the smell and
flavour of the liquor. To remove them completely, the liquor is poured into
a Filtration Tower which is 75-80 feet in height and contains consecutively
repeating layers of activated vegetable charcoal, sand and quartz, each
layer being approximately 2 feet thick. When the liquor passes through
these layers, all the impurities as well as all the water content is absorbed
by the charcoal, sand and quartz. The resulting liquor that pours out of
the bottom of the tower is odourless, colourless and tasteless. Having lost
all its water content, this filtered liquor is 100% concentrated alcohol.

13.9 Tequila
It is a Mexican spirit made by distilling the fermented juice of blue agave in the
geographical region of Tequila city. The fermentation liquor is obtained from
pinas resembling pine-apples which are crushed to obtain the juice. The juice is
then distilled once or twice to obtain
what is known as Tequila. Tequila is
aged in oak vats to obtain golden colour
while white tequila is matured in
stainless steel or neutral oak barrels.

Types of Tequila : There are two basic

categories of tequila:-

MIXTOS and 100% AGAVE – Mixtos

are not less than 51% agave with other
sugar making up the remainder. Mixtos
use both glucose and fructose sugar.
100% agave tequila is bolder and more
complex. They are aged in casks to take
the flavour of wood and allow the
harshness of alcohol to mellow. 100%

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agave tequila has a more vegetal flavour as compared to grain spirit.
BOTTLING OF TEQUILA
Tequila is usually bottled in one of the five categories:-
1. Blanco („white‟) or Plata („silver‟) – This is traditional tequila, white in
colour, un-aged and bottled immediately after distillation or aged for less
than 2 months in stainless steel or oak casks. This tequila has the true
bouquet and flavour of blue agave.
2. Joven („young‟) or Oro („gold‟) – This is blanco or silver tequila to which
caramel or other food colouring is added to give it a golden colour. When
caramel is added to silver tequila, it is less harsh as the caramel tones
down the harshness in the mouth and throat.
3. Anejo („aged‟ or „vintage‟) – This is the tequila aged in old bourbon
barrels for a minimum of 1 year but less than 3 years.
4. Reposado („rested‟) – Tequila aged in wooden casks for a minimum of 2
months but less than a year in oak barrels.
5. Extra Anejo („extra aged‟ or „ultra aged‟) – Aged for a minimum of 3
years in oak barrels.

Ageing: Tequila like Blanco and Joven are bottled immediately after distillation
and are not aged. Reposado is aged in oak casks or barrels to allow it inherit rich
and complex flavour from the wood. The casks or barrels are made from oak
which is obtained from United States, France and Canada. White oak wood is
preferred for making the barrels or casks. Some companies may char the wood
to impart a smoky flavour or use barrels which have been used to store other
spirits like whiskey or wine. Some reposados are aged in new wood barrels to
achieve the woody flavour and smoothness in less time.

Anejos are rested in barrels that have been previously used for ageing
reposados. Barrels used to age whiskey like Bourbon whiskey or Canadian
whiskeys are especially popular. This ageing gives the tequila its dark colour and
complex flavour. After ageing for atleast 1 year, the anejos are removed from
wood barrels and placed in stainless steel tanks to reduce the amount of
evaporation that can occur in the barrels.

POPULAR BRAND NAMES OF TEQUILA

 Tequila Don Falano
 Tequila Jose Cuervo
 Tequila Patron
 Pepe Lopez
 Casa Noble
 Don Julio

Ways to drink Tequila : In Mexico, Tequila is often drunk straight. In some

regions, it is a tradition to drink fine tequila with a side of Sangrita (a sweet, sour
and spicy drink made from orange juice, grenadine or tomato juice and hot
chilies). Equal sized shots of tequila and sangrita are sipped alternately without
salt or lime. Another popular drink of Mexico is the „Bandera‟ (flag) named after
the Mexican flag. It consists of 3 shot glasses filled with lime juice (for green,
white tequila and sangrias for red). They are sipped or drunk straight.

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13.10 Summary
Sprits were popular since ancient times for their medicinal value. They were also
used for purification of water and for tonics. The different methods of distillation
of alcohol have been explained along with different methods used for producing
different categories of sprits.

For the benefit of the students, sprits has been classified into various categories
and the principal ingredients, method of production, service and popular brands
name included in the unit. The students should be able to distinguish among the
spirits, should remember popular brand names of all the sprits, their service and
cocktails made from each category of sprite.

13.11 Key Words

 Advokaat : A thick and creamy egg liqueur, similar to egg.
 Armagnac : A grape brandy product of France. Armagnac is produced
only in an area surrounding the city of Armagnac in southwest France.
Related to Cognac, but less delicate.
 Bitters : An infusion of roots, barks, herbs and other botanicals mixed in
special proportions. Bitters are classified for different uses as aromatic,
flavoring, or laxative.
 Bourbon : A notable American whiskey named after Bourbon County,
Kentucky where the whiskey was first produced in the post-Revolutionary
period. All Bourbons use the fermented mash of corns, rye and barley
malts. Straight Bourbons have been aged at least two years; Bourbons
without the designation "straight" are aged less than two years.
 Brandy : A family of liquors distilled from the wines of grapes or other
fruits.
 Cognac : A premium brandy produced only in a 150,000 acre area
surrounding the city of Cognac in southwest France.
 Cordial : Sweetened, flavored liquors, also called liqueurs, produced with
fruits or plants in a brandy or neutral spirit base.
 Curacao : An orange-flavored cordial produced from Curacao and sweet
oranges. More delicate than Triple Sec.
 Edelkirsch liqueur : A German cherry liqueur produced from fresh
cherryjuice and Kirshwasser (a cherry brandy).
 Fruit brandy : Brandy distilled from the wine of a particular fruit; since all
brandy is fruit-based (most often grape), the term is somewhat redundant.
 Grappa : A brandy distilled from the pulpy residue of the wine press. In
France, this brandy is called Marc, or eau de vie (i.e., brandy) de Marc.
 Grenadine : A red syrup used for flavoring, made from pomegranates,
strawberries and raspberries.
 Irish whiskey : A notable whiskey from Ireland that may be prepared
traditionally as a blend of straight pot still whiskies, or in the new style, as
a blend of pot still and column still whiskies.
 Jamaican rum : A full-bodied, dark rum of Jamaica that is produced in
pot stills.
 Kirschwasser : A clear brandy distilled from cherries.

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 Kummel : A white liqueur produced using caraway and other seeds,
herbs, and spices.
 Marc : Short for eau de vie de Marc, the French term for Grappa; see
Grappa.
 Scotch whisky : A notable whiskey from Scotland that is prepared as a
blend of hearty pot-distilled barley malt whiskies and light column-distilled
grain whiskies.
 Straight malt whiskey : Whiskey distilled from a mash of grain of which
not less than 51% must be malted barley, and aged in oak containers for
a minimum of two years.
 Tequila : A type of liquor from Mexico distilled from the fermented juice of
the Mescal plant, which resembles an oversized pineapple and takes
years to grow.

13.12 Check Your Progress

The students are suggested to read this unit and attempt the following questions,
hint has been given for the students to find the answer from the part of the unit
containing the answer:

1. Define Alcohol. What are the different styles of alcohol? Ans. in 13.1
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2. What is Distillation? How does it work? Ans. in 13.1

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3. Explain :
(1) Pot Still Method
(2) Patent Still Method
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4. What is Malt Whisky? How does it vary from Grain Whiskey? Ans. in 13.2
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5. Give 5 brand names of Cognac and Armagnac. Ans. in 13.4

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13.13 Bibliography
 Manoj Kumar Yadav, Food and Beverage Service : A Text Book, Aman
Publications 1st Edition, 2010.
 S.N. Bagchi, Anita Sharma, Food and Beverage Service, Aman
Publications 3rd Edition, 2006.
 Costrar Katsigms, Mary Porter, Chris Thomas, The Bar and Beverage
Book, John Willy and Sons, 2002
 Bobby George, Sandeep Chatterjee, Food and Beverage Service and
Management, Jaico, 2008.
 Graham Brown, Karien Hipnor, Hutchinson, 1981.
 Marzia Magras, Cathy McGreery, Wine and Beverage Service.

13.14 Terminal Questions

1. Classify sprits and explain each type in 4-5 lines.
2. Compare Pot Still method with Patent Still method.
3. Compare Single Malt Whisky with Scotch Whiskey.
4. Define Brandy. Give its production.
5. What is Gin? How is it produced?
6. Give 5 brand names of following;
 Premium Scotch Whisky
 Cognac
 Gin
 Vodka
 Tequila
7. Compare Gin with Vodka. Give 5 uses of each.
8. What is Proof? What are the different scales of measuring proof strength.
9. Short notes on:
 Scotch Whiskey
 Cognac
 Patent Still

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UNIT 14: ORDER-TAKING, SERVICE AND BILLING

Structure

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Order Taking Procedure
14.4 Methods of Taking Food And Beverage Order
14.5 Room Service
14.6 Checkout and Settlement
14.7 Summary
14.8 Glossary
14.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise
14.10 Reference / Bibliography
14.11 Suggested Readings
14.12 Terminal and Model Questions

14.1 Introduction

The previous units of this block you have gone through the Co-ordination of F&B
Service with other departments; Organizational structure of F & B Service ; Job
Description of F & B Service staff; menu knowledge, accompaniments, types,
planning and French classical menu. In this unit you will study the Order-taking,
Service and Billing procedures of the hospitality organisations.

Order taking is a skilful art that reflects the efficiency of both the waiter and the
establishment. The order taker (waiter) should be skilful to handle array of
customers efficiently. He should have a very good memory. He should have good
oral communication skills. Knowledge about food and beverage, their garnishes
and accompaniments, matching wines and spirits, cooking time and serving time,
description of dishes in a lucid manner are other important qualities of order
taker. He should also possess a rapid writing skill legible enough so that other
subordinates can understand and execute the order. Hotels adopt different
procedures to handle check out and bill settlements of the residents and visitors
in the restaurants, which are discussed in detail in the present unit.

14.2 Objectives

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 know the procedure to receive guests,
 to attend guests and taking restaurant order,
 Explain the methods of food & beverage order taking in the restaurant,
 Describe the order taking for the room service
 Define the checkout & settlement procedure of guest folio.

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14.3 Order Taking Procedure
The order taking procedure in a hotel industry is discussed in detail in the
following paragraphs.

14.3.1 Receiving the Guest

1. The welcoming of the guests represents the most important step to his final
satisfaction and reflects the level and quality of the service of an establishment.
2. Guests must be welcomed from the entrance of the restaurant; they should not
wait by themselves for more than 10 seconds at the entrance.
3. The first impression received by the guest is most important. It is not
necessary to execute the whole welcoming procedure with each guests (it is not
always possible in case of affluence), however, it is indispensable to show him
that he has been taken into consideration, if it is only by eye contact.
4. If the hostess or the maître d' hote are occupied, the head waiter or the
assistant waiter must show the guests that they have been taken into
consideration.
5. If there is an overbooking problem (more tables have been reserved than the
restaurant can welcome), guests should not be left at the entrance but invited to
sit down at the bar and take care of the problem away from their presence.
6. The hostess or Maître d' must try to seat the guests if he / she has to modify
the planning of reservations at the moment of the guests arrival.
7. The hostess or the head waiter will accompany the guests to his table and pull
out the chair for him / her to sit.
8. The head waiter or the assistant waiter will immediately present himself to the
table to show the guests that he has been taken into consideration.

14.3.2 Attending an Order

1. The waiter will approach the guest from the left, place the menus, ensuring
they are clean, in front of him and enquire: “May I have your order please, sir /
madam?”
2. He should wait patiently, facing the guests, until (after any necessary advice
has been asked for and given) the order is completed as fast as and including
the main course.
3. When the menus are long and varied, it is advisable to allow customers a few
minutes before asking the order.
4. When it is apparent that there is a host, take his instructions first, otherwise
receive orders as soon as the guests are ready.
5. If the waiter is busy and cannot attend to a customer at once, he should inform
him that he will attend to him shortly or “in a moment”.
6. When two tables are occupied at approximately the same time, the waiter
must take the order of the first party first. Customers are apt to note with
annoyance any failure to a “first come, first served” sequence.
7. Waiter must be aware not only of the speciality of the day but also reasonable
dishes to recommend. He should know the following things as far as possible:

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 Knowing which dishes are ready for quick service to guests in a hurry.
 Items suitable for children
 Salad, vegetable and potato suggestions for grills, roasts and main courses
for a la carte guests.

14.3.3 Recording an Order

1. The Head Waiter should write in the corner of the order sheet; the table
number and the number of persons being served. He also notes the time at
which the order has been taken.
2. He takes the order for the appetizer; he indicates the number of guests for
each appetizer opted.
3. He takes the order for the main dish. He writes the special notes at the right
(example: choice of spice and hotness). He repeats the same for all the guests.
4. He takes the order for all other items.
5. He affixes his signature and hands it over to his back waiter.

14.3.4 Sample Procedure for Order Taking

1. The front waiter presents himself to the Table No: Covers:

table.
2. He indicates on the voucher the table Table No: AS Covers:
number and the number of persons. 4
3. He writes down the time at which the order Table No: AS
has been taken. Covers:4 12h30m
4. He takes the order for the first appetizer. HeTable No: AS
indicates the number of the guest Covers:4 12h30m
corresponding to that order. Shrimp Cocktail (1
5. If the order of the second appetizer is Table No: AS
identical, the head waiter will only indicate Covers:4
the chair number corresponding to the 12h30m Shrimp
second guest. Cocktail (1,4
6. I f a guest does not take an appetizer, the Table No: AS
head waiter will write on the voucher "no Covers:4 12h30m
appetizer" Shrimp Cocktail (1,4
No (3
7. The head waiter takes the order of the last Table No: AS
appetizer Covers:4
12h30m Shrimp
Cocktail (1,4 No (3
2 Bisque (2
8. When the order of appetizers is finished, the Table No: AS
head waiter writes the total number of Covers:4
dishes ordered 12h30m 2 Shrimp
Cocktail (1,4 1 No (3

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2 Bisque (2
9. The head waiter takes the order of the main Table No: AS
dish. Covers:4
The first guest does not take a main dish, 12h30m 2 Shrimp
the head waiter writes it down on the Cocktail (1,4 1 No (3
voucher 2 Bisque (2 No(1
10. He takes the order of the second dish. Table No: AS
Covers:4 12h30m
2 Shrimp Cocktail (1,4
1 No (3
2 Bisque (2 No(1
Tournedos(3
11. He asks the guest how he would like his Table No: AS
meat cooked. He indicates this information Covers:4 12h30m
on the 2 Shrimp Cocktail (1,4
right side of the voucher 1 No (3 2 Bisque (2
No(1 Tournedos(3R
12. He takes the order for the third guest. Table No: AS
Covers:4 12h30m
2 Shrimp Cocktail (1,4
1 No (3 2 Bisque (2
No(1 Tournedos(3R
2wd
13. He takes the order of the fourth guest Table No: AS
Covers:4 12h30m
2 Shrimp Cocktail (1,4
1 No (3
2 Bisque (2 No(1
Tournedos(3R 2wd
Homard (4
14. He writes down the total number of dishes Table No: AS
ordered Covers:4 12h30m
2 Shrimp Cocktail (1,4
1 No (3 2 Bisque (2
1 No(1 2
Tournedos(3R
2wd 1 Homard (4
15. He separates the different headings. He Table No: AS
writes down the date and appends his Covers:4
initials in the right 12h30m 4 Cartes
inferior part of the voucher. He transfers the 2 Shrimp Cocktail (1,4
voucher to his back waiter. 1 No (3 2 Bisque (2 1
No(1
2 Tournedos(3R 2wd
1 Homard(4
18/02 Sz

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14.4 Methods of Taking Food And Beverage Order

Essentially there are four methods of taking food and beverage orders from
customers. All order taking methods are based upon these four concepts.

Triplicate Order is taken, top copy goes to the supply point, second
Method copy is sent to the cashier for billing; third copy is retained
by the server as a means of reference during service.
Duplicate Order is taken; top copy goes to the supply point, second
Method copy is retained for service and billing purposes.
Service with Order is taken; customer is served and payment received
Order according to that order, for example, bar service or take-
Method away methods.
Pre-Ordered  Individually (example room service breakfast)
Method  Hospital tray system
 Functions

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- I

1) Discuss the procedure for receiving guests in the f & B outlet?

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2) Write short note on the sample procedure for the order taking?
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14.5 Room Service

Room Service generally includes the same dishes offered in the restaurant. A
three star category hotel should be able to serve at least breakfast in the rooms.
Room service is part of the food and beverage department and not of
housekeeping. The room service can also be responsible, after the closing of the
hotel bar, to serve beverages in the rooms and manage the mini-bar.

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Waiter will use trays (carried high over the shoulder with the left hand) or rolling
tables for the meals. Every element should be covered (film paper, carton, bells)
during transportation and uncovered when entered the room.

The Room Service is often situated inside the kitchen, and close to the service
elevator. In this way hot preparations can be served as fast as possible. Inside
this service, the following are found:
 Working station
 Toaster
 Sink
 Coffee / tea machine
 Products shelves (cereals, sugar...)
 Tray shelf
 Refrigerator
 Order taking office / desk

14.5.1 Room Service Order Taking

One can order room service in two ways:
1. By “door hanger”
2. By “telephone”

1. By Door Hanger: It is a document that the guest places on the exterior room
door knob. The night audit picks up all the documents during the night. This
system allows the room service employees to be ready and serve the guests on
time.

This document is often made up of two faces written down in two languages and
is placed by housekeeping on the head of the bed. The information found in this
document are the following:

a. The service hour desired by the guest, leaving a margin of a quarter of

hour (for example between 8:00 and 8:15 a.m.)
b. The name of the guest
c. The number of people
d. The room number
e. The detailed order of breakfast desired (filled in cases)
f. A choice of newspaper proposed by the establishment

2. By Telephone: The room service order is placed through telephone. In fact, it

is very difficult to take an order correctly by telephone. One must be fast, not to
forget any important information and try to sell the maximum to the guest.

For a maximum efficiency, the Room-service personnel use digital telephones

that indicate the name of the person and the room number, and the possibility to
display the room number of the previous call in case they forget.

The room service order is written down manually or computerized and it should
include the following information:

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a. Room number
b. Name of the guest
c. Number of persons
d. Detailed order
e. Hour the order is taken
f. Service hour

The service should be fast and discrete. The service procedure is as follows:
a) Verify the guest's name on the bill
b) Knock on the door
c) Announce "room service"
a) Remove plastic films from the food
b) Wait until the guest invites the waiter to come in
c) Express wishes "good morning, good afternoon, good evening, call the
guest by his last name (good morning mister X).
d) Ask where to place the tray
e) List the different food items ordered by the guest
f) Ask the guest to sign the bill
g) Thank the guest and explain the procedure to take away the tray

It is to the room service to clear away the tray when the guests have finished,
either by asking them to place their tray outside of their room when they have
finished, and to clear it 20 minutes after the service or by asking the guest to call
them to come clear away the tray, which is more delicate because the waiter
must come in the guest's intimacy the least possible. It is the object of conflict
between housekeeping and the room service departments. In fact, there is
nothing worst than a floor where there is dirty trays lying on the floor. One should
consider that the job of the room service is finished only when all trays have been
cleared away.

The room service employee must have general knowledge about the hotel
premises. The room service employee is often the only one to be in direct contact
with the guest during his stay. The guest often asks questions concerning the
technical equipment of the rooms, the hotel premises, or any other information,
and the waiter must be able to answer to any need.

14.6 Checkout and Bill Settlement

Check out and settlement is part of the final stages of the guest cycle. It is the
final phase of the guest cycle and examines the various activities involved in
checkout and settlement. Check out involves the front desk as also other
departments such as housekeeping, bell desk, cashier‟s desk, Point of sales etc.
Main areas for a checkout are the bell desk and the cashier. The Front Office
performs at least 3 important functions during the checkout and settlement
process.

 It resolves outstanding guest account balances.

 It updates room status information
 It creates guest history records.

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Guest account settlement depends on effective Front Office accounting system
that maintains accurate guest folios, verifies and authorizes a method of
settlement and resolves discrepancies in account balances. Hotels find it most
effective to settle a guest account while the guest is still in the hotel.
Guest can settle the bill by paying cash, charging the balance to a credit card,
deferring payment to an approved direct billing entity or using a combination of
payment methods.
Most hotels require a guest to specify during registration an eventual method of
settlement. Front Office should verify or confirm guest credit card or direct billing
information before he/she arrives at the desk for check out. Pre - settlement
verification activities ensure that the hotel will be paid for accommodation and
services.

14.6.1 Departure Activities

1) At the Bell Desk: During checkout a luggage out pass has to be obtained
from the cashier stating that the guest has settled his account and returned the
room key. Once this is received a departure errand card is made and filled out by
the bell boy and will go to the guest room to bring down the luggage. The bell
captain will also make an entry regarding this in the bell captain‟s control sheet.
On reaching the guest room the bell boy will announce himself, knock on the
door enter the room on gaining permission. The bellboy will also ensure the
following:

1. Collect room keys from the guest

2. Check the room for any possible damage to the property.
3. Draws the curtains, locks the balcony.
4. Checks bathroom and fittings.
5. The guest is escorted by him to the front desk
6. He puts a “room to be cleaned tag” card on the door after switching of the
lights and air conditioner.

The departure room is then inspected by a housekeeping supervisor/ Room

attendant to ensure that nothing is left behind by the guest. The housekeeping/ in
room dining department will also check the mini bar for anything consumed by
the guest to be charged to the bill.

At the lobby the bell boy will:

1. Keep the guest‟s luggage at the bell desk
2. Put hotel stickers and mark the luggage with “D” indicating departure
luggage.
3. Collect the luggage out clearance slip from the reception and loads the
luggage in the car/taxi.
4. Return the errand card to the bell captain which will then be entered onto
the bell captain‟s control sheet.

2. At the Reception Desk: The Front desk receptionist ensures the following at
the time of guest‟s check out:

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1. Checks the list of expected checkouts for the day and will confirm with the
guest his date and time of checkout.
2. Departure notification slips are printed to inform the other departments of
the guest‟s checkout.
3. In a manual system the room racks are updated. The departure register is
also updated.
4. Checking for the mail messages and faxes.
5. Checking for safe deposit box or in room safe keys.

3) At the Cashier‟s Desk: The following activities are performed during

checkout:

1. Verifying account information.

2. Posting any remaining charges to the guest‟s folio.
3. Presenting the guest folio.
4. Verifying the method of payment.
5. Processing the account payment.
6. Securing the room key.
7. Updating the room status.

The procedures used will vary among Front Offices depending upon hotels level
of service and degree of automation. Some Front Offices offer automated or
express check out.
Traditionally at check out guest is presented a final copy of his/her account folio
for review and settlement. FOA should confirm how the guest intends to settle
the account. Guest may establish credit by presenting a credit card but may
choose to settle his bill by cash or travelers cheques. VIP or special guests or
corporate accounts should not be asked for settlement if their account is marked
that all charges are to be Direct Billed.
FOA should bring the guest account balance to zero, called zeroing out. When
guest pays by cash or credit card, hotels assume that the payment is full and
close the folio. If the account is to be paid through Direct Billing by the hotel,
however the account is not brought to a zero balance because it must be
transferred to the city ledger and billed through the account receivable system.

14.6.2. Methods of Bill Settlement

A guest account can be brought to a zero balance in several ways. Methods of
bill settlement include cash payment, credit card or Direct Billing transfer or
combined settlement method.
1. Cash Payment in Full: Cash payment in full at check out will bring a guest
account balance to zero. A cash receipt has to be issued to the guest by the
cashier. The cashier should mark the folio paid. If the guest has produced a
credit card at check in, the cashier should destroy the guest credit card voucher
imprinted at registration when the guest pays the account in full with cash.
Guests paying in foreign currency should convert their money to local currency
(some international currencies like $ are accepted). Hotels often charge a fee to
convert currencies as banks charge the fee from the hotels. Currency conversion
rates are displayed at the Cashiers counter or it can also be taken from business

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sections of newspapers. Guests can also use traveler‟s cheques to settle their
bills. Traveler‟s cheques are issued by banks and avoid the risk of carrying cash.
At the time of settlement the cashier should confirm the identity of the guest from
the safety and security point of view. Also there is no danger of them being stolen
as they can be encashed only when the signature of the holder tallies with the
signature signed at the time of issue. A foreign traveler‟s cheque should be
treated as foreign currency and the necessary records, statements and
certificates must be maintained like in the case of foreign currency and should be
sent to the Reserve Bank of India. Difference between an ordinary cheque and a
traveler‟s cheque are listed as below:

Ordinary Cheque Travelers Cheque

1. For issuing a person should 1. No need of any bank account for
have a bank account (either purchasing and encashing of
current or saving). traveler‟s cheque.
2. Any amount can be filled in 2. Have a fixed amount printed on
the cheque as they are blank. its face and available in different
denominations.
3. Only one signature is needed 3. Two signatures are required
of the holder. (one in the presence of the
issuing authority and second in
the presence of encashing
authority).
4. Ordinary cheques are valid 4. Valid for indefinite period of time
only for 3-6 months. unless dated.
5. These cheques can be 5. No such provision.
crossed for account payee.
6. No slip/list of lost, damaged or 6. Many banks issue a stop list for
stolen cheques is issued by stolen and damaged cheques.
the bank.
7. Cheque may bounce as the 7. No such possibility as the
balance in the account may amount is already printed on the
be less than the cheque face of the cheque.
8. Not safe as someone might 8. Quite safe because the second
force the owner to sign the signature have to be put in front
cheque. of the encashing authority.

PROCEDURE FOR ACCEPTING FOREIGN CURRENCY

1. Request guest passport and determine the credentials such as name and
photo identification place of issue and date of expiry of the passport.
2. Confirm that the guest is a resident of the hotel by asking his room no. If
the guest is a non-resident the permission of the lobby manager is
obtained who will extend this facility to VIP‟s and regular guests.
3. Receive the cash or traveler‟s cheque in foreign currency.
4. Calculate the total amount of local currency to be paid by multiplying the
foreign currency by the exchange rate displayed.
5. Fill in details of the foreign currency encashment certificate.

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6. Request the guest to sign the foreign currency encashment certificate and
compare the signature with the passport.
7. Request the guest to sign the traveler‟s cheque if it is an instrument of
exchange.
8. Give the total amount of local currency with the encashment certificate to
the guest
9. Second copy of the certificate is attached to the notes or traveler‟s
cheques received
10. Third copy remains in the encashment certificate book.
11. Fill in details in the record of foreign currency transactions.
12. Fill in details of the foreign currency transaction in the cashier‟s report.

2. Credit Card Transfer: Even though credit card transfer settlement brings a
guest account to zero, the amount of the charge must be tracked until payment is
actually received from the credit card Co. Credit card settlement creates a
transfer of credit on the guest folio and moves an account balance from the guest
ledger to a credit card account in the city ledger (non- guest ledger). Guest
signature completes this transaction. In some hotels computer system sends the
settlement transactions directly to the credit card Co. guest only signs on the
voucher present at Front Office. There is no need to sign on imprinted voucher.
When foreign guests pay by credit card, credit card Co. payment is in local
currency.

3. Direct Billing Transfer: Like credit card settlement, direct billing transfers
a guest account balance from the guest ledger to the city ledger. Unlike credit
card settlement responsibility for billing and collecting a direct billing lies with the
hotel rather than an outside agency. Billing should be arranged and approved by
hotel‟s credit department. Guest signs the folio and accepts the responsibility to
pay the bill should direct billing account not pay the bill.

4. Combined Settlement Method: A guest may elect to use more than one
settlement method to bring the folio balance to zero. E.g., guest may make partial
cash payment and charge the reminder of the account balance to an acceptable
credit card. Front office Assistant must accurately record the combined
settlement methods and take care that all required paper work is properly
completed. Once the guest has settled the account the Front office Assistant
should provide the guest with a copy of the folio. Good evaluation and follow up
should be there as it is the last chance to make an impression.

14.6.3 Unpaid Account Balances

No matter how carefully the front office monitors guest‟s stay there is always
possibility that the guest will leave without settling his account. Guest may forget
to check out or front office may discover late charges for a guest who has already
checked out. After departure charges or outstanding balances represent unpaid
account balances. Late Charges may be a major concern in guest account
settlement. Restaurant, telephone, room service charges etc are the examples of
some potential late charges. Sometimes additional cost of postage, stationary,

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labor, etc is more than the late charge itself. It is important in maximizing the
profitability. The following steps can be taken to reduce late charges in
automated and semi automated front office:
 Post transactional vouchers as soon as they arrive at the front desk.
 Survey front office equipment and voucher and folio racks for un posted
charges.
E.g., local telephone, in room movie charge meters may possess information not
recorded in a voucher.
 Ask departing guests whether they have incurred any charge purchase or long
distance calls that do not appear on the folio.

Front may appoint runners to collect vouchers or get information on phone at

peak hours. Front office computer system that interfaces with revenue center
outlets is often the most effective means of reducing or even eliminating late
charges. Room key deposits at reception counter help in reducing unpaid
balances.

14.6.4 Account Collection

Late charges that are billed to departed guests should not be classified as un-
collectible until the front office has exhausted all billing and collection procedures.
A registration card should contain guest address, phone number etc. Procedures
for collection of late charges will be different for cash and credit card depending
on company policy for late charges. Guest account not settled at check out
regardless of the credit established or prepayments processed during registration
are transferred from the guest ledger to the city ledger, from front office to hotels
accounting division. To be effective, the front office must establish a policy for
billing departed guests with overdue account. Account receivable billing includes
determining:
 When outstanding account balances are payable.
 The number of days between billing.
 How to control departed guests whose accounts are overdue.
Collection schedules can range from aggressive (short cycle) to lenient (long
cycle) depending on the hotels financial needs, clientele profile, history of
collection patterns and so on.
 Firm in any encounters involving deferred payment.
 Documented procedure for collecting overdoes.
 Credit for tour group to be established well before they arrive.
 Uncollectible accounts to be sent back to the departments that originally
accepted the uncollectible charge.

14.6.5 Guest Histories

Front office management can better understand its clientele and determine guest
trends when it develops and maintains a guest history file. It contains personal
and financial data of the guest hence it is confidential and proprietary. It is the
last step in check out and account settlement. Many hotels build guest history
cards from expired registration cards. It has information about the guest‟s
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spouse, family etc. the information may help develop ads that appeal to the types
of clientele the hotel is attempting to attract. Guest histories may also point out
the need for new, supplementary or enhanced services.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS- II

1) Write the short note on the room service order taking?

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2) Write in short about the procedure for accepting foreign currency?
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………………………………………………………………………………………………

14.7 Summary
Order taking is a skilful art that reflects the efficiency of both the waiter and the
establishment. The order taking procedure includes welcoming of the guests,
attending an order and recording an order. Essentially there are four methods of
taking food and beverage orders from customers. All order taking methods are
based upon these four concepts: triplicate method, duplicate method, service
with order method and pre-ordered method. Room Service generally includes the
same dishes offered in the restaurant. Room service is the responsibility of the
food and beverage department and not of housekeeping. Waiter will use trays or
rolling tables for the meals. Every item should be covered during transportation
and uncovered when entered the room. One can order room service in two ways:
by door hanger and by telephone. The hotel / restaurant may follow a predefined
procedure for the check outs and the settlements of the guest‟s folio. The
payment can be made for the hospitality services & products as cash payment,
credit card or Direct Billing transfer or combined settlement method.

14.8 Glossary
 Triplicate Method: in this method the order is taken in three copies. The top
copy goes to the supply point, second copy is sent to the cashier for billing; third
copy is retained by the server as a means of reference during service

 Duplicate Method: in this method the order is taken in two copies. The top
copy goes to the supply point, second copy is retained for service and billing
purposes

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 Traveler‟s Cheques: These are issued by reputed banks to avoid the risk of
carrying cash

 Combined Settlement Method: A guest may elect to use more than one
settlement method to bring the folio balance to zero.

14.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise

Check Your Progress - I
1. Please refer section 13.3.1
2. Please refer section 14.3.4

Check Your Progress - II

1. Please refer section 14.5.1
2. Please refer section 14.6.2

14.10 Reference / Bibliography

1. Andrews Sudhir, Food and Beverage Service – Training Manual, Tata Mc
Graw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2009.
2. Dhawan Vijay, Food and Beverage Service, Frank Bros. & Co., New Delhi, 2007.
3. Andrews Sudhir, Textbook of Food and Beverage Management, Tata Mc
Graw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2008.
4. Bagchi S.N. & Sharma Anita, Textbook of Food and Beverage Service, Aman
Publications, New Delhi, 2005.
5. Study material of B.Sc. (Catering Science & Hotel Management),School of
Distance Education, Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore

14.11 Suggested Readings

1. Modern Restaurant Service – John Fuller, Hutchinson, London
2. Beverage Management – Michael Coltman
3. Table and Bar – Jeffrey Clarke
4. Dixit S.K. (ed): Promises & Perils in Hospitality & Tourism Management,
Aman Publications, New Delhi, 2005.
5. Lillicrap Dennis, Cousins John & Smith Robert: Food & Beverage Services;
Hodder & Stoughton Educational.
6. Essential Table Service for Restaurants – John Fuller
7. The Waiter Handbook, Grahm Brown, Global books & Subscription Services,
New Delhi

14.12 Terminal Questions

1. What are the precautions to be taken in recording an order?
2. What are the different types of formats in use in order taking?
3. What is meant by „door hanger‟ method? Furnish procedure.
4. What is the service procedure to be followed for room service?
5. Write a descriptive note on the different methods of bill settlements?

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