SRM VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Autonomous Institution)

SRM NAGAR, KATTANKULATHUR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Academic year 2020-2021 Odd Semester

(Regulation 2017)

V SEMESTER-CSE
EC8681- MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS LABORATORY
LAB MANUAL

Prepared by

Dr. R.Arivalahan / Assoc. Professor

Dr. S. Malathi/ AP(Sel.G)
Mr. S. Balaji / AP(O.G)
Mr. P.Tamilarasan / AP(O.G)
Ms.G.Shanthi / AP(O.G)
Mr. M. Kamalakannan / AP(O.G)

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 SYLLABUS
OBJECTIVES:

To Introduce ALP concepts, features and Coding methods

Write ALP for arithmetic and logical operations in 8086 and 8051
Differentiate Serial and Parallel Interface
Interface different I/Os with Microprocessors
Be familiar with MASM

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

8086 Programs using kits and MASM

1. Basic arithmetic and Logical operations
2. Move a data block without over lap
3. Code conversion, decimal arithmetic and Matrix operations.
4. Floating point operations, string manipulations, sorting and searching
5. Password checking, Print RAM size and system date
6. Counters and Time Delay

Peripherals and Interfacing Experiments

7. Traffic light control
8. Stepper motor control
9. Digital clock
10.Key board and Display
11.Printer status
12. Serial interface and Parallel interface
13. A/D and D/A interface and Waveform Generation.
Experiments using kits and MASM
14. Basic arithmetic and Logical operations

15. Square and Cube program, Find 2’s complement of a number

16. Unpacked BCD to ASCII

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

CYCLE I

1. BASIC ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL OPERATIONS

a.16-bit data addition and subtraction
b.Multi-byte addition and subtraction
c.BCD addition and subtraction
d.16-bit multiplication and division
e.Logical operations

2. MOVE A DATA BLOCK WITHOUT OVERLAP

3. CODE CONVERSION AND DECIMAL ARITHMETIC

a.BCD to hexadecimal conversion
b.Hexadecimal to BCD
c.Hexadecimal to ASCII
d.ASCII to Hexadecimal

4. MATRIX OPERATION

5. STRING MANIPULATION
a.Copy a string
b.Reverse a string

6. SORTING
a. Ascending and Descending order

7. SEARCHING
a.Search for a given data

8. PASSWORD CHECKING PROGRAM

9. COUNTERS AND TIME DELAY

CYCLE II

1. Interfacing Traffic Light Controller with 8086

2. Interfacing Stepper Motor with 8086
3. Digital Clock in real time
4. Interfacing 8279 Keyboard / Display Controller with 8086
5. Interfacing ADC with 8086
6. Interfacing DAC with 8086
7. Parallel Communication Interface
8. Serial Communication Interface

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INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSORS & MICROCONTROLLERS

Microprocessor: is a computer processor which incorporates the functions of

a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC) at most a
few integrated circuits. The microprocessor is a
multipurpose, clock driven, register based, digital-integrated circuit which
accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in
its memory, and provides results as output. Microprocessors contain
both combinational logic and sequential digital logic. Microprocessors operate on
numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeralsystem.

Microcontroller: is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. In modern

terminology, it is a system on a chip or SoC.A microcontroller contains one or more
CPUs along with memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Program
memory in the form of Ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often
included on chip, as well as a small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed
for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal
computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discretechips.

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Ex. NO: 01
DATE:
16 BIT ADDITION USING ARITHMETIC OPERATION OF 8086 MICROPROCESSOR
AIM:

To write an assembly language program to perform addition of two 16 bit numbers

using 8086.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. MICROPROCESSOR KIR 8086 KIT 1

2. POWER SUPPLY + 5 V DC 1

3. KEY BOARD - 1

ALGORITHM:
16- bit addition

➢ Get the first number is specificaddress.

➢ Add the second number to the firstnumber.
➢ Add the twovalues.
➢ Store the sum andcarry.

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FLOW
CHART:ADDITI
ON:

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PROGRAM FOR ADDITION;

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

1000 MOV CX,0000H Initialize counter CX

Get the first data in AX

1003 MOV AX,[1200]
register.

Get the second data in BX

1006 MOV BX, [1202]
register.

Add the contents of both

100A ADD AX,BX
the register AX & BX

100C JNC L1 Check for carry

If carry exists, increment

100E INC CX the CX

100F LI MOV [1206],CX Store the carry

1013 MOV [1204], AX Store the sum

1016 INT 3 Stop the program

OUTPUT FOR ADDITION:

ADDRESS DATA

INPUT 1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
OUTPUT 1205
1206

RESULT:
Thus the assembly language program to perform addition of two 16 bit
numbers using 8086 Performed and the result is stored.

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Ex. NO: 02
DATE:
16 BIT SUBTRACTION
USING ARITHMETIC OPERATION OF 8086 MICROPROCESSOR
AIM:
To write an assembly language program to perform subtraction of two 16bit
numbers using 8086.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. MICROPROCESSOR KIR 8086 KIT 1

2. POWER SUPPLY + 5 V DC 1

3. KEY BOARD - 1

ALGORITHM:

16- bitSUBTRACTION:

➢ Initialize the MSBs of difference to0

➢ Get the first number
➢ Subtract the second number from the firstnumber.
➢ If there is any borrow, increment MSBs of difference by1.
➢ Store LSBs ofdifference.
➢ Store MSBs ofdifference.

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FLOECHART:

SUBTRACTION:

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PROGRAM FOR SUBTRACTION:

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

1000 MOV CX,0000H Initialize counter CX

Get the first data in AX

1003 MOV AX,[1300]
register

Get the second data in BX

1006 MOV BX, [1302]
register.

Subtract the contents of both

100A SUB AX,BX the register AX & BX

100C JNC A Check the Borrow.

If carry exists, increment the

100E INC CX CX

100F MOV [1306],CX Store the Borrow.

1013 MOV [1304], AX Store the difference.

1016 INT 3 Stop the program

OUTPUT FOR SUBTRACTION:

ADDRESS DATA

1300
1301
INPUT
1302
1303
1304
OUTPUT 1305
1306

RESULT:

Thus the assembly language program to perform subtraction of two 16 bit

numbers using 8086 Performed and the result is stored.

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Ex. NO: 03
DATE:
16BITMULTIPLICATIONUSINGARITHMETICOPERATIONOF8086
MICROPROCESSOR
AIM:
To write an assembly language program to perform Multiplication of two 16
bit numbers using 8086.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. MICROPROCESSOR KIR 8086 KIT 1

2. POWER SUPPLY + 5 V DC 1

3. KEY BOARD - 1

ALGORITHM:
16- bit MULTIPLICATION

Multiplication of 16-bit numbers:

➢ Get themultiplier.
➢ Get themultiplicand
➢ Initialize the product to0.
➢ Product = product +multiplicand
➢ Decrement the multiplier by1.
➢ If multiplicand is not equal to 0, repeat from step (d) otherwise store the
product.

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FLOECHART:

MULTIPLICATION:

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PROGRAM FORMULTIPLICATION:

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

Get the first data in AX

1000 MOV AX,1234H
register.

Get the second data in BX

1003 MOV BX,0100H
register.

1006 MUL BX Multiply AX & BX data

1008 INT 3 Break point.

OUTPUT FORVMULTIPLICATION:

INPUT

OUTPUT

RESULT:

Thus the assembly language program to perform multiplication of two

16 bit numbers using 8086 Performed and the result isstored.

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Ex. NO: 04
DATE:
16 BIT DIVISION USING ARITHMETIC OPERATION OF 8086 MICROPROCESSOR
AIM:

To write an assembly language program to perform division of two 16 bit

numbers using 8086.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. MICROPROCESSOR KIT 8086 KIT 1

2. POWER SUPPLY + 5 V DC 1

3. KEY BOARD - 1

ALGORITHM:

16- bitdivision
Division of 16-bit numbers:
➢ Get the dividend and divisor.
➢ Initialize the quotient to0.
➢ Dividend =dividend–divisor
➢ If the divisor is greater, store thequotient
➢ Go to step3
➢ If dividend is greater, quotient = quotient+ repeat from step4.

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FLOECHART:

DIVISION:

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PROGRAM FOR DIVISION:

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

Get the first data in AX

1000 MOV AX,[1200]
register,

Get the second data in DX

1003 MOV DX,[1202]
register.

1007 MOV BX,[1204] Move the higher order data.

100D MOV [1206],AX Move ax register into address

Divide the dividend by

100B DIV BX
divisor

1010 MOV AX,BX Copy the lower order data

1012 MOV [1208],AX Store the higher order data.

Stop the program.

1015 INT 3

OUTPUT FOR DIVISION:

ADDRESS DATA

1200
1201
INPUT
1202
1203

1208
OUTPUT
1209

RESULT:
Thus the assembly language program to perform division of two 16 bit
numbers using 8086 Performed and the result is stored.

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EX. NO: 05
DATE :
LOGICAL OPERATIONS USING 8086 MICROCONTROLLER
AIM:

To move a data block without overlap

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. MICROPROCESSOR KIR 8086 KIT 1

2. POWER SUPPLY + 5 V DC 1

3. KEY BOARD - 1

ALGORITHM:

➢Initialize the memory location to the data pointer ALRegister

➢Increment Bregister.

➢Increment accumulator by 1 and adjust it to decimal everytime.

➢Compare the given decimal number with accumulatorvalue.

➢Perform the given logical function value is in Bregister.

➢Store the resultant in memorylocation.

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PROGRAM FOR “AND” LOGIC

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

8000 MOV AL,04 Move data 04 to AL register

8003 MOV BL,03 Move data 03 to BL register

8007 ANDIBL AND Operation

800D MOV #9000,BL Result store in 9000 address

800B HLT Stop the program

PROGRAM FOR “OR” LOGIC

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

8000 MOV AL,05 Move data 05 to AL register

8003 MOV BL,04 Move data 04 to BL register

8007 ORI BL OR Operation

800D MOV #9000,BL Result store in 9000 address

800B HLT Stop the program

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PROGRAM FOR “EX- OR” LOGIC

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

8000 MOV AL,04 Move data 04 to AL register

8003 MOV BL,03 Move data 03 to BL register

8007 XOR BL EX-OR Operation

800D MOV #9000,BL Result store in 9000 address

800B HLT Stop the program

OUTPUT:

GATE INPUT OUTPUT

AND

OR

EX-OR

RESULT:
Thus the assembly language program to perform logical operations AND, OR
& EX-OR using 8086 Performed and the result is stored.

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EX. NO: 06
DATE :
MOVE A DATA BLOCK WITHOUT OVERLAP
AIM:
To move a data block without overlap

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. MICROPROCESSOR KIR 8086 KIT 1

2. POWER SUPPLY + 5 V DC 1

3. KEY BOARD - 1

ALGORITHM:

➢Initialize the memory location to the datapointer.

➢Increment Bregister.

➢Increment accumulator by 1 and adjust it to decimal everytime.

➢Compare the given decimal number with accumulatorvalue.

➢When both match, the equivalent hexadecimal value is in Bregister.

➢Store the resultant in memorylocation.

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PROGRAM:

ADDRESS OPCODES PROGRAM COMMENTS

1000 MOV CL, 05 Get the Data range

1002 MOV SI, 1400 Get the first data.

1005 MOV DI, 1450 Get the second data.

Store the lower order
1008 LD DSB
product
1009 MOV [DI], AL Store the result

100B INC DI Increment the pointer.

100C DEC 1008 Dec Counter 0

1010 INT 3 Stop the program

OUTPUT:

INPUT OUTPUT
1400 1450
1401 1451
1402 1452
1403 1453
1404 1454

RESULT:

Thus the output for the Move a data block without overlap was executed
successfully.

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EX. NO: 07
DATE :
CODE CONVERSION-DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL

AIM:

To convert a given decimal number to hexadecimal.

ALGORITHM:
➢Initialize the memory location to the datapointer.
➢Increment Bregister.
➢Increment accumulator by 1 and adjust it to decimal everytime.
➢Compare the given decimal number with accumulatorvalue.
➢When both match, the equivalent hexadecimal value is in Bregister.
➢Store the resultant in memorylocation.

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FLOWCHART:

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PROGRAM:

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENDS

1000 MOV AL, [1100] Move data block AL

1003 MOV AH, AL Move data lower to higher

1005 MOV AH, 0F Move data OF into AH

1008 MOV BL, AH Move data BL into AH

100A AND AL,F0 AND the data AL to FO

100C MOV CL, 04 Move data 04 to CL block

100E ROR AL, CL Rotate functions CL and AL

1010 MOV BH, 0A Move data OA into BH

1012 MUL BH Multiply BH

1014 ADD AL, BL ADD the data AL And BL

1016 MOV [2000], AL Move the store data

1019 INT 3 Stop the program

OUTPUT:[DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL]

DATA ADRESS DATA

INPUT

OUTPUT

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RESULT:
Thus the code conversion of decimal to hexadecimal was executed
successfully.

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EX. NO: 08
DATE :
CODE CONVERSION –HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL

AIM:

To convert a given hexadecimal number to decimal

ALGORITHM:
➢ Initialize the memory location to the datapointer.
➢ Increment Bregister.
➢ Increment accumulator by 1 and adjust it to decimal everytime.
➢ Compare the given hexadecimal number with B registervalue.
➢ When both match, the equivalent decimal value is in Aregister.
➢ Store the resultant in memorylocation.

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PROGRAM;

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENTS

1000 MOV AL, [1100] Move date to AL REG

1003 MOV DX, 0000 Move data AL TO DX

1006 HUND CMP AL, 64 Move data to AX REG

1008 JC TEN Jump carry

100A SUB AL, 64 Subtract data

100C INC DL Increment DL

100E JMP HUND JUMP label data

1010 TEN CMP AL, 0A Compare register

1012 JC UNIT Jump carry

1014 SUB AL,0A Subtract data

1016 INC DH Increment DH

1018 JMP TEN JUMP carry

101A UNIT MOV [2000],DL Move data to DL

101E MOV [2001],DH Move data to DH

1022 MOV [2002],AL Move data to AL

1025 MOV [2003],AH Move data to AH

1027 HLT Stop the program

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OUTPUT:

INPUT OUTPUT

MEMORY

DATA

RESULT:

Thus the code conversion of decimal to hexadecimal was executed

successfully.

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EX. NO: 09
DATE :
STRING MANIPULATION - SORTING & SEARCHING

ASCENDING & DESCENDING

AIM:

To write an Assembly Language Program (ALP) to sort a given array in

Ascending and Descending order

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. MICROPROCESSOR KIR 8086 KIT 1

2. POWER SUPPLY + 5 V DC 1

3. KEY BOARD - 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT:
An array of length 05 is given from the location. Sort it into descending and
ascending order and store the result.

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ALGORITHM:

Sorting in ascending order:

➢ Load the array count in two registers C1 andC2.
➢ Get the first twonumbers.
➢ Compare the numbers and exchange if necessary so that the two numbers are in
ascendingorder.
➢ DecrementC2.
➢ Get the third number from the array and repeat the process until C 2 is0.
➢ Decrement C1 and repeat the process until C1 is0.

Sorting in descending order:

➢ Load the array count in two registers C1 andC2.
➢ Get the first twonumbers.
➢ Compare the numbers and exchange if necessary so that the two numbers are in
descendingorder.
➢ DecrementC2.
➢ Get the third number from the array and repeat the process until C 2 is0.
➢ Decrement C1 and repeat the process until C1 is0.

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FLOECHART:[ASCENDING]:

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FLOWCHART :[DECENDING]:

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PROGRAM FOR ASCENDING ORDER:

ADDRESS LABEL PROGRAM COMMENTS

Initialize memory location for
1000 MOV SI,1200H
array size
1002 MOV CL,[SI] Number of comparisons in CL
Initialize memory location for
1004 L4 : MOVSI,1200H
array size
1005 L4 MOV DL,[SI] Get the count in DL

1007 INC SI Go to next memory location

100D L3 MOV AL,[SI] Get the first data in AL

101B L1 L3 : INC SI Go to next memory location

101E L2 MOV BL,[SI] Get the second data in BL

1010 CMP AL,BL Compare two data’s

1012 JNB L1 If AL < BL go to L1

Else, Decrement the memory
1014 DEC SI
location
1016 MOV [SI],AL Store the smallest data

1018 MOV AL,BL Get the next data AL

1019 JMP L2 Jump to L2

101A L1 : DEC SI Decrement the memory location

Store the greatest data in memory
101C MOV [SI],BL
location
101E L2 : INC SI Go to next memory location

1020 DEC DL Decrement the count

Jump to L3, if the count is not
1022 JNZ L3
reached
1024 MOV [SI],AL Store data in memory location

1026 DEC CL Decrement the count

Jump to L4, if the count is not
1028 JNZ L4
reached zero
1029 HLT Stop the program

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PROGRAM FOR DESCENDING ORDER:

ADDRESS OPCODES PROGRAM COMMENTS

Initialize memory location

9000 MOV SI,9000H
for array size

Number of comparisons in
9002 MOV CL,[SI]
CL

L4 : MOV Initialize memory location

9004
SI,9000H for array size

9006 MOV DL,[SI] Get the count in DL

Go to next memory
9007 INC SI
location

9009 MOV AL,[SI] Get the first data in AL

Go to next memory
900B L3 : INC SI
location

Move the data SI reg into

900D MOV BL,[SI]
BL reg

Compare BC and AL
900F CMP AL,BC
register

9010 JB 101B Jump given address

9012 DEC SI Decrement SI

Move the data AL register

9014 MOV [SI],AL
into SI register

9016 MOV AL,BL Move the data AL into BL

9018 JMP 101E Jump given address

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901A DEC SI Decrement SI

Move the data AL into SI

901C MOV [SI],AL
register

901E INC SI Increment SI

9020 DEC SI Decrement SI

9022 JNZ 1000 Jump no zero

9024 MOV [SI],AL Move AL into SI register

9026 DEC CL Decrement CL

9028 JNZ 1005 Jump no zero 1005

902A INT 3 Stop theprogram

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OUTPUT FOR ASCENDING:

DATA

INPUT

OUTPUT

OUTPUT FOR DESCENDING ORDER:

DATA

INPUT

OUTPUT

RESULT:

Thus the given array of numbers are sorted in ascending & descendingorder.

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EX. NO: 10
DATE :
LARGEST & SMALLEST
AIM:

To write an Assembly Language Program(ALP) to find the Largest and

Smallest number in a given array.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. MICROPROCESSOR KIR 8086 KIT 1

2. POWER SUPPLY + 5 V DC 1

3. KEY BOARD - 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT:
An array of length 5 is given from the location. Find the largest and smallest
number and store the result.

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ALGORITHM:

(i) Finding largestnumber:

➢ Load the array count in a registerC1.
➢ Get the first twonumbers.
➢ Compare the numbers and exchange if the number issmall.
➢ Get the third number from the array and repeat the process until C1 is0.

(ii) Finding smallestnumber:

➢ Load the array count in a registerC1.
➢ Get the first twonumbers.
➢ Compare the numbers and exchange if the number islarge.
➢ Get the third number from the array and repeat the process until C1 is0.

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FLOECHART:[LARGEST]

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FLOECHART:[SMALLEST]

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PROGRAM FOR FINDING LARGEST NUMBER:

ADDRESS OPCODES PROGRAM COMMENDS

1000 MOV SI,9000H Initialize array size

1002 MOV CL,[SI] Initialize the count

1004 INC SI Go to next memory location

1006 MOV AL,[SI] Move the first data in AL

1007 DEC CL Reduce the count

1009 INC SI Move the SI pointer to next data

100A L2 CMP AL,[SI] Compare two data’s

100E JNB L1 If AL > [SI] then go to L1 ( no swap)

1011 L1 MOV AL,[SI] Else move the large number to AL

1012 L1 : DEC CL Decrement the count

1014 JNZ L2 If count is not zero go to L2

1016 MOV DI,9500H Initialize DI with 1300H

Else store the biggest number in 1300

1018 MOV [DI],AL
location

1010 HLT Stop the program

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PROGRAM FOR FINDING SMALLEST NUMBER:

ADDRESS OPCODES PROGRAM COMMENDS

1000 MOV SI,9000H Initialize array size

1002 MOV CL,[SI] Initialize the count

1004 INC SI Go to next memory location

1006 MOV AL,[SI] Move the first data in AL

1007 DEC CL Reduce the count

1009 L2 : INC SI Move the SI pointer to next data

100A L2 CMP AL,[SI] Compare two data’s

100E JB L1 If AL < [SI] then go to L1 ( no swap)

1011 L1 MOV AL,[SI] Else move the large number to AL

1012 L1 : DEC CL Decrement the count

1014 JNZ L2 If count is not zero go to L2

1016 MOV DI,9500H Initialize DI with 1300H

1018 MOV [DI],AL Else store the biggest number in 1300 location

1010 HLT Stop the program

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OUTPUT FOR LARGESTNUMBER:

DATA

INPUT

OUTPUT

OUTPUT FOR SMALLEST NUMBER:

DATA

INPUT

OUTPUT

RESULT:

Thus the largest and smallest number is found in a given array.

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EX. NO: 11
DATE :

PASSWORD CHECKING
AIM:

To write an Assembly Language Program (ALP) for performing the

Password checking by using MASM

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL .No ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Microprocessor kit 8086 kit 1

2. Power Supply +5 V dc 1

PROGRAM:

; PASSWORD ISMASM1234

DATA SEGMENT

PASSWORD DB'MASM1234'

LEN EQU ($-PASSWORD)

MSG1 DB 10, 13,'ENTER YOUR PASSWORD: $'

MSG2DB10,13,'WELCOMETOELECTRONICSWORLD!!$' MSG3

DB 10, 13,'INCORRECTPASSWORD!$'

NEW DB 10, 13,'$'

INST DB 10 DUP(0)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

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ASSUME CS: CODE, DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

LEA DX, MSG1

MOV AH, 09H

INT 21H

MOV SI, 00

UP1:

MOV AH,08H

INT21H

CMP AL,0DH

JEDOWN

MOV [INST+SI],AL

MOV DL,'*'

MOV AH, 02H

INT 21H

INC SI

JMPUP1

DOWN:

MOV BX, 00

MOV CX,LEN

CHECK:

MOV AL,[INST+BX]

MOVDL,[PASSWORD+BX]

CMP AL, DL

JNE FAIL

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INC BX

LOOPCHECK

LEA DX, MSG2

MOV AH, 09H

INT 21H

JMP FINISH

FAIL:

LEA DX, MSG3

MOV AH, 009H

INT 21H

FINISH:

INT 3

CODEENDS

ENDSTART

END

RESULT:
Thus the output for the Password checking, Print RAM size and system date
was executed successfully

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EXP.NO: 12

DATE :

TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROLLER

AIM:

To write an assembly language program in 8086 to Traffic light control

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL .No ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Microprocessor kit 8086 kit 1

2. Power Supply +5 V dc 1

PROGRAM;

➢ Log intoSystem.
➢ Select controltype.
➢ If Automatic mode select then go to step 4th else go to step8.
➢ If Automatic controlactivated.
➢ Assign time period for green, yellowsignal.
➢ If emergency vehicle is over then go to step4.
➢ If rally come then go to step8.
➢ Manual control activated.
➢ Assign time period for green, yellow signal according to that particularroad.
➢ If emergency over then go to step4.

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MODEL GRAPH FOR TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROL:

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ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM FOR TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROL:

ADDRESS
OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS

1000 MVI A,80

1002 OUT CWR

1004 REPEAT MVI E, 03

1006 LXI H, C100

1007 NEXTSTAT MOV A, M

1009 OUT PORRTA

100B INX H

100E MOV A, M

1010 OUT PORTB

1012 INX H

1014 MOV A,M

1016 OUT PORT C

1018 CALL DELAY

1019 INX H

101A DCR E

101C JNZ NEXTSTAT

101E JMP REPEAT

1022 DELAY LXI D, 3000

1024 L2 MVI C,FF

1026 L1 DCR C

1028 JNZ L1

1029 DCR D

1000 MOV A, D

1002 ORA E

1004 JNZ L2

1006 RET
▪

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RESULT:

Thus the assembly language program for traffic light control is verified

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EX. NO: 13

DATE :

STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING

AIM:

To write an assembly language program in 8086 to rotate the motor at

different speeds.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Microprocessor kit 8086 1

2. Power Supply +5 V, dc,+12 V dc 1
3. Stepper Motor Interface board - 1
4. Stepper Motor - 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT:
Write a code for achieving a specific angle of rotation in a given time and
particular number of rotations in a specific time.

THEORY:
A motor in which the rotor is able to assume only discrete stationary
angular position is a stepper motor. The rotary motion occurs in a stepwise manner
from one equilibrium position to the next. Two-phase scheme: Any two adjacent
stator windings are energized. There are two magnetic fields active in quadrature
and none of the rotor pole faces can be in direct alignment with the stator poles. A
partial but symmetric alignment of the rotor poles is of coursepossible.

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ALGORITHM:

For running stepper motor clockwise and anticlockwise directions

➢ Get the first data from the lookuptable.

➢ Initialize the counter and move data intoaccumulator.
➢ Drive the stepper motor circuitry and introducedelay
➢ Decrement the counter is not zero repeat fromstep(iii)
➢ Repeat the above procedure both for backward and forwarddirections.

SWITCHING SEQUENCE OF STEPPER MOTOR:

MEMORY A1 A2 B1 B2 HEX CODE

LOCATION

4500 1 0 0 0 09 H

4501 0 1 0 1 05 H

4502 0 1 1 0 06 H

4503 1 0 1 0 0A H

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FLOWCHART:

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PROGRAM FOR STEPPER MOTOR CONTOL;

ADDRESS OPCODE PROGRAM COMMENTS

Initialize memory location to store the

1000 MOV DX,FF26
array of number

1002 MOV AL,80 Initialize array size

1004 OUT DX,AL Copy the first data in AL

1006 MOV DX,FF20 Send it through port address

1007 MOV AL,05 Introduce delay

1009 OUT DX,AL Declare DX

100B CALL 1100 JUNP no zero

100E MOV AL,07 Increment DI

1010 OUT DX,AL Go to next memory location

Loop until all the data’s have been sent

1012 CALL 1100 Go to start location for continuous
rotation

1014 MOV AL,06 Array of data’s

1015 OUT DX,AL Output data from DX into AL

1017 CALL 1100 Call given address

1018 MOV AL,04 Move the data 04 to AL Register

101D OUT DX,AL Output data from DX into AL

101E CALL 1100 Call given address

1021 JMP 1006 Jump the program given address

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DELAY SUBROTINE

ADDRESS OPCODE PROGRAM COMMENTS

Initialize memory location to store the

1100 MOVBX, 0010
array of number

1103 MOV AL,FF Initialize array size

1105 NOP No Operation

1106 NOP No Operation

1107 NOP No Operation

1108 NOP No Operation

1109 DEC AL Decrement AL

110B JNZ 1105 Jump no zero

110D DEC BX Decrement BX

110E JNZ 1103 Jump no zero

1110 RET Return main program

RESULT:

Thus the assembly language program for rotating stepper motor in both
clockwise and anticlockwise directions is written and verified.

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EX. NO: 14

DATE :
INTERFACING PRGRAMMABLE KEYBOARD
ANDDISPLAY CONTROLLER 8279

AIM :

To display the message “2” using Keyboard and Display Controller-8279

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Microprocessor kit 8086 1

2. Power Supply +5 V, dc,+12 V dc 1
3. 8279- Interface board - 1

ALGORITHM :

➢ Display of rolling message “HELP US“

➢ Initialize thecounter
➢ Set 8279 for 8 digit character display, rightentry
➢ Set 8279 for clearing thedisplay
➢ Write the command todisplay
➢ Load the character into accumulator and displayit
➢ Introduce thedelay
➢ Repeat from step1.

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PROGRAM:

MEMORY
OPCODES PROGRAM COMMENDS
LOCATION
9000 MVI C,BA Initialize array

9002 MVI A,12 Initialize array size

Store the control word for
9003 OUT 71
display mode
9006 MVI A,3E Send through output port
Store the control word to
9009 OUT 71
clear display
900B MVI A,A0 Send through output port
Store the control word to
900E OUT 71
write display
9011 MVI B,08 Send through output port

9013 MVI A,00 Get the first data

9016 OUT 70 Send through output port

9018 DCR B Give delay

901B JNZ 9012 Go & get next data

Loop until all the data’s
901D MOV A,C
have been taken
901E OUT 70 Go to starting location

901F JMP 9019 Store 16bit count value

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FLOWCHART:

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SEGMENT DEFINITION:

DATA BUS D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

SEGMENTS d c B A d g f e

RESULT:

Thus the rolling message “2” is displayed using 8279 interface kit.

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EX. NO: 15
DATE :
INTERFACING ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER USING 8086
AIM:

To write an assembly language program to convert analog signal into digital

signal using an ADC interfacing.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Microprocessor kit 8086 1
2. Power Supply +5 V dc,+12 V dc 1
3. ADC Interface board - 1

THEORY:
An ADC usually has two additional control lines: the SOC input to tell the
ADC when to start the conversion and the EOC output to announce when the
conversion iscomplete.

ALGORITHM:
➢ Select the channel and latch theaddress.
➢ Send the start conversionpulse.
➢ Read EOC signal.
➢ If EOC = 1 continue else go to step(iii)
➢ Read the digitaloutput.
➢ Store it in a memorylocation.

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PROGRAM:

MEMORY
OPCODES PROGRAM COMMENTS
LOCATION
Load accumulator
1000 MOV DX,FF26 with value for ALE
high
Send through output
1000 MOV AL,90
port
Load accumulator
1003 OUT DX,AL with value for ALE
low
Send through output
1006 MOV DX,FF24
port
Store the value to
1009 MOV AL,FF make SOC high in
the accumulator
Send through output
100B OUT DX,AL
port

100E MOV AL,00

1011 OUT DX,AL

Introduce delay
1013 MOV AL,FF

1016 OUT DX,AL

Store the value to

1018 CALL 1100 make SOC low the
accumulator
Send through output
101B MOV DX,FF20
port

IN AL,DX Read the EOCsignal

101D from port & check
for end ofconversion
101E INT 3
Stop the program

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DELAY SUBROUTINE PROGRAM

Move the data 07ff to

2100 MOV CX,07FF
CX register

2103 NOP No operation

2104 NOP No operation

2105 DEC CX Decrement CX register

2106 JNZ 1103 Jump no zero

2108 RET Return to main address

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FLOWCHART:

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OUTPUT:

HEX CODE IN MEMORY DIGITAL DATA ON LED

ANALOG VOLTAGE
LOCATION DISPLAY

RESULT:

Thus the ADC was interfaced with 8086 and the given analog inputs were
converted into its digital equivalent.

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EX. NO: 16
DATE :
INTERFACING DIGITAL – TO – ANALOG
CONVERTERUSING 8086

AIM:

To convert digital inputs into analog outputs and to generate different

waveforms.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.NO ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Microprocessor kit 8086 Vi Microsystems 1

2. Power Supply +5 V, dc,+12 V dc 1

3. DAC Interface board - 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

The program is executed for various digital values and equivalent analog
voltages are measured and also the waveforms are measured at the output ports
usingCRO.

THEORY:

Since DAC 0800 is an 8 bit DAC and the output voltage variation is
between –5v and +5v. The output voltage varies in steps of 10/256 = 0.04
(approximately). The digital data input and the corresponding output voltages are
presented in the table. The basic idea behind the generation of waveforms is the
continuous generation of analog output of DAC. With 00 (Hex) as input to DAC2
the analog output is –5v. Similarly with FF H as input, the output is +5v.
Outputting digital data 00 and FF at regular intervals, to DAC2, results in a square
wave of amplitude 5v.Output digital data from 00 to FF in constant steps of 01 to
DAC2. Repeat this sequence again and again. As a result a saw-tooth wave will be
generated at DAC2 output. Output digital data from 00 to FF in constant steps of
01 to DAC2. Output digital data from FF to 00 in constant steps of01 to DAC2.

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FLOECHART

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ALGORITHM

Measurement of analog voltage

(i) Send the digital value ofDAC.

(ii) Read the corresponding analog value of itsoutput.

Waveform generation

Square Waveform:

(i) Send low value (00) to theDAC.

(ii) Introduce suitabledelay.
(iii) Send high value toDAC.
(iv) Introducedelay.
(v) Repeat the above
procedure. Saw-toothwaveform:
(i) Load low value (00) toaccumulator.
(ii) Send this value toDAC.
(iii) Increment theaccumulator.
(iv) Repeat step (ii) and (iii) until accumulator value reachesFF.
(v) Repeat the above procedure from step 1.
Triangularwaveform:

(i) Load the low value (00) inaccumulator.

(ii) Send this accumulator content toDAC.
(iii) Increment theaccumulator.
(iv) Repeat step 2 and 3 until the accumulator reaches FF,
decrement the accumulator and send the accumulator contents
toDAC.

MEASUREMENT OF ANALOG VOLTAGE

DIGITAL DATA ANALOG VOLTAGE

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PROGRAME FOR DAC

MEMORY
OPCODES PROGRAM COMMENTS
LOCATION
Load accumulator
1000 MOV DX,FF26 with value for ALE
high
Send through output
1000 MOV AL,80
port
Load accumulator
1003 OUT DX,AL with value for ALE
low
Send through output
1006 MOV DX,FF22
port
Store the value to
1009 MOV AL,FF make SOC high in
the accumulator
Send through output
100B OUT DX,AL
port

100E CALL 2100

1011 MOV AL,00

Introduce delay
1013 OUT DX,AL

1016 CALL 2100

Store the value to

1018 JMP 2009 make SOC low the
accumulator

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DELAY SUOUTINEBR

Move the data 07ff to

2100 MOV CX,07FF
CX register

2103 NOP No operation

2104 NOP No operation

Decrement CX
2105 DEC CX
register

2106 JNZ 2103 Jump no zero

Return to main
2108 RET
address

RESULT
Thus the DAC was interfaced with 8086 and different waveforms have been
generated.

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EX. NO: 17
DATE :
8 BIT ADDITION USING ARITHMETIC OPERATION 8051
MICROCONTROLLER
AIM:

To write an ALP program to add two 8-bit numbers using 8051

microcontroller.

ALGORITHM:

➢Clear Program StatusWord.

➢Select Register bank by giving proper values to RS1 & RS0 ofPSW.
➢Load accumulator A with any desired 8-bitdata.
➢Load the register R 0 with the second 8- bitdata.
➢Add these two 8-bitnumbers.
➢Store the result.
➢Stop theprogram.

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FLOW CHART

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PROGRAM

ADDRESS OPCODE MNEMONIC COMMENTS

MOV DPTR,#8300H Get the data1 in

8100
Accumulator

8101 Add the data1 with

MOV X A,@DPTR data2

8103 MOV B,A

Move the data A
into B

8105 INCDPTR
Initialize the
memory Location

8108 MOV X A,@DPTR

Move the data
DPTR into A

8109 ADD A,B Add A and B

8110 INC X @DPTR,A Increment data

Move the data A

8111 MOV X @DPTR,A
into B

8112 LJMP 0000 Stop the program

OUTPUT:

INPUT OUTPUT

MEMORY MEMORY
DATA DATA

RESULT:

Thus the 8051 ALP for addition of two 8 bit numbers is executed.

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EX. NO: 18
DATE :
8 BIT SUBTRACTION USING ARITHMETIC OPERATION
8051 MICROCONTROLLER

AIM:
To perform subtraction of two 8 bit data and store the result in memory.

ALGORITHM:
➢ Clear the carryflag.
➢ Initialize the register forborrow.
➢ Get the first operand into theaccumulator.
➢ Subtract the second operand from theaccumulator.
➢ If a borrow results increment the carryregister.
➢ Store the result inmemory.

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FLOECHART:

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8 BIT SUBTRACTION

ADDRESS OPCODE MNEMONIC COMMENTS

MOV DPTR,#8300H Get the data1 in

8100
Accumulator

8101 MOV X A,@DPTR

Add the data1
with data2

8103 MOV B,A

Move the data A
into B

8105 INCDPTR
Initialize the
memory Location

8108 MOV X A,@DPTR

Move the data
DPTR into A

8109 SUB B A,B Sub A and B

8110 INC X @DPTR,A Increment data

Move the data A

8111 MOV X @DPTR,A
into B

8112 LJMP 0000 Stop the program

OUTPUT:

INPUT OUTPUT

Memory Memory
Data Data

RESULT:

Thus the 8051 ALP for subtraction of two 8 bit numbers is executed .

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EX. NO: 19
DATE :
8 BIT MULTIPLICATION USING ARITHMETION OPERATION 8051
MICROCONTROLLER
AIM:

To perform multiplication of two 8 bit data and store the result in memory.

ALGORITHM:

➢ Get the multiplier in theaccumulator.

➢ Get the multiplicand in the Bregister.
➢ Multiply A withB.
➢ Store the product in memory.

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FLOWCHART:

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8 BIT MULTIPLICATION

ADDRESS OPCODE MNEMONIC COMMENTS

MOV DPTR,#8300H Get the data1 in

8100
Accumulator

8101 MOV X A,@DPTR Add the data1

with data2

8103 MOV B,A Move the data A

into B

8105 INC DPTR Initialize the

memory Location

8108 MOV X A,@DPTR Move the data

DPTR into A

8109 ADD A,B Sub A and B

8110 INC DPTR Increment data

Move the data A

8111 MOV X @DPTR,A
into B

8112 SJMP 0000 Stop the program

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OUTPUT:

INPUT OUTPUT

Memory Memory
Data Data
Location location

4500 4502

4501 4503

RESULT:

Thus the 8051 ALP for multiplication of two 8 bit numbers is executed .

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EX. NO: 20
DATE :
8 BIT DIVISION USING ARITHMETIC OPERATION 8051
MICROCONTROLLER
AIM:

To perform division of two 8 bit data and store the result in memory

ALGORITHM:

➢ Get the Dividend in theaccumulator.

➢ Get the Divisor in the Bregister.
➢ Divide A byB.
➢ Store the Quotient and Remainder inmemory.

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FLOWCHART:

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8 BIT DIVISION

ADDRESS OPCODE MNEMONIC COMMENTS

MOV DPTR,#8300H Get the data1 in

8100
Accumulator

8101 MOV X A,@DPTR Add the data1

with data2

8103 Move the data A

MOV B,A into B

8105 Initialize the

INC DPTR memory Location

8108 Move the data

MOV X A,@DPTR DPTR into A

8109 DIV A,B Div A and B

8110 INC DPTR Increment data

Move the data A

8111 MOV X @DPTR,A
into B

8112 SJMP 0000 Stop the program

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OUTPUT:

INPUT OUTPUT

Memory Memory
Data Data
Location location

4500 4502

4501 4503

RESULT:

Thus the 8051 ALP for division of two 8 bit numbers is executed.

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EX. NO: 21
DATE :
LOGICAL OPERATIONS
USING8051
MICROCONTROLLER

AIM:
To perform logical operation using 8051 microcontroller AND, OR & EX-OR.

ALGORITHM:

➢ Get the input value and store data in theaccumulator.

➢ Get the second values and store the Bregister.

➢ Logical operation to perform the givennumber

➢ Store the output value inmemory.

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PROGRAM FOR “AND” LOGIC

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

8000 MOV DPTR,#9000h Move DPTR to 9000 Address

8003 MOVX A,@DPTR Move XA register to DPTR

8007 ANL A,#20 AND Operation

800D INC DPTR Increment DPTR

Move DPTR register to

800B MOV X @DPTR,A accumulator

8010 SJMP 8008 Copy the lower order data

PROGRAM FOR “OR” LOGIC

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

8000 MOV DPTR,#9000 Move DPTR to 9000 Address

8003 MOVX A,@DPTR Move XA register to DPTR

8007 ORL A,#20 OR Operation

800D INC DPTR Increment DPTR

Move DPTR register to

800B MOV X @DPTR,A accumulator

8010 SJMP 8008 Copy the lower order data

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PROGRAM FOR “EX- OR” LOGIC

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

8000 MOV DPTR,#9000 Move DPTR to 9000 Address

8003 MOVX A,@DPTR Move XA register to DPTR

8007 XRL A,#50 EX-OR Operation

800D INC DPTR Increment DPTR

Move DPTR register to

800B MOV X @DPTR,A
accumulator

8010 SJMP 8008 Copy the lower order data

OUTPUT:

GATE INPUT OUTPUT

AND

OR

EX-OR

RESULT:
Thus the assembly language program to perform logical operations AND, OR
& EX-OR using 8051 Performed and the result is stored.

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EX. NO: 22
DATE :
FIND 2’S COMPLEMENT OF A NUMBER
AIM:

To Finding 2’s complement of a number using 8051 micro controller

RESOURCES REQUIERED:
➢ 8051 microcontrollerkit
➢ Keyboard
➢ Powersupply

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PROGRAM:

ADDRESS OPCODE LABEL MNEMONICS COMMENT

Get the first data in AX

9000 MOV DPRT,#9000
register,

Move the second data in DX

9003 MOVX A,@DPTR
register.

Compliment the higher order

9007 CPL A
data.

900D ADD A,#01 Move ax register into address

900B INC DPTR Inc DPTR

9010 MOVX @DPTR,A Copy the lower order data

9012 LJMP Store the higher order data.

OUTPUT:

INPUT DATA OUTPUT DATA

RESULT;

Thus the program of finding 2’s complement of a number is done in 8051

microcontroller

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EX. NO: 23
DATE :
COVERSION OF BCD TO ASCII
AIM:

To convert BCD number into ASCII by using 8051 micro controller

RESOURCES REQUIERED:
➢ 8051 microcontrollerkit
➢ Keyboard
➢ Powersupply
ALGORITHM:

59 AAM
00 08 09

AH AL AH AL

NOTE;59H TO 89 DECIMAL

ADD
08 09 38 39
AX,3030
H

AH AL AH AL

NOTE; 38h and 39h are the ASCII equivalents of 8 and 9 respectively

➢ Save contents of all registers which are used in theroutine

➢ Get the data in al register and make AH equal to00.
➢ Use AAM instruction to convert number in its decimal equivalent in the
unpackedformat.
➢ Add 30h in each digit to get its ASCIIequivalent.
➢ Display one by one using function 2 of INT21h.
➢ Routine content ofregister.

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FLOWCHART:

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PROGRAM;

ROUTINE: convert binary for number less than 100 passing parameter

; Hex number in al register.

; Routine to convert binary number into its
; Decimal and then ASCII equivalent, and display the number

BTA PROC NEAR

PUSHDX
PUSHBX
PUSHAX

MOV AX, 00H

AAM
ADD AX,3030H
MOV BX, AX
MOVDL, BH
MOV AH, 02
INT21H
MOV DL, BL
INT 21H

POPAX
POPBX
POPDX
RET
ENDP

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RESULT:

Thus the given number is BCD number converted into ASCII using 8051
microcontroller kit.

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IMPORTANT VIVA QUESTIONS FOR ANNA UNIVERSITY PRACTICALS

1. What is a microprocessor ?
2. Tell Something about Bit, Byte and Word.
3. Mention the different functional units in 8086.
4. What is the function of BIU?
5. What are the main functional units in 8086 ?
6. What is the function of EU ?
7. What is the maximum size of segment in 8086 Microprocessor ?
8. What are the four general purpose registers in 8086 ?
9. What is the special purpose register?
10. What are the functions of base registers?
11. Name the pin in 8086 microprocessor that is used for the selecting mode of operation.
12. What is a Segment address in 8086?
13. What are the flags in 8086?
14. What is Tri-state logic?
15. What is system bus?
16. What is the difference between Maskable and Non-Maskable Interrupts?
17. What are the different types of Addressing Modes?
18. Mention something about Baud Rate?
19. What is Port?
20. What is 8255?
21. What is the size of instruction queue in 8086?
22. What is meant by pipelining in 8086?
23. How many 16 bit registers are available in 8086?
24. What is meant by assembly directives?
25. What is the relationship between 8086 processor frequency and crystal frequency?

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26. What is the supply requirement of 8086?
27. What are the functions of Accumulator?
28. What are the roles of AX,BX,CX,DX registers?
29. How physical address is generated?
30. What are the pointers present in 8086 ?
31. What were the operations not available in 8085 but available in 8086?
32. What is the difference between Min Mode and Max Mode of 8086?
33. Which interrupts are generally used for critical events?
34. What is the Maximum clock frequency in 8086?
35. Which Stack is used in 8086?
36. What are the address lines for the software interrupts?
37. What is meant by SIM and RIM instruction?
38. What shall be the position of the Stack Pointer after the PUSH instruction is used?
39. What shall be the position of the Stack Pointer after the POP instruction is used?
40. Which type of registers in 8086 are responsible for performing logical operations?
41. What are the examples for Microcontroller?
42. What are the address lines for the hardware interrupts?
43. Which Flags can be set or reset by the programmer and also used to control the operation
of the processor?
44. What does EU do?
45. Which microprocessor accepts the program written for 8086 without any changes?
46. What is meant by cross-compiler?
47. Which is the tool used to connect the user and the computer?
48. What do you mean by the term‘state’ in 8031/8051 microcontroller?
49. How many machine cycles are needed to execute an instruction in 8031/8051 controller?
50. How to estimate the time taken to execute an instruction in 8031/8051 controller?
51. What is the size of 8031/8051 instructions?
52. List the various machine cycles of 8031/8051 controller.

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53. How the 8051 microcontroller differentiates external program memory access and data
memory access?
54. What are the addressing modes available in 8051 Controller?
55. Explain the register indirect addressing in 8051.
56. Explain the relative addressing in 8051
57. How the 8051 instructions can be classified?
58. List the instructions of 8051 that affect all the flags of 8051.
59. List the instructions of 8051 that affect overflow flag in 8051.
60. List the instructions of 8051 that affect only carry flag.
61. List the instructions of 8051 that always clear carry flag.
62. What are the operations performed by Boolean variable instructions of 8051?
63. Give some examples for 8 / 16 / 32 bit Microprocessor?
64. What do you mean by 1st / 2nd / 3rd / 4th generation processor?
65. What is the difference between microprocessor and microcontroller?
66. What is meant by the term ‘LATCH’?
67. What are the differences between primary & secondary storage device?
68. Classify static and dynamic RAM?
69. What is meant by the cache memory?
70. What is meant by the flag?
71. Name the flags used in 8086.
72. What is meant by the term’ Stack’?
73. What is the position of the Stack Pointer after the PUSH instruction?
74. What is the position of the Stack Pointer after the POP instruction?
75. What is NV-RAM?
76. Can a Processor structure be pipelined? Justify your answer.

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